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**Jedi** (/ˈdʒɛdaɪ/), **Jedi Knights**, or collectively the **Jedi Order**, are the main protagonists of many works in the *Star Wars* franchise. Working symbiotically alongside the Old Galactic Republic, and later supporting the Rebel Alliance, the Jedi Order is depicted as a monastic, academic, military, and meritocratic peacekeeping organization whose origin dates back thousands of years before the events of the first film released in the franchise. The fictional organization has inspired a real-world new religious movement and parody religion: Jediism. Within the fictional *Star Wars* galaxy, the Jedi are powerful guardians of order and justice, who, through intuition, rigorous training, and intensive self-discipline, are able to wield a supernatural power known as the Force, thus achieving, for example, the ability to move objects with the mind, perform incredible feats of strength, and connect to certain people's thoughts. As *Star Wars* creator George Lucas explains, the Jedi are "warrior-monks who keep peace in the universe", avoiding the use of violence except as a last resort, with a mission to "use their power to keep the governments of all the planets in line, so that they don't do terrible things". The Jedi have the "moral authority to do that" since they are "the most moral of anybody in the galaxy". Throughout the franchise, Jedi are often recognizable by their robes and tunics in various shades of brown and their use of lightsabers: sword-like weapons with a colorful blade made of plasma. Similar to real-world Hindu philosophy and religious tradition (including Buddhism), Jedi ethics focuses on compassion for others, mindfulness, non-attachment, and escaping personal suffering—characteristics of what the Jedi call the "light side" of the Force. Specifically, the Jedi moral value system views fear to be the root of suffering: fear leading to anger, anger leading to hate, and hate leading to suffering. The Jedi warn that an excess of these negative emotions can turn their members away from the light side of the Force towards the dark side, which embraces passions, aggression, hate, rage, fear, and bitterness as a way of life. Within the *Star Wars* franchise, the Sith are followers of the dark side and the traditional enemies of the Jedi. While the Sith ultimately seek violent and absolute rule over the galaxy, the Jedi work to protect democracy, peace, and justice. During the Old Republic era, the Jedi bring "peace into the galaxy by being ambassadors and troubleshooters". It is also the duty of Jedi to investigate certain crimes ranging from high-profile murder to political corruption, act as peace brokers between powerful interplanetary groups, protect the highest government officials of the Republic, track down fugitives, and serve as Republic soldiers in the Clone Wars. Still, their creed demands that they defend and protect all life and use their power only for knowledge and defense. With the rise of the Sith Lord Darth Sidious during the era of the Galactic Empire, the Jedi Order is outlawed and most of its members murdered in the ensuing political purge. Etymology --------- The word *Jedi* is said to have been adapted by George Lucas from Japanese 時代劇 (jidaigeki) (meaning 'period drama' motion pictures about samurai), or perhaps inspired by the words *Jed* (Leader) and *Jeddak* (King) in the Barsoom series by Edgar Rice Burroughs, a series that Lucas considered adapting to film. However, the origin of the word "Jedi" may be in the Arabic "Al-Jeddi", meaning "master of the mystic-warrior way". According to the Star Wars: Rogue One – The Ultimate Visual Guide, "Jedi" is derived from "Jedha," a planet that was once home to a Jedi temple and was a source of kyber crystals. Kyber crystals are used to power lightsabers and were considered sacred by the Jedi Order. In his book The Making of Star Wars: The Definitive Story Behind the Original Film, J.W. Rinzler notes that Lucas originally considered using the term "Jedidiah" for his knights, but ultimately settled on "jedi." Rinzler also suggests that the word may have been influenced by the term "bodhisattva," which refers to a Buddhist concept of an enlightened being who chooses to remain in the world to help others. Another potential influence on the word "jedi" is the Hebrew term "yedid," which means "beloved." In his book The Secret History of Star Wars, Michael Kaminski suggests that Lucas may have been influenced by this term when creating the name for his knights. Kaminski notes that Lucas has cited Jewish mysticism as an inspiration for his work, and that he may have been drawn to the idea of his heroes being beloved protectors. ### Influences George Lucas acknowledged Jedi, Sith, and other Force concepts have been inspired by many sources. These include: samurai's bushido, Shaolin Monks, Taoism, Shamanism, Hindu mythology, Shintō, Knights Templar, Sufism, and Buddhism, not to mention countless cinematic precursors. The works of philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and mythologist Joseph Campbell, especially his book *The Hero with a Thousand Faces* (1949), directly influenced Lucas, and was what drove him to create the 'modern myth' of *Star Wars*. Lucas explained that the Jedi are trained, allowed and expected to love people (even their enemies, the Sith), but they are not to form attachments because attachment leads to the dark side of the Force. When one has, gets or wants a person or experience and attaches to them, one becomes afraid to lose them. The fear of loss feeds into greed, wanting to keep things, thus, an attached person is selfish and unable to let go. The fear of loss turns into anger, which will lead to hate, and hate will lead into suffering, mostly on the part of the one who is selfish, because then one will spend their lives being afraid rather than actually living. The light side is focused on compassion and giving; thus it is love, and the opposite of attachment – it is everlasting joy, devoid of fear of loss and the pain of loss. "As long as you love other people and treat them kindly, you won't be afraid". Lucas, identifying himself as "Buddhist Methodist" or "Methodist Buddhist" stated that his philosophy of non-attachment, depicted in his movies was influenced by the fact that he was from San Francisco, the "Zen Buddhism capital of the United States". In 2020, he indicated that the Jedi were "designed to be a Buddhist monk who happened to be very good at fighting". Depiction --------- As depicted in the canon, the Jedi study and utilize the Force in order to help and protect those in need. The Jedi members, known as Jedi Knights, respect all life by defending and protecting those who cannot do it for themselves, striving for peaceful and non-combative solutions to any altercations they encounter and fighting only in self-defense and for the defense of those they protect. By training the mind and the body, the Jedi seek to improve themselves by gaining unfettered access to the Force while also seeking to improve those individuals and groups they come in contact with. Like their evil counterparts, the Sith, the main weapon of the Jedi is the lightsaber. However, according to Lucas, "The Force really doesn't have anything to do with the lightsaber. Anybody can have a lightsaber. It's just a weapon like a pistol". Qui-Gon Jinn gives an insight into the Force in *The Phantom Menace* when he tells Anakin: "Your focus determines your reality". And later, he explains: "Midi-chlorians are microscopic lifeforms that reside within all of your cells. And we are symbionts with them. Lifeforms living together for mutual advantage. Without the midi-chlorians, life could not exist and we would have no knowledge of The Force. They continually speak to us, telling us the will of The Force. When you learn to quiet your mind you'll hear them speaking to you". In *A New Hope*, Obi-Wan Kenobi tells Luke Skywalker: "The force is what gives a Jedi his power. It's an energy field created by all living things. It surrounds us, penetrates us, it binds the galaxy together." ". . . a Jedi can feel the Force flowing through him. It [partially] controls your actions, but it also obeys your commands". ### The Skywalker Saga #### Original trilogy > For over a thousand generations, the Jedi Knights were the guardians of peace and justice in the Old Republic. Before the dark times, before the Empire. > > — Obi-Wan Kenobi, *Star Wars: A New Hope* The Jedi are first introduced in the 1977 motion picture *Star Wars* as an order of warrior monks who serve as "the guardians of peace and justice in the galaxy" and embrace the mystical Force. Obi-Wan Kenobi (Alec Guinness) explains that the Galactic Empire has all but exterminated the Jedi, and seeks to train Luke Skywalker (Mark Hamill) to be the Jedi Order's last hope. Darth Vader (David Prowse/James Earl Jones) is also established as the Jedi's main enemy. By the end of the film, which depicts the battle of Yavin, Luke is on the path to becoming a Jedi. In the sequel, *The Empire Strikes Back*, Luke receives Jedi training from the elderly (and only surviving) Jedi Master Yoda (Frank Oz), even as he learns that Vader is, in fact, his father, former Jedi Knight Anakin Skywalker. The third film in the original trilogy, *Return of the Jedi*, ends with Luke redeeming Vader and helping to destroy the Empire, thus fulfilling his destiny as a Jedi. The two last Jedi Masters die during the events of the films, after which they return as Force spirits to help Luke. #### Prequel trilogy The prequel trilogy depicts the Jedi in their prime, headquartered at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant, and dealing with the rising presence of the dark side of the Force and the return of the Sith. In *Episode I: The Phantom Menace* (1999), Jedi Master Qui-Gon Jinn (Liam Neeson) discovers nine-year-old Anakin Skywalker (Jake Lloyd), whom he believes to be the "**Chosen One**" of a Jedi prophecy, destined to bring balance to the Force. At the end of *The Phantom Menace*, following Qui-Gon's death at the hands of Darth Maul, Anakin is paired with his apprentice, the young Obi-Wan Kenobi (Ewan McGregor), who promises to train him. The sequel, *Episode II: Attack of the Clones*, establishes that the Jedi forswear attachments, being in the same category of possession and striving to cultivate compassion, unconditional love instead. As revealed in the *Clone Wars* series, the Jedi believed romantic feelings are natural and as such, they did not prohibit them, but for a Jedi Knight, it was essential to make the right choice for the Order and not neglect their Jedi duties in the favor of their beloved, even if that would mean the end of the relationship. This proves problematic when Anakin, now a young adult (Hayden Christensen), falls in love with Padmé Amidala (Natalie Portman). The Clone Wars, first spoken of in the original 1977 film, begin with hundreds of Jedi participating in the battle of Geonosis. In *Episode III: Revenge of the Sith*, Yoda confides to Mace Windu (Samuel L. Jackson) that the prophecy of the Chosen One could have been misread. Palpatine (Ian McDiarmid), who is revealed to be Darth Sidious, manipulates Anakin's attachment for Padmé and distrust and resentment of the Jedi in order to turn him to the dark side and become his Sith apprentice, Darth Vader. The latter begins helping Sidious hunt down and destroy the Jedi, who are nearly exterminated during the events of *Revenge of the Sith*; Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda, and Ahsoka Tano are among a handful of Jedi that avoided the initial purge. As revealed in the *Clone Wars* series, each of the clones were implanted with chips that Palpatine would activate with the command **Order 66: *Operation Knightfall***, a law that states: > In the event of Jedi officers acting against the interests of the Republic, and after receiving specific orders verified as coming directly from the Supreme Commander (Chancellor), GAR commanders will remove those officers by lethal force, and command of the GAR will revert to the Supreme Commander (Chancellor) until a new command structure is established. > > — Karen Traviss, *Republic Commando: True Colors* (2007) This resulted in the clone troopers becoming brainwashed into turning against their generals and killing them, and in Darth Vader/Anakin Skywalker leading the 501st Legion to carry out "Operation Knightfall" against the Jedi Temple, burning and slaughtering all Jedi within, including Temple-Defender Shaak Ti. Sidious convinced the people of the Republic that the Jedi were corrupted warmongers responsible for prolonging the Clone Wars, labeling them criminals with bounties placed on them. Darth Vader continued to hunt and kill nearly every surviving Jedi during the early years of the Empire, in what became known as the **Great Jedi Purge**. #### Sequel trilogy > Now that they're extinct, the Jedi are romanticized, deified. But if you strip away the myth and look at their deeds, the legacy of the Jedi is failure. Hypocrisy, hubris. At the height of their powers, they allowed Darth Sidious to rise, create the Empire, and wipe them out. > > — Luke Skywalker, *Star Wars: The Last Jedi* In *The Force Awakens*, the first film in the sequel trilogy, it is revealed that Luke had attempted to rebuild the Jedi Order, but failed when his nephew Ben Solo (Adam Driver) fell to the dark side, lured by the mysterious Snoke (Andy Serkis). Ben is renamed Kylo Ren and destroys all that Luke built. After Kylo's fall and the destruction of the New Jedi Order, Luke goes into a self-imposed exile on Ahch-To, believing himself and the Jedi to be a negative influence on the galaxy. In the sequel *The Last Jedi*, the scavenger Rey (Daisy Ridley) discovers Luke on Ahch-To and convinces him to train her in the ways of the Force. During her training, Luke describes the hubris of the past Jedi that allowed Darth Sidious to rise to power, further claiming that a Jedi Master had trained (and created) Darth Vader. She also discovers several ancient Jedi texts hidden away in a tree. Rey learns the truth about Ben's fall to the dark side and believes herself to be his only chance of redemption. Luke decides to stay on Ahch-To and attempts to burn down the tree with the texts, but cannot bring himself to do so. However, Yoda appears as a Force spirit and burns the tree, teaching him that failure is just as important as success, and those masters are defined by those who surpass them. Near the end of the film, Luke confronts Kylo on the planet Crait. It is subsequently revealed that Luke had been projecting himself from Ahch-To; he dies from the effort and becomes one with the Force. Rey is shown to have taken the sacred Jedi texts before she left Ahch-To, in order to continue her training. In *The Rise of Skywalker*, the final film of the sequel trilogy, it is discovered that Darth Sidious created Snoke and has returned from death and has been secretly manipulating events from the Sith world Exegol. In his last attempt to reclaim the galaxy, Sidious unveils the Final Order, a massive fleet of *Xyston*-class Star Destroyers built by the Sith Eternal. He offers the Sith fleet to Kylo Ren in exchange for killing the last remaining Jedi, Rey, who is revealed to be his granddaughter. After the death of Kylo's mother, Leia Organa (Carrie Fisher), Kylo returns to the light and reclaims his identity as Ben Solo. At the end of the film, Ben joins Rey as she confronts Sidious. Rey channels the power of the past Jedi to destroy Sidious and the Sith, before dying herself. Ben sacrifices his life to revive Rey and becomes one with the Force. With peace and justice restored to the galaxy, Rey lives on to start the Jedi Order again. ### Anthologies and derivative works In a deleted scene from *Attack of the Clones*, the "Lost Twenty" is the name given to a group of Jedi Masters—numbering twenty in total—who left the Jedi Order throughout its history. The first 12 of this Lost Twenty became "Dark Jedi" who eventually founded the first Sith Empire. In the years preceding the Clone Wars, Jedi Master Dooku left the Jedi Order as a result of differences with his fellow Jedi, becoming the 20th Jedi Master in the history of the Order to do so. To showcase the failures of the Jedi they created statues of the fallen Jedi and placed them in the Jedi Temple Archives. The animated television series *Star Wars: The Clone Wars* depicts the battles of the Clone Wars, focusing on the Jedi and clone troopers they lead against the Separatists and its Sith leaders. The feature-film pilot reveals that Anakin trained an apprentice, Ahsoka Tano, between *Attack of the Clones* and *Revenge of the Sith*. Later arcs explore the foundations of Order 66 and Darth Sidious' manipulation of the Jedi Order. The animated television series *Star Wars Rebels* reveals that Ahsoka and a Jedi named Kanan Jarrus survived the purge; the latter trains a new apprentice, Ezra Bridger. The series also reveals that, following the start of the purge with Order 66, Sidious commissioned the Inquisitorius, a group of former Jedi who had turned to the dark side for various reasons, to aid Darth Vader in hunting down the remaining Jedi. The *Clone Wars* spinoff series *Star Wars: The Bad Batch* follows the titular group of enhanced clones, who disobey Order 66 and instead choose to save a younger Kanan after his master is killed by the other clones. The canon video game *Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order* introduces Cal Kestis, a former Padawan hiding from the Empire who accidentally exposes his Force abilities to aid someone, putting him on the Inquisitors' radar. Kestis gets aid from Cere Junda, another Jedi Knight in hiding. In the limited series *Obi-Wan Kenobi*, the Great Jedi Purge is depicted in a flashback in which Reva Sevander, future Inquisitor called Third Sister, escapes from the clones during the night of Order 66. ### Members The exact size of the pre-purge Jedi's membership and operations are never specified. However, in the *Star Wars Rebels* episode "Path of the Jedi", Kanan Jarrus stated: > There were around 10,000 Jedi Knights defending the galaxy. Now, we are few. But in those days, we had small outposts, temples spread throughout the stars. The Empire sought out these temples and destroyed many of them... > > | Jedi Order master-apprentice relationship | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | Yoda | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | CountDooku | | | | | | | | MaceWindu | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Qui-GonJinn | | | | | | | DepaBillaba | | | | Younglings | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Obi-WanKenobi | | | | | | KananJarrus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | AnakinSkywalker | | | | | | | | | EzraBridger | | | | | | | | | | | | | LukeSkywalker | | | | | | | | | | | AhsokaTano | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Grogu | | | | | | LeiaOrgana | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ben Solo | | Rey | | | | | | | **Notes:** 1. 1 2 Ben Solo and Rey are a Force dyad | #### Yoda Yoda was a wise, experienced, and powerful Grand Master of the Jedi of an unknown species and the oldest known prophet in existence (having lived at least 900 years), considered the wisest and most powerful Jedi Master within the *Star Wars* universe. #### Mace Windu Mace Windu was a human Jedi Master of the Order and one of the last members of the Order's upper echelons before the fall of the Galactic Republic. #### Plo Koon Plo Koon was a Kel Dor Jedi Master who served as a General during the Clone Wars and a member of the Jedi Council. Koon led the 442nd Siege Battalion in the Battle of Cato Neimoidia, in which he was shot down by his own troops upon the occurrence of Order 66. #### Kit Fisto Kit Fisto was a Nautolan Jedi Master, who served as a member of the Jedi Order during the Clone Wars. During the attempted arrest of Chancellor Palpatine, Fisto was killed by the Sith Lord in a duel, leaving Mace Windu to face the Chancellor alone. #### Count Dooku Count Dooku was a human Jedi Master who was trained by Yoda and mentored Qui-Gon Jinn, and one of the main antagonists of the prequel trilogy. #### Qui-Gon Jinn Qui-Gon Jinn was a wise and powerful human Jedi Master, who was trained by Count Dooku and mentored Obi-Wan Kenobi. Unlike other, more conservative Jedi, he valued living in the moment as the best way to embrace the Force. While other Jedi respected him highly, they were frequently puzzled by his beliefs and ultimately denied him a seat on the Jedi Council, despite him being among the wisest and most powerful of the Jedi. Jinn was both the Jedi to discover the Sith's return after more than a millennium, upon being attacked by Darth Maul during a mission to protect Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo, and the one to find the ability to become a Force spirit after death, though he wasn't capable of having a physical body. Following his death at Darth Maul's hands, Jinn guided both Yoda and Obi-Wan to the ability to become a physical Force spirit after death. Within the Disney+ TV series, *Obi-Wan Kenobi*, Qui-Gon Jinn appears as a force spirit following Darth Vader's defeat to Obi-Wan Kenobi in a duel. He communes with Kenobi before returning to the Force. In *Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker*, he appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious. #### Obi-Wan Kenobi Obi-Wan Kenobi was a human Jedi Master who trained Anakin Skywalker, at the behest of his deceased master Qui-Gon Jinn, and later Anakin's son Luke Skywalker, making him one of the main characters in the *Star Wars* franchise. Having fought in the Clone Wars, Obi-Wan proved himself an adept strategist, duelist, and spy, as his leadership style heavily favours subterfuge and misdirection while commanding clone troopers, or wielding the Force. Due to his charisma and persuasion skills, he became known as 'The Negotiator' during the Clone Wars. Obi-Wan best exemplifies the Jedi Code: in spite of Darth Vader's betrayal, his master (Qui-Gon Jinn) and the woman he loved being killed by his nemesis, Darth Maul, he never fell into darkness. As one of the few survivors of Order 66 following the Galactic Republic's transformation into the Galactic Empire, Obi-Wan hid on the desert planet Tatooine, watching over Anakin's son Luke, knowing that he would one day grow to become a Jedi and defeat Vader. In *Obi-Wan Kenobi*, while Obi-Wan hid on Tatooine, Senator Bail Organa's daughter, Leia Organa, was captured upon the request of the Third Sister. Obi-Wan was sent to rescue the ten-year old Princess, and, after retrieving Leia on the planet Daiyu, was forced to duel his former apprentice Darth Vader on the planet Mapuzo, before escaping. Leia Organa, who was imprisoned by the Third Sister on the planet Nur, is saved by Obi-Wan Kenobi a second time before the two escape to the planet Jabiim with aid from the Path. Vader and Kenobi duel once more following Obi-Wan's attempted escape from the planet and Kenobi defeats his former apprentice, allowing Leia to return to her parents. Following this event, Qui-Gon Jinn appears before Kenobi as a force spirit, after years of failed attempts by Obi-Wan to communicate with the deceased Jedi Master. Obi-Wan mentored Luke Skywalker in the Jedi arts, before meeting his demise at the hands of his former apprentice aboard the Death Star, though he continued guiding Luke as a Force spirit. In *Star Wars: The Force Awakens*, Obi-Wan's voice can briefly be heard just after Rey's force vision when she came into contact with Anakin's lightsaber. In *Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker*, Obi-Wan appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious. #### Anakin Skywalker Anakin Skywalker was a human Jedi Knight, one of the main protagonists of the prequel trilogy, and the central antagonist of the original trilogy. He is the Chosen One, being born of the Force. He was apprenticed to Obi-Wan Kenobi and proved to be a very gifted duelist and Force user, being appointed to the Jedi High Council at the age of 22. He secretly married Padmé Amidala at the onset of the Clone Wars and has two children, Luke Skywalker and Leia Organa. He was eventually seduced to the dark side by the Sith Lord, Darth Sidious, and became the Sith Lord Darth Vader, serving the Galactic Empire. While he was a member of the Jedi Council, he trained a Padawan of his own, Ahsoka Tano during the Clone Wars. Vader was eventually redeemed by his son in *Return of the Jedi* and gave his own life to save Luke, killing Sidious and fulfilling the prophecy of the Chosen One. In *Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker*, Anakin appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Sidious. #### Ahsoka Tano Ahsoka Tano was a Togruta Jedi Padawan discovered on her homeworld of Shili by Jedi Master Plo Koon. Plo brought her to Coruscant to train as a Jedi. She eventually became the Padawan learner of Anakin Skywalker during the Clone Wars. Among many campaigns, Ahsoka found herself advising rebels on the planet Onderon, including Steela and Saw Gerrera, in their fight against the Confederacy. These rebels would eventually form part of the basis of the Alliance for the Restoration of the Republic, a relationship that would later prove beneficial to her. She was accused of bombing the hangar at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant before clearing her name with Anakin's help. However, the Jedi Council's response during the ordeal soured her faith in the Order, and she left the Order to forge her own path in the galaxy. She briefly returned in the service of the Republic during the final days of the Clone Wars, when she led part of the 501st Clone Legion in the siege of Mandalore to capture the Sith Lord Darth Maul, who attempted to warn her that Anakin would soon fall to the dark side. Shortly after capturing Maul, Ahsoka was betrayed by her clone troopers as part of Order 66, but she managed to escape alongside Clone Captain Rex (whose control chip she removed). Years later, Ahsoka served the nascent Rebel Alliance as the spymaster and head of its intelligence network, directing operations behind the codename Fulcrum. After the Galactic Civil War, she began searching for Ezra Bridger and Grand Admiral Thrawn, who had gone missing in the Unknown Regions. Ahsoka is one of the few Jedi to survive past the Imperial era and into the New Republic era. In *Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker*, Ahsoka appears as only a voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious. #### Cal Kestis Cal Kestis was a human Jedi Padawan and the main protagonist of *Star Wars Jedi: Fallen Order*. Trained by Jaro Tapal, Cal witnessed his master's death during Order 66, which he himself barely managed to survive. During the Imperial era, he lived on Bracca, working as a scrapyard rigger and hiding his Force powers. While scrapping a freighter, an accident forced Cal to reveal his Force abilities to save a co-worker, exposing him to the Empire, who dispatched two Inquisitors to hunt him down. On the run, Cal was rescued by Cere Junda, a Jedi Knight also in hiding, and worked with her and other allies to find a Jedi Holocron containing a list of Force-sensitive children, which could be used to rebuild the Jedi Order. Once their mission was completed, Cal decided to destroy the Holocron, believing it to be better for those children to discover their own destinies. #### Kanan Jarrus Kanan Jarrus (born Caleb Dume) was a human Jedi Padawan who fought for the Rebellion during its formation. First introduced as a main character of the animated television series *Star Wars Rebels*, Jarrus was known to be the leader of a small rebel cell called the Spectres, operating on the planet Lothal. As a survivor of Order 66, Jarrus was forced to break certain Jedi traditions to avoid being detected by Imperial forces that continued their mission to eliminate any Jedi on sight, such as eschewing traditional Jedi robes or occasionally using a blaster, a weapon typically shunned by Jedi. Although he lost his master Depa Bilaba to Order 66 before he could ascend the ranks of the Jedi Order, he was tasked with training the young Force-sensitive Ezra Bridger throughout his eventual service to the larger Rebellion. Ultimately, Jarrus died to save his friends, in particular Hera Syndulla, who would later give birth to her and Jarrus' son, Jacen Syndulla. In *Star Wars: Episode IX - The Rise of Skywalker*, he appears as a disembodied voice alongside other past Jedi, empowering Rey to face a rejuvenated Darth Sidious. #### Ezra Bridger Ezra Bridger was a human Jedi Padawan who was born on the planet Lothal on the same day the Galactic Empire was established. He witnessed many injustices of the Imperial occupation of his homeworld for much of his childhood and was separated from his parents from a very early age. He was able to survive alone using street smarts and skills but was discovered by Kanan Jarrus to have potential Force sensitivity after he encounters the Spectres for the first time. After discovering how much of a team player he could be during a rescue operation, they recruited Bridger, who began training him in the ways of the Jedi under Jarrus, himself still a Jedi Padawan. Bridger took a long time learning how to wield a lightsaber and use it to deflect blaster bolts, modifying his first one to fire stun blasts in the interim. He was not well skilled in lightsaber duels against Inquisitors and Darth Vader, but later discovered his unique ability to use the Force to control and command animals, a skill that proved more useful several times during his service in the Rebellion. Bridger later went missing in action during the battle to liberate Lothal from Imperial occupation, where he successfully defeated Grand Admiral Thrawn, regarded by many as the Empire's best tactician. #### Luke Skywalker Luke Skywalker was a human Jedi Knight (later Master) and the protagonist of the original trilogy. As the last Padawan of Obi-Wan Kenobi, he became an important figure in the Rebel Alliance's struggle against the Galactic Empire. Luke was heir to a family deeply rooted in the Force, being the twin brother of Rebellion leader Princess Leia Organa of the planet Alderaan, the son of former Queen of Naboo and Republic Senator Padmé Amidala and Jedi turned Sith Lord Darth Vader (Anakin Skywalker), and the maternal uncle of Ben Solo. After redeeming his father from the dark side of the Force, who died killing his master and the last Sith, Darth Sidious, in order to save Luke, he set out to train a new generation of Jedi to rebuild the Order, only to have them wiped out by Supreme Leader Snoke, a puppet created by a revived Sidious, who also turned Ben to the dark side, adopting the Kylo Ren persona. Skywalker then spent the rest of his life in exile on Ahch-To, the original headquarters of the Jedi Order, blaming himself for Ben's turn and the destruction of his Order, until he was found by Rey, the Last Jedi and the secret granddaughter of Sidious, whom he reluctantly trained in the Jedi arts. Shortly after, he gave his life to distract Kylo Ren, now Supreme Leader of the First Order, on the planet Crait via a Force Projection, allowing the Resistance to escape. When Rey learned of her lineage and exiled herself on Ahch-To out of fear of turning to the dark side, Luke appeared before her as a Force spirit and encouraged her to face the Emperor. Along with the spirits of other past Jedi, he then empowered Rey during her final confrontation with Sidious, which marked the definitive defeat of the Sith. Later, he and Leia gave Rey their blessings to adopt the Skywalker surname and continue their family's legacy. #### Leia Organa Leia Organa was the daughter of Anakin Skywalker and Padmé Amidala, the twin sister of Luke Skywalker, and one of the main characters of the original and sequel trilogies. While Force-sensitive, she didn't become aware of her connection to the Force or her lineage until much later in life, instead focusing on a career as a senator and, secretly, a leader of the Rebel Alliance. As seen in *The Rise of Skywalker*, Leia began training as a Jedi under her brother shortly after *Return of the Jedi*, but quit her training when she had a vision that it would result in the death of her yet to be born son. Decades later, while leading the Resistance against the First Order, Leia also briefly mentored Rey in the ways of the Force, despite her limited knowledge about it. Ultimately, Leia gave her life to redeem her son, Ben Solo, who had turned to the dark side, and became one with the Force. Later, she and Luke gave Rey their blessings to adopt the Skywalker surname and continue their family's legacy. #### Grogu Grogu was a Jedi Initiate of the same species as Yoda who first appeared in *The Mandalorian*. Raised at the Jedi Temple on Coruscant during the Clone Wars, he was rescued by Jedi Master Kelleran Beq during the Great Jedi Purge and hidden for his own safety. Decades later, the 50-year-old but still toddler Grogu was sought by a remnant of the Galactic Empire due to his connection to the Force, but was found and adopted by the Mandalorian bounty hunter Din Djarin, who sought to reunite him with the Jedi. When Grogu was eventually captured by Moff Gideon's Imperial remnant, Djarin mounted a rescue, which would have been unsuccessful if not for the arrival of Luke Skywalker (whom Grogu had previously contacted through the Force). With Djarin's approval, Luke took Grogu with him so that the child could be trained as a Jedi. Though Grogu briefly trained with Luke, he showed signs of not being fully committed to the Jedi path and wishing to be with Djarin instead, causing Luke to doubt his abilities as a teacher, as seen in *The Book of Boba Fett*. After speaking with Ahsoka Tano, Luke decided to let Grogu choose his own destiny, and the youngling ultimately returned to Djarin as his Mandalorian foundling. #### Ben Solo Ben Solo was a human Jedi Padawan and the central antagonist of the sequel trilogy. He was the son of smuggler and Rebel Alliance General Han Solo and Rebellion leader Princess Leia Organa, and the nephew of Jedi Master Luke Skywalker, having been born shortly after the Galactic Empire's defeat. As part of his uncle's new generation of Jedi, Ben trained under him, but was eventually seduced to the dark side by Supreme Leader Snoke, a puppet created by a revived Darth Sidious, the last Sith, and sought to become a Sith Lord, as powerful as his late maternal grandfather, Darth Vader (Anakin Skywalker). Following the destruction of Luke's New Jedi Order, Ben adopted the Kylo Ren persona and became a high-ranking officer in the First Order, as well as the leader of the Knights of Ren, an organization of fellow Force-wielders. He later killed his father when he unsuccessfully tried to redeem him and formed a unique connection with Rey, the last Jedi and Sidious' secret granddaughter, called a "dyad in the Force". After killing Snoke, Kylo took over as Supreme Leader of the First Order, until ultimately being redeemed by his mother and Rey, and helping Rey face Sidious, giving his own life to save hers. #### Rey Skywalker Rey was a human Jedi Padawan and the protagonist of the sequel trilogy. She was the paternal granddaughter of Darth Sidious, the last surviving Sith Lord, and was born in the years following the Galactic Empire's defeat. Abandoned on the desert planet of Jakku at a young age by her parents in order to keep her safe, she became involved in the conflict between the Resistance and the First Order, and formed a unique connection with Kylo Ren, called a "dyad in the Force". She was briefly trained by Luke Skywalker and, following his death, continued her Jedi training under the guidance of his sister and Resistance leader Leia Organa, as well as the ancient Jedi texts. Rey eventually learned of her lineage and, with the help of a redeemed Kylo Ren and the spirits of past Jedi, faced a revived Sidious, finally killing him and ending the Sith once and for all. She then renounced her lineage, becoming a Skywalker instead, prepared to find her own path. ### Force-sensitive organizations Not every "dark side"-user is a Sith; nor is every "light side"-user a Jedi. Within the *Star Wars* Expanded Universe, people of all species have demonstrated varying "force-sensitive" powers and abilities. These "force-wielders" are often depicted with little to no formal Jedi training in the Force, originating from primitive planets. #### The Sith Organization ##### Dark side adept A dark side adept is someone with the power to use the dark side of the Force outside of the traditions of the Jedi or the Sith. They were often steeped in the lore of the dark side and opposed to those who used the light side, such as Jedi. While all Sith were technically dark side adepts, non-Sith individuals such as Asajj Ventress, Kylo Ren, and the Grand Inquisitor were also considered dark side adepts. Dark side adepts were referenced in passing in James Luceno's canon novel *Tarkin*. #### Force-wielders without affiliation The Bendu, introduced in the *Star Wars Rebels* Season 3 episode "Steps into Shadow", is a Force-sensitive individual who resided on the remote planet of Atollon and represents the "center" of the Force, between the light side and the dark side. When he is first met by Kanan Jarrus, he states that "Jedi and Sith wield the *Ashla* and *Bogan*. The light and the dark. I'm the one in the middle. The Bendu...". He is depicted as one who seeks balance, and has been likened to Tom Bombadil of *The Lord of the Rings.* The term "Bendu" first appeared in the original script for *Star Wars* as the name of the Jedi Knights, the "Jedi-Bendu". Description ----------- ### The Jedi Code The Jedi Code was a set of rules that governed the behavior of the Jedi Order. It taught its followers to not give in to feelings of anger toward other lifeforms, which would help them resist fear and prevent them from falling to the dark side of the Force. > **The Code:** > > > > There is no emotion, there is peace. > There is no ignorance, there is knowledge. > There is no passion, there is serenity. > There is no chaos, there is harmony. > There is no death, there is the Force. > > > — The Jedi Code ### The Four Councils The Four Branches of the Jedi Council are fictional institutions from the *Star Wars* universe. They serve the Jedi Order as an organized administrative body that provides the necessary auxiliary and support services that sustain and governed the Order's academies, temples, interests and organizations. #### Jedi High Council The Jedi High Council is the main ecclesiastical leadership of the Jedi Order with both legislative and executive powers. The Jedi High Council is made up of some of the strongest, wisest and most experienced members of the Jedi Order. They are elected to lead the Jedi. The Jedi High Council has twelve members at any given time: five members who serve for life, four members who serve long-term, and three limited-term members. Sifo-Dyas had a seat on the council until his extremist views on a war that he foresaw caused his removal. Other older members include Jor Aerith, Tera Sinuba, and Yula Braylon. In *Jedi: Fallen Order - Dark Temple* (which is set an unknown amount of time before *Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace*), the Jedi Council includes Yoda, Mace Windu, Eeth Koth, Yarael Poof, Poli Dapatian, and Jocasta Nu. In *Master & Apprentice*, set seven years before *The Phantom Menace*, the council includes Yoda, Mace Windu, Depa Billaba, Poli Dapatian (who is in the process of retiring), Eeth Koth, and Saesee Tiin. In the final days before the end of the Clone Wars and the extermination of the Jedi Order, the Council consisted of the following members: * Yoda * Mace Windu * Plo Koon * Stass Allie * Shaak Ti * Kit Fisto * Saesee Tiin * Coleman Kcaj * Anakin Skywalker * Agen Kolar * Obi-Wan Kenobi * Ki-Adi-Mundi #### Council of First Knowledge The Council of First Knowledge administered the Temple-based academy and its curriculum and funded scholars' scientific research. To this end, the Council guarded and maintained the Temple Archives and its Holocron vaults, as well as the "Shadow program" at the Jedi Temple: Jedi Sentinels tasked with hunting down Sith artifacts. #### Council of Reconciliation The Council of Reconciliation dealt with the Galactic Senate and the Republic Diplomatic Corps in order to help bring diplomatic resolutions to conflicts and end political standoffs. The "first face" of the Republic presented to worlds interested in joining the Republic, this council would dispatch Jedi diplomats and ambassadors to moderate debate and hammer out treaties #### Council of Reassignment The Council of Reassignment administered the Jedi Service Corps and each of its branch councils. Organizing work for those Initiates who failed out of the academy and Knights with special talents, the Reassignment Council oversaw this branch's missions and assignments. ### Ranks of authority and educational progress Every Jedi, regardless of species or world, is trained for their career at Jedi Academy. Entrance is determined by rigorous examination and psychological tests. When Jedi Sentinels discover or test a suitable "force-sensitive" candidate, they are taken to the Jedi Academy at the age of 5 (depending on the species and arbitrary years) with the parent's permission. Jedi scholarship educations are considered prestigious, as most parents are portrayed as either happy or proud of the opportunity presented to their child, who could never afford an education. However, parents also are generally sad since they know they are unlikely to see their child again before adulthood. Members of the Order progress through four educational stages, at times referred to as levels: #### Initiate Initiation is the first part of Jedi training; they are mentored by Jedi Masters in rudimentary control over the Force and basic self-defense techniques. Most Initiates were typically Younglings (a child Jedi-in-training), receiving an early and first-class education. The first ten years of a youngling's training demands segregation from outside distractions and is deliberately designed to reinforce detachment from earthly emotions, including loyalty or love for their parents. Initiates are taught to abandon ego, and that discipline, selflessness and truthfulness will lead to harmony with The Force. This is why Yoda initially denied both Anakin and Luke Skywalker for being "too old for training". > Abandon ego. Release all your earthly attachments; let go of all you've grown to love... Surrender yourself. > > — Yoda, in *Attack of the Clones* Younglings were portrayed training under Jedi Master Yoda in a scene on *Attack of the Clones* and hiding during the assault on the Jedi Temple in *Revenge of the Sith*. The "Young Jedi" story arc and the episode "Path of the Jedi" explored the Jedi tradition called "The Gathering," where initiates traveled to the "Crystal Caves" of Ilum to harvest kyber crystals, which they would use to build their first lightsabers. Crystals were attuned to individual Jedi and lacked color. The Force spoke to each of the younglings through their crystals. To find their crystal, each initiate had to learn a lesson: courage, hope, patience, trust, confidence, and selflessness. #### Padawan An Initiate who successfully completes "fundamental training" is given a second-class education and then undergoes Padawan training under the tutelage of a Mentor (usually a Jedi Knight or Jedi Master). They are also called "Apprentices" and "Padawan learners". In the Old Republic, Padawans usually wore a hair braid or a bead string (for species without hair) on the right side of their head which was severed with a lightsaber by the Jedi Grand Master upon attaining knighthood. They also served as Commanders in the Clone Wars. #### Knight Disciplined and experienced, Jedi Knights become so only when they have completed "the trials" (final tests), they officially graduate, being eligible for specialized advance courses, and may continue to pursue a third-class education (see below) to obtain the equivalent of a habilitation or post-doctoral degree. As the most common rank, it is interchangeably referred to as "Jedi", "Jedi Knight" and "Master Jedi" (although the latter are honorifics used only by Younglings and Padawans when addressing Jedi Knights or above). The five tests are usually known as *Trial of Skill*, the *Trial of Courage*, the *Trial of the Flesh*, the *Trial of Spirit*, and the *Trial of Insight (or Knowledge)*. In *Return of the Jedi*, Master Yoda gives his apprentice, Luke Skywalker, the trial of confronting Darth Vader for a second time so he might become a full-fledged Knight. Occasionally, performing an extraordinary (usually heroic) act can earn a Padawan learner Jedi status, such as when Obi-Wan Kenobi defeats the Sith Lord, Darth Maul. By the time of the Skywalker Saga films, distinct "battle classes" were not necessary as the Republic had not seen war in over a thousand years, and the title of Knight was simply a rank once again. #### Master Jedi Master is a term of respect used by beings who respect the Jedi. They are regarded as among the most accomplished and recognized polymaths in the *Star Wars* galaxy. Upon completion of vocational or postgraduate education, a Jedi Knight becomes a Jedi Master after successfully training several Padawan learners to Knight status, such as when Obi-Wan Kenobi became a Jedi Master after he successfully trained Anakin Skywalker to the point where he was able to complete the trials and become a Jedi Knight. Though this is the most common manner, there are other ways of attaining the rank. Some Jedi masters are Obi-Wan Kenobi, Qui-Gon Jinn and Yoda ### Specializations and occupations Various careers, occupations, ranks and titles were available to all Jedi. Upon a Padawan's ascension to "*Knighthood*-status", a Jedi pursued higher education or vocational education and training in a field of expertise; choose a career based on preference, personal talents and skills. Before the Great Jedi Purge, numerous divisions existed across the whole of the order, but most personnel are represented within the three order divisions: the ***Order of the Guardian***, the ***Order of the Consular***, or ***Order of the Sentinel***. In addition to their specialization, in times of war, the High Council could demand that the members of the Order assume military ranks in order to defend the Republic. #### Hierarchy * Grand Master of the Jedi Order: The Grand Master is the oldest, the most experienced, the most accomplished and the best trained of all Jedi. A Grand Master is voted unanimously by the Jedi High Council. The Grand Master serves as the organization's figurehead in charge of ceremonial duties and dictates the organization's general policies while providing direction and guidance to the entire Jedi Order. Yoda and Luke Skywalker were Jedi Grandmasters. * Chief Master of the Jedi High Council (or 'Master of the Order'): The Chief Master of the High Council is elected by the Jedi High Council, which effectively acts as chairman, Chief of staff and chief operating officer. Its chief responsibilities include; presiding over High Council meetings of the assembled group, conducting Jedi businesses in an orderly fashion, managing the executive particulars of the day-to-day administration of the Jedi Order, acting as representative or spokesperson to the Galactic Senate, and serving as the Grand Master's junior partner. Jedi Master Mace Windu filled this position at the time of the Clone Wars. * Chief Librarian of the Jedi Archives: The overseer of the *Jedi Archives*, *Holocron Vault*, *Librarian's Assembly* and the *Educational Corps*. Second only to the Grand Master in administrative importance, the Chief Librarian worked closely with the *Council of First Knowledge*. Around the time of the Clone Wars, the Chief Librarian was the elderly Jedi Master Jocasta Nu. * Jedi General: A title given to those given commanding roles in the Grand Army of the Republic during the Clone Wars. * Jedi Commander: This title was given to Jedi Padawans under the leadership of Jedi Knights and Jedi Masters with their roles as Jedi Generals in the Grand Army of the Republic during the Clone Wars. #### Divisions * Jedi Guardian: Jedi Guardians focused all aspects of combat as an extension of their being, and trained on combining and perfecting their athletic, aviation and martial art skills with mastery of the Force. The Force skills studied by the Guardians were typically those used for quickly disabling an opponent and aiding in agility and stamina. Many were stationed within Republic planetary or sectoral government's security agencies where they worked as special peacekeepers and law enforcement agents, helping to quell riots and capture terrorists. The highest-ranking Jedi Guardians were stationed at the Jedi academies as instructors tasked with passing down their experience to the young students of the Order. Those Jedi who mastered lightsaber-combat techniques (such as Mace Windu) were dubbed Weapon Masters and were among the greatest warriors of the Order. * Jedi Consular: Jedi Consulars focused on further mastery of the Force and the sharpening of mental faculties, and wielded a lightsaber only for self-defense. Overseen by the Council of Reconciliation, Jedi Consulars were often called upon to act as impartial advisers, diplomats, and historians. Most Consulars specialized as historians, archivists, librarians, archaeologists, geologists, biologists, mathematicians, and astronomers; they contributed to the growth and preservation of the Jedi Archives as "Lore Keepers" directed by the *Librarian's Assembly*. Some Consulars worked closely with the Republic bureaucrats to assist in greeting unaligned governments and helping them join the Republic and given the authority to hammer out a compromise or treaty during tense negotiations, backed by the full support of the Senate and Jedi Order. Some Consulars joined the Circle of Jedi Healers (headquartered out of the Coruscant Temple's *Halls of Healing*) and focused on the medical and humanitarian aspects of the Force, manipulating the Living Force to perform the art of healing. Those Jedi specifically predisposed to receive visions through the Force were known as "Seers", maintaining and updating the Order's holocrons; the most perceptive of these Jedi (such as Yoda) were known as Prophets and foretold the future of the galaxy. * Jedi Sentinel: Jedi Sentinels focused on diverse disciplines, applying their Force abilities as engineers, technicians, intelligence and security experts. Most Sentinels were stationed at numerous locations for decades, to serve as liaison officers between the system or sector and the Republic. The anonymous "Jedi Temple Guard" Sentinels were charged with guarding the Jedi Temple. Some Sentinels aided police as detectives through the use of the Force. Since Republic law required all newborns to undergo "Force-sensitivity" testing, Sentinels who worked as members of the *Acquisition Division of the Order* routinely tracked down and identified Force-sensitive children to assess whether they met the qualifications to receive training in the Jedi Order. The most elite Sentinels became "Shadows" or "Watchmen": the Jedi-secret police who worked under the supervision of the *First Knowledge Council* to destroy all remnants of the Sith. ### Resources and technology Within the *Star Wars* universe, the Jedi are usually portrayed wearing simple robes and carrying specialized field gear for their missions. Their philosophical lifestyles mirror those of real-world religious vows and evangelical counsels, as their personal possessions are provided exclusively by the Jedi Order, and are only meant to allow self-sufficiency. #### Weapons The most notable instrument wielded by a Jedi is the lightsaber. Both Jedi and Sith use lightsabers, though the former regard them as a tool, the latter, a weapon. The Jedi's lightsabers emit cool colors, usually blue or green blades (sometimes yellow, or purple, as seen in the case of Mace Windu), while the Sith emit warm colors (red). Lightsabers can be of many different colors depending on the crystal fixture. Most Jedi use naturally formed crystals, whereas Sith tend to use synthetic crystals, which are usually red in color. Although rare, multi-bladed lightsabers can exist, especially among Sith such as Darth Maul's double-bladed lightsaber, the Inqusitors' double-bladed/rotating ones, or Kylo Ren's crossguard-bladed one (due to a cracked kyber crystal). #### Vehicles Eta-2 Actis Jedi Interceptors first appeared in *Revenge of the Sith*. Delta-7B Aethersprite Jedi starfighters appear in *Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones* and *Star Wars: Episode III – Revenge of the Sith*. In *Attack of the Clones*, Obi-Wan Kenobi travels via Jedi starfighter to Kamino to investigate the attempted assassination of Padmé Amidala; he also flies a Jedi starfighter to Geonosis in an attempt to track down the bounty hunter Jango Fett. Lacking a hyperdrive, the starfighter relies on an external sled to propel it through hyperspace. Kenobi and Anakin Skywalker (Hayden Christensen) fly updated Jedi starfighters (called Jedi Interceptors) in the opening sequence of *Revenge of the Sith*. Later, Plo Koon (Matt Sloan) flies a *Revenge of the Sith*-era starfighter when he is shot down by clone troopers carrying out Emperor Palpatine's (Ian McDiarmid) Order 66. The Jedi starfighter's triangular shape in *Attack of the Clones* stems from the shape of Imperial Star Destroyers in the original *Star Wars* trilogy. Industrial Light & Magic designer Doug Chiang identified the Jedi starfighter as one of the first designs that bridges the aesthetic between the prequel and original trilogies. Chiang noted that viewers' familiarity with the Star Destroyer's appearance and Imperial affiliation gives added symbolism to the Jedi craft's appearance and foreshadows the Empire's rise to power. The starfighter seen in *Revenge of the Sith* is a cross between the previous film's vessel and the Empire's TIE fighters from the original trilogy. Hasbro's expanding wings in the *Attack of the Clones* Jedi starfighter toy inspired the opening wings in the *Revenge of the Sith* vessel. The starfighter in the *Revenge of the Sith* is called a Jedi Interceptor Starfighter. #### Jedi Archives The Jedi Archives, known as The Great Library of Ossus or The Great Library of the Jedi, contained the galaxy's most priceless and ancient of texts sacred to Jedi scholars and archaeologists. Among these were Sith artifacts, considered by the Jedi Order to be the most dangerous artifacts in the galaxy, that were accessible only to those able to control the Dark Side of the Force. The Jedi archives of the Jedi Temple in the movie *Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones* bear a startling resemblance to the Long Room of the Trinity College Library in Dublin. This resemblance resulted in controversy as permission had not been sought to use the building's likeness in the film. However, Lucasfilm denied that the Long Room was the basis for the Jedi archives, and officials from Trinity College Library decided not to take any legal action. #### Jedi Academy The Jedi academies were established to train Force-sensitive beings accepted into the Jedi Order in the ways of the Force. Overseen by the Council of First Knowledge, each academy was governed by an advisory Council appointed by their superiors on Coruscant. Mainstreaming the majority of teachings at the Temple, certain practices were permitted to vary from world to world. However, at all sanctioned academies, a group of Jedi Masters would instruct Initiates to the Order in the ways of the Force. The size of the school varied from world to world; the smallest consisted of a single clan of younglings, and the largest was the main academy housed within the Jedi Temple of Coruscant. Most academies had been established during the Old Sith Wars and were located in the Galactic Rim. Some were located on or near Force-wellsprings or places significant to the Order like crystal caves or nexuses of dark side energies that needed constant monitoring. In addition to the traditional academies established by the Order, the Exploration Corps maintained several spacefaring mobile academies such as the *Chu'unthor* so that roaming the galaxy and exploring new worlds could be achieved while still teaching traditional doctrine. By the fall of the Galactic Republic in 19 BBY, many of the ancient academies had been shut down for decades, with the Council of First Knowledge preferring the central teachings of the Coruscant Temple. After the dissolution of the Order during the Great Jedi Purge, all orthodox Temples and academies were routed and burned in order to prevent any more Jedi from learning the secrets of the Force. However, the Galactic Empire's chokehold on Force-education did not last and the Order was reformed following the conclusion of the Galactic Civil War. After Grand Master Luke Skywalker's New Order became a single class of twelve students including his nephew Ben Solo, it was reduced to only himself when his nephew turned to the dark side and became Kylo Ren. #### Jedi Temple In the prequel trilogy, the primary Jedi Temple is located on the Republic's capital planet of Coruscant. As the chief administrative headquarters, the Temple served the Order in three capacities: a monastery and library for the Jedi seeking enlightenment and to reflect on the will of the Force; an academy and training center for Jedi younglings and Padawans who endeavored to join the ranks of the Jedi Knights; and government, in which the Masters of the Jedi High Council guided the Order's direction. It was originally built atop an old "dark-side nexus" shrine during the birth of the Republic, so as to be symbolic to the Coruscant people that the tyrannical rule of the Sith was over. In *Revenge of the Sith*, the Jedi Temple is attacked by clone troopers of the 501st Legion, led by the newly christened Darth Vader, who butchered the Jedi within and set the Temple alight. After the fall of the Jedi Order and the Galactic Republic, the Temple became the **Palace of the Emperor** and a location for his dark side artifacts. It would serve as Sidious' residence for over two decades until his death at the battle of Endor. The Temple is visible in the celebrations on Coruscant at the end of *Return of the Jedi*. After the destruction of the Sith, Luke Skywalker—the last of the Jedi—recovered fragments of a Force-sensitive tree that was once located at the heart of the Jedi Temple. *Architects' Journal* rated the temple third on its top-ten architecture of *Star Wars* list behind the second Death Star and Jabba the Hutt’s palace on Tatooine, and ahead of Coruscant, the capital city of the Old Republic. The temple is described in the article as adapting "the robust typology of Mayan temples, with durasteel cladding specified for the external stone walls for improved defensive strength" and said to be a ziggurat that "is built above a Force-nexus and has ample room for training facilities, accommodation and the Jedi Archive". The temple has five towers, the tallest being Tranquility Spire, that are stylistically similar to the minarets surrounding the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul. *Star Wars Insider* listed it as the one hundredth greatest thing about Star Wars in its one hundredth issue special. *Legends* depiction of the Jedi ------------------------------- With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed *Star Wars* novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film *Star Wars* were rebranded as *Star Wars Legends* and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014. In novels and reference books now considered Legends the interpretation of the Jedi teaching on not forming attachments was alternating between being in line with George Lucas' vision and using "attachment" in the sense of affection, fondness and loving commitment, stating that the Jedi Code prohibited these emotional bonds. Furthermore, the Jedi were depicted as a quasi-militaristic organization with strict political alignment to the Galactic Republic. ### Je'daii The Je'daii Order, precursors to the modern Jedi, studied and used both the light and dark sides of the Force equally. The preview issue of *Dawn of the Jedi* states that the Je'daii originated ten thousand years before the saga takes place (approximately 36,453 years BBY). They were more monk than warrior, and their capital was Tython in the Deep Core. ### The New Jedi Order In novels set after the events of the film series, Luke Skywalker re-established the Jedi High Council as part of his New Jedi Order. The most notable difference between the format of the new council and the old is that only half of the council are made up of Jedi, while the other half consisted of politicians. Following the war with the Yuuzhan Vong, the Jedi withdrew their support from anyone political entity and relocated to Ossus, where Luke had a full Jedi Council re-established. The New Jedi Order was the restored and reformed Jedi organization, in the wake of the Great Jedi Purge and the subsequent fall of the Galactic Empire. The Jedi Knights, reduced in number to only a handful, were slowly restored, primarily under the leadership of Grandmaster Luke Skywalker. Skywalker abolished the traditional Master/Padawan system. He believed all Jedi should be both teachers and students; that they should both learn from and mentor each other, and not just from one Master. Within the Expanded Universe, *The New Jedi Order* indicates that the Jedi Temple on Coruscant is no longer standing but it is rebuilt as a gift to Jedi for their services and achievements during the Yuuzhan Vong invasion. The new temple is in the form of a massive pyramid made from stone and transparisteel that is designed to fit into the new look of Coruscant, though internally it is identical to the design seen in *Revenge of the Sith*. Cultural impact and critical response ------------------------------------- The United States Army had a group of officers in the early 1980s who promoted maneuver warfare tactics, and who were derisively referred to as Jedi by more conventional officers who were satisfied with attrition warfare tactics and methods. ### Analysis In *Star Wars and Philosophy*, William Stephens compares the Jedi to Stoicism: > To recap, the virtues the Jedi shares with the Stoic sage are patience, timeliness, deep commitment, seriousness (as opposed to frivolity), calmness (as opposed to anger or euphoria), peacefulness (as opposed to aggression), caution (as opposed to recklessness), benevolence (as opposed to hatred), joy (as opposed to sullenness), passivity (as opposed to agitation), and wisdom. Given all these virtues, Yoda certainly resembles what the ancient Stoics described as the sage—the ideal person who has perfected his reason and achieved complete wisdom. > > Functionally, the Jedi order resembles a Praetorian Guard. ### Media Jedi have made their way into certain areas of pop culture, such as "Weird Al" Yankovic's song "The Saga Begins", a parody of "American Pie". In the film *The Men Who Stare at Goats* (2009), a reporter follows a former soldier who claimed to be a "Jedi warrior", a nickname for psychic spies in the US military. ### Religion One of the enduring influences the *Star Wars* saga has had in popular culture is the idea of the fictional Jedi values being interpreted as a modern philosophical path or religion, spawning various movements such as the Jediism (religious) and the Jedi census phenomenon. See also -------- * Sith * Jediism Further reading --------------- * *Sword Fighting in the Star Wars Universe: Historical Origins, Style and Philosophy* by Nick Jamilla (McFarland & Company, 2008) * *Star Wars and History* by Nancy Reagin & Janice Liedl (John Wiley & Sons, 2012) * *The Science Fiction Reboot: Canon, Innovation and Fandom in Refashioned Franchises* by Heather Urbanski (McFarland & Company, 2013) * *Star wars: the essential chronology* by Kevin J. Anderson & Daniel Wallace (Ballantine Books, 2000) * *Culture, identities, and technology in the Star wars films: essays on the two trilogies* by Carl Silvio & Tony M. Vinci (McFarland & Company, 2007) * *The Star Wars Heresies* by Paul F. McDonald (McFarland & Company, 2013)

Jedi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedi

In general, a **rural area** or a **countryside** is a geographic area that is located outside towns and cities. Typical rural areas have a low population density and small settlements. Agricultural areas and areas with forestry typically are described as rural. Different countries have varying definitions of *rural* for statistical and administrative purposes. In rural areas, because of their unique economic and social dynamics, and relationship to land-based industry such as agriculture, forestry and resource extraction, the economics are very different from cities and can be subject to boom and bust cycles and vulnerability to extreme weather or natural disasters, such as droughts. These dynamics alongside larger economic forces encouraging to urbanization have led to significant demographic declines, called rural flight, where economic incentives encourage younger populations to go to cities for education and access to jobs, leaving older, less educated and less wealthy populations in the rural areas. Slower economic development results in poorer services like healthcare and education and rural infrastructure. This cycle of poverty in some rural areas, means that three quarters of the global population in poverty live in rural areas according to the Food and Agricultural Organization. Some communities have successfully encouraged economic development in rural areas, with some policies such as giving increased access to electricity or internet, proving very successful on encouraging economic activities in rural areas. Historically development policies have focused on larger extractive industries, such as mining and forestry. However, recent approaches more focused on sustainable development are more aware of economic diversification in these communities. Regional definitions -------------------- ### North America #### Canada In Canada, the **Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development** defines a "predominantly rural region" as having more than 50% of the population living in rural communities where a "rural community" has a population density less than 150 people per square kilometer. In Canada, the census division has been used to represent "regions" and census consolidated sub-divisions have been used to represent "communities". Intermediate regions have 15 to 49 percent of their population living in a rural community. Predominantly urban regions have less than 15 percent of their population living in a rural community. Predominantly rural regions are classified as rural metro-adjacent, rural non-metro-adjacent and rural northern, following Philip Ehrensaft and Jennifer Beeman (1992). Rural metro-adjacent regions are predominantly rural census divisions which are adjacent to metropolitan centers while rural non-metro-adjacent regions are those predominantly rural census divisions which are not adjacent to metropolitan centers. Rural northern regions are predominantly rural census divisions that are found either entirely or mostly above the following lines of latitude in each province: Newfoundland and Labrador, 50th; Manitoba, 53rd; Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, and Saskatchewan, 54th. As well, rural northern regions encompass all of the Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. Statistics Canada defines rural areas by their population counts. This definition has changed over time (see Appendix A in du Plessis et al., 2002). Typically, it has referred to the population living outside settlements of 1,000 or fewer inhabitants. The current definition states that census rural is the population outside settlements with fewer than 1,000 inhabitants and a population density below 400 people per square kilometer (Statistics Canada, 2007). #### United States Rural areas in the United States, often referred to as rural America, consists of approximately 97% of the United States' land area. An estimated 60 million people, or one in five residents (17.9% of the total U.S. population), live in rural America. Definitions vary from different parts of the United States government as to what constitutes those areas. Rural areas tend to be poorer and their populations are older than in other parts of the United States because of rural flight, declining infrastructure, and fewer economic prospects. The declining population also results in less access to services, such as high-quality medical and education systems. ### South America #### Brazil In Brazil, there are different notions of "rural area" and "countryside". Rural areas are any place outside a municipality's urban development (buildings, streets) and it is carried by informal usage. Otherwise, countryside (*interior* in Portuguese) are officially defined as all municipalities outside the state/territory capital's metropolitan region. Some states as Mato Grosso do Sul do not have any metropolitan regions, thus all of the state, except its capital is officially countryside. Rio de Janeiro is singular in Brazil and it is de facto a metropolitan state, as circa 70% of its population are located in Greater Rio. In the Federal District it is not applicable and there is no countryside as all of it is treated as the federal capital. Brasília is nominally the capital, but the capitality is shared through all Federal District, because Brazil de facto defines its capital as a municipality, and in municipal matters, the Federal District is treated and governs as a single municipality, city-state-like (Brasília, DF). ### Europe #### France 15% of French population live in rural areas, spread over 90% of the country. President Emmanuel Macron government launched an action plan in 2019 in favour for rural areas named "Agenda Rural". Among many initiatives recommended to redynamize rural areas, energy transition is one of them. Research is being carried out to assess the impact of new projects in rural areas. #### Germany Germany is divided into 402 administrative districts, 295 rural districts and 107 urban districts. As one of the largest agricultural producers in the European Union, more than half of Germany's territory which is almost 19 million hectares, is used for farming, and located in the rural areas. Almost 10% of people in Germany have jobs related to the agricultural, forest and fisheries sectors; approximately a fifth of them are employed in the primary production. Since there is a policy of equal living conditions, people see rural areas as equivalent as urban areas. Village renewal is an approach to develop countryside and supports the challenges faced in the process of it. #### United Kingdom In Britain, "rural" is defined by the government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), using population data from the latest census, such as the United Kingdom Census 2001. These definitions have various grades, but the upper point is any local government area with more than 26% of its population living in a rural settlement or market town ("market town" being defined as any settlement which has permission to hold a street market). A number of measures are in place to protect the British countryside, including green belts. ### Asia #### China In mainland China, rural areas sometimes use different lower-level administrative divisions than urban areas, such as counties and townships instead of districts and subdistricts. #### India Rural areas are also known as the 'countryside' or a 'village' in India. It has a very low population density. In rural areas, agriculture is the chief source of livelihood along with fishing, cottage industries, pottery etc. Almost every Indian economic agency today has its own definition of rural India, some of which follow: According to the Planning Commission, a town with a maximum population of 15,000 is considered rural in nature. In these areas the panchayat makes all the decisions. There are five people in the panchayat. The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) defines ‘rural’ as follows: * An area with a population density of up to 400 per square kilometer, * Villages with clear surveyed boundaries but no municipal board, * A minimum of 75% of male working population involved in agriculture and allied activities. RBI defines rural areas as those areas with a population of less than 49,000 (tier -3 to tier-6 cities). It is generally said that the rural areas house up to 70% of India's population. Rural India contributes a large chunk to India's GDP by way of agriculture, self-employment, services, construction etc. As per a strict measure used by the National Sample Survey in its 63rd round, called monthly per capita expenditure, rural expenditure accounts for 55% of total national monthly expenditure. The rural population currently accounts for one-third of the total Indian FMCG sales. #### Japan In Japan, rural areas are referred to as "Inaka" which translates literally to "the countryside" or "one's native village". #### Pakistan According to the 2017 census about 64% of Pakistanis live in rural areas. Most rural areas in Pakistan tend to be near cities and are peri-urban areas. This is due to the definition of a rural area in Pakistan being an area that does not come within an urban boundary. Rural areas in Pakistan that are near cities are considered as suburban areas or suburbs. The remote rural villagers of Pakistan commonly live in houses made of bricks, clay or mud. Socioeconomic status among rural Pakistani villagers is often based upon the ownership of agricultural land, which also may provide social prestige in village cultures. The majority of rural Pakistani inhabitants livelihoods is based upon the rearing of livestock, which also comprises a significant part of Pakistan's gross domestic product. Some livestock raised by rural Pakistanis include cattle and goats. ### Oceania #### New Zealand In New Zealand census areas are classified based on their degree of rurality. However, traffic law has a different interpretation and defines a **Rural area** as "*... a road or a geographical area that is not an urban traffic area, to which the rural speed limit generally applies.*" Economics --------- Rural economics is the study of rural economies. Rural economies include both agricultural and non-agricultural industries, so rural economics has broader concerns than agricultural economics which focus more on food systems. Rural development and finance attempt to solve larger challenges within rural economics. These economic issues are often connected to the migration from rural areas due to lack of economic activities and rural poverty. Some interventions have been very successful in some parts of the world, with rural electrification and rural tourism providing anchors for transforming economies in some rural areas. These challenges often create rural-urban income disparities. Rural spaces add new challenges for economic analysis that require an understanding of economic geography: for example understanding of size and spatial distribution of production and household units and interregional trade, land use, and how low population density effects government policies as to development, investment, regulation, and transportation. ### Development Rural development is the process of improving the quality of life and economic well-being of people living in rural areas, often relatively isolated and sparsely populated areas. Rural development has traditionally centered on the exploitation of land-intensive natural resources such as agriculture and forestry. However, changes in global production networks and increased urbanization have changed the character of rural areas. Increasingly rural tourism, niche manufacturers, and recreation have replaced resource extraction and agriculture as dominant economic drivers. The need for rural communities to approach development from a wider perspective has created more focus on a broad range of development goals rather than merely creating incentive for agricultural or resource-based businesses. Education, entrepreneurship, physical infrastructure, and social infrastructure all play an important role in developing rural regions. Rural development is also characterized by its emphasis on locally produced economic development strategies. In contrast to urban regions, which have many similarities, rural areas are highly distinctive from one another. For this reason there are a large variety of rural development approaches used globally. ### Electricity Rural electrification is the process of bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas. Rural communities are suffering from colossal market failures as the national grids fall short of their demand for electricity. As of 2019, 770 million people live without access to electricity – 10.2% of the global population. Electrification typically begins in cities and towns and gradually extends to rural areas, however, this process often runs into obstacles in developing nations. Expanding the national grid is expensive and countries consistently lack the capital to grow their current infrastructure. Additionally, amortizing capital costs to reduce the unit cost of each hook-up is harder to do in lightly populated areas (yielding higher per capita share of the expense). If countries are able to overcome these obstacles and reach nationwide electrification, rural communities will be able to reap considerable amounts of economic and social development. ### Migration Rural flight (also known as rural-to-urban migration or rural exodus) is the migratory pattern of people from rural areas into urban areas. It is urbanization seen from the rural perspective. In industrializing economies like Britain in the eighteenth century or East Asia in the twentieth century, it can occur following the industrialization of primary industries such as agriculture, mining, fishing, and forestry—when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of output to market—and related secondary industries (refining and processing) are consolidated. Rural exodus can also follow an ecological or human-caused catastrophe such as a famine or resource depletion. These are examples of push factors. The same phenomenon can also be brought about simply because of higher wages and educational access available in urban areas; examples of pull factors. Once rural populations fall below a critical mass, the population is too small to support certain businesses, which then also leave or close, in a vicious circle. Even in non-market sectors of the economy, providing services to smaller and more dispersed populations becomes proportionately more expensive for governments, which can lead to closures of state-funded offices and services, which further harm the rural economy. Schools are the archetypal example because they influence the decisions of parents of young children: a village or region without a school will typically lose families to larger towns that have one. But the concept (urban hierarchy) can be applied more generally to many services and is explained by central place theory. Government policies to combat rural flight include campaigns to expand services to the countryside, such as electrification or distance education. Governments can also use restrictions like internal passports to make rural flight illegal. Economic conditions that can counter rural depopulation include commodities booms, the expansion of outdoor-focused tourism, and a shift to remote work, or exurbanization. To some extent, governments generally seek only to manage rural flight and channel it into certain cities, rather than stop it outright as this would imply taking on the expensive task of building airports, railways, hospitals, and universities in places with few users to support them, while neglecting growing urban and suburban areas. ### Poverty Rural poverty refers to poverty in rural areas, including factors of rural society, rural economy, and political systems that give rise to the poverty found there. Rural areas, because of their spread-out populations, typically have less well maintained infrastructure and a harder time accessing markets, which tend to be concentrated in population centers. Rural communities also face disadvantages in terms of legal and social protections, with women and marginalized communities frequently having hard times accessing land, education and other support systems that help with economic development. Several policies have been tested in both developing and developed economies, including rural electrification and access to other technologies such as internet, gender parity, and improved access to credit and income. In academic studies, rural poverty is often discussed in conjunction with spatial inequality, which in this context refers to the inequality between urban and rural areas. Both rural poverty and spatial inequality are global phenomena, but like poverty in general, there are higher rates of rural poverty in developing countries than in developed countries. Eradicating rural poverty through effective policies and economic growth is a continuing difficulty for the international community. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, three quarters of those in poverty are in rural areas, most of whom are smallholders or agricultural workers whose livelihoods are heavily dependent on agriculture. These food systems are vulnerable to extreme weather, which is expected to effect agricultural systems the world over more as climate change increases. Thus the climate crises is expected to reduce the effectiveness of programs reducing rural poverty and cause displacement of rural communities to urban centers. Sustainable Development Goal 1: No Poverty sets international goals to address these issues, and are deeply connected with investments in a sustainable food system as part of Sustainable Development Goal 2: Zero Hunger. Rural health ------------ In medicine, rural health or rural medicine is the interdisciplinary study of health and health care delivery in rural environments. The concept of rural health incorporates many fields, including Wilderness medicine, geography, midwifery, nursing, sociology, economics, and telehealth or telemedicine. Research shows that the healthcare needs of individuals living in rural areas are different from those in urban areas, and rural areas often suffer from a lack of access to healthcare. These differences are the result of geographic, demographic, socioeconomic, workplace, and personal health factors. For example, many rural communities have a large proportion of elderly people and children. With relatively few people of working age (20–50 years of age), such communities have a high dependency ratio. People living in rural areas also tend to have poorer socioeconomic conditions, less education, higher rates of tobacco and alcohol use, and higher mortality rates when compared to their urban counterparts. There are also high rates of poverty among rural dwellers in many parts of the world, and poverty is one of the biggest social determinants of health. Many countries have made it a priority to increase funding for research on rural health. These efforts have led to the development of several research institutes with rural health mandates, including the Centre for Rural and Northern Health Research in Canada, Countryside Agency in the United Kingdom, the Institute of Rural Health in Australia, and the New Zealand Institute of Rural Health. These research efforts are designed to help identify the healthcare needs of rural communities and provide policy solutions to ensure those needs are met. The concept of incorporating the needs of rural communities into government services is sometimes referred to as *rural proofing*. ### Human fertility Rural residence is a fertility factor, with total fertility rates and pregnancy being higher among women in rural areas than among women in urban areas and the rural population is much younger than urban areas. Academic study -------------- Because of their unique dynamics, different academic fields have developed to study rural communities. ### Economics Rural economics is the study of rural economies. Rural economies include both agricultural and non-agricultural industries, so rural economics has broader concerns than agricultural economics which focus more on food systems. Rural development and finance attempt to solve larger challenges within rural economics. These economic issues are often connected to the migration from rural areas due to lack of economic activities and rural poverty. Some interventions have been very successful in some parts of the world, with rural electrification and rural tourism providing anchors for transforming economies in some rural areas. These challenges often create rural-urban income disparities. Rural spaces add new challenges for economic analysis that require an understanding of economic geography: for example understanding of size and spatial distribution of production and household units and interregional trade, land use, and how low population density effects government policies as to development, investment, regulation, and transportation. ### Rural planning **Rural planning** is an academic discipline that exists *within* or *alongside* the field of urban planning, regional planning or urbanism. The definition of these fields differs between languages and contexts. Sometimes the terms are used interchangeably. Specific interventions and solutions will depend entirely on the needs of each region in each country, but generally speaking, regional planning at the macro level will seek to: * Resist development in flood plains or along earthquake faults. These areas may be utilised as parks, or unimproved farmland. * Designate transportation corridors using hubs and spokes and considering major new infrastructure * Some thought into the various ‘role’s settlements in the region may play, for example some may be administrative, with others based upon manufacturing or transport. * Consider designating essential nuisance land uses locations, including waste disposal. * Designate Green belt land or similar to resist settlement amalgamation and protect the environment. * Set regional level ‘policy’ and zoning which encourages a mix of housing values and communities. * Consider building codes, zoning laws and policies that encourage the best use of the land. * Allocation of land. ### Sociology Rural sociology is a field of sociology traditionally associated with the study of social structure and conflict in rural areas. It is an active academic field in much of the world, originating in the United States in the 1910s with close ties to the national Department of Agriculture and land-grant university colleges of agriculture. While the issue of natural resource access transcends traditional rural spatial boundaries, the sociology of food and agriculture is one focus of rural sociology, and much of the field is dedicated to the economics of farm production. Other areas of study include rural migration and other demographic patterns, environmental sociology, amenity-led development, public-lands policies, so-called "boomtown" development, social disruption, the sociology of natural resources (including forests, mining, fishing and other areas), rural cultures and identities, rural health-care, and educational policies. Many rural sociologists work in the areas of development studies, community studies, community development, and environmental studies. Much of the research involves developing countries or the Third World. See also -------- * American Old West * Boondocks * Bushland * Country house * Developed areas * Digital divide * Landed gentry * Nature * Outback * Peasantry * Rural Community Council * Rural crafts * Rural ghetto * Rural Internet * Urban decay * Wilderness Further reading --------------- * "Definitions of Rural: A Handbook for Health Policy Makers and Researchers" (PDF). (6.12 MB) Thomas C. Ricketts, Karen D. Johnson-Webb, Patricia Taylor. Chapel Hill: North Carolina Rural Health Research Program, Cecil G. Sheps Center for Health Services Research, University of North Carolina, 1998. 13 p.

Rural area

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_area

**West Midlands** is a ceremonial county in the West Midlands region, England. A landlocked county, it borders Staffordshire to the north and west, Worcestershire to the south, and is surrounded by Warwickshire to the east. The largest settlement is the city of Birmingham. The county is almost entirely urban, with an area of 902 square kilometres (348 sq mi) and a population of 2,919,600, making it the second most populous county in England after Greater London. After Birmingham (1,144,919) the largest settlements are the cities of Coventry (345,324) and Wolverhampton (263,700), Solihull (126,577), and Sutton Coldfield (109,899). Nearly all of the county's settlements belong to the West Midlands and Coventry built-up areas, though the 'Meriden Gap' between them is rural. The county is governed by its seven metropolitan boroughs, which collaborate through the West Midlands Combined Authority. The county was historically part of Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire. The west of the county encloses the valley of the River Tame and its tributaries; the highest point of the surrounding area is Turners Hill, at 271 metres (889 ft). West Midlands contains the Sutton Park Site of Special Scientific Interest, which has an area of 970 hectares (2,400 acres) and is one of the largest urban parks in Europe. The area between Solihull and Coventry is part of the Forest of Arden, and the rivers Sowe and Sherbourne flow through Coventry. Status ------ The metropolitan county exists in law, as a geographical frame of reference, and as a ceremonial county. As such it has a Lord Lieutenant. and a High Sheriff. Between 1974 and 1986, the West Midlands County Council was the administrative body covering the county; this was abolished on 31 March 1986, and the constituent metropolitan boroughs effectively became unitary authorities. A new administrative body for the county (and some of the district surrounding it as Non-Constituent members), the West Midlands Combined Authority, was created in June 2016. Since May 2017, the authority has been headed by a directly elected Mayor of the West Midlands, a position currently held by Andy Street of the Conservative Party. Other county-wide bodies include the West Midlands Police, the West Midlands Fire Service and Transport for West Midlands. The county is sometimes described as the "West Midlands metropolitan area" or the "West Midlands conurbation" or "Greater Birmingham", although these have different, less clearly defined, boundaries. The main conurbation or urban area does not include Coventry, for example. The name "West Midlands" is also used for the much larger West Midlands region, which sometimes causes confusion. Geographically the county is on the eastern side of the region, the western side comprising Shropshire and Herefordshire and the southern side comprising Worcestershire and Warwickshire. History ------- Although the modern county has only existed since 1974, the settlements of the West Midlands have long been important centres of commerce and industry as well as developing a good local infrastructure. Coventry was one of England's most important cities during the Middle Ages, with its prosperity built upon wool and cloth manufacture. Birmingham and Wolverhampton have a tradition of industry dating back to the 16th century, when small metal-working industries developed. Birmingham was known for its manufacture of small arms, whereas Wolverhampton became a centre of lock manufacture and brass working. The coal and iron ore deposits of the Black Country area provided a ready source of raw materials. The area grew rapidly during the Industrial Revolution, and by the 20th century had grown into one large conurbation. Coventry was slower to develop, but by the early 20th century it had become an important centre of bicycle and car manufacture. 1966 saw a substantial reform in the local government of the area as the patchwork of county boroughs with municipal boroughs and urban district councils in between was replaced by a core of county boroughs covering a contiguous area, roughly as follows: * Birmingham, which remained substantially unaltered * Dudley, which absorbed all Brierley Hill, most of Coseley and Sedgley, and part of Amblecote, Tipton and Rowley Regis * Solihull, which remained substantially unaltered * Walsall, which absorbed all Darlaston, most of Willenhall, and parts of Wednesbury, Coseley, Wednesfield and Bilston * Warley, which was created by amalgamating most of Smethwick, Oldbury and Rowley Regis, and parts of Dudley, Tipton, West Bromwich and Halesowen * West Bromwich, which absorbed most of Wednesbury and Tipton, and parts of Bilston, Oldbury, Smethwick and Walsall * Wolverhampton, which absorbed most of Bilston, Wednesfield and Tettenhall, and parts of Sedgley, Coseley and Willenhall Near the area, three other towns remained separate (Halesowen, Stourbridge and Sutton Coldfield), while Aldridge and Brownhills joined to form a single unit, called Aldridge-Brownhills. In the same year, a single West Midlands Constabulary was formed for the Black Country county boroughs, whilst Birmingham retained its Birmingham City Police and Solihull continued being policed by the Warwickshire Constabulary. The West Midlands Passenger Transport Authority was established in 1968. ### County creation In 1974, the Local Government Act 1972 came into effect, creating the metropolitan county of West Midlands. This area was based on the seven county boroughs and the other non-county boroughs and urban districts around the fringe of the conurbation. The new area consisted of seven new metropolitan boroughs, with Aldridge-Brownhills added to Walsall; Halesowen and Stourbridge to Dudley and Sutton Coldfield to Birmingham. A new borough of Sandwell was formed by the merger of West Bromwich and Warley. The actual designation of Warley itself was abolished and the three towns of Smethwick, Oldbury and Rowley Regis reinstated as component parts of Sandwell, although these areas formed the Warley postal district. Solihull took in much of the suburban fringe to the east of Birmingham, including the former villages of Chelmsley Wood and Castle Bromwich, also Birmingham Airport, and the area of countryside between Solihull and Coventry, whilst Coventry itself received only small changes and Wolverhampton was unaltered. This led to (apart from in the east, with Coventry and the Meriden Gap) quite a tightly defined metropolitan border, excluding such places as Burntwood, Bromsgrove, Cannock, Kidderminster, Lichfield and Wombourne which had been considered for inclusion in the West Midlands metropolitan area by the Redcliffe-Maud Report. The 1974 reform created the West Midlands County Council that covered the entire area and dealt with strategic issues. A new West Midlands Police service was formed covering the entire area, with the West Midlands Constabulary and Birmingham City Police abolished, and also taking over responsibility from the county forces. West Midlands was also established as a new ceremonial county, with the offices of Lord Lieutenant and High Sheriff created. Its constituent components had previously been, for ceremonial purposes, under the equivalent offices of Warwickshire (Birmingham CB, Coventry CB, Solihull CB, Sutton Coldfield MB and Meriden RD), Staffordshire (Wolverhampton CB, Walsall CB, West Bromwich CB, Dudley CB and Aldridge-Brownhills UD) and Worcestershire (Warley CB, Stourbridge MB and Halesowen MB). | post-1974 | pre-1974 | | --- | --- | | Metropolitan county | Metropolitan borough | County boroughs | Non-county boroughs | Urban districts | Rural districts | | West Midlands is an amalgamation of 14 former local government districts, including eight county boroughs. | Birmingham | Birmingham | Sutton Coldfield | – | – | | Coventry | Coventry | – | – | Meriden *(part)* | | Dudley | Dudley | * Halesowen * Stourbridge | – | – | | Sandwell | * Warley * West Bromwich | – | – | – | | Solihull | Solihull | – | – | * Meriden *(part)* * Stratford-on-Avon *(part)* | | Walsall | Walsall | – | Aldridge-Brownhills | | | Wolverhampton | Wolverhampton | – | – | – | | ### West Midlands County Council Between 1974 and 1986, the county had a two-tier system of local government, and the seven districts shared power with the West Midlands County Council. However, the Local Government Act 1985 abolished the metropolitan county councils, and the West Midlands County Council ceased to exist in 1986. Most of its functions were devolved to the West Midland boroughs, which effectively became unitary authorities, with responsibility for most local authority functions. Following the abolition of the county council, some county-wide bodies continued to exist, which were administered by various joint-boards of the seven districts, among these were the West Midlands Police, the West Midlands Fire Service and the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive. ### Boundary changes In 1994, the western/southern shores of Chasewater, plus the adjacent Jeffreys Swag, were transferred from the Metropolitan Borough of Walsall to the District of Lichfield, Staffordshire. Further boundary changes came into effect in 1995, when part of the Hereford and Worcester parish of Frankley (including the south-west part of Bartley Reservoir) was transferred to Birmingham and became part of the county. ### West Midlands Combined Authority On 17 June 2016, a new administrative body, the West Midlands Combined Authority was created for the county, under the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009, which created several other combined authorities in England. The new body has powers over transport, economic development, skills and planning. A new directly elected position of Mayor of the West Midlands was created in 2017 to chair the new body. The first Mayoral election was held in May 2017, and the position was won by Andy Street of the Conservative Party. Geography --------- The West Midlands is a landlocked county that borders the counties of Warwickshire to the east, Worcestershire to the south, and Staffordshire to the north and west. The West Midlands County is one of the most heavily urbanised counties in the UK. Birmingham, Wolverhampton, the Black Country and Solihull together form the third most populous conurbation in the United Kingdom with a combined population of around 2.44 million. However, the West Midlands is not entirely urban; Coventry is separated from the West Midlands conurbation by a stretch of green belt land approximately 13 miles (21 km) across, known as the "Meriden Gap", which retains a strongly rural character. A smaller piece of green belt between Birmingham, Walsall and West Bromwich includes Barr Beacon and the Sandwell Valley. The highest point in the West Midlands is Turners Hill, with a height of 271 m (889 ft). The hill is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. Barr Beacon is another hill in the West Midlands, located on the border of Birmingham and Walsall, with a height of 227 metres (745 ft). There are 23 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the county. One of these SSSIs is Sutton Park in Sutton Coldfield, which has an area of 970 hectares (2,400 acres). As a result, it is one of the largest urban parks in Europe, and the largest outside of a capital city in Europe. The park also has national nature reserve status. There are numerous rivers that pass through the county, including the River Tame. The river basin is the most urbanised basin in the United Kingdom, with approximately 42% of the basin being urbanised. The River Tame is fed by the River Rea, River Anker, and the River Blythe, which in turn is fed by the River Cole. The River Sowe and River Sherbourne both flow through Coventry. The River Stour flows through the west of the West Midlands county. Like other metropolitan counties, the West Midlands is divided into districts called metropolitan boroughs. There are seven boroughs in the West Midlands, six of which are named after the largest settlement in their administrative area. The West Midlands is unusual amongst the metropolitan counties in that three of its boroughs have city status; Coventry is a city by ancient prescriptive usage, Birmingham was granted city status in 1889, and Wolverhampton in 2000 as a "Millennium City". | Metropolitan borough | Administrative centre | Other towns | | --- | --- | --- | | City of Birmingham | | Birmingham | Aston, Bournville, Edgbaston, Erdington, Great Barr, Hall Green, Handsworth, Harborne, Northfield, Quinton, Soho, Sutton Coldfield | | City of Coventry | | Coventry | Allesley, Binley, Keresley, Stoke, Tile Hill | | Dudley | | Dudley | Amblecote, Brierley Hill, Coseley, Cradley, Gornal, Halesowen, Kingswinford, Lye, Netherton, Sedgley, Stourbridge, Quarry Bank | | Sandwell | | Oldbury | Bearwood, Blackheath, Cradley Heath, Great Bridge, Old Hill, Rowley Regis, Smethwick, Tipton, Tividale, Wednesbury, West Bromwich | | Solihull | | Solihull | Balsall Common, Bickenhill, Castle Bromwich, Chelmsley Wood, Dorridge, Elmdon, Hampton in Arden, Kingshurst, Knowle, Marston Green, Meriden, Monkspath, Hockley Heath, Shirley | | Walsall | | Walsall | Aldridge,Birchills, Bloxwich, Brownhills, Darlaston, Leamore, Palfrey,Pelsall, Pheasey, Shelfield, Streetly, Willenhall | | City of Wolverhampton | | Wolverhampton | Bilston, Blakenhall, Bushbury, Compton, Ettingshall, Heath Town, Oxley, Penn, Tettenhall, Wednesfield | Demography ---------- Distribution of ethnic groups in the West Midlands according to the 2011 census.* WhiteWhite * White-BritishWhite-British * White-IrishWhite-Irish * White-OtherWhite-Other * AsianAsian * Asian-IndianAsian-Indian * Asian-PakistaniAsian-Pakistani * Asian-BangladeshiAsian-Bangladeshi * Asian-ChineseAsian-Chinese * BlackBlack * Black-AfricanBlack-African * Black-CaribbeanBlack-Caribbean * Other-ArabOther-Arab Distribution of religions in the West Midlands according to the 2011 census.* ChristianityChristianity * IslamIslam * JudaismJudaism * HinduismHinduism * SikhismSikhism * BuddhismBuddhism * Other religionOther religion * No religionNo religion Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * Ackers Adventure, Birmingham, * Aston Hall, Birmingham Historic house * Bantock House Museum and Park, Wolverhampton Historic house * Bescot Stadium (Walsall F.C.) * Bilston Craft Gallery, Wolverhampton Museum (free) * Birmingham Botanical Gardens Accessible open space * Birmingham Bullring * Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery Museum (free) * Birmingham Hippodrome * Black Country Living Museum, Dudley Museum * Blakesley Hall, Birmingham Historic house * Cadbury World, Bournville, Birmingham * Castle Bromwich Hall, Solihull Historic house * Coventry Cathedral * Coventry SkyDome Arena * Coventry Transport Museum Museum (free) * Dudley Castle * Dudley Zoo * Edgbaston Cricket Ground, Birmingham * International Convention Centre (including Symphony Hall), Birmingham * Merry Hill Shopping Centre, Dudley * Molineux Stadium (Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.) * Moseley Old Hall, Wolverhampton Historic house National Trust * National Exhibition Centre * National Indoor Arena (NIA), Birmingham * Sea Life Centre, Birmingham * Netherton Tunnel, Dudley * The New Art Gallery Walsall, Walsall Museum (free) * Perrott's Folly, Birmingham * Red House Glass Cone, Stourbridge Museum (free) * Ricoh Arena (Coventry City Football Club) * Sandwell Valley Country Park, West Bromwich Country Park * Sarehole Mill, Birmingham Museum * St Andrew's (Birmingham City Football Club) * St Peter's Collegiate Church, Wolverhampton * Star City * The Hawthorns (West Bromwich Albion Football Club) * Thinktank Millennium Point, Birmingham Museum * Tyseley Locomotive Works, Birmingham Heritage railway * University of Birmingham * Villa Park (Aston Villa Football Club) * Walsall Art Gallery Museum (free) * West Park, Wolverhampton Accessible open space * Wightwick Manor, Wolverhampton Historic house National Trust * Winterbourne Botanic Garden, Birmingham Accessible open space * Wolverhampton Art Gallery, Wolverhampton Museum (free) * Wolverhampton Civic Hall, Wolverhampton * Wolverhampton Grand Theatre, Wolverhampton * Wolverhampton Racecourse, Wolverhampton Education --------- The West Midlands contains ten universities, seven of which are located in Birmingham: * Aston University * University of Birmingham * Birmingham City University * University College Birmingham * BPP University * University of Law * Newman University Both of Coventry University and the University of Warwick are located in Coventry whilst University of Wolverhampton is located in Wolverhampton with campuses in Telford and Walsall. Each of the local authorities has at least one further education college for students aged over 16, and since September 1992 all of the local authorities have operated traditional 5–7 infant, 7–11 junior, and 11-16/18 secondary schools for students in compulsory education. This followed the demise of 5–8 first, 8–12 middle and 12-16/18 secondary schools in the Sutton Coldfield area. For 18 years before September 1990, Dudley had operated 5–8 first, 8–12 middle, and 12-16/18 secondary schools before then, while Halesowen (September 1972 until July 1982) and Aldridge-Brownhills (September 1972 until July 1986) had both operated 5–9 first, 9–13 middle and 13-16/18 secondary schools. Many local authorities still have sixth form facilities in secondary schools, though sixth form facilities had been axed by most secondary schools in Dudley since the early 1990s (and in Halesowen in 1982) as the local authorities changed direction towards further education colleges. All secondary state education in Dudley and Sandwell is mixed comprehensive, although there are a small number of single sex and grammar schools existing in parts of Birmingham, Solihull, Wolverhampton and Walsall. In August 2009, Matthew Boulton College and Sutton Coldfield College merged to become Birmingham Metropolitan College, one of the largest further and higher education institutions in the country. Plans are afoot for the construction of a new campus in the Perry Barr area of Birmingham. Sport ----- The West Midlands is home to numerous sports teams. In rugby union, the West Midlands is home to various clubs including Wasps RFC, Birmingham Barbarians, Sutton Coldfield RFC, Moseley Rugby Football Club, Birmingham & Solihull RFC, and Coventry RFC. In rugby league, the Midlands Hurricanes are the only team from the county playing in the professional ranks, currently in the third tier League 1. In association football, there are six Premier League and Football League teams in the county of which two, Aston Villa, and Wolverhampton Wanderers, play in the Premier League. The following clubs are often referred to as the West Midlands "Big Six": | Club | League | City/town | Stadium | Capacity | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aston Villa | Premier League | Birmingham | Villa Park | 42,788 | | Wolverhampton Wanderers | Premier League | Wolverhampton | Molineux | 31,700 | | Birmingham City | Championship | Birmingham | St Andrew's | 30,079 | | West Bromwich Albion | Championship | West Bromwich | The Hawthorns | 26,500 | | Coventry City | Championship | Coventry | Coventry Building Society Arena | 32,609 | | Walsall | League Two | Walsall | Bescot Stadium | 11,300 | | The West Midlands is also home to Warwickshire County Cricket Club, who are based at Edgbaston Cricket Ground, which also hosts Test matches and One Day Internationals. The Birmingham Panthers basketball team replaced the Birmingham Bullets and are currently based at a facility provided by the University of Wolverhampton in Walsall. The West Midlands has its own Quidditch team, West Midlands Revolution (after its part in the Industrial Revolution), which won the Quidditch Premier League in 2017. See also -------- * List of ceremonial counties in England by gross value added * List of conservation areas in the West Midlands * Evolution of Worcestershire county boundaries West Midlands (county) at Curlie 52°30′N 1°50′W / 52.500°N 1.833°W / 52.500; -1.833

West Midlands (county)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_(county)

**Brașov** (UK: /bræˈʃɒv/, US: /brɑːˈʃɔːv, -ɔːf/, Romanian: [braˈʃov] (); German: *Kronstadt*; Hungarian: *Brassó*; Latin: *Corona*; Transylvanian Saxon: *Kruhnen*) is a city in Transylvania, Romania and the county seat (i.e. administrative centre) of Brașov County. According to the 2021 census, with 237,589 inhabitants, Brașov is the 6th most populous city in Romania. The metropolitan area was home to 371,802 residents. Brașov is located in the central part of the country, about 166 km (103 mi) north of Bucharest and 380 km (236 mi) from the Black Sea. It is surrounded by the Southern Carpathians and is part of the historical region of Transylvania. Historically, the city was the center of the Burzenland (Romanian: *Țara Bârsei*), once dominated by the Transylvanian Saxons (German: *Siebenbürger Sachsen*), and a significant commercial hub on the trade roads between Austria (then Archduchy of Austria, within the Habsburg monarchy, and subsequently Austrian Empire) and Turkey (then Ottoman Empire). It is also where the national anthem of Romania was first sung. Names ----- ### Brassovia, Brassó, Brașov, etc. According to Dragoș Moldovanu, the name of Brașov came from the name of local river named Bârsa (also pronounced as "Bărsa") that was adopted by Slavs and transformed to Barsa, and later to Barsov, finally to Brasov. According to Pál Binder, the current Romanian and the Hungarian name *Brassó* ([ˈbrɒʃʃoː]) are derived from the Turkic word *barasu*, meaning "white water" with a Slavic suffix *-ov*. Other linguists proposed various etymologies including an Old Slavic anthroponym Brasa. The first attested mention of this name is *Terra Saxonum de Barasu* ("Saxon Land of Baras") in a 1252 document issued by Béla IV of Hungary. According to some historians, *Corona* was name of the city-fortress while *Brassó* was referring to the county, while others consider both names may refer to the city and the county as well. ### Corona, Kronstadt According to Balázs Orbán, the name *Corona* – a Latin word meaning "crown" – is first mentioned in the Catalogus Ninivensis in 1235 AD, stating a monastic quarter existed in the territory of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania (*In Hungaria assignata est paternitas Dyocesis Cumanie: Corona*). Pál Binder supposed it is a reference to the St. Catherine's Monastery. Others suggest the name derives from the old coat of arms of the city, as it is symbolized by the German name *Kronstadt* meaning "Crown City". The two names of the city, *Kronstadt* and *Corona*, were used simultaneously in the Middle Ages, along with the Medieval Latin *Brassovia*. ### Stephanopolis, Orașul Stalin Another historical name used for Brașov is *Stephanopolis*, 'from "Stephanos", crown, and "polis", city. From 1950 to 1960, during part of the Communist period in Romania, the city was called *Orașul Stalin* (Stalin City), *lit.* "Stalin City", after the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and was the capital of Stalin Region. The name change occurred on 22 August 1950, when Constantin Ion Parhon, the nominal Head of State at the time, issued a decree whereby Brașov was renamed "in honor of the great genius of working humanity, the leader of the Soviet people, the liberator and beloved friend of our people, Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin". History ------- Historical affiliations > > Kingdom of Hungary 1235–1526 > Eastern Hungarian Kingdom 1526–1570 > Principality of Transylvania 1570–1711 > Grand Principality of Transylvania 1711–1804 >  Austrian Empire 1804–1867 >  Austria-Hungary 1867–1918 (*de jure* Hungary until 1920) >  Kingdom of Romania 1920–1947 (*de facto* from 1918) >  Romanian People's Republic 1947–1965 >  Socialist Republic of Romania 1965–1989 >  Romania 1989–present > > > The oldest traces of human activity and settlements in Brașov date back to the Neolithic age (about 9500 BCE). Archaeologists working from the last half of the 19th century discovered continuous traces of human settlements in areas situated in Brașov: Valea Cetății, Pietrele lui Solomon, Șprenghi, Tâmpa, Dealul Melcilor, and Noua. The first three locations show traces of Dacian citadels; Șprenghi Hill housed a Roman-style construction. The last two locations had their names applied to Bronze Age cultures — *Schneckenberg* ("Hill of the Snails"; Early Bronze Age) and *Noua* ("The New"; Late Bronze Age). Transylvanian Saxons played a decisive role in Brașov's development and were invited by Hungarian kings to develop towns, build mines, and cultivate the land of Transylvania at different stages between 1141 and 1300. The settlers came primarily from the Rhineland, Flanders, and the Moselle region, with others from Thuringia, Bavaria, Wallonia, and even France. In 1211, by order of King Andrew II of Hungary, the Teutonic Knights fortified the Burzenland to defend the border of the Kingdom of Hungary. On the site of the village of Brașov, the Teutonic Knights built Kronstadt – 'the City of the Crown'. Although the crusaders were evicted by 1225, the colonists they brought in long ago remained, along with local population in three distinct settlements they founded on the site of Brașov: * *Corona*, around the Black Church (Biserica Neagră); * *Martinsberg*, west of Cetățuia Hill; * *Bartholomä*, on the eastern side of Sprenghi Hill. Germans living in Brașov were mainly involved in trade and crafts. The location of the city at the intersection of trade routes linking the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe, together with certain tax exemptions, allowed Saxon merchants to obtain considerable wealth and exert a strong political influence. They contributed a great deal to the architectural flavor of the city. Fortifications around the city were erected and continually expanded, with several towers maintained by different craftsmen's guilds, according to the medieval custom. Part of the fortification ensemble was recently restored using UNESCO funds, and other projects are ongoing. At least two entrances to the city, *Poarta Ecaterinei* (or *Katharinentor*) and *Poarta Șchei* (or *Waisenhausgässertor*), are still in existence. The city center is marked by the mayor's former office building (Casa Sfatului) and the surrounding square (*piața*), which includes one of the oldest buildings in Brașov, the Hirscher Haus. Nearby is the "Black Church" (*Biserica Neagră*), which some claim to be the largest Gothic style church in Southeastern Europe. In 1689, a great fire destroyed the walled city almost entirely, and its rebuilding lasted several decades. Besides the German (Saxon) population living in the walled city and in the northern suburbs, Brașov had also a significant Romanian and Bulgarian population (living in the Șchei district), and also some Hungarian population (living in the Blumăna district). The cultural and religious importance of the Romanian church and school in Șchei is underlined by the generous donations received from more than thirty hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as that from Elizabeth of Russia. In the 17th and 19th centuries, the Romanians in Șchei campaigned for national, political, and cultural rights, and were supported in their efforts by Romanians from all other provinces, as well as by the local Greek merchant community. In 1838, they established the first Romanian language newspaper *Gazeta Transilvaniei* and the first Romanian institutions of higher education: *Școlile Centrale Greco-Ortodoxe* ("The Greek-Orthodox Central Schools", today named after Andrei Șaguna). The Holy Roman Emperor and sovereign of Transylvania Joseph II awarded Romanians citizenship rights for a brief period during the latter decades of the 18th century. In 1850, the town had 21,782 inhabitants: 8,874 (40.7%) Germans, 8,727 (40%) Romanians, 2,939 (13.4%) Hungarians. In 1910 there were 41,056 inhabitants: 17,831 (43.4%) Hungarians, 11,786 (28.7%) Romanians, 10,841 (26.4%) Germans. On 29 August 1916, during the First World War, the Romanian Army occupied Brașov. Romanian troops entered the city at around five o'clock p.m. and paraded towards the city square. Romanian rule over the city lasted until early October, when the area was retaken by the Central Powers in the Battle of Brassó (7-9 October 1916). The Romanian mayor installed during the brief Romanian occupation was Gheorghe Baiulescu [ro]. His term lasted from 29 August, when the city was occupied by the Romanian Army, until 8 October – the height of the Battle of Brașov. On 9 October, at the end of the battle, the previous mayor (Karl Ernst Schnell [ro]) was reinstated. Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary, the 1 December 1918 Proclamation of the Union of Alba Iulia, adopted by deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș during the Great National Assembly of Alba Iulia declared the union of Transylvania into the Romanian state. Brașov was permanently occupied by Romanian forces on 7 December, as Hungarians gradually withdrew northwards. The King and some Transylvanians suggested that - because of Brașov's central geographical location in the new Romania - it should be considered as the new national capital. Though this did not happen - the inter-war period was a time of flourishing economy and cultural life in general, including the Saxons in Brașov. However, at the end of World War II many ethnic Germans were forcibly deported to the Soviet Union. A majority of them emigrated to West Germany after Romania had become a communist country. The first Jewish community in Brașov was established in 1828, joining the Neolog association in 1868. Orthodox Jews founded their religious organization in 1877. The Neolog synagogue, seating 800, was built between 1899 and 1905. During the interwar period, the communities had separate institutions, but opened a jointly managed school in 1940. Zionist organizations appeared already in 1920. By 1930, Jews numbered 2594 individuals, or 4% of the total population. In autumn 1940, during the National Legionary State, the antisemitic Iron Guard nationalized all Jewish institutions and seized most shops owned by Jews. In 1941, Jews were drafted for service in forced labor battalions. Those from throughout southern Transylvania were concentrated in Brașov; a further 200 refugees came from Ploiești. In August 1942, 850 Jews between the ages of 18 and 50 were drafted into labor battalions and ordered to work in Brașov, while others were sent to Predeal and Bran. In spring 1943, 250 youths were sent to Suraia camp to build fortifications. By August 1944, the labor battalions were reduced to 250-300 while most of the Jews managed to obtain their freedom. In 1945–1946, the Jewish population increased to 3500. Like many other cities in Transylvania, Brașov is also home to a significant ethnic Hungarian minority. During the communist period, industrial development was vastly accelerated. Under Nicolae Ceaușescu's rule, the city was the site of the 1987 Brașov strike. This was brutally repressed by the authorities and resulted in numerous workers being imprisoned. Economy ------- Industrial development in Brașov started in the inter-war period, with one of the largest factories being the airplane manufacturing plant (IAR Brașov), which produced the first Romanian fighter planes used during World War II. After signing the armistice with USSR on September 12, 1944, the factory started repairing trucks, and in October 1945 it began manufacturing agricultural tractors. IAR 22 was the first Romanian-made wheeled tractor. In 1948 the company was renamed "Uzina Tractorul Brașov" known internationally as Universal Tractor Brașov. A big part of the factory was demolished during 2013 and 2014 giving way to buildings, shopping mall and recreation parks. Aircraft manufacturing resumed in 1968 at first under the name ICA and then under its old name of IAR at a new location in nearby Ghimbav. Industrialization was accelerated in the Communist era, with special emphasis being placed on heavy industry, attracting many workers from other parts of the country. Heavy industry is still abundant, including Roman, which manufactures MAN AG trucks as well as native-designed trucks and coaches. Although the industrial base has been in decline in recent years, Brașov is still a site for manufacturing hydraulic transmissions, auto parts, ball-bearings, construction materials, hand tools, furniture, textiles and shoe-wear. There is also a large brewery. Geography --------- ### Climate Brașov has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: *Dfb*). | Climate data for Brașov | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | −0.3(31.5) | 1.7(35.1) | 7.6(45.7) | 14.0(57.2) | 19.2(66.6) | 22.1(71.8) | 24.0(75.2) | 23.9(75.0) | 20.3(68.5) | 14.5(58.1) | 7.2(45.0) | 1.5(34.7) | 13.0(55.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −4.3(24.3) | −2.3(27.9) | 2.6(36.7) | 8.3(46.9) | 13.4(56.1) | 16.4(61.5) | 18.1(64.6) | 17.8(64.0) | 14.2(57.6) | 8.7(47.7) | 3.1(37.6) | −1.9(28.6) | 7.8(46.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | −8.3(17.1) | −6.2(20.8) | −2.3(27.9) | 2.6(36.7) | 7.6(45.7) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.3(54.1) | 11.8(53.2) | 8.1(46.6) | 3.0(37.4) | −1.0(30.2) | −5.2(22.6) | 2.8(37.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 31(1.2) | 28(1.1) | 30(1.2) | 50(2.0) | 79(3.1) | 97(3.8) | 94(3.7) | 73(2.9) | 49(1.9) | 38(1.5) | 36(1.4) | 32(1.3) | 637(25.1) | | Source: | Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1890 | 30,781 | —     | | 1900 | 34,511 | +12.1% | | 1910 | 41,056 | +19.0% | | 1930 | 59,232 | +44.3% | | 1941 | 84,557 | +42.8% | | 1948 | 82,984 | −1.9% | | 1956 | 123,834 | +49.2% | | 1966 | 163,345 | +31.9% | | 1975 (est.) | 206,156 | +26.2% | | 1983 (est.) | 331,240 | +60.7% | | 1992 | 323,736 | −2.3% | | 2002 | 284,596 | −12.1% | | 2011 | 253,200 | −11.0% | | 2021 | 237,589 | −6.2% | | Sources: 1930-1948 censuses, 1956 census, 1966 census, 2011 census. 1975 and 1983 data are estimates. | Brașov has a total population of 237,589 (2021 census). Its ethnic composition includes (as of 2011): * Romanians: 208,019 (91.3%) * Hungarians: 16,172 (7.1%) * Germans (Transylvanian Saxons): 1,079 (0.5%) * Romani people: 916 (0.4%) * Other ethnicities: 1,037 (0.7%) In 2005, the Brașov metropolitan area was created. With its surrounding localities, Brașov had 371,802 inhabitants as of 2021[update]. Administration -------------- Brașov is administered by a Mayor and a Local Council. The current Mayor of Brașov (starting October 28, 2020) is Allen Coliban from Save Romania Union (USR). The Brașov Local Council, elected at the 2020 Romanian local elections, is made up of 27 counselors, with the following party composition: |     | Party | Seats | Current Local Council | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |   | Save Romania Union (USR) | **12** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | National Liberal Party (PNL) | **11** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | |   | Social Democratic Party (PSD) | **4** |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | Education --------- ### Primary schools * 30 Primary Schools ### High schools * Colegiul Național "Andrei Șaguna" * Colegiul Național "Dr. Ioan Meșotă" * Colegiul Național de Informatică "Grigore Moisil" * Colegiul Național "Unirea" * Colegiul Național "Johannes Honterus" [ro] * Colegiul Național "Áprily Lajos" * Liceul "Andrei Mureșanu" * Colegiul de Științe ale Naturii "Emil Racoviță" * Liceul "Nicolae Titulescu" * Liceul de Artă * Liceul cu Program Sportiv * Colegiul de Științe "Grigore Antipa" * Liceul Teoretic "Constantin Brâncoveanu" * Seminarul Teologic Liceal Ortodox "Dumitru Stăniloaie" * Colegiul Tehnic "Astra" * Colegiul Tehnic "Mircea Cristea" * Colegiul Tehnic "Iosif Silimon" * Colegiul Tehnic "Sfinții Voievozi" * Grupul Școlar de Arte și Meserii * Colegiul Tehnic "Remus Răduleț" * Colegiul Tehnic Feroviar * Grupul Școlar Industrial Auto * Colegiul Tehnic "Maria Baiulescu" * Grupul Școlar Industrial de Construcții Montaj * Colegiul National Economic "Andrei Bârseanu" * Grupul Școlar Silvic "Dr. Nicolae Rucăreanu" * Grupul Școlar de Turism și Alimentație Publică * Liceul "FEG" * Liceul "Europa Unită" ### Universities * Transilvania University of Brașov * George Barițiu University * Spiru Haret University * Christian University Dimitrie Cantemir * Academia Forțelor Aeriene Henri Coandă [ro] * Fundația Universitară Sfinții Apostoli Petru și Pavel * Sextil Pușcariu University * Universitatea Româno-Canadiană * American Hotel Academy Transportation -------------- The Brașov local transport network has 44 urban bus and trolleybus lines and 19 metropolitan bus lines. There are also regular bus lines serving Poiana Brașov, a nearby winter resort and part of the city of Brașov, and the Brașov-Ghimbav International Airport. All are operated by RAT Brașov. Because of its central location, the Brașov railway station is one of the busiest stations in Romania with trains to/from most destinations in the country served by rail. The Brașov-Ghimbav International Airport is an international airport located in nearby Ghimbav, right by the future A3 motorway. It is the first airport to be developed in post-communist Romania, and the 17th commercial airport in the country. The contract for the construction of the main terminal building, with a total area of 11,780 m2 (126,799 sq ft), was awarded to the Romanian contractor Bog'Art Bucharest and was signed on 21 August 2019. Construction works for the passenger terminal started on 17 March 2020 and the first commercial flight took place on June 15, 2023. CFR announced a feasibility study for the construction of a rail line (8 km) which would connect the airport to the Brașov railway station. Tourism ------- With its central location, Brașov is a suitable location from which to explore Romania, and the distances to several tourist destinations (including the Black Sea resorts, the monasteries in northern Moldavia, and the wooden churches of Maramureș) are similar. It is also the largest city in a mountain resorts area. The old city is very well preserved and is best seen by taking the cable-car to the top of Tâmpa Mountain. Temperatures from May to September fluctuate around 23 °C (73 °F). Brașov benefits from a winter tourism season centered on winter sports and other activities. Poiana Brașov is the most popular Romanian ski resort and an important tourist center preferred by many tourists from other European states. The city also has several restaurants that serve local as well as international cuisine (e.g. Hungarian and Chinese). Some of these are situated in the city center. ### Sights * *Biserica Neagră* ("The Black Church"; German: *Die Schwarze Kirche*), a celebrated Gothic site – the building dates from 1477, when it replaced an older church (demolished around 1385). It acquired the name after being blackened by smoke from the 1689 great fire. * Franciscan Church, Brașov * *Casa Sfatului* ("The mayor's former office building"). The administration for Brașov was here for more than 500 years. * *Biserica Sf. Nicolae* (St. Nicholas Church), dating back to the 14th century. * *The First Romanian School*, a museum with the first Romanian printing press among many other firsts. * *The Rope Street*, the narrowest street in Romania. * *Black Tower*, Old City Watch Tower. * *White Tower*, Old City Watch Tower. * *Șchei*, the historically Bulgarian but then Romanian neighborhood outside of the old walled city. * *Catherine's Gate* (German: *Katherines Tor*), the only original city gate to have survived from medieval times. * *Șchei Gate*, next to Catherine's Gate, built in 1827. * *Tâmpa*, a small mountain in the middle of the city (900m above sea level), a sightseeing spot near the old city center. * The "Brașov Citadel Fortress" – *Cetățuia Brașovului* * The nearby *Bran Castle*, attracting many fans of Dracula and often (but incorrectly) said to have been the home of Vlad the Impaler. * *Poiana Brașov*, mainly a ski resort but also a sightseeing spot. * *Râșnov Fortress*, above the nearby town of Râșnov, is a restored peasant fortress * *Prejmer Fortress* (German: *Tartlau Festung*), in the nearby commune of Prejmer (German: *Tsrtlau*) * *Saint George's Church, Brașov* * Bran Castle (German: Die Törzburg), situated in the immediate vicinity of BrașovBran Castle (German: *Die Törzburg*), situated in the immediate vicinity of Brașov * White Tower with Mount Tâmpa in the backgroundWhite Tower with Mount Tâmpa in the background * Council SquareCouncil Square * Black Church (German: Die Schwarze Kirche)Black Church (German: *Die Schwarze Kirche*) * City center seen from Mount TâmpaCity center seen from Mount Tâmpa * Catherine's Gate (German: Katherines Tor)Catherine's Gate (German: *Katherines Tor*) * St. Nicholas ChurchSt. Nicholas Church * Old Town streetOld Town street * Union Square (Piața Unirii)Union Square (Piața Unirii) * Brașov County PrefectureBrașov County Prefecture * City HallCity Hall Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Brașov is twinned with: * Bosnia and Herzegovina Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina * United States Cleveland, United States * Hungary Győr, Hungary * Denmark Holstebro, Denmark * Austria Linz, Austria * Japan Musashino, Japan * Israel Rishon LeZion, Israel * Finland Tampere, Finland * France Tours, France * Greece Trikala, Greece Sport ----- The city has a long tradition in sports, the first sport associations being established at the end of the 19th century (Target shooting Association, Gymnastics School). The Transylvanian Sports Museum is among the oldest in the country and presents the evolution of consecrated sports in the city. During the communist period, universiades and Daciads were held, where local sportsmen were obliged to participate. Nowadays, the infrastructure of the city allows other sports to be practiced, such as football, rugby, tennis, cycling, handball, gliding, skiing, skating, mountain climbing, paintball, bowling, swimming, target shooting, basketball, martial arts, equestrian, volleyball or gymnastics. Annually, at "Olimpia" sports ground, the "Brașov Challenge Cup" tennis competition is held. Colțea Brașov was the football champion in 1928, managing a second place in 1927, in its only 10 years of existence (1921–1931). It was succeeded by Brașovia Brașov. Between 17 and 22 February 2013, the city hosted the 2013 European Youth Winter Olympic Festival. As of 2012[update], Brașov is hosting two trail semi-marathons: the Semimaraton Intersport Brașov (held in April) and the Brașov International Marathon (held in April or May). In November 2013, Brașov submitted their bid for the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics. They were up against Lausanne, Switzerland to be awarded the event. In December that year, the city was signed the Youth Olympic Game Candidature Procedure. The host city was to be announced in July 2015, in which Lausanne was selected. ### Local teams * SR Brașov – football club * ASC Corona Brașov – football club, women's handball and ice hockey club * CSU Brașov – basketball team * CFR Brașov – rugby football club ### Sports venues **•** **Under construction** **•** Sala Polivalentă (10,059 capacity) - under construction multi-purpose 10,059-seat indoor arena * **Planned** + Brașov Arena (23,000 seats) – planned football stadium on the site of the former Municipal Stadium * **Existing** + Silviu Ploeșteanu Stadium (8,500 seats) – built in 1960 for football, floodlights were installed in 2009 + Dumitru Popescu Colibași Sports Hall (2,300 seats) – built around 1970 for indoor sports: handball, basketball, volleyball, sometimes others + Brașov Olympic Ice Rink (2,000 capacity: 1,600 seated, 400 standing) – inaugurated on February 18, 2010, used mainly for ice hockey and public skating * **Demolished** + Municipal Stadium (30,000 capacity) – built in 1975, used for 1 May and 23 August parades, rarely used for football matches (demolished in 2008) * **Others** + Paradisul Acvatic - aquatic complex with 40m long swimming pool and three jumping platform (1 m, 3 m, 5.20 m) ### Notable events * Tess Rally Brașov – The local round in the Romanian Rally Championship * BRD Brașov Challenger – A tennis tournament, part of the ATP Challenger Tour * Braşov International Marathon – Marathon – 42 km Course, Half-Marathon – 21 km Course 10,7 km & Team Run + 5,7 km Course Media ----- The city of Brașov is home to several local media publications such as Transilvania Express, Monitorul Express, Bună Ziua Brașov or Brașovul Tău. Also, several local television stations exist, such as RTT, MIX TV and Nova TV. Gallery ------- Panoramic view of Brașov from Tâmpa MountainBrașov in winter See also -------- * List of people from Brașov * List of mayors of Brașov Further reading --------------- * "Kronstadt", *Austria-Hungary, Including Dalmatia and Bosnia*, Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1905, OCLC 344268, OL 20498317M

Brașov

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra%C8%99ov

**Russian** (русский язык, *russkij jazyk*, IPA: [ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]) is an East Slavic language mainly spoken in Russia. It is the native language of the Russians and belongs to the Indo-European language family. It is one of four living East Slavic languages, and is also a part of the larger Balto-Slavic languages. It was the *de facto* and *de jure* official language of the former Soviet Union. Russian has remained an official language in independent Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, and is still commonly used as a lingua franca in Ukraine, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and to a lesser extent in the Baltic states and Israel. Russian has over 258 million total speakers worldwide. It is the most spoken Slavic language, and the most spoken native language in Europe, as well as the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia. It is the world's seventh-most spoken language by number of native speakers, and the world's eighth-most spoken language by total number of speakers. Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station, as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is written using the Russian alphabet of the Cyrillic script; it distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without—the so-called "soft" and "hard" sounds. Almost every consonant has a hard or soft counterpart, and the distinction is a prominent feature of the language. Another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Stress, which is often unpredictable, is not normally indicated orthographically, though an optional acute accent may be used to mark stress – such as to distinguish between homographic words (e.g. замо́к (*zamók*, 'lock') and за́мок (*zámok*, 'castle')), or to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words or names. Classification -------------- Russian is an East Slavic language of the wider Indo-European family. It is a descendant of Old East Slavic, a language used in Kievan Rus', which was a loose conglomerate of East Slavic tribes from the late 9th to the mid-13th centuries. From the point of view of spoken language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn, the other three languages in the East Slavic branch. In many places in eastern and southern Ukraine and throughout Belarus, these languages are spoken interchangeably, and in certain areas traditional bilingualism resulted in language mixtures such as Surzhyk in eastern Ukraine and Trasianka in Belarus. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although it vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is sometimes considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. Also, Russian has notable lexical similarities with Bulgarian due to a common Church Slavonic influence on both languages, but because of later interaction in the 19th and 20th centuries, Bulgarian grammar differs markedly from Russian. In the 19th century (in Russia until 1917), the language was often called "Great Russian" to distinguish it from Belarusian, which was then called "White Russian", and Ukrainian, then called "Little Russian" in the Russian Empire. The vocabulary (mainly abstract and literary words), principles of word formations, and, to some extent, inflections and literary style of Russian have been also influenced by Church Slavonic, a developed and partly Russified form of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic language used by the Russian Orthodox Church. However, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with many different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language. Over the course of centuries, the vocabulary and literary style of Russian have also been influenced by Western and Central European languages such as Greek, Latin, Polish, Dutch, German, French, Italian, and English, and to a lesser extent the languages to the south and the east: Uralic, Turkic, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew. According to the Defense Language Institute in Monterey, California, Russian is classified as a level III language in terms of learning difficulty for native English speakers, requiring approximately 1,100 hours of immersion instruction to achieve intermediate fluency. It is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a "hard target" language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in U.S. world policy. Standard Russian ---------------- Feudal divisions and conflicts between rival polities created obstacles to the exchange of goods and ideas between the early medieval Rus' principalities before and especially during Mongol rule. This strengthened dialectal differences and for centuries prevented the establishment of any standardized "national" language. The gradual but steady emergence of the Grand Principality of Moscow (1263–1547) – later the Tsardom of Russia from 1547 – as the dominant and ever-expanding polity of the Rus', necessitated the earliest attempts at standardization of the East Slavic language based on the Moscow dialect. Since then the trend of language policy in Russia has been standardization in both the restricted sense of reducing dialectical barriers between ethnic Russians, and the broader sense of expanding the use of Russian alongside or in favour of other languages that exist within the borders of the Russian Empire, and the later Soviet Union and recently, Russian Federation. The current standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the *modern Russian literary language* (современный русский литературный язык – "sovremenny russky literaturny yazyk"). It arose at the beginning of the 18th century with the modernization reforms of the Russian state under the rule of Peter the Great and developed from the Moscow (Middle or Central Russian) dialect substratum under the influence of some of the previous century's Russian chancery language. This occurred in spite of the fact that Saint Petersburg, the Western-oriented capital created by the "Westernizing" Tsar Peter the Great, was the capital of the Russian Empire for over 200 years. Mikhail Lomonosov compiled the first book of Russian grammar aimed at standardization in 1755. The Russian Academy's first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared in 1783. In the 18th and late 19th centuries, a period known as the "Golden Age" of Russian Literature, the grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation of the Russian language in a standardized literary form emerged. Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution, the spoken form of the Russian language was that of the nobility and the urban bourgeoisie. Russian peasants, the great majority of the population, continued to speak in their own dialects. However, the peasants' speech was never systematically studied, as it was generally regarded by philologists as simply a source of folklore and an object of curiosity. This was acknowledged by the noted Russian dialectologist Nikolai Karinsky (1873–1935), who toward the end of his life wrote: “Scholars of Russian dialects mostly studied phonetics and morphology. Some scholars and collectors compiled local dictionaries. We have almost no studies of lexical material or the syntax of Russian dialects.” After 1917, Marxist linguists had no interest in the multiplicity of peasant dialects and regarded their language as a relic of the rapidly disappearing past that was not worthy of scholarly attention. Nakhimovsky quotes the Soviet academicians A.M Ivanov and L.P Yakubinsky, writing in 1930: > The language of peasants has a motley diversity inherited from feudalism. On its way to becoming proletariat peasantry brings to the factory and the industrial plant their local peasant dialects with their phonetics, grammar, and vocabulary, and the very process of recruiting workers from peasants and the mobility of the worker population generate another process: the liquidation of peasant inheritance by way of leveling the particulars of local dialects. On the ruins of peasant multilingual, in the context of developing heavy industry, a qualitatively new entity can be said to emerge—the general language of the working class... capitalism has the tendency of creating the general urban language of a given society. > > By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the compulsory education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features (such as fricative [ɣ] in Southern Russian dialects) are still observed in colloquial speech. Geographic distribution ----------------------- In 2010, there were 259.8 million speakers of Russian in the world: in Russia – 137.5 million, in the CIS and Baltic countries – 93.7 million, in Eastern Europe – 12.9 million, Western Europe – 7.3 million, Asia – 2.7 million, in the Middle East and North Africa – 1.3 million, Sub-Saharan Africa – 0.1 million, Latin America – 0.2 million, U.S., Canada, Australia, and New Zealand – 4.1 million speakers. Therefore, the Russian language is the seventh-largest in the world by the number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi-Urdu, Spanish, French, Arabic, and Portuguese. Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a popular choice for both Russian as a second language (RSL) and native speakers in Russia, and in many former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics. ### Europe In Belarus, Russian is a second state language alongside Belarusian per the Constitution of Belarus. 77% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 67% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. In Estonia, Russian is spoken by 29.6% of the population according to a 2011 estimate from the World Factbook, and is officially considered a foreign language. School education in the Russian language is a very contentious point in Estonian politics and as of 2022 the parliament has approved to close up all Russian language schools and kindergartens by the school year. The transition to only Estonian language schools/kindergartens will start in the school year. In Latvia, Russian is officially considered a foreign language. 55% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 26% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On February 18, 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language. According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%. Starting in 2019, instruction in Russian will be gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, and in general instruction in Latvian public high schools.[*needs update*] In Lithuania, Russian has no official or legal status, but the use of the language has some presence in certain areas. A large part of the population, especially the older generations, can speak Russian as a foreign language. However, English has replaced Russian as *lingua franca* in Lithuania and around 80% of young people speak English as their first foreign language. In contrast to the other two Baltic states, Lithuania has a relatively small Russian-speaking minority (5.0% as of 2008). In Moldova, Russian is considered to be the language of inter-ethnic communication under a Soviet-era law. 50% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 19% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. According to the 2010 census in Russia, Russian language skills were indicated by 138 million people (99.4% of the respondents), while according to the 2002 census – 142.6 million people (99.2% of the respondents). In Ukraine, Russian is a significant minority language. According to estimates from Demoskop Weekly, in 2004 there were 14,400,000 native speakers of Russian in the country, and 29 million active speakers. 65% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 38% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. On September 5, 2017, Ukraine's Parliament passed a new education law which requires all schools to teach at least partially in Ukrainian, with provisions while allow indigenous languages and languages of national minorities to be used alongside the national language. The law faced criticism from officials in Russia and Hungary. In the 20th century, Russian was a mandatory language taught in the schools of the members of the old Warsaw Pact and in other countries that used to be satellites of the USSR. According to the Eurobarometer 2005 survey, fluency in Russian remains fairly high (20–40%) in some countries, in particular those where the people speak a Slavic language and thereby have an edge in learning Russian [*further explanation needed*] (namely, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Bulgaria). Significant Russian-speaking groups also exist in Western Europe. These have been fed by several waves of immigrants since the beginning of the 20th century, each with its own flavor of language. The United Kingdom, Germany, Finland, Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Norway, and Austria have significant Russian-speaking communities. ### Asia In Armenia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. 30% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 2% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. In Azerbaijan, Russian has no official status, but is a *lingua franca* of the country. 26% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 5% used it as the main language with family, friends, or at work. In China, Russian has no official status, but it is spoken by the small Russian communities in the northeastern Heilongjiang and the northwestern Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. In Georgia, Russian has no official status, but it is recognized as a minority language under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. Russian is the language of 9% of the population according to the World Factbook. Ethnologue cites Russian as the country's de facto working language. In Kazakhstan, Russian is not a state language, but according to article 7 of the Constitution of Kazakhstan its usage enjoys equal status to that of the Kazakh language in state and local administration. The 2009 census reported that 10,309,500 people, or 84.8% of the population aged 15 and above, could read and write well in Russian, and understand the spoken language. In Kyrgyzstan, Russian is a co-official language per article 5 of the Constitution of Kyrgyzstan. The 2009 census states that 482,200 people speak Russian as a native language, or 8.99% of the population. Additionally, 1,854,700 residents of Kyrgyzstan aged 15 and above fluently speak Russian as a second language, or 49.6% of the population in the age group. In Tajikistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication under the Constitution of Tajikistan and is permitted in official documentation. 28% of the population was fluent in Russian in 2006, and 7% used it as the main language with family, friends or at work. The World Factbook notes that Russian is widely used in government and business. In Turkmenistan, Russian lost its status as the official *lingua franca* in 1996. Among 12% of the population who grew up in the Soviet era can speak Russian, other generations of citizens that do not have any knowledge of Russian. Primary and secondary education by Russian is almost non-existent. Nevertheless, the Turkmen state press and newspaper Neytralny Turkmenistan regularly publish material version in Russian-language, and there are schools like Joint Turkmen-Russian Secondary School. In Uzbekistan, Russian is the language of inter-ethnic communication. It has some official roles, being permitted in official documentation and is the *lingua franca* of the country and the language of the elite. Russian is spoken by 14.2% of the population according to an undated estimate from the World Factbook. In 2005, Russian was the most widely taught foreign language in Mongolia, and was compulsory in Year 7 onward as a second foreign language in 2006. Around 1.5 million Israelis spoke Russian as of 2017. The Israeli press and websites regularly publish material in Russian and there are Russian newspapers, television stations, schools, and social media outlets based in the country. There is an Israeli TV channel mainly broadcasting in Russian with Israel Plus. See also Russian language in Israel. Russian is also spoken as a second language by a small number of people in Afghanistan. In Vietnam, Russian has been added in the elementary curriculum along with Chinese and Japanese and were named as "first foreign languages" for Vietnamese students to learn, on equal footing with English. ### North America The Russian language was first introduced in North America when Russian explorers voyaged into Alaska and claimed it for Russia during the 18th century. Although most Russian colonists left after the United States bought the land in 1867, a handful stayed and preserved the Russian language in this region to this day, although only a few elderly speakers of this unique dialect are left. In Nikolaevsk, Alaska, Russian is more spoken than English. Sizable Russian-speaking communities also exist in North America, especially in large urban centers of the US and Canada, such as New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Los Angeles, Nashville, San Francisco, Seattle, Spokane, Toronto, Calgary, Baltimore, Miami, Chicago, Denver, and Cleveland. In a number of locations they issue their own newspapers, and live in ethnic enclaves (especially the generation of immigrants who started arriving in the early 1960s). Only about 25% of them are ethnic Russians, however. Before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the overwhelming majority of Russophones in Brighton Beach, Brooklyn in New York City were Russian-speaking Jews. Afterward, the influx from the countries of the former Soviet Union changed the statistics somewhat, with ethnic Russians and Ukrainians immigrating along with some more Russian Jews and Central Asians. According to the United States Census, in 2007 Russian was the primary language spoken in the homes of over 850,000 individuals living in the United States. In the second half of the 20th century, Russian was the most popular foreign language in Cuba. Besides being taught at universities and schools, there were also educational programs on the radio and TV. An estimated 200,000 people speak the Russian language in Cuba, on the account that more than 23,000 Cubans who took higher studies in the former Soviet Union and later in Russia, and another important group of people who studied at military schools and technologists. As an international language ---------------------------- Russian is one of the official languages (or has similar status and interpretation must be provided into Russian) of the following: * United Nations * International Atomic Energy Agency * World Health Organization * International Civil Aviation Organization * UNESCO * World Intellectual Property Organization * International Telecommunication Union * World Meteorological Organization * Food and Agriculture Organization * International Fund for Agricultural Development * International Criminal Court * International Olympic Committee * Universal Postal Union * World Bank * Commonwealth of Independent States * Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe * Shanghai Cooperation Organisation * Eurasian Economic Community * Collective Security Treaty Organization * Antarctic Treaty Secretariat * International Organization for Standardization * International Mathematical Olympiad The Russian language is also one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station – NASA astronauts who serve alongside Russian cosmonauts usually take Russian language courses. This practice goes back to the Apollo–Soyuz mission, which first flew in 1975. In March 2013, Russian was found to be the second-most used language on websites after English. Russian was the language of 5.9% of all websites, slightly ahead of German and far behind English (54.7%). Russian was used not only on 89.8% of .ru sites, but also on 88.7% of sites with the former Soviet Union domain .su. Websites in former Soviet Union member states also used high levels of Russian: 79.0% in Ukraine, 86.9% in Belarus, 84.0% in Kazakhstan, 79.6% in Uzbekistan, 75.9% in Kyrgyzstan and 81.8% in Tajikistan. However, Russian was the sixth-most used language on the top 1,000 sites, behind English, Chinese, French, German, and Japanese. Dialects -------- Russian is a rather homogeneous language, in dialectal variation, due to the early political centralization under Moscow's rule, compulsory education, mass migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century, and other factors. The standard language is used in written and spoken form almost everywhere in the country, from Kaliningrad and Saint Petersburg in the West to Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky in the East, the enormous distance between notwithstanding. Despite leveling after 1900, especially in matters of vocabulary and phonetics, a number of dialects still exist in Russia. Some linguists divide the dialects of Russian into two primary regional groupings, "Northern" and "Southern", with Moscow lying on the zone of transition between the two. Others divide the language into three groupings, Northern, Central (or Middle), and Southern, with Moscow lying in the Central region. All dialects are also divided into two main chronological categories: the dialects of *primary formation* (the territory of the Grand Duchy of Moscow roughly consists of the modern Central and Northwestern Federal districts) and *secondary formation* (other territories where Russian was brought by migrants from primary formation territories or adopted by the local population). Dialectology within Russia recognizes dozens of smaller-scale variants. The dialects often show distinct and non-standard features of pronunciation and intonation, vocabulary, and grammar. Some of these are relics of ancient usage now completely discarded by the standard language. The Northern Russian dialects and those spoken along the Volga River typically pronounce unstressed /o/ clearly, a phenomenon called okanye (оканье). Besides the absence of vowel reduction, some dialects have high or diphthongal /e⁓i̯ɛ/ in place of Proto-Slavic \**ě* and /o⁓u̯ɔ/ in stressed closed syllables (as in Ukrainian) instead of Standard Russian /e/ and /o/. Another Northern dialectal morphological feature is a post-posed definite article *-to*, *-ta*, *-te* similarly to that existing in Bulgarian and Macedonian. In the Southern Russian dialects, instances of unstressed /e/ and /a/ following palatalized consonants and preceding a stressed syllable are not reduced to [ɪ] (as occurs in the Moscow dialect), being instead pronounced [a] in such positions (e.g. несл**и** is pronounced [nʲaˈslʲi], not [nʲɪsˈlʲi]) – this is called yakanye (яканье). Consonants include a fricative /ɣ/, a semivowel /w⁓u̯/ and /x⁓xv⁓xw/, whereas the Standard and Northern dialects have the consonants /ɡ/, /v/, and final /l/ and /f/, respectively. The morphology features a palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs (this is unpalatalized in the Standard and Northern dialects). Some of these features such as akanye and yakanye, a debuccalized or lenited /ɡ/, a semivowel /w⁓u̯/ and palatalized final /tʲ/ in 3rd person forms of verbs are also present in modern Belarusian and some dialects of Ukrainian (Eastern Polesian), indicating a linguistic continuum. The city of Veliky Novgorod has historically displayed a feature called chokanye or tsokanye (чоканье or цоканье), in which /tɕ/ and /ts/ were switched or merged. So, **ц**апля (tsaplya, 'heron') has been recorded as чапля (chaplya). Also, the second palatalization of velars did not occur there, so the so-called **ě²** (from the Proto-Slavic diphthong \*ai) did not cause /k, ɡ, x/ to shift to /ts, dz, s/; therefore, where Standard Russian has **ц**епь ('chain'), the form **к**епь [kʲepʲ] is attested in earlier texts. Among the first to study Russian dialects was Lomonosov in the 18th century. In the 19th, Vladimir Dal compiled the first dictionary that included dialectal vocabulary. Detailed mapping of Russian dialects began at the turn of the 20th century. In modern times, the monumental *Dialectological Atlas of the Russian Language* (Диалектологический атлас русского языка – *Dialektologichesky atlas russkogo yazyka*), was published in three folio volumes 1986–1989, after four decades of preparatory work. Comparison with other Slavic languages -------------------------------------- During the Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) times all Slavs spoke one mutually intelligible language or group of dialects. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian, and a moderate degree of it in all modern Slavic languages, at least at the conversational level. Derived languages ----------------- * Balachka, a dialect spoken in Krasnodar region, Don, Kuban, and Terek, brought by relocated Cossacks in 1793 and is based on the southwest Ukrainian dialect. During the Russification of the aforementioned regions in the 1920s to 1950s, it was replaced by the Russian language. * Esperanto has some words of Russian and Slavic origin and some features of its grammar could be derived from Russian. * Fenya, a criminal argot of ancient origin, with Russian grammar, but with distinct vocabulary * Lojban, Russian is one of its six source languages, weighed for the number of Russian speakers in 1985. * Medny Aleut language, an extinct mixed language that was spoken on Bering Island and is characterized by its Aleut nouns and Russian verbs * Padonkaffsky jargon, a slang language developed by padonki of Runet * Quelia, a macaronic language with Russian-derived basic structure and part of the lexicon (mainly nouns and verbs) borrowed from German * Runglish, a Russian-English pidgin. This word is also used by English speakers to describe the way in which Russians attempt to speak English using Russian morphology or syntax. * Russenorsk, an extinct pidgin language with mostly Russian vocabulary and mostly Norwegian grammar, used for communication between Russians and Norwegian traders in the Pomor trade in Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula * Surzhyk, a range of mixed (macaronic) sociolects of Ukrainian and Russian languages used in certain regions of Ukraine and adjacent lands. * Trasianka, a heavily russified variety of Belarusian used by a large portion of the rural population in Belarus * Taimyr Pidgin Russian, spoken by the Nganasan on the Taimyr Peninsula Alphabet -------- Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound: | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Аа/a/ | Бб/b/ | Вв/v/ | Гг/ɡ/ | Дд/d/ | Ее/je/ | Ёё/jo/ | Жж/ʐ/ | Зз/z/ | Ии/i/ | Йй/j/ | | Кк/k/ | Лл/l/ | Мм/m/ | Нн/n/ | Оо/o/ | Пп/p/ | Рр/r/ | Сс/s/ | Тт/t/ | Уу/u/ | Фф/f/ | | Хх/x/ | Цц/ts/ | Чч/tɕ/ | Шш/ʂ/ | Щщ/ɕː/ | Ъъ/-/ | Ыы /ɨ/ | Ьь/ʲ/ | Ээ/e/ | Юю/ju/ | Яя/ja/ | Older letters of the Russian alphabet include ⟨ѣ⟩, which merged to ⟨е⟩ (/je/ or /ʲe/); ⟨і⟩ and ⟨ѵ⟩, which both merged to ⟨и⟩ (/i/); ⟨ѳ⟩, which merged to ⟨ф⟩ (/f/); ⟨ѫ⟩, which merged to ⟨у⟩ (/u/); ⟨ѭ⟩, which merged to ⟨ю⟩ (/ju/ or /ʲu/); and ⟨ѧ⟩ and ⟨ѩ⟩, which later were graphically reshaped into ⟨я⟩ and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/. While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. The yers ⟨ъ⟩ and ⟨ь⟩ originally indicated the pronunciation of *ultra-short* or *reduced* /ŭ/, /ĭ/. ### Transliteration Because of many technical restrictions in computing and also because of the unavailability of Cyrillic keyboards abroad, Russian is often transliterated using the Latin alphabet. For example, мороз ('frost') is transliterated *moroz*, and мышь ('mouse'), *mysh* or *myš'*. Once commonly used by the majority of those living outside Russia, transliteration is being used less frequently by Russian-speaking typists in favor of the extension of Unicode character encoding, which fully incorporates the Russian alphabet. Free programs are available offering this Unicode extension, which allow users to type Russian characters, even on Western 'QWERTY' keyboards. ### Computing The Russian alphabet has many systems of character encoding. KOI8-R was designed by the Soviet government and was intended to serve as the standard encoding. This encoding was and still is widely used in UNIX-like operating systems. Nevertheless, the spread of MS-DOS and OS/2 (IBM866), traditional Macintosh (ISO/IEC 8859-5) and Microsoft Windows (CP1251) meant the proliferation of many different encodings as de facto standards, with Windows-1251 becoming a de facto standard in Russian Internet and e-mail communication during the period of roughly 1995–2005. All the obsolete 8-bit encodings are rarely used in the communication protocols and text-exchange data formats, having been mostly replaced with UTF-8. A number of encoding conversion applications were developed. "iconv" is an example that is supported by most versions of Linux, Macintosh and some other operating systems; but converters are rarely needed unless accessing texts created more than a few years ago. In addition to the modern Russian alphabet, Unicode (and thus UTF-8) encodes the Early Cyrillic alphabet (which is very similar to the Greek alphabet), and all other Slavic and non-Slavic but Cyrillic-based alphabets. ### Orthography The current spelling follows the major reform of 1918, and the final codification of 1956. An update proposed in the late 1990s has met a hostile reception, and has not been formally adopted. The punctuation, originally based on Byzantine Greek, was in the 17th and 18th centuries reformulated on the French and German models. According to the Institute of Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, an optional acute accent (знак ударения) may, and sometimes should, be used to mark stress. For example, it is used to distinguish between otherwise identical words, especially when context does not make it obvious: замо́к (*zamók* – "lock") – за́мок (*zámok* – "castle"), сто́ящий (*stóyashchy* – "worthwhile") – стоя́щий (*stoyáshchy* – "standing"), чудно́ (*chudnó* – "this is odd") – чу́дно (*chúdno* – "this is marvellous"), молоде́ц (*molodéts* – "well done!") – мо́лодец (*mólodets* – "fine young man"), узна́ю (*uznáyu* – "I shall learn it") – узнаю́ (*uznayú* – "I recognize it"), отреза́ть (*otrezát* – "to be cutting") – отре́зать (*otrézat* – "to have cut"); to indicate the proper pronunciation of uncommon words, especially personal and family names, like афе́ра (*aféra*, "scandal, affair"), гу́ру (*gúru*, "guru"), Гарси́я (*García*), Оле́ша (*Olésha*), Фе́рми (*Fermi*), and to show which is the stressed word in a sentence, for example Ты́ съел печенье? (*Tý syel pechenye?* – "Was it *you* who ate the cookie?") – Ты съе́л печенье? (*Ty syél pechenye?* – "Did you *eat* the cookie?) – Ты съел пече́нье? (*Ty syel pechénye?* "Was it the *cookie* you ate?"). Stress marks are mandatory in lexical dictionaries and books for children or Russian learners. Phonology --------- The phonological system of Russian is inherited from Common Slavonic; it underwent considerable modification in the early historical period before being largely settled around the year 1400. The language possesses five vowels (or six, under the St. Petersburg Phonological School), which are written with different letters depending on whether the preceding consonant is palatalized. The consonants typically come in plain vs. palatalized pairs, which are traditionally called *hard* and *soft.* The hard consonants are often velarized, especially before front vowels, as in Irish and Marshallese. The standard language, based on the Moscow dialect, possesses heavy stress and moderate variation in pitch. Stressed vowels are somewhat lengthened, while unstressed vowels tend to be reduced to near-close vowels or an unclear schwa. (See also: vowel reduction in Russian.) The Russian syllable structure can be quite complex, with both initial and final consonant clusters of up to four consecutive sounds. Using a formula with V standing for the nucleus (vowel) and C for each consonant, the maximal structure can be described as follows: (C)(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C) However, Russian has a constraint on syllabification such that syllables cannot span multiple morphemes. Clusters of four consonants are not very common, especially within a morpheme. Some examples are: взгляд ([vzglʲat] *vzglyad*, 'glance'), государств ([gəsʊˈdarstf] *gosudarstv*, 'of the states'), строительств ([strɐˈitʲɪlʲstf] *stroitelstv*, 'of the constructions'). ### Consonants | | | Consonant phonemes| | Labial | Alveolar/Dental | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | plain | pal. | | Nasal | m | mʲ | n | nʲ | | | | | | | Stop | voiceless | p | pʲ | t | tʲ | | | | k | (kʲ) | | voiced | b | bʲ | d | dʲ | | | | ɡ | (ɡʲ) | | Affricate | | | ts | (tsʲ) | | tɕ | | | | | Fricative | voiceless | f | fʲ | s | sʲ | ʂ | ɕː | | x | (xʲ) | | voiced | v | vʲ | z | zʲ | ʐ | (ʑː) | | (ɣ) | (ɣʲ) | | Approximant | | | ɫ | lʲ | | | j | | | | Trill | | | r | rʲ | | | | | | Russian is notable for its distinction based on palatalization of most of its consonants. While /ts, k, ɡ, x/ do have true palatalized allophones [tsʲ, kʲ, ɡʲ, xʲ], only /kʲ/ might be considered a phoneme, though it is marginal and generally not considered distinctive. The only native minimal pair that argues for /kʲ/ being a separate phoneme is это ткёт ([ˈɛtə tkʲɵt] *eto tkyot* – "it weaves") – этот кот ([ˈɛtət kot], *etot kot* – "this cat"). The phoneme /ts/ is generally considered to be always hard; however, loan words such as Цюрих and some other neologisms contain /tsʲ/ through the word-building processes (e.g. фрицёнок, шпицята). Palatalization means that the center of the tongue is raised during and after the articulation of the consonant. In the case of /tʲ/ and /dʲ/, the tongue is raised enough to produce slight frication (affricate sounds; cf. Belarusian ць, дзь, or Polish ć, dź). The sounds /t, d, ts, s, z, n, rʲ/ are dental, that is, pronounced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth rather than against the alveolar ridge. ### Vowels | | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | i | (ɨ) | u | | Mid | e | | o | | Open | | a | | Russian has five or six vowels in stressed syllables, /i, u, e, o, a/, and in some analyses /ɨ/, but in most cases these vowels have merged to only two to four vowels when unstressed: /i, u, a/ (or /ɨ, u, a/) after hard consonants and /i, u/ after soft ones. These vowels have several allophones, which are displayed on the diagram to the right. Grammar ------- Russian has preserved an Indo-European synthetic-inflectional structure, although considerable leveling has occurred. Russian grammar encompasses: * a highly fusional **morphology** * a **syntax** that, for the literary language, is the conscious fusion of three elements: + a polished vernacular foundation;[*clarification needed*] + a Church Slavonic inheritance; + a Western European style.[*clarification needed*] The spoken language has been influenced by the literary one but continues to preserve characteristic forms. The dialects show various non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms since discarded by the literary language. In terms of actual grammar, there are three tenses in Russian – past, present, and future – and each verb has two aspects (perfective and imperfective). Russian nouns each have a gender – either feminine, masculine, or neuter, chiefly indicated by spelling at the end of the word. Words change depending on both their gender and function in the sentence. Russian has six cases: Nominative (for the grammatical subject), Accusative (for direct objects), Dative (for indirect objects), Genitive (to indicate possession or relation), Instrumental (to indicate 'with' or 'by means of'), and Prepositional (used after the locative prepositions в "in", на "on", о "about", при "in the presence of"). Verbs of motion in Russian – such as 'go', 'walk', 'run', 'swim', and 'fly' – use the imperfective or perfective form to indicate a single or return trip, and also use a multitude of prefixes to add shades of meaning to the verb. Such verbs also take on different forms to distinguish between concrete and abstract motion. Vocabulary ---------- See History of the Russian language for an account of the successive foreign influences on Russian. The number of listed words or entries in some of the major dictionaries published during the past two centuries, are as follows: | Work | Year | Words | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Academic dictionary, I Ed. | 1789–1794 | 43,257 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. | | Academic dictionary, II Ed | 1806–1822 | 51,388 | Russian and Church Slavonic with some Old Russian vocabulary. | | Academic dictionary, III Ed. | 1847 | 114,749 | Russian and Church Slavonic with Old Russian vocabulary. | | *Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language* (Dahl's) | 1880–1882 | 195,844 | 44,000 entries lexically grouped; attempt to catalogue the full vernacular language. Contains many dialectal, local, and obsolete words. | | *Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language* (Ushakov's) | 1934–1940 | 85,289 | Current language with some archaisms. | | Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language (Ozhegov's) | 1950–19651991 (2nd ed.) | 120,480 | "Full" 17-volumed dictionary of the contemporary language. The second 20-volumed edition was begun in 1991, but not all volumes have been finished. | | Lopatin's dictionary | 1999–2013 | ≈200,000 | Orthographic, current language, several editions | | Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language | 1998–2009 | ≈130,000 | Current language, the dictionary has many subsequent editions from the first one of 1998. | | Russian Wiktionary | October 11, 2021 | 442,533 | Number of entries in the category Русский язык (Russian language) | History and examples -------------------- No single periodization is universally accepted, but the history of the Russian language is sometimes divided into the following periods: * Old Russian (Old East Slavic) (10th–14th centuries) * Middle Russian (14th–17th centuries) * Modern Russian national language (17th century–present) The history of the Russian language is also divided into *Old Russian* from the 11th to 17th centuries, followed by *Modern Russian*. Judging by the historical records, by approximately 1000 AD the predominant ethnic group over much of modern European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus was the Eastern branch of the Slavs, speaking a closely related group of dialects. The political unification of this region into Kievan Rus' in about 880, from which modern Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus trace their origins, established Old East Slavic as a literary and commercial language. It was soon followed by the adoption of Christianity in 988 and the introduction of the South Slavic Old Church Slavonic as the liturgical and official language. Borrowings and calques from Byzantine Greek began to enter the Old East Slavic and spoken dialects at this time, which in their turn modified the Old Church Slavonic as well. Dialectal differentiation accelerated after the breakup of Kievan Rus' in approximately 1100. On the territories of modern Belarus and Ukraine emerged Ruthenian and in modern Russia medieval Russian. They became distinct since the 13th century, i.e. following the division of the land between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Poland in the west and independent Novgorod and Pskov feudal republics plus numerous small duchies (which came to be vassals of the Tatars) in the east. The official language in Moscow and Novgorod, and later, in the growing Muscovy, was Church Slavonic, which evolved from Old Church Slavonic and remained the literary language for centuries, until the Petrine age, when its usage became limited to biblical and liturgical texts. Russian developed under a strong influence of Church Slavonic until the close of the 17th century; afterward the influence reversed, leading to corruption of liturgical texts. The political reforms of Peter the Great (Пётр Вели́кий, *Pyótr Velíky*) were accompanied by a reform of the alphabet, and achieved their goal of secularization and Westernization. Blocks of specialized vocabulary were adopted from the languages of Western Europe. By 1800, a significant portion of the gentry spoke French daily, and German sometimes. Many Russian novels of the 19th century, e.g. Leo Tolstoy's (Лев Толсто́й) *War and Peace*, contain entire paragraphs and even pages in French with no translation given, with an assumption that educated readers would not need one. The modern literary language is usually considered to date from the time of Alexander Pushkin (Алекса́ндр Пу́шкин) in the first third of the 19th century. Pushkin revolutionized Russian literature by rejecting archaic grammar and vocabulary (so-called высо́кий стиль — "high style") in favor of grammar and vocabulary found in the spoken language of the time. Even modern readers of younger age may only experience slight difficulties understanding some words in Pushkin's texts, since relatively few words used by Pushkin have become archaic or changed meaning. In fact, many expressions used by Russian writers of the early 19th century, in particular Pushkin, Mikhail Lermontov (Михаи́л Ле́рмонтов), Nikolai Gogol (Никола́й Го́голь), Aleksander Griboyedov (Алекса́ндр Грибое́дов), became proverbs or sayings which can be frequently found even in modern Russian colloquial speech. Winter Evening Reading of excerpt of Pushkin's "Winter Evening" (Зимний вечер), 1825. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* | Russian text | Pronunciation | Transliteration | | --- | --- | --- | | **Зи́мний ве́чер** | [ˈzʲimnʲɪj ˈvʲetɕɪr] | ***Zímnij véčer*** | | Бу́ря мгло́ю не́бо кро́ет, | [ˈburʲə ˈmɡɫoju ˈnʲɛbə ˈkroɪt] | *Búrja mglóju nébo krójet,* | | Ви́хри сне́жные крутя́; | [ˈvʲixrʲɪ ˈsʲnʲɛʐnɨɪ krʊˈtʲa] | *Víhri snéžnyje krutjá,* | | То, как зверь, она́ заво́ет, | [ˈto kaɡ zvʲerʲ ɐˈna zɐˈvoɪt] | *To, kak zveŕ, oná zavójet,* | | То запла́чет, как дитя́, | [ˈto zɐˈpɫatɕɪt, kaɡ dʲɪˈtʲa] | *To zapláčet, kak ditjá,* | | То по кро́вле обветша́лой | [ˈto pɐˈkrovlʲɪ ɐbvʲɪtˈʂaɫəj] | *To po króvle obvetšáloj* | | Вдруг соло́мой зашуми́т, | [ˈvdruk sɐˈɫoməj zəʂʊˈmʲit] | *Vdrug solómoj zašumít,* | | То, как пу́тник запозда́лый, | [ˈto ˈkak ˈputʲnʲɪɡ zəpɐˈzdaɫɨj] | *To, kak pútnik zapozdályj* | | К нам в око́шко застучи́т. | [ˈknam vɐˈkoʂkə zəstʊˈtɕit] | *K nam v okóško zastučít.* | The political upheavals of the early 20th century and the wholesale changes of political ideology gave written Russian its modern appearance after the spelling reform of 1918. Political circumstances and Soviet accomplishments in military, scientific, and technological matters (especially cosmonautics), gave Russian a worldwide prestige, especially during the mid-20th century. During the Soviet period, the policy toward the languages of the various other ethnic groups fluctuated in practice. Though each of the constituent republics had its own official language, the unifying role and superior status was reserved for Russian, although it was declared the official language only in 1990. Following the break-up of the USSR in 1991, several of the newly independent states have encouraged their native languages, which has partly reversed the privileged status of Russian, though its role as the language of post-Soviet national discourse throughout the region has continued. The Russian language in the world declined after 1991 due to the collapse of the Soviet Union and decrease in the number of Russians in the world and diminution of the total population in Russia (where Russian is an official language), however this[*clarification needed*] has since been reversed. Recent estimates of the total number of speakers of Russian| Source | Native speakers | Native rank | Total speakers | Total rank | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | G. Weber, "Top Languages",*Language Monthly*,3: 12–18, 1997, ISSN 1369-9733 | 160,000,000 | 8 | 285,000,000 | 5 | | World Almanac (1999) | 145,000,000 | 8 (2005) | 275,000,000 | 5 | | SIL (2000 WCD) | 145,000,000 | 8 | 255,000,000 | 5–6 (tied with Arabic) | | CIA World Factbook (2005) | 160,000,000 | 8 | | | According to figures published in 2006 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly" research deputy director of Research Center for Sociological Research of the Ministry of Education and Science (Russia) Arefyev A. L., the Russian language is gradually losing its position in the world in general, and in Russia in particular. In 2012, A. L. Arefyev published a new study "Russian language at the turn of the 20th–21st centuries", in which he confirmed his conclusion about the trend of weakening of the Russian language after the Soviet Union's collapse in various regions of the world (findings published in 2013 in the journal "Demoskop Weekly"). In the countries of the former Soviet Union the Russian language was being replaced or used in conjunction with local languages. Currently, the number of speakers of Russian in the world depends on the number of Russians in the world and total population in Russia. The changing proportion of Russian speakers in the world (assessment Aref'eva 2012)| Year | worldwidepopulation,billion | populationRussian Empire,Soviet Union andRussian Federation,million | share in worldpopulation,% | total numberof speakersof Russian,million | share in worldpopulation,% | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1900 | 1.650 | 138.0 |   8.4 | 105 | 6.4 | | 1914 | 1.782 | 182.2 |   10.2 | 140 | 7.9 | | 1940 | 2.342 | 205.0 |   8.8 | 200 | 7.6 | | 1980 | 4.434 | 265.0 |   6.0 | 280 | 6.3 | | 1990 | 5.263 | 286.0 |   5.4 | 312 | 5.9 | | 2004 | 6.400 | 146.0 |   2.3 | 278 | 4.3 | | 2010 | 6.820 | 142.7 |   2.1 | 260 | 3.8 | | 2020 | 7.794 | 147.3 |   1.8 | 256 | 3.3 | See also -------- * List of English words of Russian origin * List of Russian language topics * List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language * Computer Russification Further reading --------------- * Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015). "Russian". Illustrations of the IPA. *Journal of the International Phonetic Association*. **45** (2): 221–228. doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395, with supplementary sound recordings. References ---------- ### Sources | | | | --- | --- | | In English * Carleton, T. R. (1991). *Introduction to the Phonological History of the Slavic Languages*. Columbus, Ohio: Slavica Press. * Comrie, Bernard S.; Stone, Gerald; Polinsky, Maria (1996). *The Russian Language in the Twentieth Century* (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824066-2. * Cubberley, P. (2002). *Russian: A Linguistic Introduction* (1st ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-79641-5. * Iliev, Iv. The Russian Genitive of Negation and Its Japanese Counterpart. International Journal of Russian Stidies. 1, 2018 (In Print) * Isurin, Ludmila (2011). *Russian Diaspora Culture, Identity, and Language Change*. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, Inc. ISBN 9781934078457. * O'Brien, M.A., New English–Russian and Russian–English Dictionary (New Orthography), New York, The Language Library 1944, Dover Publications. * Shohamy, Elana (2006). *Language policy: hidden agendas and new approaches*. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415328647. * Spolsky, Bernard; Shohamy, Elana (1999). *The languages of Israel: policy, ideology, and practice*. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. ISBN 9781853594519. * Sussex, Roland; Cubberley, Paul (2006). *The Slavic languages*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22315-7. * Timberlake, Alan (2004). *A Reference Grammar of Russian*. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77292-1. * Timberlake, Alan (1993). "Russian". In Comrie, Bernard; Corbett, Greville G. (eds.). *The Slavonic languages*. London, England; New York, NY: Routledge. pp. 827–886. ISBN 978-0-415-04755-5. * Trofimov, Michael V.; Jones, Daniel (1923). *The Pronunciation of Russian*. Cambridge primers of pronunciation. Cambridge: University Press. * Wade, Terence (2000). Holman, Michael (ed.). *A Comprehensive Russian Grammar* (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-20757-3. | In Russian * журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 571 – 572 14 – 31 октября 2013. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сжимающееся русскоязычие. Демографические изменения - не на пользу русскому языку * Русский язык на рубеже XX-XXI веков — М.: Центр социального прогнозирования и маркетинга, 2012. — 482 стр. Аннотация книги в РУССКИЙ ЯЗЫК НА РУБЕЖЕ XX-XXI ВЕКОВ * журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 329 – 330 14 – 27 апреля 2008. К. Гаврилов. Е. Козиевская. Е. Яценко. Тема номера: русский язык на постсоветских просторах. Где есть потребность в изучении русского языка * журнал «Демоскоп Weekly» № 251 – 252 19 июня – 20 августа 2006. А. Арефьев. Тема номера: сколько людей говорят и будут говорить по-русски? Будет ли русский в числе мировых языков в будущем? * Жуковская Л. П. (отв. ред.) Древнерусский литературный язык и его отношение к старославянскому. — М.: «Наука», 1987. * Иванов В. В. Историческая грамматика русского языка. — М.: «Просвещение», 1990. * Новиков Л. А. Современный русский язык: для высшей школы. — М.: Лань, 2003. * Филин Ф. П. О словарном составе языка Великорусского народа. // Вопросы языкознания. — М., 1982, No. 5. — С. 18—28 |

Russian language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language

**Animal husbandry** is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding, and the raising of livestock. Husbandry has a long history, starting with the Neolithic Revolution when animals were first domesticated, from around 13,000 BC onwards, predating farming of the first crops. By the time of early civilisations such as ancient Egypt, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were being raised on farms. Major changes took place in the Columbian exchange, when Old World livestock were brought to the New World, and then in the British Agricultural Revolution of the 18th century, when livestock breeds like the Dishley Longhorn cattle and Lincoln Longwool sheep were rapidly improved by agriculturalists, such as Robert Bakewell, to yield more meat, milk, and wool. A wide range of other species, such as horse, water buffalo, llama, rabbit, and guinea pig, are used as livestock in some parts of the world. Insect farming, as well as aquaculture of fish, molluscs, and crustaceans, is widespread. Modern animal husbandry relies on production systems adapted to the type of land available. Subsistence farming is being superseded by intensive animal farming in the more developed parts of the world, where, for example, beef cattle are kept in high-density feedlots, and thousands of chickens may be raised in broiler houses or batteries. On poorer soil, such as in uplands, animals are often kept more extensively and may be allowed to roam widely, foraging for themselves. Most livestock are herbivores, except for pigs and chickens which are omnivores. Ruminants like cattle and sheep are adapted to feed on grass; they can forage outdoors or may be fed entirely or in part on rations richer in energy and protein, such as pelleted cereals. Pigs and poultry cannot digest the cellulose in forage and require other high-protein foods. Etymology --------- The verb *to husband*, meaning "to manage carefully," derives from an older meaning of *husband*, which in the 14th century referred to the ownership and care of a household or farm, but today means the "control or judicious use of resources," and in agriculture, the cultivation of plants or animals. Farmers and ranchers who raise livestock are considered to practice *animal husbandry*. History ------- ### Birth of husbandry The domestication of livestock was driven by the need to have food on hand when hunting was unproductive. The desirable characteristics of a domestic animal are that it should be useful to the domesticator, should be able to thrive in his or her company, should breed freely, and be easy to tend. Domestication was not a single event, but a process repeated at various periods in different places. Sheep and goats were the animals that accompanied the nomads in the Middle East, while cattle and pigs were associated with more settled communities. The first wild animal to be domesticated was the dog. Half-wild dogs, perhaps starting with young individuals, may have been tolerated as scavengers and killers of vermin, and being naturally pack hunters, were predisposed to become part of the human pack and join in the hunt. Prey animals, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle, were progressively domesticated early in the history of agriculture. Pigs were domesticated in the Near East between 8,500 and 8000 BC, sheep and goats in or near the Fertile Crescent about 8,500 BC, and cattle from wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan around 8,500 BC. A cow was a great advantage to a villager as she produced more milk than her calf needed, and her strength could be put to use as a working animal, pulling a plough to increase production of crops, and drawing a sledge, and later a cart, to bring the produce home from the field. Draught animals were first used about 4,000 BC in the Middle East, increasing agricultural production immeasurably. In southern Asia, the elephant was domesticated by 6,000 BC. Fossilised chicken bones dated to 5040 BC have been found in northeastern China, far from where their wild ancestors lived in the jungles of tropical Asia, but archaeologists believe that the original purpose of domestication was for the sport of cockfighting. Meanwhile, in South America, the llama and the alpaca had been domesticated, probably before 3,000 BC, as beasts of burden and for their wool. Neither was strong enough to pull a plough which limited the development of agriculture in the New World. Horses occur naturally on the steppes of Central Asia and their domestication began around 3,000 BC in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea region. Although horses were originally seen as a source of meat, their use as pack animals and for riding followed. Around the same time, the wild ass was being tamed in Egypt. Camels were domesticated soon after this, with the Bactrian camel in Mongolia and the Arabian camel becoming beasts of burden. By 1000 BC, caravans of Arabian camels were linking India with Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean. ### Ancient civilisations In ancient Egypt, cattle were the most important livestock, and sheep, goats, and pigs were also kept; poultry including ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Honey bees were domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, providing both honey and wax. In ancient Rome, all the livestock known in ancient Egypt were available. In addition, rabbits were domesticated for food by the first century BC. To help flush them out from their burrows, the polecat was domesticated as the ferret, its use described by Pliny the Elder. ### Medieval husbandry In northern Europe, agriculture including animal husbandry went into decline when the Roman empire collapsed. Some aspects such as the herding of animals continued throughout the period. By the 11th century, the economy had recovered and the countryside was again productive. The *Domesday Book* recorded every parcel of land and every animal in England: "there was not one single hide, nor a yard of land, nay, moreover ... not even an ox, nor a cow, nor a swine was there left, that was not set down in [the king's] writ." For example, the royal manor of Earley in Berkshire, one of thousands of villages recorded in the book, had in 1086 "2 fisheries worth [paying tax of] 7s and 6d [each year] and 20 acres of meadow [for livestock]. Woodland for [feeding] 70 pigs." The improvements of animal husbandry in the medieval period in Europe went hand in hand with other developments. Improvements to the plough allowed the soil to be tilled to a greater depth. Horses took over from oxen as the main providers of traction, new ideas on crop rotation were developed and the growing of crops for winter fodder gained ground. Peas, beans and vetches became common; they increased soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, allowing more livestock to be kept. ### Columbian exchange Exploration and colonisation of North and South America resulted in the introduction into Europe of such crops as maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes and manioc, while the principal Old World livestock – cattle, horses, sheep and goats – were introduced into the New World for the first time along with wheat, barley, rice and turnips. ### Agricultural Revolution Selective breeding for desired traits was established as a scientific practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. One of his most important breeding programs was with sheep. Using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New (or Dishley) Leicester. It was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. These sheep were exported widely and have contributed to numerous modern breeds. Under his influence, English farmers began to breed cattle for use primarily as beef. Long-horned heifers were crossed with the Westmoreland bull to create the Dishley Longhorn. The semi-natural, unfertilised pastures formed by traditional agricultural methods in Europe were managed by grazing and mowing. As the ecological impact of this land management strategy is similar to the impact of such natural disturbances as a wildfire, this agricultural system shares many beneficial characteristics with a natural habitat, including the promotion of biodiversity. This strategy is declining in Europe today due to the intensification of agriculture. The mechanized and chemical methods used are causing biodiversity to decline. Practices --------- ### Systems Traditionally, animal husbandry was part of the subsistence farmer's way of life, producing not only the food needed by the family but also the fuel, fertiliser, clothing, transport and draught power. Killing the animal for food was a secondary consideration, and wherever possible its products such as wool, eggs, milk and blood (by the Maasai) were harvested while the animal was still alive. In the traditional system of transhumance, people and livestock moved seasonally between fixed summer and winter pastures; in montane regions the summer pasture was up in the mountains, the winter pasture in the valleys. Animals can be kept extensively or intensively. Extensive systems involve animals roaming at will, or under the supervision of a herdsman, often for their protection from predators. Ranching in the Western United States involves large herds of cattle grazing widely over public and private lands. Similar cattle stations are found in South America, Australia and other places with large areas of land and low rainfall. Ranching systems have been used for sheep, deer, ostrich, emu, llama and alpaca. In the uplands of the United Kingdom, sheep are turned out on the fells in spring and graze the abundant mountain grasses untended, being brought to lower altitudes late in the year, with supplementary feeding being provided in winter. In rural locations, pigs and poultry can obtain much of their nutrition from scavenging, and in African communities, hens may live for months without being fed, and still produce one or two eggs a week. At the other extreme, in the more developed parts of the world, animals are often intensively managed; dairy cows may be kept in zero-grazing conditions with all their forage brought to them; beef cattle may be kept in high density feedlots; pigs may be housed in climate-controlled buildings and never go outdoors; poultry may be reared in barns and kept in cages as laying birds under lighting-controlled conditions. In between these two extremes are semi-intensive, often family-run farms where livestock graze outside for much of the year, silage or hay is made to cover the times of year when the grass stops growing, and fertiliser, feed, and other inputs are brought onto the farm from outside. ### Feeding Animals used as livestock are predominantly herbivorous, the main exceptions being the pig and the chicken which are omnivorous. The herbivores can be divided into "concentrate selectors" which selectively feed on seeds, fruits and highly nutritious young foliage, "grazers" which mainly feed on grass, and "intermediate feeders" which choose their diet from the whole range of available plant material. Cattle, sheep, goats, deer and antelopes are ruminants; they digest food in two steps, chewing and swallowing in the normal way, and then regurgitating the semidigested cud to chew it again and thus extract the maximum possible food value. The dietary needs of these animals is mostly met by eating grass. Grasses grow from the base of the leaf-blade, enabling it to thrive even when heavily grazed or cut. In many climates grass growth is seasonal, for example in the temperate summer or tropical rainy season, so some areas of the crop are set aside to be cut and preserved, either as hay (dried grass), or as silage (fermented grass). Other forage crops are also grown and many of these, as well as crop residues, can be ensiled to fill the gap in the nutritional needs of livestock in the lean season. Extensively reared animals may subsist entirely on forage, but more intensively kept livestock will require energy and protein-rich foods in addition. Energy is mainly derived from cereals and cereal by-products, fats and oils and sugar-rich foods, while protein may come from fish or meat meal, milk products, legumes and other plant foods, often the by-products of vegetable oil extraction. Pigs and poultry are non-ruminants and unable to digest the cellulose in grass and other forages, so they are fed entirely on cereals and other high-energy foodstuffs. The ingredients for the animals' rations can be grown on the farm or can be bought, in the form of pelleted or cubed, compound foodstuffs specially formulated for the different classes of livestock, their growth stages and their specific nutritional requirements. Vitamins and minerals are added to balance the diet. Farmed fish are usually fed pelleted food. ### Breeding The breeding of farm animals seldom occurs spontaneously but is managed by farmers with a view to encouraging traits seen as desirable. These include hardiness, fertility, docility, mothering abilities, fast growth rates, low feed consumption per unit of growth, better body proportions, higher yields, and better fibre qualities. Undesirable traits such as health defects and aggressiveness are selected against. Selective breeding has been responsible for large increases in productivity. For example, in 2007, a typical broiler chicken at eight weeks old was 4.8 times as heavy as a bird of similar age in 1957, while in the thirty years to 2007, the average milk yield of a dairy cow in the United States nearly doubled. ### Animal health Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on the farm, bringing economic benefits through maximised production. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines, by the farmer and the veterinarian. In the European Union, when farmers treat their own animals, they are required to follow the guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given. Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever and scrapie are specific to one type of stock, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals. Animals living under intensive conditions are prone to internal and external parasites; increasing numbers of sea lice are affecting farmed salmon in Scotland. Reducing the parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability. Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on the movement of stock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases. Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this practice is now frowned on in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antimicrobial resistance in livestock and in humans. Governments are concerned with zoonoses, diseases that humans may acquire from animals. Wild animal populations may harbour diseases that can affect domestic animals which may acquire them as a result of insufficient biosecurity. An outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1999 was traced back to pigs becoming ill after contact with fruit-eating flying foxes, their faeces and urine. The pigs in turn passed the infection to humans. Avian flu H5N1 is present in wild bird populations and can be carried large distances by migrating birds. This virus is easily transmissible to domestic poultry, and to humans living in close proximity with them. Other infectious diseases affecting wild animals, farm animals and humans include rabies, leptospirosis, brucellosis, tuberculosis and trichinosis. ### Range of species There is no single universally agreed definition of which species are livestock. Widely agreed types of livestock include cattle for beef and dairy, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. Various other species are sometimes considered livestock, such as horses, while poultry birds are sometimes excluded. In some parts of the world, livestock includes species such as buffalo, and the South American camelids, the alpaca and llama. Some authorities use much broader definitions to include fish in aquaculture, micro-livestock such as rabbits and rodents like guinea pigs, as well as insects from honey bees to crickets raised for human consumption. Products -------- Animals are raised for a wide variety of products, principally meat, wool, milk, and eggs, but also including tallow, isinglass and rennet. Animals are also kept for more specialised purposes, such as to produce vaccines and antiserum (containing antibodies) for medical use. Where fodder or other crops are grown alongside animals, manure can serve as a fertiliser, returning minerals and organic matter to the soil in a semi-closed organic system. Branches -------- ### Dairy Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys. All these animals have been domesticated over the centuries, being bred for such desirable characteristics as fecundity, productivity, docility and the ability to thrive under the prevailing conditions. Whereas in the past cattle had multiple functions, modern dairy cow breeding has resulted in specialised Holstein Friesian-type animals that produce large quantities of milk economically. Artificial insemination is widely available to allow farmers to select for the particular traits that suit their circumstances. Whereas in the past cows were kept in small herds on family farms, grazing pastures and being fed hay in winter, nowadays there is a trend towards larger herds, more intensive systems, the feeding of silage and "zero grazing", a system where grass is cut and brought to the cow, which is housed year-round. In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows. ### Meat Meat, mainly from farmed animals, is a major source of dietary protein and essential nutrients around the world, averaging about 8% of man's energy intake. The actual types eaten depend on local preferences, availability, cost and other factors, with cattle, sheep, pigs and goats being the main species involved. Cattle generally produce a single offspring annually which takes more than a year to mature; sheep and goats often have twins and these are ready for slaughter in less than a year; pigs are more prolific, producing more than one litter of up to about 11 piglets each year. Horses, donkeys, deer, buffalo, llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas are farmed for meat in various regions. Some desirable traits of animals raised for meat include fecundity, hardiness, fast growth rate, ease of management and high food conversion efficiency. About half of the world's meat is produced from animals grazing on open ranges or on enclosed pastures, the other half being produced intensively in various factory-farming systems; these are mostly cows, pigs or poultry, and often reared indoors, typically at high densities. ### Poultry Poultry, kept for their eggs and for their meat, include chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. The great majority of laying birds used for egg production are chickens. Methods for keeping layers range from free-range systems, where the birds can roam as they will but are housed at night for their own protection, through semi-intensive systems where they are housed in barns and have perches, litter and some freedom of movement, to intensive systems where they are kept in cages. The battery cages are arranged in long rows in multiple tiers, with external feeders, drinkers, and egg collection facilities. This is the most labour saving and economical method of egg production but has been criticised on animal welfare grounds as the birds are unable to exhibit their normal behaviours. In the developed world, the majority of the poultry reared for meat is raised indoors in big sheds, with automated equipment under environmentally controlled conditions. Chickens raised in this way are known as broilers, and genetic improvements have meant that they can be grown to slaughter weight within six or seven weeks of hatching. Newly hatched chicks are restricted to a small area and given supplementary heating. Litter on the floor absorbs the droppings and the area occupied is expanded as they grow. Feed and water is supplied automatically and the lighting is controlled. The birds may be harvested on several occasions or the whole shed may be cleared at one time. A similar rearing system is usually used for turkeys, which are less hardy than chickens, but they take longer to grow and are often moved on to separate fattening units to finish. Ducks are particularly popular in Asia and Australia and can be killed at seven weeks under commercial conditions. ### Aquaculture Aquaculture has been defined as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants and implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated." In practice it can take place in the sea or in freshwater, and be extensive or intensive. Whole bays, lakes or ponds may be devoted to aquaculture, or the farmed animal may be retained in cages (fish), artificial reefs, racks or strings (shellfish). Fish and prawns can be cultivated in rice paddies, either arriving naturally or being introduced, and both crops can be harvested together. Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates. ### Insects Bees have been kept in hives since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt, five thousand years ago, and man had been harvesting honey from the wild long before that. Fixed comb hives are used in many parts of the world and are made from any locally available material. In more advanced economies, where modern strains of domestic bee have been selected for docility and productiveness, various designs of hive are used which enable the combs to be removed for processing and extraction of honey. Quite apart from the honey and wax they produce, honey bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, and in many places hives are transported around the countryside to assist in pollination. Sericulture, the rearing of silkworms, was first adopted by the Chinese during the Shang dynasty. The only species farmed commercially is the domesticated silkmoth. When it spins its cocoon, each larva produces an exceedingly long, slender thread of silk. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves and in Europe, only one generation is normally raised each year as this is a deciduous tree. In China, Korea and Japan however, two generations are normal, and in the tropics, multiple generations are expected. Most production of silk occurs in the Far East, with a synthetic diet being used to rear the silkworms in Japan. Insects form part of the human diet in many cultures. In Thailand, crickets are farmed for this purpose in the north of the country, and palm weevil larvae in the south. The crickets are kept in pens, boxes or drawers and fed on commercial pelleted poultry food, while the palm weevil larvae live on cabbage palm and sago palm trees, which limits their production to areas where these trees grow. Another delicacy of this region is the bamboo caterpillar, and the best rearing and harvesting techniques in semi-natural habitats are being studied. Effects ------- ### Environmental impact Animal husbandry has a significant impact on the world environment. Both production and consumption of animal products have increased rapidly. Over the past 50 years, meat production has trebled, whereas the production of dairy products doubled and that of eggs almost increased fourfold. Meanwhile, meat consumption has also nearly doubled worldwide. Within that increased overall consumption of meat, developing countries had a surge in meat consumption particularly in the portion of monogastric livestock. Being a part of the animal–industrial complex, animal agriculture is the primary driver of climate change, ocean acidification, biodiversity loss, and of the crossing of almost every other planetary boundary, in addition to killing more than 60 billion non-human land animals annually. It is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 33% of the fresh water usage in the world, and livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of the Earth's ice-free land. Livestock production is a contributing factor in species extinction, desertification, and habitat destruction. Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in various ways and is the primary driver of the Holocene extinction. It is estimated that 70% of the agricultural land and 30% of the total land surface of the Earth is involved either directly or indirectly in animal agriculture. Habitat is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for animal grazing, while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted and hunted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits; for example, animal husbandry is responsible for up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region. In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases. Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day, that accounts for 35 to 40% of the overall methane emissions of the planet. Further, livestock production is responsible for 65% of all human-related emissions of nitrous oxide. As a result, ways of mitigating animal husbandry's environmental impact are being studied. Strategies include using biogas from manure, genetic selection, immunization, rumen defaunation, outcompetition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens, introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen, diet modification and grazing management, among others. It has been suggested that beef products finished in feedlot are less resource intensive than those pastured beef products. A diet change (with *Asparagopsis taxiformis*) allowed for a reduction of up to 99% of methane production in an experimental study with three ruminants. ### Animal welfare Since the 18th century, people have become increasingly concerned about the welfare of farm animals. Possible measures of welfare include longevity, behavior, physiology, reproduction, freedom from disease, and freedom from immunosuppression. Standards and laws for animal welfare have been created worldwide, broadly in line with the most widely held position in the western world, a form of utilitarianism: that it is morally acceptable for humans to use non-human animals, provided that no unnecessary suffering is caused, and that the benefits to humans outweigh the costs to the livestock. An opposing view is that animals have rights, should not be regarded as property, are not necessary to use, and should never be used by humans. Live export of animals has risen to meet increased global demand for livestock such as in the Middle East. Animal rights activists have objected to long-distance transport of animals; one result was the banning of live exports from New Zealand in 2003. David Nibert, professor of sociology at Wittenberg University, posits that, based on contemporary scholarship by ethologists and biologists about the sentience and intelligence of other animals, "we can assume that, for the most part, the other animals' experience of capture, enslavement, use, and slaying was one of suffering and violence." Much of this involved direct physical violence, but also structural violence as their systemic oppression and enslavement "resulted in their inability to meet their basic needs, the loss of self-determination, and the loss of opportunity to live in a natural way." He says that the remains of domesticated animals from thousands of years ago found during archeological excavations revealed numerous bone pathologies, which provide evidence of extreme suffering: > Excavations from 8500 BCE revealed bone deformities in enslaved goats and cows and provided "some indication of stress, presumably due to the conditions in which these early *domestic* animals were kept." Remains of sheep and goats from the early Bronze Age show a marked decrease in bone thickness, reflecting calcium deficiencies "resulting from the combined effects of poor nutrition and intensive milking." > > ### In culture Since the 18th century, the farmer John Bull has represented English national identity, first in John Arbuthnot's political satires, and soon afterwards in cartoons by James Gillray and others including John Tenniel. He likes food, beer, dogs, horses, and country sports; he is practical and down to earth, and anti-intellectual. Farm animals are widespread in books and songs for children; the reality of animal husbandry is often distorted, softened, or idealized, giving children an almost entirely fictitious account of farm life. The books often depict happy animals free to roam in attractive countryside, a picture completely at odds with the realities of the impersonal, mechanized activities involved in modern intensive farming. Pigs, for example, appear in several of Beatrix Potter's "little books", as Piglet in A.A. Milne's Winnie the Pooh stories, and somewhat more darkly (with a hint of animals going to slaughter) as Babe in Dick King-Smith's *The Sheep-Pig*, and as Wilbur in E. B. White's *Charlotte's Web*. Pigs tend to be "bearers of cheerfulness, good humour and innocence". Many of these books are completely anthropomorphic, dressing farm animals in clothes and having them walk on two legs, live in houses, and perform human activities. The children's song "Old MacDonald Had a Farm" describes a farmer named MacDonald and the various animals he keeps, celebrating the noises they each make. Many urban children experience animal husbandry for the first time at a petting farm; in Britain, some five million people a year visit a farm of some kind. This presents some risk of infection, especially if children handle animals and then fail to wash their hands; a strain of *E. coli* infected 93 people who had visited a British interactive farm in an outbreak in 2009. Historic farms such as those in the United States offer farmstays and "a carefully curated version of farming to those willing to pay for it", sometimes giving visitors a romanticised image of a pastoral idyll from an unspecified time in the pre-industrial past. See also -------- * Animal–industrial complex * Agribusiness * Fishery * Food vs. feed * Industrial agriculture * Wildlife farming * Zootechnics References ---------- ### Sources * Saltini, Antonio. *Storia delle scienze agrarie*, 4 vols, Bologna 1984–89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, 88-206-2413-3, 88-206-2414-1, 88-206-2415-X. * Clutton Brock, Juliet. *The walking larder. Patterns of domestication, pastoralism and predation*, Unwin Hyman, London 1988. * Clutton Brock, Juliet. *Horse power: a history of the horse and donkey in human societies*, National history Museum publications, London 1992. * Fleming, George; Guzzoni, M. *Storia cronologica delle epizoozie dal 1409 av. Cristo sino al 1800*, in Gazzetta medico-veterinaria, I–II, Milano 1871–72. * Hall, S; Clutton Brock, Juliet. *Two hundred years of British farm livestock*, Natural History Museum Publications, London 1988. * Janick, Jules; Noller, Carl H.; Rhyker, Charles L. *The Cycles of Plant and Animal Nutrition*, in Food and Agriculture, Scientific American Books, San Francisco 1976. * Manger, Louis N. *A History of the Life Sciences*, M. Dekker, New York, Basel 2002.

Animal husbandry

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_husbandry

***One Thousand and One Nights*** (Arabic: أَلْفُ لَيْلَةٍ وَلَيْلَةٌ, romanized: *ʾAlf Laylah wa-Laylah*) is a collection of Middle Eastern folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the ***Arabian Nights***, from the first English-language edition (c. 1706–1721), which rendered the title as *The Arabian Nights' Entertainment*. The work was collected over many centuries by various authors, translators, and scholars across West Asia, Central Asia, South Asia, and North Africa. Some tales trace their roots back to ancient and medieval Arabic, Sanskrit, Persian, and Mesopotamian literature. Most tales, however, were originally folk stories from the Abbasid and Mamluk eras, while others, especially the frame story, are probably drawn from the Pahlavi Persian work *Hezār Afsān* (Persian: هزار افسان, lit. *A Thousand Tales*), which in turn may be translations of older Indian texts. Common to all the editions of the *Nights* is the framing device of the story of the ruler Shahryar being narrated the tales by his wife Scheherazade, with one tale told over each night of storytelling. The stories proceed from this original tale; some are framed within other tales, while some are self-contained. Some editions contain only a few hundred nights of storytelling, while others include 1001 or more. The bulk of the text is in prose, although verse is occasionally used for songs and riddles and to express heightened emotion. Most of the poems are single couplets or quatrains, although some are longer. Some of the stories commonly associated with the *Arabian Nights*—particularly "Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp" and "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves"—were not part of the collection in its original Arabic versions but were added to the collection by Antoine Galland after he heard them from the Syrian Maronite Christian storyteller Hanna Diab on Diab's visit to Paris. Other stories, such as "The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor", had an independent existence before being added to the collection. Synopsis -------- The main frame story concerns Shahryār whom the narrator calls a "Sasanian king" ruling in "India and China." Shahryār is shocked to learn that his brother's wife is unfaithful. Discovering that his own wife's infidelity has been even more flagrant, he has her killed. In his bitterness and grief, he decides that all women are the same. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of virgins only to execute each one the next morning, before she has a chance to dishonor him. Eventually the Vizier (Wazir), whose duty it is to provide them, cannot find any more virgins. Scheherazade, the vizier's daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins to tell the king a tale, but does not end it. The king, curious about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her execution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins another one, and the king, eager to hear the conclusion of that tale as well, postpones her execution once again. This goes on for one thousand and one nights, hence the name. The tales vary widely: they include historical tales, love stories, tragedies, comedies, poems, burlesques, and various forms of erotica. Numerous stories depict jinn, ghouls, ape people, sorcerers, magicians, and legendary places, which are often intermingled with real people and geography, not always rationally. Common protagonists include the historical Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, his Grand Vizier, Jafar al-Barmaki, and the famous poet Abu Nuwas, despite the fact that these figures lived some 200 years after the fall of the Sassanid Empire, in which the frame tale of Scheherazade is set. Sometimes a character in Scheherazade's tale will begin telling other characters a story of their own, and that story may have another one told within it, resulting in a richly layered narrative texture. Versions differ, at least in detail, as to final endings (in some Scheherazade asks for a pardon, in some the king sees their children and decides not to execute his wife, in some other things happen that make the king distracted) but they all end with the king giving his wife a pardon and sparing her life. The narrator's standards for what constitutes a cliffhanger seem broader than in modern literature. While in many cases a story is cut off with the hero in danger of losing their life or another kind of deep trouble, in some parts of the full text Scheherazade stops her narration in the middle of an exposition of abstract philosophical principles or complex points of Islamic philosophy, and in one case during a detailed description of human anatomy according to Galen—and in all of these cases she turns out to be justified in her belief that the king's curiosity about the sequel would buy her another day of life. History, versions and translations ---------------------------------- The history of the *Nights* is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Robert Irwin summarises their findings: > In the 1880s and 1890s a lot of work was done on the *Nights* by Zotenberg and others, in the course of which a consensus view of the history of the text emerged. Most scholars agreed that the Nights was a composite work and that the earliest tales in it came from India and Persia. At some time, probably in the early eighth century, these tales were translated into Arabic under the title *Alf Layla*, or 'The Thousand Nights'. This collection then formed the basis of *The Thousand and One Nights*. The original core of stories was quite small. Then, in Iraq in the ninth or tenth century, this original core had Arab stories added to it—among them some tales about the Caliph Harun al-Rashid. Also, perhaps from the tenth century onwards, previously independent sagas and story cycles were added to the compilation [...] Then, from the 13th century onwards, a further layer of stories was added in Syria and Egypt, many of these showing a preoccupation with sex, magic or low life. In the early modern period yet more stories were added to the Egyptian collections so as to swell the bulk of the text sufficiently to bring its length up to the full 1,001 nights of storytelling promised by the book's title. > > ### Possible Indian influence Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as frame stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the root of the conception of the *Nights*. The motif of the wise young woman who delays and finally removes an impending danger by telling stories has been traced back to Indian sources. Indian folklore is represented in the *Nights* by certain animal stories, which reflect influence from ancient Sanskrit fables. The influence of the *Panchatantra* and *Baital Pachisi* is particularly notable. It is possible that the influence of the *Panchatantra* is via a Sanskrit adaptation called the *Tantropakhyana*. Only fragments of the original Sanskrit form of the *Tantropakhyana* survive, but translations or adaptations exist in Tamil, Lao, Thai, and Old Javanese. The frame story follows the broad outline of a concubine telling stories in order to maintain the interest and favour of a king—although the basis of the collection of stories is from the *Panchatantra*—with its original Indian setting. The *Panchatantra* and various tales from *Jatakas* were first translated into Persian by Borzūya in 570 CE, they were later translated into Arabic by Ibn al-Muqaffa in 750 CE. The Arabic version was translated into several languages, including Syriac, Greek, Hebrew and Spanish. ### Persian prototype: *Hezār Afsān* The earliest mentions of the *Nights* refer to it as an Arabic translation from a Persian book, *Hezār Afsān* (also known as *Afsaneh* or *Afsana*), meaning 'The Thousand Stories'. In the tenth century, Ibn al-Nadim compiled a catalogue of books (the "Fihrist") in Baghdad. He noted that the Sassanid kings of Iran enjoyed "evening tales and fables". Al-Nadim then writes about the Persian *Hezār Afsān*, explaining the frame story it employs: a bloodthirsty king kills off a succession of wives after their wedding night. Eventually one has the intelligence to save herself by telling him a story every evening, leaving each tale unfinished until the next night so that the king will delay her execution. However, according to al-Nadim, the book contains only 200 stories. He also writes disparagingly of the collection's literary quality, observing that "it is truly a coarse book, without warmth in the telling". In the same century Al-Masudi also refers to the *Hezār Afsān*, saying the Arabic translation is called *Alf Khurafa* ('A Thousand Entertaining Tales'), but is generally known as *Alf Layla* ('A Thousand Nights'). He mentions the characters Shirāzd (Scheherazade) and Dināzād. No physical evidence of the *Hezār Afsān* has survived, so its exact relationship with the existing later Arabic versions remains a mystery. Apart from the Scheherazade frame story, several other tales have Persian origins, although it is unclear how they entered the collection. These stories include the cycle of "King Jali'ad and his Wazir Shimas" and "The Ten Wazirs or the History of King Azadbakht and his Son" (derived from the seventh-century Persian *Bakhtiyārnāma*). In the 1950s, the Iraqi scholar Safa Khulusi suggested (on internal rather than historical evidence) that the Persian writer Ibn al-Muqaffa' was responsible for the first Arabic translation of the frame story and some of the Persian stories later incorporated into the Nights. This would place genesis of the collection in the eighth century. ### Evolving Arabic versions In the mid-20th century, the scholar Nabia Abbott found a document with a few lines of an Arabic work with the title *The Book of the Tale of a Thousand Nights*, dating from the ninth century. This is the earliest known surviving fragment of the *Nights*. The first reference to the Arabic version under its full title *The One Thousand and One Nights* appears in Cairo in the 12th century. Professor Dwight Reynolds describes the subsequent transformations of the Arabic version: > Some of the earlier Persian tales may have survived within the Arabic tradition altered such that Arabic Muslim names and new locations were substituted for pre-Islamic Persian ones, but it is also clear that whole cycles of Arabic tales were eventually added to the collection and apparently replaced most of the Persian materials. One such cycle of Arabic tales centres around a small group of historical figures from ninth-century Baghdad, including the caliph Harun al-Rashid (died 809), his vizier Jafar al-Barmaki (d. 803) and the licentious poet Abu Nuwas (d. c. 813). Another cluster is a body of stories from late medieval Cairo in which are mentioned persons and places that date to as late as the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. > > Two main Arabic manuscript traditions of the Nights are known: the Syrian and the Egyptian. The Syrian tradition is primarily represented by the earliest extensive manuscript of the *Nights*, a fourteenth- or fifteenth-century Syrian manuscript now known as the Galland Manuscript. It and surviving copies of it are much shorter and include fewer tales than the Egyptian tradition. It is represented in print by the so-called *Calcutta I* (1814–1818) and most notably by the 'Leiden edition' (1984). The Leiden Edition, prepared by Muhsin Mahdi, is the only critical edition of 1001 Nights to date, believed to be most stylistically faithful representation of medieval Arabic versions currently available. Texts of the Egyptian tradition emerge later and contain many more tales of much more varied content; a much larger number of originally independent tales have been incorporated into the collection over the centuries, most of them after the Galland manuscript was written, and were being included as late as in the 18th and 19th centuries. All extant substantial versions of both recensions share a small common core of tales: * The Merchant and the Genie * The Fisherman and the Genie * The Porter and the Three Ladies * The Three Apples * Nur al-Din Ali and Shams al-Din (and Badr al-Din Hasan) * Nur al-Din Ali and Anis al-Jalis * Ali Ibn Bakkar and Shams al-Nahar The texts of the Syrian recension do not contain much beside that core. It is debated which of the Arabic recensions is more "authentic" and closer to the original: the Egyptian ones have been modified more extensively and more recently, and scholars such as Muhsin Mahdi have suspected that this was caused in part by European demand for a "complete version"; but it appears that this type of modification has been common throughout the history of the collection, and independent tales have always been added to it. ### Printed Arabic editions The first printed Arabic-language edition of the *One Thousand and One Nights* was published in 1775. It contained an Egyptian version of *The Nights* known as "ZER" (Zotenberg's Egyptian Recension) and 200 tales. No copy of this edition survives, but it was the basis for an 1835 edition by Bulaq, published by the Egyptian government. The *Nights* were next printed in Arabic in two volumes in Calcutta by the British East India Company in 1814–1818. Each volume contained one hundred tales. Soon after, the Prussian scholar Christian Maximilian Habicht collaborated with the Tunisian Mordecai ibn al-Najjar to create an edition containing 1001 nights both in the original Arabic and in German translation, initially in a series of eight volumes published in Breslau in 1825–1838. A further four volumes followed in 1842–1843. In addition to the Galland manuscript, Habicht and al-Najjar used what they believed to be a Tunisian manuscript, which was later revealed as a forgery by al-Najjar. Both the ZER printing and Habicht and al-Najjar's edition influenced the next printing, a four-volume edition also from Calcutta (known as the *Macnaghten* or *Calcutta II* edition). This claimed to be based on an older Egyptian manuscript (which has never been found). A major recent edition, which reverts to the Syrian recension, is a critical edition based on the fourteenth- or fifteenth-century Syrian manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale originally used by Galland. This edition, known as the Leiden text, was compiled in Arabic by Muhsin Mahdi (1984–1994). Mahdi argued that this version is the earliest extant one (a view that is largely accepted today) and that it reflects most closely a "definitive" coherent text ancestral to all others that he believed to have existed during the Mamluk period (a view that remains contentious). Still, even scholars who deny this version the exclusive status of "the only *real* Arabian Nights" recognize it as being the best source on the original *style* and linguistic form of the medieval work. In 1997, a further Arabic edition appeared, containing tales from the Arabian Nights transcribed from a seventeenth-century manuscript in the Egyptian dialect of Arabic. ### Modern translations The first European version (1704–1717) was translated into French by Antoine Galland from an Arabic text of the Syrian recension and other sources. This 12-volume work, *Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français* ('The Thousand and one nights, Arab stories translated into French'), included stories that were not in the original Arabic manuscript. "Aladdin's Lamp", and "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" (as well as several other lesser-known tales) appeared first in Galland's translation and cannot be found in any of the original manuscripts. He wrote that he heard them from the Christian Maronite storyteller Hanna Diab during Diab's visit to Paris. Galland's version of the *Nights* was immensely popular throughout Europe, and later versions were issued by Galland's publisher using Galland's name without his consent. As scholars were looking for the presumed "complete" and "original" form of the Nights, they naturally turned to the more voluminous texts of the Egyptian recension, which soon came to be viewed as the "standard version". The first translations of this kind, such as that of Edward Lane (1840, 1859), were bowdlerized. Unabridged and unexpurgated translations were made, first by John Payne, under the title *The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night* (1882, nine volumes), and then by Sir Richard Francis Burton, entitled *The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night* (1885, ten volumes) – the latter was, according to some assessments, partially based on the former, leading to charges of plagiarism. In view of the sexual imagery in the source texts (which Burton emphasized even further, especially by adding extensive footnotes and appendices on Oriental sexual mores) and the strict Victorian laws on obscene material, both of these translations were printed as private editions for subscribers only, rather than published in the usual manner. Burton's original 10 volumes were followed by a further six (seven in the Baghdad Edition and perhaps others) entitled *The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night*, which were printed between 1886 and 1888. It has, however, been criticized for its "archaic language and extravagant idiom" and "obsessive focus on sexuality" (and has even been called an "eccentric ego-trip" and a "highly personal reworking of the text"). Later versions of the *Nights* include that of the French doctor J. C. Mardrus, issued from 1898 to 1904. It was translated into English by Powys Mathers, and issued in 1923. Like Payne's and Burton's texts, it is based on the Egyptian recension and retains the erotic material, indeed expanding on it, but it has been criticized for inaccuracy. Muhsin Mahdi's 1984 Leiden edition, based on the Galland Manuscript, was rendered into English by Husain Haddawy (1990). This translation has been praised as "very readable" and "strongly recommended for anyone who wishes to taste the authentic flavour of those tales." An additional second volume of *Arabian nights* translated by Haddawy, composed of popular tales *not* present in the Leiden edition, was published in 1995. Both volumes were the basis for a single-volume reprint of selected tales of Haddawy's translations. A new English translation was published by Penguin Classics in three volumes in 2008. It is translated by Malcolm C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons with introduction and annotations by Robert Irwin. This is the first complete translation of the Macnaghten or Calcutta II edition (Egyptian recension) since Burton's. It contains, in addition to the standard text of 1001 Nights, the so-called "orphan stories" of *Aladdin* and *Ali Baba* as well as an alternative ending to *The seventh journey of Sindbad* from Antoine Galland's original French. As the translator himself notes in his preface to the three volumes, "[N]o attempt has been made to superimpose on the translation changes that would be needed to 'rectify' ... accretions, ... repetitions, non sequiturs and confusions that mark the present text," and the work is a "representation of what is primarily oral literature, appealing to the ear rather than the eye." The Lyons translation includes all the poetry (in plain prose paraphrase) but does not attempt to reproduce in English the internal rhyming of some prose sections of the original Arabic. Moreover, it streamlines somewhat and has cuts. In this sense it is not, as claimed, a complete translation. A new English language translation was published in December 2021, the first solely by a female author, Yasmine Seale, which removes earlier sexist and racist references. The new translation includes all the tales from Hanna Diyab and additionally includes stories previously omitted featuring female protagonists, such as tales about Parizade, Pari Banu, and the horror story Sidi Numan. ### Timeline Scholars have assembled a timeline concerning the publication history of *The Nights*: * One of the oldest Arabic manuscript fragments from Syria (a few handwritten pages) dating to the early ninth century. Discovered by scholar Nabia Abbott in 1948, it bears the title *Kitab Hadith Alf Layla* ("The Book of the Tale of the Thousand Nights") and the first few lines of the book in which Dinazad asks Shirazad (Scheherazade) to tell her stories. * 10th century: Mention of *Hezār Afsān* in Ibn al-Nadim's "Fihrist" (Catalogue of books) in Baghdad. He attributes a pre-Islamic Sassanian Persian origin to the collection and refers to the frame story of Scheherazade telling stories over a thousand nights to save her life. * 10th century: Reference to *The Thousand Nights*, an Arabic translation of the Persian *Hezār Afsān* ("Thousand Stories"), in *Muruj Al-Dhahab* (The Meadows of Gold) by Al-Mas'udi. * 12th century: A document from Cairo refers to a Jewish bookseller lending a copy of *The Thousand and One Nights* (this is the first appearance of the final form of the title). * 14th century: Existing Syrian manuscript in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris (contains about 300 tales). * 1704: Antoine Galland's French translation is the first European version of *The Nights*. Later volumes were introduced using Galland's name though the stories were written by unknown persons at the behest of the publisher wanting to capitalize on the popularity of the collection. * c. 1706 – c. 1721: An anonymously translated version in English appears in Europe dubbed the 12-volume "Grub Street" version. This is entitled *Arabian Nights' Entertainments*—the first known use of the common English title of the work. * 1768: first Polish translation, 12 volumes. Based, as many European on the French translation. * 1775: Egyptian version of *The Nights* called "ZER" (Hermann Zotenberg's Egyptian Recension) with 200 tales (no surviving edition exists). * 1804–1806, 1825: The Austrian polyglot and orientalist Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856) translates a subsequently lost manuscript into French between 1804 and 1806. His French translation, which was partially abridged and included Galland's "orphan stories", has been lost, but its translation into German that was published in 1825 still survives. * 1814: Calcutta I, the earliest existing Arabic printed version, is published by the British East India Company. A second volume was released in 1818. Both had 100 tales each. * 1811: Jonathan Scott (1754–1829), an Englishman who learned Arabic and Persian in India, produces an English translation, mostly based on Galland's French version, supplemented by other sources. Robert Irwin calls it the "first literary translation into English", in contrast to earlier translations from French by "Grub Street hacks". * Early 19th century: Modern Persian translations of the text are made, variously under the title *Alf leile va leile*, *Hezār-o yek šhab* (هزار و یک شب), or, in distorted Arabic, *Alf al-leil*. Muhammad Baqir Khurasani Buzanjirdi (b.1770) finalized his translation in 1814, patronized by Henry Russell, 2nd Baronet (1783–1852), British Resident in Hyderabad. Three decades later, Abdul Latif Tasuji completed his translation. It was later illustrated by Sani ol Molk (1814–1866) for Mohammad Shah Qajar. * 1825–1838: The Breslau/Habicht edition is published in Arabic in 8 volumes. Christian Maximilian Habicht (born in Breslau, Kingdom of Prussia, 1775) collaborated with the Tunisian Mordecai ibn al-Najjar to create this edition containing 1001 nights. In addition to the Galland manuscript, they used what they believed to be a Tunisian manuscript, which was later revealed as a forgery by al-Najjar. Using versions of *The Nights*, tales from Al-Najjar, and other stories from unknown origins Habicht published his version in Arabic and German. * 1842–1843: Four additional volumes by Habicht. * 1835: Bulaq version: These two volumes, printed by the Egyptian government, are the oldest printed (by a publishing house) version of *The Nights* in Arabic by a non-European. It is primarily a reprinting of the ZER text. * 1839–1842: Calcutta II (4 volumes) is published. It claims to be based on an older Egyptian manuscript (which was never found). This version contains many elements and stories from the Habicht edition. * 1838: Torrens version in English. * 1838–1840: Edward William Lane publishes an English translation. Notable for its exclusion of content Lane found immoral and for its anthropological notes on Arab customs by Lane. * 1882–1884: John Payne publishes an English version translated entirely from Calcutta II, adding some tales from Calcutta I and Breslau. * 1885–1888: Sir Richard Francis Burton publishes an English translation from several sources (largely the same as Payne). His version accentuated the sexuality of the stories *vis-à-vis* Lane's bowdlerized translation. * 1889–1904: J. C. Mardrus publishes a French version using Bulaq and Calcutta II editions. * 1973: First Polish translation based on the original language edition, but compressed 12 volumes to 9, by PIW. * 1984: Muhsin Mahdi publishes an Arabic edition based on the oldest Arabic manuscript surviving (based on the oldest surviving Syrian manuscript currently held in the Bibliothèque Nationale). * 1986–1987: French translation by Arabist René R. Khawam * 1990: Husain Haddawy publishes an English translation of Mahdi. * 2008: New Penguin Classics translation (in three volumes) by Malcolm C. Lyons and Ursula Lyons of the Calcutta II edition Literary themes and techniques ------------------------------ The *One Thousand and One Nights* and various tales within it make use of many innovative literary techniques, which the storytellers of the tales rely on for increased drama, suspense, or other emotions. Some of these date back to earlier Persian, Indian and Arabic literature, while others were original to the *One Thousand and One Nights*. ### Frame story The *One Thousand and One Nights* employs an early example of the frame story, or framing device: the character Scheherazade narrates a set of tales (most often fairy tales) to the Sultan Shahriyar over many nights. Many of Scheherazade's tales are themselves frame stories, such as the *Tale of Sinbad the Seaman and Sinbad the Landsman*, which is a collection of adventures related by Sinbad the Seaman to Sinbad the Landsman. In folkloristics, the frame story is classified as ATU 875B\*, “Storytelling Saves a Wife from Death”. ### Embedded narrative Another technique featured in the *One Thousand and One Nights* is an early example of the "story within a story", or *embedded narrative* technique: this can be traced back to earlier Persian and Indian storytelling traditions, most notably the *Panchatantra* of ancient Sanskrit literature. The *Nights*, however, improved on the *Panchatantra* in several ways, particularly in the way a story is introduced. In the *Panchatantra*, stories are introduced as didactic analogies, with the frame story referring to these stories with variants of the phrase "If you're not careful, that which happened to the louse and the flea will happen to you." In the *Nights*, this didactic framework is the least common way of introducing the story: instead, a story is most commonly introduced through subtle means, particularly as an answer to questions raised in a previous tale. The general story is narrated by an unknown narrator, and in this narration the stories are told by Scheherazade. In most of Scheherazade's narrations there are also stories narrated, and even in some of these, there are some other stories. This is particularly the case for the "Sinbad the Sailor" story narrated by Scheherazade in the *One Thousand and One Nights*. Within the "Sinbad the Sailor" story itself, the protagonist Sinbad the Sailor narrates the stories of his seven voyages to Sinbad the Porter. The device is also used to great effect in stories such as "The Three Apples" and "The Seven Viziers". In yet another tale Scheherazade narrates, "The Fisherman and the Jinni", the "Tale of the Wazir and the Sage Duban" is narrated within it, and within that there are three more tales narrated. ### Dramatic visualization Dramatic visualization is "the representing of an object or character with an abundance of descriptive detail, or the mimetic rendering of gestures and dialogue in such a way as to make a given scene 'visual' or imaginatively present to an audience". This technique is used in several tales of the *One Thousand and One Nights*, such as the tale of "The Three Apples" (see Crime fiction elements below). ### Fate and destiny A common theme in many *Arabian Nights* tales is fate and destiny. Italian filmmaker Pier Paolo Pasolini observed: > every tale in *The Thousand and One Nights* begins with an 'appearance of destiny' which manifests itself through an anomaly, and one anomaly always generates another. So a chain of anomalies is set up. And the more logical, tightly knit, essential this chain is, the more beautiful the tale. By 'beautiful' I mean vital, absorbing and exhilarating. The chain of anomalies always tends to lead back to normality. The end of every tale in *The One Thousand and One Nights* consists of a 'disappearance' of destiny, which sinks back to the somnolence of daily life ... The protagonist of the stories is in fact destiny itself. > > Though invisible, fate may be considered a leading character in the *One Thousand and One Nights*. The plot devices often used to present this theme are coincidence, reverse causation, and the self-fulfilling prophecy (see Foreshadowing section below). ### Foreshadowing Early examples of the foreshadowing technique of repetitive designation, now known as "Chekhov's gun", occur in the *One Thousand and One Nights*, which contains "repeated references to some character or object which appears insignificant when first mentioned but which reappears later to intrude suddenly in the narrative." A notable example is in the tale of "The Three Apples" (see Crime fiction elements below). Another early foreshadowing technique is *formal patterning*, "the organization of the events, actions and gestures which constitute a narrative and give shape to a story; when done well, formal patterning allows the audience the pleasure of discerning and anticipating the structure of the plot as it unfolds." This technique is also found in *One Thousand and One Nights*. #### The self-fulfilling prophecy Several tales in the *One Thousand and One Nights* use the self-fulfilling prophecy, as a special form of literary prolepsis, to foreshadow what is going to happen. This literary device dates back to the story of Krishna in ancient Sanskrit literature, and Oedipus or the death of Heracles in the plays of Sophocles. A variation of this device is the self-fulfilling dream, which can be found in Arabic literature (or the dreams of Joseph and his conflicts with his brothers, in the Hebrew Bible). A notable example is "The Ruined Man who Became Rich Again through a Dream", in which a man is told in his dream to leave his native city of Baghdad and travel to Cairo, where he will discover the whereabouts of some hidden treasure. The man travels there and experiences misfortune, ending up in jail, where he tells his dream to a police officer. The officer mocks the idea of foreboding dreams and tells the protagonist that he himself had a dream about a house with a courtyard and fountain in Baghdad where treasure is buried under the fountain. The man recognizes the place as his own house and, after he is released from jail, he returns home and digs up the treasure. In other words, the foreboding dream not only predicted the future, but the dream was the cause of its prediction coming true. A variant of this story later appears in English folklore as the "Pedlar of Swaffham" and Paulo Coelho's *The Alchemist*; Jorge Luis Borges' collection of short stories *A Universal History of Infamy* featured his translation of this particular story into Spanish, as "The Story of the Two Dreamers". "The Tale of Attaf" depicts another variation of the self-fulfilling prophecy, whereby Harun al-Rashid consults his library (the House of Wisdom), reads a random book, "falls to laughing and weeping and dismisses the faithful vizier Ja'far ibn Yahya from sight. Ja'afar, disturbed and upset, flees Baghdad and plunges into a series of adventures in Damascus, involving Attaf and the woman whom Attaf eventually marries". After returning to Baghdad, Ja'afar reads the same book that caused Harun to laugh and weep, and discovers that it describes his own adventures with Attaf. In other words, it was Harun's reading of the book that provoked the adventures described in the book to take place. This is an early example of reverse causation. Near the end of the tale, Attaf is given a death sentence for a crime he did not commit but Harun, knowing the truth from what he has read in the book, prevents this and has Attaf released from prison. In the 12th century, this tale was translated into Latin by Petrus Alphonsi and included in his *Disciplina Clericalis*, alongside the "Sindibad" story cycle. In the 14th century, a version of "The Tale of Attaf" also appears in the *Gesta Romanorum* and Giovanni Boccaccio's *The Decameron*. ### Repetition *Leitwortstil* is "the purposeful repetition of words" in a given literary piece that "usually expresses a motif or theme important to the given story." This device occurs in the *One Thousand and One Nights*, which binds several tales in a story cycle. The storytellers of the tales relied on this technique "to shape the constituent members of their story cycles into a coherent whole." Another technique used in the *One Thousand and One Nights* is thematic patterning, which is: > [T]he distribution of recurrent thematic concepts and moralistic motifs among the various incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may be arranged so as to emphasize the unifying argument or salient idea which disparate events and disparate frames have in common. > > Several different variants of the "Cinderella" story, which has its origins in the Egyptian story of Rhodopis, appear in the *One Thousand and One Nights*, including "The Second Shaykh's Story", "The Eldest Lady's Tale" and "Abdallah ibn Fadil and His Brothers", all dealing with the theme of a younger sibling harassed by two jealous elders. In some of these, the siblings are female, while in others they are male. One of the tales, "Judar and His Brethren", departs from the happy endings of previous variants and reworks the plot to give it a tragic ending instead, with the younger brother being poisoned by his elder brothers. ### Sexual humour The *Nights* contain many examples of sexual humour. Some of this borders on satire, as in the tale called "Ali with the Large Member" which pokes fun at obsession with penis size. ### Unreliable narrator The literary device of the unreliable narrator was used in several fictional medieval Arabic tales of the *One Thousand and One Nights*. In one tale, "The Seven Viziers" (also known as "Craft and Malice of Women or The Tale of the King, His Son, His Concubine and the Seven Wazirs"), a courtesan accuses a king's son of having assaulted her, when in reality she had failed to seduce him (inspired by the Qur'anic/Biblical story of Yusuf/Joseph). Seven viziers attempt to save his life by narrating seven stories to prove the unreliability of women, and the courtesan responds by narrating a story to prove the unreliability of viziers. The unreliable narrator device is also used to generate suspense in "The Three Apples" and humor in "The Hunchback's Tale" (see Crime fiction elements below). ### Genre elements #### Crime fiction An example of the murder mystery and suspense thriller genres in the collection, with multiple plot twists and detective fiction elements was "The Three Apples", also known as *Hikayat al-sabiyya 'l-maqtula* ('The Tale of the Murdered Young Woman'). In this tale, Harun al-Rashid comes to possess a chest, which, when opened, contains the body of a young woman. Harun gives his vizier, Ja'far, three days to find the culprit or be executed. At the end of three days, when Ja'far is about to be executed for his failure, two men come forward, both claiming to be the murderer. As they tell their story it transpires that, although the younger of them, the woman's husband, was responsible for her death, some of the blame attaches to a slave, who had taken one of the apples mentioned in the title and caused the woman's murder. Harun then gives Ja'far three more days to find the guilty slave. When he yet again fails to find the culprit, and bids his family goodbye before his execution, he discovers by chance his daughter has the apple, which she obtained from Ja'far's own slave, Rayhan. Thus the mystery is solved. Another *Nights* tale with crime fiction elements was "The Hunchback's Tale" story cycle which, unlike "The Three Apples", was more of a suspenseful comedy and courtroom drama rather than a murder mystery or detective fiction. The story is set in a fictional China and begins with a hunchback, the emperor's favourite comedian, being invited to dinner by a tailor couple. The hunchback accidentally chokes on his food from laughing too hard and the couple, fearful that the emperor will be furious, take his body to a Jewish doctor's clinic and leave him there. This leads to the next tale in the cycle, the "Tale of the Jewish Doctor", where the doctor accidentally trips over the hunchback's body, falls down the stairs with him, and finds him dead, leading him to believe that the fall had killed him. The doctor then dumps his body down a chimney, and this leads to yet another tale in the cycle, which continues with twelve tales in total, leading to all the people involved in this incident finding themselves in a courtroom, all making different claims over how the hunchback had died. Crime fiction elements are also present near the end of "The Tale of Attaf" (see Foreshadowing above). #### Horror fiction Haunting is used as a plot device in gothic fiction and horror fiction, as well as modern paranormal fiction. Legends about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. In particular, the *Arabian Nights* tale of "Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad" revolves around a house haunted by jinn. The *Nights* is almost certainly the earliest surviving literature that mentions ghouls, and many of the stories in that collection involve or reference ghouls. A prime example is the story *The History of Gherib and His Brother Agib* (from *Nights* vol. 6), in which Gherib, an outcast prince, fights off a family of ravenous Ghouls and then enslaves them and converts them to Islam. Horror fiction elements are also found in "The City of Brass" tale, which revolves around a ghost town. The horrific nature of Scheherazade's situation is magnified in Stephen King's *Misery*, in which the protagonist is forced to write a novel to keep his captor from torturing and killing him. The influence of the *Nights* on modern horror fiction is certainly discernible in the work of H. P. Lovecraft. As a child, he was fascinated by the adventures recounted in the book, and he attributes some of his creations to his love of the *1001 Nights*. #### Fantasy and science fiction Several stories within the *One Thousand and One Nights* feature early science fiction elements. One example is "The Adventures of Bulukiya", in which the protagonist Bulukiya's quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the seas, journey to Paradise and to Hell, and travel across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of galactic science fiction; along the way, he encounters societies of jinn, mermaids, talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life. In "Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud", the heroine Tawaddud gives an impromptu lecture on the mansions of the Moon, and the benevolent and sinister aspects of the planets. In another *1001 Nights* tale, "Abdullah the Fisherman and Abdullah the Merman", the protagonist Abdullah the Fisherman gains the ability to breathe underwater and discovers an underwater society that is portrayed as an inverted reflection of society on land, in that the underwater society follows a form of primitive communism where concepts like money and clothing do not exist. Other *Arabian Nights* tales also depict Amazon societies dominated by women, lost ancient technologies, advanced ancient civilizations that went astray, and catastrophes which overwhelmed them. "The City of Brass" features a group of travellers on an archaeological expedition across the Sahara to find an ancient lost city and attempt to recover a brass vessel that Solomon once used to trap a jinni, and, along the way, encounter a mummified queen, petrified inhabitants, lifelike humanoid robots and automata, seductive marionettes dancing without strings, and a brass horseman robot who directs the party towards the ancient city, which has now become a ghost town. The "Third Qalandar's Tale" also features a robot in the form of an uncanny boatman. ### Poetry There is an abundance of Arabic poetry in *One Thousand and One Nights*. It is often deployed by stories' narrators to provide detailed descriptions, usually of the beauty of characters. Characters also occasionally quote or speak in verse in certain settings. The uses include but are not limited to: * Giving advice, warning, and solutions. * Praising God, royalties and those in power. * Pleading for mercy and forgiveness. * Lamenting wrong decisions or bad luck. * Providing riddles, laying questions, challenges. * Criticizing elements of life, wondering. * Expressing feelings to others or one's self: happiness, sadness, anxiety, surprise, anger. In a typical example, expressing feelings of happiness to oneself from Night 203, Prince Qamar Al-Zaman, standing outside the castle, wants to inform Queen Bodour of his arrival. He wraps his ring in a paper and hands it to the servant who delivers it to the Queen. When she opens it and sees the ring, joy conquers her, and out of happiness she chants this poem: | | | | --- | --- | | وَلَقدْ نَدِمْتُ عَلى تَفَرُّقِ شَمْلِنا دَهْرًا وَفاضَ الدَّمْعُ مِنْ أَجْفاني وَنَذَرْتُ إِنْ عادَ الزَّمانُ يَلُمُّنا لا عُدْتُ أَذْكُرُ فُرْقَةً بِلِساني هَجَمَ السُّرورُ عَلَيَّ حَتَّى أَنَّهُ مِنْ فَرَطِ ما سَرَّني أَبْكاني يا عَيْنُ صارَ الدَّمْعُ مِنْكِ سِجْيَةً تَبْكينَ مِنْ فَرَحٍ وَأَحْزاني | *Wa-laqad nadimtu ‘alá tafarruqi shamlinā Dahran wa-fāḍa ad-dam‘u min ajfānī Wa-nadhartu in ‘āda az-zamānu yalummunā la ‘udtu adhkuru furqatan bi-lisānī Hajama as-surūru ‘alayya ḥattá annahu min faraṭi mā sarranī abkānī Yā ‘aynu ṣāra ad-dam‘u minki sijyatan tabkīna min faraḥin wa-aḥzānī* | Translations: | | | | --- | --- | | And I have regretted the separation of our companionship An eon, and tears flooded my eyes And I've sworn if time brought us back together I'll never utter any separation with my tongue Joy conquered me to the point of which it made me happy that I cried Oh eye, the tears out of you became a principle You cry out of joy and out of sadness | Long, long have I bewailed the sev'rance of our loves, With tears that from my lids streamed down like burning rain And vowed that, if the days deign reunite us two, My lips should never speak of severance again: Joy hath o'erwhelmed me so that, for the very stress Of that which gladdens me to weeping I am fain. Tears are become to you a habit, O my eyes, So that ye weep as well for gladness as for pain. | | —Literal translation | —Burton's verse translation | In world culture ---------------- The influence of the versions of *The Nights* on world literature is immense. Writers as diverse as Henry Fielding to Naguib Mahfouz have alluded to the collection by name in their own works. Other writers who have been influenced by the *Nights* include John Barth, Jorge Luis Borges, Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Goethe, Walter Scott, Thackeray, Wilkie Collins, Elizabeth Gaskell, Nodier, Flaubert, Marcel Schwob, Stendhal, Dumas, Hugo, Gérard de Nerval, Gobineau, Pushkin, Tolstoy, Hofmannsthal, Conan Doyle, W. B. Yeats, H. G. Wells, Cavafy, Calvino, Georges Perec, H. P. Lovecraft, Marcel Proust, A. S. Byatt and Angela Carter. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Part of its popularity may have sprung from improved standards of historical and geographical knowledge. The marvelous beings and events typical of fairy tales seem less incredible if they are set further "long ago" or farther "far away"; this process culminates in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. Several elements from Arabian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go. In 1982, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) began naming features on Saturn's moon Enceladus after characters and places in Burton's translation because "its surface is so strange and mysterious that it was given the *Arabian Nights* as a name bank, linking fantasy landscape with a literary fantasy." ### In Arab culture There is little evidence that the *Nights* was particularly treasured in the Arab world. It is rarely mentioned in lists of popular literature and few pre-18th-century manuscripts of the collection exist. Fiction had a low cultural status among Medieval Arabs compared with poetry, and the tales were dismissed as *khurafa* (improbable fantasies fit only for entertaining women and children). According to Robert Irwin, "Even today, with the exception of certain writers and academics, the *Nights* is regarded with disdain in the Arabic world. Its stories are regularly denounced as vulgar, improbable, childish and, above all, badly written." Nevertheless, the *Nights* have proved an inspiration to some modern Egyptian writers, such as Tawfiq al-Hakim (author of the Symbolist play *Shahrazad*, 1934), Taha Hussein (*Scheherazade's Dreams*, 1943) and Naguib Mahfouz (*Arabian Nights and Days*, 1979). Idries Shah finds the Abjad numerical equivalent of the Arabic title, *alf layla wa layla*, in the Arabic phrase *umm el quissa*, meaning "mother of records." He goes on to state that many of the stories "are encoded Sufi teaching stories, descriptions of psychological processes, or enciphered lore of one kind or another." On a more popular level, film and TV adaptations based on stories like Sinbad and Aladdin enjoyed long lasting popularity in Arabic speaking countries. ### Early European literature Although the first known translation into a European language appeared in 1704, it is possible that the *Nights* began exerting its influence on Western culture much earlier. Christian writers in Medieval Spain translated many works from Arabic, mainly philosophy and mathematics, but also Arab fiction, as is evidenced by Juan Manuel's story collection *El Conde Lucanor* and Ramón Llull's *The Book of Beasts*. Knowledge of the work, direct or indirect, apparently spread beyond Spain. Themes and motifs with parallels in the *Nights* are found in Chaucer's *The Canterbury Tales* (in *The Squire's Tale* the hero travels on a flying brass horse) and Boccaccio's *Decameron*. Echoes in Giovanni Sercambi's *Novelle* and Ariosto's *Orlando Furioso* suggest that the story of Shahriyar and Shahzaman was also known. Evidence also appears to show that the stories had spread to the Balkans and a translation of the *Nights* into Romanian existed by the 17th century, itself based on a Greek version of the collection. ### Western literature (18th century onwards) #### Galland translations (1700s) The modern fame of the *Nights* derives from the first known European translation by Antoine Galland, which appeared in 1704. According to Robert Irwin, Galland "played so large a part in discovering the tales, in popularizing them in Europe and in shaping what would come to be regarded as the canonical collection that, at some risk of hyperbole and paradox, he has been called the real author of the *Nights*." The immediate success of Galland's version with the French public may have been because it coincided with the vogue for *contes de fées* ('fairy stories'). This fashion began with the publication of Madame d'Aulnoy's *Histoire d'Hypolite* in 1690. D'Aulnoy's book has a remarkably similar structure to the *Nights*, with the tales told by a female narrator. The success of the *Nights* spread across Europe and by the end of the century there were translations of Galland into English, German, Italian, Dutch, Danish, Russian, Flemish and Yiddish. Galland's version provoked a spate of pseudo-Oriental imitations. At the same time, some French writers began to parody the style and concoct far-fetched stories in superficially Oriental settings. These tongue-in-cheek pastiches include Anthony Hamilton's *Les quatre Facardins* (1730), Crébillon's *Le sopha* (1742) and Diderot's *Les bijoux indiscrets* (1748). They often contained veiled allusions to contemporary French society. The most famous example is Voltaire's *Zadig* (1748), an attack on religious bigotry set against a vague pre-Islamic Middle Eastern background. The English versions of the "Oriental Tale" generally contained a heavy moralising element, with the notable exception of William Beckford's fantasy *Vathek* (1786), which had a decisive influence on the development of the Gothic novel. The Polish nobleman Jan Potocki's novel *Saragossa Manuscript* (begun 1797) owes a deep debt to the *Nights* with its Oriental flavour and labyrinthine series of embedded tales. The work was included on a price-list of books on theology, history, and cartography, which was sent by the Scottish bookseller Andrew Millar (then an apprentice) to a Presbyterian minister. This is illustrative of the title's widespread popularity and availability in the 1720s. #### 19th century–20th century The *Nights* continued to be a favourite book of many British authors of the Romantic and Victorian eras. According to A. S. Byatt, "In British Romantic poetry the Arabian Nights stood for the wonderful against the mundane, the imaginative against the prosaically and reductively rational." In their autobiographical writings, both Coleridge and de Quincey refer to nightmares the book had caused them when young. Wordsworth and Tennyson also wrote about their childhood reading of the tales in their poetry. Charles Dickens was another enthusiast and the atmosphere of the *Nights* pervades the opening of his last novel *The Mystery of Edwin Drood* (1870). Several writers have attempted to add a thousand and second tale, including Théophile Gautier (*La mille deuxième nuit*, 1842) and Joseph Roth (*Die Geschichte von der 1002 Nacht*, 1939). Edgar Allan Poe wrote "The Thousand-and-Second Tale of Scheherazade" (1845), a short story depicting the eighth and final voyage of Sinbad the Sailor, along with the various mysteries Sinbad and his crew encounter; the anomalies are then described as footnotes to the story. While the king is uncertain—except in the case of the elephants carrying the world on the back of the turtle—that these mysteries are real, they are actual modern events that occurred in various places during, or before, Poe's lifetime. The story ends with the king in such disgust at the tale Scheherazade has just woven, that he has her executed the very next day. Another important literary figure, the Irish poet W. B. Yeats was also fascinated by the Arabian Nights, when he wrote in his prose book, A Vision an autobiographical poem, titled The Gift of Harun Al-Rashid, in relation to his joint experiments with his wife Georgie Hyde-Lees, with Automatic writing. The automatic writing, is a technique used by many occultists in order to discern messages from the subconscious mind or from other spiritual beings, when the hand moves a pencil or a pen, writing only on a simple sheet of paper and when the person's eyes are shut. Also, the gifted and talented wife, is playing in Yeats's poem as "a gift" herself, given only allegedly by the caliph to the Christian and Byzantine philosopher Qusta Ibn Luqa, who acts in the poem as a personification of W. B. Yeats. In July 1934 he was asked by Louis Lambert, while in a tour in the United States, which six books satisfied him most. The list that he gave placed the Arabian Nights, secondary only to William Shakespeare's works. Modern authors influenced by the *Nights* include James Joyce, Marcel Proust, Jorge Luis Borges, John Barth and Ted Chiang. ### Film, radio and television Stories from the *One Thousand and One Nights* have been popular subjects for films, beginning with Georges Méliès' *Le Palais des Mille et une nuits* (1905). The critic Robert Irwin singles out the two versions of *The Thief of Baghdad* (1924 version directed by Raoul Walsh; 1940 version produced by Alexander Korda) and Pier Paolo Pasolini's *Il fiore delle Mille e una notte* (1974) as ranking "high among the masterpieces of world cinema." Michael James Lundell calls *Il fiore* "the most faithful adaptation, in its emphasis on sexuality, of *The 1001 Nights* in its oldest form." *Alif Laila* (transl. One Thousand Nights; 1933) was a Hindi-language fantasy film based on *One Thousand and One Nights* from the early era of Indian cinema, directed by Balwant Bhatt and Shanti Dave. K. Amarnath made, *Alif Laila* (1953), another Indian fantasy film in Hindi based on the folktale of Aladdin. Niren Lahiri's *Arabian Nights*, an adventure-fantasy film adaptation of the stories, released in 1946. A number of Indian films based on the *Nights* and *The Thief of Baghdad* were produced over the years, including *Baghdad Ka Chor* (1946), *Baghdad Thirudan* (1960), and *Baghdad Gaja Donga* (1968). A television series, *Thief of Baghdad*, was also made in India which aired on Zee TV between 2000 and 2001. UPA, an American animation studio, produced an animated feature version of *1001 Arabian Nights* (1959), featuring the cartoon character Mr. Magoo. The 1949 animated film *The Singing Princess*, another movie produced in Italy, is inspired by The Arabian Nights. The animated feature film, *One Thousand and One Arabian Nights* (1969), produced in Japan and directed by Osamu Tezuka and Eichii Yamamoto, featured psychedelic imagery and sounds, and erotic material intended for adults. *Alif Laila* (*The Arabian Nights*), a 1993–1997 Indian TV series based on the stories from *One Thousand and One Nights* produced by Sagar Entertainment Ltd, aired on DD National starts with Scheherazade telling her stories to Shahryār, and contains both the well-known and the lesser-known stories from *One Thousand and One Nights*. Another Indian television series, *Alif Laila*, based on various stories from the collection aired on Dangal TV in 2020. *Alf Leila Wa Leila*, Egyptian television adaptations of the stories was broadcast between the 80's and early 90's, with each series featuring a cast of big name Egyptian performers such as Hussein Fahmy, Raghda, Laila Elwi, Yousuf Shaaban (actor), Nelly (Egyptian entertainer), Sherihan and Yehia El-Fakharany. Each series premiered on every yearly month of Ramadan between the 1980s and 1990s. One of the best known Arabian Nights-based films is the 1992 Walt Disney animated movie *Aladdin*, which is loosely based on the story of the same name. *Arabian Nights* (2000), a two-part television mini-series adopted for BBC and ABC studios, starring Mili Avital, Dougray Scott, and John Leguizamo, and directed by Steve Barron, is based on the translation by Sir Richard Francis Burton. Shabnam Rezaei and Aly Jetha created, and the Vancouver-based Big Bad Boo Studios produced *1001 Nights* (2011), an animated television series for children, which launched on Teletoon and airs in 80 countries around the world, including Discovery Kids Asia. *Arabian Nights* (2015, in Portuguese: *As Mil e uma Noites*), a three-part film directed by Miguel Gomes, is based on *One Thousand and One Nights*. *Alf Leila Wa Leila*, a popular Egyptian radio adaptation was broadcast on Egyptian radio stations for 26 years. Directed by famed radio director Mohamed Mahmoud Shabaan also known by his nickname *Baba Sharoon*, the series featured a cast of respected Egyptian actors, among them Zouzou Nabil as Scheherazade and Abdelrahim El Zarakany as Shahryar. ### Music The *Nights* has inspired many pieces of music, including: **Classical** * François-Adrien Boieldieu: *Le calife de Bagdad* (1800) * Carl Maria von Weber: *Abu Hassan* (1811) * Luigi Cherubini: *Ali Baba* (1833) * Robert Schumann: *Scheherazade* (1848) * Peter Cornelius: *Der Barbier von Bagdad* (1858) * Ernest Reyer: *La statue* (1861) * C. F. E. Horneman (1840–1906), *Aladdin* (overture), 1864 * Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov: *Scheherazade* Op. 35 (1888) * Tigran Chukhajian (1837–1898), *Zemire* (1891) * Maurice Ravel (1875–1937), *Shéhérazade* (1898) * Ferrucio Busoni: Piano Concerto in C major (1904) * Henri Rabaud: *Mârouf, savetier du Caire* (1914) * Carl Nielsen, *Aladdin Suite* (1918–1919) * Collegium musicum, *Suita po tisic a jednej noci* (1969) * Fikret Amirov: *Arabian Nights* (Ballet, 1979) * Ezequiel Viñao, *La Noche de las Noches* (1990) * Carl Davis, *Aladdin* (Ballet, 1999) **Pop, rock, and metal** * Umm Kulthum: *Alf Leila Wa Leila* (1969) * Renaissance: *Scheherazade and Other Stories* (1975) * Doce: *Ali-Bábá, um homem das Arábias* (1981) * Icehouse: *No Promises* (From the album 'Measure for Measure') (1986) * Kamelot, *Nights of Arabia* (From the album 'The Fourth Legacy') (1999) * Sarah Brightman, *Harem* and *Arabian Nights* (From the album 'Harem') (2003) * Ch!pz, "1001 Arabian Nights (song)" (From the album The World of Ch!pz) (2006) * Nightwish, *Sahara* (2007) * Rock On!!, *Sinbad The Sailor* (2008) * Abney Park, *Scheherazade* (2013) **Musical Theatre** * A Thousand And One Nights (From Twisted: The Untold Story of a Royal Vizier) (2013) * Ghost Quartet (2014) ### Games Popular modern games with an *Arabian Nights* theme include the *Prince of Persia* series, *Crash Bandicoot: Warped,* *Sonic and the Secret Rings*, *Disney's Aladdin*, *Bookworm Adventures*, and the pinball table *Tales of the Arabian Nights.* Additionally, the popular game Magic the Gathering released a set titled Arabian Nights. ### Illustrators Many artists have illustrated the *Arabian nights*, including: Pierre-Clément Marillier for *Le Cabinet des Fées* (1785–1789), Gustave Doré, Léon Carré (Granville, 1878 – Alger, 1942), Roger Blachon, Françoise Boudignon, André Dahan, Amato Soro, Albert Robida, Alcide Théophile Robaudi and Marcelino Truong; Vittorio Zecchin (Murano, 1878 – Murano, 1947) and Emanuele Luzzati; The German Morgan; Mohammed Racim (Algiers, 1896 – Algiers 1975), Sani ol-Molk (1849–1856), Anton Pieck and Emre Orhun. Famous illustrators for British editions include: Arthur Boyd Houghton, John Tenniel, John Everett Millais and George John Pinwell for Dalziel's Illustrated Arabian Nights Entertainments, published in 1865; Walter Crane for Aladdin's Picture Book (1876); Frank Brangwyn for the 1896 edition of Lane's translation; Albert Letchford for the 1897 edition of Burton's translation; Edmund Dulac for Stories from the Arabian Nights (1907), Princess Badoura (1913) and Sindbad the Sailor & Other Tales from the Arabian Nights (1914). Others artists include John D. Batten, (Fairy Tales From The Arabian Nights, 1893), Kay Nielsen, Eric Fraser, Errol le Cain, Maxfield Parrish, W. Heath Robinson and Arthur Szyk (1954). ### Comic books * *Classics Illustrated* #8 (1947) — abridged version of *One Thousand and One Nights* in comic book form. * Carl Barks, the creator of Scrooge McDuck, wrote two substantial adventure stories based on the *Nights*. * "Desert Shadows," *Wet Dreams* (Heavy Metal, 2000), by Alfonso Azpiri. * "Ramadan," *The Sandman* #50 (DC Vertigo, June 1993), by Neil Gaiman (story) and P. Craig Russell (art). * *One Thousand and One Nights* by Jeon Jin Seok (story) and Han Seughee (art) — a manhwa rewriting of the *Nights* for female Korean teenagers. * *Les 1001 nuits de Scheherazade*. Paris: Albin Michel, 2001, by Eric Maltaite. Gallery ------- * The SultanThe Sultan * One Thousand and One Nights book.*One Thousand and One Nights* book. * Harun ar-Rashid, a leading character of the 1001 NightsHarun ar-Rashid, a leading character of the 1001 Nights * The fifth voyage of SindbadThe fifth voyage of Sindbad * William Harvey, The Fifth Voyage of Es-Sindbad of the Sea, 1838–40, woodcutWilliam Harvey, *The Fifth Voyage of Es-Sindbad of the Sea*, 1838–40, woodcut * William Harvey, The Story of the City of Brass, 1838–40, woodcutWilliam Harvey, *The Story of the City of Brass*, 1838–40, woodcut * William Harvey, The Story of the Two Princes El-Amjad and El-As'ad, 1838–40, woodcutWilliam Harvey, *The Story of the Two Princes El-Amjad and El-As'ad*, 1838–40, woodcut * William Harvey, The Story of Abd Allah of the Land and Abd Allah of the SeaWilliam Harvey, *The Story of Abd Allah of the Land and Abd Allah of the Sea* * William Harvey, The Story of the Fisherman, 1838–40, woodcutWilliam Harvey, *The Story of the Fisherman*, 1838–40, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Friedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcutFriedrich Gross, ante 1830, woodcut * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Abon-Hassan the Wag ("He found himself upon the royal couch"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Abon-Hassan the Wag* ("He found himself upon the royal couch"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of the Merchant ("Sheherezade telling the stories"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of the Merchant* ("Sheherezade telling the stories"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Ansal-Wajooodaud, Rose-in-Bloom ("The daughter of a Visier sat at a lattice window"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Ansal-Wajooodaud, Rose-in-Bloom* ("The daughter of a Visier sat at a lattice window"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Gulnare ("The merchant uncovered her face"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Gulnare* ("The merchant uncovered her face"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Beder Basim ("Whereupon it became eared corn"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Beder Basim* ("Whereupon it became eared corn"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Abdalla ("Abdalla of the sea sat in the water, near the shore"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Abdalla* ("Abdalla of the sea sat in the water, near the shore"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of Mahomed Ali ("He sat his boat afloat with them"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of Mahomed Ali* ("He sat his boat afloat with them"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard * Frank Brangwyn, Story of the City of Brass ("They ceased not to ascend by that ladder"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboardFrank Brangwyn, *Story of the City of Brass* ("They ceased not to ascend by that ladder"), 1895–96, watercolour and tempera on millboard See also -------- * Arabic literature * Ghost stories * Hamzanama * List of *One Thousand and One Nights* characters * List of stories from *The Book of One Thousand and One Nights* (translation by R. F. Burton) * List of works influenced by *One Thousand and One Nights* * Persian literature * Shahnameh * The Panchatantra - an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story. * *One Hundred and One Nights (book)* - a similar medieval tale collection using the same frame story as *One Thousand and One Nights* General sources --------------- * Irwin, Robert (2004). *The Arabian Nights: A Companion*. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-983-1. OCLC 693781081. * Irwin, Robert (2010). *The Arabian Nights: A Companion*. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85771-051-2. OCLC 843203755. * Ch. Pellat, "Alf Layla Wa Layla" in Encyclopædia Iranica. Online Access June 2011 at * David Pinault *Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights* (Brill Publishers, 1992) * Dwight Reynolds, "*A Thousand and One Nights*: a history of the text and its reception" in *The Cambridge History of Arabic Literature* Vol 6. (CUP 2006) * Eva Sallis *Scheherazade Through the Looking-Glass: The Metamorphosis of the Thousand and One Nights* (Routledge, 1999), * Ulrich Marzolph (ed.) *The Arabian Nights Reader* (Wayne State University Press, 2006) * Ulrich Marzolph, Richard van Leeuwen, Hassan Wassouf,*The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia* (2004) * Yamanaka, Yuriko and Nishio, Tetsuo (ed.) *The Arabian Nights and Orientalism – Perspectives from East and West* (I.B. Tauris, 2006) ISBN 1-85043-768-8 Further reading --------------- * Chauvin, Victor Charles; Schnurrer, Christian Friedrich von. *Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou relatifs aux Arabes, publiés dans l'Europe chrétienne de 1810 à 1885*. Líege H. Vaillant-Carmanne. 1892–1922. * El-Shamy, Hasan. "A 'Motif Index of Alf Laylah Wa Laylah': Its Relevance to the Study of Culture, Society, the Individual, and Character Transmutation". *Journal of Arabic Literature*, vol. 36, no. 3, 2005, pp. 235–268. JSTOR 4183550. Accessed 22 Apr. 2020. * Horta, Paulo Lemos, *Marvellous Thieves: The Secret Authors of the Arabian Nights* (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017). * Kennedy, Philip F., and Marina Warner, eds. Scheherazade's Children: Global Encounters with the Arabian Nights. NYU Press, 2013. JSTOR j.ctt9qfrpw. * Marzolph, Ulrich, 'Arabian Nights', in *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, 3rd ed. (Leiden: Brill, 2007–), doi:10.1163/1573-3912\_ei3\_COM\_0021 * Nurse, Paul McMichael. *Eastern Dreams: How the Arabian Nights Came to the World* Viking Canada: 2010. General popular history of the 1001 Nights from its earliest days to the present. * Shah, Tahir, *In Arabian Nights: A search of Morocco through its stories and storytellers* (Doubleday, 2007). * *The Islamic Context of The Thousand and One Nights* by Muhsin J. al-Musawi, Columbia University Press, 2009. * *Where Is A Thousand Tales? [Hezar Afsan Kojast?]* by Bahram Beyzai, Roshangaran va Motale'ate Zanan, 2012.

One Thousand and One Nights

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_Thousand_and_One_Nights

The **South Korea national football team** (Korean: 대한민국 축구 국가대표팀; recognized as **Korea Republic** by FIFA) represents South Korea in men's international football and is governed by the Korea Football Association. South Korea has emerged as a major football power in Asia since the 1980s, having participated in ten consecutive and eleven overall FIFA World Cup tournaments, the most for any Asian country. Despite initially going through five World Cup tournaments without winning a match, South Korea became the first (and so far only) Asian team to reach the semi-finals when they co-hosted the 2002 tournament with Japan. South Korea also won two AFC Asian Cup titles, and finished as runners-up on four occasions. Furthermore, the team won three gold medals and three silver medals at the senior Asian Games. The team is commonly nicknamed the "Reds" by both fans and the media due to the color of their primary kit. The national team's supporting group is officially referred to as the Red Devils. History ------- ### Early history Korea (Joseon) was not introduced to the sport of association football until the late 19th century; it is often said that football in Korea dates to 1882, when the Royal Navy sailors from HMS *Flying Fish* played a game while their vessel was visiting the Incheon Port. Korea became a Japanese colony in 1905 and was annexed into it outright in 1910. In 1921, the first All Joseon Football Tournament was held, and in 1928, the Joseon Football Association was organized, which created a foundation to disseminate and develop football in Korea. Korean teams participated in competitions with Japanese teams from around 1926; Joseon Football Club became a *de facto* national team for Koreans, and won the 1935 Emperor's Cup. Koreans also played for the Japanese national team, most notably Kim Yong-sik who played for Japan at the 1936 Summer Olympics. The Joseon FA was reorganized in 1945 as Japanese occupation ended with the end of World War II. Following the establishment of the South Korean state in the late 1940s, a new Korea Football Association (KFA) was founded in 1948 and joined FIFA, the international football governing body. The same year, the South Korean national team made its international debut and won 5–3 against Mexico at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London. ### First World Cup team (1954) In 1954, South Korea entered FIFA World Cup qualification for the first time, and qualified for the 1954 FIFA World Cup by beating Japan 7–3 on aggregate. South Korea were only the second Asian team to compete at a World Cup after the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia), and the first fully-independent Asian nation to do so. South Korea lost their only two games by heavy margins: 9–0 against Hungary (the joint-heaviest defeat in World Cup history) and 7–0 against Turkey. Their third scheduled game, against West Germany, was never played because neither were seeded in their group, as per that tournament's rules. It would take thirty-two years before South Korea was able to participate at the World Cup finals again. Despite this poor performance, South Korea successfully rallied by winning the inaugural AFC Asian Cup in 1956. They hosted the next edition in 1960 and successfully retained the title, beating South Vietnam, Israel, and Republic of China in the process. However, the South Korean players received fake medals, instead of the gold medals they had been promised, and returned them to the KFA. The KFA promised to give them real medals, but this did not occur until 2019. South Korea have not won the AFC Asian Cup since 1960, something that has thus been attributed to the "curse of the fake gold medals." ### Foundation of Yangzee (1967) In 1965, the South Korean government was hesitant to play football matches against North Korea and thus withdrew from the 1966 FIFA World Cup qualification to avoid possibly playing the northern neighbors. Kim Yong-sik, the KFA vice-president at that time, had evaluated North Korea as a world class team. This would be proven true, as the North Koreans advanced to the quarter-finals at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In March 1967, the South Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA) founded Yangzee FC, collecting famous footballers in South Korea to train them intensively. Yangzee players received benefits like exemption from military service, long-term overseas training and high salaries in return for intensive training. At the 1968 Summer Olympics qualification, South Korea was eliminated by goal difference although their points were tied with Japan, the group winners. They also participated in the 1969 Asian Club Championship, finishing as runners-up. However, South Korea failed to qualify for the 1970 FIFA World Cup despite governmental support, and Yangzee was losing support as Kim Hyong-uk, the director of KCIA and supporter of the club, was dismissed from his post, and tensions between South and North Korea were beginning to subside. Yangzee was eventually dissolved in March 1970 without ever having played against North Korea, but players achieved a good result by winning the 1970 Asian Games. ### Golden generation (1986) **Oh** Yun-kyo **Cho** Young-jeung **Chung** Yong-hwan **Park** Kyung-hoon **Huh** Jung-moo **Park** Chang-sun **Cho** Kwang-rae **Byun** Byung-joo **Kim** Joo-sung **Cha** Bum-kun **Choi** Soon-ho South Korea's starting line-up against Italy at the 1986 FIFA World Cup. In 1986, South Korea won the East Asian tournament of the 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification including two victories against Japan in the final round, and was able to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1954. After one of the greatest forwards of German Bundesliga at that time, Cha Bum-kun, joined the existing winning team, the South Korean squad for the 1986 FIFA World Cup was evaluated as the golden generation in their country. South Korea lost 3–1 to the eventual champion Argentina but Park Chang-sun scored the first South Korean goal of the World Cup in the first group match. They drew 1–1 with Bulgaria and faced the defending champion Italy in the crucial last match. They conceded Alessandro Altobelli's opening goal, but Choi Soon-ho scored the equalizer outside the penalty area. However, Altobelli's second goal was followed by Cho Kwang-rae's fatal own goal, and South Korea lost 3–2 in the match although Huh Jung-moo pulled one back. Afterwards, South Korean newscasts and journalists criticized the referee David Socha, claiming that his judgements about situations of the game were poor including the decision to award a penalty to Italy. South Korea redeemed their failure of World Cup success with a gold at the 1986 Asian Games. ### Tragedy of Marseille (1998) In 1997, Cha Bum-kun became the head coach going into the 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification. South Korea consecutively won four early qualifiers against Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Japan and the United Arab Emirates, and quickly solidified their position as first place of the group. At the 1998 FIFA World Cup, they lost their first match against Mexico 3–1. Ha Seok-ju scored a deflected free kick for the opening goal, but was then sent off only three minutes after for an ill-advised tackle. South Korea was then thoroughly outclassed by the Netherlands, managed by Guus Hiddink, losing 5–0 in Marseille. Cha was sacked in the middle of the group stage after the loss to the Netherlands. The only South Korean player to be praised from the match was the goalkeeper Kim Byung-ji, who conceded five of the Netherlands' 17 shots on target. The team then managed a 1–1 draw against Belgium. ### Hiddink's magic (2002) Seoul Plaza during the 2002 World Cup **Lee** Woon-jae **Hong** Myung-bo **Choi** Jin-cheul **Kim** Tae-young **Song** Chong-gug **Lee** Young-pyo **Kim** Nam-il **Yoo** Sang-chul **Park** Ji-sung **Seol** Ki-hyeon **Ahn** Jung-hwan South Korea's starting line-up against Italy at the 2002 FIFA World Cup. On 18 December 2000, the KFA named Dutch coach Guus Hiddink as the manager of the team for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, co-hosted in South Korea. The KFA promised him to ensure long-term training camps and authority about management of coaching staff. At the 2001 FIFA Confederations Cup, they lost 5–0 against France, the eventual champions, and failed to advance to the semi-finals although defeating Australia and Mexico. South Korean journalists criticized Hiddink and gave him a nickname "Oh-dae-ppang", which means five to nothing in Korean, when South Korea lost 5–0 again in the friendly match against Czech Republic after the Confederations Cup. At the 2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup, South Korea finished in fourth place with two draws and three losses without a win. However, they showed their improvement in friendly matches against European teams just before the World Cup, finishing the preparation for the tournament successfully. South Korea co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup tournament with Japan. They had never won a game in the World Cup previously but the South Korean team achieved their first ever victory in a World Cup with a 2–0 victory against Poland when the tournament began. Their next game was against the United States and earned a 1–1 draw, with striker Ahn Jung-hwan scoring a late game equalizer. Their last game was against the favored Portuguese side. Portugal earned two red cards in the match, reducing them to nine men and Park Ji-sung scored the winning goal in a 1–0 victory, allowing the South Korean team to qualify for the second round for the first time in their history. The team's success led to widespread euphoria from the South Korean public, with many people joining the Red Devils, which gained widespread attention with their passionate support of the team. South Korea's second round opponents were Italy, who they defeated 2–1. The South Korean team was awarded an early penalty but Ahn Jung-hwan's effort was saved by Italian keeper Gianluigi Buffon. Christian Vieri then scored to put Italy ahead but Seol Ki-hyeon scored an equalizer in the 88th minute, allowing the game to go through to extra time. Francesco Totti was controversially sent off for an alleged dive and Ahn redeemed his missed penalty by scoring the winner with a headed golden goal, allowing them to advance to the quarter-final. South Korea faced Spain in the quarter-finals. Spain managed to score twice in this match, but both goals were disallowed by the referees. The game then went to the penalty shoot-out where South Korea won 5–3, thus becoming the first Asian team to reach the final four. The South Korean team's run was halted by a 1–0 loss to Germany in the semi-finals. They lost to Turkey 3–2 in the third-place match and finished the tournament in fourth place. Team captain Hong Myung-bo received the Bronze Ball as the World Cup's third best player, the first Asian footballer to be awarded this. In addition Hong was selected for the team of tournament alongside teammate Yoo Sang-chul, the first and only time Asian footballers have been named. This level of success was unprecedented for a country that had never before won a game in the World Cup. They had gone further than any Asian team and upset several established European teams in the process, leading to an increase in the popularity of football in the country. Hiddink became a national hero in South Korea, becoming the first person to be granted honorary citizenship as well as being given a private villa. ### Captain Park era (2008) South Korea playing against Argentina at the FIFA World Cup, in June 2010. In 2008, South Korea chose Huh Jung-moo as their manager, and Park Ji-sung as the next captain. Under Huh and Park, the South Korean team was undefeated for 27 consecutive games in 2009. At the fourth round of the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification, they recorded four wins and four draws without a loss against North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Iran and the United Arab Emirates. At the 2010 FIFA World Cup, they won their first game against Greece 2–0, with goals from Lee Jung-soo and Park Ji-sung. They then faced Argentina and suffered a 4–1 defeat, including an own goal by forward Park Chu-young. They then obtained a 2–2 draw in a match against Nigeria, with Lee Jung-soo scoring in the tournament once more and Park Chu-young redeeming his own goal from the previous game by scoring from a free kick. This allowed them to make it to the second round for the first time on foreign soil. In the knockout stage they met Uruguay, who took an early lead with a goal from Luis Suárez. South Korea equalized in the second half after Lee Chung-yong scored his second goal of the tournament but South Korea conceded another goal by Suárez in the 80th minute. Despite maintaining the majority of the possession in the second half, South Korea was unable to equalize again and were eliminated from the tournament. ### Proactive football (2022) Paulo Bento was the longest-serving manager in South Korean national team history. Kim Pan-gon, the KFA official in charge of finding a new coach, contracted Paulo Bento and his coaching team to set long-term goals after the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Bento showed a philosophy that wasn't dominated by the opposition's tactics and maintained his team's build-up play. However, South Korea, an underdog in the World Cup, had been familiar with reactive tactics that focus on defense. His style received negative assessments from a significant number of KFA's executives, and he came under fire from the South Korean media. Bento severed relations with the technical committee and managed the national team with only his coaching staff after Kim Pan-gon resigned from the association. Nevertheless, the national team players were attracted to his tactics and systematic training programs, and strongly supported him. Bento's team easily qualified for the 2022 FIFA World Cup after scoring well against Asian teams, but the media still doubted that his proactive tactics would be effective against World Cup giants. Before the tournament, Son Heung-min, the Premier League Golden Boot winner and one of South Korea's key players, injured his eye socket and wasn't in optimal condition. At the World Cup, South Korea contested a goalless draw with Uruguay, but encountered a crisis after losing 3–2 to Ghana in the second match. Their defense failed to block all three of Ghana's shots on target, although their striker Cho Gue-sung scored two goals with headers. Bento was sent off for arguing with referee Anthony Taylor just after the match ended, and had to see South Korea's last group match against his homeland Portugal in the stands. However, South Korea defeated Portugal 2–1 with Kim Young-gwon and Hwang Hee-chan's goals, advancing to the knockout stage as group runners-up. Despite a 4–1 defeat to Brazil in the round of 16, the four-year challenge with Bento was finally appreciated by journalists and set a good direction for South Korean football. Team image ---------- ### Nicknames The South Korea national football team has been known or nicknamed as the *Taegeuk Warriors* (Korean: 태극전사) and the *Tigers of Asia* (Korean: 아시아의 호랑이). ### Kits and crest Red is the traditional shirt color of the South Korean national team, who are consequently nicknamed the "Reds", while the fans are called the "Red Devils". The away shirt has varied between white and blue. In 1994, the home shirt shifted from red to white, but in October 1995, red returned as home color, paired with black shorts. South Korea used to wear the South Korean flag as their shirt badge until 2001, when their tiger crest was unveiled. On 5 February 2020, the KFA announced a new, more simplistic logo. The emblem retained the tiger, albeit in a more minimalist design, enclosed in a rectangular frame. Red, blue and white, South Korea's traditional colors, have been maintained in the new logo. #### Kit suppliers | Kit supplier | Period | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | | Adidas, Asics, Kolon Sports,Prospecs, Weekend [ko] | 1977–1985 | South Korea didn't have an exclusive kit sponsor at that time,though they contracted with Adidas as their first official kit sponsor. | | Weekend [ko] | 1985–1988 | Sportswear brand of Samsung C&T Corporation | | Rapido [ko] | 1988–1995 | Weekend was renamed "Rapido" in January 1988. | | Nike | 1996–present | Contracted at the end of 1995, and sponsored since 1 January 1996. | #### Kit deals | Kit supplier | Period | Contract date | Contract duration | Total | Annual | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nike | 1996–present | December 1995 | 1996–1997 | $3 million | $1.5 million | | | 16 December 1997 | 1998–2002 | $38 million | $7.6 million | | | 9 January 2003 | 2003–2007 | $50 million | $10.0 million | | | 23 October 2007 | 2008–2011 | $49 million | $12.3 million | | | 13 January 2012 | 2012–2019 | $120 million | $15.0 million | | | 20 January 2020 | 2020–2031 | $204 million | $17.0 million | | ### Home stadium The South Korea national team played their first home match at the Dongdaemun Stadium on 21 April 1956. The match was a qualifier for the 1956 AFC Asian Cup against the Philippines. They currently play their home matches at several stadiums, which are also used by K League clubs. ### Rivalries South Korea's greatest rival is Japan. This rivalry is an extension of a competitive rivalry between the two nations that goes beyond football, and some matches in the past have been tainted with controversy. South Korea leads the all-time series with 42 wins, 23 draws and 16 losses. A rivalry has also developed with Iran. The two nations have played against each other officially since 1958, totalling 33 matches as of March 2022, including eleven World Cup qualifiers. South Korea and Iran were among the strongest Asian national teams during the 1960s and 1970s. Although the teams only had one chance to play against each other in the final match of the AFC Asian Cup, in 1972, they have faced each other five consecutive times in the quarter-finals between 1996 and 2011, with each team recording two wins, two losses, and a draw. Iran leads the all-time series with 13 wins, 10 draws and 10 losses. Another major rival is Australia. South Korea trails behind Australia with 8 wins, 11 draws and 9 defeats. In major competitions, South Korea won only two official matches against Australia, and also lost in the 2015 AFC Asian Cup Final. South Korea has had great success against China, with China failing to defeat them in 28 competitive matches before finally winning a game in 2010. They also possess a strong rivalry with North Korea, though matches are infrequent due to diplomatic and security reasons. ### Supporters The official supporter group of the national team, the Red Devils, were founded in 1995. Known for their passionate support, they are commonly referred to as the 12th man. Their most common chant is "Dae-Han-Min-Guk" (Korean: 대~한민국; lit. 'Republic of Korea' or 'Great Korea'), followed by five claps. The FIFA Fan Fest was introduced at the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 China  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 July 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **China** | **0–3** | **South Korea** | Toyota, Japan | | 19:00 UTC+9 | | Report | * Zhu Chenjie 39' (o.g.) * Kwon Chang-hoon 54' * Cho Gue-sung 80' | Stadium: Toyota StadiumAttendance: 200Referee: Akhrol Riskullaev (Uzbekistan) | South Korea  v  Hong Kong | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 July 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **South Korea** | **3–0** | **Hong Kong** | Toyota, Japan | | 16:00 UTC+9 | * Kang Seong-jin 17', 86' * Hong Chul 74' | Report | | Stadium: Toyota Stadium, ToyotaAttendance: 4,335Referee: Nazmi Nasaruddin (Malaysia) | Japan  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 July 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | **Japan** | **3–0** | **South Korea** | Toyota, Japan | | 19:20 UTC+9 | * Soma 49' * Sasaki 63' * Machino 72' | Report | | Stadium: Toyota StadiumAttendance: 14,117Referee: Akhrol Riskullaev (Uzbekistan) | South Korea  v  Costa Rica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 September Friendly | **South Korea** | **2–2** | **Costa Rica** | Goyang, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Hwang Hee-chan 28' * Son Heung-min 85' | Report | * Bennette 41', 63' | Stadium: Goyang StadiumAttendance: 37,581Referee: Alex King (Australia) | South Korea  v  Cameroon | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September Friendly | **South Korea** | **1–0** | **Cameroon** | Seoul, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Son Heung-min 35' | Report | | Stadium: Seoul World Cup StadiumAttendance: 59,389Referee: Alex King (Australia) | South Korea  v  Iceland | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 11 November Friendly | **South Korea** | **1–0** | **Iceland** | Hwaseong, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Song Min-kyu 33' | Report | | Stadium: Hwaseong StadiumAttendance: 15,274Referee: Jumpei Iida (Japan) | Uruguay  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 November 2022 FIFA World Cup Group H | **Uruguay** | **0–0** | **South Korea** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 16:00 UTC+3 | | Report | | Stadium: Education City StadiumAttendance: 41,663Referee: Clément Turpin (France) | South Korea  v  Ghana | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 November 2022 FIFA World Cup Group H | **South Korea** | **2–3** | **Ghana** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 16:00 UTC+3 | * Cho Gue-sung 58', 61' | Report | * Salisu 24' * Kudus 34', 68' | Stadium: Education City StadiumAttendance: 43,983Referee: Anthony Taylor (England) | South Korea  v  Portugal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 December 2022 FIFA World Cup Group H | **South Korea** | **2–1** | **Portugal** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 18:00 UTC+3 | * Kim Young-gwon 27' * Hwang Hee-chan 90+1' | Report | * Horta 5' | Stadium: Education City StadiumAttendance: 44,097Referee: Facundo Tello (Argentina) | Brazil  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 5 December 2022 FIFA World Cup R16 | **Brazil** | **4–1** | **South Korea** | Doha, Qatar | | 22:00 UTC+3 | * Vinícius 7' * Neymar 13' (pen.) * Richarlison 29' * Paquetá 36' | Report | * Paik Seung-ho 76' | Stadium: Stadium 974Attendance: 43,847Referee: Clément Turpin (France) | ### 2023 South Korea  v  Colombia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 March Friendly | **South Korea** | **2–2** | **Colombia** | Ulsan, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Son Heung-min 10', 45+2' | Report | * Rodríguez 46' * Carrascal 49' | Stadium: Ulsan Munsu Football StadiumAttendance: 35,727Referee: Jumpei Iida (Japan) | South Korea  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March Friendly | **South Korea** | **1–2** | **Uruguay** | Seoul, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Hwang In-beom 51' | Report | * Coates 10' * Vecino 63' | Stadium: Seoul World Cup StadiumAttendance: 63,952Referee: Yudai Yamamoto (Japan) | South Korea  v  Peru | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 June Friendly | **South Korea** | **0–1** | **Peru** | Busan, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | | Report | * Reyna 11' | Stadium: Busan Asiad Main StadiumAttendance: 52,443Referee: Shaun Evans (Australia) | South Korea  v  El Salvador | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June Friendly | **South Korea** | **1–1** | **El Salvador** | Daejeon, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Hwang Ui-jo 49' | Report | * Roldán 87' | Stadium: Daejeon World Cup StadiumAttendance: 39,823Referee: Muhammad Taqi (Singapore) | Wales  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 7 September Friendly | **Wales** | **v** | **South Korea** | Cardiff, Wales | | 19:45 UTC+1 | | Report | | Stadium: Cardiff City Stadium | ### 2024 South Korea  v  Bahrain | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 January 2023 AFC Asian Cup Group E | **South Korea** | **v** | **Bahrain** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 14:30 UTC+3 | | Report | | Stadium: Jassim bin Hamad Stadium | Jordan  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 January 2023 AFC Asian Cup Group E | **Jordan** | **v** | **South Korea** | Doha, Qatar | | 14:30 UTC+3 | | Report | | Stadium: Al Thumama Stadium | South Korea  v  Malaysia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 25 January 2023 AFC Asian Cup Group E | **South Korea** | **v** | **Malaysia** | Doha, Qatar | | 14:30 UTC+3 | | Report | | Stadium: Abdullah bin Khalifa Stadium | All-time results ---------------- *As of 20 June 2023* | Year | GP | W | D | L | Win % | Matches | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1948–1959 | 48 | 28 | 9 | 11 | 058.33 | Matches | | 1960–1969 | 90 | 52 | 15 | 23 | 057.78 | Matches | | 1970–1979 | 186 | 117 | 44 | 25 | 062.90 | Matches | | 1980–1989 | 129 | 75 | 29 | 25 | 058.14 | Matches | | 1990–1999 | 151 | 70 | 45 | 36 | 046.36 | Matches | | 2000–2009 | 171 | 76 | 56 | 39 | 044.44 | Matches | | 2010–2019 | 154 | 81 | 31 | 42 | 052.60 | Matches | | 2020–present | 36 | 20 | 7 | 9 | 055.56 | Matches | | Total | 965 | 519 | 236 | 210 | 053.78 | — | Coaching staff -------------- Jürgen Klinsmann became South Korea's 73rd manager in 2023.Guus Hiddink is widely regarded as the most successful manager in South Korean football history. *As of 9 March 2023* | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Manager | Germany Jürgen Klinsmann | | Assistant manager | Austria Andi Herzog | | Coach | Italy Paolo Stringara | | Canada Michael Kim | | Goalkeeping coach | Germany Andreas Köpke | | Fitness coach | Germany Werner Leuthard | | Technical advisor | South Korea Cha Du-ri | Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the friendly matches against Peru and El Salvador on 16 and 20 June 2023, respectively. *Caps and goals updated as of 20 June 2023, after the match against El Salvador.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Kim Seung-gyu | (1990-09-30) 30 September 1990 (age 32) | 74 | 0 | Saudi Arabia Al-Shabab | | 12 | 1GK | Song Bum-keun | (1997-10-15) 15 October 1997 (age 25) | 1 | 0 | Japan Shonan Bellmare | | 21 | 1GK | Jo Hyeon-woo | (1991-09-25) 25 September 1991 (age 31) | 23 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Lee Ki-je | (1991-07-09) 9 July 1991 (age 31) | 5 | 0 | South Korea Suwon Samsung Bluewings | | 3 | 2DF | Kim Jin-su | (1992-06-13) 13 June 1992 (age 31) | 67 | 2 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | | 4 | 2DF | Kim Ju-sung | (2000-12-12) 12 December 2000 (age 22) | 1 | 0 | South Korea FC Seoul | | 15 | 2DF | Jung Seung-hyun | (1994-04-03) 3 April 1994 (age 29) | 13 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | | 22 | 2DF | Seol Young-woo | (1998-12-05) 5 December 1998 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | | 23 | 2DF | Park Ji-soo | (1994-06-13) 13 June 1994 (age 29) | 16 | 0 | Portugal Portimonense | | 25 | 2DF | Park Kyu-hyun | (2001-04-14) 14 April 2001 (age 22) | 2 | 0 | Germany Dynamo Dresden | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Park Yong-woo | (1993-09-10) 10 September 1993 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | | 6 | 3MF | Hwang In-beom | (1996-09-20) 20 September 1996 (age 26) | 45 | 5 | Greece Olympiacos | | 7 | 3MF | Son Heung-min *(captain)* | (1992-07-08) 8 July 1992 (age 30) | 111 | 37 | England Tottenham Hotspur | | 8 | 3MF | Won Du-jae | (1997-11-18) 18 November 1997 (age 25) | 7 | 0 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | | 10 | 3MF | Lee Jae-sung | (1992-08-10) 10 August 1992 (age 30) | 71 | 9 | Germany Mainz 05 | | 11 | 3MF | Hwang Hee-chan | (1996-01-26) 26 January 1996 (age 27) | 53 | 10 | England Wolverhampton Wanderers | | 17 | 3MF | Na Sang-ho | (1996-08-12) 12 August 1996 (age 26) | 28 | 2 | South Korea FC Seoul | | 18 | 3MF | Lee Kang-in | (2001-02-19) 19 February 2001 (age 22) | 14 | 0 | Spain Mallorca | | 20 | 3MF | Moon Seon-min | (1992-06-09) 9 June 1992 (age 31) | 14 | 2 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | | 24 | 3MF | Hong Hyun-seok | (1999-06-16) 16 June 1999 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | Belgium Gent | | --- | | 9 | 4FW | Cho Gue-sung | (1998-01-25) 25 January 1998 (age 25) | 24 | 6 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | | 16 | 4FW | Hwang Ui-jo | (1992-08-28) 28 August 1992 (age 30) | 56 | 17 | South Korea FC Seoul | | 19 | 4FW | Oh Hyeon-gyu | (2001-04-12) 12 April 2001 (age 22) | 5 | 0 | Scotland Celtic | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the South Korea squad within the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Gu Sung-yun | (1994-06-27) 27 June 1994 (age 28) | 4 | 0 | Japan Hokkaido Consadole Sapporo | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | GK | Kim Dong-jun | (1994-12-19) 19 December 1994 (age 28) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Jeju United | v.  Cameroon, 27 September 2022 | | --- | | DF | Kwon Kyung-won | (1992-01-31) 31 January 1992 (age 31) | 30 | 2 | Japan Gamba Osaka | v.  Peru, 16 June 2023 INJ | | DF | Ahn Hyeon-beom | (1994-12-21) 21 December 1994 (age 28) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Jeju United | v.  Peru, 16 June 2023 INJ | | DF | Kim Young-gwon | (1990-02-27) 27 February 1990 (age 33) | 102 | 7 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Kim Min-jae | (1996-11-15) 15 November 1996 (age 26) | 49 | 3 | Italy Napoli | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Kim Moon-hwan | (1995-08-01) 1 August 1995 (age 27) | 26 | 0 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Kim Tae-hwan | (1989-07-24) 24 July 1989 (age 33) | 21 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Cho Yu-min | (1996-11-17) 17 November 1996 (age 26) | 5 | 0 | South Korea Daejeon Hana Citizen | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Hong Chul | (1990-09-17) 17 September 1990 (age 32) | 47 | 1 | South Korea Daegu FC | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Yoon Jong-gyu | (1998-03-20) 20 March 1998 (age 25) | 4 | 0 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Lee Sang-min | (1998-01-01) 1 January 1998 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | DF | Park Min-gyu | (1995-08-10) 10 August 1995 (age 27) | 0 | 0 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | DF | Lee Jae-ik | (1999-05-21) 21 May 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Seoul E-Land | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | --- | | MF | Son Jun-ho | (1992-05-12) 12 May 1992 (age 31) | 20 | 0 | China Shandong Taishan | v.  Peru, 16 June 2023 WD | | MF | Jung Woo-young | (1989-12-14) 14 December 1989 (age 33) | 72 | 3 | Qatar Al-Sadd | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Kwon Chang-hoon | (1994-06-30) 30 June 1994 (age 28) | 43 | 12 | South Korea Suwon Samsung Bluewings | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Paik Seung-ho | (1997-03-17) 17 March 1997 (age 26) | 15 | 3 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Song Min-kyu | (1999-09-12) 12 September 1999 (age 23) | 13 | 1 | South Korea Jeonbuk Hyundai Motors | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Jeong Woo-yeong | (1999-09-20) 20 September 1999 (age 23) | 11 | 2 | Germany SC Freiburg | v.  Uruguay, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Kim Jin-gyu | (1997-02-24) 24 February 1997 (age 26) | 8 | 2 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | MF | Um Won-sang | (1999-01-06) 6 January 1999 (age 24) | 7 | 0 | South Korea Ulsan Hyundai | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | MF | Ko Seung-beom | (1994-04-24) 24 April 1994 (age 29) | 3 | 0 | South Korea Suwon Samsung Bluewings | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | MF | Yang Hyun-jun | (2002-05-25) 25 May 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | South Korea Gangwon FC | v.  Iceland, 11 November 2022 | | MF | Lee Yeong-jae | (1994-09-13) 13 September 1994 (age 28) | 5 | 0 | South Korea Suwon FC | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | MF | Kim Dong-hyun | (1997-06-11) 11 June 1997 (age 26) | 3 | 0 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | MF | Kang Seong-jin | (2003-03-26) 26 March 2003 (age 20) | 2 | 2 | South Korea FC Seoul | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | MF | Goh Young-joon | (2001-07-09) 9 July 2001 (age 21) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Pohang Steelers | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | MF | Lee Ki-hyuk | (2000-07-07) 7 July 2000 (age 22) | 1 | 0 | South Korea Jeju United | 2022 EAFF E-1 Football Championship | | --- | | FW | Cho Young-wook | (1999-02-05) 5 February 1999 (age 24) | 4 | 1 | South Korea Gimcheon Sangmu | v.  Cameroon, 27 September 2022 | | --- Notes* INJ = Withdrew due to injury * WD = Player withdrew from the squad due to non-injury issue. | ### Notable former players The following players were inducted into the KFA Hall of Fame, or were selected for the Korean Best XI of All Time in one or more surveys. - **Goalkeepers** * Hong Deok-young (1948–1954) * Lee Se-yeon (1966–1973) * Lee Woon-jae (1994–2010) - **Defenders** * Kim Jung-nam (1964–1973) * Kim Ho (1966–1972) * Hong Myung-bo (1990–2002) * Lee Young-pyo (1999–2011) - **Midfielders** * Kim Yong-sik (1948–1950) * Huh Jung-moo (1974–1986) * Lee Young-moo (1975–1981) * Cho Kwang-rae (1977–1986) * Park Chang-sun (1979–1986) * Park Ji-sung (2000–2011) - **Forwards** * Lee Hoe-taik (1966–1977) * Cha Bum-kun (1972–1986) * Choi Soon-ho (1980–1991) * Kim Joo-sung (1985–1996) Individual records ------------------ *As of 20 June 2023* Players in **bold** are still active with South Korea. ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Cha Bum-kun | 136 | 58 | 1972–1986 | | Hong Myung-bo | 136 | 10 | 1990–2002 | | 3 | Lee Woon-jae | 133 | 0 | 1994–2010 | | 4 | Lee Young-pyo | 127 | 5 | 1999–2011 | | 5 | Kim Ho-kon | 124 | 5 | 1971–1979 | | 6 | Yoo Sang-chul | 122 | 18 | 1994–2005 | | 7 | Cho Young-jeung | 113 | 1 | 1975–1986 | | 8 | **Son Heung-min** | 111 | 37 | 2010–present | | 9 | Ki Sung-yueng | 110 | 10 | 2008–2019 | | 10 | Park Sung-hwa | 107 | 26 | 1975–1984 | | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Cha Bum-kun | 58 | 136 | 0.43 | 1972–1986 | | 2 | Hwang Sun-hong | 50 | 103 | 0.49 | 1988–2002 | | 3 | **Son Heung-min** | 37 | 111 | 0.33 | 2010–present | | 4 | Park Lee-chun | 36 | 89 | 0.4 | 1969–1974 | | 5 | Kim Jae-han | 33 | 57 | 0.58 | 1972–1979 | | Lee Dong-gook | 33 | 105 | 0.31 | 1998–2017 | | 7 | Choi Soon-ho | 30 | 103 | 0.29 | 1980–1991 | | 8 | Kim Do-hoon | 29 | 72 | 0.4 | 1994–2003 | | Huh Jung-moo | 29 | 84 | 0.35 | 1974–1986 | | 10 | Choi Yong-soo | 27 | 67 | 0.4 | 1995–2003 | | Lee Tae-ho | 27 | 72 | 0.38 | 1980–1991 | | Kim Jin-kook | 27 | 94 | 0.29 | 1972–1978 | Competitive record ------------------   Champions    Runners-up    Third place      Tournament played on home soil ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | | Uruguay 1930 | *Not a FIFA member* | *Not a FIFA member* | | Italy 1934 | | France 1938 | | Brazil 1950 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Switzerland 1954 | Group stage | 16th | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 16 | Squad | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | | Sweden 1958 | *Did not enter* | *Entry denied by FIFA* | | Chile 1962 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 9 | | England 1966 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Mexico 1970 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 5 | | West Germany 1974 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 10 | 4 | | Argentina 1978 | 12 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 16 | 9 | | Spain 1982 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 4 | | Mexico 1986 | Group stage | 20th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 7 | Squad | 8 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 17 | 3 | | Italy 1990 | 22nd | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 6 | Squad | 11 | 9 | 2 | 0 | 30 | 1 | | United States 1994 | 20th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | Squad | 13 | 9 | 3 | 1 | 32 | 5 | | France 1998 | 30th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 9 | Squad | 12 | 9 | 2 | 1 | 28 | 8 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Fourth place | 4th | 7 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 6 | Squad | *Qualified as hosts* | | Germany 2006 | Group stage | 17th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | Squad | 12 | 7 | 3 | 2 | 18 | 7 | | South Africa 2010 | Round of 16 | 15th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 8 | Squad | 14 | 7 | 7 | 0 | 22 | 7 | | Brazil 2014 | Group stage | 27th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | Squad | 14 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 27 | 11 | | Russia 2018 | 19th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | Squad | 18 | 12 | 3 | 3 | 38 | 10 | | Qatar 2022 | Round of 16 | 16th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 8 | Squad | 16 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 35 | 4 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Fourth place | 11/19 | 38 | 7 | 10 | 21 | 39 | 78 | — | 151 | 94 | 39 | 18 | 299 | 90 | 1. ↑ Statistics since 1948, when South Korea became a member of FIFA. ### Olympic Games *Football at the Summer Olympics has been an under-23 tournament since 1992.* | Olympic Games record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | | 1900–1936 | *Not an IOC member* | | | United Kingdom 1948 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 15 | Squad | *Directly qualified* | | Finland 1952 | *Did not enter* | | | Australia 1956 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | | Italy 1960 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 4 | | Japan 1964 | Group stage | 14th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 20 | Squad | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 4 | | Mexico 1968 | *Did not qualify* | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 17 | 5 | | West Germany 1972 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 16 | 2 | | Canada 1976 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 5 | | Soviet Union 1980 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 16 | 6 | | United States 1984 | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 19 | 11 | | South Korea 1988 | Group stage | 11th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Squad | *Qualified as hosts* | | 1992–present | *See South Korea national under-23 football team* | | | Total | Quarter-finals | 3/11 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 37 | — | 42 | 24 | 7 | 11 | 91 | 39 | 1. ↑ Includes one unofficial match against Brazil Olympic. 2. ↑ Includes two unofficial matches against the Soviet Union Olympic and Argentina Olympic. 3. ↑ Statistics since 1947, when South Korea became a member of the International Olympic Committee. ### AFC Asian Cup | AFC Asian Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | | British Hong Kong 1956 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 6 | Squad | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 1 | | South Korea 1960 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 1 | Squad | *Qualified as hosts* | | Israel 1964 | Third place | 3rd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | Squad | *Direct entry* | | Pahlavi Iran 1968 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 4 | | 1972 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 6 | Squad | *Direct entry* | | Pahlavi Iran 1976 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | | Kuwait 1980 | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 6 | Squad | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 1 | | Singapore 1984 | Group stage | 9th | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 0 | | Qatar 1988 | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 11 | 3 | Squad | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | | Japan 1992 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | United Arab Emirates 1996 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 11 | Squad | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 0 | | Lebanon 2000 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 6 | Squad | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 0 | | China 2004 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 4 | Squad | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 30 | 4 | | Indonesia Malaysia Vietnam 2007 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 3 | Squad | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 15 | 5 | | Qatar 2011 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 13 | 7 | Squad | *Directly qualified* | | Australia 2015 | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 2 | Squad | *Directly qualified* | | United Arab Emirates 2019 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 2 | Squad | 8 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 27 | 0 | | Qatar 2023 | *Qualified* | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 22 | 1 | | Total | Champions | 15/18 | 67 | 36 | 16 | 15 | 106 | 64 | — | 56 | 41 | 6 | 9 | 186 | 24 | 1. 1 2 3 South Korea played with their "B" team. ### Asian Games *Football at the Asian Games has been an under-23 tournament since 2002.* | Asian Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | | India 1951 | *Did not enter* | | Philippines 1954 | Silver medalists | 2nd | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 15 | 12 | Squad | | Japan 1958 | Silver medalists | 2nd | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 15 | 6 | Squad | | Indonesia 1962 | Silver medalists | 2nd | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 5 | Squad | | 1966 | First round | 11th | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | Squad | | 1970 | Gold medalists | 1st | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 3 | Squad | | Iran 1974 | Second round | 8th | 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 10 | Squad | | 1978 | Gold medalists | 1st | 7 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 15 | 3 | Squad | | India 1982 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3 | Squad | | South Korea 1986 | Gold medalists | 1st | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 3 | Squad | | China 1990 | Bronze medalists | 3rd | 6 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 18 | 1 | Squad | | Japan 1994 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 17 | 7 | Squad | | 1998 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 6 | Squad | | 2002–present | *See South Korea national under-23 football team* | | Total | Gold medalists | 12/13 | 61 | 36 | 8 | 17 | 128 | 63 | — | ### EAFF Championship | EAFF Championship record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | | Japan 2003 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | Squad | | South Korea 2005 | Fourth place | 4th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Squad | | China 2008 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 4 | Squad | | Japan 2010 | Runners-up | 2nd | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 4 | Squad | | South Korea 2013 | Third place | 3rd | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | Squad | | China 2015 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 | Squad | | Japan 2017 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | Squad | | South Korea 2019 | Champions | 1st | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | Squad | | Japan 2022 | Runners-up | 2nd | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 3 | Squad | | | Total | Champions | 9/9 | 27 | 13 | 10 | 4 | 39 | 20 | — | ### Other competitions | Year | Competition | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | F | A | Squad | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | United States 2000 | CONCACAF Gold Cup | Group stage | 9th | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | Squad | | South Korea Japan 2001 | FIFA Confederations Cup | Group stage | 5th | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 6 | Squad | | United States 2002 | CONCACAF Gold Cup | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 7 | Squad | Head-to-head record ------------------- The following table shows South Korea's head-to-head record, correct as of 20 June 2023. **Key**| | **Positive balance** (more wins) | | | **Neutral balance** (equal W/L ratio) | | | **Negative balance** (more losses) | | Opponent | Played | Won | Drawn | Lost | GF | GA | GD | Winning % | Confederation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Afghanistan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 2 | +6 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Algeria | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | +0 | 050.00 | CAF | |  Angola | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Argentina | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 8 | −6 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Australia (list) | 28 | 8 | 11 | 9 | 28 | 28 | +0 | 028.57 | AFC | |  Bahrain | 16 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 37 | 11 | +26 | 068.75 | AFC | |  Bangladesh | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | +13 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Belarus | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Belgium | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | −4 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Bolivia | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 033.33 | CONMEBOL | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 3 | +0 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Brazil | 8 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 6 | 20 | −14 | 012.50 | CONMEBOL | |  Brunei | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Bulgaria | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Burkina Faso | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Cambodia | 7 | 6 | 0 | 1 | 22 | 4 | +18 | 085.71 | AFC | |  Cameroon | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 10 | 3 | +7 | 060.00 | CAF | |  Canada | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | +1 | 040.00 | CONCACAF | |  Chile | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 033.33 | CONMEBOL | |  China (list) | 36 | 21 | 13 | 2 | 52 | 26 | +26 | 058.33 | AFC | |  Chinese Taipei | 21 | 14 | 1 | 6 | 50 | 19 | +31 | 066.67 | AFC | |  Colombia | 8 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 14 | 9 | +5 | 050.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Costa Rica | 10 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 13 | 12 | +1 | 040.00 | CONCACAF | |  Croatia | 7 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 7 | 11 | −4 | 028.57 | UEFA | |  Cuba | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +0 | 000.00 | CONCACAF | |  Czech Republic | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 14 | −9 | 020.00 | UEFA | |  Denmark | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | −2 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Ecuador | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 | 050.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Egypt | 18 | 6 | 7 | 5 | 18 | 21 | −3 | 033.33 | CAF | |  El Salvador | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | +0 | 000.00 | CONCACAF | |  England | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | +0 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Finland | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  France | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 9 | −6 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Georgia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | +0 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Germany | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 5 | +2 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Ghana | 7 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 10 | 14 | −4 | 042.86 | CAF | |  Greece | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | +5 | 075.00 | UEFA | |  Guam | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | +9 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Guatemala | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 033.33 | CONCACAF | |  Haiti | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100.00 | CONCACAF | |  Honduras | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | +9 | 100.00 | CONCACAF | |  Hong Kong | 29 | 22 | 5 | 2 | 69 | 21 | +48 | 075.86 | AFC | |  Hungary | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 10 | −10 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Iceland | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 | +5 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  India | 19 | 14 | 2 | 3 | 48 | 12 | +36 | 073.68 | AFC | |  Indonesia | 36 | 30 | 4 | 2 | 84 | 19 | +65 | 083.33 | AFC | |  Iran | 33 | 10 | 10 | 13 | 36 | 34 | +2 | 030.30 | AFC | |  Iraq | 22 | 8 | 12 | 2 | 26 | 14 | +12 | 036.36 | AFC | |  Israel | 11 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 17 | 12 | +5 | 045.45 | UEFA | |  Italy | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | +0 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Ivory Coast | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Jamaica | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 3 | +4 | 050.00 | CONCACAF | |  Japan (list) | 81 | 42 | 23 | 16 | 124 | 76 | +48 | 051.85 | AFC | |  Jordan | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 2 | +3 | 060.00 | AFC | |  Kazakhstan | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Kuwait | 24 | 12 | 4 | 8 | 30 | 20 | +10 | 050.00 | AFC | |  Kyrgyzstan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Laos | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 28 | 0 | +28 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Latvia | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Lebanon | 16 | 12 | 3 | 1 | 28 | 5 | +23 | 075.00 | AFC | |  Libya | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Macau | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 2 | +9 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Malaysia | 46 | 26 | 12 | 8 | 78 | 42 | +36 | 056.52 | AFC | |  Maldives | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 050.00 | AFC | |  Mali | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Malta | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Mexico | 14 | 4 | 2 | 8 | 18 | 29 | −11 | 028.57 | CONCACAF | |  Moldova | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Mongolia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Morocco | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | −2 | 000.00 | CAF | |  Myanmar | 27 | 15 | 7 | 5 | 42 | 15 | +27 | 055.56 | AFC | |    Nepal | 7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 53 | 0 | +53 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Netherlands | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 7 | −7 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  New Zealand | 7 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 1 | +9 | 085.71 | OFC | |  Nigeria | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 6 | +3 | 060.00 | CAF | |  North Korea (list) | 17 | 7 | 9 | 1 | 14 | 6 | +8 | 041.18 | AFC | |  North Macedonia | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Northern Ireland | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Norway | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | −1 | 025.00 | UEFA | |  Oman | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 4 | +6 | 080.00 | AFC | |  Pakistan | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | +13 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Panama | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | +0 | 000.00 | CONCACAF | |  Paraguay | 7 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 7 | +1 | 028.57 | CONMEBOL | |  Peru | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 5 | −5 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Philippines | 8 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 37 | 0 | +37 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Poland | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Portugal | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Qatar | 11 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 19 | 13 | +6 | 054.55 | AFC | |  Romania | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Russia | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 7 | −3 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Saudi Arabia | 17 | 4 | 8 | 5 | 18 | 17 | +1 | 023.53 | AFC | |  Scotland | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Senegal | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | −1 | 025.00 | CAF | |  Serbia | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | +0 | 033.33 | UEFA | |  Serbia and Montenegro | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Singapore | 26 | 21 | 3 | 2 | 85 | 19 | +66 | 080.77 | AFC | |  Slovakia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +0 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  South Yemen | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Spain | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 16 | −11 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Sri Lanka | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 19 | 0 | +19 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Sudan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | +8 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Sweden | 5 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 18 | −15 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Switzerland | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 050.00 | UEFA | |  Syria | 10 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 12 | 5 | +7 | 060.00 | AFC | |  Tajikistan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Thailand | 45 | 30 | 7 | 8 | 92 | 36 | +56 | 066.67 | AFC | |  Togo | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | +0 | 000.00 | CONCACAF | |  Tunisia | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 000.00 | CAF | |  Turkey | 7 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 13 | −9 | 014.29 | UEFA | |  Turkmenistan | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 16 | 4 | +12 | 080.00 | AFC | |  Ukraine | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  United Arab Emirates | 21 | 13 | 5 | 3 | 38 | 14 | +24 | 061.90 | AFC | |  United States | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 10 | 8 | +2 | 045.45 | CONCACAF | |  Uruguay | 10 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 7 | 15 | −8 | 010.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Uzbekistan | 16 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 34 | 14 | +20 | 068.75 | AFC | |  Venezuela | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Vietnam | 24 | 16 | 6 | 2 | 60 | 21 | +39 | 066.67 | AFC | |  Yemen | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Yugoslavia | 7 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 13 | −9 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Zambia | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 10 | 8 | +2 | 050.00 | CAF | | Total | 965 | 519 | 236 | 210 | 1,727 | 893 | +834 | 053.78 | | 1. ↑ Until 2006, Australia was a member of OFC. 2. ↑ Including the Khmer Republic. 3. ↑ Including the Republic of China. 4. ↑ Including Czechoslovakia. 5. ↑ Including the United Arab Republic. 6. ↑ Israel was a member of AFC between 1954 and 1974. In 1994, they received full UEFA membership. 7. ↑ Including the Federation of Malaya. 8. ↑ Including Burma. 9. ↑ Including Macedonia. 10. ↑ Including South Vietnam. 11. ↑ Including North Yemen. 12. ↑ Including SFR Yugoslavia and FR Yugoslavia. Honours ------- * **FIFA World Cup** Fourth place: 2002 * **Afro-Asian Cup of Nations** 1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions: 1987 * **AFC Asian Cup** 1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions: 1956, 1960 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 1972, 1980, 1988, 2015 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Third place: 1964, 2000, 2007, 2011 * **Asian Games** 1st place, gold medalist(s) Gold medalists: 1970, 1978, 1986 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Silver medalists: 1954, 1958, 1962 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Bronze medalists: 1990 Fourth place: 1994 * **CONCACAF Gold Cup** Fourth place: 2002 * **EAFF Championship** 1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions: 2003, 2008, 2015, 2017, 2019 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2010, 2022 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Third place: 2013 Fourth place: 2005 * **Minor competitions** + Korea Cup: 1971, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1985, 1987, 1991, 1997 + Merdeka Tournament: 1960, 1965, 1967, 1970, 1972, 1975, 1977, 1978 + King's Cup: 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1998 + Jakarta Anniversary Tournament: 1981 + Dynasty Cup: 1990 + LG Cup: 2000, 2001, 2006 * **Awards** + FIFA World Cup Most Entertaining Team: 2002 + AFC National Team of the Year: 2002, 2009 + EAFF Championship Fair Play Award: 2008 + AFC Asian Cup Fair Play Award: 2011 See also -------- * Football in South Korea * South Korea national football B team * South Korea national under-23 football team * South Korea national under-20 football team * South Korea national under-17 football team * South Korea women's national football team

South Korea national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea_national_football_team

**Operation Barbarossa** (German: *Unternehmen Barbarossa*; Russian: Операция Барбаросса, romanized: *Operatsiya Barbarossa*) was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and many of its Axis allies, starting on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during the Second World War. It was the largest land offensive in human history, with over 10 million combatants taking part. The operation, code-named after Frederick Barbarossa ("red beard"), a 12th-century Holy Roman emperor and German king, put into action Nazi Germany's ideological goal of conquering the western Soviet Union to repopulate it with Germans. The German *Generalplan Ost* aimed to use some of the conquered people as forced labour for the Axis war effort while acquiring the oil reserves of the Caucasus as well as the agricultural resources of various Soviet territories including Ukraine and Byelorussia. Their ultimate goal was to create more *Lebensraum* (living space) for Germany, and the eventual extermination of the Native Slavic peoples by mass deportation to Siberia, Germanisation, enslavement, and genocide. In the two years leading up to the invasion, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed political and economic pacts for strategic purposes. Following the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina, the German High Command began planning an invasion of the Soviet Union in July 1940 (under the codename Operation Otto). Over the course of the operation, over 3.8 million personnel of the Axis powers—the largest invasion force in the history of warfare—invaded the western Soviet Union along a 2,900-kilometer (1,800 mi) front, with 600,000 motor vehicles and over 600,000 horses for non-combat operations. The offensive marked a massive escalation of World War II, both geographically and with the Anglo-Soviet Agreement, which brought the USSR into the Allied coalition. The operation opened up the Eastern Front, in which more forces were committed than in any other theater of war in human history. The area saw some of history’s largest battles, most horrific atrocities, and highest casualties (for Soviet and Axis forces alike), all of which influenced the course of World War II and the subsequent history of the 20th century. The German armies eventually captured some five million Soviet Red Army troops. The Nazis deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet prisoners of war, and millions of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" worked to solve German food shortages and exterminate the Slavic population through starvation. Mass shootings and gassing operations, carried out by the Nazis or willing collaborators, murdered over a million Soviet Jews as part of the Holocaust. The failure of Operation Barbarossa reversed the fortunes of Nazi Germany. Operationally, German forces achieved significant victories and occupied some of the most important economic areas of the Soviet Union (mainly in Ukraine) and inflicted, as well as sustained, heavy casualties. Despite these early successes, the German offensive stalled in the Battle of Moscow at the end of 1941, and the subsequent Soviet winter counteroffensive pushed the Germans about 250 km (160 mi) back. German high command anticipated a quick collapse of Soviet resistance as in Poland, analogous to the reaction Russia had during WWI. However no such collapse occurred, instead the Red Army absorbed the German *Wehrmacht*'s strongest blows and bogged it down in a war of attrition for which the Germans were unprepared. The *Wehrmacht*'s diminished forces could no longer attack along the entire Eastern Front, and subsequent operations to retake the initiative and drive deep into Soviet territory—such as Case Blue in 1942 and Operation Citadel in 1943—eventually failed, which resulted in the *Wehrmacht*'s defeat. This then paved the way for the collapse of the Nazi Party and German expansionism, all the way to their defeat in 1945. Background ---------- ### Naming According to a Germanic medieval legend, revived in the 19th century by the nationalistic tropes of German Romanticism, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa—who drowned in Asia Minor while leading the Third Crusade—is not dead but asleep along with his knights in a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountains in Thuringia and is going to awaken in the hour of Germany's greatest need and restore the nation to its former glory. The theme of Barbarossa had long been used by the Nazis as part of their political imagery. Originally, the invasion of the Soviet Union was codenamed *Operation Otto* (alluding to Holy Roman Emperor Otto the Great's expansive campaigns in Eastern Europe), but Hitler had the name changed to *Operation Barbarossa* in December 1940. Hitler had in July 1937 praised Barbarossa as the emperor who first expressed Germanic cultural ideas and carried them to the outside world through his imperial mission. For Hitler, the name Barbarossa signified his belief that the conquest of the Soviet Union would usher in the Nazi "Thousand-Year Reich". ### Racial policies of Nazi Germany As early as 1925, Adolf Hitler vaguely declared in his political manifesto and autobiography *Mein Kampf* that he would invade the Soviet Union, asserting that the German people needed to secure *Lebensraum* ('living space') to ensure the survival of Germany for generations to come. On 10 February 1939, Hitler told his army commanders that the next war would be "purely a war of *Weltanschauungen* ['worldviews']... totally a people's war, a racial war". On 23 November, once World War II had already started, Hitler declared that "racial war has broken out and this war shall determine who shall govern Europe, and with it, the world". The racial policy of Nazi Germany portrayed the Soviet Union (and all of Eastern Europe) as populated by non-Aryan *Untermenschen* ('sub-humans'), ruled by Jewish Bolshevik conspirators. Hitler claimed in *Mein Kampf* that Germany's destiny was to *Drang nach Osten* ('turn to the East') as it did "600 years ago" (see *Ostsiedlung*). Accordingly, it was a partially secret but well-documented Nazi policy to kill, deport, or enslave the majority of Russian and other Slavic populations and repopulate the land west of the Urals with Germanic peoples, under Generalplan Ost. The Nazis' belief in their ethnic superiority pervades official records and pseudoscientific articles in German periodicals, on topics such as "how to deal with alien populations". While older histories tended to emphasize the myth of the "clean *Wehrmacht*", upholding its honor in the face of Hitler's fanaticism, the historian Jürgen Förster notes that "In fact, the military commanders were caught up in the ideological character of the conflict, and involved in its implementation as willing participants". Before and during the invasion of the Soviet Union, German troops were indoctrinated with anti-Bolshevik, anti-Semitic and anti-Slavic ideology via movies, radio, lectures, books, and leaflets. Likening the Soviets to the forces of Genghis Khan, Hitler told the Croatian military leader Slavko Kvaternik that the "Mongolian race" threatened Europe. Following the invasion, many *Wehrmacht* officers told their soldiers to target people who were described as "Jewish Bolshevik subhumans", the "Mongol hordes", the "Asiatic flood" and the "Red beast". Nazi propaganda portrayed the war against the Soviet Union as an ideological war between German National Socialism and Jewish Bolshevism and a racial war between the disciplined Germans and the Jewish, Romani and Slavic *Untermenschen*. An 'order from the Führer' stated that the paramilitary SS *Einsatzgruppen*, which closely followed the *Wehrmacht*'s advance, were to execute all Soviet functionaries who were "less valuable Asiatics, Gypsies and Jews". Six months into the invasion of the Soviet Union, the *Einsatzgruppen* had murdered more than 500,000 Soviet Jews, a figure greater than the number of Red Army soldiers killed in battle by then. German army commanders cast Jews as the major cause behind the "partisan struggle". The main guideline for German troops was "Where there's a partisan, there's a Jew, and where there's a Jew, there's a partisan" or "The partisan is where the Jew is". Many German troops viewed the war in Nazi terms and regarded their Soviet enemies as sub-human. After the war began, the Nazis issued a ban on sexual relations between Germans and foreign slaves. There were regulations enacted against the *Ost-Arbeiter* ('Eastern workers') that included the death penalty for sexual relations with a German. Heinrich Himmler, in his secret memorandum, *Reflections on the Treatment of Peoples of Alien Races in the East* (dated 25 May 1940), outlined the Nazi plans for the non-German populations in the East. Himmler believed the Germanization process in Eastern Europe would be complete when "in the East dwell only men with truly German, Germanic blood". The Nazi secret plan *Generalplan Ost* ('General Plan for the East'), prepared in 1941 and confirmed in 1942, called for a "new order of ethnographical relations" in the territories occupied by Nazi Germany in Eastern Europe. It envisaged ethnic cleansing, executions and enslavement of the populations of conquered countries, with very small percentages undergoing Germanization, expulsion into the depths of Russia or other fates, while the conquered territories would be Germanized. The plan had two parts, the *Kleine Planung* ('small plan'), which covered actions to be taken during the war and the *Große Planung* ('large plan'), which covered policies after the war was won, to be implemented gradually over 25 to 30 years. A speech given by General Erich Hoepner demonstrates the dissemination of the Nazi racial plan, as he informed the 4th Panzer Group that the war against the Soviet Union was "an essential part of the German people's struggle for existence" (*Daseinskampf*), also referring to the imminent battle as the "old struggle of Germans against Slavs" and even stated, "the struggle must aim at the annihilation of today's Russia and must, therefore, be waged with unparalleled harshness". Hoepner also added that the Germans were fighting for "the defense of European culture against Moscovite–Asiatic inundation, and the repulse of Jewish Bolshevism ... No adherents of the present Russian-Bolshevik system are to be spared". Walther von Brauchitsch also told his subordinates that troops should view the war as a "struggle between two different races and [should] act with the necessary severity". Racial motivations were central to Nazi ideology and played a key role in planning for Operation Barbarossa since both Jews and communists were considered equivalent enemies of the Nazi state. Nazi imperialist ambitions rejected the common humanity of both groups, declaring the supreme struggle for *Lebensraum* to be a *Vernichtungskrieg* ('war of annihilation'). ### German-Soviet relations of 1939–40 In August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact in Moscow known as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. A secret protocol to the pact outlined an agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union on the division of the eastern European border states between their respective "spheres of influence", Soviet Union and Germany would partition Poland in the event of an invasion by Germany, and the Soviets would be allowed to overrun Finland, Estonia, Latvia and the region of Bessarabia. On 23 August 1939 the rest of the world learned of this pact but were unaware of the provisions to partition Poland. The pact stunned the world because of the parties' earlier mutual hostility and their conflicting ideologies. The conclusion of this pact was followed by the German invasion of Poland on 1 September that triggered the outbreak of World War II in Europe, then the Soviet invasion of Poland that led to the annexation of the eastern part of the country. As a result of the pact, Germany and the Soviet Union maintained reasonably strong diplomatic relations for two years and fostered an important economic relationship. The countries entered a trade pact in 1940 by which the Soviets received German military equipment and trade goods in exchange for raw materials, such as oil and wheat, to help the Nazis war effort by circumventing the British blockade of Germany. Despite the parties' ostensibly cordial relations, each side was highly suspicious of the other's intentions. For instance, the Soviet invasion of Bukovina in June 1940 went beyond their sphere of influence as agreed with Germany. After Germany entered the Axis Pact with Japan and Italy, it began negotiations about a potential Soviet entry into the pact. After two days of negotiations in Berlin from 12 to 14 November 1940, Germany presented a written proposal for a Soviet entry into the Axis. On 25 November 1940, the Soviet Union offered a written counter-proposal to join the Axis if Germany would agree to refrain from interference in the Soviet Union's sphere of influence, but Germany did not respond. As both sides began colliding with each other in Eastern Europe, conflict appeared more likely, although they did sign a border and commercial agreement addressing several open issues in January 1941. According to historian Robert Service, Joseph Stalin was convinced that the overall military strength of the Soviet Union was such that he had nothing to fear and anticipated an easy victory should Germany attack; moreover, Stalin believed that since the Germans were still fighting the British in the west, Hitler would be unlikely to open up a two front war and subsequently delayed the reconstruction of defensive fortifications in the border regions. When German soldiers swam across the Bug River to warn the Red Army of an impending attack, they were shot as enemy agents. Some historians[*who?*] believe that Stalin, despite providing an amicable front to Hitler, did not wish to remain allies with Germany. Rather, Stalin might have had intentions to break off from Germany and proceed with his own campaign against Germany to be followed by one against the rest of Europe. ### Axis invasion plans Stalin's reputation as a brutal dictator contributed both to the Nazis' justification of their assault and their faith in success due to the fact that many competent and experienced military officers had been killed in Stalin's Great Purge of the 1930s, leaving the Red Army with an inexperienced leadership compared to that of their German adversary. The Nazis often emphasized the Soviet regime's brutality when targeting the Slavs with propaganda. They also claimed that the Red Army was preparing to attack the Germans, and their own invasion was thus presented as a pre-emptive strike. Hitler also utilized the rising tension between the Soviet Union and Germany over territories in the Balkans as one of the pretexts for the invasion. While no concrete plans had yet been made, Hitler told one of his generals in June 1940 that the victories in Western Europe finally freed his hands for a "final showdown" with Bolshevism. With the successful end to the campaign in France, General Erich Marcks was assigned the task of drawing up the initial invasion plans of the Soviet Union. The first battle plans were entitled *Operation Draft East* (colloquially known as the *Marcks Plan*). His report advocated the A-A line as the operational objective of any invasion of the Soviet Union. This assault would extend from the northern city of Arkhangelsk on the Arctic Sea through Gorky and Rostov to the port city of Astrakhan at the mouth of the Volga on the Caspian Sea. The report concluded that—once established—this military border would reduce the threat to Germany from attacks by enemy bombers. Although Hitler was warned by many high-ranking military officers, such as Friedrich Paulus, that occupying Western Russia would create "more of a drain than a relief for Germany's economic situation", he anticipated compensatory benefits such as the demobilization of entire divisions to relieve the acute labor shortage in German industry, the exploitation of Ukraine as a reliable and immense source of agricultural products, the use of forced labor to stimulate Germany's overall economy and the expansion of territory to improve Germany's efforts to isolate the United Kingdom. Hitler was further convinced that Britain would sue for peace once the Germans triumphed in the Soviet Union, and if they did not, he would use the resources gained in the East to defeat the British Empire. > > We only have to kick in the door and the whole rotten structure will come crashing down. > > > —Adolf Hitler Hitler received the final military plans for the invasion on 5 December 1940, which the German High Command had been working on since July 1940 under the codename "Operation Otto". Upon reviewing the plans, Hitler formally committed Germany to the invasion when he issued *Führer Directive 21* on 18 December 1940, where he outlined the precise manner in which the operation was to be carried out. Hitler also renamed the operation to *Barbarossa* in honor of medieval Emperor Friedrich I of the Holy Roman Empire, a leader of the Third Crusade in the 12th century. The Barbarossa Decree, issued by Hitler on 30 March 1941, supplemented the Directive by decreeing that the war against the Soviet Union would be one of annihilation and legally sanctioned the eradication of all Communist political leaders and intellectual elites in Eastern Europe. The invasion was tentatively set for May 1941, but it was delayed for over a month to allow for further preparations and possibly better weather. According to a 1978 essay by German historian Andreas Hillgruber, the invasion plans drawn up by the German military elite were substantially coloured by hubris, stemming from the rapid defeat of France at the hands of the "invincible" *Wehrmacht* and by traditional German stereotypes of Russia as a primitive, backward "Asiatic" country. Red Army soldiers were considered brave and tough, but the officer corps was held in contempt. The leadership of the *Wehrmacht* paid little attention to politics, culture, and the considerable industrial capacity of the Soviet Union, in favour of a very narrow military view. Hillgruber argued that because these assumptions were shared by the entire military elite, Hitler was able to push through with a "war of annihilation" that would be waged in the most inhumane fashion possible with the complicity of "several military leaders", even though it was quite clear that this would be in violation of all accepted norms of warfare. Even so, in autumn 1940, some high-ranking German military officials drafted a memorandum to Hitler on the dangers of an invasion of the Soviet Union. They argued that the eastern territories (Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic countries) would only end up as a further economic burden for Germany. It was further argued that the Soviets, in their current bureaucratic form, were harmless and that the occupation would not benefit Germany politically either. Hitler, solely focused on his ultimate ideological goal of eliminating the Soviet Union and Communism, disagreed with economists about the risks and told his right-hand man Hermann Göring, the chief of the *Luftwaffe*, that he would no longer listen to misgivings about the economic dangers of a war with the USSR. It is speculated that this was passed on to General Georg Thomas, who had produced reports that predicted a net economic drain for Germany in the event of an invasion of the Soviet Union unless its economy was captured intact and the Caucasus oilfields seized in the first blow; Thomas revised his future report to fit Hitler's wishes. The Red Army's ineptitude in the Winter War against Finland in 1939–40 also convinced Hitler of a quick victory within a few months. Neither Hitler nor the General Staff anticipated a long campaign lasting into the winter and therefore, adequate preparations such as the distribution of warm clothing and winterization of important military equipment like tanks and artillery, were not made. Further to Hitler's Directive, Göring's Green Folder, issued in March 1941, laid out the agenda for the next step after the anticipated quick conquest of the Soviet Union. The Hunger Plan outlined how entire urban populations of conquered territories were to be starved to death, thus creating an agricultural surplus to feed Germany and urban space for the German upper class. Nazi policy aimed to destroy the Soviet Union as a political entity in accordance with the geopolitical *Lebensraum* ideals for the benefit of future generations of the "Nordic master race". In 1941, Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg—later appointed Reich Minister of the Occupied Eastern Territories—suggested that conquered Soviet territory should be administered in the following *Reichskommissariate* ('Reich Commissionerships'): | | | Administrative subdivisions of conquered Soviet territory as envisaged, and then partially realized, by Alfred Rosenberg| Name | Note | Map | | --- | --- | --- | | *Reichskommissariat Ostland* | Baltic countries and Belarus | | | *Reichskommissariat Ukraine* | Ukraine, enlarged eastwards to the Volga | | | *Reichskommissariat Kaukasus* | Southern Russia and the Caucasus region | Unrealized | | *Reichskommissariat Moskowien* | Moscow metropolitan area and remaining European Russia; originally called **Reichskommissariat Russland**, later renamed | Unrealized | | *Reichskommissariat Turkestan* | Central Asian republics and territories | Unrealized | | German military planners also researched Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia. In their calculations, they concluded that there was little danger of a large-scale retreat of the Red Army into the Russian interior, as it could not afford to give up the Baltic countries, Ukraine, or the Moscow and Leningrad regions, all of which were vital to the Red Army for supply reasons and would thus, have to be defended. Hitler and his generals disagreed on where Germany should focus its energy. Hitler, in many discussions with his generals, repeated his order of "Leningrad first, the Donbas second, Moscow third"; but he consistently emphasized the destruction of the Red Army over the achievement of specific terrain objectives. Hitler believed Moscow to be of "no great importance" in the defeat of the Soviet Union and instead believed victory would come with the destruction of the Red Army west of the capital, especially west of the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers, and this pervaded the plan for Barbarossa. This belief later led to disputes between Hitler and several German senior officers, including Heinz Guderian, Gerhard Engel, Fedor von Bock and Franz Halder, who believed the decisive victory could only be delivered at Moscow. They were unable to sway Hitler, who had grown overconfident in his own military judgment as a result of the rapid successes in Western Europe. German preparations ------------------- The Germans had begun massing troops near the Soviet border even before the campaign in the Balkans had finished. By the third week of February 1941, 680,000 German soldiers were gathered in assembly areas on the Romanian-Soviet border. In preparation for the attack, Hitler had secretly moved upwards of 3 million German troops and approximately 690,000 Axis soldiers to the Soviet border regions. Additional *Luftwaffe* operations included numerous aerial surveillance missions over Soviet territory many months before the attack. Although the Soviet High Command was alarmed by this, Stalin's belief that Nazi Germany was unlikely to attack only two years after signing the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact resulted in slow Soviet preparation. This fact aside, the Soviets did not entirely overlook the threat of their German neighbor. Well before the German invasion, Marshal Semyon Timoshenko referred to the Germans as the Soviet Union's "most important and strongest enemy", and as early as July 1940, the Red Army Chief of Staff, Boris Shaposhnikov, produced a preliminary three-pronged plan of attack for what a German invasion might look like, remarkably similar to the actual attack. Since April 1941, the Germans had begun setting up Operation Haifisch and Operation Harpune to substantiate their claims that Britain was the real target. These simulated preparations in Norway and the English Channel coast included activities such as ship concentrations, reconnaissance flights and training exercises. The reasons for the postponement of Barbarossa from the initially planned date of 15 May to the actual invasion date of 22 June 1941 (a 38-day delay) are debated. The reason most commonly cited is the unforeseen contingency of invading Yugoslavia and Greece on April 6 1941 until June 1941. Historian Thomas B. Buell indicates that Finland and Romania, which weren't involved in initial German planning, needed additional time to prepare to participate in the invasion. Buell adds that an unusually wet winter kept rivers at full flood until late spring. The floods may have discouraged an earlier attack, even if they occurred before the end of the Balkans Campaign. The importance of the delay is still debated. William Shirer argued that Hitler's Balkan Campaign had delayed the commencement of Barbarossa by several weeks and thereby jeopardized it. Many later historians argue that the 22 June start date was sufficient for the German offensive to reach Moscow by September. Antony Beevor wrote in 2012 about the delay caused by German attacks in the Balkans that "most [historians] accept that it made little difference" to the eventual outcome of Barbarossa. The Germans deployed one independent regiment, one separate motorized training brigade and 153 divisions for Barbarossa, which included 104 infantry, 19 panzer and 15 motorized infantry divisions in three army groups, nine security divisions to operate in conquered territories, four divisions in Finland and two divisions as reserve under the direct control of OKH. These were equipped with 6,867 armored vehicles, of which 3,350–3,795 were tanks, 2,770–4,389 aircraft (that amounted to 65 percent of the *Luftwaffe*), 7,200–23,435 artillery pieces, 17,081 mortars, about 600,000 motor vehicles and 625,000–700,000 horses. Finland slated 14 divisions for the invasion, and Romania offered 13 divisions and eight brigades over the course of Barbarossa. The entire Axis forces, 3.8 million personnel, deployed across a front extending from the Arctic Ocean southward to the Black Sea, were all controlled by the OKH and organized into Army Norway, Army Group North, Army Group Center and Army Group South, alongside three *Luftflotten* (air fleets, the air force equivalent of army groups) that supported the army groups: Luftflotte 1 for North, Luftflotte 2 for Center and Luftflotte 4 for South. Army Norway was to operate in far northern Scandinavia and bordering Soviet territories. Army Group North was to march through Latvia and Estonia into northern Russia, then either take or destroy the city of Leningrad, and link up with Finnish forces. Army Group Center, the army group equipped with the most armour and air power, was to strike from Poland into Belorussia and the west-central regions of Russia proper, and advance to Smolensk and then Moscow. Army Group South was to strike the heavily populated and agricultural heartland of Ukraine, taking Kiev before continuing eastward over the steppes of southern USSR to the Volga with the aim of controlling the oil-rich Caucasus. Army Group South was deployed in two sections separated by a 198-mile (319 km) gap. The northern section, which contained the army group's only panzer group, was in southern Poland right next to Army Group Center, and the southern section was in Romania. The German forces in the rear (mostly *Waffen-SS* and *Einsatzgruppen* units) were to operate in conquered territories to counter any partisan activity in areas they controlled, as well as to execute captured Soviet political commissars and Jews. On 17 June, Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) chief Reinhard Heydrich briefed around thirty to fifty *Einsatzgruppen* commanders on "the policy of eliminating Jews in Soviet territories, at least in general terms". While the *Einsatzgruppen* were assigned to the *Wehrmacht*'s units, which provided them with supplies such as gasoline and food, they were controlled by the RSHA. The official plan for Barbarossa assumed that the army groups would be able to advance freely to their primary objectives simultaneously, without spreading thin, once they had won the border battles and destroyed the Red Army's forces in the border area. Soviet preparations ------------------- In 1930, Mikhail Tukhachevsky, a prominent military theorist in tank warfare in the interwar period and later Marshal of the Soviet Union, forwarded a memo to the Kremlin that lobbied for colossal investment in the resources required for the mass production of weapons, pressing the case for "40,000 aircraft and 50,000 tanks". In the early 1930s, a modern operational doctrine for the Red Army was developed and promulgated in the 1936 Field Regulations in the form of the Deep Battle Concept. Defense expenditure also grew rapidly from just 12 percent of the gross national product in 1933 to 18 percent by 1940. During Joseph Stalin's Great Purge in the late 1930s, which had not ended by the time of the German invasion on 22 June 1941, much of the officer corps of the Red Army was executed or imprisoned. Many of their replacements, appointed by Stalin for political reasons, lacked military competence. Of the five Marshals of the Soviet Union appointed in 1935, only Kliment Voroshilov and Semyon Budyonny survived Stalin's purge. Tukhachevsky was killed in 1937. Fifteen of 16 army commanders, 50 of the 57 corps commanders, 154 of the 186 divisional commanders, and 401 of 456 colonels were killed, and many other officers were dismissed. In total, about 30,000 Red Army personnel were executed. Stalin further underscored his control by reasserting the role of political commissars at the divisional level and below to oversee the political loyalty of the army to the regime. The commissars held a position equal to that of the commander of the unit they were overseeing. But in spite of efforts to ensure the political subservience of the armed forces, in the wake of Red Army's poor performance in Poland and in the Winter War, about 80 percent of the officers dismissed during the Great Purge were reinstated by 1941. Also, between January 1939 and May 1941, 161 new divisions were activated. Therefore, although about 75 percent of all the officers had been in their position for less than one year at the start of the German invasion of 1941, many of the short tenures can be attributed not only to the purge but also to the rapid increase in the creation of military units. Beginning in July 1940, the Red Army General Staff developed war plans that identified the *Wehrmacht* as the most dangerous threat to the Soviet Union, and that in the case of a war with Germany, the *Wehrmacht*'s main attack would come through the region north of the Pripyat Marshes into Belorussia, which later proved to be correct. Stalin disagreed, and in October he authorized the development of new plans that assumed a German attack would focus on the region south of Pripyat Marshes towards the economically vital regions in Ukraine. This became the basis for all subsequent Soviet war plans and the deployment of their armed forces in preparation for the German invasion. In the Soviet Union, speaking to his generals in December 1940, Stalin mentioned Hitler's references to an attack on the Soviet Union in *Mein Kampf* and Hitler's belief that the Red Army would need four years to ready itself. Stalin declared "we must be ready much earlier" and "we will try to delay the war for another two years". As early as August 1940, British intelligence had received hints of German plans to attack the Soviets a week after Hitler informally approved the plans for *Barbarossa* and warned the Soviet Union accordingly. But Stalin's distrust of the British led him to ignore their warnings in the belief that they were a trick designed to bring the Soviet Union into the war on their side. Soviet intelligence also received word of an invasion around 20 June from Mao Zedong whose spy, Yan Baohang, had overheard talk of the plans at a dinner with a German military attaché and sent word to Zhou Enlai. The Chinese maintain the tipoff helped Stalin make preparations, though little exists to confirm the Soviets made any real changes upon receiving the intelligence. In early 1941, Stalin's own intelligence services and American intelligence gave regular and repeated warnings of an impending German attack. Soviet spy Richard Sorge also gave Stalin the exact German launch date, but Sorge and other informers had previously given different invasion dates that passed peacefully before the actual invasion. Stalin acknowledged the possibility of an attack in general and therefore made significant preparations, but decided not to run the risk of provoking Hitler. In early 1941 Stalin authorized the State Defense Plan 1941 (DP-41), which along with the Mobilization Plan 1941 (MP-41), called for the deployment of 186 divisions, as the first strategic echelon, in the four military districts of the western Soviet Union that faced the Axis territories; and the deployment of another 51 divisions along the Dvina and Dnieper Rivers as the second strategic echelon under Stavka control, which in the case of a German invasion was tasked to spearhead a Soviet counteroffensive along with the remaining forces of the first echelon. But on 22 June 1941 the first echelon contained 171 divisions, numbering 2.6–2.9 million; and the second strategic echelon contained 57 divisions that were still mobilizing, most of which were still understrength. The second echelon was undetected by German intelligence until days after the invasion commenced, in most cases only when German ground forces encountered them. At the start of the invasion, the manpower of the Soviet military force that had been mobilized was 5.3–5.5 million, and it was still increasing as the Soviet reserve force of 14 million, with at least basic military training, continued to mobilize. The Red Army was dispersed and still preparing when the invasion commenced. Their units were often separated and lacked adequate transportation. While transportation remained insufficient for Red Army forces, when Operation Barbarossa kicked off, they possessed some 33,000 pieces of artillery, a number far greater than the Germans had at their disposal. The Soviet Union had around 23,000 tanks available of which 14,700 were combat-ready. Around 11,000 tanks were in the western military districts that faced the German invasion force. Hitler later declared to some of his generals, "If I had known about the Russian tank strength in 1941 I would not have attacked". However, maintenance and readiness standards were very poor; ammunition and radios were in short supply, and many armoured units lacked the trucks for supplies. The most advanced Soviet tank models – the KV-1 and T-34 – which were superior to all current German tanks, as well as all designs still in development as of the summer 1941, were not available in large numbers at the time the invasion commenced. Furthermore, in the autumn of 1939, the Soviets disbanded their mechanized corps and partly dispersed their tanks to infantry divisions; but following their observation of the German campaign in France, in late 1940 they began to reorganize most of their armored assets back into mechanized corps with a target strength of 1,031 tanks each. But these large armoured formations were unwieldy, and moreover they were spread out in scattered garrisons, with their subordinate divisions up to 100 kilometres (62 miles) apart. The reorganization was still in progress and incomplete when Barbarossa commenced. Soviet tank units were rarely well equipped, and they lacked training and logistical support. Units were sent into combat with no arrangements in place for refueling, ammunition resupply, or personnel replacement. Often, after a single engagement, units were destroyed or rendered ineffective. The Soviet numerical advantage in heavy equipment was thoroughly offset by the superior training and organization of the *Wehrmacht*. The Soviet Air Force (VVS) held the numerical advantage with a total of approximately 19,533 aircraft, which made it the largest air force in the world in the summer of 1941. About 7,133–9,100 of these were deployed in the five western military districts, and an additional 1,445 were under naval control. | | | Development of the Soviet Armed Forces| | 1 January 1939 | 22 June 1941 | Increase | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Divisions calculated | 131.5 | 316.5 | 140.7% | | Personnel | 2,485,000 | 5,774,000 | 132.4% | | Guns and mortars | 55,800 | 117,600 | 110.7% | | Tanks | 21,100 | 25,700 | 21.8% | | Aircraft | 7,700 | 18,700 | 142.8% | Historians have debated whether Stalin was planning an invasion of German territory in the summer of 1941. The debate began in the late 1980s when Viktor Suvorov published a journal article and later the book *Icebreaker* in which he claimed that Stalin had seen the outbreak of war in Western Europe as an opportunity to spread communist revolutions throughout the continent, and that the Soviet military was being deployed for an imminent attack at the time of the German invasion. This view had also been advanced by former German generals following the war. Suvorov's thesis was fully or partially accepted by a limited number of historians, including Valeri Danilov, Joachim Hoffmann, Mikhail Meltyukhov, and Vladimir Nevezhin, and attracted public attention in Germany, Israel, and Russia. It has been strongly rejected by most historians, and *Icebreaker* is generally considered to be an "anti-Soviet tract" in Western countries. David Glantz and Gabriel Gorodetsky wrote books to rebut Suvorov's arguments. The majority of historians believe that Stalin was seeking to avoid war in 1941, as he believed that his military was not ready to fight the German forces. The debate on whether Stalin intended to launch an offensive against Germany in 1941 remains inconclusive but has produced an abundance of scholarly literature and helped to expand the understanding of larger themes in Soviet and world history during the interwar period. Order of battle --------------- | | | Order of battle – June 1941| Axis forces | Soviet forces | | --- | --- | | **Northern Theatre*** Army of Norway * Finnish Army of Karelia **Army Group North*** 18th Army * Panzer Group 4 * 16th Army * *Luftflotte* 1 **Army Group Center*** Panzer Group 3 * 9th Army * 4th Army * Panzer Group 2 * *Luftflotte* 2 **Army Group South*** 6th Army * Panzer Group 1 * 17th Army + Slovak Expeditionary Army Group + Royal Hungarian Army Mobile Corps * 11th Army + Italian Expeditionary Corps in Russia * Romanian 3rd Army * Romanian 4th Army * *Luftflotte* 4 | **Northern Front*** 7th Army * 14th Army * 23rd Army + 10th Mechanized Corps * 1st Mechanized Corps * Northern PVO **North-Western Front*** 27th Army * 8th Army + 12th Mechanized Corps * 11th Army + 3rd Mechanized Corps * 5th Airborne Corps * Baltic VVS * Northern Fleet * Baltic Fleet **Western Front*** 3rd Army + 11th Mechanized Corps * 10th Army + 6th Mechanized Corps + 13th Mechanized Corps * 4th Army + 14th Mechanized Corps * 13th Army * 17th and 20th Mechanized Corps * 2nd Rifle, 21st Rifle, 44th Rifle, 47th Rifle, 50th Rifle and 4th Airborne Corps * Western VVS **South-Western Front*** 5th Army + 9th Mechanized Corps + 22nd Mechanized Corps * 6th Army + 4th Mechanized Corps + 15th Mechanized Corps * 26th Army + 8th Mechanized Corps * 12th Army + 16th Mechanized Corps * 31 Rifle, 36th Rifle, 49th Rifle, 55th Rifle and 1st Airborne Corps * Kiev VVS **Southern Front*** 9th Independent Army + 2nd Mechanized Corps + 18th Mechanized Corps * 7th Rifle, 9th Rifle and 3rd Airborne Corps * Odessa VVS * Black Sea Fleet --- ***Stavka* Reserve Armies (second strategic echelon)*** 16th Army + 5th Mechanized Corps * 19th Army + 26th Mechanized Corps * 20th Army + 7th Mechanized Corps * 21st Army + 25th Mechanized Corps * 22nd Army * 24th Army * 20th Rifle, 45th Rifle, 67th Rifle and 21st Mechanized Corps. | | **Total number of Divisions (22 June)** | **Total number of Divisions (22 June)** | | Total number of German Divisions: 152 Total number of Romanian Divisions: 14 | Total number of Soviet Divisions: 220 | Invasion -------- At around 01:00 on 22 June 1941, the Soviet military districts in the border area were alerted by NKO Directive No. 1, issued late on the night of 21 June. It called on them to "bring all forces to combat readiness", but to "avoid provocative actions of any kind". It took up to two hours for several of the units subordinate to the Fronts to receive the order of the directive, and the majority did not receive it before the invasion commenced. A German communist deserter, Alfred Liskow, had crossed the lines at 21:00 on 21 June and informed the Soviets that an attack was coming at 04:00. Stalin was informed, but apparently regarded it as disinformation. Liskow was still being interrogated when the attack began. On 21 June, at 13:00 Army Group North received the codeword "Düsseldorf", indicating Barbarossa would commence the next morning, and passed down its own codeword, "Dortmund". At around 03:15 on 22 June 1941, the Axis Powers commenced the invasion of the Soviet Union with the bombing of major cities in Soviet-occupied Poland and an artillery barrage on Red Army defences on the entire front. Air-raids were conducted as far as Kronstadt near Leningrad, Ismail in Bessarabia, and Sevastopol in the Crimea. At the same time the German declaration of war was presented by Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop. Meanwhile, ground troops crossed the border, accompanied in some locales by Lithuanian and Ukrainian partisans. Roughly three million soldiers of the *Wehrmacht* went into action and faced slightly fewer Soviet troops at the border. Accompanying the German forces during the initial invasion were Finnish and Romanian units as well. At around noon, the news of the invasion was broadcast to the population by Soviet foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov: "... Without a declaration of war, German forces fell on our country, attacked our frontiers in many places ... The Red Army and the whole nation will wage a victorious Patriotic War for our beloved country, for honour, for liberty ... Our cause is just. The enemy will be beaten. Victory will be ours!" By calling upon the population's devotion to their nation rather than the Party, Molotov struck a patriotic chord that helped a stunned people absorb the shattering news. Within the first few days of the invasion, the Soviet High Command and Red Army were extensively reorganized so as to place them on the necessary war footing. Stalin did not address the nation about the German invasion until 3 July, when he also called for a "Patriotic War... of the entire Soviet people". In Germany, on the morning of 22 June, Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels announced the invasion to the waking nation in a radio broadcast with Hitler's words: "At this moment a march is taking place that, for its extent, compares with the greatest the world has ever seen. I have decided today to place the fate and future of the Reich and our people in the hands of our soldiers. May God aid us, especially in this fight!" Later the same morning, Hitler proclaimed to his colleagues, "Before three months have passed, we shall witness a collapse of Russia, the like of which has never been seen in history". Hitler also addressed the German people via the radio, presenting himself as a man of peace, who reluctantly had to attack the Soviet Union. Following the invasion, Goebbels instructed that Nazi propaganda use the slogan "European crusade against Bolshevism" to describe the war; subsequently thousands of volunteers and conscripts joined the *Waffen-SS*. Initial attacks --------------- The initial momentum of the German ground and air attack completely destroyed the Soviet organizational command and control within the first few hours, paralyzing every level of command from the infantry platoon to the Soviet High Command in Moscow. Moscow failed to grasp the magnitude of the catastrophe that confronted the Soviet forces in the border area, and Stalin's first reaction was disbelief. At around 07:15, Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 2, which announced the invasion to the Soviet Armed Forces, and called on them to attack Axis forces wherever they had violated the borders and launch air strikes into the border regions of German territory. At around 09:15, Stalin issued NKO Directive No. 3, signed by Marshal Semyon Timoshenko, which now called for a general counteroffensive on the entire front "without any regards for borders" that both men hoped would sweep the enemy from Soviet territory. Stalin's order, which Timoshenko authorized, was not based on a realistic appraisal of the military situation at hand, but commanders passed it along for fear of retribution if they failed to obey; several days passed before the Soviet leadership became aware of the enormity of the opening defeat. ### Air war *Luftwaffe* reconnaissance units plotted Soviet troop concentrations, supply dumps and airfields, and marked them down for destruction. Additional *Luftwaffe* attacks were carried out against Soviet command and control centers to disrupt the mobilization and organization of Soviet forces. In contrast, Soviet artillery observers based at the border area had been under the strictest instructions not to open fire on German aircraft prior to the invasion. One plausible reason given for the Soviet hesitation to return fire was Stalin's initial belief that the assault was launched without Hitler's authorization. Significant amounts of Soviet territory were lost along with Red Army forces as a result; it took several days before Stalin comprehended the magnitude of the calamity. The *Luftwaffe* reportedly destroyed 1,489 aircraft on the first day of the invasion and over 3,100 during the first three days. Hermann Göring, Minister of Aviation and Commander-in-Chief of the *Luftwaffe*, distrusted the reports and ordered the figure checked. *Luftwaffe* staffs surveyed the wreckage on Soviet airfields, and their original figure proved conservative, as over 2,000 Soviet aircraft were estimated to have been destroyed on the first day of the invasion. In reality, Soviet losses were likely higher; a Soviet archival document recorded the loss of 3,922 Soviet aircraft in the first three days against an estimated loss of 78 German aircraft. The *Luftwaffe* reported the loss of only 35 aircraft on the first day of combat. A document from the German Federal Archives puts the *Luftwaffe*'s loss at 63 aircraft for the first day. By the end of the first week, the *Luftwaffe* had achieved air supremacy over the battlefields of all the army groups, but was unable to affect this air dominance over the vast expanse of the western Soviet Union. According to the war diaries of the German High Command, the *Luftwaffe* by 5 July had lost 491 aircraft with 316 more damaged, leaving it with only about 70 percent of the strength it had at the start of the invasion. ### Baltic countries On 22 June, Army Group North attacked the Soviet Northwestern Front and broke through its 8th and 11th Armies. The Soviets immediately launched a powerful counterattack against the German 4th Panzer Group with the Soviet 3rd and 12th Mechanized Corps, but the Soviet attack was defeated. On 25 June, the 8th and 11th Armies were ordered to withdraw to the Western Dvina River, where it was planned to meet up with the 21st Mechanized Corps and the 22nd and 27th Armies. However, on 26 June, Erich von Manstein's LVI Panzer Corps reached the river first and secured a bridgehead across it. The Northwestern Front was forced to abandon the river defenses, and on 29 June Stavka ordered the Front to withdraw to the Stalin Line on the approaches to Leningrad. On 2 July, Army Group North began its attack on the Stalin Line with its 4th Panzer Group, and on 8 July captured Pskov, devastating the defenses of the Stalin Line and reaching Leningrad oblast. The 4th Panzer Group had advanced about 450 kilometres (280 mi) since the start of the invasion and was now only about 250 kilometres (160 mi) from its primary objective Leningrad. On 9 July it began its attack towards the Soviet defenses along the Luga River in Leningrad oblast. ### Ukraine and Moldavia The northern section of Army Group South faced the Southwestern Front, which had the largest concentration of Soviet forces, and the southern section faced the Southern Front. In addition, the Pripyat Marshes and the Carpathian Mountains posed a serious challenge to the army group's northern and southern sections respectively. On 22 June, only the northern section of Army Group South attacked, but the terrain impeded their assault, giving the Soviet defenders ample time to react. The German 1st Panzer Group and 6th Army attacked and broke through the Soviet 5th Army. Starting on the night of 23 June, the Soviet 22nd and 15th Mechanized Corps attacked the flanks of the 1st Panzer Group from north and south respectively. Although intended to be concerted, Soviet tank units were sent in piecemeal due to poor coordination. The 22nd Mechanized Corps ran into the 1st Panzer Army's III Motorized Corps and was decimated, and its commander killed. The 1st Panzer Group bypassed much of the 15th Mechanized Corps, which engaged the German 6th Army's 297th Infantry Division, where it was defeated by antitank fire and *Luftwaffe* attacks. On 26 June, the Soviets launched another counterattack on the 1st Panzer Group from north and south simultaneously with the 9th, 19th and 8th Mechanized Corps, which altogether fielded 1649 tanks, and supported by the remnants of the 15th Mechanized Corps. The battle lasted for four days, ending in the defeat of the Soviet tank units. On 30 June Stavka ordered the remaining forces of the Southwestern Front to withdraw to the Stalin Line, where it would defend the approaches to Kiev. On 2 July, the southern section of Army Group South—the Romanian 3rd and 4th Armies, alongside the German 11th Army—invaded Soviet Moldavia, which was defended by the Southern Front. Counterattacks by the Front's 2nd Mechanized Corps and 9th Army were defeated, but on 9 July the Axis advance stalled along the defenses of the Soviet 18th Army between the Prut and Dniester Rivers. ### Belarussia In the opening hours of the invasion, the *Luftwaffe* destroyed the Western Front's air force on the ground, and with the aid of Abwehr and their supporting anti-communist fifth columns operating in the Soviet rear paralyzed the Front's communication lines, which particularly cut off the Soviet 4th Army headquarters from headquarters above and below it. On the same day, the 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Bug River, broke through the 4th Army, bypassed Brest Fortress, and pressed on towards Minsk, while the 3rd Panzer Group bypassed most of the 3rd Army and pressed on towards Vilnius. Simultaneously, the German 4th and 9th Armies engaged the Western Front forces in the environs of Białystok. On the order of Dmitry Pavlov, the commander of the Western Front, the 6th and 11th Mechanized Corps and the 6th Cavalry Corps launched a strong counterstrike towards Grodno on 24–25 June in hopes of destroying the 3rd Panzer Group. However, the 3rd Panzer Group had already moved on, with its forward units reaching Vilnius on the evening of 23 June, and the Western Front's armoured counterattack instead ran into infantry and antitank fire from the V Army Corps of the German 9th Army, supported by *Luftwaffe* air attacks. By the night of 25 June, the Soviet counterattack was defeated, and the commander of the 6th Cavalry Corps was captured. The same night, Pavlov ordered all the remnants of the Western Front to withdraw to Slonim towards Minsk. Subsequent counterattacks to buy time for the withdrawal were launched against the German forces, but all of them failed. On 27 June, the 2nd and 3rd Panzer Groups met near Minsk and captured the city the next day, completing the encirclement of almost all of the Western Front in two pockets: one around Białystok and another west of Minsk. The Germans destroyed the Soviet 3rd and 10th Armies while inflicting serious losses on the 4th, 11th and 13th Armies, and reported to have captured 324,000 Soviet troops, 3,300 tanks, 1,800 artillery pieces. A Soviet directive was issued on 29 June to combat the mass panic rampant among the civilians and the armed forces personnel. The order stipulated swift, severe measures against anyone inciting panic or displaying cowardice. The NKVD worked with commissars and military commanders to scour possible withdrawal routes of soldiers retreating without military authorization. Field expedient general courts were established to deal with civilians spreading rumors and military deserters. On 30 June, Stalin relieved Pavlov of his command, and on 22 July tried and executed him along with many members of his staff on charges of "cowardice" and "criminal incompetence". On 29 June, Hitler, through the Commander-in-Chief of the German Army Walther von Brauchitsch, instructed the commander of Army Group Center Fedor von Bock to halt the advance of his panzers until the infantry formations liquidating the pockets caught up. But the commander of the 2nd Panzer Group Heinz Guderian, with the tacit support of Fedor von Bock and the chief of OKH Franz Halder, ignored the instruction and attacked on eastward towards Bobruisk, albeit reporting the advance as a reconnaissance-in-force. He also personally conducted an aerial inspection of the Minsk-Białystok pocket on 30 June and concluded that his panzer group was not needed to contain it, since Hermann Hoth's 3rd Panzer Group was already involved in the Minsk pocket. On the same day, some of the infantry corps of the 9th and 4th Armies, having sufficiently liquidated the Białystok pocket, resumed their march eastward to catch up with the panzer groups. On 1 July, Fedor von Bock ordered the panzer groups to resume their full offensive eastward on the morning of 3 July. But Brauchitsch, upholding Hitler's instruction, and Halder, unwillingly going along with it, opposed Bock's order. However, Bock insisted on the order by stating that it would be irresponsible to reverse orders already issued. The panzer groups resumed their offensive on 2 July before the infantry formations had sufficiently caught up. ### Northeast Finland During German-Finnish negotiations Finland had demanded to remain neutral unless the Soviet Union attacked them first. Germany therefore sought to provoke the Soviet Union into an attack on Finland. After Germany launched Barbarossa on 22 June, German aircraft used Finnish air bases to attack Soviet positions. The same day the Germans launched Operation Rentier and occupied the Petsamo Province at the Finnish-Soviet border. Simultaneously Finland proceeded to remilitarize the neutral Åland Islands. Despite these actions the Finnish government insisted via diplomatic channels that they remained a neutral party, but the Soviet leadership already viewed Finland as an ally of Germany. Subsequently, the Soviets proceeded to launch a massive bombing attack on 25 June against all major Finnish cities and industrial centers including Helsinki, Turku and Lahti. During a night session on the same day the Finnish parliament decided to go to war against the Soviet Union. Finland was divided into two operational zones. Northern Finland was the staging area for Army Norway. Its goal was to execute a two-pronged pincer movement on the strategic port of Murmansk, named Operation Silver Fox. Southern Finland was still under the responsibility of the Finnish Army. The goal of the Finnish forces was, at first, to recapture Finnish Karelia at Lake Ladoga as well as the Karelian Isthmus, which included Finland's second largest city Viipuri. Further German advances ----------------------- On 2 July and through the next six days, a rainstorm typical of Belarusian summers slowed the progress of the panzers of Army Group Center, and Soviet defences stiffened. The delays gave the Soviets time to organize a massive counterattack against Army Group Center. The army group's ultimate objective was Smolensk, which commanded the road to Moscow. Facing the Germans was an old Soviet defensive line held by six armies. On 6 July, the Soviets launched a massive counter-attack using the V and VII Mechanized Corps of the 20th Army, which collided with the German 39th and 47th Panzer Corps in a battle where the Red Army lost 832 tanks of the 2,000 employed during five days of ferocious fighting. The Germans defeated this counterattack thanks largely to the coincidental presence of the *Luftwaffe*'s only squadron of tank-busting aircraft. The 2nd Panzer Group crossed the Dnieper River and closed in on Smolensk from the south while the 3rd Panzer Group, after defeating the Soviet counterattack, closed on Smolensk from the north. Trapped between their pincers were three Soviet armies. The 29th Motorized Division captured Smolensk on 16 July yet a gap remained between Army Group Center. On 18 July, the panzer groups came to within ten kilometres (6.2 mi) of closing the gap but the trap did not finally close until 5 August, when upwards of 300,000 Red Army soldiers had been captured and 3,205 Soviet tanks were destroyed. Large numbers of Red Army soldiers escaped to stand between the Germans and Moscow as resistance continued. Four weeks into the campaign, the Germans realized they had grossly underestimated Soviet strength. The German troops had used their initial supplies, and General Bock quickly came to the conclusion that not only had the Red Army offered stiff opposition, but German difficulties were also due to the logistical problems with reinforcements and provisions. Operations were now slowed down to allow for resupply; the delay was to be used to adapt strategy to the new situation. Hitler by now had lost faith in battles of encirclement as large numbers of Soviet soldiers had escaped the pincers. He now believed he could defeat the Soviet state by economic means, depriving them of the industrial capacity to continue the war. That meant seizing the industrial center of Kharkov, the Donbas and the oil fields of the Caucasus in the south and the speedy capture of Leningrad, a major center of military production, in the north. Chief of the OKH, General Franz Halder, Fedor von Bock, the commander of Army Group Center, and almost all the German generals involved in Operation Barbarossa argued vehemently in favor of continuing the all-out drive toward Moscow. Besides the psychological importance of capturing the Soviet capital, the generals pointed out that Moscow was a major center of arms production, the center of the Soviet communications system and an important transport hub. Intelligence reports indicated that the bulk of the Red Army was deployed near Moscow under Semyon Timoshenko for the defense of the capital. Panzer commander Heinz Guderian was sent to Hitler by Bock and Halder to argue their case for continuing the assault against Moscow, but Hitler issued an order through Guderian (bypassing Bock and Halder) to send Army Group Center's tanks to the north and south, temporarily halting the drive to Moscow. Convinced by Hitler's argument, Guderian returned to his commanding officers as a convert to the Führer's plan, which earned him their disdain. ### Northern Finland On 29 June, Germany launched its effort to capture Murmansk in a pincer attack. The northern pincer, conducted by Mountain Corps Norway, approached Murmansk directly by crossing the border at Petsamo. However, in mid-July after securing the neck of the Rybachy Peninsula and advancing to the Litsa River the German advance was stopped by heavy resistance from the Soviet 14th Army. Renewed attacks led to nothing, and this front became a stalemate for the remainder of Barbarossa. The second pincer attack began on 1 July with the German XXXVI Corps and Finnish III Corps slated to recapture the Salla region for Finland and then proceed eastwards to cut the Murmansk railway near Kandalaksha. The German units had great difficulty dealing with the Arctic conditions. After heavy fighting, Salla was taken on 8 July. To keep the momentum the German-Finnish forces advanced eastwards until they were stopped at the town of Kayraly by Soviet resistance. Further south the Finnish III Corps made an independent effort to reach the Murmansk railway through the Arctic terrain. Facing only one division of the Soviet 7th Army it was able to make rapid headway. On 7 August it captured Kestenga while reaching the outskirts of Ukhta. Large Red Army reinforcements then prevented further gains on both fronts, and the German-Finnish force had to go onto the defensive. ### Karelia The Finnish plan in the south in Karelia was to advance as swiftly as possible to Lake Ladoga, cutting the Soviet forces in half. Then the Finnish territories east of Lake Ladoga were to be recaptured before the advance along the Karelian Isthmus, including the recapture of Viipuri, commenced. The Finnish attack was launched on 10 July. The Army of Karelia held a numerical advantage versus the Soviet defenders of the 7th Army and 23rd Army, so it could advance swiftly. The important road junction at Loimola was captured on 14 July. By 16 July, the first Finnish units reached Lake Ladoga at Koirinoja, achieving the goal of splitting the Soviet forces. During the rest of July, the Army of Karelia advanced further southeast into Karelia, coming to a halt at the former Finnish-Soviet border at Mansila. With the Soviet forces cut in half, the attack on the Karelian Isthmus could commence. The Finnish army attempted to encircle large Soviet formations at Sortavala and Hiitola by advancing to the western shores of Lake Ladoga. By mid-August the encirclement had succeeded and both towns were taken, but many Soviet formations were able to evacuate by sea. Further west, the attack on Viipuri was launched. With Soviet resistance breaking down, the Finns were able to encircle Viipuri by advancing to the Vuoksi River. The city itself was taken on 29 August, along with a broad advance on the rest of the Karelian Isthmus. By the beginning of September, Finland had restored its pre-Winter War borders. ### Offensive towards central Russia By mid-July, the German forces had advanced within a few kilometers of Kiev below the Pripyat Marshes. The 1st Panzer Group then went south, while the 17th Army struck east and trapped three Soviet armies near Uman. As the Germans eliminated the pocket, the tanks turned north and crossed the Dnieper. Meanwhile, the 2nd Panzer Group, diverted from Army Group Center, had crossed the river Desna with 2nd Army on its right flank. The two panzer armies now trapped four Soviet armies and parts of two others. By August, as the serviceability and the quantity of the *Luftwaffe*'s inventory steadily diminished due to combat, demand for air support only increased as the VVS recovered. The *Luftwaffe* found itself struggling to maintain local air superiority. With the onset of bad weather in October, the *Luftwaffe* was on several occasions forced to halt nearly all aerial operations. The VVS, although faced with the same weather difficulties, had a clear advantage thanks to the prewar experience with cold-weather flying, and the fact that they were operating from intact airbases and airports. By December, the VVS had matched the *Luftwaffe* and was even pressing to achieve air superiority over the battlefields. ### Leningrad For its final attack on Leningrad, the 4th Panzer Group was reinforced by tanks from Army Group Center. On 8 August, the Panzers broke through the Soviet defences. By the end of August, 4th Panzer Group had penetrated to within 48 kilometres (30 miles) of Leningrad. The Finns had pushed southeast on both sides of Lake Ladoga to reach the old Finnish-Soviet frontier. The Germans attacked Leningrad in August 1941; in the following three "black months" of 1941, 400,000 residents of the city worked to build the city's fortifications as fighting continued, while 160,000 others joined the ranks of the Red Army. Nowhere was the Soviet *levée en masse* spirit stronger in resisting the Germans than at Leningrad where reserve troops and freshly improvised *Narodnoe Opolcheniye* units, consisting of worker battalions and even schoolboy formations, joined in digging trenches as they prepared to defend the city. On 7 September, the German 20th Motorized Division seized Shlisselburg, cutting off all land routes to Leningrad. The Germans severed the railroads to Moscow and captured the railroad to Murmansk with Finnish assistance to inaugurate the start of a siege that would last for over two years. At this stage, Hitler ordered the final destruction of Leningrad with no prisoners taken, and on 9 September, Army Group North began the final push. Within ten days it had advanced within 11 kilometres (6.8 miles) of the city. However, the push over the last 10 km (6.2 mi) proved very slow and casualties mounted. Hitler, now out of patience, ordered that Leningrad should not be stormed, but rather starved into submission. Along these lines, the OKH issued Directive No. la 1601/41 on 22 September 1941, which accorded Hitler's plans. Deprived of its Panzer forces, Army Group Center remained static and was subjected to numerous Soviet counterattacks, in particular the Yelnya Offensive, in which the Germans suffered their first major tactical defeat since their invasion began; this Red Army victory also provided an important boost to Soviet morale. These attacks prompted Hitler to concentrate his attention back to Army Group Center and its drive on Moscow. The Germans ordered the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies to break off their Siege of Leningrad and support Army Group Center in its attack on Moscow. ### Kiev Before an attack on Moscow could begin, operations in Kiev needed to be finished. Half of Army Group Center had swung to the south in the back of the Kiev position, while Army Group South moved to the north from its Dnieper bridgehead. The encirclement of Soviet forces in Kiev was achieved on 16 September. A battle ensued in which the Soviets were hammered with tanks, artillery, and aerial bombardment. After ten days of vicious fighting, the Germans claimed 665,000 Soviet soldiers captured, although the real figure is probably around 220,000 prisoners. Soviet losses were 452,720 men, 3,867 artillery pieces and mortars from 43 divisions of the 5th, 21st, 26th, and 37th Soviet Armies. Despite the exhaustion and losses facing some German units (upwards of 75 percent of their men) from the intense fighting, the massive defeat of the Soviets at Kiev and the Red Army losses during the first three months of the assault contributed to the German assumption that Operation Typhoon (the attack on Moscow) could still succeed. ### Sea of Azov After operations at Kiev were successfully concluded, Army Group South advanced east and south to capture the industrial Donbas region and the Crimea. The Soviet Southern Front launched an attack on 26 September with two armies on the northern shores of the Sea of Azov against elements of the German 11th Army, which was simultaneously advancing into the Crimea. On 1 October, the 1st Panzer Army under Ewald von Kleist swept south to encircle the two attacking Soviet armies. By 7 October, the Soviet 9th and 18th Armies were isolated and four days later they had been annihilated. The Soviet defeat was total; 106,332 men captured, 212 tanks destroyed or captured in the pocket alone as well as 766 artillery pieces of all types. The death or capture of two-thirds of all Southern Front troops in four days unhinged the Front's left flank, allowing the Germans to capture Kharkov on 24 October. Kleist's 1st Panzer Army took the Donbas region that same month. ### Central and northern Finland In central Finland, the German-Finnish advance on the Murmansk railway had been resumed at Kayraly. A large encirclement from the north and the south trapped the defending Soviet corps and allowed XXXVI Corps to advance further to the east. In early September it reached the old 1939 Soviet border fortifications. On 6 September the first defence line at the Voyta River was breached, but further attacks against the main line at the Verman River failed. With Army Norway switching its main effort further south, the front stalemated in this sector. Further south, the Finnish III Corps launched a new offensive towards the Murmansk railway on 30 October, bolstered by fresh reinforcements from Army Norway. Against Soviet resistance, it was able to come within 30 km (19 mi) of the railway, when the Finnish High Command ordered a stop to all offensive operations in the sector on 17 November. The United States of America applied diplomatic pressure on Finland to not disrupt Allied aid shipments to the Soviet Union, which caused the Finnish government to halt the advance on the Murmansk railway. With the Finnish refusal to conduct further offensive operations and German inability to do so alone, the German-Finnish effort in central and northern Finland came to an end. ### Karelia Germany had pressured Finland to enlarge its offensive activities in Karelia to aid the Germans in their Leningrad operation. Finnish attacks on Leningrad itself remained limited. Finland stopped its advance just short of Leningrad and had no intentions to attack the city. The situation was different in eastern Karelia. The Finnish government agreed to restart its offensive into Soviet Karelia to reach Lake Onega and the Svir River. On 4 September, this new drive was launched on a broad front. Albeit reinforced by fresh reserve troops, heavy losses elsewhere on the front meant that the Soviet defenders of the 7th Army were not able to resist the Finnish advance. Olonets was taken on 5 September. On 7 September, Finnish forward units reached the Svir River. Petrozavodsk, the capital city of the Karelo-Finnish SSR, fell on 1 October. From there the Army of Karelia moved north along the shores of Lake Onega to secure the remaining area west of Lake Onega, while simultaneously establishing a defensive position along the Svir River. Slowed by winter's onset they nevertheless continued to advance slowly during the following weeks. Medvezhyegorsk was captured on 5 December and Povenets fell the next day. On 7 December, Finland called a stop to all offensive operations, going onto the defensive. Battle of Moscow ---------------- After Kiev, the Red Army no longer outnumbered the Germans and there were no more trained reserves directly available. To defend Moscow, Stalin could field 800,000 men in 83 divisions, but no more than 25 divisions were fully effective. Operation Typhoon, the drive to Moscow, began on 30 September 1941. In front of Army Group Center was a series of elaborate defence lines, the first centred on Vyazma and the second on Mozhaysk. Russian peasants began fleeing ahead of the advancing German units, burning their harvested crops, driving their cattle away, and destroying buildings in their villages as part of a scorched-earth policy designed to deny to the Nazi war machine needed supplies and foodstuffs. The first blow took the Soviets completely by surprise when the 2nd Panzer Group, returning from the south, took Oryol, just 121 km (75 mi) south of the Soviet first main defense line. Three days later, the Panzers pushed on to Bryansk, while the 2nd Army attacked from the west. The Soviet 3rd and 13th Armies were now encircled. To the north, the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies attacked Vyazma, trapping the 19th, 20th, 24th and 32nd Armies. Moscow's first line of defense had been shattered. The pocket eventually yielded over 500,000 Soviet prisoners, bringing the tally since the start of the invasion to three million. The Soviets now had only 90,000 men and 150 tanks left for the defense of Moscow. The German government now publicly predicted the imminent capture of Moscow and convinced foreign correspondents of an impending Soviet collapse. On 13 October, the 3rd Panzer Group penetrated to within 140 km (87 mi) of the capital. Martial law was declared in Moscow. Almost from the beginning of Operation Typhoon, however, the weather worsened. Temperatures fell while there was continued rainfall. This turned the unpaved road network into mud and slowed the German advance on Moscow. Additional snows fell which were followed by more rain, creating a glutinous mud that German tanks had difficulty traversing, which the Soviet T-34, with its wider tread, was better suited to navigate. At the same time, the supply situation for the Germans rapidly deteriorated. On 31 October, the German Army High Command ordered a halt to Operation Typhoon while the armies were reorganized. The pause gave the Soviets, far better supplied, time to consolidate their positions and organize formations of newly activated reservists. In little over a month, the Soviets organized eleven new armies that included 30 divisions of Siberian troops. These had been freed from the Soviet Far East after Soviet intelligence assured Stalin that there was no longer a threat from the Japanese. During October and November 1941, over 1,000 tanks and 1,000 aircraft arrived along with the Siberian forces to assist in defending the city. With the ground hardening due to the cold weather, the Germans resumed the attack on Moscow on 15 November. Although the troops themselves were now able to advance again, there had been no improvement in the supply situation. Facing the Germans were the 5th, 16th, 30th, 43rd, 49th, and 50th Soviet Armies. The Germans intended to move the 3rd and 4th Panzer Armies across the Moscow Canal and envelop Moscow from the northeast. The 2nd Panzer Group would attack Tula and then close on Moscow from the south. As the Soviets reacted to their flanks, the 4th Army would attack the center. In two weeks of fighting, lacking sufficient fuel and ammunition, the Germans slowly crept towards Moscow. In the south, the 2nd Panzer Group was being blocked. On 22 November, Soviet Siberian units, augmented by the 49th and 50th Soviet Armies, attacked the 2nd Panzer Group and inflicted a defeat on the Germans. The 4th Panzer Group pushed the Soviet 16th Army back, however, and succeeded in crossing the Moscow Canal in an attempt to encircle Moscow. On 2 December, part of the 258th Infantry Division advanced to within 24 km (15 mi) of Moscow. They were so close that German officers claimed they could see the spires of the Kremlin, but by then the first blizzards had begun. A reconnaissance battalion managed to reach the town of Khimki, only about 8 km (5.0 mi) from the Soviet capital. It captured the bridge over the Moscow-Volga Canal as well as the railway station, which marked the easternmost advance of German forces. In spite of the progress made, the *Wehrmacht* was not equipped for such severe winter warfare. The Soviet army was better adapted to fighting in winter conditions, but faced production shortages of winter clothing. The German forces fared worse, with deep snow further hindering equipment and mobility. Weather conditions had largely grounded the *Luftwaffe*, preventing large-scale air operations. Newly created Soviet units near Moscow now numbered over 500,000 men, and on 5 December, they launched a massive counterattack as part of the Soviet winter counteroffensive. The offensive halted on 7 January 1942, after having pushed the German armies back 100–250 km (62–155 mi) from Moscow. The *Wehrmacht* had lost the Battle for Moscow, and the invasion had cost the German Army over 830,000 men. Aftermath --------- With the failure of the Battle of Moscow, all German plans for a quick defeat of the Soviet Union had to be revised. The Soviet counter-offensives in December 1941 caused heavy casualties on both sides, but ultimately eliminated the German threat to Moscow. Attempting to explain matters, Hitler issued *Führer Directive No. 39*, which cited the early onset of winter and the severe cold as the primary reasons for the failed campaign, whereas the main reason was the German military's unpreparedness for such a giant enterprise. On 22 June 1941, the *Heer* as a whole had 209 divisions at its disposal, 163 of which were offensively capable. On 31 March 1942, less than one year after the invasion of the Soviet Union, the army was reduced to fielding 58 offensively capable divisions. The Red Army's tenacity and ability to counter-attack effectively took the Germans as much by surprise as their own initial attack had the Soviets. Spurred on by the successful defense and in an effort to imitate the Germans, Stalin wanted to begin his own counteroffensive, not just against the German forces around Moscow, but against their armies in the north and south. Anger over the failed German offensives caused Hitler to relieve Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch of command and in his place, Hitler assumed personal control of the German Army on 19 December 1941, a decision that would progressively prove fatal to Germany's war effort and contribute to its eventual defeat. The Soviet Union had suffered heavily from the conflict, losing huge tracts of territory, and vast losses in men and materiel. Nonetheless, the Red Army proved capable of countering the German offensives, particularly as the Germans began experiencing irreplaceable shortages in manpower, armaments, provisions, and fuel. ### Subsequent German offensives Despite the rapid relocation of Red Army armaments production east of the Urals and a dramatic increase of production in 1942, especially of armour, new aircraft types and artillery, the *Heer* (German army) was able to mount another large-scale offensive in June 1942, although on a much reduced front than the previous summer. Hitler, having realized that Germany's oil supply was severely depleted, attempted to utilize Army Group South to capture the oil fields of Baku in the new offensive, codenamed Case Blue. Again, the Germans quickly overran great expanses of Soviet territory, but they failed to achieve their ultimate goal of the oil fields of Baku, culminating in their disastrous defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in February 1943 and withdrawal from the Caucasus. By 1943, Soviet armaments production was fully operational and increasingly outproducing the German war economy. The final major German offensive in the Eastern theater of the Second World War took place during July—August 1943 with the launch of Operation Citadel, an assault on the Kursk salient. Approximately one million German troops confronted a Soviet force over 2.5 million strong. The Soviets, well aware of the attack in advance and fully prepared for it, prevailed in the Battle of Kursk. Following the German defeat, the Soviets launched Operation Kutuzov, a counter-offensives employing six million men along a 2,400-kilometre (1,500 mi) front towards the Dnieper River as they drove the Germans westwards. Employing increasingly ambitious and tactically sophisticated offensives, along with making operational improvements in secrecy and deception, the Red Army was eventually able to occupy much of the area which the Germans had previously occupied by the summer of 1944. The destruction of Army Group Centre, the outcome of Operation Bagration in 1944, proved to be a decisive success and additional Soviet offensives against the German Army Groups North and South in the autumn of 1944 put the German war machine into further retreat. By January 1945, what had been the Eastern Front was now controlled by the Soviets, whose military might was aimed at the German capital of Berlin. Hitler committed suicide on 30 April 1945 in order to avoid capture by the Soviets, and the war in Europe finally ended with the total defeat and capitulation of Nazi Germany in May 1945. ### War crimes While the Soviet Union had not signed the Geneva Convention, Germany had signed the treaty and was thus obligated to offer Soviet POWs humane treatment according to its provisions (as they generally did with other Allied POWs). According to the Soviets, they had not signed the Geneva Conventions in 1929 due to Article 9 which, by imposing racial segregation of POWs into different camps, contravened the Soviet constitution. Article 82 of the convention specified that "In case, in time of war, one of the belligerents is not a party to the Convention, its provisions shall nevertheless remain in force as between the belligerents who are parties thereto." Despite such mandates, Hitler called for the battle against the Soviet Union to be a "struggle for existence" and emphasized that the Soviet armies were to be "annihilated", a mindset that contributed to war crimes against Soviet prisoners of war. A memorandum from 16 July 1941, recorded by Martin Bormann, quotes Hitler saying, "The giant [occupied] area must naturally be pacified as quickly as possible; this will happen at best if anyone who just looks funny should be shot". Conveniently for the Nazis, the fact that the Soviets failed to sign the convention played into their hands as they justified their behavior accordingly. Even if the Soviets had signed, it is highly unlikely that this would have stopped the Nazis' genocidal policies towards combatants, civilians, and prisoners of war. Before the war, Hitler had issued the notorious Commissar Order, which called for all Soviet political commissars taken prisoner at the front to be shot immediately without trial. German soldiers participated in these mass killings along with members of the *SS-Einsatzgruppen*, sometimes reluctantly, claiming "military necessity". On the eve of the invasion, German soldiers were informed that their battle "demands ruthless and vigorous measures against Bolshevik inciters, guerrillas, saboteurs, Jews and the complete elimination of all active and passive resistance". Collective punishment was authorized against partisan attacks; if a perpetrator could not be quickly identified, then burning villages and mass executions were considered acceptable reprisals. Although the majority of German soldiers accepted these crimes as justified due to Nazi propaganda, which depicted the Red Army as *Untermenschen*, a few prominent German officers openly protested against them. An estimated two million Soviet prisoners of war died of starvation during Barbarossa alone. By the end of the war, 58 percent of all Soviet prisoners of war had died in German captivity. Organized crimes against civilians, including women and children, were carried out on a huge scale by the German police and military forces, as well as the local collaborators. Under the command of the Reich Security Main Office, the *Einsatzgruppen* killing squads conducted large-scale massacres of Jews and communists in conquered Soviet territories. Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg puts the number of Jews murdered by "mobile killing operations" at 1,400,000. The original instructions to kill "Jews in party and state positions" were broadened to include "all male Jews of military age" and then expanded once more to "all male Jews regardless of age". By the end of July, the Germans were regularly killing women and children. On 18 December 1941, Himmler and Hitler discussed the "Jewish question", and Himmler noted the meeting's result in his appointment book: "To be annihilated as partisans". According to Christopher Browning, "annihilating Jews and solving the so-called 'Jewish question' under the cover of killing partisans was the agreed-upon convention between Hitler and Himmler". In accordance with Nazi policies against "inferior" Asian peoples, Turkmens were also persecuted. According to a post-war report by Prince Veli Kajum Khan, they were imprisoned in concentration camps in terrible conditions, where those deemed to have "Mongolian" features were murdered daily. Asians were also targeted by the *Einsatzgruppen* and were the subjects of lethal medical experiments and murder at a "pathological institute" in Kiev. Hitler received reports of the mass killings conducted by the *Einsatzgruppen* which were first conveyed to the RSHA, where they were aggregated into a summary report by Gestapo Chief Heinrich Müller. Burning houses suspected of being partisan meeting places and poisoning water wells became common practice for soldiers of the German 9th Army. At Kharkov, the fourth largest city in the Soviet Union, food was provided only to the small number of civilians who worked for the Germans, with the rest designated to slowly starve. Thousands of Soviets were deported to Germany to be used as slave labor beginning in 1942. The citizens of Leningrad were subjected to heavy bombardment and a siege that would last 872 days and starve more than a million people to death, of whom approximately 400,000 were children below the age of 14. The German-Finnish blockade cut off access to food, fuel and raw materials, and rations reached a low, for the non-working population, of four ounces (five thin slices) of bread and a little watery soup per day. Starving Soviet civilians began to eat their domestic animals, along with hair tonic and Vaseline. Some desperate citizens resorted to cannibalism; Soviet records list 2,000 people arrested for "the use of human meat as food" during the siege, 886 of them during the first winter of 1941–42. The *Wehrmacht* planned to seal off Leningrad, starve out the population, and then demolish the city entirely. #### Sexual violence Rape was a widespread phenomenon in the East as German soldiers regularly committed violent sexual acts against Soviet women. Whole units were occasionally involved in the crime with upwards of one-third of the instances being gang rape. Historian Hannes Heer relates that in the world of the eastern front, where the German army equated Russia with Communism, everything was "fair game"; thus, rape went unreported unless entire units were involved. Frequently in the case of Jewish women, they were immediately murdered following acts of sexual violence. Historian Birgit Beck emphasizes that military decrees, which served to authorize wholesale brutality on many levels, essentially destroyed the basis for any prosecution of sexual offenses committed by German soldiers in the East. She also contends that detection of such instances was limited by the fact that sexual violence was often inflicted in the context of billets in civilian housing. Historical significance ----------------------- Barbarossa was the largest military operation in history – more men, tanks, guns and aircraft were deployed than in any other offensive. The invasion opened the Eastern Front, the war's largest theater, which saw clashes of unprecedented violence and destruction for four years and killed over 26 million Soviet people, including about 8.6 million Red Army soldiers. More died fighting on the Eastern Front than in all other fighting across the globe during World War II. Damage to both the economy and landscape was enormous, as approximately 1,710 Soviet towns and 70,000 villages were razed. Barbarossa and the subsequent German defeat changed the political landscape of Europe, dividing it into Eastern and Western blocs. The political vacuum left in the eastern half of the continent was filled by the USSR when Stalin secured his territorial prizes of 1944–1945 and firmly placed the Red Army in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and the eastern half of Germany. Stalin's fear of resurgent German power and his distrust of his erstwhile allies contributed to Soviet pan-Slavic initiatives and a subsequent alliance of Slavic states. The historians David Glantz and Jonathan House assert that Barbarossa influenced not only Stalin but subsequent Soviet leaders, claiming it "colored" their strategic mindsets for the "next four decades". As a result, the Soviets instigated the creation of "an elaborate system of buffer and client states, designed to insulate the Soviet Union from any possible future attack". As a consequence, Eastern Europe became communist in political disposition, and Western Europe fell under the sway of the United States. 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"Modern History Sourcebook: The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, 1939". *Internet Modern History Sourcebook*. Fordham University. Retrieved 20 April 2021. * Hayward, Joel (1995). "Hitler's Quest for Oil: The Impact of Economic Considerations on Military Strategy, 1941–42". *Journal of Strategic Studies*. **18** (4): 94–135. doi:10.1080/01402399508437621. * Kershaw, Ian (2000). *Hitler 1889–1936: Hubris*. Penguin. ISBN 978-0140133639. * Price-Smith, Andrew T. (29 May 2015). *Oil, Illiberalism, and War: An Analysis of Energy and US Foreign Policy*. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-02906-3. * United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (20 June 2014). "Nazi Persecution of Soviet Prisoners of War". Retrieved 24 March 2015. * Ward, John (2004). *Hitler's Stuka Squadrons: The Ju 87 at War, 1936–1945*. MBI Publishing. ISBN 978-0760319918. 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Operation Barbarossa

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa

**Earth** is the third planet from the Sun and the only place known in the universe where life has originated and found habitability. Earth is the only planet known to sustain liquid surface water, with ocean water extending over 70.8% of the planet, making it an ocean world. Most other water is retained in Earth's polar regions, with large sheets of ice covering ocean and land, dwarfing Earth's groundwater, lakes, rivers and atmospheric water. The other 29.2% of the Earth's surface is land, consisting of continents and islands, and is widely covered by vegetation. Below the planet's surface lies the crust, consisting of several slowly moving tectonic plates, which interact to produce mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes. Inside the Earth's crust is a liquid outer core that generates the magnetosphere, deflecting most of the destructive solar winds and cosmic radiation. Earth has a dynamic atmosphere, which sustains Earth's surface conditions and protects it from most meteoroids and UV-light at entry. It has a composition of primarily nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor is widely present in the atmosphere, forming clouds that cover most of the planet. The water vapor acts as a greenhouse gas and, together with other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), creates the conditions for both liquid surface water and water vapor to persist via the capturing of energy from the Sun's light. This process maintains the current average surface temperature of 14.76 °C, at which water is liquid under atmospheric pressure. Differences in the amount of captured energy between geographic regions (as with the equatorial region receiving more sunlight than the polar regions) drive atmospheric and ocean currents, producing a global climate system with different climate regions, and a range of weather phenomena such as precipitation, allowing components such as nitrogen to cycle. Earth is rounded into an ellipsoid with a circumference of about 40,000 km. It is the densest planet in the Solar System. Of the four rocky planets, it is the largest and most massive. Earth is about eight light-minutes away from the Sun and orbits it, taking a year (about 365.25 days) to complete one revolution. The Earth rotates around its own axis in slightly less than a day (in about 23 hours and 56 minutes). The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted with respect to the perpendicular to its orbital plane around the Sun, producing seasons. Earth is orbited by one permanent natural satellite, the Moon, which orbits Earth at 384,400 km (1.28 light seconds) and is roughly a quarter as wide as Earth. Through tidal locking, the Moon always faces the Earth with the same side, which causes tides, stabilizes Earth's axis, and gradually slows its rotation. Earth, like most other bodies in the Solar System, formed 4.5 billion years ago from gas in the early Solar System. During the first billion years of Earth's history, the ocean formed and then life developed within it. Life spread globally and has been altering Earth's atmosphere and surface, leading to the Great Oxidation Event two billion years ago. Humans emerged 300,000 years ago in Africa and have spread across every continent on Earth with the exception of Antarctica. Humans depend on Earth's biosphere and natural resources for their survival, but have increasingly impacted the planet's environment. Humanity's current impact on Earth's climate and biosphere is unsustainable, threatening the livelihood of humans and many other forms of life, and causing widespread extinctions. Etymology --------- The Modern English word *Earth* developed, via Middle English, from an Old English noun most often spelled *eorðe*. It has cognates in every Germanic language, and their ancestral root has been reconstructed as \**erþō*. In its earliest attestation, the word *eorðe* was already being used to translate the many senses of Latin *terra* and Greek γῆ *gē*: the ground, its soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the world (including the sea), and the globe itself. As with Roman Terra/Tellūs and Greek Gaia, Earth may have been a personified goddess in Germanic paganism: late Norse mythology included Jörð ('Earth'), a giantess often given as the mother of Thor. Historically, *earth* has been written in lowercase. From early Middle English, its definite sense as "the globe" was expressed as *the* earth. By the era of Early Modern English, capitalization of nouns began to prevail, and *the earth* was also written *the Earth*, particularly when referenced along with other heavenly bodies. More recently, the name is sometimes simply given as *Earth*, by analogy with the names of the other planets, though *earth* and forms with *the* remain common. House styles now vary: Oxford spelling recognizes the lowercase form as the most common, with the capitalized form an acceptable variant. Another convention capitalizes "Earth" when appearing as a name (for example, "Earth's atmosphere") but writes it in lowercase when preceded by *the* (for example, "the atmosphere of the earth"). It almost always appears in lowercase in colloquial expressions such as "what on earth are you doing?" Occasionally, the name *Terra* /ˈtɛrə/ is used in scientific writing and especially in science fiction to distinguish humanity's inhabited planet from others, while in poetry *Tellus* /ˈtɛləs/ has been used to denote personification of the Earth. *Terra* is also the name of the planet in some Romance languages (languages that evolved from Latin) like Italian and Portuguese, while in other Romance languages the word gave rise to names with slightly altered spellings (like the Spanish *Tierra* and the French *Terre*). The Latinate form *Gæa* or *Gaea* (English: /ˈdʒiː.ə/) of the Greek poetic name *Gaia* (Γαῖα; Ancient Greek: [ɡâi̯.a] or [ɡâj.ja]) is rare, though the alternative spelling *Gaia* has become common due to the Gaia hypothesis, in which case its pronunciation is /ˈɡaɪ.ə/ rather than the more classical English /ˈɡeɪ.ə/. There are a number of adjectives for the planet Earth. From *Earth* itself comes *earthly*. From the Latin *Terra* comes *terran* /ˈtɛrən/, terrestrial /təˈrɛstriəl/, and (via French) *terrene* /təˈriːn/, and from the Latin *Tellus* comes *tellurian* /tɛˈlʊəriən/ and *telluric*. Natural history --------------- ### Formation The oldest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5682+0.0002 −0.0004 Ga (billion years) ago. By 4.54±0.04 Ga the primordial Earth had formed. The bodies in the Solar System formed and evolved with the Sun. In theory, a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that disk with the Sun. A nebula contains gas, ice grains, and dust (including primordial nuclides). According to nebular theory, planetesimals formed by accretion, with the primordial Earth being estimated as likely taking anywhere from 70 to 100 million years to form. Estimates of the age of the Moon range from 4.5 Ga to significantly younger. A leading hypothesis is that it was formed by accretion from material loosed from Earth after a Mars-sized object with about 10% of Earth's mass, named Theia, collided with Earth. It hit Earth with a glancing blow and some of its mass merged with Earth. Between approximately 4.1 and 3.8 Ga, numerous asteroid impacts during the Late Heavy Bombardment caused significant changes to the greater surface environment of the Moon and, by inference, to that of Earth. ### After formation Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing. Water vapor from these sources condensed into the oceans, augmented by water and ice from asteroids, protoplanets, and comets. Sufficient water to fill the oceans may have been on Earth since it formed. In this model, atmospheric greenhouse gases kept the oceans from freezing when the newly forming Sun had only 70% of its current luminosity. By 3.5 Ga, Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the solar wind. As the molten outer layer of Earth cooled it formed the first solid crust, which is thought to have been mafic in composition. The first continental crust, which was more felsic in composition, formed by the partial melting of this mafic crust. The presence of grains of the mineral zircon of Hadean age in Eoarchean sedimentary rocks suggests that at least some felsic crust existed as early as 4.4 Ga, only 140 Ma after Earth's formation. There are two main models of how this initial small volume of continental crust evolved to reach its current abundance: (1) a relatively steady growth up to the present day, which is supported by the radiometric dating of continental crust globally and (2) an initial rapid growth in the volume of continental crust during the Archean, forming the bulk of the continental crust that now exists, which is supported by isotopic evidence from hafnium in zircons and neodymium in sedimentary rocks. The two models and the data that support them can be reconciled by large-scale recycling of the continental crust, particularly during the early stages of Earth's history. New continental crust forms as a result of plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from Earth's interior. Over the period of hundreds of millions of years, tectonic forces have caused areas of continental crust to group together to form supercontinents that have subsequently broken apart. At approximately 750 Ma, one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia at 600–540 Ma, then finally Pangaea, which also began to break apart at 180 Ma. The most recent pattern of ice ages began about 40 Ma, and then intensified during the Pleistocene about 3 Ma. High- and middle-latitude regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating about every 21,000, 41,000 and 100,000 years. The Last Glacial Period, colloquially called the "last ice age", covered large parts of the continents, to the middle latitudes, in ice and ended about 11,700 years ago. ### Origin of life and evolution Chemical reactions led to the first self-replicating molecules about four billion years ago. A half billion years later, the last common ancestor of all current life arose. The evolution of photosynthesis allowed the Sun's energy to be harvested directly by life forms. The resultant molecular oxygen (O2) accumulated in the atmosphere and due to interaction with ultraviolet solar radiation, formed a protective ozone layer (O3) in the upper atmosphere. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the development of complex cells called eukaryotes. True multicellular organisms formed as cells within colonies became increasingly specialized. Aided by the absorption of harmful ultraviolet radiation by the ozone layer, life colonized Earth's surface. Among the earliest fossil evidence for life is microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone in Western Australia, biogenic graphite found in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks in Western Greenland, and remains of biotic material found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. The earliest direct evidence of life on Earth is contained in 3.45 billion-year-old Australian rocks showing fossils of microorganisms. During the Neoproterozoic, 1000 to 539 Ma, much of Earth might have been covered in ice. This hypothesis has been termed "Snowball Earth", and it is of particular interest because it preceded the Cambrian explosion, when multicellular life forms significantly increased in complexity. Following the Cambrian explosion, 535 Ma, there have been at least five major mass extinctions and many minor ones. Apart from the proposed current Holocene extinction event, the most recent was 66 Ma, when an asteroid impact triggered the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs and other large reptiles, but largely spared small animals such as insects, mammals, lizards and birds. Mammalian life has diversified over the past 66 Mys, and several million years ago an African ape species gained the ability to stand upright. This facilitated tool use and encouraged communication that provided the nutrition and stimulation needed for a larger brain, which led to the evolution of humans. The development of agriculture, and then civilization, led to humans having an influence on Earth and the nature and quantity of other life forms that continues to this day. ### Future Earth's expected long-term future is tied to that of the Sun. Over the next 1.1 billion years, solar luminosity will increase by 10%, and over the next 3.5 billion years by 40%. Earth's increasing surface temperature will accelerate the inorganic carbon cycle, reducing CO2 concentration to levels lethally low for plants (10 ppm for C4 photosynthesis) in approximately 100–900 million years. The lack of vegetation will result in the loss of oxygen in the atmosphere, making animal life impossible. Due to the increased luminosity, Earth's mean temperature may reach 100 °C (212 °F) in 1.5 billion years, and all ocean water will evaporate and be lost to space, which may trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, within an estimated 1.6 to 3 billion years. Even if the Sun were stable, a fraction of the water in the modern oceans will descend to the mantle, due to reduced steam venting from mid-ocean ridges. The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about 5 billion years. Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly 1 AU (150 million km; 93 million mi), about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit 1.7 AU (250 million km; 160 million mi) from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius, otherwise, with tidal effects, it may enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized. Geophysical characteristics --------------------------- ### Size and shape Earth has a rounded shape, through hydrostatic equilibrium, with an average diameter of 12,742 kilometers (7,918 mi), making it the fifth largest planetary sized and largest terrestrial object of the Solar System. Due to Earth's rotation it has the shape of an ellipsoid, bulging at its Equator, reaching 43 kilometers (27 mi) further out from its center of mass than at its poles. Earth's shape furthermore has local topographic variations. Though the largest local variations, like the Mariana Trench (10,925 meters or 35,843 feet below local sea level), only shortens Earth's average radius by 0.17% and Mount Everest (8,848 meters or 29,029 feet above local sea level) lengthens it by only 0.14%. Since Earth's surface is farthest out from Earth's center of mass at its equatorial bulge, the summit of the volcano Chimborazo in Ecuador (6,384.4 km or 3,967.1 mi) is its farthest point out. Parallel to the rigid land topography the Ocean exhibits a more dynamic topography. To measure the local variation of Earth's topography, geodesy employs an idealized Earth producing a shape called a geoid. Such a geoid shape is gained if the ocean is idealized, covering Earth completely and without any perturbations such as tides and winds. The result is a smooth but gravitational irregular geoid surface, providing a mean sea level (MSL) as a reference level for topographic measurements. ### Surface Earth's surface is the boundary between the atmosphere, and the solid Earth and oceans. Defined in this way, Earth's shape is an idealized spheroid - a squashed sphere - with a surface area of about 510 million km2 (197 million sq mi). Earth can be divided into two hemispheres: by latitude into the polar Northern and Southern hemispheres; or by longitude into the continental Eastern and Western hemispheres. Most of Earth's surface is ocean water: 70.8% or 361 million km2 (139 million sq mi). This vast pool of salty water is often called the *world ocean*, and makes Earth with its dynamic hydrosphere a water world or ocean world. Indeed, in Earth's early history the ocean may have covered Earth completely. The world ocean is commonly divided into the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern Ocean, and Arctic Ocean, from largest to smallest. The ocean fills the oceanic basins, and the ocean floor comprises abyssal plains, continental shelves, seamounts, submarine volcanoes, oceanic trenches, submarine canyons, oceanic plateaus, and a globe-spanning mid-ocean ridge system. At Earth's polar regions, the ocean surface is covered by seasonally variable amounts of sea ice that often connects with polar land, permafrost and ice sheets, forming polar ice caps. Earth's land covers 29.2%, or 149 million km2 (58 million sq mi) of Earth's surface. The land surface includes many islands around the globe, but most of the land surface is taken by the four continental landmasses, which are (in descending order): Africa-Eurasia, America (landmass), Antarctica, and Australia (landmass). These landmasses are further broken down and grouped into the continents. The terrain of the land surface varies greatly and consists of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The elevation of the land surface varies from a low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the Dead Sea, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft). Land can be covered by surface water, snow, ice, artificial structures or vegetation. Most of Earth's land hosts vegetation, but ice sheets (10%, not including the equally large land under permafrost) or cold as well as hot deserts (33%) occupy also considerable amounts of it. The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's land surface and is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. Soil is crucial for land to be arable. Earth's total arable land is 10.7% of the land surface, with 1.3% being permanent cropland. Earth has an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland. The land surface and the ocean floor form the top of the Earth's crust, which together with parts of the upper mantle form Earth's lithosphere. Earth's crust may be divided into oceanic and continental crust. Beneath the ocean-floor sediments, the oceanic crust is predominantly basaltic, while the continental crust may include lower density materials such as granite, sediments and metamorphic rocks. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the mass of the crust. Earth's surface topography comprises both the topography of the ocean surface, and the shape of Earth's land surface. The submarine terrain of the ocean floor has an average bathymetric depth of 4 km, and is as varied as the terrain above sea level. Earth's surface is continually being shaped by internal plate tectonic processes including earthquakes and volcanism; by weathering and erosion driven by ice, water, wind and temperature; and by biological processes including the growth and decomposition of biomass into soil. ### Tectonic plates Earth's mechanically rigid outer layer of Earth's crust and upper mantle, the lithosphere, is divided into tectonic plates. These plates are rigid segments that move relative to each other at one of three boundaries types: at convergent boundaries, two plates come together; at divergent boundaries, two plates are pulled apart; and at transform boundaries, two plates slide past one another laterally. Along these plate boundaries, earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation can occur. The tectonic plates ride on top of the asthenosphere, the solid but less-viscous part of the upper mantle that can flow and move along with the plates. As the tectonic plates migrate, oceanic crust is subducted under the leading edges of the plates at convergent boundaries. At the same time, the upwelling of mantle material at divergent boundaries creates mid-ocean ridges. The combination of these processes recycles the oceanic crust back into the mantle. Due to this recycling, most of the ocean floor is less than 100 Ma old. The oldest oceanic crust is located in the Western Pacific and is estimated to be 200 Ma old. By comparison, the oldest dated continental crust is 4,030 Ma, although zircons have been found preserved as clasts within Eoarchean sedimentary rocks that give ages up to 4,400 Ma, indicating that at least some continental crust existed at that time. The seven major plates are the Pacific, North American, Eurasian, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, and South American. Other notable plates include the Arabian Plate, the Caribbean Plate, the Nazca Plate off the west coast of South America and the Scotia Plate in the southern Atlantic Ocean. The Australian Plate fused with the Indian Plate between 50 and 55 Ma. The fastest-moving plates are the oceanic plates, with the Cocos Plate advancing at a rate of 75 mm/a (3.0 in/year) and the Pacific Plate moving 52–69 mm/a (2.0–2.7 in/year). At the other extreme, the slowest-moving plate is the South American Plate, progressing at a typical rate of 10.6 mm/a (0.42 in/year). ### Internal structure Geologic layers of Earth| Illustration of Earth's cutaway, not to scale | | Depth(km) | Component layer name | Density(g/cm3) | | 0–60 | Lithosphere | — | | 0–35 | Crust | 2.2–2.9 | | 35–660 | Upper mantle | 3.4–4.4 | | 660–2890 | Lower mantle | 3.4–5.6 | | 100–700 | Asthenosphere | — | | 2890–5100 | Outer core | 9.9–12.2 | | 5100–6378 | Inner core | 12.8–13.1 | Earth's interior, like that of the other terrestrial planets, is divided into layers by their chemical or physical (rheological) properties. The outer layer is a chemically distinct silicate solid crust, which is underlain by a highly viscous solid mantle. The crust is separated from the mantle by the Mohorovičić discontinuity. The thickness of the crust varies from about 6 kilometers (3.7 mi) under the oceans to 30–50 km (19–31 mi) for the continents. The crust and the cold, rigid, top of the upper mantle are collectively known as the lithosphere, which is divided into independently moving tectonic plates. Beneath the lithosphere is the asthenosphere, a relatively low-viscosity layer on which the lithosphere rides. Important changes in crystal structure within the mantle occur at 410 and 660 km (250 and 410 mi) below the surface, spanning a transition zone that separates the upper and lower mantle. Beneath the mantle, an extremely low viscosity liquid outer core lies above a solid inner core. Earth's inner core may be rotating at a slightly higher angular velocity than the remainder of the planet, advancing by 0.1–0.5° per year, although both somewhat higher and much lower rates have also been proposed. The radius of the inner core is about one-fifth of that of Earth. Density increases with depth, as described in the table on the right. Among the Solar System's planetary-sized objects Earth is the object with the highest density. ### Chemical composition Earth's mass is approximately 5.97×1024 kg (5,970 Yg). It is composed mostly of iron (32.1% by mass), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminum (1.4%), with the remaining 1.2% consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to gravitational separation, the core is primarily composed of the denser elements: iron (88.8%), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% trace elements. The most common rock constituents of the crust are oxides. Over 99% of the crust is composed of various oxides of eleven elements, principally oxides containing silicon (the silicate minerals), aluminum, iron, calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium. ### Internal heat The major heat-producing isotopes within Earth are potassium-40, uranium-238, and thorium-232. At the center, the temperature may be up to 6,000 °C (10,830 °F), and the pressure could reach 360 GPa (52 million psi). Because much of the heat is provided by radioactive decay, scientists postulate that early in Earth's history, before isotopes with short half-lives were depleted, Earth's heat production was much higher. At approximately 3 Gyr, twice the present-day heat would have been produced, increasing the rates of mantle convection and plate tectonics, and allowing the production of uncommon igneous rocks such as komatiites that are rarely formed today. The mean heat loss from Earth is 87 mW m−2, for a global heat loss of 4.42×1013 W. A portion of the core's thermal energy is transported toward the crust by mantle plumes, a form of convection consisting of upwellings of higher-temperature rock. These plumes can produce hotspots and flood basalts. More of the heat in Earth is lost through plate tectonics, by mantle upwelling associated with mid-ocean ridges. The final major mode of heat loss is through conduction through the lithosphere, the majority of which occurs under the oceans because the crust there is much thinner than that of the continents. ### Gravitational field The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within Earth. Near Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately 9.8 m/s2 (32 ft/s2). Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad regional differences in Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies. ### Magnetic field The main part of Earth's magnetic field is generated in the core, the site of a dynamo process that converts the kinetic energy of thermally and compositionally driven convection into electrical and magnetic field energy. The field extends outwards from the core, through the mantle, and up to Earth's surface, where it is, approximately, a dipole. The poles of the dipole are located close to Earth's geographic poles. At the equator of the magnetic field, the magnetic-field strength at the surface is 3.05×10−5 T, with a magnetic dipole moment of 7.79×1022 Am2 at epoch 2000, decreasing nearly 6% per century (although it still remains stronger than its long time average). The convection movements in the core are chaotic; the magnetic poles drift and periodically change alignment. This causes secular variation of the main field and field reversals at irregular intervals averaging a few times every million years. The most recent reversal occurred approximately 700,000 years ago. The extent of Earth's magnetic field in space defines the magnetosphere. Ions and electrons of the solar wind are deflected by the magnetosphere; solar wind pressure compresses the dayside of the magnetosphere, to about 10 Earth radii, and extends the nightside magnetosphere into a long tail. Because the velocity of the solar wind is greater than the speed at which waves propagate through the solar wind, a supersonic bow shock precedes the dayside magnetosphere within the solar wind. Charged particles are contained within the magnetosphere; the plasmasphere is defined by low-energy particles that essentially follow magnetic field lines as Earth rotates. The ring current is defined by medium-energy particles that drift relative to the geomagnetic field, but with paths that are still dominated by the magnetic field, and the Van Allen radiation belts are formed by high-energy particles whose motion is essentially random, but contained in the magnetosphere. During magnetic storms and substorms, charged particles can be deflected from the outer magnetosphere and especially the magnetotail, directed along field lines into Earth's ionosphere, where atmospheric atoms can be excited and ionized, causing the aurora. Orbit and rotation ------------------ ### Rotation Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun—its mean solar day—is 86,400 seconds of mean solar time (86,400.0025 SI seconds). Because Earth's solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal deceleration, each day varies between 0 and 2 ms longer than the mean solar day. Earth's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its *stellar day* by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.0989 seconds of mean solar time (UT1), or 23h 56m 4.0989s. Earth's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean March equinox (when the Sun is at 90° on the equator), is 86,164.0905 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23h 56m 4.0905s). Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms. Apart from meteors within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites, the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in Earth's sky is to the west at a rate of 15°/h = 15'/min. For bodies near the celestial equator, this is equivalent to an apparent diameter of the Sun or the Moon every two minutes; from Earth's surface, the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon are approximately the same. ### Orbit Earth orbits the Sun, making Earth the third-closest planet to the Sun and part of the inner Solar System. Earth's average orbital distance is about 150 million km (93 million mi), which is the basis for the Astronomical Unit and is equal to roughly 8.3 light minutes or 380 times Earth's distance to the Moon. Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days, or one sidereal year. With an apparent movement of the Sun in Earth's sky at a rate of about 1°/day eastward, which is one apparent Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours. Due to this motion, on average it takes 24 hours—a solar day—for Earth to complete a full rotation about its axis so that the Sun returns to the meridian. The orbital speed of Earth averages about 29.78 km/s (107,200 km/h; 66,600 mph), which is fast enough to travel a distance equal to Earth's diameter, about 12,742 km (7,918 mi), in seven minutes, and the distance to the Moon, 384,000 km (239,000 mi), in about 3.5 hours. The Moon and Earth orbit a common barycenter every 27.32 days relative to the background stars. When combined with the Earth–Moon system's common orbit around the Sun, the period of the synodic month, from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days. Viewed from the celestial north pole, the motion of Earth, the Moon, and their axial rotations are all counterclockwise. Viewed from a vantage point above the Sun and Earth's north poles, Earth orbits in a counterclockwise direction about the Sun. The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's axis is tilted some 23.44 degrees from the perpendicular to the Earth–Sun plane (the ecliptic), and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted up to ±5.1 degrees against the Earth–Sun plane. Without this tilt, there would be an eclipse every two weeks, alternating between lunar eclipses and solar eclipses. The Hill sphere, or the sphere of gravitational influence, of Earth is about 1.5 million km (930,000 mi) in radius. This is the maximum distance at which Earth's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects must orbit Earth within this radius, or they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun. Earth, along with the Solar System, is situated in the Milky Way and orbits about 28,000 light-years from its center. It is about 20 light-years above the galactic plane in the Orion Arm. ### Axial tilt and seasons The axial tilt of Earth is approximately 23.439281° with the axis of its orbit plane, always pointing towards the Celestial Poles. Due to Earth's axial tilt, the amount of sunlight reaching any given point on the surface varies over the course of the year. This causes the seasonal change in climate, with summer in the Northern Hemisphere occurring when the Tropic of Cancer is facing the Sun, and in the Southern Hemisphere when the Tropic of Capricorn faces the Sun. In each instance, winter occurs simultaneously in the opposite hemisphere. During the summer, the day lasts longer, and the Sun climbs higher in the sky. In winter, the climate becomes cooler and the days shorter. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle there is no daylight at all for part of the year, causing a polar night, and this night extends for several months at the poles themselves. These same latitudes also experience a midnight sun, where the sun remains visible all day. By astronomical convention, the four seasons can be determined by the solstices—the points in the orbit of maximum axial tilt toward or away from the Sun—and the equinoxes, when Earth's rotational axis is aligned with its orbital axis. In the Northern Hemisphere, winter solstice currently occurs around 21 December; summer solstice is near 21 June, spring equinox is around 20 March and autumnal equinox is about 22 or 23 September. In the Southern Hemisphere, the situation is reversed, with the summer and winter solstices exchanged and the spring and autumnal equinox dates swapped. The angle of Earth's axial tilt is relatively stable over long periods of time. Its axial tilt does undergo nutation; a slight, irregular motion with a main period of 18.6 years. The orientation (rather than the angle) of Earth's axis also changes over time, precessing around in a complete circle over each 25,800-year cycle; this precession is the reason for the difference between a sidereal year and a tropical year. Both of these motions are caused by the varying attraction of the Sun and the Moon on Earth's equatorial bulge. The poles also migrate a few meters across Earth's surface. This polar motion has multiple, cyclical components, which collectively are termed quasiperiodic motion. In addition to an annual component to this motion, there is a 14-month cycle called the Chandler wobble. Earth's rotational velocity also varies in a phenomenon known as length-of-day variation. In modern times, Earth's perihelion occurs around 3 January, and its aphelion around 4 July. These dates change over time due to precession and other orbital factors, which follow cyclical patterns known as Milankovitch cycles. The changing Earth–Sun distance causes an increase of about 6.8% in solar energy reaching Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Because the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. This effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the Southern Hemisphere. Earth–Moon system ----------------- ### Moon The Moon is a relatively large, terrestrial, planet-like natural satellite, with a diameter about one-quarter of the Earth's. It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet, although Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto. The natural satellites of other planets are also referred to as "moons", after Earth's. The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the giant-impact hypothesis, states that it formed from the collision of a Mars-size protoplanet called Theia with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of Earth's crust. The gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon causes tides on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its tidal locking: its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet. As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the lunar phases. Due to their tidal interaction, the Moon recedes from Earth at the rate of approximately 38 mm/a (1.5 in/year). Over millions of years, these tiny modifications—and the lengthening of Earth's day by about 23 µs/yr—add up to significant changes. During the Ediacaran period, for example, (approximately 620 Ma) there were 400±7 days in a year, with each day lasting 21.9±0.4 hours. The Moon may have dramatically affected the development of life by moderating the planet's climate. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's axial tilt is stabilized by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists think that without this stabilization against the torques applied by the Sun and planets to Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, exhibiting large changes over millions of years, as is the case for Mars, though this is disputed. Viewed from Earth, the Moon is just far enough away to have almost the same apparent-sized disk as the Sun. The angular size (or solid angle) of these two bodies match because, although the Sun's diameter is about 400 times as large as the Moon's, it is also 400 times more distant. This allows total and annular solar eclipses to occur on Earth. ### Asteroids and artificial satellites Earth's co-orbital asteroids population consists of quasi-satellites, objects with a horseshoe orbit and trojans. There are at least five quasi-satellites, including 469219 Kamoʻoalewa. A trojan asteroid companion, 2010 TK7, is librating around the leading Lagrange triangular point, L4, in Earth's orbit around the Sun. The tiny near-Earth asteroid 2006 RH120 makes close approaches to the Earth–Moon system roughly every twenty years. During these approaches, it can orbit Earth for brief periods of time. As of September 2021[update], there are 4,550 operational, human-made satellites orbiting Earth. There are also inoperative satellites, including Vanguard 1, the oldest satellite currently in orbit, and over 16,000 pieces of tracked space debris. Earth's largest artificial satellite is the International Space Station. Hydrosphere ----------- Earth's hydrosphere is the sum of Earth's water and its distribution. Most of Earth's hydrosphere consists of Earth's global ocean. Nevertheless, Earth's hydrosphere also consists of water in the atmosphere and on land, including clouds, inland seas, lakes, rivers, and underground waters down to a depth of 2,000 m (6,600 ft). The mass of the oceans is approximately 1.35×1018 metric tons or about 1/4400 of Earth's total mass. The oceans cover an area of 361.8 million km2 (139.7 million sq mi) with a mean depth of 3,682 m (12,080 ft), resulting in an estimated volume of 1.332 billion km3 (320 million cu mi). If all of Earth's crustal surface were at the same elevation as a smooth sphere, the depth of the resulting world ocean would be 2.7 to 2.8 km (1.68 to 1.74 mi). About 97.5% of the water is saline; the remaining 2.5% is fresh water. Most fresh water, about 68.7%, is present as ice in ice caps and glaciers. The remaining 30% is ground water, 1% surface water (covering only 2.8% of Earth's land) and other small forms of fresh water deposits such as permafrost, water vapor in the atmosphere, biological binding, etc. . In Earth's coldest regions, snow survives over the summer and changes into ice. This accumulated snow and ice eventually forms into glaciers, bodies of ice that flow under the influence of their own gravity. Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas, whereas vast ice sheets form over land in polar regions. The flow of glaciers erodes the surface changing it dramatically, with the formation of U-shaped valleys and other landforms. Sea ice in the Arctic covers an area about as big as the United States, although it is quickly retreating as a consequence of climate change. The average salinity of Earth's oceans is about 35 grams of salt per kilogram of seawater (3.5% salt). Most of this salt was released from volcanic activity or extracted from cool igneous rocks. The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation. The abundance of water, particularly liquid water, on Earth's surface is a unique feature that distinguishes it from other planets in the Solar System. Solar System planets with considerable atmospheres do partly host atmospheric water vapor, but they lack surface conditions for stable surface water. Despite some moons showing signs of large reservoirs of extraterrestrial liquid water, with possibly even more volume than Earth's ocean, all of them are large bodies of water under a kilometers thick frozen surface layer. Atmosphere ---------- The atmospheric pressure at Earth's sea level averages 101.325 kPa (14.696 psi), with a scale height of about 8.5 km (5.3 mi). A dry atmosphere is composed of 78.084% nitrogen, 20.946% oxygen, 0.934% argon, and trace amounts of carbon dioxide and other gaseous molecules. Water vapor content varies between 0.01% and 4% but averages about 1%. Clouds cover around two thirds of Earth's surface, more so over oceans than land. The height of the troposphere varies with latitude, ranging between 8 km (5 mi) at the poles to 17 km (11 mi) at the equator, with some variation resulting from weather and seasonal factors. Earth's biosphere has significantly altered its atmosphere. Oxygenic photosynthesis evolved 2.7 Gya, forming the primarily nitrogen–oxygen atmosphere of today. This change enabled the proliferation of aerobic organisms and, indirectly, the formation of the ozone layer due to the subsequent conversion of atmospheric O2 into O3. The ozone layer blocks ultraviolet solar radiation, permitting life on land. Other atmospheric functions important to life include transporting water vapor, providing useful gases, causing small meteors to burn up before they strike the surface, and moderating temperature. This last phenomenon is the greenhouse effect: trace molecules within the atmosphere serve to capture thermal energy emitted from the surface, thereby raising the average temperature. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are the primary greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Without this heat-retention effect, the average surface temperature would be −18 °C (0 °F), in contrast to the current +15 °C (59 °F), and life on Earth probably would not exist in its current form. ### Weather and climate The ITCZ's band of clouds over the Eastern Pacific and the Americas as seen from spaceWorldwide Köppen climate classifications Earth's atmosphere has no definite boundary, gradually becoming thinner and fading into outer space. Three-quarters of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the first 11 km (6.8 mi) of the surface; this lowest layer is called the troposphere. Energy from the Sun heats this layer, and the surface below, causing expansion of the air. This lower-density air then rises and is replaced by cooler, higher-density air. The result is atmospheric circulation that drives the weather and climate through redistribution of thermal energy. The primary atmospheric circulation bands consist of the trade winds in the equatorial region below 30° latitude and the westerlies in the mid-latitudes between 30° and 60°. Ocean heat content and currents are also important factors in determining climate, particularly the thermohaline circulation that distributes thermal energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions. Earth receives 1361 W/m2 of solar irradiance. The amount of solar energy that reaches the Earth's surface decreases with increasing latitude. At higher latitudes, the sunlight reaches the surface at lower angles, and it must pass through thicker columns of the atmosphere. As a result, the mean annual air temperature at sea level decreases by about 0.4 °C (0.7 °F) per degree of latitude from the equator. Earth's surface can be subdivided into specific latitudinal belts of approximately homogeneous climate. Ranging from the equator to the polar regions, these are the tropical (or equatorial), subtropical, temperate and polar climates. Further factors that affect a location's climates are its proximity to oceans, the oceanic and atmospheric circulation, and topology. Places close to oceans typically have colder summers and warmer winters, due to the fact that oceans can store large amounts of heat. The wind transports the cold or the heat of the ocean to the land. Atmospheric circulation also plays an important role: San Francisco and Washington DC are both coastal cities at about the same latitude. San Francisco's climate is significantly more moderate as the prevailing wind direction is from sea to land. Finally, temperatures decrease with height causing mountainous areas to be colder than low-lying areas. Water vapor generated through surface evaporation is transported by circulatory patterns in the atmosphere. When atmospheric conditions permit an uplift of warm, humid air, this water condenses and falls to the surface as precipitation. Most of the water is then transported to lower elevations by river systems and usually returned to the oceans or deposited into lakes. This water cycle is a vital mechanism for supporting life on land and is a primary factor in the erosion of surface features over geological periods. Precipitation patterns vary widely, ranging from several meters of water per year to less than a millimeter. Atmospheric circulation, topographic features, and temperature differences determine the average precipitation that falls in each region. The commonly used Köppen climate classification system has five broad groups (humid tropics, arid, humid middle latitudes, continental and cold polar), which are further divided into more specific subtypes. The Köppen system rates regions based on observed temperature and precipitation. Surface air temperature can rise to around 55 °C (131 °F) in hot deserts, such as Death Valley, and can fall as low as −89 °C (−128 °F) in Antarctica. ### Upper atmosphere The upper atmosphere, the atmosphere above the troposphere, is usually divided into the stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Each layer has a different lapse rate, defining the rate of change in temperature with height. Beyond these, the exosphere thins out into the magnetosphere, where the geomagnetic fields interact with the solar wind. Within the stratosphere is the ozone layer, a component that partially shields the surface from ultraviolet light and thus is important for life on Earth. The Kármán line, defined as 100 km (62 mi) above Earth's surface, is a working definition for the boundary between the atmosphere and outer space. Thermal energy causes some of the molecules at the outer edge of the atmosphere to increase their velocity to the point where they can escape from Earth's gravity. This causes a slow but steady loss of the atmosphere into space. Because unfixed hydrogen has a low molecular mass, it can achieve escape velocity more readily, and it leaks into outer space at a greater rate than other gases. The leakage of hydrogen into space contributes to the shifting of Earth's atmosphere and surface from an initially reducing state to its current oxidizing one. Photosynthesis provided a source of free oxygen, but the loss of reducing agents such as hydrogen is thought to have been a necessary precondition for the widespread accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere. Hence the ability of hydrogen to escape from the atmosphere may have influenced the nature of life that developed on Earth. In the current, oxygen-rich atmosphere most hydrogen is converted into water before it has an opportunity to escape. Instead, most of the hydrogen loss comes from the destruction of methane in the upper atmosphere. Life on Earth ------------- Earth is the only known place that has ever been habitable for life. Earth's life developed in Earth's early bodies of water some hundred million years after Earth formed. Earth's life has been shaping and inhabiting many particular ecosystems on Earth and has eventually expanded globally forming an overarching biosphere. Therefore, life has impacted Earth, significantly altering Earth's atmosphere and surface over long periods of time, causing changes like the Great oxidation event. Earth's life has over time greatly diversified, allowing the biosphere to have different biomes, which are inhabited by comparatively similar plants and animals. The different biomes developed at distinct elevations or water depths, planetary temperature latitudes and on land also with different humidity. Earth's species diversity and biomass reaches a peak in shallow waters and with forests, particularly in equatorial, warm and humid conditions. While freezing polar regions and high altitudes, or extremely arid areas are relatively barren of plant and animal life. Earth provides liquid water—an environment where complex organic molecules can assemble and interact, and sufficient energy to sustain a metabolism. Plants and other organisms take up nutrients from water, soils and the atmosphere. These nutrients are constantly recycled between different species. Extreme weather, such as tropical cyclones (including hurricanes and typhoons), occurs over most of Earth's surface and has a large impact on life in those areas. From 1980 to 2000, these events caused an average of 11,800 human deaths per year. Many places are subject to earthquakes, landslides, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, tornadoes, blizzards, floods, droughts, wildfires, and other calamities and disasters. Human impact is felt in many areas due to pollution of the air and water, acid rain, loss of vegetation (overgrazing, deforestation, desertification), loss of wildlife, species extinction, soil degradation, soil depletion and erosion. Human activities release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere which cause global warming. This is driving changes such as the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, a global rise in average sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. Human geography --------------- Originating from earlier primates in eastern Africa 300,000 years ago humans have since been migrating and with the advent of agriculture in the 10th millennium BC increasingly settling Earth's land. In the 20th century Antarctica had been the last continent to see a first and until today limited human presence. Human population has since the 19th century grown exponentially to seven billion in the early 2010s, and is projected to peak at around ten billion in the second half of the 21st century. Most of the growth is expected to take place in sub-Saharan Africa. Distribution and density of human population varies greatly around the world with the majority living in south to eastern Asia and 90% inhabiting only the Northern Hemisphere of Earth, partly due to the hemispherical predominance of the world's land mass, with 68% of the world's land mass being in the Northern Hemisphere. Furthermore, since the 19th century humans have increasingly converged into urban areas with the majority living in urban areas by the 21st century. Beyond Earth's surface humans have lived on a temporary basis, with only special purpose deep underground and underwater presence, and a few space stations. Human population virtually completely remains on Earth's surface, fully depending on Earth and the environment it sustains. Since the second half of the 20th century, some hundreds of humans have temporarily stayed beyond Earth, a tiny fraction of whom have reached another celestial body, the Moon. Earth has been subject to extensive human settlement, and humans have developed diverse societies and cultures. Most of Earth's land has been territorially claimed since the 19th century by sovereign states (countries) separated by political borders, and more than 200 such states exist today, with only parts of Antarctica and few small regions remaining unclaimed. Most of these states together form the United Nations, the leading worldwide intergovernmental organization, which extends human governance over the ocean and Antarctica, and therefore all of Earth. ### Natural resources and land use Earth has resources that have been exploited by humans. Those termed non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels, are only replenished over geological timescales. Large deposits of fossil fuels are obtained from Earth's crust, consisting of coal, petroleum, and natural gas. These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production. Mineral ore bodies have also been formed within the crust through a process of ore genesis, resulting from actions of magmatism, erosion, and plate tectonics. These metals and other elements are extracted by mining, a process which often brings environmental and health damage. Earth's biosphere produces many useful biological products for humans, including food, wood, pharmaceuticals, oxygen, and the recycling of organic waste. The land-based ecosystem depends upon topsoil and fresh water, and the oceanic ecosystem depends on dissolved nutrients washed down from the land. In 2019, 39 million km2 (15 million sq mi) of Earth's land surface consisted of forest and woodlands, 12 million km2 (4.6 million sq mi) was shrub and grassland, 40 million km2 (15 million sq mi) were used for animal feed production and grazing, and 11 million km2 (4.2 million sq mi) were cultivated as croplands. Of the 12–14% of ice-free land that is used for croplands, 2 percentage points were irrigated in 2015. Humans use building materials to construct shelters. ### Humans and the environment Human activities have impacted Earth's environments. Through activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, humans have been increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering Earth's energy budget and climate. It is estimated that global temperatures in the year 2020 were 1.2 °C (2.2 °F) warmer than the preindustrial baseline. This increase in temperature, known as global warming, has contributed to the melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, increased risk of drought and wildfires, and migration of species to colder areas. The concept of planetary boundaries was introduced to quantify humanity's impact on Earth. Of the nine identified boundaries, five have been crossed: Biosphere integrity, climate change, chemical pollution, destruction of wild habitats and the nitrogen cycle are thought to have passed the safe threshold. As of 2018, no country meets the basic needs of its population without transgressing planetary boundaries. It is thought possible to provide all basic physical needs globally within sustainable levels of resource use. Cultural and historical viewpoint --------------------------------- Human cultures have developed many views of the planet. The standard astronomical symbols of Earth are a quartered circle, 🜨, representing the four corners of the world, and a globus cruciger, ♁. Earth is sometimes personified as a deity. In many cultures it is a mother goddess that is also the primary fertility deity. Creation myths in many religions involve the creation of Earth by a supernatural deity or deities. The Gaia hypothesis, developed in the mid-20th century, compared Earth's environments and life as a single self-regulating organism leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability. Images of Earth taken from space, particularly during the Apollo program, have been credited with altering the way that people viewed the planet that they lived on, called the overview effect, emphasizing its beauty, uniqueness and apparent fragility. In particular, this caused a realization of the scope of effects from human activity on Earth's environment. Enabled by science, particularly Earth observation, humans have started to take action on environmental issues globally, acknowledging the impact of humans and the interconnectedness of Earth's environments. Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in Ancient Greece by the idea of a spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first concluded that it was a moving object, one of the planets of the Solar System. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years. Lord Kelvin used thermodynamics to estimate the age of Earth to be between 20 million and 400 million years in 1864, sparking a vigorous debate on the subject; it was only when radioactivity and radioactive dating were discovered in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a reliable mechanism for determining Earth's age was established, proving the planet to be billions of years old. See also -------- * Celestial sphere * Earth phase * Earth physical characteristics tables * Earth science * Extremes on Earth * List of Solar System extremes * Outline of Earth * Table of physical properties of planets in the Solar System * Timeline of natural history * Timeline of the far future Listen to this article (1 hour and 10 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 22 April 2021 (2021-04-22), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Earth

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth

"**Fat Man**" (also known as **Mark III**) was the codename for the type of nuclear bomb the United States detonated over the Japanese city of Nagasaki on 9 August 1945. It was the second of the only two nuclear weapons ever used in warfare, the first being Little Boy, and its detonation marked the third nuclear explosion in history. It was built by scientists and engineers at Los Alamos Laboratory using plutonium from the Hanford Site, and was dropped from the Boeing B-29 Superfortress *Bockscar* piloted by Major Charles Sweeney. The name Fat Man refers to the early design of the bomb because it had a wide, round shape. Fat Man was an implosion-type nuclear weapon with a solid plutonium core. The first of that type to be detonated was the Gadget in the Trinity nuclear test less than a month earlier on 16 July at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in New Mexico. Two more were detonated during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in 1946, and some 120 were produced between 1947 and 1949, when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Fat Man was retired in 1950. Early decisions --------------- Robert Oppenheimer held conferences in Chicago in June 1942, prior to the Army taking over wartime atomic research, and in Berkeley, California, in July, at which various engineers and physicists discussed nuclear bomb design issues. They chose a gun-type design in which two sub-critical masses would be brought together by firing a "bullet" into a "target". Richard C. Tolman suggested an implosion-type nuclear weapon, but the proposal attracted little interest. The feasibility of a plutonium bomb was questioned in 1942. Wallace Akers, the director of the British "Tube Alloys" project, told James Bryant Conant on 14 November that James Chadwick had "concluded that plutonium might not be a practical fissionable material for weapons because of impurities". Conant consulted Ernest Lawrence and Arthur Compton, who acknowledged that their scientists at Berkeley and Chicago, respectively, knew about the problem, but they could offer no ready solution. Conant informed Manhattan Project director Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., who in turn assembled a special committee consisting of Lawrence, Compton, Oppenheimer, and McMillan to examine the issue. The committee concluded that any problems could be overcome simply by requiring higher purity. Oppenheimer reviewed his options in early 1943 and gave priority to the gun-type weapon, but he created the E-5 Group at the Los Alamos Laboratory under Seth Neddermeyer to investigate implosion as a hedge against the threat of pre-detonation. Implosion-type bombs were determined to be significantly more efficient in terms of explosive yield per unit mass of fissile material in the bomb, because compressed fissile materials react more rapidly and therefore more completely. Nonetheless, it was decided that the plutonium gun would receive the bulk of the research effort, since it was the project with the least uncertainty involved. It was assumed that the uranium gun-type bomb could be easily adapted from it. Naming ------ The gun-type and implosion-type designs were codenamed "Thin Man" and "Fat Man", respectively. These code names were created by Robert Serber, a former student of Oppenheimer's who worked on the Manhattan Project. He chose them based on their design shapes; the Thin Man was a very long device, and the name came from the Dashiell Hammett detective novel *The Thin Man* and series of movies. The Fat Man was round and fat and was named after Sydney Greenstreet's character in Hammett's *The Maltese Falcon*. Little Boy came last as a variation of Thin Man. Development ----------- Neddermeyer discarded Serber and Tolman's initial concept of implosion as assembling a series of pieces in favor of one in which a hollow sphere was imploded by an explosive shell. He was assisted in this work by Hugh Bradner, Charles Critchfield, and John Streib. L. T. E. Thompson was brought in as a consultant, and discussed the problem with Neddermeyer in June 1943. Thompson was skeptical that an implosion could be made sufficiently symmetric. Oppenheimer arranged for Neddermeyer and Edwin McMillan to visit the National Defense Research Committee's Explosives Research Laboratory near the laboratories of the Bureau of Mines in Bruceton, Pennsylvania (a Pittsburgh suburb), where they spoke to George Kistiakowsky and his team. But Neddermeyer's efforts in July and August at imploding tubes to produce cylinders tended to produce objects that resembled rocks. Neddermeyer was the only person who believed that implosion was practical, and only his enthusiasm kept the project alive. Oppenheimer brought John von Neumann to Los Alamos in September 1943 to take a fresh look at implosion. After reviewing Neddermeyer's studies, and discussing the matter with Edward Teller, von Neumann suggested the use of high explosives in shaped charges to implode a sphere, which he showed could not only result in a faster assembly of fissile material than was possible with the gun method, but greatly reduce the amount of material required, because of the resulting higher density. The idea that, under such pressures, the plutonium metal itself would be compressed came from Teller, whose knowledge of how dense metals behaved under heavy pressure was influenced by his pre-war theoretical studies of the Earth's core with George Gamow. The prospect of more-efficient nuclear weapons impressed Oppenheimer, Teller, and Hans Bethe, but they decided that an expert on explosives would be required. Kistiakowsky's name was immediately suggested, and Kistiakowsky was brought into the project as a consultant in October 1943. The implosion project remained a backup until April 1944, when experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P-5 Group at Los Alamos on the newly reactor-produced plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the B Reactor at the Hanford site showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium-240. This has a far higher spontaneous fission rate and radioactivity than plutonium-239. The cyclotron-produced isotopes, on which the original measurements had been made, held much lower traces of plutonium-240. Its inclusion in reactor-bred plutonium appeared unavoidable. This meant that the spontaneous fission rate of the reactor plutonium was so high that it would be highly likely that it would predetonate and blow itself apart during the initial formation of a critical mass. The distance required to accelerate the plutonium to speeds where predetonation would be less likely would need a gun barrel too long for any existing or planned bomber. The only way to use plutonium in a workable bomb was therefore implosion. The impracticability of a gun-type bomb using plutonium was agreed at a meeting in Los Alamos on 17 July 1944. All gun-type work in the Manhattan Project was re-directed towards the Little Boy, enriched-uranium gun design, and the Los Alamos Laboratory was reorganized, with almost all of the research focused on the problems of implosion for the Fat Man bomb. The idea of using shaped charges as three-dimensional explosive lenses came from James L. Tuck, and was developed by von Neumann. A key component needed for the success of the bomb was for there to be absolute precision in all of the plates moving inward at the same time. To overcome the difficulty of synchronizing multiple detonations, Luis Alvarez and Lawrence Johnston invented exploding-bridgewire detonators to replace the less precise primacord detonation system. Robert Christy is credited with doing the calculations that showed how a solid subcritical sphere of plutonium could be compressed to a critical state, greatly simplifying the task, since earlier efforts had attempted the more-difficult compression of a hollow spherical shell. After Christy's report, the solid-plutonium core weapon was referred to as the "Christy Gadget". The task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium. The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300–450 °C (570–840 °F) range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium–gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel. The size of the bomb was constrained by the available aircraft, which were investigated for suitability by Norman Foster Ramsey. The only Allied aircraft considered capable of carrying the Fat Man without major modification were the British Avro Lancaster and the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress. At the time, the B-29 represented the epitome of bomber technology with significant advantages in Maximum takeoff weight, range, speed, flight ceiling, and survivability. Without the availability of the B-29, dropping the bomb would likely have been impossible. However, this still constrained the bomb to a maximum length of 11 feet (3.4 m), width of 5 feet (1.5 m) and weight of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg). Removing the bomb rails allowed a maximum width of 5.5 feet (1.7 m). Drop tests began in March 1944, and resulted in modifications to the Silverplate aircraft due to the weight of the bomb. High-speed photographs revealed that the tail fins folded under the pressure, resulting in an erratic descent. Various combinations of stabilizer boxes and fins were tested on the Fat Man shape to eliminate its persistent wobble until an arrangement dubbed a "California Parachute", a cubical open-rear tail box outer surface with eight radial fins inside of it, four angled at 45 degrees and four perpendicular to the line of fall holding the outer square-fin box to the bomb's rear end, was approved. In drop tests in early weeks, the Fat Man missed its target by an average of 1,857 feet (566 m), but this was halved by June as the bombardiers became more proficient with it. The early Y-1222 model Fat Man was assembled with some 1,500 bolts. This was superseded by the Y-1291 design in December 1944. This redesign work was substantial, and only the Y-1222 tail design was retained. Later versions included the Y-1560, which had 72 detonators; the Y-1561, which had 32; and the Y-1562, which had 132. There were also the Y-1563 and Y-1564, which were practice bombs with no detonators at all. The final wartime Y-1561 design was assembled with just 90 bolts. On 16 July 1945, a Y-1561 model Fat Man, known as the Gadget, was detonated in a test explosion at a remote site in New Mexico, known as the "Trinity" test. It gave a yield of about 25 kilotonnes (100 TJ). Some minor changes were made to the design as a result of the Trinity test. Philip Morrison recalled that "There were some changes of importance... The fundamental thing was, of course, very much the same." Interior -------- The bomb was 128.375 inches (3.2607 m) long and 60.25 inches (153.0 cm) in diameter. It weighed 10,265 pounds (4,656 kg). | | | | --- | --- | | Fat Man external schematicFat Man external schematic | 1. One of four AN 219 contact fuzes 2. *Archie* radar antenna 3. Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components) 4. *X-Unit,* a firing set placed near the charge 5. Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb 6. Physics package (see details below) 7. Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches, and timers) 8. Barotube collector 9. *California Parachute* tail assembly (0.20-inch [5.1 mm] aluminum sheet) | Fat Man internal schematic Assembly -------- The plutonium pit was 3.62 inches (92 mm) in diameter and contained an "Urchin" modulated neutron initiator that was 0.8 inches (20 mm) in diameter. The depleted uranium tamper was an 8.75-inch-diameter (222 mm) sphere, surrounded by a 0.125-inch-thick (3.2 mm) shell of boron-impregnated plastic. The plastic shell had a 5-inch-diameter (130 mm) cylindrical hole running through it, like the hole in a cored apple, in order to allow insertion of the pit as late as possible. The missing tamper cylinder containing the pit could be slipped in through a hole in the surrounding 18.5-inch-diameter (470 mm) aluminum pusher. The pit was warm to the touch, emitting 2.4 W/kg-Pu, about 15 W for the 6.19-kilogram (13.6 lb) core. The explosion symmetrically compressed the plutonium to twice its normal density before the "Urchin" added free neutrons to initiate a fission chain reaction. * An exploding-bridgewire detonator simultaneously starts a detonation wave in each of the 32 tapered high-explosive columns (positioned around the explosive material at the face centers of a truncated icosahedron, a geometry popularly known from the pattern of common soccer balls). * The detonation wave (arrows) is initially convex in the... * ...faster explosive (Composition B: 60% RDX, 40% TNT). The wavefronts become concave in the... * ...slower explosive (Baratol: 70% barium nitrate, 30% TNT). The 32 waves then merge into a single spherical implosive shock-wave which hits the... * ...inner charges' faster explosive (Composition B). * The medium-density aluminum "pusher" transfers the imploding shock-wave from the low-density explosive to the high-density uranium, minimizing undesirable turbulence. The shock-wave then compresses the inner components, passing through a... * ...boron-plastic shell intended to prevent pre-detonation of the bomb by stray neutrons. The shock-wave reaches the center of the bomb, where the... * ...beryllium–210Po "Urchin" is crushed, pushing the two metals together and thereby releasing a burst of neutrons into the compressed... * ...pit of the nickel-plated delta-phase alloy of 239Pu–240Pu–gallium (96%–1%–3% by molarity). A fission chain reaction then begins. The tendency of the fissioning pit to blow itself apart prematurely is reduced by the inward momentum of the... * ...natural-uranium "tamper" (inertial confinement). The tamper also reflects neutrons back into the pit, accelerating the chain reaction. If and when sufficient fast neutrons are produced, the tamper itself undergoes fission, accounting for up to 20% of the weapon's yield. The result was the fission of about 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of the 6.19 kilograms (13.6 lb) of plutonium in the pit, i.e. of about 16% of the fissile material present. The detonation released the energy equivalent to the detonation of 21 kilotons of TNT or 88 terajoules. About 30% of the yield came from fission of the uranium tamper. Bombing of Nagasaki ------------------- ### Bomb assembly The first plutonium core was transported with its polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a tamper. It left Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July and arrived at North Field on Tinian on 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies (designated F31, F32, and F33) were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s: *Luke the Spook* and *Laggin' Dragon* from the 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron, and another from the 216th Army Air Forces Base Unit. The cores were transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August, when F31 was partly disassembled in order to check all its components. F33 was expended near Tinian during a final rehearsal on 8 August. F32 presumably would have been used for a third attack or its rehearsal. On 7 August, the day after the bombing of Hiroshima, Rear Admiral William R. Purnell, Commodore William S. Parsons, Tibbets, General Carl Spaatz and Major General Curtis LeMay met on Guam to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with their orders and drop another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm and asked if the bomb could be made ready by 9 August. Parsons agreed to try to do so. Fat Man F31 was assembled on Tinian by Project Alberta personnel, and the physics package was fully assembled and wired. It was placed inside its ellipsoidal aerodynamic bombshell and wheeled out, where it was signed by nearly 60 people, including Purnell, Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell, and Parsons. It was then wheeled to the bomb bay of the B-29 Superfortress named *Bockscar* after the plane's command pilot Captain Frederick C. Bock, who flew *The Great Artiste* with his crew on the mission. *Bockscar* was flown by Major Charles W. Sweeney and his crew, with Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Project Alberta as the weaponeer in charge of the bomb. ### Bombing of Nagasaki *Bockscar* lifted off at 03:47 on the morning of 9 August 1945, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The weapon was already armed, but with the green electrical safety plugs still engaged. Ashworth changed them to red after ten minutes so that Sweeney could climb to 17,000 feet (5,200 m) in order to get above storm clouds. During the pre-flight inspection of *Bockscar*, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use 640 US gallons (2,400 L) of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Colonel Paul Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have *Bockscar* continue the mission. The target for the bomb was the city of Kokura, but it was found to be obscured by clouds and drifting smoke from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. This covered 70% of the area over Kokura, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and repeatedly exposing the aircraft to the heavy defenses of Yahata, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese anti-aircraft fire was getting close; Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser was monitoring Japanese communications, and he reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands. Sweeney then proceeded to the alternative target of Nagasaki. It was obscured by clouds, as well, and Ashworth ordered Sweeney to make a radar approach. At the last minute, however, bombardier Captain Kermit K. Beahan found a hole in the clouds. The Fat Man was dropped and exploded at 11:02 local time, following a 43-second free-fall, at an altitude of about 1,650 feet (500 m). There was poor visibility due to cloud cover and the bomb missed its intended detonation point by almost two miles, so the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in Hiroshima. An estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki. A total of 60,000–80,000 fatalities resulted, including from long-term health effects, the strongest of which was leukemia with an attributable risk of 46% for bomb victims. Others died later from related blast and burn injuries, and hundreds more from radiation illnesses from exposure to the bomb's initial radiation. Most of the direct deaths and injuries were among munitions or industrial workers. Mitsubishi's industrial production in the city was also severed by the attack; the dockyard would have produced at 80 percent of its full capacity within three to four months, the steelworks would have required a year to get back to substantial production, the electric works would have resumed some production within two months and been back at capacity within six months, and the arms plant would have required 15 months to return to 60 to 70 percent of former capacity. The Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works, which manufactured the Type 91 torpedoes released in the attack on Pearl Harbor, was destroyed in the blast. Post-war development -------------------- After the war, two Y-1561 Fat Man bombs were used in the Operation "Crossroads" nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific. The first was known as *Gilda* after Rita Hayworth's character in the 1946 movie *Gilda,* and it was dropped by the B-29 *Dave's Dream*; it missed its aim point by 710 yards (650 m). The second bomb was nicknamed *Helen of Bikini* and was placed without its tail fin assembly in a steel caisson made from a submarine's conning tower; it was detonated 90 feet (27 m) beneath the landing craft USS *LSM-60*. The two weapons yielded about 23 kilotonnes (96 TJ) each. The Los Alamos Laboratory and the Army Air Forces had already commenced work on improving the design. The North American B-45 Tornado, Convair XB-46, Martin XB-48, and Boeing B-47 Stratojet bombers had bomb bays sized to carry the Grand Slam, which was much longer but not as wide as the Fat Man. The only American bombers that could carry the Fat Man were the B-29 and the Convair B-36. In November 1945, the Army Air Forces asked Los Alamos for 200 Fat Man bombs, but there were only two sets of plutonium cores and high-explosive assemblies at the time. The Army Air Forces wanted improvements to the design to make it easier to manufacture, assemble, handle, transport, and stockpile. The wartime Project W-47 was continued, and drop tests resumed in January 1946. The Mark III Mod 0 Fat Man was ordered into production in mid-1946. High explosives were manufactured by the Salt Wells Pilot Plant, which had been established by the Manhattan Project as part of Project Camel, and a new plant was established at the Iowa Army Ammunition Plant. Mechanical components were made or procured by the Rock Island Arsenal; electrical and mechanical components for about 50 bombs were stockpiled at Kirtland Army Air Field by August 1946, but only nine plutonium cores were available. Production of the Mod 0 ended in December 1948, by which time there were still only 53 cores available. It was replaced by improved versions known as Mods 1 and 2 which contained a number of minor changes, the most important of which was that they did not charge the X-Unit firing system's capacitors until released from the aircraft. The Mod 0s were withdrawn from service between March and July 1949, and by October they had all been rebuilt as Mods 1 and 2. Some 120 Mark III Fat Man units were added to the stockpile between 1947 and 1949 when it was superseded by the Mark 4 nuclear bomb. The Mark III Fat Man was retired in 1950. A nuclear strike would have been a formidable undertaking in the post-war 1940s due to the limitations of the Mark III Fat Man. The lead-acid batteries which powered the fuzing system remained charged for only 36 hours, after which they needed to be recharged. To do this meant disassembling the bomb, and recharging took 72 hours. The batteries had to be removed in any case after nine days or they corroded. The plutonium core could not be left in for much longer, because its heat damaged the high explosives. Replacing the core also required the bomb to be completely disassembled and reassembled. This required about 40 to 50 men and took between 56 and 72 hours, depending on the skill of the bomb assembly team, and the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project had only three teams in June 1948. The only aircraft capable of carrying the bomb were Silverplate B-29s, and the only group equipped with them was the 509th Bombardment Group at Walker Air Force Base in Roswell, New Mexico. They would first have to fly to Sandia Base to collect the bombs, and then to an overseas base from which a strike could be mounted. In March 1948, during the Berlin Blockade, all the assembly teams were in Eniwetok for the Operation Sandstone test, and the military teams were not yet qualified to assemble atomic weapons. In June 1948, General Omar Bradley, Major General Alfred Gruenther and Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe visited Sandia and Los Alamos to show them the "special requirements" of atomic weapons. Gruenther asked Brigadier General Kenneth Nichols: "When are you going to show us the real thing? Surely this laboratory monstrosity is not the only type of atomic bomb we have in stockpile?" Nichols told him that better weapons would soon become available. After the "astonishingly good" results of Operation Sandstone were available, stockpiling of improved weapons began. The Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon was based closely on Fat Man's design thanks to spies Klaus Fuchs, Theodore Hall, and David Greenglass, who provided them with secret information concerning the Manhattan Project and Fat Man. It was detonated on 29 August 1949 as part of Operation "First Lightning". References ---------- * Baker, Richard D.; Hecker, Siegfried S.; Harbur, Delbert R. (1983). "Plutonium: A Wartime Nightmare but a Metallurgist's Dream" (PDF). *Los Alamos Science* (Winter/Spring): 142–151. Retrieved 22 November 2010. * Campbell, Richard H. (2005). *The Silverplate Bombers: A History and Registry of the Enola Gay and Other B-29s Configured to Carry Atomic Bombs*. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. ISBN 978-0-7864-2139-8. OCLC 58554961. * Coster-Mullen, John (2012). *Atom Bombs: The Top Secret Inside Story of Little Boy and Fat Man*. Waukesha, Wisconsin: J. Coster-Mullen. ASIN B0006S2AJ0. OCLC 298514167. * Craven, Wesley; Cate, James, eds. (1953). *The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki*. The Army Air Forces in World War II. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. OCLC 256469807. * Groves, Leslie (1962). *Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project*. New York: Harper. ISBN 0-306-70738-1. OCLC 537684. * Frank, Richard B. (1999). *Downfall: The End of the Imperial Japanese Empire*. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-41424-7. * Hansen, Chuck (1995). *Volume V: US Nuclear Weapons Histories*. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications. ISBN 978-0-9791915-0-3. OCLC 231585284. * Hewlett, Richard G.; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962). *The New World, 1939–1946* (PDF). University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07186-5. OCLC 637004643. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013. * Hoddeson, Lillian; Henriksen, Paul W.; Meade, Roger A.; Westfall, Catherine L. (1993). *Critical Assembly: A Technical History of Los Alamos During the Oppenheimer Years, 1943–1945*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44132-2. OCLC 26764320. * Malik, John (September 1985). "The yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions" (PDF). Los Alamos National Laboratory. p. 16. LA-8819. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2008. * Nichols, Kenneth D. (1987). *The Road to Trinity*. New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 978-0-688-06910-0. OCLC 15223648. * Rhodes, Richard (1986). *The Making of the Atomic Bomb*. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-81378-3. OCLC 13793436. * Russ, Harlow W. (1990). *Project Alberta: The Preparation of Atomic Bombs For Use in World War II*. Los Alamos, New Mexico: Exceptional Books. ISBN 978-0-944482-01-8. OCLC 24429257. * Serber, Robert; Crease, Robert P. (1998). *Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science*. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231105460. OCLC 37631186. * Sweeney, Charles; Antonucci, James A.; Antonucci, Marion K. (1997). *War's End: An Eyewitness Account of America's Last Atomic Mission*. Quill Publishing. ISBN 978-0-380-78874-3. * Teller, Edward (2001). *Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Publishing. ISBN 9780738205328. OCLC 48150267.

Fat Man

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat_Man

**Kadıköy** (Turkish pronunciation: [ˈkadɯcøj] ()), known in classical antiquity and during the Roman and Byzantine eras as **Chalcedon** (Greek: Χαλκηδών), is a large, populous, and cosmopolitan district in the Asian side of Istanbul, Turkey, on the northern shore of the Sea of Marmara. It partially faces the historic city centre of Fatih on the European side of the Bosporus. One of the most expensive neighborhoods in Istanbul, Kadıköy is also the name of the most prominent neighbourhoods of the district, a residential and commercial area that, with its numerous bars, cinemas and bookshops, is the liberal cultural centre of the Anatolian side of Istanbul. Kadıköy became a district in 1928 when it was separated from Üsküdar district. The neighbourhoods of İçerenköy, Bostancı and Suadiye were also separated from the district of Kartal in the same year, and eventually joined the newly formed district of Kadıköy. Its neighbouring districts are Üsküdar to the northwest, Ataşehir to the northeast, Maltepe to the southeast, and Kartal beyond Maltepe. History ------- Kadıköy is an older settlement than most of those on the Anatolian side of the city of İstanbul. Relics dating to 5500-3500 BC (Chalcolithic period) have been found at the Fikirtepe Mound, and articles of stone, bone, ceramic, jewelry and bronze show that there has been a continuous settlement since prehistoric times. A port settlement dating from the Phoenicians has also been discovered. Chalcedon was the first settlement that the Greeks from Megara established on the Bosphorus, in 685 BC, a few years before they established Byzantium on the other side of the strait in 667 BC. Chalcedon became known as the 'city of the blind', the story being that Byzantium was founded following a prophecy that a great capital would be built 'opposite the city of the blind' (meaning that the people of Chalcedon must have been blind not to see the obvious value of the peninsula on the Golden Horn as a natural defensive harbour). The fourth ecumenical church council, Council of Chalcedon, was held there in 451 AD. Chalcedon changed hands time and time again, as Persians, Bithynians, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, and Turks passed through the area, which was badly damaged during the Fourth Crusade and came into Ottoman hands in 1353, a full century before Constantinople. Thus, Kadıköy has the oldest mosque in İstanbul, built almost a century before the conquest of Constantinople in 1453. At the time of the conquest, Chalcedon was a rural settlement outside the protection of the city. It was soon put under the jurisdiction of the Constantinople courts, hence the name *Kadıköy*, which means *Village of the Judge*. In the Ottoman period, Kadıköy became a market for agricultural goods and in time developed into a residential area for people who would commute to the city by boat. According to Ottoman estimations of 1882, the district of Kadıköy had a total population of 6,733, consisting of 2,695 Muslims, 1,831 Armenians, 1,822 Greeks, 249 Jews, 92 Latins, 28 Bulgarians and 16 Catholics. Kadıköy today ------------- ### Transport The major Haydarpaşa Terminal of the Turkish State Railways is located close to Kadıköy's centre and was opened in 1908 as the terminus of the İstanbul-Baghdad and İstanbul-Damascus-Medina railways. The terminal closed due to infrastructure works in 2013 and reopened in 2018, serving east- and south-bound international, domestic and regional trains. The Söğütlüçeşme railway station, the next station after Haydarpaşa Terminal, is the terminus of the Metrobus line to European side of İstanbul. The M4 line of the Istanbul Metro runs from Kadıköy to Tavşantepe daily between 6:00 and 23:57. The centre of Kadıköy today is the transportation hub for people commuting between the Asian side of the city and the European side across the Bosphorus. There is a large bus and minibus terminal next to the ferry quay. Ferries are the most dominantly visible form of transport in Kadıköy, and the central market area is adjacent to the ferry quay. Public transportation with terminus in Kadıköy: Bus system * 4 Kadıköy-Bostancı ring (via Bağdat Avenue) * 8A West Ataşehir * 10B Bostancı * 16 Pendik (via Bağdat Avenue) * 17 Pendik (via so-called minibus way) * 19F Yeditepe University * 19M Ataşehir via Ataşehir Boulevard. * 130A Tuzla * 222 Pendik (via Bağdat Avenue) * E-10 Sabiha Gökçen Airport * ER1 Ring Erenköy (passes through Bağdat Avenue) * ER2 Ring Erenköy (passes through Bağdat Avenue) * FB1 Ring Fenerbahçe (passes through west point of Bağdat Avenue) * FB2 Ring Fenerbahçe (passes through west point of Bağdat Avenue) * GZ1 Ring Göztepe (passes through Bağdat Avenue) * GZ2 Ring Göztepe (passes through Bağdat Avenue) To European side, * 110 Taksim * 112 Taksim * 500A Edirnekapı For more lines, visit: http://www.iett.istanbul/en/main/hatlar Metro * M4 Kadıköy-Sabiha Gökçen (Sabiha Gökçen International Airport) Nostalgic tram * T3 (Ring) Mühürdar-Bahariye-Moda (in centrum) Ferryboats Traditional ferries, * Eminönü * Karaköy * Kabataş * Beşiktaş * Princes' Islands Sea buses, * Bostancı-Kadıköy-Yenikapı-Bakırköy * Kabataş ### Politics The centre-left Republican People's Party (CHP) is usually successful in Kadıköy in both local and national elections. Since the mid-1990s the mayor has been from the CHP. Former mayor S. Öztürk is often credited with the recent growth in the number of shopping and leisure areas around Kadıköy, especially since the pedestrianisation of *Bahariye Street*, which many say has become the Kadıköy equivalent of İstiklal Avenue, including its nostalgic trams, on the European side of Istanbul. ### Education Marmara University has most of its buildings in Kadıköy, including the large and elegant Haydarpaşa Campus, while the largest private university in İstanbul, Yeditepe University, is located on the hill named "Kayışdağı" at the easternmost edge of the borough (Which later connected to Ataşehir). A new state university, İstanbul Medeniyet University, opened in 2010. It has its main building in Göztepe, Merdivenköy, and has begun to develop campuses in both Kadıköy and Üsküdar. The campuses are divided by the D-100 Highway. Each have a metro station close by. Another private institution for higher education, the Doğuş University, is situated in the Acıbadem neighborhood of Kadıköy. There are also remarkable high schools such as Atatürk Fen Lisesi, Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi, Göztepe İhsan Kurşunoğlu Anadolu Lisesi, Mustafa Saffet Anadolu Lisesi, İstanbul Anadolu Lisesi, İstanbul Kadıköy Lisesi, FMV Özel Erenköy Işık Lisesi, and Saint-Joseph French High School. ### Shopping Kadıköy is a busy shopping district, with a wide variety of atmospheres and architectural styles. The streets are varied, some being narrow alleyways and others, such as *Bahariye Caddesi*, being pedestrian zones. Turkey's biggest food market is there, starting next to the Osman Ağa Mosque, and has an immense turnover of fresh foods and other products from all around Turkey, including a wide range of fresh fish and seafood, olive oil soap, and so on. There are also modern shopping centres, most notably the large Tepe Nautilus Shopping Mall behind the center of Kadıköy, and pavements crowded with street vendors selling socks, unlicensed copies of popular novels, and other products. In the streets behind the main post office, there is a large number of well-known bookshops selling both new and second-hand books, craft-shops and picture-framers, and a number of shops selling music CDs and related ephemera such as film posters and T-shirts. Hard Rock and Heavy Metal music is sold in the arcade named *Akmar Pasajı*, where associated items are also sold. On Sundays this area becomes a large second-hand book and music street market. Being a crowded shopping district, Kadıköy has many buskers, shoe shine boys, glue sniffers and schoolchildren in the streets selling flowers, chewing gum and packets of tissues. At the top of the shopping district there is an intersection, with a statue of a bull, called *Altıyol* (*Six Ways*), where a road leads to the civic buildings and a huge street market called *Salı Pazarı* (*Tuesday Market*). The working-class residential districts of Hasanpaşa and Fikirtepe are located behind the civic buildings. ### Housing There is a lot of residential property in the centre of Kadıköy, mostly somewhat dilapidated today, but there are still quiet suburban streets. The area is home to many students as well as a small number of foreign residents. ### Attractions, entertainment and eating Kadıköy has many narrow streets filled with cafés, bars and restaurants, as well as many cinemas. Süreyya Opera House is a recent redevelopment of the same named historic movie theatre. The market area is mostly closed to traffic and contains a wide variety of fast food restaurants serving toasted sandwiches, hamburgers and döner. There are also traditional Turkish restaurants and patisseries, bridge schools, wine houses, bars with jazz, folk and rock music, as well as working class tea and backgammon houses. Behind the coast, lies a large shopping and residential district winding uphill to the *Bahariye Caddesi* pedestrian zone. This area was transformed during the economic boom of the 1990s and shops were opened and bars at surrounding. Kadıköy's entertainment is generally not of the affluent type. It has a more working class ambiance; therefore, it is easier to find food of the like of kebab and fried mussels than haute cuisine, although one of İstanbul's most traditional Turkish cuisine representatives, Yanyalı Fehmi Lokantası and the foreign tourist attracting *Çiya* is found here. Also, the oldest recorded maker of Turkish delight, *Hacı Bekir* and chocolate maker *Baylan* are located in Kadıköy. Kadıköy does not have as much nightlife as Beyoğlu (where nightlife also continues much later into the night), nor does it have Nişantaşı's style of shopping or the Bosphorus for nightlife. Instead, it is often considered a modest alternative but may still be regarded as vibrant and cosy. Residents like to frequent the seaside to walk or sit in the grass with a view of the European side of Istanbul across the Bosporus. İstanbul Toy Museum in Göztepe has on display 4,000 toys and miniatures, from Turkey and abroad; many of the exhibits are antiques, some of which date back nearly 200 years. The first floor of the museum is actually the site of the Eyüp Toy Shop, a toy shop that had closed down in the 1950s. Surrounding residential areas ----------------------------- ### Coastal areas Along the coast, away from the centre of Kadıköy, there are many expensive shops and the area becomes more upmarket in neighbourhoods such as Moda and Fenerbahçe, which are attractive, long-established residential areas. These both lie within the bounds of the borough of Kadıköy, and have many restaurants, cafés and bars by the sea. There is a path here along the sea-front from Kadıköy; the tram to Moda calls here. Moda is an old, quiet, cosmopolitan İstanbul neighbourhood, but is beginning to experience economic and aesthetic problems, with there being a lack of car parking and some run-down shops and other buildings. As elsewhere in İstanbul, many historic houses have been demolished and replaced with apartment buildings; however, Moda is generally considered one of the more pleasant residential districts in the city. There are numerous churches in Moda with active congregations, and well-known schools, such as the Lycée Saint-Joseph and Kadıköy Anadolu Lisesi. There is a small, attractive theatre in Moda named *Oyun Atölyesi*, founded by actor Haluk Bilginer. The area is also well known for its multiple modern cafes, bars, shops and is popular among Istanbul's creative class and tourists. Another smart new district is Acıbadem. This area has one of the best-known private hospitals in the city and a long avenue of smart cafés, restaurants and ice cream parlours. Beyond this area, the huge stadium of Fenerbahçe Football Club dominates the skyline. From here, the long shopping street named Bağdat Caddesi (Baghdad Avenue) heads east and there are many affluent neighbourhoods between the avenue and the coast. Until the 1950s these areas, such as Kalamış, Göztepe, Caddebostan, Bağdad Avenue, Erenköy, and Suadiye, were full of summer houses and mansions for the city's wealthy upper middle class. Since the Bosphorus Bridge was built, it has become easier to commute from here to the European side of İstanbul, and most of these summer houses have been demolished and replaced with modern apartment buildings. The coast here has a long stretch of seaside parks and yacht marinas, and the streets behind the coast in areas such as Caddebostan are lined with numerous bars and cafés. From Bostancı onwards the economic level progressively lessens, so there are more retired and working-class residents here. There are no more villas, excepting some on the coast at Dragos, and the apartment buildings are narrower and less widely spaced. Bostancı itself is a busy shopping district built around a railway station. ### Inland areas Inland from the coast there is a great deal of housing development: some of this has little infrastructure, while most is more expensive, especially in areas such as Kozyatağı and İçerenköy. These districts house many of İstanbul's upper-middle class residents. These neighbourhoods are mainly built around wide avenues and tree-lined streets, with four to six-storey apartment buildings that have sizable gardens and car-parking around them. Especially in Kozyatağı, there are old Ottoman houses nearly in every houses' garden (Each house or apartment has a big garden with parking lots and arbours while these gardens used to be the old house's). Kozyatağı, Suadiye and Kazasker used to be one of the most popular summer areas for wealthy İstanbul residents. Today, Kozyatağı has tree-lined streets, especially magnolia, linden and fruit trees such as medlar trees, plum trees, cherry, mulberry and quince trees, many large greenfields, parks, children parks. These areas, Suadiye, Bağdat Caddesi, Kalamış, Kozyatağı, Fenerbahçe have today, upper-middle or upper class residents. There are many schools, hospitals, shops and restaurants in these areas. There is also a large Carrefour and Bauhaus store on the E5 highway in this part of Kadıköy. In the late 1990s, new luxury housing developments such as Ataşehir began to be constructed in the previously undeveloped area north of the E5 highway. These have their own shops, private colleges, sports centres and other facilities. Ataşehir separated from Kadıköy in 2009 elections. Climate ------- Kadıköy experiences a Mediterranean climate (*Csa/Cs*) according to both Köppen and Trewartha climate classifications, with cool winters and warm to hot summers. Its milder winters allow it to be classified in USDA hardiness zone 9b, while its summers are hot enough to be classified as AHS heat zone 4. | Climate data for Göztepe, Istanbul | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.7(47.7) | 9.3(48.7) | 11.5(52.7) | 16.7(62.1) | 21.4(70.5) | 26.1(79.0) | 28.2(82.8) | 28.1(82.6) | 25.0(77.0) | 19.8(67.6) | 15.4(59.7) | 11.2(52.2) | 18.5(65.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.6(42.1) | 5.8(42.4) | 7.5(45.5) | 11.9(53.4) | 16.5(61.7) | 21.1(70.0) | 23.2(73.8) | 22.9(73.2) | 19.7(67.5) | 15.3(59.5) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.1(46.6) | 14.1(57.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 2.9(37.2) | 3.1(37.6) | 4.2(39.6) | 8.0(46.4) | 12.0(53.6) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.4(65.1) | 15.5(59.9) | 11.9(53.4) | 8.4(47.1) | 5.4(41.7) | 10.4(50.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 87.9(3.46) | 70.2(2.76) | 62.5(2.46) | 43.2(1.70) | 30.2(1.19) | 27.0(1.06) | 23.9(0.94) | 29.7(1.17) | 46.7(1.84) | 69.2(2.72) | 90.5(3.56) | 111.5(4.39) | 692.5(27.25) | | Source: | Architecture ------------ Kadıköy has many houses from the Ottoman and some from Roman period which are hidden in its side streets. Some of them have been turned into cafés, pubs and restaurants, particularly serving seafood and rest of them waiting for restoration. Yeldeğirmeni is an important neighbourhood in terms of architecture. Sport ----- The district is home to the major Turkish multi-sport club Fenerbahçe SK and their football stadium, the Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium. Following important victories, all neighbourhoods of Kadıköy are crowded with celebrating people. The stadium hosted the 2009 UEFA Cup Final. The area also has a rugby union team, Kadıköy Rugby, which was the first official rugby club in Turkey. The multi-purpose arena of Caferağa Sport Hall, located in the center of Kadıköy's shopping district, is home to the basketball teams of Alpella (men team) and Fenerbahçe İstanbul (women team), volleyball teams (Fenerbahçe Men's Volleyball and Fenerbahçe Women's Volleyball). The district was also home to KadıköySpor, a basketball club that evolved into the current top-level club Anadolu Efes. Religion -------- Kadıköy has been always a place with population belonging to the three main religions, Islam, Christianity and Judaism. There are still many examples of mosques, Greek or Armenian churches and synagogues, as with the rest of İstanbul. The city is the see of the Metropolis of Chalcedon, one of the four remaining metropolises of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in Turkey today. Hemdat Israel Synagogue, situated in Yeldeğirmeni neighbourhood close to Haydarpaşa Terminal, is one of the oldest Jewish houses of prayer in İstanbul. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Kadıköy is twinned with: * Greece Agios Ioannis Rentis, Greece *(since 2003)* * Germany Berlin-Kreuzberg, Germany * Israel Petah Tikva, Israel See also -------- * Fenerbahçe S.K. * Hasanpaşa Gasworks, 1892 built gasworks, today a amuseum * History of İstanbul

Kadıköy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kad%C4%B1k%C3%B6y

**Ordu Province** (Turkish: *Ordu ili*) is a province of Turkey, located on the Black Sea coast. Its adjacent provinces are Samsun to the northwest, Tokat to the southwest, Sivas to the south, and Giresun to the east. Its license-plate code is 52. The capital of the province is the city of Ordu. Etymology --------- *Ordu* is the word for 'army' in current Turkish, originally meaning 'army camp', during the Ottoman Empire an army outpost was set up near the present day city. The city, and later the province, derived its name from this. Geography --------- Ordu is a strip of Black Sea coast and the hills behind, historically an agricultural and fishing area and in recent years, tourism has seen an increase, mainly visitors from Russia and Georgia, as Ordu boasts some of the best beaches, rivers, and lush, green mountains on the Black Sea coast. Walking in the high pastures is now a popular excursion for Turkish holidaymakers. The higher altitudes are covered in forest. Melet River, Bolaman River, Elekçi River, Turnasuyu Stream, Akçaova Stream and Civil Stream are the main rivers of the province. The topography of the province is not conducive to lake formation and only two major lakes, Gaga Lake and Ulugöl, are present in Ordu. Economy ------- The economy of the province depends on agriculture. Ordu is famous for hazelnuts. Turkey as a whole produces about 70 percent of the world's hazelnuts, and Ordu is the chief producer in Turkey, responsible for 150,000–180,000 tonnes per year, which amounts to around 30% of Turkey's production. Hazelnuts production takes around 88% of Ordu's arable land, the remainder mainly consists of corn and wheat fields. Whilst covering only 0.1% of the arable land of the province, Ordu's kiwi production is the second largest in the country after Yalova. Beekeeping is also important in Ordu, which produced in 2010 12.8% of honey produced in Turkey. Demographics ------------ Mostly Chepni Turks and other Oghuz Turks live here and the province is home to a minority of Cheveneburi Georgians. In recent decades many people from Ordu have migrated away to jobs in Istanbul, Bursa, Samsun, Sakarya or abroad. Districts --------- Ordu province is divided into 19 districts (capital district in **bold**): | | | | --- | --- | | * Akkuş * Aybastı * Çamaş * Çatalpınar * Çaybaşı * Fatsa * Gölköy * Gülyalı * Gürgentepe * İkizce | * Kabadüz * Kabataş * Korgan * Kumru * Mesudiye * **Ordu** (central district, also called Altınordu) * Perşembe * Ulubey * Ünye | Places to see ------------- Ordu has an attractive coast including pretty bays and the cleanest and longest beaches on this stretch of the Black Sea coast. Specific sites include: * Kurul Castle * Boztepe – a 460 m hill above the city. * Karagöl – a crater lake at 3107 m, above the plateau of Çambaşı * Yason (Jason) point – a headland in Perşembe * Çambaşı Yaylası a high plateau Well-known residents -------------------- * Fikri Sönmez – left-wing mayor of Fatsa in the period leading up to the 1980 Turkish coup d'état 40°48′41″N 37°32′26″E / 40.81139°N 37.54056°E / 40.81139; 37.54056

Ordu Province

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordu_Province

The **high jump** is a track and field event in which competitors must jump unaided over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without dislodging it. In its modern, most-practiced format, a bar is placed between two standards with a crash mat for landing. Since ancient times, competitors have introduced increasingly effective techniques to arrive at the current form, and the current universally preferred method is the Fosbury Flop, in which athletes run towards the bar and leap head first with their back to the bar. The discipline is, alongside the pole vault, one of two vertical clearance events in the Olympic athletics program. It is contested at the World Championships in Athletics and the World Athletics Indoor Championships, and is a common occurrence at track and field meets. The high jump was among the first events deemed acceptable for women, having been held at the 1928 Olympic Games. Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) is the current world record holder with a jump of 2.45 m (8 ft 1⁄4 in) set in 1993 – the longest-standing record in the history of the men's high jump. Stefka Kostadinova (Bulgaria) has held the women's world record of 2.09 m (6 ft 10+1⁄4 in) since 1987, also the longest-held record in the event. Rules ----- The rules set for the high jump by World Athletics (previously named the IAAF) are Technical Rules TR26 and TR27 (previously Rules 181 and 182). Jumpers must take off from one foot. A jump is considered a failure if the jumper dislodges the bar or touches the ground or any object behind the bar before clearance. Competitors may begin jumping at any height announced by the chief judge, or may pass at their own discretion. Most competitions state that three consecutive missed jumps, at any height or combination of heights, will eliminate the jumper from contention. The victory goes to the jumper who clears the greatest height during the final. ### Tie breaking If two or more jumpers tie for any place, the tie-breakers are: 1) the fewest misses at the height at which the tie occurred; and 2) the fewest misses throughout the competition. If the event remains tied for first place (or a limited-advancement position to a subsequent meet), the jumpers have a jump-off, beginning at the next height above their highest success. Jumpers have one attempt at each height. If only one succeeds, he or she wins; if more than one does, these try with the bar raised; if none does, all try with the bar lowered. This process was followed at the 2015 World Championship men's event. Example jump-off| Competitor | Main competition | Jump-off | Place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1.75m | 1.80m | 1.84m | 1.88m | 1.91m | 1.94m | 1.97m | 1.91m | 1.89m | 1.91m | | A | o | xo | o | xo | x | – | xx | x | o | x | 2 | | B | – | xo | – | xo | – | - | xxx | x | o | o | 1 | | C | – | o | xo | xo | – | xxx | | x | x | | 3 | | D | – | xo | xo | xo | xxx | | | | 4 | In the example jump-off above, the final cleared height is 1.88m, at which A B C and D each have one failure. D has two failures at lower heights compared to one each for the other three, who proceed to a jump-off at the next height above the final cleared height. C is eliminated in the second round of the jump-off 1.89m, then B wins in the third round. A 2009 rule-change makes the jump-off optional, so that first place can be shared by agreement among tied athletes. This rule led to shared gold in the 2020 Olympic men's event held in 2021. History ------- The first recorded high jump event took place in Scotland in the 19th century. Early jumpers used either an elaborate straight-on approach or a *scissors* technique. In later years, the bar was approached diagonally, and the jumper threw first the inside leg and then the other over the bar in a scissoring motion. Around the turn of the 20th century, techniques began to change, beginning with the Irish-American Michael Sweeney's *Eastern cut-off* as a variation of the scissors technique. By taking off as in the scissors method, extending his spine and flattening out over the bar, Sweeney raised the world record to 1.97 m (6 ft 5+1⁄2 in) in 1895. Even in 1948, John Winter of Australia won the gold medal of the 1948 London Olympics with this style. Besides, one of the most successful female high jumper, Iolanda Balaș of Romania, used this style to dominate women's high jump for about 10 years until her retirement at 1967. Another American, George Horine, developed an even more efficient technique, the *Western roll*. In this style, the bar again is approached on a diagonal, but the inner leg is used for the take-off, while the outer leg is thrust up to lead the body sideways over the bar. Horine increased the world standard to 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) in 1912. His technique was predominant through the 1936 Berlin Olympics, in which the event was won by Cornelius Johnson at 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in). American and Soviet jumpers were the most successful for the next four decades, and they pioneered the straddle technique. Straddle jumpers took off as in the Western roll but rotated their torso, belly-down, around the bar, obtaining the most efficient and highest clearance up to that time. Straddle jumper Charles Dumas was the first to clear 7ft (2.13m), in 1956. American John Thomas pushed the world mark to 2.23 m (7 ft 3+3⁄4 in) in 1960. Valeriy Brumel of the Soviet Union took over the event for the next four years, radically speeding up his approach run. He took the record up to 2.28 m (7 ft 5+3⁄4 in) and won the gold medal of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, before a motorcycle accident ended his career in 1965. American coaches, including two-time NCAA champion Frank Costello of the University of Maryland, flocked to Russia to learn from Brumel and his coaches like Vladimir Dyachkov. However, it would be a solitary innovator at Oregon State University, Dick Fosbury, who would bring the high jump into the next century. Taking advantage of the raised, softer, artificially-cushioned landing areas that were in use by then, Fosbury added a new twist to the outmoded Eastern cut-off. He directed himself over the bar head and shoulders first, going over on his back and landing in a fashion that would likely have resulted in serious injury in the old ground-level landing pits, which were usually filled with sawdust or sand mixtures. Around the same time, Debbie Brill independently came up with the same technique, which she called the 'Brill Bend'. Since Fosbury used his new style, called the Fosbury flop, to win the gold medal of the 1968 Mexico Olympics, its use spread quickly, and soon "floppers" were dominating international high jump competitions. The first flopper setting a world record was the American Dwight Stones, who cleared 2.30 m (7 ft 6+1⁄2 in) in 1973. In the female side, the 16-year-old flopper Ulrike Meyfarth from West Germany won the gold medal of the 1972 Munich Olympics at 1.92 m (6 ft 3+1⁄2 in), which tied the women's world record at that time (held by the Austrian straddler Ilona Gusenbauer a year before). However, it was not until 1978 when a flopper, Sara Simeoni of Italy, broke the women's world record. Successful high jumpers following Fosbury's lead also included the rival of Dwight Stones, 1.73 metres (5 ft 8 in)-tall Franklin Jacobs of Paterson, New Jersey, who cleared 2.32 m (7 ft 7+1⁄4 in), 0.59 metres (1 ft 11 in) over his head (a feat equalled 27 years later by Stefan Holm of Sweden); Chinese record-setters Ni-chi Chin and Zhu Jianhua; Germans Gerd Wessig and Dietmar Mögenburg; Swedish Olympic medalist and former world record holder Patrik Sjöberg; female jumpers Ulrike Meyfarth of West Germany and Sara Simeoni of Italy. In spite of this, the straddle technique did not disappear at once. In 1977, the 18-year-old Soviet straddler Vladimir Yashchenko set a new world record 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in). In 1978, he raised the record to 2.34 m (7 ft 8 in), and 2.35 m (7 ft 8+1⁄2 in) indoor, just before a knee injury effectively ended his career when he was only 20 years old. In the female side, the straddler Rosemarie Ackermann of East Germany, who was the first female jumper ever to clear 2 m (6 ft 6+1⁄2 in), raised the world record from 1.95 m (6 ft 4+3⁄4 in) to 2.00 m (6 ft 6+1⁄2 in) during 1974 to 1977. In fact, from 2 June 1977 to 3 August 1978, almost 10 years after Fosbury's success, the men's and women's world records were still held by straddle jumpers Yashchenko and Ackermann respectively. However, they were the last world record holders using the straddle technique. Ackermann also won the gold medal of the 1976 Montreal Olympics, which was the last time for a straddle jumper (male or female) to win an Olympic medal. In 1980, the Polish flopper, 1976 Olympic gold medalist Jacek Wszoła, broke Yashchenko's world record at 2.35 m (7 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Two years before, the female Italian flopper Sara Simeoni, the long-term rival of Ackermann, broke Ackermann's world record at 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) and became the first female flopper to break the women's world record. She also won the gold medal of the 1980 Moscow Olympics, where Ackermann placed fourth. Since then, the flop style has been completely dominant. All other techniques were almost extinct in serious high jump competitions after late 1980s. Technical aspects ----------------- Technique and form have evolved greatly over the history of high jump. The Fosbury Flop is currently considered the most efficient way for competitors to propel themselves over the bar. ### Approach For a Fosbury Flop, depending on the athlete's jump foot, they start on the right or left of the high jump mat, placing their jump foot farthest away from the mat. They take an eight- to ten-step approach, with the first three to five steps being in a straight line and the last five being on a curve. Athletes generally mark their approach in order to find as much consistency as possible. The approach run can be more important than the takeoff. If a high jumper runs with bad timing or without enough aggression, clearing the bar becomes more of a challenge. The approach requires a certain shape or curve, the right amount of speed, and the correct number of strides. The approach angle is also critical for optimal height. The straight run builds the momentum and sets the tone for a jump. The athlete starts by pushing off their takeoff foot with slow, powerful steps, then begins to accelerate. They should be running upright by the end of the straight portion. The athlete's takeoff foot will be landing on the first step of the curve, and they will continue to accelerate, focusing their body towards the opposite back corner of the high jump mat. While staying erect and leaning away from the mat, the athlete takes their final two steps flat-footed, rolling from the heel to the toe. Most great straddle jumpers run at angles of about 30 to 40 degrees. The length of the run is determined by the speed of the approach. A slower run requires about eight strides, but a faster high jumper might need about 13 strides. Greater speed allows a greater part of the body's forward momentum to be converted upward. The **J** approach favored by Fosbury floppers allows for speed, the ability to turn in the air (centripetal force), and a good takeoff position, which helps turn horizontal momentum into vertical momentum. The approach should be a hard, controlled stride so that the athlete does not fall from running at an angle. Athletes should lean into the curve from their ankles, not their hips. This allows their hips to rotate during takeoff, which in turn allows their center of gravity to pass under the bar. ### Takeoff The takeoff can be double-arm or single-arm. In both cases, the plant foot should be the foot farthest from the bar, angled towards the opposite back corner of the mat, as they drive up the knee on their non-takeoff leg. This is accompanied by a one- or two-arm swing while driving the knee. Unlike the straddle technique, where the takeoff foot is "planted" in the same spot regardless of the height of the bar, flop-style jumpers must adjust their approach run as the bar is raised so that their takeoff spot is slightly farther out from the bar. Jumpers attempting to reach record heights commonly fail when most of their energy is directed into the vertical effort and they knock the bar off the standards with the backs of their legs as they stall. An effective approach shape can be derived from physics. For example, the rate of backward spin required as the jumper crosses the bar in order to facilitate shoulder clearance on the way up and foot clearance on the way down can be determined by computer simulation. This rotation rate can be back-calculated to determine the required angle of lean away from the bar at the moment of planting, based on how long the jumper is on the takeoff foot. This information, together with the jumper's speed, can be used to calculate the radius of the curved part of the approach. One can also work in the opposite direction by assuming a certain approach radius and determining the resulting backward rotation. Drills can be practiced to solidify the approach. One drill is to run in a straight line and then run two to three circles spiraling into one another. Another is to run or skip a circle of any size two to three times in a row. It is important to leap upwards without first leaning into the bar, allowing the momentum of the **J** approach to carry the body across the bar. ### Flight The knee on the athlete's non-takeoff leg naturally turns their body, placing them in the air with their back to the bar. The athlete then drives their shoulders towards the back of their feet, arching their body over the bar. They can look over their shoulder to judge when to kick both feet over their head, causing their body to clear the bar and land on the mat. All-time top 25 --------------- * As of February 2023[update]. ### Men (outdoor) | Ath.# | Perf.# | Mark | Athlete | Nation | Date | Place | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1 | 2.45 m (8 ft 1⁄4 in) | Javier Sotomayor |  Cuba | 27 JUL 1993 | Salamanca | | | | 2 | 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in) | *Sotomayor #2* | | 29 JUL 1989 | San Juan | | | 3 | 2.43 m (7 ft 11+1⁄2 in) | *Sotomayor #3* | 08 SEP 1988 | Salamanca | | | 2 | 3 | 2.43 m (7 ft 11+1⁄2 in) | Mutaz Essa Barshim |  Qatar | 05 SEP 2014 | Brussels | | | 3 | 5 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) | Patrik Sjöberg |  Sweden | 30 JUN 1987 | Stockholm | | | | 5 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) | *Sotomayor #4* | | 05 JUN 1994 | Seville | | | 3 | 5 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) | Bohdan Bondarenko |  Ukraine | 14 JUN 2014 | New York City | | | | 5 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) | *Barshim #2* | | 14 JUN 2014 | New York City | | | 5 | 9 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) | Igor Paklin |  Soviet Union | 04 SEP 1985 | Kobe | | | | 9 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) | *Sotomayor #5* | | 25 JUN 1994 | Havana | | | *Sotomayor #6* | 15 JUL 1994 | London | | | *Bondarenko #2* | 04 JUL 2013 | Lausanne | | | *Bondarenko #3* | 15 AUG 2013 | Moscow | | | *Barshim #3* | 05 JUN 2014 | Rome | | | *Barshim #4* | 22 AUG 2014 | Eberstadt | | | *Barshim #5* | 30 MAY 2015 | Eugene | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Rudolf Povarnitsyn |  Soviet Union | 11 AUG 1985 | Donetsk | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Sotomayor #7* | | 12 MAR 1989 | Havana | | | *Sjöberg #2* | 05 AUG 1989 | Brussels | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) A | *Sotomayor #8* | 13 AUG 1989 | Bogotá | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Sorin Matei |  Romania | 20 JUN 1990 | Bratislava | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Sotomayor #9* | | 19 JUL 1991 | Paris | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Charles Austin |  United States | 07 AUG 1991 | Zürich | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Sotomayor #10* | | 22 MAY 1993 | Havana | | | *Sotomayor #11* | 23 JUL 1993 | London | | | *Sotomayor #12* | 22 AUG 1993 | Stuttgart | | | *Sotomayor #13* | 10 JUL 1994 | Eberstadt | | | *Sotomayor #14* | 18 JUL 1994 | Nice | | | *Sotomayor #15* | 29 JUL 1994 | St. Petersburg | | | *Sotomayor #16* | 11 SEP 1994 | London | | | *Sotomayor #17* | 25 MAR 1995 | Mar del Plata | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Vyacheslav Voronin |  Russia | 05 AUG 2000 | London | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Barshim #6* | | 01 JUN 2013 | Eugene | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Derek Drouin |  Canada | 25 APR 2014 | Des Moines | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Bondarenko #4* | | 11 MAY 2014 | Tokyo | | | *Bondarenko #5* | 03 JUL 2014 | Lausanne | | | 6 | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Andriy Protsenko |  Ukraine | 03 JUL 2014 | Lausanne | | | | 17 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | *Bondarenko #6* | | 18 JUL 2014 | Monaco | | | *Bondarenko #7* | 05 SEP 2014 | Brussels | | | *Barshim #7* | 11 JUN 2016 | Opole | | | *Barshim #8* | 20 AUG 2017 | Birmingham | | | *Barshim #9* | 27 AUG 2017 | Eberstadt | | | *Barshim #10* | 04 MAY 2018 | Doha | | | *Barshim #11* | 02 JUL 2018 | Székesfehérvár | | | 12 | | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) | Zhu Jianhua |  China | 10 JUN 1984 | Eberstadt | | | Hollis Conway |  United States | 30 JUL 1989 | Norman | | | Ivan Ukhov |  Russia | 05 JUL 2012 | Cheboksary | | | Gianmarco Tamberi |  Italy | 15 JUL 2016 | Monaco | | | 16 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) | Hennadiy Avdyeyenko |  Soviet Union | 06 SEP 1987 | Rome | | | Sergey Malchenko |  Soviet Union | 04 SEP 1988 | Banská Bystrica | | | Dragutin Topić |  FR Yugoslavia | 01 AUG 1993 | Belgrade | | | Troy Kemp |  Bahamas | 12 JUL 1995 | Nice | | | Artur Partyka |  Poland | 18 AUG 1996 | Eberstadt | | | Jacques Freitag |  South Africa | 05 MAR 2005 | Oudtshoorn | | | Andriy Sokolovskyy |  Ukraine | 08 JUL 2005 | Rome | | | Andrey Silnov |  Russia | 25 JUL 2008 | London | | | Zhang Guowei |  China | 30 MAY 2015 | Eugene | | | Danil Lysenko |  Authorised Neutral Athletes | 27 AUG 2017 | Eberstadt | | Note: The following athletes have had their personal best annulled due to doping offences: | Mark | Athlete | Date | Place | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | 10 May 2014 | Doha | | | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Danil Lysenko (ANA) | 20 July 2018 | Monaco | | ### Women (outdoor) | Ath.# | Perf.# | Mark | Athlete | Nation | Date | Place | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1 | 2.09 m (6 ft 10+1⁄4 in) | Stefka Kostadinova |  Bulgaria | 30 AUG 1987 | Rome | | | | 2 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) | *Kostadinova #2* | | 31 MAY 1986 | Sofia | | | 2 | 2 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) | Blanka Vlašić |  Croatia | 31 AUG 2009 | Zagreb | | | 3 | 4 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) | Lyudmila Andonova |  Bulgaria | 20 JUL 1984 | Berlin | | | | 4 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) | *Kostadinova #3* | | 25 MAY 1986 | Sofia | | | *Kostadinova #4* | 16 SEP 1987 | Cagliari | | | *Kostadinova #5* | 03 SEP 1988 | Sofia | | | *Vlašić #2* | 07 AUG 2007 | Stockholm | | | 3 | 4 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) | Anna Chicherova |  Russia | 22 JUL 2011 | Cheboksary | | | | 10 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) | *Kostadinova #6* | | 18 AUG 1985 | Moscow | | | *Kostadinova #7* | 15 JUN 1986 | Fürth | | | *Kostadinova #8* | 14 SEP 1986 | Cagliari | | | *Kostadinova #9* | 06 JUN 1987 | Worrstadt | | | *Kostadinova #10* | 08 SEP 1987 | Rieti | | | 5 | 10 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) | Kajsa Bergqvist |  Sweden | 26 JUL 2003 | Eberstadt | | | Hestrie Cloete |  South Africa | 31 AUG 2003 | Paris | | | Yelena Slesarenko |  Russia | 28 AUG 2004 | Athens | | | | 10 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) | *Vlašić #3* | | 30 JUL 2007 | Thessaloniki | | | *Vlašić #4* | 22 JUN 2008 | Istanbul | | | *Vlašić #5* | 05 JUL 2008 | Madrid | | | 5 | 10 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) | Ariane Friedrich |  Germany | 14 JUN 2009 | Berlin | | | Mariya Lasitskene |  Authorised Neutral Athletes | 06 JUL 2017 | Lausanne | | | | 10 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) | *Lasitskene #2* | | 20 JUN 2019 | Ostrava | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Tamara Bykova |  Soviet Union | 22 JUN 1984 | Kyiv | | | | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | *Kostadinova #11* | | 14 JUN 1986 | Worrstadt | | | *Kostadinova #12* | 07 SEP 1986 | Rieti | | | *Kostadinova #13* | 04 JUL 1987 | Oslo | | | *Kostadinova #14* | 13 SEP 1987 | Padova | | | *Kostadinova #15* | 12 AUG 1988 | Budapest | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Heike Henkel |  Germany | 31 AUG 1991 | Tokyo | | | | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | *Kostadinova #16* | | 04 JUL 1992 | San Marino | | | *Kostadinova #17* | 18 SEP 1993 | Fukuoka | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Inha Babakova |  Ukraine | 15 SEP 1995 | Tokyo | | | | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | *Kostadinova #18* | | 03 AUG 1996 | Atlanta | | | *Bergqvist #2* | 18 AUG 2002 | Poznan | | | *Cloete #2* | 10 AUG 2003 | Berlin | | | *Bergqvist #3* | 28 JUL 2006 | London | | | *Vlašić #6* | 21 JUL 2007 | Madrid | | | *Vlašić #7* | 02 SEP 2007 | Osaka | | | *Vlašić #8* | 12 JUN 2008 | Ostrava | | | *Vlašić #9* | 01 JUL 2008 | Bydgoszcz | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Tia Hellebaut |  Belgium | 23 AUG 2008 | Beijing | | | | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | *Vlašić #10* | | 23 AUG 2008 | Beijing | | | *Vlašić #11* | 08 MAY 2009 | Doha | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Chaunté Lowe |  United States | 26 JUN 2010 | Des Moines | | | | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | *Vlašić #12* | | 05 SEP 2010 | Split | | | *Chicherova #2* | 16 SEP 2011 | Brussels | | | *Chicherova #3* | 11 AUG 2012 | London | | | *Lasitskene #3* | 21 JUL 2017 | Monaco | | | *Lasitskene #4* | 08 SEP 2021 | Zürich | | | 10 | 24 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Yaroslava Mahuchikh |  Ukraine | 02 SEP 2022 | Brussels | | | 16 | | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) | Silvia Costa |  Cuba | 09 SEP 1989 | Barcelona | | | Venelina Veneva-Mateeva |  Bulgaria | 02 JUN 2001 | Kalamata | | | Irina Gordeeva |  Russia | 19 AUG 2012 | Eberstadt | | | Brigetta Barrett |  United States | 22 JUN 2013 | Des Moines | | | 20 | 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in) | Ulrike Meyfarth |  West Germany | 21 AUG 1983 | London | | | Louise Ritter |  United States | 08 JUL 1988 | Austin | | | Tatyana Motkova |  Russia | 30 MAY 1995 | Bratislava | | | Niki Bakoyianni |  Greece | 03 AUG 1996 | Atlanta | | | Antonietta Di Martino |  Italy | 24 JUN 2007 | Milan | | | 25 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) | Yelena Yelesina |  Soviet Union | 23 JUL 1990 | Seattle | | | Monica Iagar |  Romania | 06 JUN 1998 | Budapest | | | Marina Kuptsova |  Russia | 01 JUN 2003 | Hengelo | | | Vita Styopina |  Ukraine | 28 AUG 2004 | Athens | | | Ruth Beitia |  Spain | 04 AUG 2007 | San Sebastián | | | Elena Vallortigara |  Italy | 22 JUL 2018 | London | | | Nafissatou Thiam |  Belgium | 22 JUN 2019 | Talence | | | Yuliya Levchenko |  Ukraine | 10 SEP 2019 | Minsk | | | Vashti Cunningham |  United States | 29 MAY 2021 | Chula Vista | | | Nicola McDermott |  Australia | 07 AUG 2021 | Tokyo | | | 29 JUN 2023 | Lausanne | | | Eleanor Patterson |  Australia | 19 JUL 2022 | Eugene | | ### Men (indoor) | Rank | Mark | Athlete | Date | Place | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2.43 m (7 ft 11+1⁄2 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | 4 March 1989 | Budapest | | | 2 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) |  Carlo Thränhardt (FRG) | 26 February 1988 | Berlin | | | 3 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) | 1 February 1987 | Piraeus | | |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | 18 February 2015 | Athlone | | | 5 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Hollis Conway (USA) | 10 March 1991 | Seville | | |  Stefan Holm (SWE) | 6 March 2005 | Madrid | | |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | 25 February 2009 | Piraeus | | |  Aleksey Dmitrik (RUS) | 8 February 2014 | Arnstadt | | | 9 | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) |  Dietmar Mögenburg (FRG) | 24 February 1985 | Cologne | | |  Ralf Sonn (GER) | 1 March 1991 | Berlin | | | 11 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) |  Igor Paklin (URS) | 7 March 1987 | Indianapolis | | |  Gennadiy Avdeyenko (URS) | 7 March 1987 | Indianapolis | | |  Steve Smith (GBR) | 4 February 1994 | Wuppertal | | |  Wolf-Hendrik Beyer (GER) | 18 March 1994 | Weinheim | | |  Sorin Matei (ROU) | 3 February 1995 | Wuppertal | | |  Matt Hemingway (USA) | 4 March 2000 | Atlanta | | |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) | 15 February 2005 | Stockholm | | |  Linus Thörnblad (SWE) | 25 February 2007 | Gothenburg | | |  Gianmarco Tamberi (ITA) | 13 February 2016 | Hustopeče | | |  Danil Lysenko (RUS) | 29 January 2023 | Moscow | | | 21 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Artur Partyka (POL) | 3 February 1991 | Sulingen | | |  Dalton Grant (GBR) | 13 March 1994 | Paris | | |  Charles Austin (USA) | 1 March 1996 | Atlanta | | |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) | 5 March 2005 | Glasgow | | |  Jaroslav Bába (CZE) | 5 February 2000 | Arnstadt | | |  Andrey Silnov (RUS) | 2 February 2008 | Arnstadt | | |  Maksim Nedasekau (BLR) | 7 March 2021 | Toruń | | Note: The following athletes have had their personal best annulled due to doping offences: | Mark | Athlete | Date | Place | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | 25 February 2014 | Prague | | ### Women (indoor) | Rank | Mark | Athlete | Date | Place | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | 4 February 2006 | Arnstadt | | | 2 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Heike Henkel (GER) | 8 February 1992 | Karlsruhe | | | 3 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | 20 February 1988 | Athens | | |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | 6 February 2010 | Arnstadt | | |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | 4 February 2012 | Arnstadt | | |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) | 2 February 2021 | Banská Bystrica | | | 7 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Tia Hellebaut (BEL) | 3 March 2007 | Birmingham | | |  Ariane Friedrich (GER) | 15 February 2009 | Karlsruhe | | |  Mariya Lasitskene (RUS) | 9 February 2020 | Moscow | | | 10 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Alina Astafei (GER) | 3 March 1995 | Berlin | | |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) | 7 March 2004 | Budapest | | |  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) | 9 February 2011 | Banská Bystrica | | | 13 | 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in) |  Tamara Bykova (URS) | 6 March 1983 | Budapest | | |  Monica Iagăr (ROU) | 23 January 1999 | Bucharest | | |  Marina Kuptsova (RUS) | 2 March 2002 | Vienna | | | 16 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Susanne Beyer (GDR) | 8 March 1987 | Indianapolis | | |  Venelina Veneva-Mateeva (BUL) | 2 February 2002 | Łódź | | |  Yelena Yelesina (RUS) | 26 February 2003 | Moscow | | | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) A |  Chaunte Lowe (USA) | 26 February 2012 | Albuquerque | | | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Kamila Lićwinko (POL) | 21 February 2015 | Toruń | | | 21 | 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) |  Gabriele Günz (GDR) | 31 January 1988 | Stuttgart | | |  Ioamnet Quintero (CUB) | 5 March 1993 | Berlin | | |  Tisha Waller (USA) | 28 February 1998 | Atlanta | | |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | 24 February 2007 | Piraeus | | |  Vita Palamar (UKR) | 9 March 2008 | Valencia | | |  Irina Gordeeva (RUS) | 28 January 2009 | Cottbus | | |  Airinė Palšytė (LTU) | 4 March 2017 | Belgrade | | Olympic medalists ----------------- ### Men | Games | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | edit| 1896 Athensdetails | Ellery Harding Clark United States | James Connolly United States | *none awarded* | | Robert Garrett United States | | 1900 Parisdetails | Irving Baxter United States | Patrick Leahy Great Britain | Lajos Gönczy Hungary | | 1904 St. Louisdetails | Samuel Jones United States | Garrett Serviss United States | Paul Weinstein Germany | | 1908 Londondetails | Harry Porter United States | Géo André France | *none awarded* | | Con Leahy Great Britain | | István Somodi Hungary | | 1912 Stockholmdetails | Alma Richards United States | Hans Liesche Germany | George Horine United States | | 1920 Antwerpdetails | Richmond Landon United States | Harold Muller United States | Bo Ekelund Sweden | | 1924 Parisdetails | Harold Osborn United States | Leroy Brown United States | Pierre Lewden France | | 1928 Amsterdamdetails | Bob King United States | Benjamin Hedges United States | Claude Ménard France | | 1932 Los Angelesdetails | Duncan McNaughton Canada | Bob Van Osdel United States | Simeon Toribio Philippines | | 1936 Berlindetails | Cornelius Johnson United States | Dave Albritton United States | Delos Thurber United States | | 1948 Londondetails | John Winter Australia | Bjørn Paulson Norway | George Stanich United States | | 1952 Helsinkidetails | Walt Davis United States | Ken Wiesner United States | José da Conceição Brazil | | 1956 Melbournedetails | Charles Dumas United States | Chilla Porter Australia | Igor Kashkarov Soviet Union | | 1960 Romedetails | Robert Shavlakadze Soviet Union | Valeriy Brumel Soviet Union | John Thomas United States | | 1964 Tokyodetails | Valeriy Brumel Soviet Union | John Thomas United States | John Rambo United States | | 1968 Mexico Citydetails | Dick Fosbury United States | Ed Caruthers United States | Valentin Gavrilov Soviet Union | | 1972 Munichdetails | Jüri Tarmak Soviet Union | Stefan Junge East Germany | Dwight Stones United States | | 1976 Montrealdetails | Jacek Wszoła Poland | Greg Joy Canada | Dwight Stones United States | | 1980 Moscowdetails | Gerd Wessig East Germany | Jacek Wszoła Poland | Jörg Freimuth East Germany | | 1984 Los Angelesdetails | Dietmar Mögenburg West Germany | Patrik Sjöberg Sweden | Zhu Jianhua China | | 1988 Seouldetails | Hennadiy Avdyeyenko Soviet Union | Hollis Conway United States | Rudolf Povarnitsyn Soviet Union | | Patrik Sjöberg Sweden | | 1992 Barcelonadetails | Javier Sotomayor Cuba | Patrik Sjöberg Sweden | Hollis Conway United States | | Tim Forsyth Australia | | Artur Partyka Poland | | 1996 Atlantadetails | Charles Austin United States | Artur Partyka Poland | Steve Smith Great Britain | | 2000 Sydneydetails | Sergey Klyugin Russia | Javier Sotomayor Cuba | Abderahmane Hammad Algeria | | 2004 Athensdetails | Stefan Holm Sweden | Matt Hemingway United States | Jaroslav Bába Czech Republic | | 2008 Beijingdetails | Andrey Silnov Russia | Germaine Mason Great Britain | Yaroslav Rybakov Russia | | 2012 Londondetails | Erik Kynard United States | Mutaz Essa Barshim Qatar | *none awarded* | | Derek Drouin Canada | | Robert Grabarz Great Britain | | 2016 Rio de Janeirodetails | Derek Drouin Canada | Mutaz Essa Barshim Qatar | Bohdan Bondarenko Ukraine | | 2020 Tokyodetails | Gianmarco Tamberi Italy | *none awarded* | Maksim Nedasekau Belarus | | Mutaz Essa Barshim Qatar | | 2024 Parisdetails | | | | ### Women | Games | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | edit| 1928 Amsterdamdetails | Ethel Catherwood Canada | Lien Gisolf Netherlands | Mildred Wiley United States | | 1932 Los Angelesdetails | Jean Shiley United States | Babe Didrikson United States | Eva Dawes Canada | | 1936 Berlindetails | Ibolya Csák Hungary | Dorothy Odam Great Britain | Elfriede Kaun Germany | | 1948 Londondetails | Alice Coachman United States | Dorothy Tyler Great Britain | Micheline Ostermeyer France | | 1952 Helsinkidetails | Esther Brand South Africa | Sheile Lerwill Great Britain | Aleksandra Chudina Soviet Union | | 1956 Melbournedetails | Mildred McDaniel United States | Thelma Hopkins Great Britain | *none awarded* | | Mariya Pisareva Soviet Union | | 1960 Romedetails | Iolanda Balaș Romania | Jarosława Jóźwiakowska Poland | *none awarded* | | Dorothy Shirley Great Britain | | 1964 Tokyodetails | Iolanda Balaș Romania | Michele Brown Australia | Taisia Chenchik Soviet Union | | 1968 Mexico Citydetails | Miloslava Rezková Czechoslovakia | Antonina Okorokova Soviet Union | Valentina Kozyr Soviet Union | | 1972 Munichdetails | Ulrike Meyfarth West Germany | Yordanka Blagoeva Bulgaria | Ilona Gusenbauer Austria | | 1976 Montrealdetails | Rosemarie Ackermann East Germany | Sara Simeoni Italy | Yordanka Blagoeva Bulgaria | | 1980 Moscowdetails | Sara Simeoni Italy | Urszula Kielan Poland | Jutta Kirst East Germany | | 1984 Los Angelesdetails | Ulrike Meyfarth West Germany | Sara Simeoni Italy | Joni Huntley United States | | 1988 Seouldetails | Louise Ritter United States | Stefka Kostadinova Bulgaria | Tamara Bykova Soviet Union | | 1992 Barcelonadetails | Heike Henkel Germany | Alina Astafei Romania | Ioamnet Quintero Cuba | | 1996 Atlantadetails | Stefka Kostadinova Bulgaria | Niki Bakoyianni Greece | Inha Babakova Ukraine | | 2000 Sydneydetails | Yelena Yelesina Russia | Hestrie Cloete South Africa | Kajsa Bergqvist Sweden | | Oana Pantelimon Romania | | 2004 Athensdetails | Yelena Slesarenko Russia | Hestrie Cloete South Africa | Vita Styopina Ukraine | | 2008 Beijingdetails | Tia Hellebaut Belgium | Blanka Vlašić Croatia | Chaunté Howard United States | | 2012 Londondetails | Anna Chicherova Russia | Brigetta Barrett United States | Ruth Beitia Spain | | 2016 Rio de Janeirodetails | Ruth Beitia Spain | Mirela Demireva Bulgaria | Blanka Vlašić Croatia | | 2020 Tokyodetails | Mariya Lasitskene ROC | Nicola McDermott Australia | Yaroslava Mahuchikh Ukraine | | 2024 Parisdetails | | | | World Championships medalists ----------------------------- ### Men | Championships | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1983 Helsinkidetails |  Hennadiy Avdyeyenko (URS) |  Tyke Peacock (USA) |  Zhu Jianhua (CHN) | | 1987 Romedetails |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) |  Hennadiy Avdyeyenko (URS) ---  Igor Paklin (URS) | *none awarded* | | 1991 Tokyodetails |  Charles Austin (USA) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Hollis Conway (USA) | | 1993 Stuttgartdetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Artur Partyka (POL) |  Steve Smith (GBR) | | 1995 Gothenburgdetails |  Troy Kemp (BAH) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Artur Partyka (POL) | | 1997 Athensdetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Artur Partyka (POL) |  Tim Forsyth (AUS) | | 1999 Sevilledetails |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) |  Mark Boswell (CAN) |  Martin Buß (GER) | | 2001 Edmontondetails |  Martin Buß (GER) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) ---  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) | *none awarded* | | 2003 Saint-Denisdetails |  Jacques Freitag (RSA) |  Stefan Holm (SWE) |  Mark Boswell (CAN) | | 2005 Helsinkidetails |  Yuriy Krymarenko (UKR) |  Víctor Moya (CUB) ---  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) | *none awarded* | | 2007 Osakadetails |  Donald Thomas (BAH) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Kyriakos Ioannou (CYP) | | 2009 Berlindetails |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Kyriakos Ioannou (CYP) |  Sylwester Bednarek (POL) ---  Raúl Spank (GER) | | 2011 Daegudetails |  Jesse Williams (USA) |  Aleksey Dmitrik (RUS) |  Trevor Barry (BAH) | | 2013 Moscowdetails |  Bohdan Bondarenko (UKR) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Derek Drouin (CAN) | | 2015 Beijingdetails |  Derek Drouin (CAN) |  Bohdan Bondarenko (UKR) ---  Zhang Guowei (CHN) | *none awarded* | | 2017 Londondetails |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Danil Lysenko (ANA) |  Majd Eddin Ghazal (SYR) | | 2019 Dohadetails |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Mikhail Akimenko (ANA) |  Ilya Ivanyuk (ANA) | | 2022 Eugene details |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Woo Sang-hyeok (KOR) |  Andriy Protsenko (UKR) | | 2023 Budapest details | | | | #### Medal table | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Qatar (QAT) | 3 | 1 | 0 | 4 | | 2 |  Russia (RUS) | 2 | 5 | 0 | 7 | | 3 |  Cuba (CUB) | 2 | 3 | 0 | 5 | | 4 |  Ukraine (UKR) | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | |  United States (USA) | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | | 6 |  Bahamas (BAH) | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | | 7 |  Soviet Union (URS) | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | | 8 |  Canada (CAN) | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | | 9 |  Sweden (SWE) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | | 10 |  Germany (GER) | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | | 11 |  South Africa (RSA) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 12 |  Poland (POL) | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | | – |  Authorised Neutral Athletes (ANA) | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | | 13 |  China (CHN) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  Cyprus (CYP) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  South Korea (KOR) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | 16 |  Australia (AUS) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |  Great Britain (GBR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |  Syria (SYR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Totals (18 entries) | 18 | 22 | 15 | 55 | ### Women | Championships | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1983 Helsinkidetails |  Tamara Bykova (URS) |  Ulrike Meyfarth (FRG) |  Louise Ritter (USA) | | 1987 Romedetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Tamara Bykova (URS) |  Susanne Beyer (GDR) | | 1991 Tokyodetails |  Heike Henkel (GER) |  Yelena Yelesina (URS) |  Inha Babakova (URS) | | 1993 Stuttgartdetails |  Ioamnet Quintero (CUB) |  Silvia Costa (CUB) |  Sigrid Kirchmann (AUT) | | 1995 Gothenburgdetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Alina Astafei (GER) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) | | 1997 Athensdetails |  Hanne Haugland (NOR) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) ---  Olga Kaliturina (RUS) | *none awarded* | | 1999 Sevilledetails |  Inha Babakova (UKR) |  Yelena Yelesina (RUS) |  Svetlana Lapina (RUS) | | 2001 Edmontondetails |  Hestrie Cloete (RSA) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | | 2003 Saint-Denisdetails |  Hestrie Cloete (RSA) |  Marina Kuptsova (RUS) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | | 2005 Helsinkidetails |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) |  Chaunté Howard (USA) |  Emma Green (SWE) | | 2007 Osakadetails |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) ---  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) | *none awarded* | | 2009 Berlindetails |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Ariane Friedrich (GER) |  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) | | 2011 Daegudetails |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) | | 2013 Moscowdetails |  Brigetta Barrett (USA) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) ---  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | *none awarded* | | 2015 Beijingdetails |  Mariya Kuchina (RUS) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | | 2017 Londondetails |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) |  Yuliya Levchenko (UKR) |  Kamila Lićwinko (POL) | | 2019 Dohadetails |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) |  Vashti Cunningham (USA) | | 2022 Eugenedetails |  Eleanor Patterson (AUS) |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) |  Elena Vallortigara (ITA) | World Indoor Championships medalists ------------------------------------ ### Men | Games | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1985 Parisdetails |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Othmane Belfaa (ALG) | | 1987 Indianapolisdetails |  Igor Paklin (URS) |  Hennadiy Avdyeyenko (URS) |  Ján Zvara (TCH) | | 1989 Budapestdetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Dietmar Mögenburg (FRG) |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) | | 1991 Sevilledetails |  Hollis Conway (USA) |  Artur Partyka (POL) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) ---  Aleksey Yemelin (URS) | | 1993 Torontodetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) |  Steve Smith (GBR) | | 1995 Barcelonadetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Labros Papakostas (GRE) |  Tony Barton (USA) | | 1997 Parisdetails |  Charles Austin (USA) |  Labros Papakostas (GRE) |  Dragutin Topić (FRY) | | 1999 Maebashidetails |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) |  Charles Austin (USA) | | 2001 Lisbondetails |  Stefan Holm (SWE) |  Andriy Sokolovskyy (UKR) |  Staffan Strand (SWE) | | 2003 Birminghamdetails |  Stefan Holm (SWE) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Henadz Maroz (BLR) | | 2004 Budapestdetails |  Stefan Holm (SWE) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Ștefan Vasilache (ROU) ---  Germaine Mason (JAM) ---  Jaroslav Bába (CZE) | | 2006 Moscowdetails |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Andrey Tereshin (RUS) |  Linus Thörnblad (SWE) | | 2008 Valenciadetails |  Stefan Holm (SWE) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Kyriakos Ioannou (CYP) ---  Andra Manson (USA) | | 2010 Dohadetails |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) |  Dusty Jonas (USA) | | 2012 Istanbuldetails |  Dimitrios Chondrokoukis (GRE) |  Andrey Silnov (RUS) |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | | 2014 Sopotdetails |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) |  Andriy Protsenko (UKR) | | 2016 Portlanddetails |  Gianmarco Tamberi (ITA) |  Robert Grabarz (GBR) |  Erik Kynard (USA) | | 2018 Birminghamdetails |  Danil Lysenko (ANA) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) |  Mateusz Przybylko (GER) | ### Women | Games | Gold | Silver | Bronze | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1985 Parisdetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Susanne Lorentzon (SWE) |  Debbie Brill (CAN) ---  Danuta Bułkowska (POL) ---  Silvia Costa (CUB) | | 1987 Indianapolisdetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Susanne Beyer (GDR) |  Emilia Dragieva (BUL) | | 1989 Budapestdetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Tamara Bykova (URS) |  Heike Redetzky (FRG) | | 1991 Sevilledetails |  Heike Henkel (GER) |  Tamara Bykova (URS) |  Heike Balck (GER) | | 1993 Torontodetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Heike Henkel (GER) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) | | 1995 Barcelonadetails |  Alina Astafei (GER) |  Britta Bilač (SLO) |  Heike Henkel (GER) | | 1997 Parisdetails |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) |  Hanne Haugland (NOR) | | 1999 Maebashidetails |  Khristina Kalcheva (BUL) |  Zuzana Hlavoňová (CZE) |  Tisha Waller (USA) | | 2001 Lisbondetails |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) |  Inha Babakova (UKR) |  Venelina Veneva (BUL) | | 2003 Birminghamdetails |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) |  Yelena Yelesina (RUS) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | | 2004 Budapestdetails |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | | 2006 Moscowdetails |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | | 2008 Valenciadetails |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) |  Vita Palamar (UKR) | | 2010 Dohadetails |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) |  Chaunté Lowe (USA) | | 2012 Istanbuldetails |  Chaunté Lowe (USA) |  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) ---  Anna Chicherova (RUS) ---  Ebba Jungmark (SWE) | *none awarded* | | 2014 Sopotdetails |  Mariya Kuchina (RUS) ---  Kamila Lićwinko (POL) | *none awarded* |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | | 2016 Portlanddetails |  Vashti Cunningham (USA) |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) |  Kamila Lićwinko (POL) | | 2018 Birminghamdetails |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) |  Vashti Cunningham (USA) |  Alessia Trost (ITA) | | 2022 Belgradedetails |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) |  Eleanor Patterson (AUS) |  Nadezhda Dubovitskaya (KAZ) | * A Known as the *World Indoor Games*. Athletes with most medals ------------------------- Athletes who have won multiple titles at the two most important competitions, the Olympic Games and the World Championships: * 4 wins: Mariya Lasitskene (RUS) - Olympic Champion in 2020, World Champion in 2015, 2017 & 2019 * 4 wins: Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) - Olympic Champion in 2020, World Champion in 2017, 2019 & 2022 * 3 wins: Javier Sotomayor (CUB) - Olympic Champion in 1992, World Champion in 1993 & 1997 * 3 wins: Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) - Olympic Champion in 1996, World Champion in 1987 & 1995 * 2 wins: Gennadiy Avdeyenko (URS) - Olympic Champion in 1988, World Champion in 1983 * 2 wins: Charles Austin (USA) - Olympic Champion in 1996, World Champion in 1991 * 2 wins: Iolanda Balaș (ROU) - Olympic Champion in 1960 & 1964 * 2 wins: Ulrike Meyfarth (FRG) - Olympic Champion in 1972 & 1984 * 2 wins: Heike Henkel (GER) - Olympic Champion in 1992, World Champion in 1991 * 2 wins: Hestrie Cloete (RSA) - World Champion in 2001 & 2003 * 2 wins: Blanka Vlašić (CRO) - World Champion in 2007 & 2009 * 2 wins: Anna Chicherova (RUS) - Olympic Champion in 2012, World Champion in 2011 Kostadinova and Sotomayor are the only high jumpers to have been Olympic Champion, World Champion and broken the world record. ### Men | Athlete | Olympic Games | World Championships | World Indoor Championships | Continental Championships | Continental Indoor Championships | Universiade | Regional GamesMediterraneanPan AmericanAsian | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | **13** | **4** | **1** | |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | 2 | 0 | 0 | **13** | **4** | **1** | |  Dietmar Mögenburg (FRG) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **7** | **3** | **1** | |  Stefan Holm (SWE) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **7** | **2** | **1** | |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **6** | **3** | **2** | |  Lee Jin-Taek (KOR) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 0 | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | **6** | **1** | **1** | |  Igor Paklin (URS) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **4** | **1** | **0** | |  Valeriy Brumel (URS) | 1 | 1 | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **4** | **1** | **0** | |  Zhu Jianhua (CHN) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | **4** | **0** | **2** | |  Charles Austin (USA) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **4** | **0** | **1** | |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **3** | **8** | **2** | |  Dragutin Topić (SRB) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | **3** | **0** | **4** | |  Vladimir Yashchenko (URS) | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **3** | **0** | **0** | |  Gennadiy Avdeyenko (URS) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **2** | **2** | **1** | |  Hollis Conway (USA) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | **2** | **2** | **3** | ### Women | Athlete | Olympic Games | World Championships | World Indoor Championships | Continental Championships | Continental Indoor Championships | Universiade | Regional GamesMediterraneanPan AmericanCommonwealth | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **13** | **2** | **0** | |  Sara Simeoni (ITA) | 1 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | **11** | **2** | **4** | |  Mariya Lasitskene (RUS) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | - | - | - | **9** | **2** | **0** | |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | **6** | **5** | **4** | |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | **6** | **4** | **2** | |  Hestrie Cloete (RSA) | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | **6** | **2** | **0** | |  Heike Henkel (FRG) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **6** | **1** | **3** | |  Iolanda Balaş (ROU) | 2 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **6** | **1** | **0** | |  Ulrike Meyfarth (FRG) | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | - | - | - | **5** | **2** | **0** | |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **5** | **1** | **4** | |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **5** | **1** | **0** | |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | 1 | 0 | \* | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **4** | **4** | **3** | |  Tamara Bykova (URS) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | - | - | - | **4** | **2** | **2** | | Alina Astafei(Romania & Germany) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **4** | **3** | **2** | |  Tia Hellebaut (BEL) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | **4** | **0** | **0** | |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | - | - | - | **3** | **1** | **1** | |  Antonietta Di Martino (ITA) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | **2** | **3** | **1** | Season's bests -------------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Men | Year | Mark | Athlete | Place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1970 | 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) |  Ni Zhiqin (CHN) | Changsha | | 1971 | 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in) |  Pat Matzdorf (USA) | Berkeley | | 1972 | 2.25 m (7 ft 4+1⁄2 in) |  Jüri Tarmak (URS) | Moscow | | 1973 | 2.30 m (7 ft 6+1⁄2 in) |  Dwight Stones (USA) | Munich | | 1974 | 2.28 m (7 ft 5+3⁄4 in) |  Dwight Stones (USA) | Oslo | | 1975 | 2.28 m (7 ft 5+3⁄4 in) |  Dwight Stones (USA) | New York | | 1976 | 2.32 m (7 ft 7+1⁄4 in) |  Dwight Stones (USA) | Philadelphia | | 1977 | 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Vladimir Yashchenko (URS) | Richmond | | 1978 | 2.35 m (7 ft 8+1⁄2 in) i |  Vladimir Yashchenko (URS) | Milan | | 1979 | 2.32 m (7 ft 7+1⁄4 in) |  Dietmar Mögenburg (FRG) | Ottawa | | 1980 | 2.36 m (7 ft 8+3⁄4 in) |  Gerd Wessig (GDR) | Moscow | | 1981 | 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Aleksey Demyanyuk (URS) | Leningrad | | 1982 | 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Zhu Jianhua (CHN) | Delhi | | 1983 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) |  Zhu Jianhua (CHN) | Shanghai | | 1984 | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) |  Zhu Jianhua (CHN) | Eberstadt | | 1985 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) |  Igor Paklin (URS) | Kobe | | 1986 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) |  Igor Paklin (URS) | Rieti | | 1987 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) | Stockholm | | 1988 | 2.43 m (7 ft 11+1⁄2 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Salamanca | | 1989 | 2.44 m (8 ft 0 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | San Juan | | 1990 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Sorin Matei (ROU) | Bratislava | | 1991 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) i |  Hollis Conway (USA) | Seville | | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Saint-Denis | |  Charles Austin (USA) | Zürich | | 1992 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) i |  Patrik Sjöberg (SWE) | Genoa | | 1993 | 2.45 m (8 ft 1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Salamanca | | 1994 | 2.42 m (7 ft 11+1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Seville | | 1995 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Mar del Plata | | 1996 | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) |  Charles Austin (USA) | Atlanta | | 1997 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Athens | | 1998 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Javier Sotomayor (CUB) | Maracaibo | | 1999 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) | Seville | | 2000 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) | London | | 2001 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Vyacheslav Voronin (RUS) | Eberstadt | | 2002 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Jacques Freitag (RSA) | Durban | | 2003 | 2.36 m (7 ft 8+3⁄4 in) i |  Stefan Holm (SWE) | Arnstadt | | 2.36 m (7 ft 8+3⁄4 in) |  Aleksander Walerianczyk (POL) | Bydgoszcz | | 2004 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) i |  Stefan Holm (SWE) | Stockholm | | 2005 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) i |  Stefan Holm (SWE) | Madrid | | 2006 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) i |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) | Arnstadt | | Moscow | |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Arnstadt | | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Andrey Silnov (RUS) | Monaco | | 2007 | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) i |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Moscow | | 2008 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) i |  Yaroslav Rybakov (RUS) | Moscow | | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) |  Andrey Silnov (RUS) | London | | 2009 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) i |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Piraeus | | 2010 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) i |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Banská Bystrica | | 2011 | 2.38 m (7 ft 9+1⁄2 in) i |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Hustopece | | Banská Bystrica | | Paris | | 2012 | 2.39 m (7 ft 10 in) |  Ivan Ukhov (RUS) | Cheboksary | |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Lausanne | | 2013 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) |  Bohdan Bondarenko (UKR) | Lausanne | | Moscow | | 2014 | 2.43 m (7 ft 11+1⁄2 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Brussels | | 2015 | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) i |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Athlone | | 2.41 m (7 ft 10+3⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Eugene | | 2016 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Opole | | 2017 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Birmingham | | Eberstadt | | 2018 | 2.40 m (7 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Doha | | Székesfehérvár | |  Danil Lysenko (RUS) | Monaco | | 2019 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Doha | | 2020 | 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in) i |  Darryl Sullivan (USA) | Blacksburg | |  Tom Gale (GBR) | Hustopeče | |  Jamal Wilson (BAH) | Banská Bystrica | |  Luis Zayas (CUB) | Banská Bystrica | |  Ilya Ivanyuk (RUS) | Moscow | | 2.33 m (7 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Maksim Nedasekau (BLR) | Minsk | | 2021 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) i |  Maksim Nedasekau (BLR) | Toruń | | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) | Székesfehérvár | | Tokyo | |  Ilya Ivanyuk (ANA) | Smolensk | |  Gianmarco Tamberi (ITA) | Tokyo | |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Tokyo | | 2022 | 2.37 m (7 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Mutaz Essa Barshim (QAT) | Eugene | | Women | Year | Mark | Athlete | Place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1970 | 1.87 m (6 ft 1+1⁄2 in) |  Antonina Lazareva (URS) | Kyiv | | 1971 | 1.92 m (6 ft 3+1⁄2 in) |  Ilona Gusenbauer (AUT) | Vienna | | 1972 | 1.94 m (6 ft 4+1⁄4 in) |  Yordanka Blagoeva (BUL) | Zagreb | | 1973 | 1.92 m (6 ft 3+1⁄2 in) |  Yordanka Blagoeva (BUL) | Warsaw | | 1974 | 1.95 m (6 ft 4+3⁄4 in) |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | Rome | | 1975 | 1.94 m (6 ft 4+1⁄4 in) |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | Nice | | 1976 | 1.96 m (6 ft 5 in) |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | Dresden | | 1977 | 2.00 m (6 ft 6+1⁄2 in) |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | Berlin | | 1978 | 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) |  Sara Simeoni (ITA) | Brescia | | 1979 | 1.99 m (6 ft 6+1⁄4 in) |  Rosemarie Ackermann (GDR) | Turin | | 1980 | 1.98 m (6 ft 5+3⁄4 in) |  Sara Simeoni (ITA) | Turin | | 1981 | 1.97 m (6 ft 5+1⁄2 in) |  Pam Spencer (USA) | Brussels | | 1982 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Ulrike Meyfarth (FRG) | Athens | | 1983 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Tamara Bykova (URS) | Pisa | | Budapest | | 1984 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Lyudmila Andonova (BUL) | Berlin | | 1985 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Moscow | | 1986 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Sofia | | 1987 | 2.09 m (6 ft 10+1⁄4 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Rome | | 1988 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Sofia | | 1989 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Silvia Costa (CUB) | Barcelona | |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Pireás | | 1990 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Yelena Yelesina (URS) | Seattle | | 1991 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Heike Henkel (GER) | Tokyo | | 1992 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) i |  Heike Henkel (GER) | Karlsruhe | | 1993 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Fukuoka | | 1994 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) i |  Alina Astafei (GER) | Berlin | | 1995 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Inga Babakova (UKR) | Tokyo | | 1996 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Atlanta | | 1997 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Stefka Kostadinova (BUL) | Osaka | | Paris-Bercy | |  Inga Babakova (UKR) | Fukuoka | | 1998 | 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in) |  Venelina Veneva (BUL) | Kalamata | | 1999 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Hestrie Cloete (RSA) | Monaco | | 2000 | 2.02 m (6 ft 7+1⁄2 in) |  Monica Iagăr (ROU) | Villeneuve d'Ascq | | 2001 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Venelina Veneva (BUL) | Kalamáta | | 2002 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | Poznań | | 2003 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | Eberstadt | |  Hestrie Cloete (RSA) | Saint-Denis | | 2004 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Yelena Slesarenko (RUS) | Athens | | 2005 | 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in) |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | Sheffield | | 2006 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) i |  Kajsa Bergqvist (SWE) | Arnstadt | | 2007 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | Stockholm | | 2008 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | Istanbul | | Madrid | | 2009 | 2.08 m (6 ft 9+3⁄4 in) |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | Zagreb | | 2010 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) i |  Blanka Vlašić (CRO) | Arnstadt | | 2011 | 2.07 m (6 ft 9+1⁄4 in) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | Cheboksary | | 2012 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) i |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | Arnstadt | | 2013 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Brigetta Barrett (USA) | Des Moines | | 2014 | 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) i |  Mariya Kuchina (RUS) | Stockholm | | 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | Eugene | |  Ruth Beitia (ESP) | Zürich | | 2015 | 2.03 m (6 ft 7+3⁄4 in) |  Anna Chicherova (RUS) | Lausanne | | 2016 | 2.01 m (6 ft 7 in) |  Chaunté Lowe (USA) | Eugene | | 2017 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) | Lausanne | | 2018 | 2.04 m (6 ft 8+1⁄4 in) |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) | Paris | | London | | 2019 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) | Ostrava | | 2020 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) i |  Mariya Lasitskene (ANA) | Moscow | | 2021 | 2.06 m (6 ft 9 in) i |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) | Banská Bystrica | | 2022 | 2.05 m (6 ft 8+1⁄2 in) |  Yaroslava Mahuchikh (UKR) | Brussels | | See also -------- * List of high jump national champions (men) * List of high jump national champions (women) * Standing high jump

High jump

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_jump

A **testicle** or **testis** (plural **testes**) is the male reproductive gland or gonad in all bilaterians, including humans. It is homologous to the female ovary. The functions of the testes are to produce both sperm and androgens, primarily testosterone. Testosterone release is controlled by the anterior pituitary luteinizing hormone, whereas sperm production is controlled both by the anterior pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadal testosterone. Structure --------- ### Appearance Males have two testicles of similar size contained within the scrotum, which is an extension of the abdominal wall. Scrotal asymmetry, in which one testicle extends farther down into the scrotum than the other, is common. This is because of the differences in the vasculature's anatomy. For 85% of men, the right testis hangs lower than the left one. ### Measurement and volume The volume of the testicle can be estimated by palpating it and comparing it to ellipsoids of known sizes. Another method is to use calipers (an orchidometer) or a ruler either on the person or on an ultrasound image to obtain the three measurements of the x, y, and z axes (length, depth and width). These measurements can then be used to calculate the volume, using the formula for the volume of an ellipsoid: V o l u m e = 4 3 ⋅ π ⋅ l e n g t h 2 ⋅ w i d t h 2 ⋅ d e p t h 2 {\displaystyle Volume={\frac {4}{3}}\cdot \pi \cdot {\frac {length}{2}}\cdot {\frac {width}{2}}\cdot {\frac {depth}{2}}} {\displaystyle Volume={\frac {4}{3}}\cdot \pi \cdot {\frac {length}{2}}\cdot {\frac {width}{2}}\cdot {\frac {depth}{2}}} ≈ l e n g t h ⋅ w i d t h ⋅ d e p t h ⋅ 0.52 {\displaystyle \approx length\cdot width\cdot depth\cdot 0.52} {\displaystyle \approx length\cdot width\cdot depth\cdot 0.52} However, the most accurate calculation of actual testicular volume is gained from the formula: ≈ l e n g t h ⋅ w i d t h ⋅ d e p t h ⋅ 0.71 {\displaystyle \approx length\cdot width\cdot depth\cdot 0.71} {\displaystyle \approx length\cdot width\cdot depth\cdot 0.71} An average adult testicle measures up to 5 cm × 2 cm × 3 cm (2 in × 3⁄4 in × 1+1⁄4 in). The Tanner scale, which is used to assess the maturity of the male genitalia, assigns a maturity stage to the calculated volume ranging from stage I, a volume of less than 1.5 cm3; to stage V, a volume greater than 20 cm3. Normal volume is 15 to 25 cm3; the average is 18 cm3 per testis (range 12–30 cm3). The number of spermatozoa an adult human male produces is directly proportional to testicular volume, as larger testicles contain more seminiferous tubules and Sertoli cells as a result. As such, men with larger testicles produce on average more sperm cells in each ejaculate, as testicular volume is positively correlated with semen profiles. ### Internal structure #### Duct system The testes are covered by a tough fibrous shell called the tunica albuginea. Under the tunica albuginea, the testes contain very fine-coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that develop from puberty through old age into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions. #### Primary cell types Within the seminiferous tubules, the germ cells develop into spermatogonia, spermatocytes, spermatids and spermatozoa through the process of spermatogenesis. The gametes contain DNA for fertilization of an ovum Sertoli cells – the true epithelium of the seminiferous epithelium, critical for the support of germ cell development into spermatozoa. Sertoli cells secrete inhibin. Peritubular myoid cells surround the seminiferous tubules. Between tubules (interstitial cells) exist Leydig cells – cells localized between seminiferous tubules that produce and secrete testosterone and other androgens important for puberty (including secondary sexual characteristics like facial hair), sexual behavior, and libido. Sertoli cells support spermatogenesis. Testosterone controls testicular volume. Immature Leydig cells and interstitial macrophages and epithelial cells are also present. #### Blood supply and lymphatic drainage The testis has three sources of arterial blood supply: the testicular artery, the cremasteric artery, and the artery to the ductus deferens. Blood supply and lymphatic drainage of the testes and scrotum are distinct: * The paired testicular arteries arise directly from the abdominal aorta and descend through the inguinal canal, while the scrotum and the rest of the external genitalia is supplied by the internal pudendal artery (a branch of the internal iliac artery). * The testis has collateral blood supply from the cremasteric artery (a branch of the inferior epigastric artery, which is a branch of the external iliac artery), and the artery to the ductus deferens (a branch of the inferior vesical artery, which is a branch of the internal iliac artery). Therefore, if the testicular artery is ligated, e.g., during a Fowler-Stevens orchiopexy for a high undescended testis, the testis will usually survive on these other blood supplies. * Lymphatic drainage of the testes follows the testicular arteries back to the paraaortic lymph nodes, while lymph from the scrotum drains to the inguinal lymph nodes. #### Layers Many anatomical features of the adult testis reflect its developmental origin in the abdomen. The layers of tissue enclosing each testicle are derived from the layers of the anterior abdominal wall. The cremasteric muscle arises from the internal oblique muscle. #### The blood–testis barrier Large molecules cannot pass from the blood into the lumen of a seminiferous tubule due to the presence of tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. The spermatogonia occupy the basal compartment (deep to the level of the tight junctions) and the more mature forms, such as primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids, occupy the adluminal compartment. The function of the blood–testis barrier may be to prevent an auto-immune reaction. Mature sperm (and their antigens) emerge significantly after immune tolerance is set in infancy. Since sperm are antigenically different from self-tissue, a male animal can react immunologically to his own sperm. The male can make antibodies against them. Injection of sperm antigens causes inflammation of the testis (auto-immune orchitis) and reduced fertility. The blood–testis barrier may reduce the likelihood that sperm proteins will induce an immune response. ### Temperature regulation and responses Spermatogenesis is enhanced at temperatures slightly less than core body temperature. The spermatogenesis is less efficient at lower and higher temperatures than 33 °C. Because the testes are located outside the body, the smooth tissue of the scrotum can move them closer or further away from the body. The temperature of the testes is maintained at 34.4 °C, a little below body temperature, as temperatures above 36.7 °C impede spermatogenesis. There are a number of mechanisms to maintain the testes at the optimum temperature. The cremasteric muscle covers the testicles and the spermatic cord. When this muscle contracts, the cord shortens and the testicles move closer up toward the body, which provides slightly more warmth to maintain optimal testicular temperature. When cooling is required, the cremasteric muscle relaxes and the testicles lower away from the warm body and are able to cool. Contraction also occurs in response to physical stress, such as blunt trauma; the testicles withdraw and the scrotum shrinks very close to the body in an effort to protect them. The cremasteric reflex will reflexively raise the testicles. The testicles can also be lifted voluntarily using the pubococcygeus muscle, which partially activates related muscles. ### Gene and protein expression The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes: 80% of these genes are expressed in adult testes. The testes have the highest fraction of tissue type-specific genes compared to other organs and tissues. About 1000 of them are highly specific for the testes, and about 2,200 show an elevated pattern of expression. A majority of these genes encode for proteins that are expressed in the seminiferous tubules and have functions related to spermatogenesis. Sperm cells express proteins that result in the development of flagella; these same proteins are expressed in the female in cells lining the Fallopian tube and cause the development of cilia. Sperm cell flagella and Fallopian tube cilia are homologous structures. The testis-specific proteins that show the highest level of expression are protamines. Development ----------- There are two phases in which the testes grow substantially. These are the embryonic and pubertal phases. During mammalian development, the gonads are at first capable of becoming either ovaries or testes. In humans, starting at about week 4, the gonadal rudiments are present within the intermediate mesoderm adjacent to the developing kidneys. At about week 6, sex cords develop within the forming testes. These are made up of early Sertoli cells that surround and nurture the germ cells that migrate into the gonads shortly before sex determination begins. In males, the sex-specific gene SRY that is found on the Y chromosome initiates sex determination by downstream regulation of sex-determining factors (such as GATA4, SOX9 and AMH), which lead to development of the male phenotype, including directing development of the early bipotential gonad toward the male path of development. Testes follow the path of descent, from high in the posterior fetal abdomen to the inguinal ring and beyond to the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. In most cases (97% full-term, 70% preterm), both testes have descended by birth. In most other cases, only one testis fails to descend. This is called cryptorchidism. In most cases of cryptorchidism, the issue will mostly resolve itself within the first half year of life. However, if the testes do not descend far enough into the scrotum, surgical anchoring in the scrotum is required due to risks of infertility and testicular cancer. The testes grow in response to the start of spermatogenesis. Size depends on lytic function, sperm production (amount of spermatogenesis present in testis), interstitial fluid, and Sertoli cell fluid production. The testicles are fully descended before the male reaches puberty. Clinical significance --------------------- ### Protection and injury * The testicles are very sensitive to impact and injury. The pain involved travels up from each testicle into the abdominal cavity, via the spermatic plexus, which is the primary nerve of each testicle. This will cause pain in the hip and the back. The pain usually fades within a few minutes. * Testicular torsion is a medical emergency. This is because the longer it takes to access medical intervention with respect to extending ischemia, the higher the chance that the testicle will be lost. There is a 90% chance to save the testicle if de-torsion surgery is performed within six hours of testicular torsion onset. * Testicular rupture is severe trauma affecting the tunica albuginea. * Penetrating injuries to the scrotum may cause castration, or physical separation or destruction of the testes, possibly along with part or all of the penis, which results in total sterility if the testicles are not reattached quickly. In an effort to avoid severe infection, ample application of saline and bacitracin help remove debris and foreign objects from the wound. * Jockstraps support and protect the testicles. ### Diseases and conditions * To improve the chances of catching cases of testicular cancer, other neoplasms, or other health issues early, regular testicular self-examination is recommended. * Varicocele, swollen vein(s) from the testes, usually affecting the left side, the testis usually being normal. * Hydrocele testis is swelling around testes caused by accumulation of clear liquid within a membranous sac, the testis usually being normal. It is the most common cause of scrotal swelling. * Spermatocele is a retention cyst of a tubule of the rete testis or the head of the epididymis distended with barely watery fluid that contains spermatozoa. * Endocrine disorders can also affect the size and function of the testis. * Certain inherited conditions involving mutations in key developmental genes also impair testicular descent, resulting in abdominal or inguinal testes which remain nonfunctional and may become cancerous. Other genetic conditions can result in the loss of the Wolffian ducts and allow for the persistence of Müllerian ducts. Both excess and deficient levels of estrogens can disrupt spermatogenesis and cause infertility. * Bell-clapper deformity is a deformity in which the testicle is not attached to the scrotal walls, and can rotate freely on the spermatic cord within the tunica vaginalis. Those with Bell-clapper are at a higher risk of testicular torsion. * Orchitis is inflammation of the testicles * Epididymitis is a painful inflammation of the epididymis or epididymides, frequently caused by bacterial infection but sometimes of unknown origin. * Anorchia is the absence of one or both testicles. * Cryptorchidism, or "undescended testicles", is when the testicle does not descend into the scrotum of an infant boy. * Testicular enlargement is an unspecific sign of various testicular diseases, and can be defined as a testicular size of more than 5 cm (long axis) × 3 cm (short axis). * Blue balls is a condition concerning temporary fluid congestion in the testicles and prostate region, caused by prolonged sexual arousal. Testicular prostheses are available to mimic the appearance and feel of one or both testicles, when absent as from injury or as treatment in association to gender dysphoria. There have also been some instances of their implantation in dogs. ### Effects of exogenous hormones To some extent, it is possible to change testicular size. Short of direct injury or subjecting them to adverse conditions, e.g., higher temperature than they are normally accustomed to, they can be shrunk by competing against their intrinsic hormonal function through the use of externally administered steroidal hormones. Steroids taken for muscle enhancement (especially anabolic steroids) often have the undesired side effect of testicular shrinkage. Stimulation of testicular functions via gonadotropic-like hormones may enlarge their size. Testes may shrink or atrophy during hormone replacement therapy or through chemical castration. In all cases, the loss in testes volume corresponds with a loss of spermatogenesis. Society and culture ------------------- The testicles of calves, lambs, roosters, turkeys, and other animals are eaten in many parts of the world, often under euphemistic culinary names. Testicles are a by-product of the castration of young animals raised for meat, so they might have been a late-spring seasonal specialty. In modern times, they are generally frozen and available year-round. In the Middle Ages, men who wanted a boy sometimes had their left testicle removed. This was because people believed that the right testicle made "boy" sperm and the left made "girl" sperm. As early as 330 BC, Aristotle prescribed the ligation (tying off) of the left testicle in men wishing to have boys. ### Etymology and slang One theory about the etymology of the word *testis* is based on Roman law. The original Latin word *testis*, "witness", was used in the firmly established legal principle "*Testis unus, testis nullus*" (one witness [equals] no witness), meaning that testimony by any one person in court was to be disregarded unless corroborated by the testimony of at least another. This led to the common practice of producing two witnesses, bribed to testify the same way in cases of lawsuits with ulterior motives. Since such witnesses always came in pairs, the meaning was accordingly extended, often in the diminutive (*testiculus, testiculi*). Another theory says that *testis* is influenced by a loan translation, from Greek *parastatēs* "defender (in law), supporter" that is "two glands side by side". There are multiple slang terms for the testes. They may be referred to as "balls". Frequently, "nuts" (sometimes intentionally misspelled as "nutz") are also a slang term for the testes due to the geometric resemblance. One variant of the term includes "Deez Nuts", which was used for a satirical political candidate in 2016. In Spanish, the term *huevos* is used, which is Spanish for eggs. Other animals ------------- ### External appearance In seasonal breeders, the weight of the testes often increases during the breeding season. The testicles of a dromedary camel are 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in) long, 4.5 cm (1.8 in) deep and 5 cm (2.0 in) in width. The right testicle is often smaller than the left. In sharks, the testicle on the right side is usually larger. In many bird and mammal species, the left may be larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, although this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo. ### Location #### Internal The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes. The testes of monotremes, xenarthrans, and elephants remain within the abdomen. There are also some marsupials with external testes and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros. Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes. As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin. In odobenids and phocids, the location of the testes is para-abdominal, though otariids have scrotal testes. #### External Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes. Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body and are suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum. There are several hypotheses as to why most boreotherian mammals have external testes that operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature. One view is that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons. Another view is that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production. The classic hypothesis is that cooler temperature of the testes allows for more efficient fertile spermatogenesis. There are no possible enzymes operating at normal core body temperature that are as efficient as the ones evolved. Early mammals had lower body temperatures and thus their testes worked efficiently within their body. However, boreotherian mammals may have higher body temperatures than the other mammals and had to develop external testes to keep them cool. One argument is that mammals with internal testes, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, elephants, and rhinoceroses, have a lower core body temperatures than those mammals with external testes. Researchers have wondered why birds, despite having very high core body temperatures, have internal testes and did not evolve external testes. It was once theorized that birds used their air sacs to cool the testes internally, but later studies revealed that birds' testes are able to function at core body temperature. Some mammals with seasonal breeding cycles keep their testes internal until the breeding season. After that, their testes descend and increase in size and become external. The ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals may have been a small mammal that required very large testes for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body. This might have led to enzymes involved in spermatogenesis, spermatogenic DNA polymerase beta and recombinase activities evolving a unique temperature optimum that is slightly less than core body temperature. When the boreoeutherian mammals diversified into forms that were larger or did not require intense sperm competition, they still produced enzymes that operated best at cooler temperatures and had to keep their testes outside the body. This position is made less parsimonious because the kangaroo, a non-boreoeutherian mammal, has external testicles. Separately from boreotherian mammals, the ancestors of kangaroos might have also been subject to heavy sperm competition and thus developed external testes; however, kangaroo external testes are suggestive of a possible adaptive function for external testes in large animals. One argument for the evolution of external testes is that it protects the testes from abdominal cavity pressure changes caused by jumping and galloping. Mild, transient scrotal heat stress causes DNA damage, reduced fertility and abnormal embryonic development in mice. DNA strand breaks were found in spermatocytes recovered from testicles subjected to 40 °C or 42 °C for 30 minutes. These findings suggest that the external location of the testicles provides the adaptive benefit of protecting spermatogenic cells from heat-induced DNA damage that could otherwise lead to infertility and germline mutation. ### Size The relative size of the testes is often influenced by mating systems. Testicular size as a proportion of body weight varies widely. In the mammalian kingdom, there is a tendency for testicular size to correspond with multiple mates (e.g., harems, polygamy). Production of testicular output sperm and spermatic fluid is also larger in polygamous animals, possibly a spermatogenic competition for survival. The testes of the right whale are likely to be the largest of any animal, each weighing around 500 kg (1,100 lb). Among the Hominidae, gorillas have little female promiscuity and sperm competition and the testes are small compared to body weight (0.03%). Chimpanzees have high promiscuity and large testes compared to body weight (0.3%). Human testicular size falls between these extremes (0.08%). Testis weight also varies in seasonal breeders like red foxes, golden jackals, and coyotes. ### Internal structure Amphibians and most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules. Instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called *sperm ampullae*. These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season, and then being reabsorbed by the body. Before the next breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form and ripen. The ampullae are otherwise essentially identical to the seminiferous tubules in higher vertebrates, including the same range of cell types. Gallery ------- * TesticleTesticle * TesticleTesticle * Testicle hanging on cremaster muscle. These are two healthy testicles. Heat causes them to descend, allowing cooling. Testicle hanging on cremaster muscle. These are two healthy testicles. Heat causes them to descend, allowing cooling. * A healthy scrotum containing normal size testes. The scrotum is in tight condition. The image also shows the texture. A healthy scrotum containing normal size testes. The scrotum is in tight condition. The image also shows the texture. * Testicle of a cat: 1: Extremitas capitata, 2: Extremitas caudata, 3: Margo epididymalis, 4: Margo liber, 5: Mesorchium, 6: Epididymis, 7: testicular artery and vene, 8: Ductus deferensTesticle of a cat: 1: Extremitas capitata, 2: Extremitas caudata, 3: Margo epididymalis, 4: Margo liber, 5: Mesorchium, 6: Epididymis, 7: testicular artery and vene, 8: Ductus deferens * Testis surfaceTestis surface * Testis cross sectionTestis cross section * The right testis, exposed by laying open the tunica vaginalis.The right testis, exposed by laying open the tunica vaginalis. * Microscopic view of Rabbit testis 100×Microscopic view of Rabbit testis 100× * TesticleTesticle See also -------- * Anorchia * Bollocks * Cryptorchidism (cryptorchismus) * Ejaculation * Eunuchs * Gelding * List of homologues of the human reproductive system * Neutering * Perineum * Polyorchidism * Sterilization (surgical procedure), vasectomy * Testicondy * Testicular nubbin

Testicle

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testicle

**Miranda**, also designated **Uranus V**, is the smallest and innermost of Uranus's five round satellites. It was discovered by Gerard Kuiper on 16 February 1948 at McDonald Observatory in Texas, and named after Miranda from William Shakespeare's play *The Tempest*. Like the other large moons of Uranus, Miranda orbits close to its planet's equatorial plane. Because Uranus orbits the Sun on its side, Miranda's orbit is perpendicular to the ecliptic and shares Uranus' extreme seasonal cycle. At just 470 km in diameter, Miranda is one of the smallest closely observed objects in the Solar System that might be in hydrostatic equilibrium (spherical under its own gravity). The only close-up images of Miranda are from the *Voyager 2* probe, which made observations of Miranda during its Uranus flyby in January 1986. During the flyby, Miranda's southern hemisphere pointed towards the Sun, so only that part was studied. Miranda probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation, and, like other large moons, it is likely differentiated, with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice. Miranda has one of the most extreme and varied topographies of any object in the Solar System, including Verona Rupes, a 20-kilometer-high scarp that is the highest cliff in the Solar System, and chevron-shaped tectonic features called *coronae*. The origin and evolution of this varied geology, the most of any Uranian satellite, are still not fully understood, and multiple hypotheses exist regarding Miranda's evolution. Discovery and name ------------------ Miranda was discovered on 16 February 1948 by planetary astronomer Gerard Kuiper using the McDonald Observatory's 82-inch (2,080 mm) Otto Struve Telescope. Its motion around Uranus was confirmed on 1 March 1948. It was the first satellite of Uranus discovered in nearly 100 years. Kuiper elected to name the object "Miranda" after the character in Shakespeare's *The Tempest*, because the four previously discovered moons of Uranus, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon, had all been named after characters of Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. However, the previous moons had been named specifically after fairies, whereas Miranda was a human. Subsequently discovered satellites of Uranus were named after characters from Shakespeare and Pope, whether fairies or not. The moon is also designated **Uranus V**. Orbit ----- Of Uranus's five round satellites, Miranda orbits closest to it, at roughly 129,000 km from the surface; about a quarter again as far as its most distant ring. Its orbital period is 34 hours, and, like that of the Moon, is synchronous with its rotation period, which means it always shows the same face to Uranus, a condition known as tidal locking. Miranda's orbital inclination (4.34°) is unusually high for a body so close to its planet – roughly ten times that of the other major Uranian satellites, and 73 times that of Oberon. The reason for this is still uncertain; there are no mean-motion resonances between the moons that could explain it, leading to the hypothesis that the moons occasionally pass through secondary resonances, which at some point in the past led to Miranda being locked for a time into a 3:1 resonance with Umbriel, before chaotic behaviour induced by the secondary resonances moved it out of it again. In the Uranian system, due to the planet's lesser degree of oblateness and the larger relative size of its satellites, escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier than for satellites of Jupiter or Saturn. Composition and internal structure ---------------------------------- At 1.2 g/cm3, Miranda is the least dense of Uranus's round satellites. That density suggests a composition of more than 60% water ice. Miranda's surface may be mostly water ice, though it is far rockier than its corresponding satellites in the Saturn system, indicating that heat from radioactive decay may have led to internal differentiation, allowing silicate rock and organic compounds to settle in its interior. Miranda is too small for any internal heat to have been retained over the age of the Solar System. Miranda is the least spherical of Uranus's satellites, with an equatorial diameter 3% wider than its polar diameter. Only water has been detected so far on Miranda's surface, though it has been speculated that methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide or nitrogen may also exist at 3% concentrations. These bulk properties are similar to Saturn's moon Mimas, though Mimas is smaller, less dense, and more oblate. Precisely how a body as small as Miranda could have enough internal energy to produce the myriad geological features seen on its surface is not established with certainty, though the currently favoured hypothesis is that it was driven by tidal heating during a past time when it was in 3:1 orbital resonance with Umbriel. The resonance would have increased Miranda's orbital eccentricity to 0.1, and generated tidal friction due to the varying tidal forces from Uranus. As Miranda approached Uranus, tidal force increased; as it retreated, tidal force decreased, causing flexing that would have warmed Miranda's interior by 20 K, enough to trigger melting. The period of tidal flexing could have lasted for up to 100 million years. Also, if clathrate existed within Miranda, as has been hypothesised for the satellites of Uranus, it may have acted as an insulator, since it has a lower conductivity than water, increasing Miranda's temperature still further. Miranda may have also once been in a 5:3 orbital resonance with Ariel, which would have also contributed to its internal heating. However, the maximum heating attributable to the resonance with Umbriel was likely about three times greater. Surface features ---------------- Due to Uranus's near-sideways orientation, only Miranda's southern hemisphere was visible to *Voyager 2* when it arrived. The observed surface has patchwork regions of broken terrain, indicating intense geological activity in Miranda's past, and is criss-crossed by huge canyons, believed to be the result of extensional tectonics; as liquid water froze beneath the surface, it expanded, causing the surface ice to split, creating graben. The canyons are hundreds of kilometers long and tens of kilometers wide. Miranda also has the largest-known cliff in the Solar System, Verona Rupes, which has a height of 20 km (12 mi). Some of Miranda's terrain is possibly less than 100 million years old based on crater counts, while sizeable regions possess crater counts that indicate ancient terrain. While crater counts suggest that the majority of Miranda's surface is old, with a similar geological history to the other Uranian satellites, few of those craters are particularly large, indicating that most must have formed after a major resurfacing event in its distant past. Craters on Miranda also appear to possess softened edges, which could be the result either of ejecta or of cryovolcanism. The temperature at Miranda's south pole is roughly 85 K, a temperature at which pure water ice adopts the properties of rock. Also, the cryovolcanic material responsible for the surfacing is too viscous to have been pure liquid water, but too fluid to have been solid water. Rather, it is believed to have been a viscous, lava-like mixture of water and ammonia, which freezes at 176 K (−97 °C), or perhaps ethanol. Miranda's observed hemisphere contains three giant 'racetrack'-like grooved structures called coronae, each at least 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 20 km (12 mi) deep, named Arden, Elsinore and Inverness after locations in Shakespeare's plays. Inverness is lower in altitude than the surrounding terrain (though domes and ridges are of comparable elevation), while Elsinore is higher. The relative sparsity of craters on their surfaces means they overlay the earlier cratered terrain. The coronae, which are unique to Miranda, initially defied easy explanation; one early hypothesis was that Miranda, at some time in its distant past, (prior to any of the current cratering) had been completely torn to pieces, perhaps by a massive impact, and then reassembled in a random jumble. The heavier core material fell through the crust, and the coronae formed as the water re-froze. However, the current favoured hypothesis is that they formed via extensional processes at the tops of diapirs, or upwellings of warm ice from within Miranda itself. The coronae are surrounded by rings of concentric faults with a similar low-crater count, suggesting they played a role in their formation. If the coronae formed through downwelling from a catastrophic disruption, then the concentric faults would present as compressed. If they formed through upwelling, such as by diapirism, then they would be extensional tilt blocks, and present extensional features, as current evidence suggests they do. The concentric rings would have formed as ice moved away from the heat source. The diapirs may have changed the density distribution within Miranda, which could have caused Miranda to reorient itself, similar to a process believed to have occurred at Saturn's geologically active moon Enceladus. Evidence suggests the reorientation would have been as extreme as 60 degrees from the sub-Uranian point. The positions of all the coronae require a tidal heating pattern consistent with Miranda being solid, and lacking an internal liquid ocean. It is believed through computer modelling that Miranda may have an additional corona on the unimaged hemisphere. Observation and exploration --------------------------- Miranda's apparent magnitude is +16.6, making it invisible to many amateur telescopes. Virtually all known information regarding its geology and geography was obtained during the flyby of Uranus made by *Voyager 2* on 25 January 1986, The closest approach of *Voyager 2* to Miranda was 29,000 km (18,000 mi)—significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons. Of all the Uranian satellites, Miranda had the most visible surface. The discovery team had expected Miranda to resemble Mimas, and found themselves at a loss to explain the moon's unique geography in the 24-hour window before releasing the images to the press. In 2017, as part of its Planetary Science Decadal Survey, NASA evaluated the possibility of an orbiter to return to Uranus some time in the 2020s. Uranus was the preferred destination over Neptune due to favourable planetary alignments meaning shorter flight times. See also -------- * List of geological features on Miranda

Miranda (moon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda_(moon)

The **Quran** (/kʊrˈɑːn/, *kuurr-AHN*; vocalized Arabic: اَلْقُرْآنُ‎, Quranic Arabic: ٱلۡقُرۡءَانُ‎ *al-Qurʾān* [alqurˈʔaːn], 'the recitation'), also romanized **Qur'an** or **Koran**, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation from God. It is organized in 114 chapters (pl.: سور *suwar*, sing.: سورة *sūrah*), which consist of verses (pl.: آيات *ʾāyāt*, sing.: آية *ʾāyah*, cons.: *ʾāyat*). In addition to its religious significance, it is widely regarded as the finest work in Arabic literature, and has significantly influenced the Arabic language. Muslims believe that the Quran was orally revealed by God to the final prophet, Muhammad, through the archangel Gabriel incrementally over a period of some 23 years, beginning on Laylat Al Qadr, when Muhammad was 40; and concluding in 632, the year of his death. Muslims regard the Quran as Muhammad's most important miracle, a proof of his prophethood; and the culmination of a series of divine messages starting with those revealed to Adam, including the Tawrat, the Zabur (Psalms) and the Injil (Gospel). The word *Quran* occurs some 70 times in the text itself, and other names and words are also said to refer to the Quran. The Quran is believed by Muslims to be not simply divinely inspired, but the literal word of God. Muhammad did not write it as he did not know how to write. In Muslim theology, the Qur'an is considered to be either "created" or "uncreated". According to tradition, several of Muhammad's companions served as scribes, recording the revelations. Shortly after the prophet's death, the Quran was compiled by the companions, who had written down or memorized parts of it. Caliph Uthman established a standard version, now known as the Uthmanic codex, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today. There are, however, variant readings, with mostly minor differences in meaning. The Quran assumes familiarity with major narratives recounted in the Biblical and apocryphal scriptures. It summarizes some, dwells at length on others and, in some cases, presents alternative accounts and interpretations of events. The Quran describes itself as a book of guidance for humankind ( 2:185 ). It sometimes offers detailed accounts of specific historical events, and it often emphasizes the moral significance of an event over its narrative sequence. Supplementing the Quran with explanations for some cryptic Quranic narratives, and rulings that also provide the basis for Islamic law in most denominations of Islam, are *hadiths*—oral and written traditions believed to describe words and actions of Muhammad. During prayers, the Quran is recited only in Arabic. Someone who has memorized the entire Quran is called a *hafiz*. Ideally, verses are recited with a special kind of prosody reserved for this purpose, called *tajwid*. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims typically complete the recitation of the whole Quran during *tarawih* prayers. In order to extrapolate the meaning of a particular Quranic verse, Muslims rely on exegesis, or commentary rather than a direct translation of the text. Etymology and meaning --------------------- The word *qurʼān* appears about 70 times in the Quran itself, assuming various meanings. It is a verbal noun (*maṣdar*) of the Arabic verb *qaraʼa* (قرأ) meaning 'he read' or 'he recited'. The Syriac equivalent is *qeryānā* (ܩܪܝܢܐ), which refers to 'scripture reading' or 'lesson'. While some Western scholars consider the word to be derived from the Syriac, the majority of Muslim authorities hold the origin of the word is *qaraʼa* itself. Regardless, it had become an Arabic term by Muhammad's lifetime. An important meaning of the word is the 'act of reciting', as reflected in an early Quranic passage: "It is for Us to collect it and to recite it (*qurʼānahu*)." In other verses, the word refers to 'an individual passage recited [by Muhammad]'. Its liturgical context is seen in a number of passages, for example: *"So when al-qurʼān is recited, listen to it and keep silent."* The word may also assume the meaning of a codified scripture when mentioned with other scriptures such as the Torah and Gospel. The term also has closely related synonyms that are employed throughout the Quran. Each synonym possesses its own distinct meaning, but its use may converge with that of *qurʼān* in certain contexts. Such terms include *kitāb* ('book'), *āyah* ('sign'), and *sūrah* ('scripture'); the latter two terms also denote units of revelation. In the large majority of contexts, usually with a definite article (*al-*), the word is referred to as the *waḥy* ('revelation'), that which has been "sent down" (*tanzīl*) at intervals. Other related words include: *dhikr* ('remembrance'), used to refer to the Quran in the sense of a reminder and warning; and *ḥikmah* ('wisdom'), sometimes referring to the revelation or part of it. The Quran describes itself as 'the discernment' (*al-furqān*), 'the mother book' (*umm al-kitāb*), 'the guide' (*huda*), 'the wisdom' (*hikmah*), 'the remembrance' (*dhikr*), and 'the revelation' (*tanzīl*; 'something sent down', signifying the descent of an object from a higher place to lower place). Another term is *al-kitāb* ('The Book'), though it is also used in the Arabic language for other scriptures, such as the Torah and the Gospels. The term *mus'haf* ('written work') is often used to refer to particular Quranic manuscripts but is also used in the Quran to identify earlier revealed books. History ------- ### Prophetic era Islamic tradition relates that Muhammad received his first revelation in the Cave of Hira during one of his isolated retreats to the mountains. Thereafter, he received revelations over a period of 23 years. According to *hadith* and Muslim history, after Muhammad immigrated to Medina and formed an independent Muslim community, he ordered many of his companions to recite the Quran and to learn and teach the laws, which were revealed daily. It is related that some of the Quraysh who were taken prisoners at the Battle of Badr regained their freedom after they had taught some of the Muslims the simple writing of the time. Thus a group of Muslims gradually became literate. As it was initially spoken, the Quran was recorded on tablets, bones, and the wide, flat ends of date palm fronds. Most suras were in use amongst early Muslims since they are mentioned in numerous sayings by both Sunni and Shia sources, relating Muhammad's use of the Quran as a call to Islam, the making of prayer and the manner of recitation. However, the Quran did not exist in book form at the time of Muhammad's death in 632. There is agreement among scholars that Muhammad himself did not write down the revelation. *Sahih al-Bukhari* narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)." Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power," the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the *Encyclopaedia of Islam* that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood. The Quran describes Muhammad as "*ummi*," which is traditionally interpreted as 'illiterate', but the meaning is rather more complex. Medieval commentators such as Al-Tabari maintained that the term induced two meanings: first, the inability to read or write in general; second, the inexperience or ignorance of the previous books or scriptures (but they gave priority to the first meaning). Muhammad's illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. For example, according to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, if Muhammad had mastered writing and reading he possibly would have been suspected of having studied the books of the ancestors. Some scholars such as Watt prefer the second meaning of *ummi*—they take it to indicate unfamiliarity with earlier sacred texts. The final verse of the Quran was revealed on the 18th of the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the year 10 A.H., a date that roughly corresponds to February or March 632. The verse was revealed after the Prophet finished delivering his sermon at Ghadir Khumm. ### Compilation and preservation Following Muhammad's death in 632, a number of his companions who knew the Quran by heart were killed in the Battle of Yamama by Musaylimah. The first caliph, Abu Bakr (d. 634), subsequently decided to collect the book in one volume so that it could be preserved. Zayd ibn Thabit (d. 655) was the person to collect the Quran since "he used to write the Divine Inspiration for Allah's Apostle". Thus, a group of scribes, most importantly Zayd, collected the verses and produced a hand-written manuscript of the complete book. The manuscript according to Zayd remained with Abu Bakr until he died. Zayd's reaction to the task and the difficulties in collecting the Quranic material from parchments, palm-leaf stalks, thin stones (collectively known as *suhuf*)[*ambiguous*] and from men who knew it by heart is recorded in earlier narratives. In 644, Muhammad's widow Hafsa bint Umar was entrusted with the manuscript until the third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, requested the standard copy from her. In about 650, Uthman (d. 656) began noticing slight differences in pronunciation of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula into Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd to use Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standard text of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form.[*anachronism*] That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, and other versions are believed to have been destroyed. The present form of the Quran text is accepted by Muslim scholars to be the original version compiled by Abu Bakr. According to Shia, Ali ibn Abi Talib (d. 661) compiled a complete version of the Quran shortly after Muhammad's death. The order of this text differed from that gathered later during Uthman's era in that this version had been collected in chronological order. Despite this, he made no objection against the standardized Quran and accepted the Quran in circulation. Other personal copies of the Quran might have existed including Ibn Mas'ud's and Ubay ibn Ka'b's codex, none of which exist today. The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development. University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that: > [T]here was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission.… After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established. > > Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject. In 1972, in a mosque in the city of Sana'a, Yemen, manuscripts were discovered that were later proved to be the most ancient Quranic text known to exist at the time. The Sana'a manuscripts contain palimpsests, a manuscript page from which the text has been washed off to make the parchment reusable again—a practice which was common in ancient times due to the scarcity of writing material. However, the faint washed-off underlying text (*scriptio inferior*) is still barely visible and believed to be "pre-Uthmanic" Quranic content, while the text written on top (*scriptio superior*) is believed to belong to Uthmanic times. Studies using radiocarbon dating indicate that the parchments are dated to the period before 671 CE with a 99 percent probability. The German scholar Gerd R. Puin has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to the early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were palimpsests which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an evolving text as opposed to a fixed one. In 2015, fragments of a very early Quran, dating back to 1370 years earlier, were discovered in the library of the University of Birmingham, England. According to the tests carried out by the Oxford University Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, "with a probability of more than 95%, the parchment was from between 568 and 645". The manuscript is written in Hijazi script, an early form of written Arabic. This is possibly the earliest extant exemplar of the Quran, but as the tests allow a range of possible dates, it cannot be said with certainty which of the existing versions is the oldest. Saudi scholar Saud al-Sarhan has expressed doubt over the age of the fragments as they contain dots and chapter separators that are believed to have originated later. However Joseph E. B. Lumbard of Brandeis University has written in the *Huffington Post* in support of the dates proposed by the Birmingham scholars. Lumbard notes that the discovery of a Quranic text that may be confirmed by radiocarbon dating as having been written in the first decades of the Islamic era, while presenting a text substantially in conformity with that traditionally accepted, reinforces a growing academic consensus that many Western skeptical and 'revisionist' theories of Quranic origins are now untenable in the light of empirical findings—whereas, on the other hand, counterpart accounts of Quranic origins within classical Islamic traditions stand up well in the light of ongoing scientific discoveries. Significance in Islam --------------------- Muslims believe the Quran to be God's final revelation to humanity, a work of divine guidance revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. Revered by pious Muslims as "the holy of holies," whose sound moves some to "tears and ecstasy", it is the physical symbol of the faith, the text often used as a charm on occasions of birth, death, marriage. Consequently, > It must never rest beneath other books, but always on top of them, one must never drink or smoke when it is being read aloud, and it must be listened to in silence. It is a talisman against disease and disaster. > > Traditionally great emphasis was put on children memorizing the 6,200+ verses of the Quran, those succeeding being honored with the title Hafiz. "Millions and millions" of Muslims "refer to the Koran daily to explain their actions and to justify their aspirations," and in recent years many consider it the source of scientific knowledge. Revelation in Islamic and Quranic contexts means the act of God addressing an individual, conveying a message for a greater number of recipients. The process by which the divine message comes to the heart of a messenger of God is *tanzil* ('to send down') or *nuzūl* ('to come down'). As the Quran says, "With the truth we (God) have sent it down and with the truth it has come down." The Quran frequently asserts in its text that it is divinely ordained. Some verses in the Quran seem to imply that even those who do not speak Arabic would understand the Quran if it were recited to them. The Quran refers to a written pre-text, "the preserved tablet," that records God's speech even before it was sent down. Muslims believe that the present wording of the Quran corresponds to that revealed to Muhammad, and according to their interpretation of Quran 15:9, it is protected from corruption ("Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be its guardian."). Muslims consider the Quran to be a guide, a sign of the prophethood of Muhammad and the truth of the religion. The Shīa believe that the Quran was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime, rather than being compiled by Uthman ibn Affan. There are other differences in the way Shias interpret the text. Muslims do not agree over whether the Quran was created by God or is eternal and "uncreated." Sunnis (who make up about 85–90% of Muslims) hold that the Quran is uncreated—a doctrine that has been unchallenged among them for many centuries. Shia Twelvers and Zaydi, and the Kharijites—believe the Quran was created. Sufi philosophers view the question as artificial or wrongly framed.[*need quotation to verify*] ### Inimitability Inimitability of the Quran (or "*I'jaz*") is the belief that no human speech can match the Quran in its content and form. The Quran is considered an inimitable miracle by Muslims, effective until the Day of Resurrection—and, thereby, the central proof granted to Muhammad in authentication of his prophetic status. The concept of inimitability originates in the Quran where in five different verses opponents are challenged to produce something like the Quran: "If men and jinn banded together to produce the like of this Quran they would never produce its like not though they backed one another." From the ninth century, numerous works appeared which studied the Quran and examined its style and content. Medieval Muslim scholars including al-Jurjani (d. 1078) and al-Baqillani (d. 1013) have written treatises on the subject, discussed its various aspects, and used linguistic approaches to study the Quran. Others argue that the Quran contains noble ideas, has inner meanings, maintained its freshness through the ages and has caused great transformations at the individual level and in history. Some scholars state that the Quran contains scientific information that agrees with modern science. The doctrine of the miraculousness of the Quran is further emphasized by Muhammad's illiteracy since the unlettered prophet could not have been suspected of composing the Quran. ### In worship The first surah of the Quran is repeated in daily prayers and on other occasions. This surah, which consists of seven verses, is the most often recited surah of the Quran: | | | | --- | --- | | بِسْمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ ٱلْحَمْدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلْعَٰلَمِينَ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ مَٰلِكِ يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ ٱهْدِنَا ٱلصِّرَٰطَ ٱلْمُسْتَقِيمَ صِرَٰطَ ٱلَّذِينَ أَنْعَمْتَ عَلَيْهِمْ لا٥ غَيْرِ ٱلْمَغْضُوبِ عَلَيْهِمْ وَلَا ٱلضَّآلِّينَ‎ | In the Name of Allah the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful. [All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the worlds — The Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful, Sovereign of the Day of Recompense. It is You we worship and You we ask for help Guide us to the straight path— The path of those upon whom You have bestowed favor, not of those who have evoked [Your] anger or of those who are astray. | | — Quran 1:1-7 | —*Sahih International* English translation | Other sections of the Quran of choice are also read in daily prayers. Respect for the written text of the Quran is an important element of religious faith by many Muslims, and the Quran is treated with reverence. Based on tradition and a literal interpretation of Quran 56:79 ("none shall touch but those who are clean"), some Muslims believe that they must perform a ritual cleansing with water (wudu or ghusl) before touching a copy of the Quran, although this view is not universal. Worn-out copies of the Quran are wrapped in a cloth and stored indefinitely in a safe place, buried in a mosque or a Muslim cemetery, or burned and the ashes buried or scattered over water. In Islam, most intellectual disciplines, including Islamic theology, philosophy, mysticism and jurisprudence, have been concerned with the Quran or have their foundation in its teachings. Muslims believe that the preaching or reading of the Quran is rewarded with divine rewards variously called *ajr*, *thawab*, or *hasanat*. ### In Islamic art The Quran also inspired Islamic arts and specifically the so-called Quranic arts of calligraphy and illumination. The Quran is never decorated with figurative images, but many Qurans have been highly decorated with decorative patterns in the margins of the page, or between the lines or at the start of suras. Islamic verses appear in many other media, on buildings and on objects of all sizes, such as mosque lamps, metal work, pottery and single pages of calligraphy for muraqqas or albums. * Calligraphy, 18th century. Brooklyn Museum.Calligraphy, 18th century. Brooklyn Museum. * Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India.Quranic inscriptions, Bara Gumbad mosque, Delhi, India. * Typical mosque lamp, of enamelled glass, with the Ayat an-Nur or "Verse of Light" (24:35).Typical mosque lamp, of enamelled glass, with the *Ayat an-Nur* or "Verse of Light" (24:35). * Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan.Quranic verses, Shahizinda mausoleum, Samarkand, Uzbekistan. * Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period.Quran page decoration art, Ottoman period. * The leaves from this Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink have a horizontal format. This is admirably suited to classical Kufic calligraphy, which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs.The leaves from this Quran written in gold and contoured with brown ink have a horizontal format. This is admirably suited to classical Kufic calligraphy, which became common under the early Abbasid caliphs. * Manuscript of the Quran at the Brooklyn MuseumManuscript of the Quran at the Brooklyn Museum Text and arrangement -------------------- The Quran consists of 114 chapters of varying lengths, each known as a *sūrah*. Chapters are classified as Meccan or Medinan, depending on whether the verses were revealed before or after the migration of Muhammad to the city of Medina. However, a sūrah classified as Medinan may contain Meccan verses in it and vice versa. Sūrah titles are derived from a name or quality discussed in the text, or from the first letters or words of the sūrah. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order, rather the chapters appear to be arranged roughly in order of decreasing size. Some scholars argue the sūrahs are arranged according to a certain pattern. Each sūrah except the ninth starts with the *Bismillah* (بِسْمِ ٱللَّٰهِ ٱلرَّحْمَٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ‎), an Arabic phrase meaning 'In the name of God.' There are, however, still 114 occurrences of the *Bismillah* in the Quran, due to its presence in Quran 27:30 as the opening of Solomon's letter to the Queen of Sheba. Each sūrah consists of several verses, known as *āyāt*, which originally means a 'sign' or 'evidence' sent by God. The number of verses differs from sūrah to sūrah. An individual verse may be just a few letters or several lines. The total number of verses in the most popular Hafs Quran is 6,236; however, the number varies if the *bismillahs* are counted separately. In addition to and independent of the division into chapters, there are various ways of dividing the Quran into parts of approximately equal length for convenience in reading. The 30 *juz'* (plural *ajzāʼ*) can be used to read through the entire Quran in a month. Some of these parts are known by names—which are the first few words by which the *juzʼ* begins. A *juz'* is sometimes further divided into two *ḥizb* (plural *aḥzāb*), and each *hizb* subdivided into four *rubʻ al-ahzab*. The Quran is also divided into seven approximately equal parts, *manzil* (plural *manāzil*), for it to be recited in a week. A different structure is provided by semantic units resembling paragraphs and comprising roughly ten *āyāt* each. Such a section is called a *rukū`*. The *Muqattaʿat* (Arabic: حروف مقطعات *ḥurūf muqaṭṭaʿāt*, 'disjoined letters, disconnected letters'; also 'mysterious letters') are combinations of between one and five Arabic letters figuring at the beginning of 29 out of the 114 chapters of the Quran just after the basmala. The letters are also known as *fawātih* (فواتح), or 'openers', as they form the opening verse of their respective suras. Four surahs are named for their *muqatta'at*: *Ṭāʾ-Hāʾ*, *Yāʾ-Sīn*, *Ṣād*, and *Qāf*. The original significance of the letters is unknown. *Tafsir* (exegesis) has interpreted them as abbreviations for either names or qualities of God or for the names or content of the respective surahs. According to Rashad Khalifa, those letters are Quranic initials for a hypothetical mathematical code in the Quran, namely the Quran code or known as Code 19. According to one estimate the Quran consists of 77,430 words, 18,994 unique words, 12,183 stems, 3,382 lemmas and 1,685 roots. Contents -------- The Quranic content is concerned with basic Islamic beliefs including the existence of God and the resurrection. Narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer also appear in the Quran. The Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong and historical events are related to outline general moral lessons. Verses pertaining to natural phenomena have been interpreted by Muslims as an indication of the authenticity of the Quranic message. The style of the Quran has been called "allusive," with commentaries needed to explain what is being referred to—"events are referred to, but not narrated; disagreements are debated without being explained; people and places are mentioned, but rarely named." ### Monotheism The central theme of the Quran is monotheism. God is depicted as living, eternal, omniscient and omnipotent (see, e.g., Quran 2:20, 2:29, 2:255). God's omnipotence appears above all in his power to create. He is the creator of everything, of the heavens and the earth and what is between them (see, e.g., Quran 13:16, 2:253, 50:38, etc.). All human beings are equal in their utter dependence upon God, and their well-being depends upon their acknowledging that fact and living accordingly. The Quran uses cosmological and contingency arguments in various verses without referring to the terms to prove the existence of God. Therefore, the universe is originated and needs an originator, and whatever exists must have a sufficient cause for its existence. Besides, the design of the universe is frequently referred to as a point of contemplation: "It is He who has created seven heavens in harmony. You cannot see any fault in God's creation; then look again: Can you see any flaw?" ### Eschatology The doctrine of the last day and eschatology (the final fate of the universe) may be considered the second great doctrine of the Quran. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the Quran is eschatological, dealing with the afterlife in the next world and with the day of judgment at the end of time. There is a reference to the afterlife on most pages of the Quran and belief in the afterlife is often referred to in conjunction with belief in God as in the common expression: "Believe in God and the last day." A number of suras such as 44, 56, 75, 78, 81 and 101 are directly related to the afterlife and its preparations. Some suras indicate the closeness of the event and warn people to be prepared for the imminent day. For instance, the first verses of Sura 22, which deal with the mighty earthquake and the situations of people on that day, represent this style of divine address: "O People! Be respectful to your Lord. The earthquake of the Hour is a mighty thing." The Quran is often vivid in its depiction of what will happen at the end time. Watt describes the Quranic view of End Time: > The climax of history, when the present world comes to an end, is referred to in various ways. It is 'the Day of Judgment,' 'the Last Day,' 'the Day of Resurrection,' or simply 'the Hour.' Less frequently it is 'the Day of Distinction' (when the good are separated from the evil), 'the Day of the Gathering' (of men to the presence of God) or 'the Day of the Meeting' (of men with God). The Hour comes suddenly. It is heralded by a shout, by a thunderclap, or by the blast of a trumpet. A cosmic upheaval then takes place. The mountains dissolve into dust, the seas boil up, the sun is darkened, the stars fall and the sky is rolled up. God appears as Judge, but his presence is hinted at rather than described.… The central interest, of course, is in the gathering of all mankind before the Judge. Human beings of all ages, restored to life, join the throng. To the scoffing objection of the unbelievers that former generations had been dead a long time and were now dust and mouldering bones, the reply is that God is nevertheless able to restore them to life. > > The Quran does not assert a natural immortality of the human soul, since man's existence is dependent on the will of God: when he wills, he causes man to die; and when he wills, he raises him to life again in a bodily resurrection. ### Prophets According to the Quran, God communicated with man and made his will known through signs and revelations. Prophets, or 'Messengers of God', received revelations and delivered them to humanity. The message has been identical and for all humankind. "Nothing is said to you that was not said to the messengers before you, that your lord has at his Command forgiveness as well as a most Grievous Penalty." The revelation does not come directly from God to the prophets. Angels acting as God's messengers deliver the divine revelation to them. This comes out in Quran 42:51, in which it is stated: "It is not for any mortal that God should speak to them, except by revelation, or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger to reveal by his permission whatsoever He will." ### Ethico-religious concepts Belief is a fundamental aspect of morality in the Quran, and scholars have tried to determine the semantic contents of "belief" and "believer" in the Quran. The ethico-legal concepts and exhortations dealing with righteous conduct are linked to a profound awareness of God, thereby emphasizing the importance of faith, accountability, and the belief in each human's ultimate encounter with God. People are invited to perform acts of charity, especially for the needy. Believers who "spend of their wealth by night and by day, in secret and in public" are promised that they "shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve." It also affirms family life by legislating on matters of marriage, divorce, and inheritance. A number of practices, such as usury and gambling, are prohibited. The Quran is one of the fundamental sources of Islamic law (*sharia*). Some formal religious practices receive significant attention in the Quran including the formal prayers (*salat*) and fasting in the month of Ramadan. As for the manner in which the prayer is to be conducted, the Quran refers to prostration. The term for charity, *zakat*, literally means purification. Charity, according to the Quran, is a means of self-purification. ### Encouragement for the sciences The astrophysicist Nidhal Guessoum, while being highly critical of pseudo-scientific claims made about the Quran, has highlighted the encouragement for sciences that the Quran provides by developing "the concept of knowledge." He writes: > The Qur'an draws attention to the danger of conjecturing without evidence (*And follow not that of which you have not the (certain) knowledge of...* 17:36) and in several different verses asks Muslims to require proofs (*Say: Bring your proof if you are truthful* 2:111), both in matters of theological belief and in natural science. > > Guessoum cites Ghaleb Hasan on the definition of "proof" according to the Quran being "clear and strong... convincing evidence or argument." Also, such a proof cannot rely on an argument from authority, citing verse 5:104. Lastly, both assertions and rejections require a proof, according to verse 4:174. Ismail al-Faruqi and Taha Jabir Alalwani are of the view that any reawakening of the Muslim civilization must start with the Quran; however, the biggest obstacle on this route is the "centuries old heritage of tafseer (exegesis) and other classical disciplines" which inhibit a "universal, epidemiological and systematic conception" of the Quran's message. The philosopher Muhammad Iqbal, considered the Quran's methodology and epistemology to be empirical and rational. There are around 750 verses[*which?*] in the Quran dealing with natural phenomena. In many of these verses the study of nature is *"encouraged and highly recommended"*, and historical Islamic scientists like Al-Biruni and Al-Battani derived their inspiration from verses of the Quran. Mohammad Hashim Kamali has stated that "scientific observation, experimental knowledge and rationality" are the primary tools with which humanity can achieve the goals laid out for it in the Quran. Ziauddin Sardar built a case for Muslims having developed the foundations of modern science, by highlighting the repeated calls of the Quran to observe and reflect upon natural phenomenon. The physicist Abdus Salam, in his Nobel Prize banquet address, quoted a well known verse from the Quran (67:3–4) and then stated: "This in effect is the faith of all physicists: the deeper we seek, the more is our wonder excited, the more is the dazzlement of our gaze." One of Salam's core beliefs was that there is no contradiction between Islam and the discoveries that science allows humanity to make about nature and the universe. Salam also held the opinion that the Quran and the Islamic spirit of study and rational reflection was the source of extraordinary civilizational development. Salam highlights, in particular, the work of Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni as the pioneers of empiricism who introduced the experimental approach, breaking with Aristotle's influence and thus giving birth to modern science. Salam was also careful to differentiate between metaphysics and physics, and advised against empirically probing certain matters on which "physics is silent and will remain so," such as the doctrine of "creation from nothing" which in Salam's view is outside the limits of science and thus "gives way" to religious considerations. Literary style -------------- The Quran's message is conveyed with various literary structures and devices. In the original Arabic, the suras and verses employ phonetic and thematic structures that assist the audience's efforts to recall the message of the text. Muslims[*who?*] assert (according to the Quran itself) that the Quranic content and style is inimitable. The language of the Quran has been described as "rhymed prose" as it partakes of both poetry and prose; however, this description runs the risk of failing to convey the rhythmic quality of Quranic language, which is more poetic in some parts and more prose-like in others. Rhyme, while found throughout the Quran, is conspicuous in many of the earlier Meccan suras, in which relatively short verses throw the rhyming words into prominence. The effectiveness of such a form is evident for instance in Sura 81, and there can be no doubt that these passages impressed the conscience of the hearers. Frequently a change of rhyme from one set of verses to another signals a change in the subject of discussion. Later sections also preserve this form but the style is more expository. The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end, its nonlinear structure being akin to a web or net. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order and repetitiousness. Michael Sells, citing the work of the critic Norman O. Brown, acknowledges Brown's observation that the seeming disorganization of Quranic literary expression—its scattered or fragmented mode of composition in Sells's phrase—is in fact a literary device capable of delivering profound effects as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the much-discussed repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device. A text is self-referential when it speaks about itself and makes reference to itself. According to Stefan Wild, the Quran demonstrates this metatextuality by explaining, classifying, interpreting and justifying the words to be transmitted. Self-referentiality is evident in those passages where the Quran refers to itself as revelation (*tanzil*), remembrance (*dhikr*), news (*naba'*), criterion (*furqan*) in a self-designating manner (explicitly asserting its Divinity, "And this is a blessed Remembrance that We have sent down; so are you now denying it?"), or in the frequent appearance of the "Say" tags, when Muhammad is commanded to speak (e.g., "Say: 'God's guidance is the true guidance'," "Say: 'Would you then dispute with us concerning God?'"). According to Wild the Quran is highly self-referential. The feature is more evident in early Meccan suras. Interpretation -------------- The Quran has sparked much commentary and explication (*tafsir*), aimed at explaining the "meanings of the Quranic verses, clarifying their import and finding out their significance." Tafsir is one of the earliest academic activities of Muslims. According to the Quran, Muhammad was the first person who described the meanings of verses for early Muslims. Other early exegetes included a few Companions of Muhammad, such as Abu Bakr, 'Umar ibn al-Khattab, 'Uthman ibn 'Affan, ʻAli ibn Abi Talib, 'Abdullah ibn Mas'ood, ʻAbdullah ibn Abbas, Ubayy ibn Kaʻb, Zayd ibn Thaabit, Abu Moosaa al-Ash’ari, and ‘Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr. Exegesis in those days was confined to the explanation of literary aspects of the verse, the background of its revelation and, occasionally, interpretation of one verse with the help of the other. If the verse was about a historical event, then sometimes a few traditions (*hadith*) of Muhammad were narrated to make its meaning clear. Because the Quran is spoken in classical Arabic, many of the later converts to Islam (mostly non-Arabs) did not always understand the Quranic Arabic, they did not catch allusions that were clear to early Muslims fluent in Arabic and they were concerned with reconciling apparent conflict of themes in the Quran. Commentators erudite in Arabic explained the allusions, and perhaps most importantly, explained which Quranic verses had been revealed early in Muhammad's prophetic career, as being appropriate to the very earliest Muslim community, and which had been revealed later, canceling out or "abrogating" (*nāsikh*) the earlier text (*mansūkh*). Other scholars, however, maintain that no abrogation has taken place in the Quran. There have been several commentaries of the Quran by scholars of all denominations, popular ones include Tafsir ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Jalalayn, Tafsir Al Kabir, Tafsir al-Tabari. More modern works of Tafsir include Ma'ariful Qur'an written by Mufti Muhammad Shafi and Risale-i Nur by Bediüzzaman Said Nursi. ### Esoteric interpretation Esoteric or Sufi interpretation attempts to unveil the inner meanings of the Quran. Sufism moves beyond the apparent (*zahir*) point of the verses and instead relates Quranic verses to the inner or esoteric (*batin*) and metaphysical dimensions of consciousness and existence. According to Sands, esoteric interpretations are more suggestive than declarative, they are allusions (*isharat*) rather than explanations (*tafsir*). They indicate possibilities as much as they demonstrate the insights of each writer. Sufi interpretation, according to Annabel Keeler, also exemplifies the use of the theme of love, as for instance can be seen in Qushayri's interpretation of the Quran: > When Moses came at the appointed time and his Lord spoke to him, he asked, "My Lord! Reveal Yourself to me so I may see You." Allah answered, "You cannot see Me! But look at the mountain. If it remains firm in its place, only then will you see Me." When his Lord appeared to the mountain, He levelled it to dust and Moses collapsed unconscious. When he recovered, he cried, "Glory be to You! I turn to You in repentance and I am the first of the believers." > > —  Quran 7:143 Moses, in 7:143, comes the way of those who are in love, he asks for a vision but his desire is denied, he is made to suffer by being commanded to look at other than the Beloved while the mountain is able to see God. The mountain crumbles and Moses faints at the sight of God's manifestation upon the mountain. In Qushayri's words, Moses came like thousands of men who traveled great distances, and there was nothing left to Moses of Moses. In that state of annihilation from himself, Moses was granted the unveiling of the realities. From the Sufi point of view, God is the always the beloved and the wayfarer's longing and suffering lead to realization of the truths. Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, *ta'wil* indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (*tanzil*), as opposed to *ta'wil*, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of *ta'wil*, which originally meant 'to return' or 'the returning place'. In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called *ta'wil*, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to. According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent. According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable *ta'wil* refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable *ta'wil* is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable *ta'wil* has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea. #### History of Sufi commentaries One of the notable authors of esoteric interpretation prior to the 12th century is Sulami (d. 1021) without whose work the majority of very early Sufi commentaries would not have been preserved. Sulami's major commentary is a book named *Haqaiq al-Tafsir* ('Truths of Exegesis') which is a compilation of commentaries of earlier Sufis. From the 11th century onwards several other works appear, including commentaries by Qushayri (d. 1074), Daylami (d. 1193), Shirazi (d. 1209) and Suhrawardi (d. 1234). These works include material from Sulami's books plus the author's contributions. Many works are written in Persian such as the works of Maybudi (d. 1135) *kashf al-asrar* ('the unveiling of the secrets'). Rumi (d. 1273) wrote a vast amount of mystical poetry in his book *Mathnawi*. Rumi makes heavy use of the Quran in his poetry, a feature that is sometimes omitted in translations of Rumi's work. A large number of Quranic passages can be found in *Mathnawi*, which some consider a kind of Sufi interpretation of the Quran. Rumi's book is not exceptional for containing citations from and elaboration on the Quran, however, Rumi does mention Quran more frequently. Simnani (d. 1336) wrote two influential works of esoteric exegesis on the Quran. He reconciled notions of God's manifestation through and in the physical world with the sentiments of Sunni Islam. Comprehensive Sufi commentaries appear in the 18th century such as the work of Ismail Hakki Bursevi (d. 1725). His work *ruh al-Bayan* ('the Spirit of Elucidation') is a voluminous exegesis. Written in Arabic, it combines the author's own ideas with those of his predecessors (notably Ibn Arabi and Ghazali). ### Levels of meaning Unlike the Salafis and Zahiri, Shias and Sufis as well as some other Muslim philosophers believe the meaning of the Quran is not restricted to the literal aspect. For them, it is an essential idea that the Quran also has inward aspects. Henry Corbin narrates a *hadith* that goes back to Muhammad: > The Quran possesses an external appearance and a hidden depth, an exoteric meaning and an esoteric meaning. This esoteric meaning in turn conceals an esoteric meaning (this depth possesses a depth, after the image of the celestial Spheres, which are enclosed within each other). So it goes on for seven esoteric meanings (seven depths of hidden depth). > > According to this view, it has also become evident that the inner meaning of the Quran does not eradicate or invalidate its outward meaning. Rather, it is like the soul, which gives life to the body. Corbin considers the Quran to play a part in Islamic philosophy, because gnosiology itself goes hand in hand with prophetology. Commentaries dealing with the *zahir* ('outward aspects') of the text are called *tafsir*, and hermeneutic and esoteric commentaries dealing with the *batin* are called *ta'wil* ('interpretation' or 'explanation'), which involves taking the text back to its beginning. Commentators with an esoteric slant believe that the ultimate meaning of the Quran is known only to God. In contrast, Quranic literalism, followed by Salafis and Zahiris, is the belief that the Quran should only be taken at its apparent meaning. ### Reappropriation Reappropriation is the name of the hermeneutical style of some ex-Muslims who have converted to Christianity. Their style or reinterpretation can sometimes be geared towards apologetics, with less reference to the Islamic scholarly tradition that contextualizes and systematizes the reading (e.g., by identifying some verses as abrogated). This tradition of interpretation draws on the following practices: grammatical renegotiation, renegotiation of textual preference, retrieval, and concession. Translations ------------ Translating the Quran has always been problematic and difficult. Many argue that the Quranic text cannot be reproduced in another language or form. Furthermore, an Arabic word may have a range of meanings depending on the context, making an accurate translation even more difficult. Nevertheless, the Quran has been translated into most African, Asian, and European languages. The first translator of the Quran was Salman the Persian, who translated surat *al-Fatiha* into Persian during the seventh century. Another translation of the Quran was completed in 884 in Alwar (Sindh, India, now Pakistan) by the orders of Abdullah bin Umar bin Abdul Aziz on the request of the Hindu Raja Mehruk. The first fully attested complete translations of the Quran were done between the 10th and 12th centuries in Persian. The Samanid king, Mansur I (961–976), ordered a group of scholars from Khorasan to translate the Tafsir al-Tabari, originally in Arabic, into Persian. Later in the 11th century, one of the students of Abu Mansur Abdullah al-Ansari wrote a complete *tafsir* of the Quran in Persian. In the 12th century, Najm al-Din Abu Hafs al-Nasafi translated the Quran into Persian. The manuscripts of all three books have survived and have been published several times. Islamic tradition also holds that translations were made for Emperor Negus of Abyssinia and Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, as both received letters by Muhammad containing verses from the Quran. In early centuries, the permissibility of translations was not an issue, but whether one could use translations in prayer. In 1936, translations in 102 languages were known. In 2010, the *Hürriyet Daily News and Economic Review* reported that the Quran was presented in 112 languages at the 18th International Quran Exhibition in Tehran. Robert of Ketton's 1143 translation of the Quran for Peter the Venerable, *Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete*, was the first into a Western language (Latin). Alexander Ross offered the first English version in 1649, from the French translation of *L'Alcoran de Mahomet* (1647) by Andre du Ryer. In 1734, George Sale produced the first scholarly translation of the Quran into English; another was produced by Richard Bell in 1937, and yet another by Arthur John Arberry in 1955. All these translators were non-Muslims. There have been numerous translations by Muslims. Popular modern English translations by Muslims include The Oxford World Classic's translation by Muhammad Abdel Haleem, The Clear Quran by Mustafa Khattab, Sahih International's translation, among various others. As with translations of the Bible, the English translators have sometimes favored archaic English words and constructions over their more modern or conventional equivalents; for example, two widely read translators, Abdullah Yusuf Ali and Marmaduke Pickthall, use the plural and singular *ye* and *thou* instead of the more common *you*. The oldest Gurmukhi translation of the Quran Sharif has been found in village Lande of Moga district of Punjab which was printed in 1911. * 1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script.1091 Quranic text in bold script with Persian translation and commentary in a lighter script. * Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era.Arabic Quran with interlinear Persian translation from the Ilkhanid Era. * The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: L'Alcoran de Mahomet, André du Ryer, 1647.The first printed Quran in a European vernacular language: *L'Alcoran de Mahomet*, André du Ryer, 1647. * Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran.Title page of the first German translation (1772) of the Quran. * Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran.Verses 33 and 34 of surat Yā Sīn in this Chinese translation of the Quran. Recitation ---------- ### Rules of recitation The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named *tajwid* which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation. In order to avoid incorrect pronunciation, reciters follow a program of training with a qualified teacher. The two most popular texts used as references for *tajwid* rules are Matn al-Jazariyyah by Ibn al-Jazari and Tuhfat al-Atfal by Sulayman al-Jamzuri. The recitations of a few Egyptian reciters, like El Minshawy, Al-Hussary, Abdul Basit, Mustafa Ismail, were highly influential in the development of current styles of recitation. Southeast Asia is well known for world-class recitation, evidenced in the popularity of the woman reciters such as Maria Ulfah of Jakarta. Today, crowds fill auditoriums for public Quran recitation competitions. There are two types of recitation: 1. *Murattal* is at a slower pace, used for study and practice. 2. *Mujawwad* refers to a slow recitation that deploys heightened technical artistry and melodic modulation, as in public performances by trained experts. It is directed to and dependent upon an audience for the *mujawwad* reciter seeks to involve the listeners. ### Variant readings Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds (*tashkeel*) were introduced into the text of the Qur'an during the lifetimes of the last Sahabah. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, enabling multiple possible recitations to be conveyed by the same written text. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven *ahruf* (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d. 796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafi‘ al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran. The variant readings of the Quran are one type of textual variant. According to Melchert (2008), the majority of disagreements have to do with vowels to supply, most of them in turn not conceivably reflecting dialectal differences and about one in eight disagreements has to do with whether to place dots above or below the line. Nasser categorizes variant readings into various subtypes, including internal vowels, long vowels, gemination (*shaddah*), assimilation and alternation. Occasionally, an early Quran shows compatibility with a particular reading. A Syrian manuscript from the 8th century is shown to have been written according to the reading of Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi. Another study suggests that this manuscript bears the vocalization of himsi region. Writing and printing -------------------- ### Writing Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in *Ḥijāzī*-typescript. The *Hijazi* style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as *Kufic* scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore choose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the *naskh*, *muhaqqaq*, *rayḥānī* and, on rarer occasions, the *thuluth* script. *Naskh* was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Iberia, the *Maghribī* style was popular. More distinct is the *Bihari* script which was used solely in the north of India. *Nastaʻlīq* style was also rarely used in Persian world. In the beginning, the Quran was not written with dots or tashkeel. These features were added to the text during the lifetimes of the last of the Sahabah. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or *juzʼ*. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons. Whilst the majority of Islamic scribes were men, some women also worked as scholars and copyists; one such woman who made a copy of this text was the Moroccan jurist, Amina, bint al-Hajj ʿAbd al-Latif. * Folio from the "Blue" Quran. Brooklyn Museum.Folio from the "Blue" Quran. Brooklyn Museum. * kufic script, Eighth or ninth century.*kufic* script, Eighth or ninth century. * maghribi script, 13th–14th centuries.*maghribi* script, 13th–14th centuries. * muhaqqaq script, 14th–15th centuries.*muhaqqaq* script, 14th–15th centuries. * shikasta nastaliq script, 18th–19th centuries.*shikasta nastaliq* script, 18th–19th centuries. ### Printing Wood-block printing of extracts from the Quran is on record as early as the 10th century. Arabic movable type printing was ordered by Pope Julius II (r. 1503–1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians. The first complete Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537–1538 for the Ottoman market by Paganino Paganini and Alessandro Paganini. But this Quran was not used as it contained a large number of errors. Two more editions include those published by the pastor Abraham Hinckelmann in Hamburg in 1694, and by Italian priest Ludovico Maracci in Padua in 1698 with Latin translation and commentary. Printed copies of the Quran during this period met with strong opposition from Muslim legal scholars: printing anything in Arabic was prohibited in the Ottoman empire between 1483 and 1726—initially, even on penalty of death. The Ottoman ban on printing in Arabic script was lifted in 1726 for non-religious texts only upon the request of Ibrahim Muteferrika, who printed his first book in 1729. Except for books in Hebrew and European languages, which were unrestricted, very few books, and no religious texts, were printed in the Ottoman Empire for another century. In 1786, Catherine the Great of Russia, sponsored a printing press for "Tatar and Turkish orthography" in Saint Petersburg, with one Mullah Osman Ismail responsible for producing the Arabic types. A Quran was printed with this press in 1787, reprinted in 1790 and 1793 in Saint Petersburg, and in 1803 in Kazan. The first edition printed in Iran appeared in Tehran (1828), a translation in Turkish was printed in Cairo in 1842, and the first officially sanctioned Ottoman edition was finally printed in Constantinople between 1875 and 1877 as a two-volume set, during the First Constitutional Era. Gustav Flügel published an edition of the Quran in 1834 in Leipzig, which remained authoritative in Europe for close to a century, until Cairo's Al-Azhar University published an edition of the Quran in 1924. This edition was the result of a long preparation, as it standardized Quranic orthography, and it remains the basis of later editions. Criticism --------- Regarding the claim of divine origin, critics refer to preexisting sources, not only taken from the Bible, supposed to be older revelations of God, but also from heretic, apocryphic and talmudic sources, such as The Syriac Infancy Gospel and Gospel of James. The Quran acknowledges that accusations of borrowing popular ancient fables were being made against Muhammad. However the Bible was not translated into Arabic until after the completion of the Quran with other Judeo-Christian sources being translated even later. Due to rejection of Crucifixion of Jesus in the Quran, some scholars also suspect Manichaean, a dualistic religion believing in two eternal forces, influences on the Quran. The *Tafsir'ilmi* believe the Quran predicts scientific knowledge, relating the author to non-human origin. Critics argue, verses which allegedly explain modern scientific facts, about subjects such as biology, evolution of the earth, and human life, contain fallacies and are unscientific. Most claims of predictions rely on the ambiguity of the Arabic language, another point of criticism. Despite calling itself a clear book, the Quranic language lacks clarity. Other criticisms point at the moral attitude asserted by the Quran. Examples include the Sword Verse, which some interpret as promoting violence against "pagans", and An-Nisa, 34, which some view as excusing domestic violence. Relationship with other literature ---------------------------------- Some non-Muslim groups such as the Baháʼí Faith and Druze view the Quran as holy. In the Baháʼí Faith, the Quran is accepted as authentic revelation from God along with the revelations of the other world religions, Islam being a stage within the divine process of progressive revelation. Bahá’u’lláh, the Prophet-Founder of the Baháʼí Faith, testified to the validity of the Quran, writing, "Say: Perused ye not the Qur’án? Read it, that haply ye may find the Truth, for this Book is verily the Straight Path. This is the Way of God unto all who are in the heavens and all who are on the earth." Unitarian Universalists may also seek inspiration from the Quran. It has been suggested that the Quran has some narrative similarities to the Diatessaron, Protoevangelium of James, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew and the Arabic Infancy Gospel. One scholar has suggested that the Diatessaron, as a gospel harmony, may have led to the conception that the Christian Gospel is one text. ### The Bible > He has revealed to you ˹O Prophet˺ the Book in truth, confirming what came before it, as He revealed the Torah and the Gospel previously, as a guide for people, and ˹also˺ revealed the Standard ˹to distinguish between right and wrong˺. > > —  3:3-4 The Quran attributes its relationship with former books (the Torah and the Gospels) to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God. According to Christoph Luxenberg (in *The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran*) the Quran's language was similar to the Syriac language. The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad (by name—Muhammad is often alluded to as "The Prophet" or "The Apostle"), while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than in the New Testament. ### Arab writing After the Quran, and the general rise of Islam, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly into an art form. The Arabic grammarian Sibawayh wrote one of the earliest books on Arabic grammar, referred to as "Al-Kitab", which relied heavily on the language in the Quran. Wadad Kadi, Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations at University of Chicago, and Mustansir Mir, Professor of Islamic studies at Youngstown State University, state that the Quran exerted a particular influence on Arabic literature's diction, themes, metaphors, motifs and symbols and added new expressions and new meanings to old, pre-Islamic words that would become ubiquitous. See also -------- * Criticism of the Quran * Digital Quran * Hadith al-Thaqalayn * Historical reliability of the Quran * Islamic schools and branches * List of chapters in the Quran * List of translations of the Quran * Quran and miracles * Quran code * Quran translations * Schools of Islamic theology * Violence in the Quran * Women in the Quran * *The True Furqan* Further reading --------------- ### Introductory texts * Bell, Richard; Watt, William Montgomery (1970). *Bell's introduction to the Qurʼān*. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0597-2. * Hawting, G.R. (1993). *Approaches to the Qur'ān* (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-05755-4. * Hixon, Lex (2003). *The heart of the Qurʼan: an introduction to Islamic spirituality* (2 ed.). Quest. ISBN 978-0-8356-0822-0. * Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Qurʾān". *Encyclopædia Britannica Online*. Retrieved 4 November 2007. * Rahman, Fazlur (2009) [1989]. *Major Themes of the Qur'an* (Second ed.). University Of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70286-5. * Rippin, Andrew; et al., eds. (2006). *The Blackwell companion to the Qur'an*. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-1752-4. * Robinson, Neal (2002). *Discovering the Qur'an*. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-024-6. * Sells, Michael (15 November 1999). *Approaching the Qur'ān: The Early Revelations* (Book & CD ed.). White Cloud Press. ISBN 978-1-883991-26-5. * Tabatabae, Mohammad Hosayn (1988). *The Qur'an in Islam: Its Impact and Influence on the Life of Muslims*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7103-0266-3. * Wild, Stefan (1996). *The Quʼran as Text*. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09300-3. ### Traditional Quranic commentaries (tafsir) * Al-Tabari (1987) [Cairo 1955–69]. "Jāmiʻ al-bayān ʻan taʼwīl al-qurʼān". *The Commentary on the Qurʼān*. transl. J. Cooper (ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-920142-6. * Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. *Tafsir al-Mizan*. ### Topical studies * McAuliffe, Jane Dammen (1991). *Qurʼānic Christians: an analysis of classical and modern exegesis*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36470-6. * Siljander, Mark D.; Mann, John David (2008). *A Deadly Misunderstanding: a Congressman's Quest to Bridge the Muslim-Christian Divide*. New York: Harper One. ISBN 978-0-06-143828-8. * Stowasser, Barbara Freyer (1 June 1996). *Women in the Qur'an, Traditions and Interpretation* (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511148-4. ### Literary criticism * M.M. Al-Azami (2003). *The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments* (First ed.). UK Islamic Academy. ISBN 978-1-872531-65-6. * Boullata, Issa J, ed. (2000). *Literary Structures of Religious Meaning in the Qur'ān*. Curzon Press. ISBN 0700712569.. * Luling, Gunter (2003). *A challenge to Islam for reformation: the rediscovery and reliable reconstruction of a comprehensive pre-Islamic Christian hymnal hidden in the Koran under earliest Islamic reinterpretations*. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1952-8. * Luxenberg, Christoph (2007) [2004]. *The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran: a contribution to the decoding of the language of the Koran*. Berlin: Verlag Hans Schiler. ISBN 978-3-89930-088-8. * Puin, Gerd R. (1996). "Observations on Early Quran Manuscripts in Sana'a". In Wild, Stefan (ed.). *The Qurʾan as Text*. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 107–11. * Wansbrough, John (1977). *Quranic Studies*. Oxford University Press. ### Encyclopedias * McAuliffe JD, et al., eds. (2001). *Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an* (First ed.). Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-11465-4. * Leaman O, et al., eds. (2005). *The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia* (First ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77529-8. * Iqbal M, et al., eds. (2013). *The Integrated Encyclopedia of the Qur'an* (First ed.). Center for Islamic Sciences. ISBN 978-1-926620-00-8. ### Academic journals * *Journal of Qur'anic Studies* (ISSN 1465-3591), published by the School of Oriental and African Studies * *Journal of Qur'anic Research and Studies*, published by King Fahd Qur'an Printing Complex External links -------------- ### Reference material * The British Library: Discovering Sacred Texts – Islam ### Manuscripts * Several digitised Qurans in the Cambridge University Digital Library * 2017-232-1 al-Qurʼān. / القرآن at OPenn ### Quran browsers and translation * Al-Quran.info * Quran Archive – Texts and Studies on the Quran * Quran text and translation at Tufts University * Tanzil – Online Quran Navigator * Quran.com * Multilingual Quran (Arabic, English, French, German, Dutch, Spanish, Italian) * Latin script transliterated Qur'an. Hans Zirker. University of Frankfurt.

Quran

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran

The **Slovakia national football team** (Slovak: *Slovenská futbalová reprezentácia*) represents Slovakia in men's international football competition and it is governed by the Slovak Football Association (SFZ), the governing body for football in Slovakia. Slovakia's home stadium from 2019 is the reconstructed Tehelné pole in Bratislava. Slovakia is one of the newest national football teams in the world, having split from the Czechoslovakia national team after the dissolution of the unified state in 1993. Slovakia maintains its own national side that competes in all major tournaments since. Slovakia has qualified for three major international tournaments, the 2010 FIFA World Cup, UEFA Euro 2016, and UEFA Euro 2020. Slovakia qualified to the FIFA World Cup in 2010 after winning their qualifying group, despite two defeats against Slovenia. At the World Cup, Slovakia progressed beyond the group stage after a 3–2 win against Italy, before bowing out of the tournament after a 2–1 defeat in the knockout stage against the eventual runners-up Netherlands. It was the first time the national team ever played in a major football competition, after playing every FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign since 1998 and every UEFA European Championship qualifying campaign since 1996, after a 50-year absence from international football due to representing part of the Czechoslovakia team. The nation did come close to securing a berth at the 2006 finals in Germany, after finishing second in their group ahead of Russia and behind Portugal, before drawing Spain in their qualification play-off, in which the Slovaks lost by a wide margin on aggregate (1–5, 1–1). The national team have achieved some noteworthy results such as the aforementioned win over the then title holders Italy at the 2010 World Cup, and a 1–0 win against Russia in September 2010. Despite this success however, the team later dropped down the rankings and a considerable drop in form went with this, as the team failed to qualify for Euro 2012 finishing their group in fourth place. They also only scored seven goals in the group, only more than minnows Andorra. Slovakia then failed to qualify for the 2014 World Cup, but secured a spot in France for Euro 2016 under head coach Ján Kozák, which helped the team reach their best ever position of 14th in the FIFA World Rankings. Slovakia's traditional rival is the Czech Republic which they played twice in the qualification for the 1998 World Cup in 1997, winning 2–1 in Bratislava before losing 3–0 in Prague with both teams already eliminated, before playing each other again in 2008 and 2009 in the qualifying round for the 2010 World Cup. In these two meetings, the teams drew 2–2 in Bratislava with the Slovaks winning 2–1 in Prague. But before that, they also played each other in Euro 2008 qualifying, and they lost 3–1 in Prague and 3–0 in Bratislava. History ------- The first official match of the first Slovak Republic (1939–1945) was played in Bratislava against Germany on 27 August 1939, and ended in a 2–0 victory for Slovakia. After the Second World War, the national football team was subsumed into the team of Czechoslovakia, and for over 50 years Slovakia played no matches as an independent country. During this period, they contributed several key players to the Czechoslovak team, including the majority of the team that won the UEFA Euro 1976 (8 of the 11 players who defeated West Germany in the final were Slovak). Slovakia's first official international after regaining independence was a 1–0 victory in Dubai over the United Arab Emirates on 2 February 1994. Their first match on Slovak soil was a 4–1 win over Croatia in Bratislava on 20 April 1994. Slovakia suffered their biggest defeat since independence (6–0) on 22 June 1995, in Mendoza, against Argentina. Their biggest wins (7–0) have come against Liechtenstein in 2004 and San Marino (twice) in 2007 and 2009. Slovakia attempted qualifying for a major championship as an independent team for the first time in Euro 1996 qualifying, but finished in third place in their qualifying group, behind Romania and France, recording wins against Poland, Israel and Azerbaijan, twice. In the 1998 World Cup qualifiers, Slovakia finished fourth in their six-team group with five wins, one draw and four defeats. Their first four games in this were all wins, one of them against their Czech neighbors, helping the team reach their highest FIFA World Ranking to date, 17th. Slovakia participated in the FIFA World Cup for the first time as an independent nation after finishing in first in 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification – UEFA Group 3 ahead of Slovenia, Czech Republic, Northern Ireland and Poland. On 14 October 2009, they clinched qualification with a 1–0 away win against Poland. On 24 June 2010, at the tournament proper, Slovakia finished second in the group stage after defeating reigning champions Italy in a game which ESPN dubbed "epic": the game saw three goals being scored after the 80th minute, two by Italy and one by Slovakia, as well as a disallowed goal by Italy flagged offside by "the tightest of decisions". The result led Slovakia to the knockout stage and eliminated Italy, who finished last in the group. The result of this match meant that for the first time in World Cup history, both finalists from the previous tournament had been eliminated from the first round, champion Italy and runner-up France. In the round of 16, Slovakia played the Netherlands in the round of 16, falling behind 2–0 only to score a late goal from the penalty spot by stri ker Róbert Vittek, the last kick of the game in a 2–1 defeat. Despite elimination, the goal returned Vittek to the top of the goalscoring charts joint top with David Villa until Villa himself later scored against Portugal in Spain's 1–0 win in the same stage of the tournament. For Euro 2012 qualification, Slovakia was drawn against Russia, the Republic of Ireland, Armenia, Macedonia and Andorra. The good campaign in South Africa boosted team performance ahead of the qualifiers, which started in September with two 1–0 wins against Macedonia in Štadión Pasienky and Russia away. In October, however, they were easily beaten in Armenia (3–1) and drew 1–1 against the Republic of Ireland at home. In February 2011, the team was stunned in a 2–1 friendly defeat against Luxembourg and could only beat group minnows Andorra by one goal. Despite creating better chances, Slovakia earned a goalless draw with Ireland away. Four days later, after creating chances in a goalless first half, Slovakia conceded four goals to Armenia in a match that eliminated the team. In the final two group matches, Slovakia was beaten at home by Russia (1–0) and drew 1–1 in Macedonia, finishing in a mediocre fourth-place position and scoring only seven goals in the entire process. Also, for the first time since the Euro 1996 qualifying process, Slovakia finished a qualifying campaign with a negative goal differential. As a result of this outcome, coach Vladimír Weiss left his job after four full years, being replaced by his assistants Michal Hipp and Stanislav Griga, although both themselves were later replaced due to poor results. By late June, former Czechoslovakia national team footballer Ján Kozák became the head coach and followed-up the unsuccessful qualification campaign with a victory in Bosnia and Herzegovina followed by two defeats to Bosnia and Greece. For Euro 2016 qualification, Slovakia was drawn against Spain, Ukraine, Belarus, Macedonia and Luxembourg. Slovakia began the qualifying campaign with a 1–0 victory against Ukraine in Kyiv. On 9 October 2014, Slovakia beat Spain 2–1 in a shock victory and claimed the first place. Slovakia's 3–1 victory over Belarus confirmed their status as group leaders. Later on, they won 2–0 against Macedonia in the Philip II Arena, beat Luxembourg with a score of 3–0 in Žilina, and beat Macedonia 2–1 on 14 June 2015, also in Žilina. The next matches were a 2–0 defeat against Spain, a goalless draw against Ukraine and a shocking 0–1 home defeat against Belarus. The team finished qualification by defeating Luxembourg 4–2 and got the second place, qualifying to their first European Championship. Slovakia was drawn in Group B of Euro 2016 alongside England, Russia and Wales. Slovakia began their tournament against Wales where Ondrej Duda scored Slovakia's first goal in the history of the European Championship in an eventual 2–1 defeat. Slovakia then defeated Russia 2–1 with goals from Vladimír Weiss III and Marek Hamšík, then drew 0–0 against England to advance to the round of 16 as one of the tournament's best third-placed teams. They were eliminated at this stage by world champions Germany with a 3–0 defeat. During the qualification campaign for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Slovakia was drawn in UEFA Group F. They were third in the group after the penultimate match ended in a 1–0 defeat to Scotland, who moved up to second place. Slovakia won their final group match 3–0 against Malta, and overtook Scotland after they failed to beat Slovenia, but missed out on a play-off place as the other second teams' results meant Slovakia finished as the worst group runners-up. Slovakia struggled to qualify for the UEFA Euro 2020, only reached the tournament after a difficult away win over Northern Ireland. Being drawn with Spain, Sweden and Poland in group E, it was thought the Slovaks would be the breadbasket for the remaining teams, but they surprised by a victorious opening against Poland 2–1. Subsequently, however, Slovakia would be broken down by Sweden 0–1 before getting totally thrashed by Spain 0–5, thus finished third, but with the worst goal difference due to scoring own goals as a result of their disastrous performance. Slovakia was eliminated from the group stage for the first time ever. Stadiums -------- The Slovakia national football team currently plays its home matches at the Tehelné pole in Bratislava and the Štadión Antona Malatinského in Trnava. Štadión pod Dubňom in Žilina was used from 2003 to 2015, but will not be used in the future because of the artificial grass installation of 2016. In the past, home games have occasionally been played at other venues including Všešportový areál and Štadión Lokomotívy in Košice, Štadión pod Zoborom in Nitra, Mestský štadión in Dubnica nad Váhom, and Tatran Stadion in Prešov. Stadiums which have hosted Slovakia international football matches: | Slovakia national football team home stadiums | | --- | | Nr. ofmatches | Stadium | Capacity | Location | First match | Last match | | 57 | Tehelné pole | 22,500 | Bratislava | **v**.  Germany (2–0) 27 August 1939 | **v**.  Bosnia and Herzegovina (2–0) 26 March 2023 | | 37 | Štadión Antona Malatinského | 19,200 | Trnava | **v**.  Bulgaria (0–0) 24 April 1996 | **v**.  Luxembourg (0–0) 23 March 2023 | | 21 | Štadión pod Dubňom | 11,258 | Žilina | **v**.  Greece (2–2) 30 April 2003 | **v**.  Iceland (3–1) 17 November 2015 | | 9 | Pasienky | 11,591 | Bratislava | **v**.  Israel (1–0) 18 August 1999 | **v**.  Greece (0–1) 16 October 2012 | | 4 | Všešportový areál | 30,312 | Košice | **v**.  Russia (2–1) 8 March 1995 | **v**.  Romania (0–2) 15 November 1995 | | 2 | Štadión pod Zoborom | 7,480 | Nitra | **v**.  Belarus (4–0) 27 March 1996 | **v**.  Saudi Arabia (1–1) 24 May 2000 | | Štadión Lokomotívy | 9,000 | Košice | **v**.  Finland (0–0) 19 August 1998 | **v**.  Azerbaijan (3–0) 5 September 1998 | | Mestský štadión | 5,450 | Dubnica nad Váhom | **v**.  Liechtenstein (2–0) 8 September 1999 | **v**.  San Marino (7–0) 13 October 2007 | | 1 | MOL Aréna | 12,700 | Dunajská Streda | **v**.  Lithuania (2–2) 30 March 1993 | | Futbalový štadión Prievidza | 9,000 | Prievidza | **v**.  Slovenia (2–0) 16 November 1993 | | Štadión na Sihoti | 4,500 | Trenčín | **v**.  Moldova (4–2) 5 September 2001 | | Štadión Tatranu | 5,410 | Prešov | **v**.  Uzbekistan (4–1) 14 May 2002 | | ViOn Aréna | 3,787 | Zlaté Moravce | **v**.  Iceland (1–2) 26 March 2008 | | NTC Senec | 3,264 | Senec | **v**.  Montenegro (2–0) 23 May 2014 | * Tehelné PoleTehelné Pole * Štadión Antona MalatinskéhoŠtadión Antona Malatinského * Pod DubňomPod Dubňom Team image ---------- ### Nickname Traditionally in Slovakia the team is typically referred to as the *Repre* (short for *Reprezentácia* – translates into *national team*). However, in 2016, during the buildup to Slovakia's first appearance at the European Championship, SFZ introduced a new nickname for the team. National team was given the nickname *Slovenskí sokoli* (Slovak falcons). U15 through to U21 national teams were given the nickname *Slovenskí sokolíci* (Slovak little falcons). Despite lack of immediate identification with the nickname by the fans, it went into usage during the tournament and the subsequent qualification for the 2018 FIFA World Cup and is now often used, especially in the media, along with *Repre*, which still remains to be preferred in an informal conversation. ### Kit Slovakia's home kit since 1993 was blue, but Slovakia changed their home kit from blue to white, which lasted until 2020, when Slovakia changed its home kit to blue once again. The team wears either a set of white jerseys, shorts and socks or a set of blue jerseys, shorts and socks. A combination of a blue jersey and white shorts has also been used in some matches. Until recently, the official shirt supplier was Puma, which had signed a long-term agreement with the Slovak Association until 2026, but in 2016 the Association announced the contract had been terminated and that the national team would be supplied by Nike, which had previously supplied the team from 1995 to 2005. | Supplier | Period | | --- | --- | | France Le Coq Sportif | 1993–1995 | | United States Nike | 1995–2005 | | Germany Adidas | 2006–2011 | | Germany Puma | 2012–2016 | | United States Nike | 2016– | Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Slovakia  v  Azerbaijan | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 22 September 2022 **2022–23 UEFA Nations League C** | **Slovakia** | **1–2** | **Azerbaijan** | Trnava, Slovakia | | 16:45 (20:45 UTC+6) | Jirka 90+3' (pen.) | Report | 44' Dadashov 90+5' Haghverdi | Stadium: Štadión Antona MalatinskéhoAttendance: 2.875Referee: Willie Collum (Scotland) | Slovakia  v  Belarus | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 25 September 2022 **2022–23 UEFA Nations League C** | **Slovakia** | **1–1** | **Belarus** | Bačka Topola, Serbia | | 18:00 | Zreľák 65' | Report | 45' Bakhar | Stadium: TSC ArenaAttendance: 524Referee: Nikola Dabanović (Montenegro) | Montenegro  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 November 2022 International friendly | **Montenegro** | **2–2** | **Slovakia** | Podgorica, Montenegro | | 18:00 | Savić 76', 90+7' (pen.) | Report | 15' Hancko 47' Kucka Yellow card 87' Yellow-red card 90+4' Adam Zreľák | Stadium: Podgorica City StadiumAttendance: 1,109Referee: Irfan Peljto (Bosnia and Herzegovina) | Slovakia  v  Chile | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 November 2022 International friendly | **Slovakia** | **0–0** | **Chile** | Bratislava, Slovakia | | 13:30 | | Report | | Stadium: Tehelné poleAttendance: 19,757Referee: Ondřej Berka (Czech Republic) | ### 2023 Slovakia  v  Luxembourg | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 March 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Slovakia** | **0–0** | **Luxembourg** | Trnava, Slovakia | | 20:45 | | Report | | Stadium: Štadión Antona MalatinskéhoAttendance: 3,523Referee: Rade Obrenovič (Slovenia) | Slovakia  v  Bosnia and Herzegovina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 March 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Slovakia** | **2–0** | **Bosnia and Herzegovina** | Bratislava, Slovakia | | 20:45 | Mak 13' Haraslín 40' | Report | | Stadium: Tehelné PoleAttendance: 6,052Referee: Marco Di Bello (Italy) | Iceland  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 June 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Iceland** | **1–2** | **Slovakia** | Reykjavík, Iceland | | 20:45 (18:45 UTC±0) | Finnbogason 41' (pen.) | Report | 27' Kucka 69' Suslov | Stadium: LaugardalsvöllurAttendance: 7,555Referee: Don Robertson (Scotland) | Liechtenstein  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Liechtenstein** | **0–1** | **Slovakia** | Vaduz, Liechtenstein | | 20:45 | | Report | * Vavro 45+1' | Stadium: Rheinpark StadionAttendance: 2,316Referee: Yigal Frid (Israel) | Slovakia  v  Portugal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 8 September 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Slovakia** | **v** | **Portugal** | Bratislava, Slovakia | | 20:45 | | Report | | Stadium: Tehelné Pole | Slovakia  v  Liechtenstein | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 11 September 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Slovakia** | **v** | **Liechtenstein** | Bratislava, Slovakia | | 20:45 | | Report | | Stadium: Tehelné Pole | Portugal  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 13 October 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Portugal** | **v** | **Slovakia** | Porto, Portugal | | 20:45 (19:45 UTC+1) | | Report | | Stadium: Estádio do Dragão | Luxembourg  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 October 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Luxembourg** | **v** | **Slovakia** | Luxembourg, Luxembourg | | 20:45 | | Report | | Stadium: Stade de Luxembourg | Slovakia  v  Iceland | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 November 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Slovakia** | **v** | **Iceland** | | | 20:45 | | Report | | | Bosnia and Herzegovina  v  Slovakia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 19 November 2023 **UEFA Euro 2024 qualification** | **Bosnia and Herzegovina** | **v** | **Slovakia** | Zenica, Bosnia and Herzegovina | | 20:45 | | Report | | Stadium: Bilino Polje | Coaching staff -------------- *As of 17 June 2023* | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head Coach | Francesco Calzona | | Assistant coach | Gianluca Segarelli | | Goalkeeping coach | Ján Novota | | Technical director | Giovanni Paolo de Matteis | | Team director | Róbert Tomaschek | | Fitness coach | Alessandro Bulfoni --- Dávid Brünn | | Translator | Pavol Farkaš | | Doctors | Zsolt Fegyveres --- Jozef Almási | | Masseur | Mário Prelovský | | Physiotherapists | Marián Drinka --- Peter Hečko --- Martin Nozdrovický | | Videoanalyst | Marco Brini | | Custodians | Ján Beniak --- Marek Košáň | | ### Coaching history **1939–1944** | Name | Period | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | PG | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Slovak Republic (1939–1945) Vojtech Závodský | 1939 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +1 | 3.00 | | Slovak Republic (1939–1945) Rudolf Hanák | 1939–1940 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 4 | +1 | 1.50 | | Slovak Republic (1939–1945) Štefan Priboj | 1940–1941 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 10 | −5 | 0.08 | | Slovak Republic (1939–1945) Štefan Čambal | 1941–1942 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 6 | −5 | 0.00 | | Slovak Republic (1939–1945) Ferdinand Daučík | 1942–1944 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 10 | 24 | −14 | 0.19 | | **Total** | **16** | **3** | **2** | **11** | **23** | **44** | **−21** | **0.69** | **1993–present** | Name | Period | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | PG | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Slovakia Jozef Vengloš | 6 April 1993 – 15 June 1995 | 16 | 5 | 4 | 7 | 21 | 30 | −9 | 1.19 | | Slovakia Jozef Jankech | 4 July 1995 – 23 October 1998 | 34 | 18 | 6 | 10 | 51 | 33 | +18 | 1.76 | | Slovakia *Dušan Radolský* | 10 November 1998 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | −2 | 0.00 | | Slovakia Dušan Galis | 1 January 1999 – 23 February 1999 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 | | Slovakia Jozef Adamec | 26 February 1999 – 30 November 2001 | 34 | 13 | 11 | 10 | 38 | 31 | +7 | 1.47 | | Slovakia *Anton Dragúň* | 17 November 1999 – 25 November 2001 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 7 | −5 | 0.25 | | Slovakia *Stanislav Griga* | 21 June 2001 – 25 June 2001 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 1.00 | | Slovakia Ladislav Jurkemik | 1 February 2002 – 31 December 2003 | 19 | 6 | 5 | 8 | 27 | 26 | +1 | 1.21 | | Slovakia Dušan Galis | 1 January 2004 – 12 October 2006 | 31 | 12 | 12 | 7 | 53 | 36 | +17 | 1.55 | | Slovakia Ján Kocian | 2 November 2006 – 30 June 2008 | 17 | 3 | 5 | 9 | 30 | 28 | +2 | 0.82 | | Slovakia Vladimír Weiss | 7 July 2008 – 31 January 2012 | 40 | 16 | 8 | 16 | 56 | 53 | +3 | 1.40 | | Slovakia *Michal Hipp* | 1 January 2012 – 29 February 2012 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 3.00 | | Slovakia Stanislav Griga --- Slovakia Michal Hipp | 26 April 2012 – 13 June 2013 | 12 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 11 | 14 | −3 | 0.92 | | Slovakia Ján Kozák | 2 July 2013 – 14 October 2018 | 56 | 29 | 10 | 17 | 81 | 57 | +24 | 1.73 | | Slovakia *Štefan Tarkovič* | 15 October 2018 – 21 October 2018 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1.00 | | Czech Republic Pavel Hapal | 22 October 2018 – 16 October 2020 | 16 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 25 | 20 | +5 | 1.38 | | Slovakia *Oto Brunegraf* | 14 October 2020 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 0.00 | | Slovakia Štefan Tarkovič | 20 October 2020 – 7 June 2022 | 22 | 8 | 7 | 7 | 26 | 24 | +2 | 1.41 | | Slovakia *Samuel Slovák* | 8 June 2022 – 13 June 2022 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 1.50 | | Italy Francesco Calzona | 30 August 2022 – *ongoing* | 7 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 8 | 6 | +2 | 1.43 | | | **Total** | **316** | **124** | **81** | **111** | **434** | **377** | **+57** | **1.43** | Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the UEFA Euro 2024 qualifying matches against Iceland and Liechtenstein on 17 and 20 June 2023, respectively. *Caps and goals updated as of 20 June 2023, after the match against  Liechtenstein.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Martin Dúbravka | (1989-01-15) 15 January 1989 (age 34) | 36 | 0 | England Newcastle United | | 12 | 1GK | Marek Rodák | (1996-12-13) 13 December 1996 (age 26) | 19 | 0 | England Fulham | | 21 | 1GK | Henrich Ravas | (1997-08-16) 16 August 1997 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | Poland Widzew Łódź | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Peter Pekarík | (1986-10-30) 30 October 1986 (age 36) | 119 | 2 | Germany Hertha BSC | | 3 | 2DF | Denis Vavro | (1996-04-10) 10 April 1996 (age 27) | 15 | 2 | Denmark Copenhagen | | 4 | 2DF | Martin Valjent | (1995-12-11) 11 December 1995 (age 27) | 13 | 0 | Spain Mallorca | | 5 | 2DF | Ľubomír Šatka | (1995-12-02) 2 December 1995 (age 27) | 32 | 0 | Poland Lech Poznań | | 6 | 2DF | Norbert Gyömbér | (1992-07-03) 3 July 1992 (age 30) | 33 | 0 | Italy Salernitana | | 14 | 2DF | Milan Škriniar *(captain)* | (1995-02-11) 11 February 1995 (age 28) | 60 | 3 | Italy Internazionale | | 15 | 2DF | Vernon De Marco | (1992-11-18) 18 November 1992 (age 30) | 6 | 1 | Slovakia Slovan Bratislava | | 16 | 2DF | Dávid Hancko | (1997-12-13) 13 December 1997 (age 25) | 29 | 2 | Netherlands Feyenoord | | 23 | 2DF | Michal Tomič | (1999-03-30) 30 March 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | Czech Republic Mladá Boleslav | | --- | | 7 | 3MF | Tomáš Suslov | (2002-06-07) 7 June 2002 (age 21) | 20 | 2 | Netherlands Groningen | | 13 | 3MF | Patrik Hrošovský | (1992-04-22) 22 April 1992 (age 31) | 49 | 0 | Belgium Genk | | 19 | 3MF | Juraj Kucka | (1987-02-26) 26 February 1987 (age 36) | 99 | 12 | Slovakia Slovan Bratislava | | 20 | 3MF | Róbert Mak | (1991-03-08) 8 March 1991 (age 32) | 77 | 15 | Australia Sydney FC | | 22 | 3MF | Stanislav Lobotka | (1994-11-25) 25 November 1994 (age 28) | 47 | 3 | Italy Napoli | | 26 | 3MF | Matúš Bero | (1995-09-06) 6 September 1995 (age 27) | 28 | 1 | Netherlands Vitesse | | 27 | 3MF | Christián Herc | (1998-09-30) 30 September 1998 (age 24) | 4 | 0 | Switzerland Grasshoppers | | 28 | 3MF | Artur Gajdoš | (2004-01-20) 20 January 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia AS Trenčín | | --- | | 8 | 4FW | David Strelec | (2001-04-04) 4 April 2001 (age 22) | 17 | 2 | Italy Reggina 1914 | | 9 | 4FW | Róbert Boženík | (1999-11-18) 18 November 1999 (age 23) | 31 | 5 | Portugal Boavista Porto | | 10 | 4FW | Róbert Polievka | (1996-06-09) 9 June 1996 (age 27) | 4 | 0 | Slovakia Dukla Banská Bystrica | | 11 | 4FW | Dávid Ďuriš | (1999-03-22) 22 March 1999 (age 24) | 5 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | | 18 | 4FW | Ľubomír Tupta | (1998-03-27) 27 March 1998 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | Czech Republic Slovan Liberec | | 24 | 4FW | Ivan Schranz | (1993-09-13) 13 September 1993 (age 29) | 17 | 3 | Czech Republic Slavia Prague | | 25 | 4FW | Erik Jirka | (1997-09-19) 19 September 1997 (age 25) | 9 | 2 | Czech Republic Viktoria Plzeň | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been recognised in national team nominations within the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Dominik Greif | (1997-04-06) 6 April 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 0 | Spain Mallorca | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | GK | František Plach | (1992-03-08) 8 March 1992 (age 31) | 1 | 0 | Poland Piast Gliwice | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | GK | Ľubomír Belko | (2002-02-04) 4 February 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | GK | Samuel Petráš | (1999-04-10) 10 April 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia DAC Dunajská Streda | December 2022 training camp | | GK | Dominik Takáč | (1999-01-12) 12 January 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Spartak Trnava | December 2022 training camp | | GK | Richard Ludha | (2000-11-08) 8 November 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Železiarne Podbrezová | December 2022 training campALT | | GK | Dominik Holec | (1994-07-28) 28 July 1994 (age 28) | 1 | 0 | Poland Lech Poznań | v.  Belarus, 25 September 2022ALT | | GK | Dávid Šípoš | (1998-08-14) 14 August 1998 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Dynamo České Budějovice | v.  Belarus, 25 September 2022ALT | | --- | | DF | Adam Obert | (2002-08-23) 23 August 2002 (age 20) | 1 | 0 | Italy Cagliari | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023 | | DF | Kristián Vallo | (1998-06-02) 2 June 1998 (age 25) | 2 | 0 | Poland Wisła Płock | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Martin Šulek | (1998-01-15) 15 January 1998 (age 25) | 2 | 0 | Poland Wisła Płock | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Šimon Mičuda | (2004-01-28) 28 January 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia AS Trenčín | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Sebastian Kóša | (2003-09-13) 13 September 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Spartak Trnava | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Patrik Leitner | (2002-02-07) 7 February 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Tomáš Nemčík | (2001-04-19) 19 April 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | David Hrnčár | (1997-12-10) 10 December 1997 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | Belgium Beveren | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Michal Sipľak | (1996-02-02) 2 February 1996 (age 27) | 0 | 0 | Poland Cracovia | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | DF | Branislav Sluka | (1999-01-23) 23 January 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Czech Republic Dynamo České Budějovice | December 2022 training camp | | DF | Alexander Mojžiš | (1999-01-02) 2 January 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Ružomberok | December 2022 training camp | | DF | Matej Madleňák | (1999-02-07) 7 February 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Ružomberok | December 2022 training campALT | | DF | Adam Kopas | (1999-08-16) 16 August 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | December 2022 training campALT | | DF | Matúš Rusnák | (1999-12-19) 19 December 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | December 2022 training campALT | | --- | | MF | Marek Hamšík | (1987-07-27) 27 July 1987 (age 35) | 138 | 26 | *Retired* | v.  Liechtenstein, 20 June 2023RET | | MF | Ondrej Duda | (1994-12-05) 5 December 1994 (age 28) | 63 | 10 | Italy Hellas Verona | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023 | | MF | László Bénes | (1997-09-09) 9 September 1997 (age 25) | 13 | 1 | Germany Hamburger SV | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023 | | MF | Vladimír Weiss | (1989-11-30) 30 November 1989 (age 33) | 77 | 8 | Slovakia Slovan Bratislava | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Albert Rusnák | (1994-07-07) 7 July 1994 (age 28) | 38 | 7 | United States Seattle Sounders | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Jakub Hromada | (1996-05-25) 25 May 1996 (age 27) | 5 | 0 | Czech Republic Slavia Prague | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Miroslav Káčer | (1996-02-02) 2 February 1996 (age 27) | 2 | 0 | Slovakia DAC Dunajská Streda | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Dominik Hollý | (2003-11-11) 11 November 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia AS Trenčín | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Dominik Veselovský | (2002-07-19) 19 July 2002 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia DAC Dunajská Streda | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Peter Pokorný | (2001-08-08) 8 August 2001 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Hungary MOL Fehérvár | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Patrik Myslovič | (2001-05-28) 28 May 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Scotland Aberdeen | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | MF | Martin Šviderský | (2002-04-10) 10 April 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Spain Almería | December 2022 training camp | | MF | Samuel Lavrinčík | (2001-07-10) 10 July 2001 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia AS Trenčín | December 2022 training camp | | MF | Mikuláš Bakaľa | (2004-01-04) 4 January 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Železiarne Podbrezová | December 2022 training campALT | | MF | Samuel Ďatko | (2001-06-24) 24 June 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Železiarne Podbrezová | December 2022 training campALT | | MF | Martin Bukata | (1993-10-02) 2 October 1993 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | Slovakia Spartak Trnava | December 2022 training campALT | | MF | Jakub Kadák | (2000-12-14) 14 December 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Switzerland Luzern | v.  Belarus, 25 September 2022ALT | | --- | | FW | Adam Zreľák | (1994-05-05) 5 May 1994 (age 29) | 9 | 3 | Poland Warta Poznań | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023 | | FW | Lukáš Haraslín | (1996-05-26) 26 May 1996 (age 27) | 29 | 3 | Czech Republic Sparta Prague | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023 | | FW | Ladislav Almási | (1999-03-06) 6 March 1999 (age 24) | 9 | 0 | Czech Republic Baník Ostrava | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Samuel Mráz | (1997-05-13) 13 May 1997 (age 26) | 5 | 1 | Cyprus Anorthosis Famagusta | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Martin Regáli | (1993-10-12) 12 October 1993 (age 29) | 4 | 0 | Belgium Kortrijk | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Adrián Kaprálik | (2002-06-10) 10 June 2002 (age 21) | 1 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Adam Griger | (2004-03-16) 16 March 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Italy Cagliari | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Tomáš Bobček | (2001-09-08) 8 September 2001 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Ružomberok | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Erik Prekop | (1997-10-08) 8 October 1997 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | Czech Republic Bohemians 1905 | v.  Bosnia and Herzegovina, 26 March 2023ALT | | FW | Adam Tučný | (2002-05-21) 21 May 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Ružomberok | December 2022 training camp | | FW | Timotej Jambor | (2003-04-04) 4 April 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Slovakia Žilina | December 2022 training campALT | | --- Notes* INJ Withdrew/Unavailable due to an injury or an illness. * ALT Alternate – replaces a member of the squad in case of injury/unavailability * RET Retired from international football | Player records -------------- *As of 20 June 2023* *Players in **bold** are still active in the national team.* ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1. | Marek Hamšík | 138 | 26 | 2007–2023 | | 2. | **Peter Pekarík** | 119 | 2 | 2006–*present* | | 3. | Miroslav Karhan | 107 | 14 | 1995–2011 | | 4. | Martin Škrtel | 104 | 6 | 2004–2019 | | 5. | **Juraj Kucka** | 99 | 12 | 2008–*present* | | 6. | Ján Ďurica | 91 | 4 | 2004–2017 | | 7. | Róbert Vittek | 82 | 23 | 2001–2016 | | 8. | **Róbert Mak** | 77 | 15 | 2013–*present* | | **Vladimír Weiss** | 77 | 8 | 2009–*present* | | 10. | Tomáš Hubočan | 73 | 0 | 2006–2021 | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1. | Marek Hamšík | 26 | 138 | 0.19 | 2007–2023 | | 2. | Róbert Vittek | 23 | 82 | 0.28 | 2001–2016 | | 3. | Szilárd Németh | 22 | 59 | 0.37 | 1996–2006 | | 4. | **Róbert Mak** | 15 | 77 | 0.19 | 2013–*present* | | 5. | Marek Mintál | 14 | 45 | 0.31 | 2002–2009 | | Miroslav Karhan | 14 | 107 | 0.13 | 1995–2011 | | 7. | Adam Nemec | 13 | 43 | 0.3 | 2006–2019 | | Stanislav Šesták | 13 | 66 | 0.2 | 2004–2016 | | 9. | Peter Dubovský | 12 | 33 | 0.36 | 1994–2000 | | **Juraj Kucka** | 12 | 99 | 0.12 | 2008–*present* | Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 to United States 1994 | *Part of  Czechoslovakia* | *Part of  Czechoslovakia* | | France 1998 | *Did not qualify* | 4th | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 18 | 14 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | 3rd | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 16 | 9 | | Germany 2006 | 2nd | 14 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 26 | 14 | | South Africa 2010 | Round of 16 | 16th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | Squad | 1st | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 22 | 10 | | Brazil 2014 | *Did not qualify* | 3rd | 10 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 11 | 10 | | Russia 2018 | 2nd | 10 | 6 | 0 | 4 | 17 | 7 | | Qatar 2022 | 3rd | 10 | 3 | 5 | 2 | 17 | 10 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Round of 16 | 1/6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | — | — | 74 | 35 | 19 | 20 | 127 | 74 | | List of FIFA World Cup matches | | --- | | Year | Round | Opponent | Result | Slovakia goalscorers | | 2010 | Group stage |  New Zealand | 1–1 | Vittek | |  Paraguay | 0–2 | — | |  Italy | 3–2 | Vittek (2), Kopúnek | | Round of 16 |  Netherlands | 1–2 | Vittek | ### UEFA European Championship | UEFA European Championship record | | Qualifying record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | France 1960 to Sweden 1992 | *Part of  Czechoslovakia* | *Part of  Czechoslovakia* | | England 1996 | *Did not qualify* | 3rd | 10 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 14 | 18 | | Belgium Netherlands 2000 | 3rd | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 12 | 9 | | Portugal 2004 | 3rd | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 11 | 9 | | Austria Switzerland 2008 | 4th | 12 | 5 | 1 | 6 | 33 | 23 | | Poland Ukraine 2012 | 4th | 10 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 7 | 10 | | France 2016 | Round of 16 | 14th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | Squad | 2nd | 10 | 7 | 1 | 2 | 17 | 8 | | Europe 2020 | Group stage | 18th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 7 | Squad | 3rd | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 15 | 12 | | Germany 2024 | *To be determined* | TBD | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | | Total | Round of 16 | 2/7 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 13 | — | — | 73 | 34 | 13 | 25 | 113 | 90 | | List of UEFA European Championship matches | | --- | | Year | Round | Opponent | Result | Slovakia goalscorers | | 2016 | Group stage |  Wales | 1–2 | Duda | |  Russia | 2–1 | Weiss, Hamšík | |  England | 0–0 | — | | Round of 16 |  Germany | 0–3 | — | | 2020 | Group stage |  Poland | 2–1 | Szczęsny (o.g.), Škriniar | |  Sweden | 0–1 | — | |  Spain | 0–5 | — | ### UEFA Nations League | UEFA Nations League record | | --- | | Season | Division | Group | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | P/R | Rank | | 2018–19 | B | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 5 | Steady | 21st | | 2020–21 | B | 2 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 10 | Decrease | 30th | | 2022–23 | C | 3 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 6 | Steady | 43rd | | 2024–25 | C | *To be determined* | | Total | 16 | 4 | 2 | 10 | 15 | 21 | 21st | Head-to-head record ------------------- The following table shows Slovakia's all-time international record, correct as of 17 June 2023 after a match against Iceland. At the time of the match against Gibraltar, it was a member of UEFA, but not FIFA. Record with defunct teams is marked in *italics*.   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Opponents | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Algeria | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Andorra | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | |  Argentina | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | −6 | |  Armenia | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 7 | −6 | |  Australia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Austria | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 4 | −1 | |  Azerbaijan | 10 | 8 | 0 | 2 | 21 | 7 | +14 | |  Bahrain | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | |  Belarus | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 3 | +6 | |  Belgium | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | −1 | |  Bolivia | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 6 | 6 | 0 | |  Brazil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 5 | −5 | |  Bulgaria | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 11 | 6 | +5 | |  Cameroon | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Chile | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 | |  China | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 | |  Colombia | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | −2 | |  Costa Rica | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 6 | −1 | |  Croatia | 17 | 2 | 4 | 11 | 20 | 43 | −23 | |  Cyprus | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 6 | +10 | |  Czech Republic | 14 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 12 | 29 | −17 | |  Denmark | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 3 | +4 | |  Egypt | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | |  England | 6 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 11 | −8 | |  Estonia | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | |  Faroe Islands | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | |  Finland | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 1 | +5 | |  France | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | −4 | |  Georgia | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | |  Germany | 11 | 3 | 0 | 8 | 12 | 25 | −13 | |  Gibraltar\* | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Greece | 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 6 | −2 | |  Guatemala | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | |  Hungary | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 2 | +5 | |  Iceland | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 7 | +5 | |  Iran | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 0 | |  Republic of Ireland | 6 | 0 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 6 | −1 | |  Israel | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 7 | +3 | |  Italy | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 5 | −2 | |  Japan | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | −3 | |  Jordan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | |  Kazakhstan | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | −2 | |  Kuwait | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | |  Latvia | 6 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 12 | 6 | +6 | |  Lebanon | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | |  Liechtenstein | 9 | 7 | 2 | 0 | 26 | 1 | +25 | |  Lithuania | 6 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 5 | +6 | |  Luxembourg | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 5 | +10 | |  Malaysia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | |  Malta | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 29 | 5 | +24 | |  Mexico | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | −3 | |  Moldova | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 4 | +1 | |  Montenegro | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 | +2 | |  Morocco | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −2 | |  Netherlands | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | −3 | |  New Zealand | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Northern Ireland | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 3 | +3 | |  North Macedonia | 8 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 16 | 3 | +13 | |  Norway | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 5 | −4 | |  Paraguay | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | −2 | |  Peru | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | −2 | |  Poland | 9 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 14 | 14 | 0 | |  Portugal | 4 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 7 | −6 | |  Romania | 11 | 1 | 5 | 5 | 12 | 20 | −8 | |  Russia | 11 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 10 | 10 | 0 | |  San Marino | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 22 | 1 | +21 | |  Saudi Arabia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |  Scotland | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | +2 | | *Serbia and Montenegro* | 3 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 5 | −4 | |  Slovenia | 9 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 8 | 9 | −1 | |  South Korea | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Spain | 7 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 20 | −14 | |  Sweden | 7 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 12 | −10 | |  Switzerland | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | |  Thailand | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 3 | +1 | |  Turkey | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 8 | −5 | |  Uganda | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | −2 | |  Ukraine | 8 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 10 | 9 | +1 | |  United Arab Emirates | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | +3 | |  United States | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | |  Uzbekistan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | |  Wales | 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 9 | 10 | −1 | | **Total** | **346** | **135** | **82** | **129** | **478** | **447** | **+31** | 1. ↑ Includes matches against  FR Yugoslavia. Honours ------- ### Major tournaments * **FIFA World Cup** + Appearances (1): 2010 * **UEFA European Championship** + Appearances (2): 2016, 2020 * **Football at the Summer Olympics** + Appearances (1): 2000 ### Minor titles * **King's Cup** + **Winners** (2): 2004, 2018 * **Kirin Cup** + **Winners** (1): 2000 + Third-place (2): 2002, 2004 * **Shanghai International Football Tournament** + Runner-up (1): 1992 * **Copa Ciudad de Valparaíso [es]** + Runner up (1): 2000 * **Cyprus International Football Tournaments** + Third place (2): 1998, 2003 * **Friendship Tournament (UAE)** + Third place (1): 1994 ### Recognitions * **FIFA Best Mover of the Year** + Runner-up (1): 2014 * **Slovak Sportsperson of the Year – Team Award** + **Winners** (4): 2009, 2010, 2014, 2015 + Runner-up (1): 2016 ### Czechoslovakia As a part of Czechoslovakia (1918–1939 and 1945–1993), Slovak footballers achieved multiple major successful campaigns with the Czechoslovak national team. Notably, for example, 16 of the 22 players on the Czechoslovak squad playing in the final tournament of UEFA Euro 1976 in Yugoslavia were Slovak. In both the semi-final against Netherlands and the final match against West Germany 9 of the 13 fielded players were Slovak. The following table shows the major international successes of the Czechoslovak national team, with participation of Slovak footballers. * **FIFA World Cup:** + *Runners-up (2):* 1934, 1962 * **UEFA European Championship:** + **Winners (1):** 1976 + Third place (2): 1960, 1980 | Competition | 1st place, gold medalist(s) | 2nd place, silver medalist(s) | 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | World Cup | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | | European Championship | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | | Total | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | See also -------- * Slovakia national under-21 football team * Slovakia national under-19 football team * Slovakia national under-18 football team * Slovakia national under-17 football team * Slovakia national under-16 football team * Slovakia national under-15 football team

Slovakia national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia_national_football_team

The **modern era** is the period of human history that succeeds the Middle Ages (which ended around 1500 AD) up to the present. This terminology is a historical periodization that is applied primarily to European and Western history. The modern era can be further divided as follows: * The early modern period lasted from c. AD 1500 to 1800 and resulted in wide-ranging intellectual, political and economic change. It brought with it the Age of Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution and an Age of Revolutions, beginning with those in America and France and later spreading in other countries, partly as a result of upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars. * The late modern period began around 1800 with the end of the political revolutions in the late 18th century and involved the transition from a world dominated by imperial and colonial powers into one of nations and nationhood following the two great world wars, World War I and World War II. * Contemporary history refers to the period following the end of World War II in 1945 and continuing to the present. It is alternatively considered either a sub-period of the late modern period or a separate period beginning after the late modern period. It is history that is still within living memory, and includes the currently-ongoing 21st century. The modern period has been a period of significant development in the fields of science, politics, warfare, and technology. It has also been an age of discovery and globalization. During this time, the European powers and later their colonies, began a political, economic, and cultural colonization of the rest of the world. By the late 19th and early 20th century, modernist art, politics, science and culture has come to dominate not only Western Europe and North America, but almost every civilized area on the globe, including movements thought of as opposed to the western world and globalization. The modern era is closely associated with the development of individualism, capitalism, urbanization and a belief in the positive possibilities of technological and political progress. The brutal wars and other problems of this era, many of which come from the effects of rapid change, and the connected loss of strength of traditional religious and ethical norms, have led to many reactions against modern development. Optimism and the belief in constant progress have been most recently criticized by postmodernism, while the dominance of Western Europe and North America over the rest of the world has been criticized by postcolonial theory. Terminology ----------- Eras can not easily be defined more exactly than by centuries. 1500 is an approximate starting period for the modern era because many major events caused the Western world to change around that time: from the Fall of Constantinople (1453), Gutenberg's moveable type printing press (1450s), completion of the Reconquista (1492) and Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas (both 1492), to the Protestant Reformation begun with Martin Luther's Ninety-five Theses (1517). The term "modern" was coined shortly before 1585 to describe the beginning of a new era. The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). Sometimes distinct from the modern periods themselves, the terms "modernity" and "modernism" refer to a new way of thinking, distinct from medieval thinking. The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630) is an important transition period beginning between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, which started in Italy. "Postmodernism", coined 1949, on the other hand, would describe rather a movement in art than a period of history, and is usually applied to arts, but not to any events of the very recent history. This changed, when postmodernity was coined to describe the major changes in the 1950s and 1960s in economy, society, culture, and philosophy. These terms stem from European History; in worldwide usage, such as in China, India, and Islam, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discoveries. Characteristics --------------- The concept of the modern world as distinct from an ancient or medieval world rests on a sense that the modern world is not just another era in history, but rather the result of a new type of change. This is usually conceived of as progress driven by deliberate human efforts to better their situation. Advances in all areas of human activity—politics, industry, society, economics, commerce, transport, communication, mechanization, automation, science, medicine, technology, and culture—appear to have transformed an *Old World* into the *Modern* or *New World*. In each case, the identification of the old Revolutionary change can be used to demarcate the old and old-fashioned from the modern. Much of the Modern world replaced the Biblical-oriented value system, revalued the monarchical government system, and abolished the feudal economic system, with new democratic and liberal ideas in the areas of politics, science, psychology, sociology, and economics. Some events of modern history, though born out of context not entirely new, show a new way of perceiving the world. The concept of modernity interprets the general meaning of these events and seeks explanations for major developments. Historians analyse the events taking place in Modern Times, since the so-called "Middle Ages" (between Modern and Ancient Times). Early modern period ------------------- ### Late 15th to 17th century Renaissance and early Reformation (ca. 1450–1600) * Gutenberg's moveable type printing press (1450s): information age and newspapers. * Discovery of America (1492): Voyages of Christopher Columbus. * Machiavelli's *Il Principe* (*The Prince*) started to circulate. * Copernicus and the beginning of the Scientific Revolution * Martin Luther challenges the Church on 31 October 1517 with the 95 Theses: Reformation. * Age of Discovery * Mercantilist economic theory and policy * Fall of the Spanish Armada 8 August 1588 enabled the Rise of the British Empire Late Reformation and early Baroque (ca. 1600–1700) The "Baroque" is a term usually applied to the history of art, architecture and music during this period. * Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 in Central Europe decimated the population by up to 20%. * The treaties of the Peace of Westphalia are signed in 1648, which ended several wars in Europe and established the beginning of sovereign states. * The Glorious Revolution of 1688 establishes modern parliamentary democracy in England. * Continuation of the Scientific Revolution * The beginning of the reign of Louis XIV r. 1643–1715, an example of the Age of Absolutism. ### 18th century Age of Enlightenment and early Age of Revolution (ca. 1700–1800) * War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) * The 1713 Peace of Utrecht marked the change from Spanish to British naval supremacy. * War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) * Seven Years' War (1754–1763) * American Revolution (1765–1783) * French Revolution (1789–1799) * The beginning of the Industrial Revolution around 1760. Late modern period ------------------ ### Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was the major technological, socioeconomic, and cultural change in late 18th and early 19th century that began in Britain and spread throughout the world. During that time, an economy based on manual labour was replaced by one dominated by industry and the manufacture of machinery. It began with the mechanisation of the textile industries and the development of iron-making techniques, and trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads, and then railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The date of the Industrial Revolution is not exact. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in the 1780s and wasn't fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T.S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of George III, The Regency, and George IV). The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting the majority of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous and is often compared to the Neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture and gave up its nomadic lifestyle. The first Industrial Revolution merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships and railways, and later in the nineteenth century with the internal combustion engine and electric power generation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was much more stable and progressed at a much slower rate until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries. ### Napoleonic Era The Napoleonic Era is a period in the History of France and Europe. It is generally classified as the fourth stage of the French Revolution, the first being the National Assembly, the second being the Legislative Assembly, and the third being the Directory. The Napoleonic Era begins roughly with Napoleon's coup d'état, overthrowing the Directory and ends at the Hundred Days and his defeat at Waterloo (November 9 1799 – June 28 1815). The congress of Vienna soon set out to restore Europe to pre-French revolution days. ### 19th century Historians sometimes define a nineteenth century historical era stretching from 1815 (the Congress of Vienna) to 1914 (the outbreak of the First World War); alternatively, Eric Hobsbawm defined the "Long Nineteenth Century" as spanning the years 1789 to 1914. During this century, the Spanish, Portuguese, and Ottoman empires began to crumble and the Holy Roman and Mughal empires ceased. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire became the world's leading power, controlling one quarter of the World's population and one third of the land area. It enforced a Pax Britannica, encouraged trade, and battled rampant piracy. Slavery was greatly reduced around the world. Following a successful slave revolt in Haiti, Britain forced the Barbary pirates to halt their practice of kidnapping and enslaving Europeans, banned slavery throughout its domain, and charged its navy with ending the global slave trade. Slavery was then abolished in Russia, America, and Brazil (see Abolitionism). Following the abolition of the slave trade, and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884–1885. All the major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The French gained major ground in West Africa, the British in East Africa, and the Portuguese and Spanish at various points throughout the continent, while Leopold II of Belgium was able to retain his personal fiefdom, Congo. Electricity, steel, and petroleum fuelled a Second Industrial Revolution which enabled Germany, Japan, and the United States to become Great Powers that raced to create empires of their own. However, Russia and Qing Dynasty China failed to keep pace with the other world powers which led to massive social unrest in both empires. ### 20th century Above all, the *20th century* is distinguished from most of human history in that its most significant changes were directly or indirectly economic and technological in nature. Economic development was the force behind vast changes in everyday life, to a degree which was unprecedented in human history. The great changes of centuries before the 19th were more connected with ideas, religion or military conquest, and technological advance had only made small changes in the material wealth of ordinary people. Over the course of the 20th century, the world’s per-capita gross domestic product grew by a factor of five , much more than all earlier centuries combined (including the 19th with its Industrial Revolution). Many economists make the case that this understates the magnitude of growth, as many of the goods and services consumed at the end of the century, such as improved medicine (causing world life expectancy to increase by more than two decades) and communications technologies, were not available at any price at its beginning. However, the gulf between the world’s rich and poor grew much wider than it had ever been in the past, and the majority of the global population remained in the poor side of the divide. Still, advancing technology and medicine has had a great impact even in the Global South. Large-scale industry and more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on an unprecedented scale in the middle of the century, leading to wars that were also unprecedented. However, the increased communications contributed to democratization. Technological developments included the development of airplanes and space exploration, nuclear technology, advancement in genetics, and the dawning of the Information Age. Major political developments included the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, two world wars, and the Cold War. It also saw the former British Empire lose most of its remaining political power over commonwealth countries, most notably by ways of the dividing of the British crown into several sovereignties by the Statute of Westminster, the patriation of constitutions by the Canada Act 1982 and the Australia Act 1986, and by the independence of countries like India, Pakistan, South Africa, and Ireland. #### World War I The First World War was a world conflict, raging from July 1914 to the final Armistice on 11 November 1918. The Allied Powers, led by the British Empire, France, Russia until March 1918, Japan and the United States after 1917, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire. The war caused the disintegration of four empires — the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian ones — as well as radical change in the European and Middle Eastern maps. The Allied powers before 1917 are sometimes referred to as the Triple Entente, and the Central Powers are sometimes referred to as the Triple Alliance. Much of the fighting in World War I took place along the Western Front, within a system of opposing manned trenches and fortifications (separated by a “No man's land”) running from the North Sea to the border of Switzerland. On the Eastern Front, the vast eastern plains and limited rail network prevented a trench warfare stalemate from developing, although the scale of the conflict was just as large. Hostilities also occurred on and under the sea and — for the first time — from the air. More than 9 million soldiers died on the various battlefields, and nearly that many more in the participating countries' home fronts on account of food shortages and genocide committed under the cover of various civil wars and internal conflicts. Notably, more people died of the worldwide influenza outbreak at the end of the war and shortly after than died in the hostilities. The unsanitary conditions engendered by the war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering with public health warnings, and migration of so many soldiers around the world helped the outbreak become a pandemic. Ultimately, World War I created a decisive break with the old world order that had emerged after the Napoleonic Wars, which was modified by the mid-19th century’s nationalistic revolutions. The results of World War I would be important factors in the development of World War II approximately 20 years later. #### Interwar period The Interwar period was the period between the end of World War I in 1918 and the beginning of World War II in 1939. It included the Roaring Twenties, the Great Depression, and the rise of communism in Russia and fascism in Italy and Germany. #### World War II World War II was a global military conflict that took place in 1939–1945. It was the largest and deadliest war in history, culminating in the Holocaust and ending with the dropping of the atom bomb. Even though Japan had been fighting in China since 1937, the conventional view is that the war began on September 1, 1939, when Nazi Germany invaded Poland. Within two days the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany, even though the fighting was confined to Poland. Pursuant to a then-secret provision of its non-aggression Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union joined with Germany on September 17, 1939, to conquer Poland and to divide Eastern Europe. The Allies were initially made up of Poland, the United Kingdom, France, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, as well as British Commonwealth countries which were controlled directly by the UK, such as the Indian Empire. All of these countries declared war on Germany in September 1939. Following the lull in fighting, known as the "Phoney War", Germany invaded western Europe in May 1940. Six weeks later, France, in the mean time attacked by Italy as well, surrendered to Germany, which then tried unsuccessfully to conquer Britain. On September 27, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense agreement, the Tripartite Pact, and were known as the Axis Powers. Nine months later, on June 22, 1941, Germany launched a massive invasion of the Soviet Union, which promptly joined the Allies. Germany was now engaged in fighting a war on two fronts. This proved to be a mistake by Germany; many historians believe that if Germany had successfully carried out the invasion of Britain and put forth their best effort, the war may have turned in favor of the Axis. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked the United States at Pearl Harbor, bringing it too into the war on the Allied side. China also joined the Allies, as eventually did most of the rest of the world. China was in turmoil at the time, and attacked Japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. By the beginning of 1942, the major combatants were aligned as follows: the British Commonwealth, the United States, and the Soviet Union were fighting Germany and Italy; and the British Commonwealth, China, and the United States were fighting Japan. From then through August 1945, battles raged across all of Europe, in the North Atlantic Ocean, across North Africa, throughout Southeast Asia, throughout China, across the Pacific Ocean and in the air over Japan. Italy surrendered in September 1943 and split in a northern Germany-occupied puppet state and in an Allies-friendly state in the South; Germany surrendered in May 1945. Following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan surrendered, marking the end of the war on September 2, 1945. It is possible that around 62 million people died in the war; estimates vary greatly. About 60% of all casualties were civilians, who died as a result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, the Holocaust), and aerial bombing. The former Soviet Union and China suffered the most casualties. Estimates place deaths in the Soviet Union at around 23 million, while China suffered about 10 million. No country lost a greater portion of its population than Poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of its pre-war population of 34.8 million died. The Holocaust (which roughly means "burnt whole") was the deliberate and systematic murder of millions of Jews and other "unwanted" during World War II by the Nazi regime in Germany. Several differing views exist regarding whether it was intended to occur from the war's beginning, or if the plans for it came about later. Regardless, persecution of Jews extended well before the war even started, such as in the *Kristallnacht* (Night of Broken Glass). The Nazis used propaganda to great effect to stir up anti-Semitic feelings within ordinary Germans. After World War II, Europe was informally split into Western and Soviet spheres of influence. Western Europe later aligned as North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Eastern Europe as the Warsaw Pact. There was a shift in power from Western Europe and the British Empire to the two new superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. These two rivals would later face off in the Cold War. In Asia, the defeat of Japan led to its democratization. China's civil war continued through and after the war, resulting eventually in the establishment of the People's Republic of China. The former colonies of the European powers began their road to independence. #### Cold War and 1990s The Cold War between the "West" (the United States, Western Europe, and Japan) and the "East" (the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and partially China) dominated politics from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, at which point the Cold War ended and the post–Cold War era began (which includes most of the 1990s, the last decade of the 20th century). The Korean War and Vietnam War, and later the Soviet–Afghan War, dominated the political life, while the counterculture of the 1960s and the rise of computers changed society in very different, complex ways, including higher social and local mobility. At the end of the twentieth century, the world was at a major crossroads. Throughout the century, more technological advances had been made than in all of preceding history. Computers, the Internet, and other technology radically altered daily lives. However, several problems faced the world during the Cold War period and the 1990s that followed. First of all, the gap between rich and poor nations continued to widen. Some said that this problem could not be fixed, that there were a set amount of wealth and it could only be shared by so many. Others said that the powerful nations with large economies were not doing enough to help improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third World. However, developing countries faced many challenges, including the scale of the task to be surmounted, rapidly growing populations, and the need to protect the environment, and the cost that goes along with it. Secondly, disease threatened to destabilize many regions of the world. Viruses such as West Nile and bird flu continued to spread quickly and easily. In poor nations, malaria and other diseases affected the majority of the population. Millions were infected with HIV, the virus which causes AIDS, which was becoming an epidemic in southern Africa and around the world. Increased globalization, specifically Americanization, was also occurring. While not necessarily a threat, it was causing anti-Western and anti-American feelings in parts of the world, especially the Middle East. English was quickly becoming the global language, with people who did not speak it becoming increasingly disadvantaged. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the spread of nuclear weapons were also issues requiring immediate attention. Dictators such as Kim Jong-il in North Korea continued to lead their nations toward the development of nuclear weapons. The fear existed that not only are terrorists already attempting to get nuclear weapons, but that they have already obtained them. ### 21st century The 2000s decade refers to the years from 2000 to 2009 inclusively. The 2000s were marked generally with an escalation of the social issues of the 1990s, which included the rise of terrorism, stress, the rapid, exponential expansion of economic globalization on an unprecedented scale, the rapid expansion of communications and telecommunications with mobile phones and the Internet and international pop culture. In North America and the Middle East, most major political developments in the 2000s revolved around the War on Terrorism and the Iraq War. Elsewhere, the major theme was the rapid development of Asia's economic and political potential, with China, experiencing immense economic growth, moving toward the status of a regional power and billion-consumer market. India, along with many other developing countries, were also growing rapidly, and began integrating themselves into the world economy. A trend connecting economic and political events in North America, Asia, and the Middle East was the rapidly increasing demand for fossil fuels, which, along with fewer new petroleum finds, greater extraction costs (see peak oil), and political turmoil, saw the price of gas and oil soar ~500% between 2000 and 2005. In some places, especially in Europe, gas could be $5 a gallon, depending on the currency. Major events relating to the War on Terrorism included the September 11, 2001 Attacks, the Moscow Theatre Siege, the 2003 Istanbul bombings, the Madrid train bombings, the Beslan school hostage crisis, the 2005 London bombings, the October 2005 New Delhi bombings, and the 2008 Mumbai Hotel Siege. The violence in Iraq, even after democratic elections on January 30, 2005, caused much political stir in all countries occupying the country (USA, Britain, Australia, etc), and political debates of these countries in 2006 and 2007 were highly influenced by the unstable situation in the Near East, especially Iraq and the discussion over Iran's nuclear weapons program. Less influential, but omnipresent, was the debate on Turkey's participation in the European Union. New virus strains, such as SARS and swine flu, emerged and spread during the 2000s. See also -------- * Post-classical history * Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns * Timelines of modern history

Modern era

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era

Uranus, the seventh planet of the Solar System, has 27 known moons, most of which are named after characters that appear in, or are mentioned in, the works of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. Uranus's moons are divided into three groups: thirteen inner moons, five major moons, and nine irregular moons. The inner and major moons all have prograde orbits, while orbits of the irregulars are mostly retrograde. The inner moons are small dark bodies that share common properties and origins with Uranus's rings. The five major moons are ellipsoidal, indicating that they reached hydrostatic equilibrium at some point in their past (and may still be in equilibrium), and four of them show signs of internally driven processes such as canyon formation and volcanism on their surfaces. The largest of these five, Titania, is 1,578 km in diameter and the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System, about one-twentieth the mass of the Earth's Moon. The orbits of the regular moons are nearly coplanar with Uranus's equator, which is tilted 97.77° to its orbit. Uranus's irregular moons have elliptical and strongly inclined (mostly retrograde) orbits at large distances from the planet. William Herschel discovered the first two moons, Titania and Oberon, in 1787. The other three ellipsoidal moons were discovered in 1851 by William Lassell (Ariel and Umbriel) and in 1948 by Gerard Kuiper (Miranda). These five may be in hydrostatic equilibrium, and so would be considered dwarf planets if they were in direct orbit about the Sun. The remaining moons were discovered after 1985, either during the *Voyager 2* flyby mission or with the aid of advanced Earth-based telescopes. Discovery --------- The first two moons to be discovered were Titania and Oberon, which were spotted by Sir William Herschel on January 11, 1787, six years after he had discovered the planet itself. Later, Herschel thought he had discovered up to six moons (see below) and perhaps even a ring. For nearly 50 years, Herschel's instrument was the only one with which the moons had been seen. In the 1840s, better instruments and a more favorable position of Uranus in the sky led to sporadic indications of satellites additional to Titania and Oberon. Eventually, the next two moons, Ariel and Umbriel, were discovered by William Lassell in 1851. The Roman numbering scheme of Uranus's moons was in a state of flux for a considerable time, and publications hesitated between Herschel's designations (where Titania and Oberon are Uranus II and IV) and William Lassell's (where they are sometimes I and II). With the confirmation of Ariel and Umbriel, Lassell numbered the moons I through IV from Uranus outward, and this finally stuck. In 1852, Herschel's son John Herschel gave the four then-known moons their names. No other discoveries were made for almost another century. In 1948, Gerard Kuiper at the McDonald Observatory discovered the smallest and the last of the five large, spherical moons, Miranda. Decades later, the flyby of the *Voyager 2* space probe in January 1986 led to the discovery of ten further inner moons. Another satellite, Perdita, was discovered in 1999 after studying old *Voyager* photographs. Uranus was the last giant planet without any known irregular moons, but since 1997 nine distant irregular moons have been identified using ground-based telescopes. Two more small inner moons, Cupid and Mab, were discovered using the Hubble Space Telescope in 2003. As of 2020, the moon Margaret was the last Uranian moon discovered, and its characteristics were published in October 2003. ### Spurious moons After Herschel discovered Titania and Oberon on January 11, 1787, he subsequently believed that he had observed four other moons: two on January 18 and February 9, 1790, and two more on February 28 and March 26, 1794. It was thus believed for many decades thereafter that Uranus had a system of six satellites, though the four latter moons were never confirmed by any other astronomer. Lassell's observations of 1851, in which he discovered Ariel and Umbriel, however, failed to support Herschel's observations; Ariel and Umbriel, which Herschel certainly ought to have seen if he had seen any satellites beside Titania and Oberon, did not correspond to any of Herschel's four additional satellites in orbital characteristics. Herschel's four spurious satellites were thought to have sidereal periods of 5.89 days (interior to Titania), 10.96 days (between Titania and Oberon), 38.08 days, and 107.69 days (exterior to Oberon). It was therefore concluded that Herschel's four satellites were spurious, probably arising from the misidentification of faint stars in the vicinity of Uranus as satellites, and the credit for the discovery of Ariel and Umbriel was given to Lassell. **Discovery of Outer Planet Moons**   Moons of Jupiter   Moons of Saturn   Moons of Uranus   Moons of Neptune Names ----- Although the first two Uranian moons were discovered in 1787, they were not named until 1852, a year after two more moons had been discovered. The responsibility for naming was taken by John Herschel, son of the discoverer of Uranus. Herschel, instead of assigning names from Greek mythology, named the moons after magical spirits in English literature: the fairies Oberon and Titania from William Shakespeare's *A Midsummer Night's Dream*, and the sylph Ariel and gnome Umbriel from Alexander Pope's *The Rape of the Lock* (Ariel is also a sprite in Shakespeare's *The Tempest*). The reasoning was presumably that Uranus, as god of the sky and air, would be attended by spirits of the air. Subsequent names, rather than continuing the airy spirits theme (only Puck and Mab continued the trend), have focused on Herschel's source material. In 1949, the fifth moon, Miranda, was named by its discoverer Gerard Kuiper after a thoroughly mortal character in Shakespeare's *The Tempest*. The current IAU practice is to name moons after characters from Shakespeare's plays and *The Rape of the Lock* (although at present only Ariel, Umbriel, and Belinda have names drawn from the latter; all the rest are from Shakespeare). The outer retrograde moons are all named after characters from one play, *The Tempest*; the sole known outer prograde moon, Margaret, is named from *Much Ado About Nothing*. Some asteroids, also named after the same Shakespearean characters, share names with moons of Uranus: 171 Ophelia, 218 Bianca, 593 Titania, 666 Desdemona, 763 Cupido, and 2758 Cordelia. Characteristics and groups -------------------------- The Uranian satellite system is the least massive among those of the giant planets. Indeed, the combined mass of the five major satellites is less than half that of Triton (the seventh-largest moon in the Solar System) alone. The largest of the satellites, Titania, has a radius of 788.9 km, or less than half that of the Moon, but slightly more than that of Rhea, the second-largest moon of Saturn, making Titania the eighth-largest moon in the Solar System. Uranus is about 10,000 times more massive than its moons. ### Inner moons As of 2020, Uranus is known to have 13 inner moons. Their orbits lie inside that of Miranda. All of the inner moons are intimately connected with the rings of Uranus, which probably resulted from the fragmentation of one or several small inner moons. The two innermost moons (Cordelia and Ophelia) are shepherds of Uranus's ε ring, whereas the small moon Mab is a source of Uranus's outermost μ ring. There may be two additional small (2–7 km in radius) undiscovered shepherd moons located about 100 km exterior to Uranus's α and β rings. At 162 km, Puck is the largest of the inner moons of Uranus and the only one imaged by *Voyager 2* in any detail. Puck and Mab are the two outermost inner satellites of Uranus. All inner moons are dark objects; their geometrical albedo is less than 10%. They are composed of water ice contaminated with a dark material, probably radiation-processed organics. The small inner moons constantly perturb each other. The system is chaotic and apparently unstable. Simulations show that the moons may perturb each other into crossing orbits, which may eventually result in collisions between the moons. Desdemona may collide with Cressida within the next million years, and Cupid will likely collide with Belinda in the next 10 million years; Perdita and Juliet may be involved in later collisions. Because of this, the rings and inner moons may be under constant flux, with moons colliding and re-accreting on short timescales. ### Large moons Uranus has five major moons: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. They range in diameter from 472 km for Miranda to 1578 km for Titania. All these moons are relatively dark objects: their geometrical albedo varies between 30 and 50%, whereas their Bond albedo is between 10 and 23%. Umbriel is the darkest moon and Ariel the brightest. The masses of the moons range from 6.7 × 1019 kg (Miranda) to 3.5 × 1021 kg (Titania). For comparison, the Moon has a mass of 7.5 × 1022 kg. The major moons of Uranus are thought to have formed in the accretion disc, which existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or resulted from a large impact suffered by Uranus early in its history. This view is supported by their large thermal inertia, a surface property they share with dwarf planets like Pluto and Haumea. It differs strongly from the thermal behaviour of the Uranian irregular moons that is comparable to classical trans-Neptunian objects. This suggests a separate origin. All major moons comprise approximately equal amounts rock and ice, except Miranda, which is made primarily of ice. The ice component may include ammonia and carbon dioxide. Their surfaces are heavily cratered, though all of them (except Umbriel) show signs of endogenic resurfacing in the form of lineaments (canyons) and, in the case of Miranda, ovoid race-track like structures called coronae. Extensional processes associated with upwelling diapirs are likely responsible for the origin of the coronae. Ariel appears to have the youngest surface with the fewest impact craters, while Umbriel's appears oldest. A past 3:1 orbital resonance between Miranda and Umbriel and a past 4:1 resonance between Ariel and Titania are thought to be responsible for the heating that caused substantial endogenic activity on Miranda and Ariel. One piece of evidence for such a past resonance is Miranda's unusually high orbital inclination (4.34°) for a body so close to the planet. The largest Uranian moons may be internally differentiated, with rocky cores at their centers surrounded by ice mantles. Titania and Oberon may harbor liquid water oceans at the core/mantle boundary. The major moons of Uranus are airless bodies. For instance, Titania was shown to possess no atmosphere at a pressure larger than 10–20 nanobar. The path of the Sun in the local sky over the course of a local day during Uranus's and its major moons' summer solstice is quite different from that seen on most other Solar System worlds. The major moons have almost exactly the same rotational axial tilt as Uranus (their axes are parallel to that of Uranus). The Sun would appear to follow a circular path around Uranus's celestial pole in the sky, at the closest about 7 degrees from it, during the hemispheric summer. Near the equator, it would be seen nearly due north or due south (depending on the season). At latitudes higher than 7°, the Sun would trace a circular path about 15 degrees in diameter in the sky, and never set during the hermispheric summer, moving to a position over the celestial equator during the Uranian equinox, and then invisible below the horizon during the hemispheric winter. ### Irregular moons As of 2005 Uranus is known to have nine irregular moons, which orbit it at a distance much greater than that of Oberon, the furthest of the large moons. All the irregular moons are probably captured objects that were trapped by Uranus soon after its formation. The diagram illustrates the orbits of those irregular moons discovered so far. The moons above the X axis are prograde, those beneath are retrograde. The radius of the Uranian Hill sphere is approximately 73 million km. Uranus's irregular moons range in size from 120–200 km (Sycorax) to about 20 km (Trinculo). Unlike Jupiter's irregulars, Uranus's show no correlation of axis with inclination. Instead, the retrograde moons can be divided into two groups based on axis/orbital eccentricity. The inner group includes those satellites closer to Uranus (a < 0.15 rH) and moderately eccentric (~0.2), namely Francisco, Caliban, Stephano, and Trinculo. The outer group (a > 0.15 rH) includes satellites with high eccentricity (~0.5): Sycorax, Prospero, Setebos, and Ferdinand. The intermediate inclinations 60° < i < 140° are devoid of known moons due to the Kozai instability. In this instability region, solar perturbations at apoapse cause the moons to acquire large eccentricities that lead to collisions with inner satellites or ejection. The lifetime of moons in the instability region is from 10 million to a billion years. Margaret is the only known irregular prograde moon of Uranus, and it currently has the most eccentric orbit of any moon in the Solar System, though Neptune's moon Nereid has a higher mean eccentricity. As of 2008, Margaret's eccentricity is 0.7979. List ---- Key| ¡ Inner moons   | † Major moons   | ‡ Irregular moons (retrograde) | ± Irregular moon (prograde) | The Uranian moons are listed here by orbital period, from shortest to longest. Moons massive enough for their surfaces to have collapsed into a spheroid are highlighted in light blue and bolded. The inner and major moons all have prograde orbits. Irregular moons with retrograde orbits are shown in dark grey. Margaret, the only known irregular moon of Uranus with a prograde orbit, is shown in light grey. The orbits and mean distances of the irregular moons are variable over short timescales due to frequent planetary and solar perturbations, therefore the listed orbital elements of all irregular moons are averaged over a 8,000-year numerical integration by Brozović and Jacobson (2009). Their orbital elements are all based on the epoch of 1 January 2000 Terrestrial Time. Uranian moons| Label | Name | Pronunciation (key) | Named after | Image | Abs.magn. | Diameter (km) | Mass (× 1016 kg) | Semi-major axis (km) | Orbital period (d) | Inclination (°) | Eccentricity | Discovery year | Discoverer | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | VI | ¡Cordelia | /kɔːrˈdiːliə/ | Daughter of Lear in *King Lear* | | 10.3 | 40 ± 6 (50 × 36) | ≈ 4.4 | 49770 | +0.33503 | 0.08479° | 0.00026 | 1986 | Terrile (Voyager 2) | | VII | ¡Ophelia | /oʊˈfiːliə/ | Daughter of Polonius and fiancée of Hamlet in *Hamlet* | | 10.2 | 43 ± 8 (54 × 38) | ≈ 5.3 | 53790 | +0.37640 | 0.1036° | 0.00992 | 1986 | Terrile (Voyager 2) | | VIII | ¡Bianca | /biˈɑːŋkə/ | Daughter of Baptista in *The Taming of the Shrew* | | 9.8 | 51 ± 4 (64 × 46) | ≈ 9.2 | 59170 | +0.43458 | 0.193° | 0.00092 | 1986 | Smith (Voyager 2) | | IX | ¡Cressida | /ˈkrɛsədə/ | Cressida, female protagonist of *Troilus and Cressida* | | 8.9 | 80 ± 4 (92 × 74) | ≈ 34 | 61780 | +0.46357 | 0.006° | 0.00036 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | X | ¡Desdemona | /ˌdɛzdəˈmoʊnə/ | Wife of Othello in *Othello* | | 9.3 | 64 ± 8 (90 × 54) | ≈ 18 | 62680 | +0.47365 | 0.11125° | 0.00013 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XI | ¡Juliet | /ˈdʒuːliət/ | Female protagonist of *Romeo and Juliet* | | 8.5 | 94 ± 8 (150 × 74) | ≈ 56 | 64350 | +0.49307 | 0.065° | 0.00066 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XII | ¡Portia | /ˈpɔːrʃə/ | Portia, wife of Brutus in *Julius Caesar* | | 7.7 | 135 ± 8 (156 × 126) | ≈ 170 | 66090 | +0.51320 | 0.059° | 0.00005 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XIII | ¡Rosalind | /ˈrɒzələnd/ | Daughter of the banished duke in *As You Like It* | | 9.1 | 72 ± 12 | ≈ 25 | 69940 | +0.55846 | 0.279° | 0.00011 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XXVII | ¡Cupid | /ˈkjuːpəd/ | Minor character in *Timon of Athens* | | 12.6 | ≈ 18 | ≈ 0.38 | 74800 | +0.61800 | 0.100° | 0.0013 | 2003 | Showalter and Lissauer | | XIV | ¡Belinda | /bəˈlɪndə/ | Protagonist of *The Rape of the Lock* | | 8.8 | 90 ± 16 (128 × 64) | ≈ 49 | 75260 | +0.62353 | 0.031° | 0.00007 | 1986 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XXV | ¡Perdita | /ˈpɜːrdətə/ | Daughter of Leontes and Hermione in *The Winter's Tale* | | 11.0 | 30 ± 6 | ≈ 1.8 | 76400 | +0.63800 | 0.0° | 0.0012 | 1999 | Karkoschka (Voyager 2) | | XV | ¡Puck | /ˈpʌk/ | Puck, a mischievous spirit in *A Midsummer Night's Dream* | | 7.3 | 162 ± 4 | ≈ 290 | 86010 | +0.76183 | 0.3192° | 0.00012 | 1985 | Synnott (Voyager 2) | | XXVI | ¡Mab | /ˈmæb/ | Midwife of the fairies in *Romeo and Juliet* | | 12.1 | ≈ 18 | ≈ 0.38 | 97700 | +0.92300 | 0.1335° | 0.0025 | 2003 | Showalter and Lissauer | | V | †**Miranda** | /məˈrændə/ | Miranda, lead character in *The Tempest* | | 3.5 | 471.6 ± 1.4 (481 × 468 × 466) | 6400±300 | 129390 | +1.41348 | 4.232° | 0.0013 | 1948 | Kuiper | | I | †**Ariel** | /ˈɛəriɛl/ | Sylph (a type of air spirit) in *The Rape of the Lock* | | 1.0 | 1157.8±1.2 (1162 × 1156 × 1155) | 125100±2100 | 191020 | +2.52038 | 0.260° | 0.0012 | 1851 | Lassell | | II | †**Umbriel** | /ˈʌmbriəl/ | Evil spirit in *The Rape of the Lock* | | 1.7 | 1169.4±5.6 | 127500±2800 | 266300 | +4.14418 | 0.205° | 0.0039 | 1851 | Lassell | | III | †**Titania** | /təˈtɑːniə/ | Queen of the fairies in *A Midsummer Night's Dream* | | 0.8 | 1576.8±1.2 | 340000±6100 | 435910 | +8.70587 | 0.340° | 0.0011 | 1787 | Herschel | | IV | †**Oberon** | /ˈoʊbərɒn/ | King of the fairies in *A Midsummer Night's Dream* | | 1.0 | 1522.8±5.2 | 307600±8700 | 583520 | +13.4632 | 0.058° | 0.0014 | 1787 | Herschel | | XXII | ‡Francisco | /frænˈsɪskoʊ/ | Lord in *The Tempest* | | 12.4 | ≈ 22 | ≈ 0.72 | 4282900 | −267.09 | 147.250° | 0.1324 | 2003 | Holman et al. | | XVI | ‡Caliban | /ˈkælɪbæn/ | Caliban, the monstrous slave in *The Tempest* | | 9.1 | 42+20−12 | ≈ 25 | 7231100 | −579.73 | 141.529° | 0.1812 | 1997 | Gladman et al. | | XX | ‡Stephano | /ˈstɛfənoʊ/ | Drunken butler in *The Tempest* | | 9.7 | ≈ 32 | ≈ 2.2 | 8007400 | −677.47 | 143.819° | 0.2248 | 1999 | Gladman et al. | | XXI | ‡Trinculo | /ˈtrɪŋkjʊloʊ/ | Jester in *The Tempest* | | 12.7 | ≈ 18 | ≈ 0.39 | 8505200 | −749.40 | 166.971° | 0.2194 | 2001 | Holman et al. | | XVII | ‡Sycorax | /ˈsɪkəræks/ | Mother of Caliban in *The Tempest* | | 7.4 | 157+23−15 | ≈ 230 | 12179400 | −1288.38 | 159.420° | 0.5219 | 1997 | Nicholson et al. | | XXIII | ±Margaret | /ˈmɑːrɡərət/ | Gentlewoman attending on Hero in *Much Ado About Nothing* | | 12.7 | ≈ 20 | ≈ 0.54 | 14146700 | +1661.00 | 57.367° | 0.6772 | 2003 | Sheppard and Jewitt | | XVIII | ‡Prospero | /ˈprɒspəroʊ/ | Rightful Duke of Milan in *The Tempest* | | 10.5 | ≈ 50 | ≈ 8.5 | 16276800 | −1978.37 | 151.830° | 0.4445 | 1999 | Holman et al. | | XIX | ‡Setebos | /ˈsɛtɛbʌs/ | Deity worshipped by Sycorax in *The Tempest* | | 10.7 | ≈ 48 | ≈ 7.5 | 17420400 | −2225.08 | 158.235° | 0.5908 | 1999 | Kavelaars et al. | | XXIV | ‡Ferdinand | /ˈfɜːrdənænd/ | Son of the King of Naples in *The Tempest* | | 12.5 | ≈ 12 | ≈ 0.54 | 20430000 | −2790.03 | 169.793° | 0.3993 | 2003 | Holman et al. | *Sources:* NASA/NSSDC, Sheppard, et al. 2005. For the recently discovered outer irregular moons (Francisco through Ferdinand) the most accurate orbital data can be generated with the Minor Planet Center's Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service. The irregulars are significantly perturbed by the Sun. See also -------- * List of natural satellites

Moons of Uranus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moons_of_Uranus

**Yom Kippur** (/ˌjɒm kɪˈpʊər, ˌjɔːm ˈkɪpər, ˌjoʊm-/; Hebrew: יוֹם כִּפּוּר, *Yōm Kippūr*, [ˈjom kiˈpuʁ], lit. '**Day of Atonement**') is the holiest day in Judaism and Samaritanism. It occurs annually on the 10th of Tishrei, corresponding to a secular date in September or early October. Primarily centered on atonement and repentance, the day's main observances consist of full fasting and ascetic behavior accompanied by long prayer services in synagogue, as well as sin confessions. Alongside the related holiday of Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur is one of the two components of the "High Holy Days" of Judaism. It is also the last day of the Ten Days of Repentance. Name ---- The formal Hebrew name of the holiday is *Yom HaKippurim*, "day [of] the atonement". This name is used in the Bible, Mishnah, and Shulchan Aruch. The word *kippurim* (atonement) is one of many Biblical Hebrew words which, while using a grammatical plural form, refers to a singular abstract concept. Beginning in the classical period, the singular form *kippur* began to be used in piyyut, for example in Unetanneh Tokef, alongside the standard plural form *kippurim*. Use of *kippur* spread In the medieval period, with *Yom Kippur* becoming the holiday's name in Yiddish and *Kippur* in Ladino. In modern Hebrew, *Yom Kippur* or simply *Kippur* is the common name, while *Yom HaKippurim* is used in formal writing. In older English texts, the translation "Day of Atonement" is often used. Significance ------------ ### High Holy Days Yom Kippur is one of the two High Holy Days, or *Days of Awe* (Hebrew *yamim noraim*), alongside Rosh Hashana (which falls 9 days previously). According to Jewish tradition, on Rosh Hashanah God inscribes each person's fate for the coming year into the Book of Life, and waits until Yom Kippur to "seal" the verdict. This process is described dramatically in the poem Unetanneh Tokef, which is recited on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur: > A great shofar will be blown, and a small still voice will be heard. The angels will make haste, and be seized with fear and trembling, and will say: "Behold, the day of judgment!"... On Rosh Hashanah it is written, and on the Yom Kippur fast it is sealed, how many will pass and how many will be created, who will live and who will die, who in his time and who not in his time... But repentance, prayer, and charity remove the evil of the decree... For You do not desire a person's death, but rather that he repent and live. Until the day of his death You wait for him; if he repents, you accept him immediately. > > During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend their behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God and against other human beings. At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God. ### Repentance (*Teshuva*) Repentance in Judaism (Hebrew: *Teshuva*), in its most basic form, consists of regretting having committed the sin, resolving not to commit that sin in the future, and confessing that sin before God. While repentance for one's sins can and should be done at any time, it is considered especially desirable during the Ten Days of Repentance between Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, and particularly on Yom Kippur itself. Thus, the Yom Kippur prayers contain extended confessions which list many variety of sin, and to which one can add their own sins, along with requests for forgiveness from God. According to the Talmud, "Yom Kippur atones for sins done against God (*bein adam leMakom*), but does not atone for sins done against other human beings (*bein adam lechavero*) until the other person has been appeased." Therefore, it is considered imperative to repair the harm that one has done to others before or during Yom Kippur. Yom Kippur is described in the prayers as "a day of creating love and brotherhood, a day of abandoning jealousy and strife". It is said that "if one does not remove hatred [from their heart] on Yom Kippur, their prayers are not heard". ### Thirteen attributes According to the Bible, after the golden calf sin, Moses descended from Mount Sinai and broke the Tablets of Stone, which contained the Ten Commandments and symbolized the covenant with God. After God agreed to forgive the people's sin, Moses was told to return to Mount Sinai for a second 40-day period, in order to receive a second set of tablets. According to rabbinic tradition, the date Moses descended with the second set of tablets was Yom Kippur. On this day Moses announced to the people that they had been forgiven; as a result the Torah fixed this date as a permanent holiday of forgiveness. The new covenant, which God announced by proclaiming the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy to Moses, is textually similar to the covenant of the Ten Commandments except that God's nature is described as merciful and forgiving, rather than zealous. When the Jewish people sinned in later eras, prophets would repeatedly quote the Thirteen Attributes to God as a reminder of God's commitment to mercy and forgiveness. This is continued to the present day, as recitation of the Thirteen Attributes remains an important part of the Yom Kippur prayers (in Maariv and Neilah). ### Closeness to God While many of the observances of Yom Kippur (such as fasting and long prayers) can be difficult, there is also a tradition in which they are interpreted positively, as indications of closeness of God. Various sources compare the observances of Yom Kippur - fasting, barefootness (not wearing leather shoes), standing (in prayer), particular manners of prayer, even the peace that exists between Jews on this day - with the behavior of angels, suggesting that on Yom Kippur Jews become like angels in heaven, purified and close to God and not limited by physicality. Yom Kippur was also unique as a time of closeness to God in the Yom Kippur Temple service. Yom Kippur was the only occasion on which any person was allowed to enter the Holy of Holies, the innermost chamber of the Temple in Jerusalem, where God's presence was said to dwell. On Yom Kippur the High Priest entered the Holy of Holies several times, first to create a cloud of incense smoke in which (the Bible promises) God would reveal Himself without being seen, and later to offer sacrifices of atonement. According to the Torah, the Yom Kippur Temple service was commanded in wake of the deaths of Nadav and Avihu on the 8th day of the Tabernacle inauguration. Not only was this 8th day the occasion of the Yom Kippur command, but the 8th day was also similar in its nature to Yom Kippur, both in biblical texts (e.g. the sacrifices offered on each day) and in rabbinic interpretation. The purpose of the 8th day was the revelation of God's presence to the people; similarly, the Yom Kippur service was a unique opportunity for the people's representative to obtain closeness with God. A midrash compares the Yom Kippur prayers to a verse from the Song of Songs, describing a woman who rises from bed at night to begin a romantic encounter with her lover. With each Yom Kippur prayer, it is implied, Jews approach closer to God: > "I rose up to open to my beloved. My hands dripped with myrrh, my fingers with flowing myrrh, upon the handles of the bolt" (Song of Songs 5:5) - "I rose up to open to my beloved" - this refers to *Yotzer* [the morning prayer]; "My hands dripped with myrrh" - this refers to Mussaf; "my fingers with flowing myrrh" - this refers to Mincha; "upon the handles of the bolt" - this refers to Neilah. > > Using a similar metaphor, the Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a wedding date, as on this date Moses returned having reestablished the covenant between God and Israel. ### Jewish unity Yom Kippur is considered a day of Jewish unity. In Kol Nidre, in which vows are released, vows of excommunication against sinning Jews were similarly lifted and these "transgressors" were allowed to pray alongside other Jews. Similarly, the Mishnah describes Yom Kippur as a day on which men and women would once meet each other in the vineyards in order to arrange marriages. While this story is surprising given the generally somber nature of the day, it is based on the the Biblical episode where the oath against marrying Benjaminites was circumvented by allowing them to take women from the vineyards as wives, and thus indicates the day's theme of abandoning grudges in order for the Jewish people to be reunited. Observance ---------- As one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the only times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar. ### Erev Yom Kippur On the day preceding Yom Kippur, known as *Erev Yom Kippur* (lit. "eve [of] day [of] atonement"), a number of activities are customarily performed in preparation for Yom Kippur. These activities generally relate to the themes of the holiday, but are forbidden or impractical to do on Yom Kippur itself. According to the Talmud, "Yom Kippur does not atone for sins between a person and his fellow until he has appeased his fellow." Thus, it is common practice on Erev Yom Kippur to request forgiveness from other individuals for misdeeds one has done to them. The Talmud records no less than 14 stories attesting to the importance of the day for repairing relationships with one's spouses, parents, children, coworkers, the poor, and other individuals. The day before a major Jewish holiday is often devoted towards preparing for that holiday (as with burning chametz before Passover or obtaining the Four Species before Sukkot); for Yom Kippur, the appropriate preparation is to seek forgiveness from one's fellow man. Nevertheless, one should not ask forgiveness if this will cause further harm (for example, by bringing up an insult the victim was unaware of). According to halakha, one must eat on Erev Yom Kippur. A variety of reasons have been suggested for this requirement, among them: * Most obviously, eating well before the fast will make it easier to complete the fast in good health. * Eating before the fast will actually make the fast subjectively more difficult, due to "withdrawal" from the previous day's feast, and thus increase a person's level of "affliction" on this day (though it is not agreed that a person should in fact attempt to increase their affliction beyond the basic requirements). * In general, Jewish holidays are celebrated with festive meals. Since a meal celebrating Yom Kippur cannot be held on the day itself, it is held beforehand. * One celebrates the forgiveness they are about to receive for their sins, thus demonstrating that they are in fact bothered by their sins, and thus are more deserving of forgiveness. Many Orthodox men immerse themselves in a *mikveh* on this day. Opinions differ on whether this is a technical act to remove ritual impurity, or else a symbolic one to symbolize one's cleansing from sin on Yom Kippur. The kapparot ritual, in which either money or a chicken is symbolically given to charity, is performed by some on Erev Yom Kippur as a means to achieve atonement. In this day's morning prayer service, additional selichot prayers are recited. In the afternoon prayer, the long confession is recited, just as it is on Yom Kippur itself. This confession is recited before the last Erev Yom Kippur meal, in case one becomes intoxicated at this meal and is unable to confess properly afterwards, or else because a person might choke to death at that meal and die without confessing (seemingly an unlikely possibility, but one which reminds a person of their mortality). ### Fasting and asceticism The Bible commands Jews to "afflict themselves" (*ve'initem et nafshoteichem*) on Yom Kippur. While these verses do not explicitly mention the form of affliction, the phrase "afflicting oneself" frequently appears elsewhere in connection with fasting or lack of food, and public fast days for repentance were a common practice in Biblical times. According to the Jewish oral tradition, the Yom Kippur "affliction" consists of the following five prohibitions: 1. Fasting (no eating and drinking) 2. No wearing of leather shoes 3. No bathing or washing 4. No anointing oneself with perfumes or lotions 5. No marital relations Although the fast is required of all healthy men over 13 or women over 12, it is waived in the case of any life-threatening medical conditions. In such situations, though, it is preferable (if the medical situation allows for it) to consume only small amounts of food or drink at a time. Some of the other prohibitions are also waived in certain cases of need; for example, washing the body in cold water to remove dirt. Fasting, along with the other restrictions, begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. One should add a few minutes to the beginning and end of the day, called *tosefet Yom Kippur*, lit. "addition to Yom Kippur". #### Symbolism A number of different interpretations of these restrictions have been suggested. In one approach, fasting replaces animal sacrifices. Fasting causes one's fat and blood to be diminished, just as the fat and blood of a sacrifice were burned on the altar. Thus, the fast is a form of sacrifice which can atone for sin like the Temple sacrifices once did. Other approaches suggest that the prohibitions represent not suffering, but rather special holiness. For example, on Yom Kippur, Jews are said to become like angels. Just as angels do not need to eat, drink, or wear shoes, so too Jews do not engage on these activities on Yom Kippur. By detaching themselves from physical needs, Jews become purified and resemble angels. Similarly, the prohibitions have been interpreted as a return to the purity of the biblical Garden of Eden. Upon leaving Eden shoes became necessary for the first time ("thorns and thistles will grow in your way...the snake will raise its head (to bite you) and you will give your heel (to crush it)"); thus on Yom Kippur Jews do not wear (leather) shoes. While in Eden food and drink were easily obtained, but after the expulsion man must work for food "by the sweat of [his] brow"; thus food and drink are refrained from on Yom Kippur, as well as washing, and the use of cosmetics to remove sweat or its odor. In Eden death was unknown and procreation unnecessary; similarly on Yom Kippur marital relations are avoided. By refraining from these activities, the body is uncomfortable but can still survive. The soul is considered to be the life force in a body. Therefore, by making one’s body uncomfortable, one’s soul is uncomfortable. By feeling pain, one can feel how others feel when they are in pain. ### Prohibition on work The Bible calls Yom Kippur a day of rest (*shabbat shabbaton*) on which work is prohibited. Thus, the activities forbidden on Shabbat are also forbidden on Yom Kippur: the 39 categories of work as well as the rabbinic Shabbat prohibitions. ### Other observances Wearing white clothing (or a kittel for Ashkenazi Jews) is traditional to symbolize one's purity on this day, similar to the angels in heaven who are said to wear white. Yom Kippur is honored in the same ways as Shabbat and other holidays, to the extent permitted. Thus, the house is cleaned ahead of time, and the table covered with a nice tablecloth (even though it will not be used for eating). The synagogue is cleaned ahead of time, and all the lights left on. One bathes before Yom Kippur, and clean clothes are worn. Smelling pleasant smells is allowed on Yom Kippur, so many make a point of smelling pleasant spices throughout the day. Candles are lit just before Yom Kippur, as is done before Shabbat. It is traditional for parents to give their children a special blessing before beginning the Yom Kippur prayers. Those whose parents have died light a yahrzeit candle in their memory before Yom Kippur begins. Prayer services --------------- The Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the actual number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day which has three prayer services (Shacharit, Mincha, and Maariv), or a Shabbat or Yom Tov which has four prayer services (those three, plus Mussaf), Yom Kippur has five prayer services (those four, plus *Ne'ilah*, the closing prayer). The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins (*Vidui*), recitation of Avinu Malkenu, and a unique prayer dedicated to the special Yom Kippur *avodah* (service) of the Kohen Gadol (high priest) in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem. All of the prayer services of Yom Kippur include litanies and petitions of forgiveness called piyyutim and selichot. Notable poems (piyyutim) recited include Unetanneh Tokef, the Ten Martyrs, HaAderet v'HaEmunah, and Mareh Kohen. Many married Ashkenazi Orthodox men wear a *kittel*, a white robe-like garment for evening prayers on Yom Kippur, also used in Eastern European communities by men on their wedding day. They also wear a tallit (prayer shawl), which is typically worn only during morning services. ### Order of prayers Before the beginning of Yom Kippur, many Jews recite the optional *Tefillah Zakkah* ("the pure prayer"), in which (among other topics) one declares that they forgive anyone who has harmed them in the past, "except for damages which can be recovered in court, and except for those who say: I will harm him and he will forgive me", asks God not to punish anyone who has been so forgiven, and asks God to show similar graciousness in forgiving their own sins. Like all Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur begins in the evening, and the evening prayer (*Maariv*) is preceded by the special Kol Nidre (described below) prayer. The next morning, the morning prayer (*Shacharit*) is recited. The Torah reading is from Leviticus 16, describing the Yom Kippur Temple service and the laws of the day. The Haftarah is from Isaiah 57:14–58–14, according to which God will ignore the prayers of one who fasts while continuing to perform evil deeds. Yizkor is then recited. Next is the added prayer (*Mussaf*) as on all other holidays. The highlight of this prayer is the Avodah recitation, where the prayer leader recounts the Yom Kippur Temple service by which the High Priest would once obtain atonement from God in the Temple in Jerusalem. Other notable additions to Yom Kippur Mussaf include the Unetanneh Tokef and Ten Martyrs poems. While the Yom Kippur prayer service is long and takes up most of the day, there is generally a break of several hours after Mussaf before the next prayers, which last until the conclusion of the fast. Next is the afternoon prayer (*Mincha*), where the Haftarah is the entire Book of Jonah, which has as its theme the story of God's willingness to forgive those who repent. The service concludes with the *Ne'ila* ("closing") prayer, which begins shortly before sunset, when the "gates of prayer" will be closed. After Ne'ila, Yom Kippur comes to an end with a recitation of *Shema Yisrael* and the blowing of the *shofar*, which marks the conclusion of the fast and symbolizes freedom from sin. Finally, the brief weekday Maariv prayer is recited, before the recitation of Havdalah. ### Kol Nidre Before sunset on Yom Kippur eve, worshipers gather in the synagogue. The cantor stands with two community members at his sides, and chants the Kol Nidre prayer (Aramaic: **כל נדרי**, English translation: "All vows"). It is recited in a dramatic manner, before the open ark, with an Ashkenazic melody that dates back to the 16th century. Kol Nidre is recited in Aramaic, except in the Italian and Romaniote rites where it is recited in Hebrew. > All personal vows we are likely to make, all personal oaths and pledges we are likely to take between this Yom Kippur and the next Yom Kippur (in some versions: which we took between last Yom Kippur and this Yom Kippur), we publicly renounce. Let them all be relinquished and abandoned, null and void, neither firm nor established. Let our personal vows, pledges and oaths be considered neither vows nor pledges nor oaths. > > Then the service continues with the evening prayers (*Ma'ariv*) and an extended Selichot service. ### Avodah The *Avodah* ("service") passage in the Musaf prayer recounts in detail the Yom Kippur Temple service which was once performed in the Temple in Jerusalem. This passage traditionally features prominently in both the liturgy and the religious thought of the holiday. During its recitation, Jews "imagine themselves in place of the priests when the Temple stood". This traditional prominence is rooted in the Babylonian Talmud’s description of how to attain atonement following the destruction of the Temple. The recitation poetically describes the High Priest's confessions of his and the people's sins, his entry into the Holy of Holies, his sending away of the scapegoat, and all other parts of this day's complex Temple service. A variety of liturgical poems are added, including a poem recounting the radiance of the High Priest after exiting the Holy of Holies, as well as prayers for the speedy rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship. In most Orthodox and some Conservative synagogues, the entire congregation prostrates themselves at each point in the recitation where the High Priest would pronounce God’s holiest name (during recitation of Leviticus 16:30). These three times, plus in some congregations the *Aleinu* prayer during the Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah, are the only times in Jewish services when Jews engage in prostration (except for some Yemenite Jews and *talmidei haRambam* ("disciples of Maimonides") who may prostrate themselves on other occasions during the year). Orthodox liturgies include prayers lamenting the inability to perform the Temple service and petitioning for its restoration, which Conservative synagogues generally omit. In some Conservative synagogues, only the *Hazzan* (cantor) engages in full prostration. Some Conservative synagogues abridge the recitation of the Avodah service to varying degrees, and some omit it entirely. Reconstructionist services omit the entire service as inconsistent with modern sensibilities. ### Confession As confession is a core aspect of repentance, confession (or *vidui*) is a major part of the Yom Kippur prayer services. A confession is recited ten times on Yom Kippur, twice in each of the five standard prayers. In each prayer service, the confession is recited once by the individual in their silent prayer, and again communally during the cantor's repetition of the Amidah. (The Ma'ariv prayer has no repetition, so the second confession is instead recited in the communal Selichot recitation which follows the silent prayer.) Confession is recited an 11th time by individuals in the Mincha prayer of Yom Kippur eve, before the beginning of the holiday. The Yom Kippur confession text consists of two parts: a short confession beginning with the word *Ashamnu* (אשמנו, "we have sinned"), which is a series of words describing sin arranged according to the aleph-bet (Hebrew alphabetic order), and a long confession, beginning with the words *Al Cheyt* (על חטא, "for the sin"), which is a set of 22 double acrostics, also arranged according to the aleph-bet, enumerating a range of sins. ### In Reform Judaism Reform synagogues generally experience their largest attendance of the year on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah for worship services. The prayer philosophy of Reform, as described in the introduction of the movement's High Holy Day prayerbook, "Mishkan Hanefesh", is to reflect "varied theological approaches that enable a diverse congregation to share religious experience... with a commitment to Reform tradition, as well as [to] the larger Jewish tradition." A central feature of these Reform services is the rabbinic sermon. "For more than a century and a half in the Reform Movement," writes Rabbi Lance Sussman, "High Holiday sermons were among the most anticipated events in synagogue life, especially on the eve of Rosh Hashanah and Kol Nidre night." Date of Yom Kippur ------------------ Yom Kippur falls each year on the 10th day of the Jewish month of Tishrei, which is 9 days after the first day of Rosh Hashanah. In terms of the Gregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Yom Kippur can fall is September 14, as happened most recently in 1899 and 2013. The latest Yom Kippur can occur relative to the Gregorian dates is on October 14, as happened in 1967 and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew calendar and the Gregorian calendar will result in Yom Kippur falling no earlier than September 15. Gregorian calendar dates for recent and upcoming Yom Kippur holidays are: * Sunset, 15 September 2021 – nightfall, 16 September 2021 * Sunset, 4 October 2022 – nightfall, 5 October 2022 * Sunset, 24 September 2023 – nightfall, 25 September 2023 * Sunset, 11 October 2024 – nightfall, 12 October 2024 * Sunset, 1 October 2025 – nightfall, 2 October 2025 In the Torah ------------ The Torah calls the day *Yom HaKippurim* (יוֹם הַכִּיפּוּרִים), and decrees a strict prohibition of work and fasting ("affliction of the soul") on the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as Tishrei. The laws of Yom Kippur are commanded by God to Moses in three passages in the Torah: 1. Leviticus 16:1–34: Aaron may only enter the sanctuary by performing a complex sacrificial procedure, later known as the Yom Kippur Temple service. This service must be performed yearly on the date of Yom Kippur, while the people are to fast and not work on this date. 2. Leviticus 23:26–32: The tenth day of Tishrei is a holy day of atonement. A Temple sacrifice must be offered, while the people must fast and not work, "on the ninth day from evening until evening". 3. Numbers 29:7–11: The tenth day of Tishrei is a holy day; one must fast and not work. The mussaf (additional) sacrifice for the day is specified. ### Temple service When the Temple in Jerusalem stood, Yom Kippur was the occasion of an elaborate sacrificial service, as commanded by Leviticus 16. The rabbis summarized the laws of this service in Mishnah tractate Yoma, and they appear in contemporary traditional Jewish prayer books for Yom Kippur, and are studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur worship service. The Mussaf prayer on Yom Kippur includes a section known as the Avodah, where a poem is recited describing this Temple service. Observance in Israel -------------------- Yom Kippur is a legal holiday in Israel. There are no radio or television broadcasts, airports are shut down, there is no public transportation, and all shops and businesses are closed. In 2013, 73% of the Jewish people of Israel said that they were intending to fast on Yom Kippur. It is very common in Israel to wish "Tsom Kal" ([an] easy fast) or "Tsom Mo'il" ([a] benefiting fast) to everyone before Yom Kippur, even if one does not know whether they will fast or not. It is considered impolite to eat in public on Yom Kippur or to sound music or to drive a motor vehicle. There is no legal prohibition on any of these, but in practice such actions are almost universally avoided in Israel during Yom Kippur, except for emergency services. Over the last few decades, bicycle-riding and inline skating on the empty streets have become common among secular Israeli youths, especially on the eve of Yom Kippur in Tel Aviv. In 1973, an air raid siren was sounded on the afternoon of Yom Kippur and radio broadcasts were resumed to alert the public to the surprise attack on Israel by Egypt and Syria that launched the Yom Kippur War. Observance by athletes ---------------------- Some notable athletes have observed Yom Kippur, even when it conflicted with playing their sport. In baseball, Sandy Koufax, the Hall of Fame pitcher, decided not to pitch Game 1 of the 1965 World Series because it fell on Yom Kippur. Koufax garnered national attention for his decision, as an example of the conflict between social pressures and personal beliefs. Hall of Fame first baseman Hank Greenberg attracted national attention in 1934, when he refused to play baseball on Yom Kippur, even though the Tigers were in the middle of a pennant race, and he was leading the league in runs batted in. The *Detroit Free Press* columnist and poet Edgar A. Guest wrote a poem titled "Speaking of Greenberg", which ended with the lines "*We shall miss him on the infield and shall miss him at the bat / But he's true to his religion—and I honor him for that.*" When Greenberg arrived in synagogue on Yom Kippur, the service stopped suddenly, and the congregation gave an embarrassed Greenberg a standing ovation. Los Angeles Dodgers outfielder Shawn Green, similarly, made headlines in 2001 for sitting out a game for the first time in 415 games (then the longest streak among active players) on Yom Kippur, even though his team was in the middle of a playoff race. Other baseball players who have similarly sat out games on Yom Kippur include Kevin Youkilis, Brad Ausmus, and Art Shamsky. Gabe Carimi, the Consensus All-American left tackle in American football who won the 2010 Outland Trophy as the nation's top collegiate interior lineman, faced a conflict in his freshman year of college in 2007. That year Yom Kippur fell on a Saturday, and he fasted until an hour before his football game against Iowa started that night. Carimi said, "Religion is a part of me, and I don't want to just say I'm Jewish. I actually do make sacrifices that I know are hard choices." In 2004, Matt Bernstein, standout fullback at University of Wisconsin–Madison, fasted on Yom Kippur, then broke his fast on the sidelines before rushing for 123 yards in a game against Penn State. In 2011, golfer Laetitia Beck declined a request to join the University of North Carolina Tar Heels Invitational competition, because it conflicted with Yom Kippur. Instead, she spent the day fasting and praying. She said: "My Judaism is very important to me, and ... on Yom Kippur, no matter what, I have to fast." Boris Gelfand, Israel's top chess player, played his game in the prestigious London Grand Prix Chess Tournament on 25 September 2012 (eve of Yom Kippur) earlier, to avoid playing on the holiday. In 2013, the International Tennis Federation fined the Israel Tennis Association "more than $13,000 ... for the inconvenience" of having to reschedule a tennis match between the Israeli and Belgian teams that was originally scheduled on Yom Kippur. Dudi Sela, Israel's #1 player, quit his quarterfinal match in the third set of the 2017 Shenzhen Open so he could begin observing Yom Kippur by the time the sun set, forfeiting a possible $34,000 in prize money and 90 rankings points. Professional wrestler Bill Goldberg has a policy of not performing on Yom Kippur. Recognition by the United Nations --------------------------------- Since 2016 the United Nations has officially recognized Yom Kippur, stating that from then on no official meetings would take place on the day. In addition, the United Nations stated that, beginning in 2016, they would have nine official holidays and seven floating holidays of which each employee would be able to choose one. It stated that the floating holidays will be Yom Kippur, Day of Vesak, Diwali, Gurpurab, Orthodox Christmas, Orthodox Good Friday, and Presidents' Day. This was the first time the United Nations officially recognized any Jewish holiday. See also -------- * Ashura * Break fast

Yom Kippur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur

**Cairo** (/ˈkaɪroʊ/ *KY-roh*; Arabic: القاهرة, romanized: *al-Qāhirah*, pronounced [ælqɑ(ː)ˈheɾɑ]) is the capital of Egypt and the city-state Cairo Governorate, and is the country's largest city, home to 10 million people. It is also part of the largest urban agglomeration in Africa, the Arab world and the Middle East: The Greater Cairo metropolitan area, with a population of 21.9 million, is the 12th-largest in the world by population. Cairo is associated with ancient Egypt, as the Giza pyramid complex and the ancient cities of Memphis and Heliopolis are located in its geographical area. Located near the Nile Delta, the city first developed as Fustat, a settlement founded after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 next to an existing ancient Roman fortress, Babylon. Under the Fatimid dynasty, Cairo was founded nearby in 969. It later superseded Fustat as the main urban centre during the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods (12th–16th centuries). Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life, and is titled "the city of a thousand minarets" for its preponderance of Islamic architecture. Cairo's historic center was awarded World Heritage Site status in 1979. Cairo is considered a World City with a "Beta +" classification according to GaWC. Cairo has the oldest and largest film and music industry in the Arab world, as well as the world's second-oldest institution of higher learning, Al-Azhar University. Many international media, businesses, and organizations have regional headquarters in the city; the Arab League has had its headquarters in Cairo for most of its existence. With a population of over 10 million spread over 453 km2 (175 sq mi), Cairo is by far the largest city in Egypt. An additional 9.5 million inhabitants live close to the city. Cairo, like many other megacities, suffers from high levels of pollution and traffic. The Cairo Metro, opened in 1987, is the oldest metro system in Africa, and ranks amongst the fifteen busiest in the world, with over 1 billion annual passenger rides. The economy of Cairo was ranked first in the Middle East in 2005, and 43rd globally on *Foreign Policy*'s 2010 Global Cities Index. Etymology --------- The name Cairo is derived from the Arabic **al-Qāhirah** (القاهرة), meaning 'the Vanquisher' or 'the Conqueror', given by the Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'izz following the establishment of the city as the capital of the Fatimid dynasty. Initially, its full name was **Qāhirat al-Mu'izz**, meaning 'the Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz'. It is also supposedly due to the fact that the planet Mars, known in Arabic by names such as *an-Najm al-Qāhir* (النجم القاهر, 'the Conquering Star'), was rising at the time of the city's founding. Egyptians often refer to Cairo as **Maṣr** (IPA: [mɑsˤɾ]; مَصر), the Egyptian Arabic name for Egypt itself, emphasizing the city's importance for the country. There are a few Coptic names of the city. *Tikešrōmi* (Coptic: Ϯⲕⲉϣⲣⲱⲙⲓ Late Coptic: [di.kɑʃˈɾoːmi]) is attested in the 1211 text *The Martyrdom of John of Phanijoit* and is either a calque meaning 'man breaker' (Ϯ-, 'the', ⲕⲁϣ-, 'to break', and ⲣⲱⲙⲓ, 'man'), akin to Arabic **al-Qāhirah**, or a derivation from Arabic قَصْر الرُوم (*qaṣr ar-rūm*, "the Roman castle"), another name of Babylon Fortress in Old Cairo. The form Khairon (Coptic: ⲭⲁⲓⲣⲟⲛ) is attested in the modern Coptic text Ⲡⲓⲫⲓⲣⲓ ⲛ̀ⲧⲉ ϯⲁⲅⲓⲁ ⲙ̀ⲙⲏⲓ Ⲃⲉⲣⲏⲛⲁ (The Tale of Saint Verina). *Lioui* (Ⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ Late Coptic: [lɪˈjuːj]) or *Elioui* (Ⲉⲗⲓⲟⲩⲓ Late Coptic: [ælˈjuːj]) is another name which is descended from the Greek name of Heliopolis (Ήλιούπολις). Some argue that *Mistram* (Ⲙⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ Late Coptic: [ˈmɪs.təɾɑm]) or *Nistram* (Ⲛⲓⲥⲧⲣⲁⲙ Late Coptic: [ˈnɪs.təɾɑm]) is another Coptic name for Cairo, although others think that it is rather a name for the Abbasid province capital al-Askar. Ⲕⲁϩⲓⲣⲏ (*Kahi•ree*) is a popular modern rendering of an Arabic name (others being Ⲕⲁⲓⲣⲟⲛ [Kairon] and Ⲕⲁϩⲓⲣⲁ [Kahira]) which is modern folk etymology meaning 'land of sun'. Some argue that it was a name of an Egyptian settlement upon which Cairo was built, but it is rather doubtful as this name is not attested in any Hieroglyphic or Demotic source, although some researchers, like Paul Casanova, view it as a legitimate theory. Cairo is also referred to as Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ (Late Coptic: [ˈkɪ.mi]) or Ⲅⲩⲡⲧⲟⲥ (Late Coptic: [ˈɡɪp.dos]), which means Egypt in Coptic, the same way it is referred to in Egyptian Arabic. Sometimes the city is informally referred to as **Cairo** by people from Alexandria (IPA: [ˈkæjɾo]; Egyptian Arabic: كايرو). History ------- ### Ancient settlements The area around present-day Cairo had long been a focal point of Ancient Egypt due to its strategic location at the junction of the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta regions (roughly Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt), which also placed it at the crossing of major routes between North Africa and the Levant. Memphis, the capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom and a major city up until the Ptolemaic period, was located a short distance south west of present-day Cairo. Heliopolis, another important city and major religious center, was located in what are now the modern districts of Matariya and Ain Shams in northeastern Cairo. It was largely destroyed by the Persian invasions in 525 BC and 343 BC and partly abandoned by the late first century BC. However, the origins of modern Cairo are generally traced back to a series of settlements in the first millennium AD. Around the turn of the fourth century, as Memphis was continuing to decline in importance, the Romans established a large fortress along the east bank of the Nile. The fortress, called Babylon, was built by the Roman emperor Diocletian (r. 285–305) at the entrance of a canal connecting the Nile to the Red Sea that was created earlier by emperor Trajan (r. 98–115). Further north of the fortress, near the present-day district of al-Azbakiya, was a port and fortified outpost known as Tendunyas (Coptic: ϯⲁⲛⲧⲱⲛⲓⲁⲥ) or Umm Dunayn. While no structures older than the 7th century have been preserved in the area aside from the Roman fortifications, historical evidence suggests that a sizeable city existed. The city was important enough that its bishop, Cyrus, participated in the Second Council of Ephesus in 449. The Byzantine-Sassanian War between 602 and 628 caused great hardship and likely caused much of the urban population to leave for the countryside, leaving the settlement partly deserted. The site today remains at the nucleus of the Coptic Orthodox community, which separated from the Roman and Byzantine churches in the late 4th century. Cairo's oldest extant churches, such as the Church of Saint Barbara and the Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (from the late 7th or early 8th century), are located inside the fortress walls in what is now known as Old Cairo or Coptic Cairo. ### Fustat and other early Islamic settlements The Muslim conquest of Byzantine Egypt was led by Amr ibn al-As from 639 to 642. Babylon Fortress was besieged in September 640 and fell in April 641. In 641 or early 642, after the surrender of Alexandria (the Egyptian capital at the time), he founded a new settlement next to Babylon Fortress. The city, known as Fustat (Arabic: الفسطاط, romanized: *al-Fusṭāṭ*, lit. 'the tent'), served as a garrison town and as the new administrative capital of Egypt. Historians such as Janet Abu-Lughod and André Raymond trace the genesis of present-day Cairo to the foundation of Fustat. The choice of founding a new settlement at this inland location, instead of using the existing capital of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, may have been due to the new conquerors' strategic priorities. One of the first projects of the new Muslim administration was to clear and re-open Trajan's ancient canal in order to ship grain more directly from Egypt to Medina, the capital of the caliphate in Arabia. Ibn al-As also founded a mosque for the city at the same time, now known as the Mosque of Amr Ibn al-As, the oldest mosque in Egypt and Africa (although the current structure dates from later expansions). In 750, following the overthrow of the Umayyad caliphate by the Abbasids, the new rulers created their own settlement to the northeast of Fustat which became the new provincial capital. This was known as al-Askar (Arabic: العسكر, lit. 'the camp') as it was laid out like a military camp. A governor's residence and a new mosque were also added, with the latter completed in 786. In 861, on the orders of the Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil, a Nilometer was built on Roda Island near Fustat. Although it was repaired and given a new roof in later centuries, its basic structure is still preserved today, making it the oldest preserved Islamic-era structure in Cairo today. In 868 a commander of Turkic origin named Bakbak was sent to Egypt by the Abbasid caliph al-Mu'taz to restore order after a rebellion in the country. He was accompanied by his stepson, Ahmad ibn Tulun, who became effective governor of Egypt. Over time, Ibn Tulun gained an army and accumulated influence and wealth, allowing him to become the *de facto* independent ruler of both Egypt and Syria by 878. In 870, he used his growing wealth to found a new administrative capital, al-Qata'i (Arabic: القطائـع, lit. 'the allotments'), to the northeast of Fustat and of al-Askar. The new city included a palace known as the *Dar al-Imara*, a parade ground known as *al-Maydan*, a bimaristan (hospital), and an aqueduct to supply water. Between 876 and 879 Ibn Tulun built a great mosque, now known as the Mosque of Ibn Tulun, at the center of the city, next to the palace. After his death in 884, Ibn Tulun was succeeded by his son and his descendants who continued a short-lived dynasty, the Tulunids. In 905, the Abbasids sent general Muhammad Sulayman al-Katib to re-assert direct control over the country. Tulunid rule was ended and al-Qatta'i was razed to the ground, except for the mosque which remains standing today. ### Foundation and expansion of Cairo In 969, the Shi'a Isma'ili Fatimid empire conquered Egypt after ruling from Ifriqiya. The Fatimid general Jawhar Al Saqili founded a new fortified city northeast of Fustat and of former al-Qata'i. It took four years to build the city, initially known as al-Manṣūriyyah, which was to serve as the new capital of the caliphate. During that time, the construction of the al-Azhar Mosque was commissioned by order of the caliph, which developed into the third-oldest university in the world. Cairo would eventually become a centre of learning, with the library of Cairo containing hundreds of thousands of books. When Caliph al-Mu'izz li Din Allah arrived from the old Fatimid capital of Mahdia in Tunisia in 973, he gave the city its present name, *Qāhirat al-Mu'izz* ("The Vanquisher of al-Mu'izz"), from which the name "Cairo" (*al-Qāhira*) originates. The caliphs lived in a vast and lavish palace complex that occupied the heart of the city. Cairo remained a relatively exclusive royal city for most of this era, but during the tenure of Badr al-Gamali as vizier (1073–1094) the restrictions were loosened for the first time and richer families from Fustat were allowed to move into the city. Between 1087 and 1092 Badr al-Gamali also rebuilt the city walls in stone and constructed the city gates of Bab al-Futuh, Bab al-Nasr, and Bab Zuweila that still stand today. During the Fatimid period Fustat reached its apogee in size and prosperity, acting as a center of craftsmanship and international trade and as the area's main port on the Nile. Historical sources report that multi-story communal residences existed in the city, particularly in its center, which were typically inhabited by middle and lower-class residents. Some of these were as high as seven stories and could house some 200 to 350 people. They may have been similar to Roman *insulae* and may have been the prototypes for the rental apartment complexes which became common in the later Mamluk and Ottoman periods. However, in 1168 the Fatimid vizier Shawar set fire to unfortified Fustat to prevent its potential capture by Amalric, the Crusader king of Jerusalem. While the fire did not destroy the city and it continued to exist afterward, it did mark the beginning of its decline. Over the following centuries it was Cairo, the former palace-city, that became the new economic center and attracted migration from Fustat. While the Crusaders did not capture the city in 1168, a continuing power struggle between Shawar, King Amalric, and the Zengid general Shirkuh led to the downfall of the Fatimid establishment. In 1169, Shirkuh's nephew Saladin was appointed as the new vizier of Egypt by the Fatimids and two years later he seized power from the family of the last Fatimid caliph, al-'Āḍid. As the first Sultan of Egypt, Saladin established the Ayyubid dynasty, based in Cairo, and aligned Egypt with the Sunni Abbasids, who were based in Baghdad. In 1176, Saladin began construction on the Cairo Citadel, which was to serve as the seat of the Egyptian government until the mid-19th century. The construction of the Citadel definitively ended Fatimid-built Cairo's status as an exclusive palace-city and opened it up to common Egyptians and to foreign merchants, spurring its commercial development. Along with the Citadel, Saladin also began the construction of a new 20-kilometre-long wall that would protect both Cairo and Fustat on their eastern side and connect them with the new Citadel. These construction projects continued beyond Saladin's lifetime and were completed under his Ayyubid successors. ### Apogee and decline under the Mamluks In 1250, during the Seventh Crusade, the Ayyubid dynasty had a crisis with the death of al-Salih and power transitioned instead to the Mamluks, partly with the help of al-Salih's wife, Shajar ad-Durr, who ruled for a brief period around this time. Mamluks were soldiers who were purchased as young slaves and raised to serve in the sultan's army. Between 1250 and 1517 the throne of the Mamluk Sultanate passed from one mamluk to another in a system of succession that was generally non-hereditary, but also frequently violent and chaotic. The Mamluk Empire nonetheless became a major power in the region and was responsible for repelling the advance of the Mongols (most famously at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260) and for eliminating the last Crusader states in the Levant. Despite their military character, the Mamluks were also prolific builders and left a rich architectural legacy throughout Cairo. Continuing a practice started by the Ayyubids, much of the land occupied by former Fatimid palaces was sold and replaced by newer buildings, becoming a prestigious site for the construction of Mamluk religious and funerary complexes. Construction projects initiated by the Mamluks pushed the city outward while also bringing new infrastructure to the centre of the city. Meanwhile, Cairo flourished as a centre of Islamic scholarship and a crossroads on the spice trade route among the civilisations in Afro-Eurasia. Under the reign of the Mamluk sultan al-Nasir Muhammad (1293–1341, with interregnums), Cairo reached its apogee in terms of population and wealth. By 1340, Cairo had a population of close to half a million, making it the largest city west of China. Multi-story buildings occupied by rental apartments, known as a *rab'* (plural *ribā'* or *urbu*), became common in the Mamluk period and continued to be a feature of the city's housing during the later Ottoman period. These apartments were often laid out as multi-story duplexes or triplexes. They were sometimes attached to caravanserais, where the two lower floors were for commercial and storage purposes and the multiple stories above them were rented out to tenants. The oldest partially-preserved example of this type of structure is the Wikala of Amir Qawsun, built before 1341. Residential buildings were in turn organized into close-knit neighbourhoods called a *harat*, which in many cases had gates that could be closed off at night or during disturbances. When the traveller Ibn Battuta first came to Cairo in 1326, he described it as the principal district of Egypt. When he passed through the area again on his return journey in 1348 the Black Death was ravaging most major cities. He cited reports of thousands of deaths per day in Cairo. Although Cairo avoided Europe's stagnation during the Late Middle Ages, it could not escape the Black Death, which struck the city more than fifty times between 1348 and 1517. During its initial, and most deadly waves, approximately 200,000 people were killed by the plague, and, by the 15th century, Cairo's population had been reduced to between 150,000 and 300,000. The population decline was accompanied by a period of political instability between 1348 and 1412. It was nonetheless in this period that the largest Mamluk-era religious monument, the Madrasa-Mosque of Sultan Hasan, was built. In the late 14th century the Burji Mamluks replaced the Bahri Mamluks as rulers of the Mamluk state, but the Mamluk system continued to decline. Though the plagues returned frequently throughout the 15th century, Cairo remained a major metropolis and its population recovered in part through rural migration. More conscious efforts were conducted by rulers and city officials to redress the city's infrastructure and cleanliness. Its economy and politics also became more deeply connected with the wider Mediterranean. Some Mamluk sultans in this period, such as Barbsay (r. 1422–1438) and Qaytbay (r. 1468–1496), had relatively long and successful reigns. After al-Nasir Muhammad, Qaytbay was one of the most prolific patrons of art and architecture of the Mamluk era. He built or restored numerous monuments in Cairo, in addition to commissioning projects beyond Egypt. The crisis of Mamluk power and of Cairo's economic role deepened after Qaytbay. The city's status was diminished after Vasco da Gama discovered a sea route around the Cape of Good Hope between 1497 and 1499, thereby allowing spice traders to avoid Cairo. ### Ottoman rule Cairo's political influence diminished significantly after the Ottomans defeated Sultan al-Ghuri in the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516 and conquered Egypt in 1517. Ruling from Constantinople, Sultan Selim I relegated Egypt to a province, with Cairo as its capital. For this reason, the history of Cairo during Ottoman times is often described as inconsequential, especially in comparison to other time periods. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Cairo still remained an important economic and cultural centre. Although no longer on the spice route, the city facilitated the transportation of Yemeni coffee and Indian textiles, primarily to Anatolia, North Africa, and the Balkans. Cairene merchants were instrumental in bringing goods to the barren Hejaz, especially during the annual hajj to Mecca. It was during this same period that al-Azhar University reached the predominance among Islamic schools that it continues to hold today; pilgrims on their way to hajj often attested to the superiority of the institution, which had become associated with Egypt's body of Islamic scholars. The first printing press of the Middle East, printing in Hebrew, was established in Cairo c. 1557 by a scion of the Soncino family of printers, Italian Jews of Ashkenazi origin who operated a press in Constantinople. The existence of the press is known solely from two fragments discovered in the Cairo Geniza. Under the Ottomans, Cairo expanded south and west from its nucleus around the Citadel. The city was the second-largest in the empire, behind Constantinople, and, although migration was not the primary source of Cairo's growth, twenty percent of its population at the end of the 18th century consisted of religious minorities and foreigners from around the Mediterranean. Still, when Napoleon arrived in Cairo in 1798, the city's population was less than 300,000, forty percent lower than it was at the height of Mamluk—and Cairene—influence in the mid-14th century. The French occupation was short-lived as British and Ottoman forces, including a sizeable Albanian contingent, recaptured the country in 1801. Cairo itself was besieged by a British and Ottoman force culminating with the French surrender on 22 June 1801. The British vacated Egypt two years later, leaving the Ottomans, the Albanians, and the long-weakened Mamluks jostling for control of the country. Continued civil war allowed an Albanian named Muhammad Ali Pasha to ascend to the role of commander and eventually, with the approval of the religious establishment, viceroy of Egypt in 1805. ### Modern era Until his death in 1848, Muhammad Ali Pasha instituted a number of social and economic reforms that earned him the title of founder of modern Egypt. However, while Muhammad Ali initiated the construction of public buildings in the city, those reforms had minimal effect on Cairo's landscape. Bigger changes came to Cairo under Isma'il Pasha (r. 1863–1879), who continued the modernisation processes started by his grandfather. Drawing inspiration from Paris, Isma'il envisioned a city of maidans and wide avenues; due to financial constraints, only some of them, in the area now composing Downtown Cairo, came to fruition. Isma'il also sought to modernize the city, which was merging with neighbouring settlements, by establishing a public works ministry, bringing gas and lighting to the city, and opening a theatre and opera house. The immense debt resulting from Isma'il's projects provided a pretext for increasing European control, which culminated with the British invasion in 1882. The city's economic centre quickly moved west toward the Nile, away from the historic Islamic Cairo section and toward the contemporary, European-style areas built by Isma'il. Europeans accounted for five percent of Cairo's population at the end of the 19th century, by which point they held most top governmental positions. In 1906 the Heliopolis Oasis Company headed by the Belgian industrialist Édouard Empain and his Egyptian counterpart Boghos Nubar, built a suburb called Heliopolis (city of the sun in Greek) ten kilometers from the center of Cairo. In 1905–1907 the northern part of the Gezira island was developed by the Baehler Company into Zamalek, which would later become Cairo's upscale "chic" neighbourhood. In 1906 construction began on Garden City, a neighbourhood of urban villas with gardens and curved streets. The British occupation was intended to be temporary, but it lasted well into the 20th century. Nationalists staged large-scale demonstrations in Cairo in 1919, five years after Egypt had been declared a British protectorate. Nevertheless, this led to Egypt's independence in 1922. The King Fuad I Edition of the Qur'an was first published on 10 July 1924 in Cairo under the patronage of King Fuad. The goal of the government of the newly formed Kingdom of Egypt was not to delegitimize the other variant Quranic texts ("qira'at"), but to eliminate errors found in Qur'anic texts used in state schools. A committee of teachers chose to preserve a single one of the canonical qira'at "readings", namely that of the "Ḥafṣ" version, an 8th-century Kufic recitation. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran for much of the Islamic world. The publication has been called a "terrific success", and the edition has been described as one "now widely seen as the official text of the Qur'an", so popular among both Sunni and Shi'a that the common belief among less well-informed Muslims is "that the Qur'an has a single, unambiguous reading". Minor amendments were made later in 1924 and in 1936 - the "Faruq edition" in honour of then ruler, King Faruq. #### British occupation until 1956 British troops remained in the country until 1956. During this time, urban Cairo, spurred by new bridges and transport links, continued to expand to include the upscale neighbourhoods of Garden City, Zamalek, and Heliopolis. Between 1882 and 1937, the population of Cairo more than tripled—from 347,000 to 1.3 million—and its area increased from 10 to 163 km2 (4 to 63 sq mi). The city was devastated during the 1952 riots known as the Cairo Fire or Black Saturday, which saw the destruction of nearly 700 shops, movie theatres, casinos and hotels in downtown Cairo. The British departed Cairo following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, but the city's rapid growth showed no signs of abating. Seeking to accommodate the increasing population, President Gamal Abdel Nasser redeveloped Tahrir Square and the Nile Corniche, and improved the city's network of bridges and highways. Meanwhile, additional controls of the Nile fostered development within Gezira Island and along the city's waterfront. The metropolis began to encroach on the fertile Nile Delta, prompting the government to build desert satellite towns and devise incentives for city-dwellers to move to them. #### After 1956 In the second half of the 20th century Cairo continue to grow enormously in both population and area. Between 1947 and 2006 the population of Greater Cairo went from 2,986,280 to 16,292,269. The population explosion also drove the rise of "informal" housing (*'ashwa'iyyat*), meaning housing that was built without any official planning or control. The exact form of this type of housing varies considerably but usually has a much higher population density than formal housing. By 2009, over 63% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in informal neighbourhoods, even though these occupied only 17% of the total area of Greater Cairo. According to economist David Sims, informal housing has the benefits of providing affordable accommodation and vibrant communities to huge numbers of Cairo's working classes, but it also suffers from government neglect, a relative lack of services, and overcrowding. The "formal" city was also expanded. The most notable example was the creation of Madinat Nasr, a huge government-sponsored expansion of the city to the east which officially began in 1959 but was primarily developed in the mid-1970s. Starting in 1977 the Egyptian government established the New Urban Communities Authority to initiate and direct the development of new planned cities on the outskirts of Cairo, generally established on desert land. These new satellite cities were intended to provide housing, investment, and employment opportunities for the region's growing population as well as to pre-empt the further growth of informal neighbourhoods. As of 2014, about 10% of the population of Greater Cairo lived in the new cities. Concurrently, Cairo established itself as a political and economic hub for North Africa and the Arab world, with many multinational businesses and organisations, including the Arab League, operating out of the city. In 1979 the historic districts of Cairo were listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In 1992, Cairo was hit by an earthquake causing 545 deaths, injuring 6,512 and leaving around 50,000 people homeless. #### 2011 Egyptian revolution Cairo's Tahrir Square was the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. Over 2 million protesters were at Cairo's Tahrir square. More than 50,000 protesters first occupied the square on 25 January, during which the area's wireless services were reported to be impaired. In the following days Tahrir Square continued to be the primary destination for protests in Cairo as it took place following a popular uprising that began on Tuesday, 25 January 2011 and continued until June 2013. The uprising was mainly a campaign of non-violent civil resistance, which featured a series of demonstrations, marches, acts of civil disobedience, and labour strikes. Millions of protesters from a variety of socio-economic and religious backgrounds demanded the overthrow of the regime of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Despite being predominantly peaceful in nature, the revolution was not without violent clashes between security forces and protesters, with at least 846 people killed and 6,000 injured. The uprising took place in Cairo, Alexandria, and in other cities in Egypt, following the Tunisian revolution that resulted in the overthrow of the long-time Tunisian president Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. On 11 February, following weeks of determined popular protest and pressure, Hosni Mubarak resigned from office. #### Post-revolutionary Cairo Under the rule of President el-Sisi, in March 2015 plans were announced for another yet-unnamed planned city to be built further east of the existing satellite city of New Cairo, intended to serve as the new capital of Egypt. Geography --------- Cairo is located in northern Egypt, known as Lower Egypt, 165 km (100 mi) south of the Mediterranean Sea and 120 km (75 mi) west of the Gulf of Suez and Suez Canal. The city lies along the Nile River, immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and branches into the low-lying Nile Delta region. Although the Cairo metropolis extends away from the Nile in all directions, the city of Cairo resides only on the east bank of the river and two islands within it on a total area of 453 km2 (175 sq mi). Geologically, Cairo lies on alluvium and sand dunes which date from the quaternary period. Until the mid-19th century, when the river was tamed by dams, levees, and other controls, the Nile in the vicinity of Cairo was highly susceptible to changes in course and surface level. Over the years, the Nile gradually shifted westward, providing the site between the eastern edge of the river and the Mokattam highlands on which the city now stands. The land on which Cairo was established in 969 (present-day Islamic Cairo) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when Fustat was first built. Low periods of the Nile during the 11th century continued to add to the landscape of Cairo; a new island, known as *Geziret al-Fil*, first appeared in 1174, but eventually became connected to the mainland. Today, the site of *Geziret al-Fil* is occupied by the Shubra district. The low periods created another island at the turn of the 14th century that now composes Zamalek and Gezira. Land reclamation efforts by the Mamluks and Ottomans further contributed to expansion on the east bank of the river. Because of the Nile's movement, the newer parts of the city—Garden City, Downtown Cairo, and Zamalek—are located closest to the riverbank. The areas, which are home to most of Cairo's embassies, are surrounded on the north, east, and south by the older parts of the city. Old Cairo, located south of the centre, holds the remnants of Fustat and the heart of Egypt's Coptic Christian community, Coptic Cairo. The Boulaq district, which lies in the northern part of the city, was born out of a major 16th-century port and is now a major industrial centre. The Citadel is located east of the city centre around Islamic Cairo, which dates back to the Fatimid era and the foundation of Cairo. While western Cairo is dominated by wide boulevards, open spaces, and modern architecture of European influence, the eastern half, having grown haphazardly over the centuries, is dominated by small lanes, crowded tenements, and Islamic architecture. Northern and extreme eastern parts of Cairo, which include satellite towns, are among the most recent additions to the city, as they developed in the late-20th and early-21st centuries to accommodate the city's rapid growth. The western bank of the Nile is commonly included within the urban area of Cairo, but it composes the city of Giza and the Giza Governorate. Giza city has also undergone significant expansion over recent years, and today has a population of 2.7 million. The Cairo Governorate was just north of the Helwan Governorate from 2008 when some Cairo's southern districts, including Maadi and New Cairo, were split off and annexed into the new governorate, to 2011 when the Helwan Governorate was reincorporated into the Cairo Governorate. A panorama of the Nile in central Cairo showing the west side of Gezira Island, located in the middle of the Nile, with the Cairo Tower in the middle, the 6th October Bridge on the far left and El Galaa Bridge on the far right According to the World Health Organization, the level of air pollution in Cairo is nearly 12 times higher than the recommended safety level. ### Climate In Cairo, and along the Nile River Valley, the climate is a hot desert climate (*BWh* according to the Köppen climate classification system). Wind storms can be frequent, bringing Saharan dust into the city, from March to May and the air often becomes uncomfortably dry. High temperatures in winter range from 14 to 22 °C (57 to 72 °F), while night-time lows drop to below 11 °C (52 °F), often to 5 °C (41 °F). In summer, the highs rarely surpass 40 °C (104 °F), and lows drop to about 20 °C (68 °F). Rainfall is sparse and only happens in the colder months, but sudden showers can cause severe flooding. The summer months have high humidity due to its coastal location. Snowfall is extremely rare; a small amount of graupel, widely believed to be snow, fell on Cairo's easternmost suburbs on 13 December 2013, the first time Cairo's area received this kind of precipitation in many decades. Dew points in the hottest months range from 13.9 °C (57 °F) in June to 18.3 °C (65 °F) in August. | Climate data for Cairo | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 31(88) | 34.2(93.6) | 37.9(100.2) | 43.2(109.8) | 47.8(118.0) | 46.4(115.5) | 42.6(108.7) | 43.4(110.1) | 43.7(110.7) | 41(106) | 37.4(99.3) | 30.2(86.4) | 47.8(118.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 18.9(66.0) | 20.4(68.7) | 23.5(74.3) | 28.3(82.9) | 32(90) | 33.9(93.0) | 34.7(94.5) | 34.2(93.6) | 32.6(90.7) | 29.2(84.6) | 24.8(76.6) | 20.3(68.5) | 27.7(81.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 14.0(57.2) | 15.1(59.2) | 17.6(63.7) | 21.5(70.7) | 24.9(76.8) | 27.0(80.6) | 28.4(83.1) | 28.2(82.8) | 26.6(79.9) | 23.3(73.9) | 19.5(67.1) | 15.4(59.7) | 21.8(71.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 9(48) | 9.7(49.5) | 11.6(52.9) | 14.6(58.3) | 17.7(63.9) | 20.1(68.2) | 22(72) | 22.1(71.8) | 20.5(68.9) | 17.4(63.3) | 14.1(57.4) | 10.4(50.7) | 15.8(60.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | 1.2(34.2) | 3.6(38.5) | 5(41) | 7.6(45.7) | 12.3(54.1) | 16(61) | 18.2(64.8) | 19(66) | 14.5(58.1) | 12.3(54.1) | 5.2(41.4) | 3(37) | 1.2(34.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 5(0.2) | 3.8(0.15) | 3.8(0.15) | 1.1(0.04) | 0.5(0.02) | 0.1(0.00) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0.7(0.03) | 3.8(0.15) | 5.9(0.23) | 24.7(0.97) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 mm) | 3.5 | 2.7 | 1.9 | 0.9 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.5 | 1.3 | 2.8 | 14.2 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 59 | 54 | 53 | 47 | 46 | 49 | 58 | 61 | 60 | 60 | 61 | 61 | 56 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 213 | 234 | 269 | 291 | 324 | 357 | 363 | 351 | 311 | 292 | 248 | 198 | 3,451 | | Percent possible sunshine | 66 | 75 | 73 | 75 | 77 | 85 | 84 | 86 | 84 | 82 | 78 | 62 | 77 | | Average ultraviolet index | 4 | 5 | 7 | 9 | 10 | 11.5 | 11.5 | 11 | 9 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 7.8 | | Source 1: World Meteorological Organization (UN) (1971–2000), and NOAA for mean, record high and low and humidity | | Source 2: Danish Meteorological Institute for sunshine (1931–1960) and Weather2Travel (ultraviolet) | ### Metropolitan area and districts The city of Cairo forms part of Greater Cairo, the largest metropolitan area in Africa. While it has no administrative body, the Ministry of Planning considers it as an economic region consisting of Cairo Governorate, Giza Governorate, and Qalyubia Governorate. As a contiguous metropolitan area, various studies have considered Greater Cairo be composed of the administrative cities that are Cairo, Giza and Shubra al-Kheima, in addition to the satellite cities/new towns surrounding them. Cairo is a city-state where the governor is also the head of the city. Cairo City itself differs from other Egyptian cities in that it has an extra administrative division between the city and district levels, and that is areas, which are headed by deputy governors. Cairo consists of 4 areas *(manatiq, singl. mantiqa)* divided into 38 districts *(ahya', singl. hayy)* and 46 qisms (police wards, 1-2 per district): The **Northern Area** is divided into 8 Districts: * Shubra * Al-Zawiya al-Hamra * Hadayek al-Qubba * Rod al-Farg * Al-Sharabia * Al-Sahel * Al-Zeitoun * Al-Amiriyya The **Eastern Area** divided into 9 Districts and three new cities: * Misr al-Gadidah and Al-Nozha (Heliopolis) * Nasr City East and Nasr City West * Al-Salam 1 (Awwal) and al-Salam 2 (Than) * Ain Shams * Al-Matariya * Al-Marg * Shorouk (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) * Badr (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) * Al-Qahira al-Gadida (New Cairo, three qisms, under jurisdiction of NUCA) The **Western Area** divided into 9 Districts: * Manshiyat Nasser * Al-Wayli (Incl. qism al-Daher) * Wasat al-Qahira (Central Cairo, incl. Al-Darb al-Ahmar, al-Gamaliyya qisms) * Bulaq * Gharb al-Qahira (West Cairo, incl. Zamalek qism, Qasr al-Nil qism incl. Garden City and part of Down Town) * Abdeen * Al-Azbakiya * Al-Muski * Bab al-Sha'aria The **Southern Area** divided into 12 Districts: * Masr El-Qadima (Old Cairo, including Al-Manial) * Al-Khalifa * Al-Moqattam * Al-Basatin * Dar al-Salam * Al-Sayeda Zeinab * Al-Tebin * Helwan * Al-Ma'sara * Al-Maadi * Tora * 15th of May (Under jurisdiction of NUCA) #### Satellite cities Since 1977 a number of new towns have been planned and built by the New Urban Communities Authority (NUCA) in the Eastern Desert around Cairo, ostensibly to accommodate additional population growth and development of the city and stem the development of self-built informal areas, especially over agricultural land. As of 2022 four new towns have been built and have residential populations: 15th of May City, Badr City, Shorouk City, and New Cairo. In addition, two more are under construction: the New Administrative Capital. And Capital Gardens, where land was allocated in 2021, and which will house most of the civil servants employed in the new capital. #### Planned new capital In March 2015, plans were announced for a new city to be built east of Cairo, in an undeveloped area of the Cairo Governorate, which would serve as the New Administrative Capital of Egypt. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1950 | 2,493,514 | —     | | 1960 | 3,680,160 | +47.6% | | 1970 | 5,584,507 | +51.7% | | 1980 | 7,348,778 | +31.6% | | 1990 | 9,892,143 | +34.6% | | 2000 | 13,625,565 | +37.7% | | 2010 | 16,899,015 | +24.0% | | 2019 | 20,484,965 | +21.2% | | For Cairo agglomeration: | According to the 2017 census, Cairo had a population of 9,539,673 people, distributed across 46 qisms (police wards): | Qism | Code 2017 | Total Population | Male | Female | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Tibbîn, al- | 010100 | 72040 | 36349 | 35691 | | Ḥulwân | 010200 | 521239 | 265347 | 255892 | | Ma`ṣara, al- | 010300 | 270032 | 137501 | 132531 | | 15 May (Mâyû) | 010400 | 93574 | 49437 | 44137 | | Ṭura | 010500 | 230438 | 168152 | 62286 | | Ma`âdî, al- | 010600 | 88575 | 43972 | 44603 | | Basâtîn, al- | 010700 | 495443 | 260756 | 234687 | | Dâr al-Salâm | 010800 | 525638 | 273603 | 252035 | | Miṣr al-qadîma | 010900 | 250313 | 129582 | 120731 | | Sayyida Zaynab, al- | 011000 | 136278 | 68571 | 67707 | | Khalîfa, al- | 011100 | 105235 | 54150 | 51085 | | Mukaṭṭam | 011200 | 224138 | 116011 | 108127 | | Minsha’at Nâṣir | 011300 | 258372 | 133864 | 124508 | | Darb al-Aḥmar, al- | 011400 | 58489 | 30307 | 28182 | | Mûskî, al- | 011500 | 16662 | 8216 | 8446 | | `Abdîn | 011600 | 40321 | 19352 | 20969 | | Qaṣr al-Nîl | 011700 | 10563 | 4951 | 5612 | | Zamâlik, al- | 011800 | 14946 | 7396 | 7550 | | Bûlâq | 011900 | 48147 | 24105 | 24042 | | Azbâkiyya, al- | 012000 | 19763 | 9766 | 9997 | | Bâb al-Sha`riyya | 012100 | 46673 | 24261 | 22412 | | Jamâliyya, al- | 012200 | 36368 | 18487 | 17881 | | Ẓâhir, al- | 012300 | 71870 | 35956 | 35914 | | Wâylî, al- | 012400 | 79292 | 39407 | 39885 | | Ḥadâ’iq al-Qubba | 012500 | 316072 | 161269 | 154803 | | Sharâbiyya, al- | 012600 | 187201 | 94942 | 92259 | | Shubrâ | 012700 | 76695 | 38347 | 38348 | | Rawd al-Faraj | 012800 | 145632 | 72859 | 72773 | | Sâḥil, al- | 012900 | 316421 | 162063 | 154358 | | Zâwiya al-Ḥamrâ', al- | 013000 | 318170 | 162304 | 155866 | | Amîriyya, al- | 013100 | 152554 | 77355 | 75199 | | Zaytûn, al- | 013200 | 174176 | 87235 | 86941 | | Maṭariyya, al- | 013300 | 602485 | 312407 | 290078 | | `Ayn Shams (Ain Shams) | 013400 | 614391 | 315394 | 298997 | | Marj, al- | 013500 | 798646 | 412476 | 386170 | | Salâm 1, al- | 013600 | 480721 | 249639 | 231082 | | Salâm 2, al- | 013700 | 153772 | 80492 | 73280 | | Nuzha, al- | 013800 | 231241 | 117910 | 113331 | | Miṣr al-jadîda | 013900 | 134116 | 68327 | 65789 | | Madînat Naṣr 1 | 014000 | 634818 | 332117 | 302701 | | Madînat Naṣr 2 | 014100 | 72182 | 38374 | 33808 | | Qâhira al-Jadîda 1, al- | 014200 | 135834 | 70765 | 65069 | | Qâhira al-jadîda 2, al- | 014300 | 90668 | 46102 | 44566 | | Qâhira al-jadîda 3, al- | 014400 | 70885 | 37340 | 33545 | | Shurûq, al- | 014500 | 87285 | 45960 | 41325 | | Madînat Badr | 014600 | 31299 | 17449 | 13850 | ### Religion The majority of Egypt and Cairo's population is Sunni Muslim. A significant Christian minority exists, among whom Coptic Orthodox are the majority. Precise numbers for each religious community in Egypt are not available and estimates vary. Other churches that have, or had, a presence in modern Cairo include the Catholic Church (including Armenian Catholic, Coptic Catholic, Chaldean Catholic, Syrian Catholic, and Maronite), the Greek Orthodox Church, the Evangelical Church of Egypt (Synod of the Nile), and some Protestant churches. Until the 20th century, Cairo had a sizeable Jewish community, but as of 2022 only 3 Jews were reported to be living in the city. A total of 12 synagogues in Cairo still exist. Economy ------- Cairo's economy has traditionally been based on governmental institutions and services, with the modern productive sector expanding in the 20th century to include developments in textiles and food processing – specifically the production of sugar cane. As of 2005, Egypt has the largest non-oil based GDP in the Arab world. Cairo accounts for 11% of Egypt's population and 22% of its economy (PPP). The majority of the nation's commerce is generated there, or passes through the city. The great majority of publishing houses and media outlets and nearly all film studios are there, as are half of the nation's hospital beds and universities. This has fuelled rapid construction in the city, with one building in five being less than 15 years old. This growth until recently surged well ahead of city services. Homes, roads, electricity, telephone and sewer services were all in short supply. Analysts trying to grasp the magnitude of the change coined terms like "hyper-urbanization". ### Automobile manufacturers from Cairo * Arab American Vehicles Company * Egyptian Light Transport Manufacturing Company (Egyptian NSU pedant) * Ghabbour Group (Fuso, Hyundai and Volvo) * MCV Corporate Group (a part of the Daimler AG) * Mod Car * Seoudi Group (Modern Motors: Nissan, BMW (formerly); El-Mashreq: Alfa Romeo and Fiat) * Speranza (former Daewoo Motors Egypt; Chery, Daewoo) * General Motors Egypt Infrastructure -------------- ### Health Cairo, as well as neighbouring Giza, has been established as Egypt's main centre for medical treatment, and despite some exceptions, has the most advanced level of medical care in the country. Cairo's hospitals include the JCI-accredited As-Salaam International Hospital—Corniche El Nile, Maadi (Egypt's largest private hospital with 350 beds), Ain Shams University Hospital, Dar Al Fouad, Nile Badrawi Hospital, 57357 Hospital, as well as Qasr El Eyni Hospital. ### Education Greater Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services for Egypt and the region. Today, Greater Cairo is the centre for many government offices governing the Egyptian educational system, has the largest number of educational schools, and higher education institutes among other cities and governorates of Egypt. **Some of the International Schools found in Cairo:** Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams UniversityFaculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University **Universities in Greater Cairo:** | University | Date of Foundation | | --- | --- | | Al Azhar University | 970–972 | | Cairo University | 1908 | | American University in Cairo | 1919 | | Ain Shams University | 1950 | | Arab Academy for Science & Technology and Maritime Transport | 1972 | | Helwan University | 1975 | | Sadat Academy for Management Sciences | 1981 | | Higher Technological Institute | 1989 | | Modern Academy In Maadi | 1993 | | Malvern College Egypt | 2006 | | Misr International University | 1996 | | Misr University for Science and Technology | 1996 | | Modern Sciences and Arts University | 1996 | | Université Française d'Égypte | 2002 | | German University in Cairo | 2003 | | Arab Open University | 2003 | | Canadian International College | 2004 | | British University in Egypt | 2005 | | Ahram Canadian University | 2005 | | Nile University | 2006 | | Future University in Egypt | 2006 | | Egyptian Russian University | 2006 | | Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development | 2009 | | New Giza University | 2016 | | ### Transport Façade of Terminal 3 at Cairo International AirportDepartures area of Cairo International Airport's Terminal 1 Cairo has an extensive road network, rail system, subway system and maritime services. Road transport is facilitated by personal vehicles, taxi cabs, privately owned public buses and microbuses. Cairo International Airport is the country's largest airport and one of the busiest airports in Africa. #### Public transportation Cairo, specifically Ramses Station, is the centre of almost the entire Egyptian transportation network. The Cairo Transportation Authority (CTA) manages Cairo's public transit. The subway system, the Cairo Metro, is a fast and efficient way of getting around Cairo. The metro network covers Helwan and other suburbs. It can get very crowded during rush hour. Two train cars (the fourth and fifth ones) are reserved for women only, although women may ride in any car they want. Trams in Greater Cairo and Cairo trolleybus were used as modes of transportation, but were closed in the 1970s everywhere except Heliopolis and Helwan. These were shut down in 2014, after the Egyptian Revolution. In 2017, plans to construct two monorail systems were announced, one linking 6th of October to suburban Giza, a distance of 35 km (22 mi), and the other linking Nasr City to New Cairo, a distance of 52 km (32 mi). #### Roads An extensive road network connects Cairo with other Egyptian cities and villages. There is a new Ring Road that surrounds the outskirts of the city, with exits that reach outer Cairo districts. There are flyovers and bridges, such as the 6th October Bridge that, when the traffic is not heavy, allow fast means of transportation from one side of the city to the other. Cairo traffic is known to be overwhelming and overcrowded. Traffic moves at a relatively fluid pace. Drivers tend to be aggressive, but are more courteous at junctions, taking turns going, with police aiding in traffic control of some congested areas. #### Other forms of transport * Cairo Taxi/Yellow Cab * Cairo Nile Ferry * Careem * Uber * DiDi Culture ------- ### Cultural tourism in Egypt ### Cairo Opera House President Mubarak inaugurated the new Cairo Opera House of the Egyptian National Cultural Centres on 10 October 1988, 17 years after the Royal Opera House had been destroyed by fire. The National Cultural Centre was built with the help of JICA, the Japan International Co-operation Agency and stands as a prominent feature for the Japanese-Egyptian co-operation and the friendship between the two nations. ### Khedivial Opera House The Khedivial Opera House, or Royal Opera House, was the original opera house in Cairo. It was dedicated on 1 November 1869 and burned down on 28 October 1971. After the original opera house was destroyed, Cairo was without an opera house for nearly two decades until the opening of the new Cairo Opera House in 1988. ### Cairo International Film Festival Cairo held its first international film festival 16 August 1976, when the first Cairo International Film Festival was launched by the Egyptian Association of Film Writers and Critics, headed by Kamal El-Mallakh. The Association ran the festival for seven years until 1983. This achievement lead to the President of the Festival again contacting the FIAPF with the request that a competition should be included at the 1991 Festival. The request was granted. In 1998, the Festival took place under the presidency of one of Egypt's leading actors, Hussein Fahmy, who was appointed by the Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosni, after the death of Saad El-Din Wahba. Four years later, the journalist and writer Cherif El-Shoubashy became president. ### Cairo Geniza The Cairo Geniza is an accumulation of almost 200,000 Jewish manuscripts that were found in the *genizah* of the Ben Ezra synagogue (built 882) of Fustat, Egypt (now Old Cairo), the Basatin cemetery east of Old Cairo, and a number of old documents that were bought in Cairo in the later 19th century. These documents were written from about 870 to 1880 AD and have been archived in various American and European libraries. The Taylor-Schechter collection in the University of Cambridge runs to 140,000 manuscripts; a further 40,000 manuscripts are housed at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. ### Food The majority of Cairenes make food for themselves and make use of local produce markets. The restaurant scene includes Arab cuisine and Middle Eastern cuisine, including local staples such as *koshary*. The city's most exclusive restaurants are typically concentrated in Zamalek and around the luxury hotels lining the shore of the Nile near the Garden City district. Influence from modern western society is also evident, with American chains such as McDonald's, Arby's, Pizza Hut, Subway, and Kentucky Fried Chicken being easy to find in central areas. Sports ------ Football is the most popular sport in Egypt, and Cairo has a number of sporting teams that compete in national and regional leagues, most notably Al Ahly and Zamalek SC, who are the CAF first and second African clubs of the 20th century. The annual match between Al Ahly and El Zamalek is one of the most watched sports events in Egypt as well as the African-Arab region. The teams form the major rivalry of Egyptian football and are the first and the second champions in Africa and the Arab world. They play their home games at Cairo International Stadium or Naser Stadium, which is the second largest stadium in Egypt, as well as the largest in Cairo and one of the largest stadiums in the world. The Cairo International Stadium was built in 1960 and its multi-purpose sports complex that houses the main football stadium, an indoor stadium, several satellite fields that held several regional, continental, and global games, including the African Games, U17 Football World Championship and were one of the stadiums scheduled that hosted the 2006 Africa Cup of Nations which was played in January 2006. Egypt later won the competition and went on to win the next edition in Ghana (2008) making the Egyptian and Ghanaian national teams the only teams to win the African Nations Cup Back to back which resulted in Egypt winning the title for a record number of six times in the history of African Continental Competition. This was followed by a third consecutive win in Angola in 2010, making Egypt the only country with a record 3-consecutive and 7-total Continental Football Competition winner. This achievement also placed the Egyptian football team as the #9 best team in the world's FIFA rankings. As of 2021, Egypt's national team is ranked #46 in the world by FIFA. Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Beijing, China. However, Cairo did host the 2007 Pan Arab Games. There are several other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including Gezira Sporting Club, el Shams Club, el Seid Club, Heliopolis Sporting Club, and several smaller clubs, but the biggest clubs in Egypt (not in the area but in sports) are Al Ahly and Zamalek. They have the two biggest football teams in Egypt. There are new sports clubs in the area of New Cairo (one hour far from Cairo's downtown), these are Al Zohour sporting club, Wadi Degla sporting club and Platinum Club. Most of the sports federations of the country are also located in the city suburbs, including the Egyptian Football Association. The headquarters of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in 6 October City, a small city away from Cairo's crowded districts. In October 2008, the Egyptian Rugby Federation was officially formed and granted membership into the International Rugby Board. Egypt is internationally known for the excellence of its squash players who excel in professional and junior divisions. Egypt has seven players in the top ten of the PSA men's world rankings, and three in the women's top ten. Mohamed El Shorbagy held the world number one position for more than a year before being overtaken by compatriot Karim Abdel Gawad, who is number two behind Gregory Gaultier of France. Ramy Ashour and Amr Shabana are regarded as two of the most talented squash players in history. Shabana won the World Open title four times and Ashour twice, although his recent form has been hampered by injury. Egypt's Nour El Sherbini has won the Women's World Championship twice and has been women's world number one for 16 consecutive months. On 30 April 2016, she became the youngest woman to win the Women's World Championship which was held in Malaysia. In April 2017 she retained her title by winning the Women's World Championship which was held in the Egyptian resort of El Gouna. Cairo is the official end point of Cross Egypt Challenge where its route ends yearly in the most sacred place in Egypt, under the Great Pyramids of Giza with a huge trophy-giving ceremony. Cityscape and landmarks ----------------------- ### Tahrir Square Tahrir Square was founded during the mid 19th century with the establishment of modern downtown Cairo. It was first named Ismailia Square, after the 19th-century ruler Khedive Ismail, who commissioned the new downtown district's 'Paris on the Nile' design. After the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 the square became widely known as Tahrir (Liberation) Square, though it was not officially renamed as such until after the 1952 Revolution which eliminated the monarchy. Several notable buildings surround the square including, the American University in Cairo's downtown campus, the Mogamma governmental administrative Building, the headquarters of the Arab League, the Nile Ritz Carlton Hotel, and the Egyptian Museum. Being at the heart of Cairo, the square witnessed several major protests over the years. However, the most notable event in the square was being the focal point of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution against former president Hosni Mubarak. In 2020 the government completed the erection of a new monument in the center of the square featuring an ancient obelisk from the reign of Ramses II, originally unearthed at Tanis (San al-Hagar) in 2019, and four ram-headed sphinx statues moved from Karnak. ### Egyptian Museum The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, is home to the most extensive collection of ancient Egyptian antiquities in the world. It has 136,000 items on display, with many more hundreds of thousands in its basement storerooms. Among the collections on display are the finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun. #### Grand Egyptian Museum Much of the collection of the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, including the Tutankhamun collection, are slated to be moved to the new Grand Egyptian Museum, under construction in Giza and was due to open by the end of 2020. ### Cairo Tower The Cairo Tower is a free-standing tower with a revolving restaurant at the top. It provides a bird's eye view of Cairo to the restaurant patrons. It stands in the Zamalek district on Gezira Island in the Nile River, in the city centre. At 187 m (614 ft), it is 44 m (144 ft) higher than the Great Pyramid of Giza, which stands some 15 km (9 mi) to the southwest. ### Old Cairo This area of Cairo is so-named as it contains the remains of the ancient Roman fortress of Babylon and also overlaps the original site of Fustat, the first Arab settlement in Egypt (7th century AD) and the predecessor of later Cairo. The area includes Coptic Cairo, which holds a high concentration of old Christian churches such as the Hanging Church, the Greek Orthodox Church of St. George, and other Christian or Coptic buildings, most of which are located in an enclave on the site of the ancient Roman fortress. It is also the location of the Coptic Museum, which showcases the history of Coptic art from Greco-Roman to Islamic times, and of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, the oldest and best-known synagogue in Cairo, where the important collection of Geniza documents were discovered in the 19th century. To the north of this Coptic enclave is the Amr ibn al-'As Mosque, the first mosque in Egypt and the most important religious centre of what was formerly Fustat, founded in 642 AD right after the Arab conquest but rebuilt many times since. A part of the former city of Fustat has also been excavated to the east of the mosque and of the Coptic enclave, although the archeological site is threatened by encroaching construction and modern development. To the northwest of Babylon Fortress and the mosque is the Monastery of Saint Mercurius (or *Dayr Abu Sayfayn*), an important and historic Coptic religious complex consisting of the Church of Saint Mercurius, the Church of Saint Shenute, and the Church of the Virgin (also known as *al-Damshiriya*). Several other historic churches are also situated to the south of Babylon Fortress. ### Islamic Cairo Cairo holds one of the greatest concentrations of historical monuments of Islamic architecture in the world. The areas around the old walled city and around the Citadel are characterized by hundreds of mosques, tombs, madrasas, mansions, caravanserais, and fortifications dating from the Islamic era and are often referred to as "Islamic Cairo", especially in English travel literature. It is also the location of several important religious shrines such as the al-Hussein Mosque (whose shrine is believed to hold the head of Husayn ibn Ali), the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i *madhhab*, one of the primary schools of thought in Sunni Islamic jurisprudence), the Tomb of Sayyida Ruqayya, the Mosque of Sayyida Nafisa, and others. The first mosque in Egypt was the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in what was formerly Fustat, the first Arab-Muslim settlement in the area. However, the Mosque of Ibn Tulun is the oldest mosque that still retains its original form and is a rare example of Abbasid architecture from the classical period of Islamic civilization. It was built in 876–879 AD in a style inspired by the Abbasid capital of Samarra in Iraq. It is one of the largest mosques in Cairo and is often cited as one of the most beautiful. Another Abbasid construction, the Nilometer on Roda Island, is the oldest original structure in Cairo, built in 862 AD. It was designed to measure the level of the Nile, which was important for agricultural and administrative purposes. The settlement that was formally named Cairo (Arabic: *al-Qahira*) was founded to the northeast of Fustat in 959 AD by the victorious Fatimid army. The Fatimids built it as a separate palatial city which contained their palaces and institutions of government. It was enclosed by a circuit of walls, which were rebuilt in stone in the late 11th century AD by the vizier Badr al-Gamali, parts of which survive today at Bab Zuwayla in the south and Bab al-Futuh and Bab al-Nasr in the north. Among the extant monuments from the Fatimid era are the large Mosque of al-Hakim, the Aqmar Mosque, Juyushi Mosque, Lulua Mosque, and the Mosque of Al-Salih Tala'i. One of the most important and lasting institutions founded in the Fatimid period was the Mosque of al-Azhar, founded in 970 AD, which competes with the Qarawiyyin in Fes for the title of oldest university in the world. Today, al-Azhar University is the foremost Center of Islamic learning in the world and one of Egypt's largest universities with campuses across the country. The mosque itself retains significant Fatimid elements but has been added to and expanded in subsequent centuries, notably by the Mamluk sultans Qaytbay and al-Ghuri and by Abd al-Rahman Katkhuda in the 18th century. The most prominent architectural heritage of medieval Cairo, however, dates from the Mamluk period, from 1250 to 1517 AD. The Mamluk sultans and elites were eager patrons of religious and scholarly life, commonly building religious or funerary complexes whose functions could include a mosque, madrasa, khanqah (for Sufis), a sabil (water dispensary), and a mausoleum for themselves and their families. Among the best-known examples of Mamluk monuments in Cairo are the huge Mosque-Madrasa of Sultan Hasan, the Mosque of Amir al-Maridani, the Mosque of Sultan al-Mu'ayyad (whose twin minarets were built above the gate of Bab Zuwayla), the Sultan Al-Ghuri complex, the funerary complex of Sultan Qaytbay in the Northern Cemetery, and the trio of monuments in the Bayn al-Qasrayn area comprising the complex of Sultan al-Mansur Qalawun, the Madrasa of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the Madrasa of Sultan Barquq. Some mosques include spolia (often columns or capitals) from earlier buildings built by the Romans, Byzantines, or Copts. The Mamluks, and the later Ottomans, also built *wikala*s or caravanserais to house merchants and goods due to the important role of trade and commerce in Cairo's economy. Still intact today is the Wikala al-Ghuri, which today hosts regular performances by the Al-Tannoura Egyptian Heritage Dance Troupe. The Khan al-Khalili is a commercial hub which also integrated caravanserais (also known as *khan*s). ### Citadel of Cairo The Citadel is a fortified enclosure begun by Salah al-Din in 1176 AD on an outcrop of the Muqattam Hills as part of a large defensive system to protect both Cairo to the north and Fustat to the southwest. It was the centre of Egyptian government and residence of its rulers until 1874, when Khedive Isma'il moved to 'Abdin Palace. It is still occupied by the military today, but is now open as a tourist attraction comprising, notably, the National Military Museum, the 14th century Mosque of al-Nasir Muhammad, and the 19th century Mosque of Muhammad Ali which commands a dominant position on Cairo's skyline. ### Khan el-Khalili Khan el-Khalili is an ancient bazaar, or marketplace adjacent to the Al-Hussein Mosque. It dates back to 1385, when Amir Jarkas el-Khalili built a large caravanserai, or khan. (A caravanserai is a hotel for traders, and usually the focal point for any surrounding area.) This original caravanserai building was demolished by Sultan al-Ghuri, who rebuilt it as a new commercial complex in the early 16th century, forming the basis for the network of souqs existing today. Many medieval elements remain today, including the ornate Mamluk-style gateways. Today, the Khan el-Khalili is a major tourist attraction and popular stop for tour groups. Society ------- In the present day, Cairo is heavily urbanized and most Cairenes live in apartment buildings. Because of the influx of people into the city, lone standing houses are rare, and apartment buildings accommodate for the limited space and abundance of people. Single detached houses are usually owned by the wealthy. Formal education is also seen as important, with twelve years of standard formal education. Cairenes can take a standardized test similar to the SAT to be accepted to an institution of higher learning, but most children do not finish school and opt to pick up a trade to enter the work force. Egypt still struggles with poverty, with almost half the population living on $2 or less a day. ### Women's rights The civil rights movement for women in Cairo – and by extent, Egypt – has been a struggle for years. Women are reported to face constant discrimination, sexual harassment, and abuse throughout Cairo. A 2013 UN study found that over 99% of Egyptian women reported experiencing sexual harassment at some point in their lives. The problem has persisted in spite of new national laws since 2014 defining and criminalizing sexual harassment. The situation is so severe that in 2017, Cairo was named by one poll as the most dangerous megacity for women in the world. In 2020, the social media account "Assault Police" began to name and shame perpetrators of violence against women, in an effort to dissuade potential offenders. The account was founded by student Nadeen Ashraf, who is credited for instigating an iteration of the #MeToo movement in Egypt. Pollution --------- The air pollution in Cairo is a matter of serious concern. Greater Cairo's volatile aromatic hydrocarbon levels are higher than many other similar cities. Air quality measurements in Cairo have also been recording dangerous levels of lead, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter concentrations due to decades of unregulated vehicle emissions, urban industrial operations, and chaff and trash burning. There are over 4,500,000 cars on the streets of Cairo, 60% of which are over 10 years old, and therefore lack modern emission cutting features. Cairo has a very poor dispersion factor because of its lack of rain and its layout of tall buildings and narrow streets, which create a bowl effect. In recent years, a black cloud (as Egyptians refer to it) of smog has appeared over Cairo every autumn due to temperature inversion. Smog causes serious respiratory diseases and eye irritations for the city's citizens. Tourists who are not familiar with such high levels of pollution must take extra care. Cairo also has many unregistered lead and copper smelters which heavily pollute the city. The results of this has been a permanent haze over the city with particulate matter in the air reaching over three times normal levels. It is estimated that 10,000 to 25,000 people a year in Cairo die due to air pollution-related diseases. Lead has been shown to cause harm to the central nervous system and neurotoxicity particularly in children. In 1995, the first environmental acts were introduced and the situation has seen some improvement with 36 air monitoring stations and emissions tests on cars. Twenty thousand buses have also been commissioned to the city to improve congestion levels, which are very high. The city also suffers from a high level of land pollution. Cairo produces 10,000 tons of waste material each day, 4,000 tons of which is not collected or managed. This is a huge health hazard, and the Egyptian Government is looking for ways to combat this. The Cairo Cleaning and Beautification Agency was founded to collect and recycle the waste; they work with the Zabbaleen community that has been collecting and recycling Cairo's waste since the turn of the 20th century and live in an area known locally as Manshiyat naser. Both are working together to pick up as much waste as possible within the city limits, though it remains a pressing problem. Water pollution is also a serious problem in the city as the sewer system tends to fail and overflow. On occasion, sewage has escaped onto the streets to create a health hazard. This problem is hoped to be solved by a new sewer system funded by the European Union, which could cope with the demand of the city. The dangerously high levels of mercury in the city's water system has global health officials concerned over related health risks. International relations ----------------------- The Headquarters of the Arab League is located in Tahrir Square, near the downtown business district of Cairo. ### Twin towns – sister cities Cairo is twinned with: * Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates * Amman, Jordan * Baghdad, Iraq * Beijing, China * Damascus, Syria * East Jerusalem, Palestine * Istanbul, Turkey * Kairouan, Tunisia * Khartoum, Sudan * Muscat, Oman * Palermo Province, Italy * Rabat, Morocco * Sanaa, Yemen * Seoul, South Korea * Stuttgart, Germany * Tashkent, Uzbekistan * Tbilisi, Georgia * Tokyo, Japan * Tripoli, Libya Notable people -------------- * Rabab Al-Kadhimi (1918 – 1998), dentist and poet * Gamal Aziz, also known as Gamal Mohammed Abdelaziz, former president and chief operating officer of Wynn Resorts, and former CEO of MGM Resorts International, indicted as part of the 2019 college admissions bribery scandal * Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), born Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf al-Qudwa al-Husseini, was the 3rd Chairman of The PLO and first president of the Palestinian Authority. * Abu Sa'id al-Afif, 15th-century Samaritan * Boutros Ghali (1922–2016), former Secretary-General of the United Nations * Avi Cohen (1956–2010), Israeli international footballer * Dalida (1933–1987), Italian-Egyptian singer who lived most of her life in France, received 55 golden records and was the first singer to receive a diamond disc * Farouk El-Baz (born 1938), an Egyptian American space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon, including the selection of landing sites for the Apollo missions and the training of astronauts in lunar observations and photography * Ahmed Mourad Bey Zulfikar (1888–1945), Egyptian chief of police * Freddy Elbaiady (born 1971), Egyptian politician * Mohamed ElBaradei (born 1942), former Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate * Nourane Foster (born 1987), Cameroonian entrepreneur, politician and member of the National Assembly * Mauro Hamza, fencing coach * Taco Hemingway (born 1990), Polish hip-hop artist * Dorothy Hodgkin (1910–1994), British chemist, credited with the development of protein crystallography, Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 * Yakub Kadri Karaosmanoğlu (1889–1974), Turkish novelist * Naguib Mahfouz (1911–2006), novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988 * Roland Moreno (1945–2012), French inventor, engineer, humorist and author who invented the smart card * Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) was an Egyptian politician who served as the second President of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. * Gaafar Nimeiry (1930–2009), President of Sudan * Ahmed Sabri (1889–1955), painter * Naguib Sawiris (born 1954), Egyptian businessman, 62nd richest person on Earth in 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding * Dina Zulfikar (born 1962), Egyptian film distributor and animal welfare activist * Mohamed Sobhi (born 1948), Egyptian film, television and stage actor, and director * Blessed Maria Caterina Troiani (1813–1887), a charitable activist * Magdi Yacoub (born 1935), Egyptian-British cardiothoracic surgeon * Hesham Youssef, Egyptian diplomat * Ahmed Zulfikar (1952–2010), an Egyptian mechanical engineer and entrepreneur * Ezz El-Dine Zulficar, (1919–1963) was an Egyptian film director, screenwriter, actor and producer, known for his distinctive style, which blends romance and action. Zulficar was one of the most influential filmmakers in the Egyptian Cinema's golden age. * Mona Zulficar (born 1950), Egyptian lawyer and human rights activist. She was included in the Forbes 2021 list of the "100 most powerful businesswomen in the Arab region". * Ismail Pacha (1830–1895), was an Egyptian politician who served as Khedive of Egypt from 1863 to 1879. See also -------- * Charles Ayrout * Cultural tourism in Egypt * List of buildings in Cairo * List of cities and towns in Egypt * Outline of Cairo * Outline of Egypt * Architecture of Egypt Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ Cairo Metropolitan is enlarged to cover all the area within the Governorate limits. Government statistics consider that the whole governorate is urban and the whole governorate is treated like as the metropolitan-city of Cairo. Governorate Cairo is considered a city-proper and functions as a municipality. The city of Alexandria is on the same principle as the city of Cairo, being a governorate-city. Because of this, it is difficult to divide Cairo into urban, rural, subdivisions, or to eliminate certain parts of the metropolitan administrative territory on various theme (unofficial statistics and data). 2. ↑ The historical chronicler John of Nikiou attributed the construction of the fortress to Trajan, but more recent excavations date the fortress to the time of Diocletian. A succession of canals connecting the Nile Valley with the Red Sea were also previously dug around this region in different periods prior to Trajan. Trajan's canal fell out of use some time between the reign of Diocletian and the 7th century. References ---------- ### Works cited * Abu-Lughod, Janet (July 1965). "Tale of Two Cities: The Origins of Modern Cairo". *Comparative Studies in Society and History*. **7** (4): 429–457. doi:10.1017/S0010417500003819. ISSN 0010-4175. S2CID 145607590. * Abu-Lughod, Janet L. (1971). *Cairo: 1001 Years of the City Victorious*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-65660-1. * Afaf Lutfi Sayyid-Marsot (1984). *Egypt in the Reign of Muhammad Ali* (illustrated, reprint ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-28968-9. * AlSayyad, Nezar (2011). *Cairo: Histories of a City*. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674047860. * Battuta, Ibn (1829) [1355]. *The Travels of Ibn Battuta*. Translated by Lee, Samuel. Cosimo Classics (published 2009). ISBN 9781616402624. * Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992). *Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction* (2nd ed.). Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09626-4. Archived from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2020. * Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (2007). *Cairo of the Mamluks: A History of Architecture and its Culture*. The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774160776. * Böwering, Gerhard (2008). "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.). *The Qur'an in its Historical Context*. Routledge. pp. 1–26. ISBN 9780415491693. * Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2004). *The Black Death* (illustrated, annotated ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32492-5. * Clot, André (1996). *L'Égypte des Mamelouks: L'empire des esclaves, 1250–1517* (in French). Perrin. ISBN 2-262-01030-7. OCLC 911345545. * Collins, Robert O. (2002). *The Nile* (illustrated ed.). New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09764-1. * Daly, M. W.; Petry, Carl F. (1998). *The Cambridge History of Egypt: Islamic Egypt, 640–1517*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47137-4. * Elyachar, Julia (2005). *Markets of Dispossession: NGOs, Economic Development, and the State in Cairo*. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-8713-8. * Gabra, Gawdat; van Loon, Gertrud J.M.; Reif, Stefan; Swelim, Tarek (2013). Ludwig, Carolyn; Jackson, Morris (eds.). *The History and Religious Heritage of Old Cairo: Its Fortress, Churches, Synagogue, and Mosque*. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774167690. * Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (2003). *The New Encyclopedia of Islam* (2nd revised ed.). Singapore: Tien Wah Press. ISBN 978-0-7591-0190-6. * Golia, Maria (2004). *Cairo: city of sand*. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-187-7. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020. * Hawass, Zahi A.; Brock, Lyla Pinch (2003). *Egyptology at the Dawn of the Twenty-First Century: Archaeology* (2nd ed.). Cairo: American University in Cairo. ISBN 978-977-424-674-6. * Hourani, Albert Habib; Khoury, Philip Shukry; Wilson, Mary Christina (2004). *The Modern Middle East: A Reader* (2nd ed.). London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-963-9. * İnalcık, Halil; Faroqhi, Suraiya; Quataert, Donald; McGowan, Bruce; Pamuk, Sevket (1997). *An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire* (illustrated, reprinted ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57455-6. * Kennedy, Hugh (2007). *The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In*. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 9780297846574. * McGregor, Andrew James (2006). *A Military History of Modern Egypt: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War*. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-98601-8. * Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). *Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia*. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-96692-4. * O'Neill, Zora; Benanav, Michael; Lee, Jessica; Sattin, Anthony (2012). *Lonely Planet Egypt* (11th ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74179-959-0. * Raymond, André (1993). *Le Caire* (in French). Fayard. ISBN 978-2-213-02983-2. **English translation:** Raymond, André (2000). *Cairo*. Translated by Wood, Willard. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00316-3. * Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2008). "Introduction: Qur'anic Studies and its Controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.). *The Qur'an in its Historical Context*. Routledge. pp. 1–26. ISBN 9780415491693. * Shillington, Kevin (2005). *Encyclopedia of African History*. New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-57958-453-5. * Shoshan, Boaz (2002). David Morgan (ed.). *Popular Culture in Medieval Cairo*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89429-6. * Sicker, Martin (2001). *The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire* (illustrated ed.). Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-96891-5. * Sims, David (2012) [2010]. *Understanding Cairo: The Logic of a City Out of Control*. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774165535. * Swelim, Tarek (2015). *Ibn Tulun: His Lost City and Great Mosque*. American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 9789774166914. * UN-Habitat (2011). *Cairo - a City in Transition*. UN-Habitat. ISBN 978-9-211-32353-5. * Williams, Caroline (2008). *Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide* (6th, Revised ed.). The American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-416-205-3. * Williams, Caroline (2018). *Islamic Monuments in Cairo: The Practical Guide* (7th ed.). Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press. * Winter, Michael (1992). *Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-02403-7. * Winter, Michael (2004). *Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule, 1517–1798*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-16923-0. Further reading --------------- * Alsayyad, Nezar (2011). *Cairo*. doi:10.4159/harvard.9780674060791. ISBN 9780674060791. * Beattie, Andrew (2005). *Cairo: A Cultural History* (illustrated ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517893-7. * Butler, Alfred J. (2008). *The Arab Conquest of Egypt – And the Last Thirty Years of the Roman Dominion*. Portland, OR: Butler Press. ISBN 978-1-4437-2783-9. * Artemis Cooper, *Cairo in the War, 1939–1945*, Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. ISBN 0-14-024781-5 (Pbk) * Max Rodenbeck, *Cairo– the City Victorious*, Picador, 1998. ISBN 0-330-33709-2 (Hbk) ISBN 0-330-33710-6 (Pbk) * Wahba, Magdi (1990). *Cairo Memories" in Studies in Arab History: The Antonius Lectures, 1978–87*. Edited by Derek Hopwood. London: Macmillan Press. * "Rescuing Cairo's Lost Heritage". *Islamica Magazine* (15). 2006. Archived from the original on 2 April 2007. Retrieved 6 December 2006. * Peter Theroux, *Cairo: Clamorous heart of Egypt* National Geographic Magazine April 1993 * Cynthia Myntti, *Paris Along the Nile: Architecture in Cairo from the Belle Epoque*, American University in Cairo Press, 2003. * Cairo's belle époque architects 1900–1950, by Samir Raafat. * Antonine Selim Nahas, one of city's major belle époque (1900–1950) architects. * Nagib Mahfooz novels, all tell great stories about Cairo's deep conflicts. * Lewicka, Paulina (2011). *Food and Foodways of Medieval Cairenes*. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004194724.i-626. ISBN 9789004206465. * Sanders, Paula (2008). *Creating Medieval Cairo: Empire, Religion, and Architectural Preservation in Nineteenth-Century Egypt*. Cairo: American University in Cairo. ISBN 978-977-416-095-0. * Jörg Armbruster, Suleman Taufiq (Eds.) *مدينتي القاهرة (MYCAI – My Cairo Mein Kairo)*, text by different authors, photos by Barbara Armbruster and Hala Elkoussy, edition esefeld & traub, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-9809887-8-0. ### Photos and videos * Cairo 360-degree full-screen images * Cairo Travel Photos Pictures of Cairo published under Creative Commons License * Call to Cairo Time-lapse film of Cairo cityscapes * Cairo, Egypt – video by *Global Post* * Photos of Cairo / Travel

Cairo

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A **computer mouse** (plural **mice**, also **mouses**) is a hand-held pointing device that detects two-dimensional motion relative to a surface. This motion is typically translated into the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows a smooth control of the graphical user interface of a computer. The first public demonstration of a mouse controlling a computer system was in 1968. Mice originally used two separate wheels to directly track movement across a surface: one in the X-dimension and one in the Y. Later, the standard design shifted to use a ball rolling on a surface to detect motion, in turn connected to internal rollers. Most modern mice use optical movement detection with no moving parts. Though originally all mice were connected to a computer by a cable, many modern mice are cordless, relying on short-range radio communication with the connected system. In addition to moving a cursor, computer mice have one or more buttons to allow operations such as the selection of a menu item on a display. Mice often also feature other elements, such as touch surfaces and scroll wheels, which enable additional control and dimensional input. Etymology --------- The earliest known written use of the term *mouse* in reference to a computer pointing device is in Bill English's July 1965 publication, "Computer-Aided Display Control". This likely originated from its resemblance to the shape and size of a mouse, with the cord resembling its tail. The popularity of wireless mice without cords makes the resemblance less obvious. According to Roger Bates, a hardware designer under English, the term also came about because the cursor on the screen was for some unknown reason referred to as "CAT" and was seen by the team as if it would be chasing the new desktop device. The plural for the small rodent is always "mice" in modern usage. The plural for a computer mouse is either "mice" or "mouses" according to most dictionaries, with "mice" being more common. The first recorded plural usage is "mice"; the online *Oxford Dictionaries* cites a 1984 use, and earlier uses include J. C. R. Licklider's "The Computer as a Communication Device" of 1968. History ------- ### Stationary trackballs The trackball, a related pointing device, was invented in 1946 by Ralph Benjamin as part of a post-World War II-era fire-control radar plotting system called the Comprehensive Display System (CDS). Benjamin was then working for the British Royal Navy Scientific Service. Benjamin's project used analog computers to calculate the future position of target aircraft based on several initial input points provided by a user with a joystick. Benjamin felt that a more elegant input device was needed and invented what they called a "roller ball" for this purpose. The device was patented in 1947, but only a prototype using a metal ball rolling on two rubber-coated wheels was ever built, and the device was kept as a military secret. Another early trackball was built by Kenyon Taylor, a British electrical engineer working in collaboration with Tom Cranston and Fred Longstaff. Taylor was part of the original Ferranti Canada, working on the Royal Canadian Navy's DATAR (Digital Automated Tracking and Resolving) system in 1952. DATAR was similar in concept to Benjamin's display. The trackball used four disks to pick up motion, two each for the X and Y directions. Several rollers provided mechanical support. When the ball was rolled, the pickup discs spun and contacts on their outer rim made periodic contact with wires, producing pulses of output with each movement of the ball. By counting the pulses, the physical movement of the ball could be determined. A digital computer calculated the tracks and sent the resulting data to other ships in a task force using pulse-code modulation radio signals. This trackball used a standard Canadian five-pin bowling ball. It was not patented, since it was a secret military project. ### Engelbart's first "mouse" Douglas Engelbart of the Stanford Research Institute (now SRI International) has been credited in published books by Thierry Bardini, Paul Ceruzzi, Howard Rheingold, and several others as the inventor of the computer mouse. Engelbart was also recognized as such in various obituary titles after his death in July 2013. By 1963, Engelbart had already established a research lab at SRI, the Augmentation Research Center (ARC), to pursue his objective of developing both hardware and software computer technology to "augment" human intelligence. That November, while attending a conference on computer graphics in Reno, Nevada, Engelbart began to ponder how to adapt the underlying principles of the planimeter to inputting X- and Y-coordinate data. On 14 November 1963, he first recorded his thoughts in his personal notebook about something he initially called a "bug", which in a "3-point" form could have a "drop point and 2 orthogonal wheels". He wrote that the "bug" would be "easier" and "more natural" to use, and unlike a stylus, it would stay still when let go, which meant it would be "much better for coordination with the keyboard". In 1964, Bill English joined ARC, where he helped Engelbart build the first mouse prototype. They christened the device the *mouse* as early models had a cord attached to the rear part of the device which looked like a tail, and in turn resembled the common mouse. According to Roger Bates, a hardware designer under English, another reason for choosing this name was because the cursor on the screen was also referred to as "CAT" at this time. As noted above, this "mouse" was first mentioned in print in a July 1965 report, on which English was the lead author. On 9 December 1968, Engelbart publicly demonstrated the mouse at what would come to be known as The Mother of All Demos. Engelbart never received any royalties for it, as his employer SRI held the patent, which expired before the mouse became widely used in personal computers. In any event, the invention of the mouse was just a small part of Engelbart's much larger project of augmenting human intellect. Several other experimental pointing-devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System (NLS) exploited different body movements – for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose – but ultimately the mouse won out because of its speed and convenience. The first mouse, a bulky device (pictured) used two potentiometers perpendicular to each other and connected to wheels: the rotation of each wheel translated into motion along one axis. At the time of the "Mother of All Demos", Engelbart's group had been using their second generation, 3-button mouse for about a year. ### First rolling-ball mouse On 2 October 1968, three years after Engelbart's prototype but more than two months before his public demo, a mouse device named **Rollkugelsteuerung** (German for "rolling ball control") was shown in a sales brochure by the German company AEG-Telefunken as an optional input device for the SIG 100 vector graphics terminal, part of the system around their process computer TR 86 and the TR 440 [de] main frame. Based on an even earlier trackball device, the mouse device had been developed by the company since 1966 in what had been a parallel and independent discovery. As the name suggests and unlike Engelbart's mouse, the Telefunken model already had a ball (diameter 40 mm, weight 40 g) and two mechanical 4-bit rotational position transducers with Gray code-like states, allowing easy movement in any direction. The bits remained stable for at least two successive states to relax debouncing requirements. This arrangement was chosen so that the data could also be transmitted to the TR 86 front end process computer and over longer distance telex lines with c. 50 baud. Weighing 465 grams (16.4 oz), the device with a total height of about 7 cm (2.8 in) came in a c. 12 cm (4.7 in) diameter hemispherical injection-molded thermoplastic casing featuring one central push button. As noted above, the device was based on an earlier trackball-like device (also named **Rollkugel**) that was embedded into radar flight control desks. This trackball had been originally developed by a team led by Rainer Mallebrein [de] at Telefunken *Konstanz* for the German **Bundesanstalt für Flugsicherung [de]** (Federal Air Traffic Control). It was part of the corresponding work station system SAP 300 and the terminal SIG 3001, which had been designed and developed since 1963. Development for the TR 440 main frame began in 1965. This led to the development of the TR 86 process computer system with its SIG 100-86 terminal. Inspired by a discussion with a university customer, Mallebrein came up with the idea of "reversing" the existing *Rollkugel* trackball into a moveable mouse-like device in 1966, so that customers did not have to be bothered with mounting holes for the earlier trackball device. The device was finished in early 1968, and together with light pens and trackballs, it was commercially offered as an optional input device for their system starting later that year. Not all customers opted to buy the device, which added costs of DM 1,500 per piece to the already up to 20-million DM deal for the main frame, of which only a total of 46 systems were sold or leased. They were installed at more than 20 German universities including RWTH Aachen, Technical University Berlin, University of Stuttgart and Konstanz. Several *Rollkugel* mice installed at the Leibniz Supercomputing Centre in Munich in 1972 are well preserved in a museum, two others survived in a museum at Stuttgart university, two in Hamburg, the one from Aachen at the Computer History Museum in the US, and yet another sample was recently donated to the Heinz Nixdorf MuseumsForum (HNF) in Paderborn. Anecdotal reports claim that Telefunken's attempt to patent the device was rejected by the German Patent Office due to lack of inventiveness. For the air traffic control system, the Mallebrein team had already developed a precursor to touch screens in form of an ultrasonic-curtain-based pointing device in front of the display. In 1970, they developed a device named "Touchinput-*Einrichtung*" ("touch input facility") based on a conductively coated glass screen. ### First mice on personal computers and workstations The Xerox Alto was one of the first computers designed for individual use in 1973 and is regarded as the first modern computer to use a mouse. Inspired by PARC's Alto, the Lilith, a computer which had been developed by a team around Niklaus Wirth at ETH Zürich between 1978 and 1980, provided a mouse as well. The third marketed version of an integrated mouse shipped as a part of a computer and intended for personal computer navigation came with the Xerox 8010 Star in 1981. By 1982, the Xerox 8010 was probably the best-known computer with a mouse. The Sun-1 also came with a mouse, and the forthcoming Apple Lisa was rumored to use one, but the peripheral remained obscure; Jack Hawley of The Mouse House reported that one buyer for a large organization believed at first that his company sold lab mice. Hawley, who manufactured mice for Xerox, stated that "Practically, I have the market all to myself right now"; a Hawley mouse cost $415. In 1982, Logitech introduced the P4 Mouse at the Comdex trade show in Las Vegas, its first hardware mouse. That same year Microsoft made the decision to make the MS-DOS program Microsoft Word mouse-compatible, and developed the first PC-compatible mouse. Microsoft's mouse shipped in 1983, thus beginning the Microsoft Hardware division of the company. However, the mouse remained relatively obscure until the appearance of the Macintosh 128K (which included an updated version of the single-button Lisa Mouse) in 1984, and of the Amiga 1000 and the Atari ST in 1985. Operation --------- A mouse typically controls the motion of a pointer in two dimensions in a graphical user interface (GUI). The mouse turns movements of the hand backward and forward, left and right into equivalent electronic signals that in turn are used to move the pointer. The relative movements of the mouse on the surface are applied to the position of the pointer on the screen, which signals the point where actions of the user take place, so hand movements are replicated by the pointer. Clicking or pointing (stopping movement while the cursor is within the bounds of an area) can select files, programs or actions from a list of names, or (in graphical interfaces) through small images called "icons" and other elements. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a paper notebook and clicking while the cursor points at this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a window. Different ways of operating the mouse cause specific things to happen in the GUI: * Point: stop the motion of the pointer while it is inside the boundaries of what the user wants to interact with. This act of pointing is what the "pointer" and "pointing device" are named after. In web design lingo, pointing is referred to as "hovering." This usage spread to web programming and Android programming, and is now found in many contexts. * Click: pressing and releasing a button. + (left) Single-click: clicking the main button. + (left) Double-click: clicking the button two times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than two separate single clicks. + (left) Triple-click: clicking the button three times in quick succession counts as a different gesture than three separate single clicks. Triple clicks are far less common in traditional navigation. + Right-click: clicking the secondary button. In modern applications, this frequently opens a context menu. + Middle-click: clicking the tertiary button. * Drag: pressing and holding a button, and moving the mouse before releasing the button. This is frequently used to move or copy files or other objects via drag and drop; other uses include selecting text and drawing in graphics applications. * Mouse button chording or chord clicking: + Clicking with more than one button simultaneously. + Clicking while simultaneously typing a letter on the keyboard. + Clicking and rolling the mouse wheel simultaneously. * Clicking while holding down a modifier key. * Moving the pointer a long distance: When a practical limit of mouse movement is reached, one lifts up the mouse, brings it to the opposite edge of the working area while it is held above the surface, and then lowers it back onto the working surface. This is often not necessary, because acceleration software detects fast movement, and moves the pointer significantly faster in proportion than for slow mouse motion. * Multi-touch: this method is similar to a multi-touch touchpad on a laptop with support for tap input for multiple fingers, the most famous example being the Apple Magic Mouse. ### Gestures Users can also employ mice *gesturally*, meaning that a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself, called a "gesture", can issue a command or map to a specific action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid "x" motion over a shape might delete the shape. Gestural interfaces occur more rarely than plain pointing-and-clicking, and people often find them more difficult to use because they require finer motor control from the user. However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the drag and drop gesture, in which: 1. The user presses the mouse button while the mouse cursor points at an interface object 2. The user moves the cursor to a different location while holding the button down 3. The user releases the mouse button For example, a user might drag-and-drop a picture representing a file onto a picture of a trash can, thus instructing the system to delete the file. Standard semantic gestures include: * Crossing-based goal * Drag and drop * Menu traversal * Pointing * Mouseover (pointing or hovering) * Selection ### Specific uses Other uses of the mouse's input occur commonly in special application domains. In interactive three-dimensional graphics, the mouse's motion often translates directly into changes in the virtual objects' or camera's orientation. For example, in the first-person shooter genre of games (see below), players usually employ the mouse to control the direction in which the virtual player's "head" faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head. A related function makes an image of an object rotate so that all sides can be examined. 3D design and animation software often modally chord many different combinations to allow objects and cameras to be rotated and moved through space with the few axes of movement mice can detect. When mice have more than one button, the software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a right-handed configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the Mozilla web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new tab or window in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button. Types ----- ### Mechanical mice The German company Telefunken published on their early ball mouse on 2 October 1968. Telefunken's mouse was sold as optional equipment for their computer systems. Bill English, builder of Engelbart's original mouse, created a ball mouse in 1972 while working for Xerox PARC. The ball mouse replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. It came as part of the hardware package of the Xerox Alto computer. Perpendicular chopper wheels housed inside the mouse's body chopped beams of light on the way to light sensors, thus detecting in their turn the motion of the ball. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted trackball and became the predominant form used with personal computers throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size keyboard and grabbing the mouse when required. The ball mouse has two freely rotating rollers. These are located 90 degrees apart. One roller detects the forward-backward motion of the mouse and the other the left-right motion. Opposite the two rollers is a third one (white, in the photo, at 45 degrees) that is spring-loaded to push the ball against the other two rollers. Each roller is on the same shaft as an encoder wheel that has slotted edges; the slots interrupt infrared light beams to generate electrical pulses that represent wheel movement. Each wheel's disc has a pair of light beams, located so that a given beam becomes interrupted or again starts to pass light freely when the other beam of the pair is about halfway between changes. Simple logic circuits interpret the relative timing to indicate which direction the wheel is rotating. This incremental rotary encoder scheme is sometimes called quadrature encoding of the wheel rotation, as the two optical sensors produce signals that are in approximately quadrature phase. The mouse sends these signals to the computer system via the mouse cable, directly as logic signals in very old mice such as the Xerox mice, and via a data-formatting IC in modern mice. The driver software in the system converts the signals into motion of the mouse cursor along X and Y axes on the computer screen. The ball is mostly steel, with a precision spherical rubber surface. The weight of the ball, given an appropriate working surface under the mouse, provides a reliable grip so the mouse's movement is transmitted accurately. Ball mice and wheel mice were manufactured for Xerox by Jack Hawley, doing business as The Mouse House in Berkeley, California, starting in 1975. Based on another invention by Jack Hawley, proprietor of the Mouse House, Honeywell produced another type of mechanical mouse. Instead of a ball, it had two wheels rotating at off axes. Key Tronic later produced a similar product. Modern computer mice took form at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor Jean-Daniel Nicoud and at the hands of engineer and watchmaker André Guignard. This new design incorporated a single hard rubber mouseball and three buttons, and remained a common design until the mainstream adoption of the scroll-wheel mouse during the 1990s. In 1985, René Sommer added a microprocessor to Nicoud's and Guignard's design. Through this innovation, Sommer is credited with inventing a significant component of the mouse, which made it more "intelligent"; though optical mice from Mouse Systems had incorporated microprocessors by 1984. Another type of mechanical mouse, the "analog mouse" (now generally regarded as obsolete), uses potentiometers rather than encoder wheels, and is typically designed to be plug compatible with an analog joystick. The "Color Mouse", originally marketed by RadioShack for their Color Computer (but also usable on MS-DOS machines equipped with analog joystick ports, provided the software accepted joystick input) was the best-known example. ### Optical and laser mice Early optical mice relied entirely on one or more light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and an imaging array of photodiodes to detect movement relative to the underlying surface, eschewing the internal moving parts a mechanical mouse uses in addition to its optics. A laser mouse is an optical mouse that uses coherent (laser) light. The earliest optical mice detected movement on pre-printed mousepad surfaces, whereas the modern LED optical mouse works on most opaque diffuse surfaces; it is usually unable to detect movement on specular surfaces like polished stone. Laser diodes provide good resolution and precision, improving performance on opaque specular surfaces. Later, more surface-independent optical mice use an optoelectronic sensor (essentially, a tiny low-resolution video camera) to take successive images of the surface on which the mouse operates. Battery powered, wireless optical mice flash the LED intermittently to save power, and only glow steadily when movement is detected. ### Inertial and gyroscopic mice Often called "air mice" since they do not require a surface to operate, inertial mice use a tuning fork or other accelerometer (US Patent 4787051) to detect rotary movement for every axis supported. The most common models (manufactured by Logitech and Gyration) work using 2 degrees of rotational freedom and are insensitive to spatial translation. The user requires only small wrist rotations to move the cursor, reducing user fatigue or "gorilla arm". Usually cordless, they often have a switch to deactivate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user freedom of movement without affecting the cursor position. A patent for an inertial mouse claims that such mice consume less power than optically based mice, and offer increased sensitivity, reduced weight and increased ease-of-use. In combination with a wireless keyboard an inertial mouse can offer alternative ergonomic arrangements which do not require a flat work surface, potentially alleviating some types of repetitive motion injuries related to workstation posture. ### 3D mice A 3D mouse is a computer input device for viewport interaction with at least three degrees of freedom (DoF), e.g. in 3D computer graphics software for manipulating virtual objects, navigating in the viewport, defining camera paths, posing, and desktop motion capture. 3D mice can also be used as spatial controllers for video game interaction, e.g. SpaceOrb 360. To perform such different tasks the used transfer function and the device stiffness are essential for efficient interaction. #### Transfer function The virtual motion is connected to the 3D mouse control handle via a transfer function. Position control means that the virtual position and orientation is proportional to the mouse handle's deflection whereas velocity control means that translation and rotation velocity of the controlled object is proportional to the handle deflection. A further essential property of a transfer function is its interaction metaphor: * Object-in-hand metaphor: An exterocentrical metaphor whereby the scene moves in correspondence with the input device. If the handle of the input device is twisted clockwise the scene rotates clockwise. If the handle is moved left the scene shifts left, and so on. * Camera-in-hand metaphor: An egocentrical metaphor whereby the user's view is controlled by direct movement of a virtual camera. If the handle is twisted clockwise the scene rotates counter-clockwise. If the handle is moved left the scene shifts right, and so on. Ware and Osborne performed an experiment investigating these metaphors whereby it was shown that there is no single best metaphor. For manipulation tasks, the object-in-hand metaphor was superior, whereas for navigation tasks the camera-in-hand metaphor was superior. #### Device stiffness Zhai used and the following three categories for device stiffness: * Isotonic Input: An input device with zero stiffness, that is, there is no self-centering effect. * Elastic Input: A device with some stiffness, that is, the forces on the handle are proportional to the deflections. * Isometric Input: An elastic input device with infinite stiffness, that is, the device handle does not allow any deflection but records force and torque. #### Isotonic 3D mice Logitech 3D Mouse (1990) was the first ultrasonic mouse, is an example of an isotonic 3D mouse having six degrees of freedom (6DoF). Isotonic devices have also been developed with less than 6DoF, e.g. the Inspector at Technical University of Denmark (5DoF input). Other examples of isotonic 3D mice are motion controllers, i.e. is a type of game controller that typically uses accelerometers to track motion. Motion tracking systems are also used for motion capture e.g. in the film industry, although that these tracking systems are not 3D mice in a strict sense, because motion capture only means recording 3D motion and not 3D interaction. #### Isometric 3D mice Early 3D mice for velocity control were almost ideally isometric, e.g. SpaceBall 1003, 2003, 3003, and a device developed at Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR), cf. US patent US4589810A. #### Elastic 3D mice At DLR an elastic 6DoF sensor was developed that was used in Logitech's SpaceMouse and in the products of 3DConnexion. SpaceBall 4000 FLX has a maximum deflection of approximately 3 mm (0.12 in) at a maximum force of approximately 10N, that is, a stiffness of approximately 33 N/cm (19 lbf/in). SpaceMouse has a maximum deflection of 1.5 mm (0.059 in) at a maximum force of 4.4 N (0.99 lbf), that is, a stiffness of approximately 30 N/cm (17 lbf/in). Taking this development further, the softly elastic Sundinlabs SpaceCat was developed. SpaceCat has a maximum translational deflection of approximately 15 mm (0.59 in) and maximum rotational deflection of approximately 30° at a maximum force less than 2N, that is, a stiffness of approximately 1.3 N/cm (0.74 lbf/in). With SpaceCat Sundin and Fjeld reviewed five comparative experiments performed with different device stiffness and transfer functions and performed a further study comparing 6DoF softly elastic position control with 6DoF stiffly elastic velocity control in a positioning task. They concluded that for positioning tasks position control is to be preferred over velocity control. They could further conjecture the following two types of preferred 3D mouse usage: * Positioning, manipulation, and docking using isotonic or softly elastic position control and an object-in-hand metaphor. * Navigation using softly or stiffly elastic rate control and a camera-in-hand metaphor. 3DConnexion’s 3D mice have been commercially successful over decades. They are used in combination with the conventional mouse for CAD. The Space Mouse is used to orient the target object or change the viewpoint with the non-dominant hand, whereas the dominant hand operates the computer mouse for conventional CAD GUI operation. This is a kind of space-multiplexed input where the 6 DoF input device acts as a graspable user interface that is always connected to the view port. #### 3D mice with different stiffness for different DoF In November 2010 a German Company called Axsotic introduced a new concept of 3D mouse called 3D Spheric Mouse. This new concept of a true six degree-of-freedom input device uses a ball to rotate isometrically in 3 axes and an elastic polymer anchored tetrahedron inspired suspension for translating the ball without any limitations. A contactless sensor design uses a magnetic sensor array for sensing three aches translation and two optical mouse sensors for three aches rotation. The special tetrahedron suspension allows a user to rotate the ball with the fingers while input translations with the hand-wrist motion. #### Force feedback With force feedback the device stiffness can dynamically be adapted to the task just performed by the user, e.g. performing positioning tasks with less stiffness than navigation tasks. * Logitech spacemouse 3D. On display at the Bolo Computer Museum, EPFL, LausanneLogitech spacemouse 3D. On display at the Bolo Computer Museum, EPFL, Lausanne * Silicon Graphics SpaceBall model 1003 (1988), allowing manipulation of objects with six degrees of freedomSilicon Graphics SpaceBall model 1003 (1988), allowing manipulation of objects with six degrees of freedom * Logitech 3D Mouse (1990), the first ultrasonic mouseLogitech 3D Mouse (1990), the first ultrasonic mouse * A modern six-degrees-of-freedom (6 DOF) 3D mouse (2007)A modern six-degrees-of-freedom (6 DOF) 3D mouse (2007) * Mechanism of the modern 6 DOF mouse consisting of infrared LEDs and detectors with occluders that move with the ballMechanism of the modern 6 DOF mouse consisting of infrared LEDs and detectors with occluders that move with the ball * The Axsotic 3D-Spheric-Mouse (6D) is the first 3D-Mouse that separates rotation and translation in finger and hand-wrist movements.The Axsotic 3D-Spheric-Mouse (6D) is the first 3D-Mouse that separates rotation and translation in finger and hand-wrist movements. ### Tactile mice In 2000, Logitech introduced a "tactile mouse" known as the "iFeel Mouse" developed by Immersion Corporation that contained a small actuator to enable the mouse to generate simulated physical sensations. Such a mouse can augment user-interfaces with haptic feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a window boundary. To surf the internet by touch-enabled mouse was first developed in 1996 and first implemented commercially by the Wingman Force Feedback Mouse. It requires the user to be able to feel depth or hardness; this ability was realized with the first electrorheological tactile mice but never marketed. ### Pucks Tablet digitizers are sometimes used with accessories called pucks, devices which rely on absolute positioning, but can be configured for sufficiently mouse-like relative tracking that they are sometimes marketed as mice. ### Ergonomic mice As the name suggests, this type of mouse is intended to provide optimum comfort and avoid injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, arthritis, and other repetitive strain injuries. It is designed to fit natural hand position and movements, to reduce discomfort. When holding a typical mouse, the ulna and radius bones on the arm are crossed. Some designs attempt to place the palm more vertically, so the bones take more natural parallel position. Some limit wrist movement, encouraging arm movement instead, that may be less precise but more optimal from the health point of view. A mouse may be angled from the thumb downward to the opposite side – this is known to reduce wrist pronation. However such optimizations make the mouse right or left hand specific, making more problematic to change the tired hand. *Time* has criticized manufacturers for offering few or no left-handed ergonomic mice: "Oftentimes I felt like I was dealing with someone who'd never actually met a left-handed person before." Another solution is a pointing bar device. The so-called *roller bar mouse* is positioned snugly in front of the keyboard, thus allowing bi-manual accessibility. ### Gaming mice These mice are specifically designed for use in computer games. They typically employ a wider array of controls and buttons and have designs that differ radically from traditional mice. They may also have decorative monochrome or programmable RGB LED lighting. The additional buttons can often be used for changing the sensitivity of the mouse or they can be assigned (programmed) to macros (i.e., for opening a program or for use instead of a key combination). It is also common for game mice, especially those designed for use in real-time strategy games such as *StarCraft*, or in multiplayer online battle arena games such as League of Legends to have a relatively high sensitivity, measured in dots per inch (DPI), which can be as high as 25,600. DPI and CPI are the same values that refer to the mouse's sensitivity. DPI is a misnomer used in the gaming world, and many manufacturers use it to refer to CPI, counts per inch. Some advanced mice from gaming manufacturers also allow users to adjust the weight of the mouse by adding or subtracting weights to allow for easier control. Ergonomic quality is also an important factor in gaming mouse, as extended gameplay times may render further use of the mouse to be uncomfortable. Some mice have been designed to have adjustable features such as removable and/or elongated palm rests, horizontally adjustable thumb rests and pinky rests. Some mice may include several different rests with their products to ensure comfort for a wider range of target consumers. Gaming mice are held by gamers in three styles of grip: 1. Palm Grip: the hand rests on the mouse, with extended fingers. 2. Claw Grip: palm rests on the mouse, bent fingers. 3. Finger-Tip Grip: bent fingers, palm does not touch the mouse. Connectivity and communication protocols ---------------------------------------- To transmit their input, typical cabled mice use a thin electrical cord terminating in a standard connector, such as RS-232C, PS/2, ADB, or USB. Cordless mice instead transmit data via infrared radiation (see IrDA) or radio (including Bluetooth), although many such cordless interfaces are themselves connected through the aforementioned wired serial buses. While the electrical interface and the format of the data transmitted by commonly available mice is currently standardized on USB, in the past it varied between different manufacturers. A bus mouse used a dedicated interface card for connection to an IBM PC or compatible computer. Mouse use in DOS applications became more common after the introduction of the Microsoft Mouse, largely because Microsoft provided an open standard for communication between applications and mouse driver software. Thus, any application written to use the Microsoft standard could use a mouse with a driver that implements the same API, even if the mouse hardware itself was incompatible with Microsoft's. This driver provides the state of the buttons and the distance the mouse has moved in units that its documentation calls "mickeys". ### Early mice In the 1970s, the Xerox Alto mouse, and in the 1980s the Xerox optical mouse, used a quadrature-encoded X and Y interface. This two-bit encoding per dimension had the property that only one bit of the two would change at a time, like a Gray code or Johnson counter, so that the transitions would not be misinterpreted when asynchronously sampled. The earliest mass-market mice, such as on the original Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari ST mice used a D-subminiature 9-pin connector to send the quadrature-encoded X and Y axis signals directly, plus one pin per mouse button. The mouse was a simple optomechanical device, and the decoding circuitry was all in the main computer. The DE-9 connectors were designed to be electrically compatible with the joysticks popular on numerous 8-bit systems, such as the Commodore 64 and the Atari 2600. Although the ports could be used for both purposes, the signals must be interpreted differently. As a result, plugging a mouse into a joystick port causes the "joystick" to continuously move in some direction, even if the mouse stays still, whereas plugging a joystick into a mouse port causes the "mouse" to only be able to move a single pixel in each direction. ### Serial interface and protocol Because the IBM PC did not have a quadrature decoder built in, early PC mice used the RS-232C serial port to communicate encoded mouse movements, as well as provide power to the mouse's circuits. The Mouse Systems Corporation version used a five-byte protocol and supported three buttons. The Microsoft version used a three-byte protocol and supported two buttons. Due to the incompatibility between the two protocols, some manufacturers sold serial mice with a mode switch: "PC" for MSC mode, "MS" for Microsoft mode. ### Apple Desktop Bus In 1986 Apple first implemented the Apple Desktop Bus allowing the daisy chaining of up to 16 devices, including mice and other devices on the same bus with no configuration whatsoever. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to device communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models (including a number of non-Apple workstations) until 1998 when Apple's iMac line of computers joined the industry-wide switch to using USB. Beginning with the Bronze Keyboard PowerBook G3 in May 1999, Apple dropped the external ADB port in favor of USB, but retained an internal ADB connection in the PowerBook G4 for communication with its built-in keyboard and trackpad until early 2005. ### PS/2 interface and protocol With the arrival of the IBM PS/2 personal-computer series in 1987, IBM introduced the eponymous PS/2 port for mice and keyboards, which other manufacturers rapidly adopted. The most visible change was the use of a round 6-pin mini-DIN, in lieu of the former 5-pin MIDI style full sized DIN 41524 connector. In default mode (called *stream mode*) a PS/2 mouse communicates motion, and the state of each button, by means of 3-byte packets. For any motion, button press or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends, over a bi-directional serial port, a sequence of three bytes, with the following format: | | Bit 7 | Bit 6 | Bit 5 | Bit 4 | Bit 3 | Bit 2 | Bit 1 | Bit 0 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Byte 1 | YV | XV | YS | XS | 1 | MB | RB | LB | | Byte 2 | X movement | | Byte 3 | Y movement | Here, XS and YS represent the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse buttons (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors. A Microsoft IntelliMouse relies on an extension of the PS/2 protocol: the ImPS/2 or IMPS/2 protocol (the abbreviation combines the concepts of "IntelliMouse" and "PS/2"). It initially operates in standard PS/2 format, for backward compatibility. After the host sends a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format in which a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements. The IntelliMouse Explorer works analogously, with the difference that its 4-byte packets also allow for two additional buttons (for a total of five). Mouse vendors also use other extended formats, often without providing public documentation. The Typhoon mouse uses 6-byte packets which can appear as a sequence of two standard 3-byte packets, such that an ordinary PS/2 driver can handle them. For 3-D (or 6-degree-of-freedom) input, vendors have made many extensions both to the hardware and to software. In the late 1990s, Logitech created ultrasound based tracking which gave 3D input to a few millimeters accuracy, which worked well as an input device but failed as a profitable product. In 2008, Motion4U introduced its "OptiBurst" system using IR tracking for use as a Maya (graphics software) plugin.[*relevant?*] ### USB The industry-standard USB (Universal Serial Bus) protocol and its connector have become widely used for mice; it is among the most popular types. ### Cordless or wireless Cordless or wireless mice transmit data via radio. Some mice connect to the computer through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi, while others use a receiver that plugs into the computer, for example through a USB port. Many mice that use a USB receiver have a storage compartment for it inside the mouse. Some "nano receivers" are designed to be small enough to remain plugged into a laptop during transport, while still being large enough to easily remove. * The Logitech Metaphor, the first wireless mouse (1984). On display at the Musée Bolo, EPFLThe Logitech Metaphor, the first wireless mouse (1984). On display at the Musée Bolo, EPFL * An older Microsoft wireless mouse made for notebook computersAn older Microsoft wireless mouse made for notebook computers * Microsoft Bluetooth Mobile Mouse 3600Microsoft Bluetooth Mobile Mouse 3600 * A wireless Apple mouseA wireless Apple mouse Operating system support ------------------------ MS-DOS and Windows 1.0 support connecting a mouse such as a Microsoft Mouse via multiple interfaces: BallPoint, Bus (InPort), Serial port or PS/2. Windows 98 added built-in support for USB Human Interface Device class (USB HID), with native vertical scrolling support. Windows 2000 and Windows Me expanded this built-in support to 5-button mice. Windows XP Service Pack 2 introduced a Bluetooth stack, allowing Bluetooth mice to be used without any USB receivers. Windows Vista added native support for horizontal scrolling and standardized wheel movement granularity for finer scrolling. Windows 8 introduced BLE (Bluetooth Low Energy) mouse/HID support. Multiple-mouse systems ---------------------- Some systems allow two or more mice to be used at once as input devices. Late-1980s era home computers such as the Amiga used this to allow computer games with two players interacting on the same computer (Lemmings and The Settlers for example). The same idea is sometimes used in collaborative software, e.g. to simulate a whiteboard that multiple users can draw on without passing a single mouse around. Microsoft Windows, since Windows 98, has supported multiple simultaneous pointing devices. Because Windows only provides a single screen cursor, using more than one device at the same time requires cooperation of users or applications designed for multiple input devices. Multiple mice are often used in multi-user gaming in addition to specially designed devices that provide several input interfaces. Windows also has full support for multiple input/mouse configurations for multi-user environments. Starting with Windows XP, Microsoft introduced an SDK for developing applications that allow multiple input devices to be used at the same time with independent cursors and independent input points. However, it no longer appears to be available. The introduction of Windows Vista and Microsoft Surface (now known as Microsoft PixelSense) introduced a new set of input APIs that were adopted into Windows 7, allowing for 50 points/cursors, all controlled by independent users. The new input points provide traditional mouse input; however, they were designed with other input technologies like touch and image in mind. They inherently offer 3D coordinates along with pressure, size, tilt, angle, mask, and even an image bitmap to see and recognize the input point/object on the screen. As of 2009, Linux distributions and other operating systems that use X.Org, such as OpenSolaris and FreeBSD, support 255 cursors/input points through Multi-Pointer X. However, currently no window managers support Multi-Pointer X leaving it relegated to custom software usage. There have also been propositions of having a single operator use two mice simultaneously as a more sophisticated means of controlling various graphics and multimedia applications. Buttons ------- Mouse buttons are microswitches which can be pressed to select or interact with an element of a graphical user interface, producing a distinctive clicking sound. Since around the late 1990s, the three-button scrollmouse has become the de facto standard. Users most commonly employ the second button to invoke a contextual menu in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse cursor currently sits. By default, the primary mouse button sits located on the left-hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right-handed users; left-handed users can usually reverse this configuration via software. Scrolling --------- Nearly all mice now have an integrated input primarily intended for scrolling on top, usually a single-axis digital wheel or rocker switch which can also be depressed to act as a third button. Though less common, many mice instead have two-axis inputs such as a tiltable wheel, trackball, or touchpad. Those with a trackball may be designed to stay stationary, using the trackball instead of moving the mouse. Speed ----- Mickeys per second is a unit of measurement for the speed and movement direction of a computer mouse, where direction is often expressed as "horizontal" versus "vertical" mickey count. However, speed can also refer to the ratio between how many pixels the cursor moves on the screen and how far the mouse moves on the mouse pad, which may be expressed as pixels per mickey, pixels per inch, or pixels per centimeter. The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of counts per inch (CPI), commonly expressed as dots per inch (DPI) – the number of steps the mouse will report when it moves one inch. In early mice, this specification was called pulses per inch (ppi). The mickey originally referred to one of these counts, or one resolvable step of motion. If the default mouse-tracking condition involves moving the cursor by one screen-pixel or dot on-screen per reported step, then the CPI does equate to DPI: dots of cursor motion per inch of mouse motion. The CPI or DPI as reported by manufacturers depends on how they make the mouse; the higher the CPI, the faster the cursor moves with mouse movement. However, software can adjust the mouse sensitivity, making the cursor move faster or slower than its CPI. As of 2007,[update] software can change the speed of the cursor dynamically, taking into account the mouse's absolute speed and the movement from the last stop-point. In most software, an example being the Windows platforms, this setting is named "speed", referring to "cursor precision". However, some operating systems name this setting "acceleration", the typical Apple OS designation. This term is incorrect. Mouse acceleration in most mouse software refers to the change in speed of the cursor over time while the mouse movement is constant.[*clarification needed*] For simple software, when the mouse starts to move, the software will count the number of "counts" or "mickeys" received from the mouse and will move the cursor across the screen by that number of pixels (or multiplied by a rate factor, typically less than 1). The cursor will move slowly on the screen, with good precision. When the movement of the mouse passes the value set for some threshold, the software will start to move the cursor faster, with a greater rate factor. Usually, the user can set the value of the second rate factor by changing the "acceleration" setting. Operating systems sometimes apply acceleration, referred to as "ballistics", to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of Windows prior to Windows XP doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very nonlinear response. Mousepads --------- Engelbart's original mouse did not require a mousepad; the mouse had two large wheels which could roll on virtually any surface. However, most subsequent mechanical mice starting with the steel roller ball mouse have required a mousepad for optimal performance. The mousepad, the most common mouse accessory, appears most commonly in conjunction with mechanical mice, because to roll smoothly the ball requires more friction than common desk surfaces usually provide. So-called "hard mousepads" for gamers or optical/laser mice also exist. Most optical and laser mice do not require a pad, the notable exception being early optical mice which relied on a grid on the pad to detect movement (e.g. Mouse Systems). Whether to use a hard or soft mousepad with an optical mouse is largely a matter of personal preference. One exception occurs when the desk surface creates problems for the optical or laser tracking, for example, a transparent or reflective surface, such as glass. Some mice also come with small "pads" attached to the bottom surface, also called mouse feet or mouse skates, that help the user slide the mouse smoothly across surfaces. In the marketplace ------------------ Around 1981, Xerox included mice with its Xerox Star, based on the mouse used in the 1970s on the Alto computer at Xerox PARC. Sun Microsystems, Symbolics, Lisp Machines Inc., and Tektronix also shipped workstations with mice, starting in about 1981. Later, inspired by the Star, Apple Computer released the Apple Lisa, which also used a mouse. However, none of these products achieved large-scale success. Only with the release of the Apple Macintosh in 1984 did the mouse see widespread use. The Macintosh design, commercially successful and technically influential, led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products (by 1986, Atari ST, Amiga, Windows 1.0, GEOS for the Commodore 64, and the Apple IIGS). The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the software of the 1980s and 1990s made mice all but indispensable for controlling computers. In November 2008, Logitech built their billionth mouse. Use in games ------------ The device often functions as an interface for PC-based computer games and sometimes for video game consoles. The Classic Mac OS Desk Accessory *Puzzle* in 1984 was the first game designed specifically for a mouse. ### First-person shooters FPSs naturally lend themselves to separate and simultaneous control of the player's movement and aim, and on computers this has traditionally been achieved with a combination of keyboard and mouse. Players use the X-axis of the mouse for looking (or turning) left and right, and the Y-axis for looking up and down; the keyboard is used for movement and supplemental inputs. Many shooting genre players prefer a mouse over a gamepad analog stick because the wide range of motion offered by a mouse allows for faster and more varied control. Although an analog stick allows the player more granular control, it is poor for certain movements, as the player's input is relayed based on a vector of both the stick's direction and magnitude. Thus, a small but fast movement (known as "flick-shotting") using a gamepad requires the player to quickly move the stick from its rest position to the edge and back again in quick succession, a difficult maneuver. In addition the stick also has a finite magnitude; if the player is currently using the stick to move at a non-zero velocity their ability to increase the rate of movement of the camera is further limited based on the position their displaced stick was already at before executing the maneuver. The effect of this is that a mouse is well suited not only to small, precise movements but also to large, quick movements and immediate, responsive movements; all of which are important in shooter gaming. This advantage also extends in varying degrees to similar game styles such as third-person shooters. Some incorrectly ported games or game engines have acceleration and interpolation curves which unintentionally produce excessive, irregular, or even negative acceleration when used with a mouse instead of their native platform's non-mouse default input device. Depending on how deeply hardcoded this misbehavior is, internal user patches or external 3rd-party software may be able to fix it. Individual game engines will also have their own sensitivities. This often restricts one from taking a game's existing sensitivity, transferring it to another, and acquiring the same 360 rotational measurements. A sensitivity converter is required in order to translate rotational movements properly. Due to their similarity to the WIMP desktop metaphor interface for which mice were originally designed, and to their own tabletop game origins, computer strategy games are most commonly played with mice. In particular, real-time strategy and MOBA games usually require the use of a mouse. The left button usually controls primary fire. If the game supports multiple fire modes, the right button often provides secondary fire from the selected weapon. Games with only a single fire mode will generally map secondary fire to *aim down the weapon sights*. In some games, the right button may also invoke accessories for a particular weapon, such as allowing access to the scope of a sniper rifle or allowing the mounting of a bayonet or silencer. Players can use a scroll wheel for changing weapons (or for controlling scope-zoom magnification, in older games). On most first person shooter games, programming may also assign more functions to additional buttons on mice with more than three controls. A keyboard usually controls movement (for example, WASD for moving forward, left, backward, and right, respectively) and other functions such as changing posture. Since the mouse serves for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag (latency) will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice. In some cases the right mouse button may be used to move the player forward, either in lieu of, or in conjunction with the typical WASD configuration. Many games provide players with the option of mapping their own choice of a key or button to a certain control. An early technique of players, circle strafing, saw a player continuously strafing while aiming and shooting at an opponent by walking in circle around the opponent with the opponent at the center of the circle. Players could achieve this by holding down a key for strafing while continuously aiming the mouse toward the opponent. Games using mice for input are so popular that many manufacturers make mice specifically for gaming. Such mice may feature adjustable weights, high-resolution optical or laser components, additional buttons, ergonomic shape, and other features such as adjustable CPI. Mouse Bungees are typically used with gaming mice because it eliminates the annoyance of the cable. Many games, such as first- or third-person shooters, have a setting named "invert mouse" or similar (not to be confused with "button inversion", sometimes performed by left-handed users) which allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of non-inverted movement). This control system resembles that of aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; computer joysticks also typically emulate this control-configuration. After id Software's commercial hit of *Doom*, which did not support vertical aiming, competitor Bungie's *Marathon* became the first first-person shooter to support using the mouse to aim up and down. Games using the Build engine had an option to invert the Y-axis. The "invert" feature actually made the mouse behave in a manner that users now[update] regard as non-inverted (by default, moving mouse forward resulted in looking down). Soon after, id Software released *Quake*, which introduced the invert feature as users now[update] know it. ### Home consoles In 1988, the VTech Socrates educational video game console featured a wireless mouse with an attached mouse pad as an optional controller used for some games. In the early 1990s, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game system featured a mouse in addition to its controllers. A mouse was also released for the Nintendo 64, although it was only released in Japan. The 1992 game *Mario Paint* in particular used the mouse's capabilities, as did its Japanese-only successor *Mario Artist* on the N64 for its 64DD disk drive peripheral in 1999. Sega released official mice for their Genesis/Mega Drive, Saturn and Dreamcast consoles. NEC sold official mice for its PC Engine and PC-FX consoles. Sony released an official mouse product for the PlayStation console, included one along with the Linux for PlayStation 2 kit, as well as allowing owners to use virtually any USB mouse with the PS2, PS3, and PS4. Nintendo's Wii also had this feature implemented in a later software update, and this support was retained on its successor, the Wii U. Microsoft's Xbox line of game consoles (which used operaring systems based on modified versions of Windows NT) also had universal-wide mouse support using USB. See also -------- * Computer accessibility * Footmouse * Graphics tablet * Gesture recognition * Human–computer interaction (HCI) * Mouse keys * Mouse tracking * Optical trackpad * Pointing stick * Rotational mouse Further reading --------------- * Roch, Axel [at Wikidata]. "Fire-Control and Human-Computer Interaction: Towards a History of the Computer Mouse (1940–1965)" (PDF). Mindell, David. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Program in Science, Technology, and Society. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-06-28. Retrieved 2021-08-24. (11 pages) (NB. This is based on an earlier German article published in 1996 in *Lab. Jahrbuch 1995/1996 für Künste und Apparate* (350 pages) by Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln mit dem Verein der Freunde der Kunsthochschule für Medien Köln; Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König [de] in Cologne, Germany. ISBN 3-88375-245-2.) * Pang, Alex Soojung-Kim (March–April 2002). Candland, Kevin (ed.). "Mighty Mouse – In 1980, Apple Computer asked a group of guys fresh from Stanford's product design program to take a $400 device and make it mass-producible, reliable and cheap. Their work transformed personal computing". *Stanford Magazine*. Stanford, California, USA: Stanford Alumni Association, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2021-08-24. Retrieved 2021-08-23.

Computer mouse

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_mouse

**Ariel** is the fourth-largest of the 27 known moons of Uranus. Ariel orbits and rotates in the equatorial plane of Uranus, which is almost perpendicular to the orbit of Uranus and so has an extreme seasonal cycle. It was discovered in October 1851 by William Lassell and named for a character in two different pieces of literature. As of 2019, much of the detailed knowledge of Ariel derives from a single flyby of Uranus performed by the space probe *Voyager 2* in 1986, which managed to image around 35% of the moon's surface. There are no active plans at present to return to study the moon in more detail, although various concepts such as a Uranus Orbiter and Probe have been proposed. After Miranda, Ariel is the second-smallest of Uranus's five major rounded satellites and the second-closest to its planet. Among the smallest of the Solar System's 20 known spherical moons (it ranks 14th among them in diameter), it is believed to be composed of roughly equal parts ice and rocky material. Its mass is approximately equal in magnitude to Earth's hydrosphere. Like all of Uranus's moons, Ariel probably formed from an accretion disc that surrounded the planet shortly after its formation, and, like other large moons, it is likely differentiated, with an inner core of rock surrounded by a mantle of ice. Ariel has a complex surface consisting of extensive cratered terrain cross-cut by a system of scarps, canyons, and ridges. The surface shows signs of more recent geological activity than other Uranian moons, most likely due to tidal heating. Discovery and name ------------------ Discovered on 24 October 1851 by William Lassell, it is named for a sky spirit in Alexander Pope's 1712 poem *The Rape of the Lock* and Shakespeare's *The Tempest*. Both Ariel and the slightly larger Uranian satellite Umbriel were discovered by William Lassell on 24 October 1851. Although William Herschel, who discovered Uranus's two largest moons Titania and Oberon in 1787, claimed to have observed four additional moons, this was never confirmed and those four objects are now thought to be spurious. All of Uranus's moons are named after characters from the works of William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope's *The Rape of the Lock*. The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by John Herschel in 1852 at the request of Lassell. Ariel is named after the leading sylph in *The Rape of the Lock*. It is also the name of the spirit who serves Prospero in Shakespeare's *The Tempest*. The moon is also designated **Uranus I**. Orbit ----- Among Uranus's five major moons, Ariel is the second closest to the planet, orbiting at the distance of about 190,000 km. Its orbit has a small eccentricity and is inclined very little relative to the equator of Uranus. Its orbital period is around 2.5 Earth days, coincident with its rotational period. This means that one side of the moon always faces the planet; a condition known as tidal lock. Ariel's orbit lies completely inside the Uranian magnetosphere. The trailing hemispheres (those facing away from their directions of orbit) of airless satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere like Ariel are struck by magnetospheric plasma co-rotating with the planet. This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon (see below). Ariel also captures magnetospheric charged particles, producing a pronounced dip in energetic particle count near the moon's orbit observed by *Voyager 2* in 1986. Because Ariel, like Uranus, orbits the Sun almost on its side relative to its rotation, its northern and southern hemispheres face either directly towards or directly away from the Sun at the solstices. This means it is subject to an extreme seasonal cycle; just as Earth's poles see permanent night or daylight around the solstices, Ariel's poles see permanent night or daylight for half a Uranian year (42 Earth years), with the Sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice. The *Voyager 2* flyby coincided with the 1986 southern summer solstice, when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was dark. Once every 42 years, when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth, mutual occultations of Uranus's moons become possible. A number of such events occurred in 2007–2008, including an occultation of Ariel by Umbriel on 19 August 2007. Currently Ariel is not involved in any orbital resonance with other Uranian satellites. In the past, however, it may have been in a 5:3 resonance with Miranda, which could have been partially responsible for the heating of that moon (although the maximum heating attributable to a former 1:3 resonance of Umbriel with Miranda was likely about three times greater). Ariel may have once been locked in the 4:1 resonance with Titania, from which it later escaped. Escape from a mean motion resonance is much easier for the moons of Uranus than for those of Jupiter or Saturn, due to Uranus's lesser degree of oblateness. This resonance, which was likely encountered about 3.8 billion years ago, would have increased Ariel's orbital eccentricity, resulting in tidal friction due to time-varying tidal forces from Uranus. This would have caused warming of the moon's interior by as much as 20 K. Composition and internal structure ---------------------------------- Ariel is the fourth-largest of the Uranian moons, and may have the third-greatest mass. It is also the 14th-largest moon in the Solar System. The moon's density is 1.66 g/cm3, which indicates that it consists of roughly equal parts water ice and a dense non-ice component. The latter could consist of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds known as tholins. The presence of water ice is supported by infrared spectroscopic observations, which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon, which is porous and thus transmits little solar heat to layers below. Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Ariel's leading hemisphere than on its trailing hemisphere. The cause of this asymmetry is not known, but it may be related to bombardment by charged particles from Uranus's magnetosphere, which is stronger on the trailing hemisphere (due to the plasma's co-rotation). The energetic particles tend to sputter water ice, decompose methane trapped in ice as clathrate hydrate and darken other organics, leaving a dark, carbon-rich residue behind. Except for water, the only other compound identified on the surface of Ariel by infrared spectroscopy is carbon dioxide (CO2), which is concentrated mainly on its trailing hemisphere. Ariel shows the strongest spectroscopic evidence for CO2 of any Uranian satellite, and was the first Uranian satellite on which this compound was discovered. The origin of the carbon dioxide is not completely clear. It might be produced locally from carbonates or organic materials under the influence of the energetic charged particles coming from Uranus's magnetosphere or solar ultraviolet radiation. This hypothesis would explain the asymmetry in its distribution, as the trailing hemisphere is subject to a more intense magnetospheric influence than the leading hemisphere. Another possible source is the outgassing of primordial CO2 trapped by water ice in Ariel's interior. The escape of CO2 from the interior may be related to past geological activity on this moon. Given its size, rock/ice composition and the possible presence of salt or ammonia in solution to lower the freezing point of water, Ariel's interior may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. If this is the case, the radius of the core (372 km) is about 64% of the radius of the moon, and its mass is around 56% of the moon's mass—the parameters are dictated by the moon's composition. The pressure in the center of Ariel is about 0.3 GPa (3 kbar). The current state of the icy mantle is unclear. The existence of a subsurface ocean is currently considered possible, though a 2006 study suggests that radiogenic heating alone would not be enough to allow for one. More scientific research concluded that an Active underwater ocean is possible for the 4 largest moons of Uranus. Surface ------- ### Albedo and color Ariel is the most reflective of Uranus's moons. Its surface shows an opposition surge: the reflectivity decreases from 53% at a phase angle of 0° (geometrical albedo) to 35% at an angle of about 1°. The Bond albedo of Ariel is about 23%—the highest among Uranian satellites. The surface of Ariel is generally neutral in color. There may be an asymmetry between the leading and trailing hemispheres; the latter appears to be redder than the former by 2%. Ariel's surface generally does not demonstrate any correlation between albedo and geology on one hand and color on the other hand. For instance, canyons have the same color as the cratered terrain. However, bright impact deposits around some fresh craters are slightly bluer in color. There are also some slightly blue spots, which do not correspond to any known surface features. ### Surface features The observed surface of Ariel can be divided into three terrain types: cratered terrain, ridged terrain, and plains. The main surface features are impact craters, canyons, fault scarps, ridges, and troughs. The cratered terrain, a rolling surface covered by numerous impact craters and centered on Ariel's south pole, is the moon's oldest and most geographically extensive geological unit. It is intersected by a network of scarps, canyons (graben), and narrow ridges mainly occurring in Ariel's mid-southern latitudes. The canyons, known as *chasmata*, probably represent graben formed by extensional faulting, which resulted from global tensional stresses caused by the freezing of water (or aqueous ammonia) in the moon's interior (see below). They are 15–50 km wide and trend mainly in an east- or northeasterly direction. The floors of many canyons are convex; rising up by 1–2 km. Sometimes the floors are separated from the walls of canyons by grooves (troughs) about 1 km wide. The widest graben have grooves running along the crests of their convex floors, which are called *valles*. The longest canyon is Kachina Chasma, at over 620 km in length (the feature extends into the hemisphere of Ariel that *Voyager 2* did not see illuminated). The second main terrain type—ridged terrain—comprises bands of ridges and troughs hundreds of kilometers in extent. It bounds the cratered terrain and cuts it into polygons. Within each band, which can be up to 25 to 70 km wide, are individual ridges and troughs up to 200 km long and between 10 and 35 km apart. The bands of ridged terrain often form continuations of canyons, suggesting that they may be a modified form of the graben or the result of a different reaction of the crust to the same extensional stresses, such as brittle failure. The youngest terrain observed on Ariel are the plains: relatively low-lying smooth areas that must have formed over a long period of time, judging by their varying levels of cratering. The plains are found on the floors of canyons and in a few irregular depressions in the middle of the cratered terrain. In the latter case they are separated from the cratered terrain by sharp boundaries, which in some cases have a lobate pattern. The most likely origin for the plains is through volcanic processes; their linear vent geometry, resembling terrestrial shield volcanoes, and distinct topographic margins suggest that the erupted liquid was very viscous, possibly a supercooled water/ammonia solution, with solid ice volcanism also a possibility. The thickness of these hypothetical cryolava flows is estimated at 1–3 km. The canyons must therefore have formed at a time when endogenic resurfacing was still taking place on Ariel. A few of these areas appear to be less than 100 million years old, suggesting that Ariel may still be geologically active in spite of its relatively small size and lack of current tidal heating. Ariel appears to be fairly evenly cratered compared to other moons of Uranus; the relative paucity of large craters suggests that its surface does not date to the Solar System's formation, which means that Ariel must have been completely resurfaced at some point of its history. Ariel's past geologic activity is believed to have been driven by tidal heating at a time when its orbit was more eccentric than currently. The largest crater observed on Ariel, Yangoor, is only 78 km across, and shows signs of subsequent deformation. All large craters on Ariel have flat floors and central peaks, and few of the craters are surrounded by bright ejecta deposits. Many craters are polygonal, indicating that their appearance was influenced by the preexisting crustal structure. In the cratered plains there are a few large (about 100 km in diameter) light patches that may be degraded impact craters. If this is the case they would be similar to palimpsests on Jupiter's moon Ganymede. It has been suggested that a circular depression 245 km in diameter located at 10°S 30°E is a large, highly degraded impact structure. Origin and evolution -------------------- Ariel is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula; a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity. The precise composition of the subnebula is not known; however, the higher density of Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water-poor. Significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide (CO) and molecular nitrogen (N2), instead of methane and ammonia. The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice (with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate) and more rock, explaining the higher density. The accretion process probably lasted for several thousand years before the moon was fully formed. Models suggest that impacts accompanying accretion caused heating of Ariel's outer layer, reaching a maximum temperature of around 195 K at a depth of about 31 km. After the end of formation, the subsurface layer cooled, while the interior of Ariel heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks. The cooling near-surface layer contracted, while the interior expanded. This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon's crust reaching estimates of 30 MPa, which may have led to cracking. Some present-day scarps and canyons may be a result of this process, which lasted for about 200 million years. The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements and likely tidal heating may have led to melting of the ice if an antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or some salt was present. The melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water (ocean) rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. The ocean, however, is likely to have frozen long ago. The freezing of the water likely led to the expansion of the interior, which may have been responsible for the formation of the canyons and obliteration of the ancient surface. The liquids from the ocean may have been able to erupt to the surface, flooding floors of canyons in the process known as cryovolcanism. More recent analysis concluded that an active ocean is probable for the 4 largest moons of Uranus; specifically including Ariel. Thermal modeling of Saturn's moon Dione, which is similar to Ariel in size, density, and surface temperature, suggests that solid state convection could have lasted in Ariel's interior for billions of years, and that temperatures in excess of 173 K (the melting point of aqueous ammonia) may have persisted near its surface for several hundred million years after formation, and near a billion years closer to the core. Observation and exploration --------------------------- The apparent magnitude of Ariel is 14.8; similar to that of Pluto near perihelion. However, while Pluto can be seen through a telescope of 30 cm aperture, Ariel, due to its proximity to Uranus's glare, is often not visible to telescopes of 40 cm aperture. The only close-up images of Ariel were obtained by the *Voyager 2* probe, which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986. The closest approach of *Voyager 2* to Ariel was 127,000 km (79,000 mi)—significantly less than the distances to all other Uranian moons except Miranda. The best images of Ariel have a spatial resolution of about 2 km. They cover about 40% of the surface, but only 35% was photographed with the quality required for geological mapping and crater counting. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Ariel (like those of the other moons) was pointed towards the Sun, so the northern (dark) hemisphere could not be studied. No other spacecraft has ever visited the Uranian system. The possibility of sending the Cassini spacecraft to Uranus was evaluated during its mission extension planning phase. It would have taken about twenty years to get to the Uranian system after departing Saturn, and these plans were scrapped in favour of remaining at Saturn and eventually destroying the spacecraft in Saturn's atmosphere. ### Transits On 26 July 2006, the Hubble Space Telescope captured a rare transit made by Ariel on Uranus, which cast a shadow that could be seen on the Uranian cloud tops. Such events are rare and only occur around equinoxes, as the moon's orbital plane about Uranus is tilted 98° to Uranus's orbital plane about the Sun. Another transit, in 2008, was recorded by the European Southern Observatory. See also -------- * List of natural satellites * Planetary Science Decadal Survey

Ariel (moon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariel_(moon)

Satellite photos of peninsulas, clockwise from the top left: The Fennoscandian Peninsula, the Floridian Peninsula, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Horn of Africa. A **peninsula** (from Latin **paeninsula**; from **paene** 'almost', and **insula** 'island') is a landform that extends from a mainland and is surrounded by water on most, but not all of its borders. A peninsula is also sometimes defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. Peninsulas exist on all continents. The size of a peninsula can range from tiny to very large. The largest peninsula in the world is the Arabian Peninsula. Peninsulas form due to a variety of causes. Etymology --------- Peninsula derives from Latin **paeninsula**, which is translated as 'peninsula'. *Paeninsula* itself was derived from **paene** 'almost', and **insula** 'island', or together, 'almost an island'. The word entered English in the 16th century. Definitions ----------- A peninsula is usually defined as a piece of land surrounded on most, but not all sides, by water, but is sometimes instead defined as a piece of land bordered by water on three of its sides. A peninsula may be bordered by more than one body of water, and the body of water does not have to be an ocean or a sea. A piece of land on a very tight river bend or one between two rivers is sometimes said to form a peninsula, for example in the New Barbadoes Neck in New Jersey, United States. A peninsula may be connected to the mainland via an isthmus, for example, in the isthmus of Corinth which connects to the Peloponnese peninsula. Formation and types ------------------- Peninsulas can be formed from continental drift, glacial erosion, glacial meltwater, glacial deposition, marine sediment, marine transgressions, volcanoes, divergent boundaries, and/or river sedimentation. More than one factor may play into the formation of a peninsula. For example, in the case of Florida, continental drift, marine sediment, and marine transgressions were all contributing factors to its shape. ### Glaciers In the case of formation from glaciers, (e.g. the Antarctic Peninsula or Cape Cod) peninsulas can be created due to glacial erosion, meltwater, and/or deposition. If erosion formed the peninsula, softer and harder rocks were present, and since the glacier only erodes softer rock, it formed a basin. This may create peninsulas, and occurred for example in the Keweenaw Peninsula. In the case of formation from meltwater, melting glaciers deposit sediment and form moraines, which act as dams for the meltwater. This may create bodies of water that surround the land, forming peninsulas. If deposition formed the peninsula, the peninsula was composed of sedimentary rock, which was created from a large deposit of glacial drift. The hill of drift becomes a peninsula if the hill formed near water but was still connected to the mainland, for example during the formation of Cape Cod about 23,000 years ago. ### Others In the case of formation from volcanoes, when a volcano erupts magma near water, it may form a peninsula (e.g. the Alaskan Peninsula). Peninsulas formed from volcanoes are especially common when the volcano erupts near shallow water. Marine sediment may form peninsulas by the creation of limestone. A rift peninsula may form as a result of a divergent boundary in plate tectonics (e.g. the Arabian Peninsula), while a convergent boundary may also form peninsulas (e.g. Gibraltar or the Indian subcontinent). Peninsulas can also form due to sedimentation in rivers. When a river carrying sediment flows into an ocean, the sediment is deposited, forming a delta peninsula. Marine transgressions (changes in sea level) may form peninsulas, but also may affect existing peninsulas. For example, the water level may change, which causes a peninsula to become an island during high water levels. Similarly, wet weather causing higher water levels make peninsulas appear smaller, while dry weather make them appear larger. Sea level rise from global warming will permanently reduce the size of some peninsulas over time. Uses ---- Peninsulas are noted for their use as shelter for humans and Neanderthals. The landform is advantageous because it gives hunting access to both land and sea animals. They can also serve as markers of nation's borders. List of peninsulas ------------------ See also -------- * Barrier island * Cape * Headland * Promontory * Salient * Spit * Tidal island ### Bibliography * Heos, Bridget (2010). *The creation of peninsulas* (1st ed.). New York: Rosen Pub. ISBN 978-1-4358-5301-0. OCLC 277466133. * Mis, Melody S. (2009). *Exploring peninsulas* (1st ed.). New York: PowerKids Press. ISBN 978-1-4358-2711-0. OCLC 230802567. * Nadeau, Isaac (2006). *Peninsulas* (1st ed.). New York: Rosen Pub. Group's PowerKids Press. ISBN 1-4042-3125-0. OCLC 57068647. * Niz, Ellen Sturm (2006). *Peninsulas*. Mankato, Minn.: Capstone Press. ISBN 0-7368-4308-6. OCLC 57366483. * *Word Histories and Mysteries: From Abracadabra to Zeus*. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2004. ISBN 978-0547350271. OCLC 55746553. * Wyckoff, Jerome (1999). *Reading the earth : landforms in the making*. Mahwah, NJ: Adastra West, Inc. ISBN 0-9674075-0-8. OCLC 43274886.

Peninsula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peninsula

A **pulley** is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable or belt, or transfer of power between the shaft and cable or belt. In the case of a pulley supported by a frame or shell that does not transfer power to a shaft, but is used to guide the cable or exert a force, the supporting shell is called a block, and the pulley may be called a **sheave** or **pulley wheel**. A pulley may have a groove or grooves between flanges around its circumference to locate the cable or belt. The drive element of a pulley system can be a rope, cable, belt, or chain. The earliest evidence of pulleys dates back to Ancient Egypt in the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BCE) and Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BCE. In Roman Egypt, Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 CE) identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights. Pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to transmit power from one rotating shaft to another. Plutarch's *Parallel Lives* recounts a scene where Archimedes proved the effectiveness of compound pulleys and the block-and-tackle system by using one to pull a fully laden ship towards him as if it was gliding through water. Block and tackle ---------------- A block is a set of pulleys (wheels) assembled so that each pulley rotates independently from every other pulley. Two blocks with a rope attached to one of the blocks and threaded through the two sets of pulleys form a block and tackle. A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point and the other is attached to the moving load. The ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of sections of the rope that support the moving block. In the diagram on the right the ideal mechanical advantage of each of the block and tackle assemblies shown is as follows: * Gun tackle: 2 * Luff tackle: 3 * Double tackle: 4 * Gyn tackle: 5 * Threefold purchase: 6 Rope and pulley systems ----------------------- A rope and pulley system—that is, a block and tackle—is characterised by the use of a single continuous rope to transmit a tension force around one or more pulleys to lift or move a load—the rope may be a light line or a strong cable. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. If the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows. Consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are *p* of these parts of the rope supporting the load *W,* then a force balance on the moving block shows that the tension in each of the parts of the rope must be *W/p.* This means the input force on the rope is *T*=*W/p.* Thus, the block and tackle reduces the input force by the factor *p.* * A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks with two rope parts supporting the load W.A gun tackle has a single pulley in both the fixed and moving blocks with two rope parts supporting the load *W.* * Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance that results in a rope tension of W/2.Separation of the pulleys in the gun tackle show the force balance that results in a rope tension of *W/2.* * A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four rope parts supporting the load W.A double tackle has two pulleys in both the fixed and moving blocks with four rope parts supporting the load *W.* * Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance that results in a rope tension of W/4.Separation of the pulleys in the double tackle show the force balance that results in a rope tension of *W/4.* ### Method of operation The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless. And that there is no energy loss due to friction. It is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. In equilibrium, the forces on the moving block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts. This means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. * Fixed pulleyFixed pulley * Diagram 1: The load F on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension in two parts of the rope supporting the pulley.Diagram 1: The load *F* on the moving pulley is balanced by the tension in two parts of the rope supporting the pulley. * Movable pulleyMovable pulley * Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load W is supported by two rope parts with tension W/2.Diagram 2: A movable pulley lifting the load *W* is supported by two rope parts with tension *W/2.* These are different types of pulley systems: * **Fixed:** A *fixed* pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference. Mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter. * **Movable:** A *movable* pulley has an axle in a movable block. A single movable pulley is supported by two parts of the same rope and has a mechanical advantage of two. * **Compound:** A combination of fixed and movable pulleys forms a block and tackle. A *block and tackle* can have several pulleys mounted on the fixed and moving axles, further increasing the mechanical advantage. * Diagram 3: The gun tackle "rove to advantage" has the rope attached to the moving pulley. The tension in the rope is W/3 yielding an advantage of three.Diagram 3: The gun tackle "rove to advantage" has the rope attached to the moving pulley. The tension in the rope is *W/3* yielding an advantage of three. * Diagram 3a: The Luff tackle adds a fixed pulley "rove to disadvantage." The tension in the rope remains W/3 yielding an advantage of three.Diagram 3a: The Luff tackle adds a fixed pulley "rove to disadvantage." The tension in the rope remains *W/3* yielding an advantage of three. The mechanical advantage of the gun tackle can be increased by interchanging the fixed and moving blocks so the rope is attached to the moving block and the rope is pulled in the direction of the lifted load. In this case the block and tackle is said to be "rove to advantage." Diagram 3 shows that now three rope parts support the load *W* which means the tension in the rope is *W/3*. Thus, the mechanical advantage is three. By adding a pulley to the fixed block of a gun tackle the direction of the pulling force is reversed though the mechanical advantage remains the same, Diagram 3a. This is an example of the Luff tackle. ### Free body diagrams The mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be analysed using free body diagrams which balance the tension force in the rope with the force of gravity on the load. In an ideal system, the massless and frictionless pulleys do not dissipate energy and allow for a change of direction of a rope that does not stretch or wear. In this case, a force balance on a free body that includes the load, *W*, and *n* supporting sections of a rope with tension *T*, yields: n T − W = 0. {\displaystyle nT-W=0.} nT-W=0. The ratio of the load to the input tension force is the mechanical advantage *MA* of the pulley system, M A = W T = n . {\displaystyle MA={\frac {W}{T}}=n.} MA={\frac {W}{T}}=n. Thus, the mechanical advantage of the system is equal to the number of sections of rope supporting the load. Belt and pulley systems ----------------------- A belt and pulley system is characterized by two or more pulleys in common to a belt. This allows for mechanical power, torque, and speed to be transmitted across axles. If the pulleys are of differing diameters, a mechanical advantage is realized. A belt drive is analogous to that of a chain drive; however, a belt sheave may be smooth (devoid of discrete interlocking members as would be found on a chain sprocket, spur gear, or timing belt) so that the mechanical advantage is approximately given by the ratio of the pitch diameter of the sheaves only, not fixed exactly by the ratio of teeth as with gears and sprockets. In the case of a drum-style pulley, without a groove or flanges, the pulley often is slightly convex to keep the flat belt centered. It is sometimes referred to as a crowned pulley. Though once widely used on factory line shafts, this type of pulley is still found driving the rotating brush in upright vacuum cleaners, in belt sanders and bandsaws. Agricultural tractors built up to the early 1950s generally had a belt pulley for a flat belt (which is what *Belt Pulley* magazine was named after). It has been replaced by other mechanisms with more flexibility in methods of use, such as power take-off and hydraulics. Just as the diameters of gears (and, correspondingly, their number of teeth) determine a gear ratio and thus the speed increases or reductions and the mechanical advantage that they can deliver, the diameters of pulleys determine those same factors. Cone pulleys and step pulleys (which operate on the same principle, although the names tend to be applied to flat belt versions and V-belt versions, respectively) are a way to provide multiple drive ratios in a belt-and-pulley system that can be shifted as needed, just as a transmission provides this function with a gear train that can be shifted. V-belt step pulleys are the most common way that drill presses deliver a range of spindle speeds. With belts and pulleys, friction is one of the most important forces. Some uses for belts and pulleys involve peculiar angles (leading to bad belt tracking and possibly slipping the belt off the pulley) or low belt-tension environments, causing unnecessary slippage of the belt and hence extra wear to the belt. To solve this, pulleys are sometimes lagged. Lagging is the term used to describe the application of a coating, cover or wearing surface with various textured patterns which is sometimes applied to pulley shells. Lagging is often applied in order to extend the life of the shell by providing a replaceable wearing surface or to improve the friction between the belt and the pulley. Notably drive pulleys are often rubber lagged (coated with a rubber friction layer) for exactly this reason. See also -------- * Block and tackle * Block (sailing) * Conveyor pulley * Deadeye * Differential pulley * Eccentric (mechanism) * Hoist * Portsmouth Block Mills * Reel * Slickline * V-belt * Wireline (cabling) External links --------------

Pulley

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulley

**.nz** is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for New Zealand. It is administered by InternetNZ, with oversight and dispute resolution handled by the Domain Name Commission Limited (DNCL). Registrations are processed via authorised registrars. As of September 2022[update] there were 750,200 registered .nz domains. History ------- As with many long-standing domain registries, the registry was maintained informally for some time. The first formally recognised administrative organisation was the University of Waikato until the responsibility was delegated to InternetNZ when it was formed in 1995. Prior to the current structure, the registry operator of .nz was Domainz. Historically, Domainz was a subsidiary of InternetNZ which also operated as a registrar and vendor of other add-on services such as DNS. This combination of a natural monopoly (the registry activities) and vertical integration (the registrar and other services) was seen by some as restricting competition so InternetNZ moved to separate the provision of registry services into a separate organisation with strong oversight. The final part of this transition process was the sale of Domainz to Melbourne IT in August 2003. From 1 April 2008 the "Office of the Domain Name Commissioner" (several employees of InternetNZ, including the Domain Name Commissioner herself) became the "Domain Name Commission Limited", a subsidiary company of InternetNZ. ### Registry software and protocol The Shared Registry System (SRS) was initially developed in 2002, and provided .nz registry services until November 2022. In January 2004 the source code to the SRS system was released to the public under a GPL license. Since 2010 the SRS also supported the standard Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP). In September 2019 InternetNZ announced their intent to replace the SRS and that the new system would not include the SRS protocol. The transition to a closed-source commercial registry product provided by the Canadian Internet Registration Authority was completed on the 1st of November, 2022. This transition replaced both the public facing WHOIS service and the APIs used by registrars to interact with the registry. ### Māori domain names On 22 July 2010, the Domain Name Commission announced that .nz domain names with macron vowels (ā, ē, ī, ō and ū) would be available from the following week to allow Māori language words to be correctly represented in domain names. ### Second-level domain changes * .geek.nz - This second level domain was approved by the council of InternetNZ on 5 July 2003. * .kiwi.nz - This second level domain was approved on 24 August 2012 and made available for registrations on 11 September 2012. Second-level domains -------------------- There are a number of second-level domains that identify whether the user is a company, a non-commercial organisation, government body or other classification. In October 2013, InternetNZ decided to allow domain names to be registered at the second level in the .nz domain name space, aligning the .nz domain name space with a majority of other top level domains that already allow registrations directly at the second level. The second level domain names were launched with a sunrise period from 30 September 2014 to 30 March 2015 (to allow people with similar domains to register the shorter version). From 30 March 2015 .nz domain names were available to everyone. The early New Zealand second-level domains ac.nz, .co.nz and .govt.nz were based on those used in the UK. At the time it was considered desirable that the names were not in use as first-level domains, so .edu.nz, .com.nz and .gov.nz were rejected. There are also sub-level domains unique to New Zealand, such as iwi.nz for Māori iwi and the broader maori.nz for other Māori organisations, and geek.nz for "geeks". The following second-level domains are in use with their official descriptions. Since only some of the domains are moderated, it is possible to register outside the area intended. ### Unmoderated * .nz – First level NZ domain, general use * .ac.nz – Tertiary educational institutions and related organisations * .co.nz – Organisations pursuing commercial aims and purposes * .geek.nz – For people who are concentrative, technically skilled, and imaginative who are generally adept with computers * .gen.nz – Individuals and other organisations not covered elsewhere * .kiwi.nz – For people or organisations that associate with being 'Kiwi' (the colloquial term for New Zealanders) * .maori.nz – Māori people, groups, and organisations * .net.nz – Organisations and service providers directly related to the NZ Internet * .org.nz – Not-for-profit organisations * .school.nz – Primary, secondary and pre-schools and related organisations ### Moderated * .cri.nz – Crown Research Institutes * .govt.nz – National, regional and local government organisations operating with statutory powers. The government registrar, DNS.govt.nz controls registration; a government portal operates at www.govt.nz * .health.nz – Health organisations * .iwi.nz – Traditional Māori tribes, hapū, or *Taura here* groups. Available from register.iwi.nz * .mil.nz – The military organisation of the New Zealand government, the New Zealand Defence Force * .parliament.nz – Reserved for parliamentary agencies, offices of parliament, and parliamentary political parties and their elected members; main website operates at www.parliament.nz ### Previously used * archie.nz – used for an Archie search engine server operated by the University of Waikato until the mid-1990s. See also -------- * .kiwi

.nz

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.nz

**Bankruptcy** is a legal process through which people or other entities who cannot repay debts to creditors may seek relief from some or all of their debts. In most jurisdictions, bankruptcy is imposed by a court order, often initiated by the debtor. Bankrupt is not the only legal status that an insolvent person may have, and the term *bankruptcy* is therefore not a synonym for insolvency. Etymology --------- The word *bankruptcy* is derived from Italian *banca rotta*, literally meaning "broken bank". The term is often described as having originated in renaissance Italy, where there allegedly existed the tradition of smashing a banker's bench if he defaulted on payment so that the public could see that the banker, the owner of the bench, was no longer in a condition to continue his business, although some dismiss this as a false etymology. History ------- In Ancient Greece, bankruptcy did not exist. If a man owed and he could not pay, he and his wife, children or servants were forced into "debt slavery" until the creditor recouped losses through their physical labour. Many city-states in ancient Greece limited debt slavery to a period of five years; debt slaves had protection of life and limb, which regular slaves did not have. However, servants of the debtor could be retained beyond that deadline by the creditor and were often forced to serve their new lord for a lifetime, usually under significantly harsher conditions. An exception to this rule was Athens, which by the laws of Solon forbade enslavement for debt; as a consequence, most Athenian slaves were foreigners (Greek or otherwise). The Statute of Bankrupts of 1542 was the first statute under English law dealing with bankruptcy or insolvency. Bankruptcy is also documented in East Asia. According to al-Maqrizi, the Yassa of Genghis Khan contained a provision that mandated the death penalty for anyone who became bankrupt three times. A failure of a nation to meet bond repayments has been seen on many occasions. In a similar way, Philip II of Spain had to declare four state bankruptcies in 1557, 1560, 1575 and 1596. According to Kenneth S. Rogoff, "Although the development of international capital markets was quite limited prior to 1800, we nevertheless catalog the various defaults of France, Portugal, Prussia, Spain, and the early Italian city-states. At the edge of Europe, Egypt, Russia, and Turkey have histories of chronic default as well." Modern law and debt restructuring --------------------------------- The principal focus of modern insolvency legislation and business debt restructuring practices no longer rests on the elimination of insolvent entities, but on the remodeling of the financial and organizational structure of debtors experiencing financial distress so as to permit the rehabilitation and continuation of the business. For private households, it is important to assess the underlying problems and to minimize the risk of financial distress to recur. It has been stressed that debt advice, a supervised rehabilitation period, financial education and social help to find sources of income and to improve the management of household expenditures must be equally provided during this period of rehabilitation (Refiner *et al.*, 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). In most EU Member States, debt discharge is conditioned by a partial payment obligation and by a number of requirements concerning the debtor's behavior. In the United States (US), discharge is conditioned to a lesser extent. The spectrum is broad in the EU, with the UK coming closest to the US system (Reifner et al., 2003; Gerhardt, 2009; Frade, 2010). The Other Member States do not provide the option of a debt discharge. Spain, for example, passed a bankruptcy law (*ley concurs*) in 2003 which provides for debt settlement plans that can result in a reduction of the debt (maximally half of the amount) or an extension of the payment period of maximally five years (Gerhardt, 2009), but it does not foresee debt discharge. In the US, it is very difficult to discharge federal or federally guaranteed student loan debt by filing bankruptcy. Unlike most other debts, those student loans may be discharged only if the person seeking discharge establishes specific grounds for discharge under the *Brunner* test, under which the court evaluates three factors: * If required to repay the loan, the borrower cannot maintain a minimal standard of living; * The borrower's financial situation is likely to continue for most or all of the repayment period; and * The borrower has made a good faith effort to repay the student loans. Even if a debtor proves all three elements, a court may permit only a partial discharge of the student loan. Student loan borrowers may benefit from restructuring their payments through a Chapter 13 bankruptcy repayment plan, but few qualify for discharge of part or all of their student loan debt. Fraud ----- Bankruptcy fraud is a white-collar crime most typically involving concealment of assets by a debtor to avoid liquidation in bankruptcy proceedings. It may include filing of false information, multiple filings in different jurisdictions, bribery, and other acts. While difficult to generalize across jurisdictions, common criminal acts under bankruptcy statutes typically involve concealment of assets, concealment or destruction of documents, conflicts of interest, fraudulent claims, false statements or declarations, and fee fixing or redistribution arrangements. Falsifications on bankruptcy forms often constitute perjury. Multiple filings are not in and of themselves criminal, but they may violate provisions of bankruptcy law. In the U.S., bankruptcy fraud statutes are particularly focused on the mental state of particular actions. Bankruptcy fraud is a federal crime in the United States. Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from *strategic bankruptcy*, which is not a criminal act since it creates a real (not a fake) bankruptcy state. However, it may still work against the filer. All assets must be disclosed in bankruptcy schedules whether or not the debtor believes the asset has a net value. This is because once a bankruptcy petition is filed, it is for the creditors, not the debtor, to decide whether a particular asset has value. The future ramifications of omitting assets from schedules can be quite serious for the offending debtor. In the United States, a closed bankruptcy may be reopened by motion of a creditor or the U.S. trustee if a debtor attempts to later assert ownership of such an "unscheduled asset" after being discharged of all debt in the bankruptcy. The trustee may then seize the asset and liquidate it for the benefit of the (formerly discharged) creditors. Whether or not a concealment of such an asset should also be considered for prosecution as fraud or perjury would then be at the discretion of the judge or U.S. Trustee. By country ---------- In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, bankruptcy is limited to individuals; other forms of insolvency proceedings (such as liquidation and administration) are applied to companies. In the United States, *bankruptcy* is applied more broadly to formal insolvency proceedings. In some countries, such as in Finland bankruptcy is limited only to companies and individuals who are insolvent are condemned to de facto indentured servitude or minimum social benefits until their debts are paid in full, with accrued interest except when the court decides to show rare clemency by accepting a debtors application for debt restructuring, in which case an individual may have the amount of remaining debt reduced or be released from the debt. In France, the cognate French word *banqueroute* is used solely for cases of fraudulent bankruptcy, whereas the term *faillite* (cognate of "failure") is used for bankruptcy in accordance with the law. ### Argentina In Argentina the national Act "24.522 de Concursos y Quiebras" regulates the Bankruptcy and the Reorganization of the individuals and companies, public entities are not included. ### Armenia A person may be declared bankrupt with an application submitted to the court by the creditor or with an application to recognize his own bankruptcy. Legal and natural persons, including individual entrepreneurs, who have an indisputable payment obligation exceeding 60 days and amounting to more than one million AMD can be declared bankrupt. All creditors, including the state and municipalities, to whom the person has an obligation that meets the above-mentioned minimum criteria can submit an application to declare a person bankrupt by compulsory procedure. Basically, these obligations are derived from the legal acts of the court, transactions, the obligation of the debtor to pay taxes, duties, and other fees defined by law. At the same time, when being declared bankrupt with a voluntary bankruptcy application, the applicant bears the obligation to prove the fact that the value of his assets is less than his assets by one million AMD or more. ### Australia In Australia, bankruptcy is a status which applies to individuals and is governed by the federal *Bankruptcy Act 1966*. Companies do not go bankrupt but rather go into liquidation or administration, which is governed by the federal *Corporations Act 2001*. If a person commits an act of bankruptcy, then a creditor can apply to the Federal Circuit Court or the Federal Court for a sequestration order. Acts of bankruptcy are defined in the legislation, and include the failure to comply with a bankruptcy notice. A bankruptcy notice can be issued where, among other cases, a person fails to pay a judgment debt of at least $5,000. A person can also seek to have themselves declared bankrupt for any amount of debt by lodging a debtor's petition with the "Official Receiver", which is the Australian Financial Security Authority (AFSA). All bankrupts must lodge a Statement of Affairs document, also known as a Bankruptcy Form, with AFSA, which includes important information about their assets and liabilities. A bankruptcy cannot be discharged until this document has been lodged. Ordinarily, a bankruptcy lasts three years from the filing of the Statement of Affairs with AFSA. A Bankruptcy Trustee (in most cases, the Official Trustee at AFSA) is appointed to deal with all matters regarding the administration of the bankrupt estate. The Trustee's job includes notifying creditors of the estate and dealing with creditor inquiries; ensuring that the bankrupt complies with their obligations under the Bankruptcy Act; investigating the bankrupt's financial affairs; realising funds to which the estate is entitled under the Bankruptcy Act and distributing dividends to creditors if sufficient funds become available. For the duration of their bankruptcy, all bankrupts have certain restrictions placed upon them. For example, a bankrupt must obtain the permission of their trustee to travel overseas. Failure to do so may result in the bankrupt being stopped at the airport by the Australian Federal Police. Additionally, a bankrupt is required to provide their trustee with details of income and assets. If the bankrupt does not comply with the Trustee's request to provide details of income, the trustee may have grounds to lodge an Objection to Discharge, which has the effect of extending the bankruptcy for a further three or five years depending on the type of Objection. The realisation of funds usually comes from two main sources: the bankrupt's assets and the bankrupt's wages. There are certain assets that are protected, referred to as *protected assets*. These include household furniture and appliances, tools of the trade and vehicles up to a certain value. All other assets of value can be sold. If a house, including the main residence, or car is above a certain value, a third party can buy the interest from the estate in order for the bankrupt to utilise the asset. If this is not done, the interest vests in the estate and the trustee is able to take possession of the asset and sell it. The bankrupt must pay income contributions if their income is above a certain threshold. If the bankrupt fails to pay, the trustee can ask the Official Receiver to issue a notice to garnishee the bankrupt's wages. If that is not possible, the Trustee may seek to extend the bankruptcy for a further three or five years. Bankruptcies can be annulled, and the bankrupt released from bankruptcy, prior to the expiration of the normal three-year period if all debts are paid out in full. Sometimes a bankrupt may be able to raise enough funds to make an Offer of Composition to creditors, which would have the effect of paying the creditors some of the money they are owed. If the creditors accept the offer, the bankruptcy can be annulled after the funds are received. After the bankruptcy is annulled or the bankrupt has been automatically discharged, the bankrupt's credit report status is shown as "discharged bankrupt" for some years. The maximum number of years this information can be held is subject to the retention limits under the Privacy Act. How long such information is on a credit report may be shorter, depending on the issuing company, but the report must cease to record that information based on the criteria in the Privacy Act. ### Brazil In Brazil, the Bankruptcy Law (11.101/05) governs court-ordered or out-of-court receivership and bankruptcy and only applies to public companies (publicly traded companies) with the exception of financial institutions, credit cooperatives, consortia, supplementary scheme entities, companies administering health care plans, equity companies and a few other legal entities. It does not apply to state-run companies. Current law covers three legal proceedings. The first one is bankruptcy itself ("Falência"). Bankruptcy is a court-ordered liquidation procedure for an insolvent business. The final goal of bankruptcy is to liquidate company assets and pay its creditors. The second one is Court-ordered Restructuring (*Recuperação Judicial*). The goal is to overcome the business crisis situation of the debtor in order to allow the continuation of the producer, the employment of workers and the interests of creditors, leading, thus, to preserving company, its corporate function and develop economic activity. It's a court procedure required by the debtor which has been in business for more than two years and requires approval by a judge. The Extrajudicial Restructuring (*Recuperação Extrajudicial*) is a private negotiation that involves creditors and debtors and, as with court-ordered restructuring, also must be approved by courts. ### Canada Bankruptcy, also referred to as insolvency in Canada, is governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act and is applicable to businesses and individuals. For example, Target Canada, the Canadian subsidiary of the Target Corporation, the second-largest discount retailer in the United States filed for bankruptcy on January 15, 2015, and closed all of its stores by April 12. The office of the Superintendent of Bankruptcy, a federal agency, is responsible for overseeing that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner by all licensed Trustees in Canada. Trustees in bankruptcy, 1041 individuals licensed to administer insolvencies, bankruptcy and proposal estates are governed by the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act of Canada. Bankruptcy is filed when a person or a company becomes insolvent and cannot pay their debts as they become due and if they have at least $1,000 in debt. In 2011, the Superintendent of bankruptcy reported that trustees in Canada filed 127,774 insolvent estates. Consumer estates were the vast majority, with 122 999 estates. The consumer portion of the 2011 volume is divided into 77,993 bankruptcies and 45,006 consumer proposals. This represented a reduction of 8.9% from 2010. Commercial estates filed by Canadian trustees in 2011 4,775 estates, 3,643 bankruptcies and 1,132 Division 1 proposals. This represents a reduction of 8.6% over 2010. Duties of trustees Some of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to: * Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions * Chair meetings of creditors * Sell any non-exempt assets * Object to the bankrupt's discharge * Distribute funds to creditors Creditors' meetings Creditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings. The trustee calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes: * To consider the affairs of the bankrupt * To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof * To appoint inspectors * To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate. Consumer proposals In Canada, a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy. A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors. A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthly payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors. Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases, the creditors accept the deal—because if they do not, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, in which the creditors get even less money. The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal. Once the proposal is accepted by both the creditors and the Court, the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month (or as otherwise stipulated in their proposal), and the general creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action. If the proposal is rejected, the debtor is returned to his prior insolvent state and may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy. A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts to a maximum of $250,000 (not including the mortgage on their principal residence). If debts are greater than $250,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act. An Administrator is required in the Consumer Proposal, and a Trustee in the Division I Proposal (these are virtually the same although the terms are not interchangeable). A Proposal Administrator is almost always a licensed trustee in bankruptcy, although the Superintendent of Bankruptcy may appoint other people to serve as administrators. In 2006, there were 98,450 personal insolvency filings in Canada: 79,218 bankruptcies and 19,232 consumer proposals. Commercial restructuring In Canada, bankruptcy always means liquidation. There is no way for a company to emerge from bankruptcy after restructuring, as is the case in the United States with a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing. Canada does, however, have laws that allow for businesses to restructure and emerge later with a smaller debtload and a more positive financial future. While not technically a form of bankruptcy, businesses with $5M or more in debt may make use of the Companies' Creditors Arrangement Act to halt all debt recovery efforts against the company while they formulate a plan to restructure. ### China The People's Republic of China legalized bankruptcy in 1986, and a revised law that was more expansive and complete was enacted in 2007. ### Ireland Bankruptcy in Ireland applies only to natural persons. Other insolvency processes including liquidation and examinership are used to deal with corporate insolvency. Irish bankruptcy law has been the subject of significant comment, from both government sources and the media, as being in need of reform. Part 7 of the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2011 has started this process and the government has committed to further reform. ### Israel Bankruptcy in Israel is governed by the Insolvency and Rehabilitation Law, 2018. Insolvency proceedings below NIS 150,000 will be administered entirely by the Enforcement and Collection Authority. Insolvency proceedings above NIS 150,000 individual debtors file the documents will be conducted before the official receiver (the Insolvency Commissioner) and, if a creditor want to file against a debtor he needs to open process, before the magistrate's court that hears in the district. Company bankruptcy will be conducted before District Court. Simultaneously, with the issue of the order for the commencement of insolvency proceedings, the Insolvency Commissioner shall appoint a trustee for the debtor and an audit will be carried out, in which the debtor's economic capability and his conduct will be examined (lasting approximately 12 months). At the end of this audit a payment plan is established, at the end of which the debtor will receive a discharge. The default scenario is a payment period of three years, however, the court reserves the right to increase or decrease the period depending upon the circumstances of the case. If the debtor has no proven financial ability to pay the creditors, he may be granted an immediate discharge. Since 1996, Israeli personal bankruptcy law has shifted to a relatively debtor-friendly regime, not unlike the American model. ### India The Parliament of India in the first week of May 2016 passed Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code 2016 (New Code). Earlier a clear law on corporate bankruptcy did not exist, even though individual bankruptcy laws have been in existence since 1874. The earlier law in force was enacted in 1920 called the Provincial Insolvency Act. The legal definitions of the terms bankruptcy, insolvency, liquidation and dissolution are contested in the Indian legal system. There is no regulation or statute legislated upon bankruptcy which denotes a condition of inability to meet a demand of a creditor as is common in many other jurisdictions. Winding up of companies was in the jurisdiction of the courts which can take a decade even after the company has actually been declared insolvent. On the other hand, supervisory restructuring at the behest of the Board of Industrial and Financial Reconstruction is generally undertaken using receivership by a public entity. ### The Netherlands Dutch bankruptcy law is governed by the Dutch Bankruptcy Code (*Faillissementswet*). The code covers three separate legal proceedings. * The first is the bankruptcy (*faillissement*). The goal of the bankruptcy is the liquidation of the assets of the company. The bankruptcy applies only to companies. * The second legal proceeding in the *Faillissementswet* is the *surseance van betaling*. The *surseance van betaling* only applies to companies. Its goal is to reach an agreement with the creditors of the company. It is comparable to filing for protection against creditors. * The third proceeding is the *schuldsanering*. This proceeding is designed for individuals only and is the result of a court ruling. The judge appoints a monitor. The monitor is an independent third party who monitors the individual's ongoing business and decides about financial matters during the period of the *schuldsanering*. The individual can travel out of the country freely after the judge's decision on the case. ### Russia Federal Law No. 127-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" dated 26 October 2002 (as amended) (the "Bankruptcy Act"), replacing the previous law in 1998, to better address the above problems and a broader failure of the action. Russian insolvency law is intended for a wide range of borrowers: individuals and companies of all sizes, with the exception of state-owned enterprises, government agencies, political parties and religious organizations. There are also special rules for insurance companies, professional participants of the securities market, agricultural organizations and other special laws for financial institutions and companies in the natural monopolies in the energy industry. Federal Law No. 40-FZ "On Insolvency (Bankruptcy)" dated 25 February 1999 (as amended) (the "Insolvency Law of Credit Institutions") contains special provisions in relation to the opening of insolvency proceedings in relation to the credit company. Insolvency Provisions Act, credit organizations used in conjunction with the provisions of the Bankruptcy Act. Bankruptcy law provides for the following stages of insolvency proceedings: * Monitoring procedure or Supervision (nablyudeniye); * The economic recovery (finansovoe ozdorovleniye); * External control (vneshneye upravleniye); * Liquidation (konkursnoye proizvodstvo) and * Amicable Agreement (mirovoye soglasheniye). The main face of the bankruptcy process is the insolvency officer (trustee in bankruptcy, bankruptcy manager). At various stages of bankruptcy, he must be determined: the temporary officer in Monitoring procedure, external manager in External control, the receiver or administrative officer in The economic recovery, the liquidator. During the bankruptcy trustee in bankruptcy (insolvency officer) has a decisive influence on the movement of assets (property) of the debtor - the debtor and has a key influence on the economic and legal aspects of its operations. ### South Africa ### Switzerland Under Swiss law, bankruptcy can be a consequence of insolvency. It is a court-ordered form of debt enforcement proceedings that applies, in general, to registered commercial entities only. In a bankruptcy, all assets of the debtor are liquidated under the administration of the creditors, although the law provides for debt restructuring options similar to those under Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy code. ### Sweden In Sweden, bankruptcy (Swedish: konkurs) is a formal process that may involve a company or individual. It is not the same as insolvency, which is inability to pay debts that should have been paid. A creditor or the company itself can apply for bankruptcy. An external bankruptcy manager takes over the company or the assets of the person, and tries to sell as much as possible. A person or a company in bankruptcy can not access its assets (with some exceptions). The formal bankruptcy process is rarely carried out for individuals. Creditors can claim money through the Enforcement Administration anyway, and creditors do not usually benefit from the bankruptcy of individuals because there are costs of a bankruptcy manager which has priority. Unpaid debts remain after bankruptcy for individuals. People who are deeply in debt can obtain a debt arrangement procedure (Swedish: skuldsanering). On application, they obtain a payment plan under which they pay as much as they can for five years, and then all remaining debts are cancelled. Debts that derive from a ban on business operations (issued by court, commonly for tax fraud or fraudulent business practices) or owed to a crime victim as compensation for damages, are exempted from this—and, as before this process was introduced in 2006, remain lifelong. Debts that have not been claimed during a 3-10 year period are cancelled. Often crime victims stop their claims after a few years since criminals often do not have job incomes and might be hard to locate, while banks make sure their claims are not cancelled. The most common reasons for personal insolvency in Sweden are illness, unemployment, divorce or company bankruptcy. For companies, formal bankruptcy is a normal effect of insolvency, even if there is a reconstruction mechanism where the company can be given time to solve its situation, e.g. by finding an investor. The formal bankruptcy involves contracting a bankruptcy manager, who makes certain that assets are sold and money divided by the priority the law claims, and no other way. Banks have such a priority. After a finished bankruptcy for a company, it is terminated. The activities might continue in a new company which has bought important assets from the bankrupted company. ### United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates Bankruptcy Law came into force on 29 December 2016, and created a single law governing bankruptcy procedures, which had previously been spread across multiple sources. There are two court procedures: first, a procedure for a company that is not yet insolvent, known as a protective composition, and second, a formal bankruptcy that is split into a rescue process (similar to protective composition) or liquidation. Directors of a company can be held personally liable for its debts. The Bankruptcy Law does not apply to government bodies, or to companies trading in free zones such as the Dubai International Financial Centre or the Abu Dhabi Global Market, which have their own insolvency laws. ### United Kingdom Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals (including sole proprietors) and partnerships. Companies and other corporations enter into differently named legal insolvency procedures: liquidation and administration (administration order and administrative receivership). However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation. Bankruptcy in Scotland is referred to as sequestration. To apply for bankruptcy in Scotland, an individual must have more than £1,500 of debt. A trustee in bankruptcy must be either an Official Receiver (a civil servant) or a licensed insolvency practitioner. Current law in England and Wales derives in large part from the Insolvency Act 1986. Following the introduction of the Enterprise Act 2002, a UK bankruptcy now normally last no longer than 12 months, and may be less if the Official Receiver files in court a certificate that investigations are complete. It was expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime would increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initially, cases increased, as the Insolvency Service statistics appear to bear out. Since 2009, the introduction of the Debt Relief Order has resulted in a dramatic fall in bankruptcies, the latest estimates for year 2014/15 being significantly less than 30,000 cases. UK Bankruptcy statistics| Year | Bankruptcies | IVAs | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2004 | 35,989 | 10,752 | 46,741 | | 2005 | 47,291 | 20,293 | 67,584 | | 2006 | 62,956 | 44,332 | 107,288 | | 2007 | 64,480 | 42,165 | 106,645 | | 2008 | 67,428 | 39,116 | 106,544 | Pensions The UK bankruptcy law was changed in May 2000, effective May 29, 2000. Debtors may now retain occupational pensions while in bankruptcy, except in rare cases. Proposed reform The Government have updated legislation (2016) to streamline the application process for UK bankruptcy. UK residents now need to apply online for bankruptcy - there is an upfront fee of £680. The process for residents of Northern Ireland differs - applicants must follow the older process of applying through the courts. ### United States Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under federal jurisdiction by the United States Constitution (in Article 1, Section 8, Clause 4), which empowers Congress to enact "uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States". Congress has enacted statutes governing bankruptcy, primarily in the form of the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code. A debtor declares bankruptcy to obtain relief from debt, and this is normally accomplished either through a discharge of the debt or through a restructuring of the debt. When a debtor files a voluntary petition, their bankruptcy case commences. #### Debts and exemptions While bankruptcy cases are always filed in United States Bankruptcy Court (an adjunct to the U.S. District Courts), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often dependent upon State law. A Bankruptcy Exemption defines the property a debtor may retain and preserve through bankruptcy. Certain real and personal property can be exempted on "Schedule C" of a debtor's bankruptcy forms, and effectively be taken outside the debtor's bankruptcy estate. Bankruptcy exemptions are available only to individuals filing bankruptcy. There are two alternative systems that can be used to "exempt" property from a bankruptcy estate, federal exemptions (available in some states but not all), and state exemptions (which vary widely between states). For example, Maryland and Virginia, which are adjoining states, have different personal exemption amounts that cannot be seized for payment of debts. This amount is the first $6,000 in property or cash in Maryland, but normally only the first $5,000 in Virginia. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, such that there may be significant differences in the outcome of a bankruptcy case depending upon the state in which it is filed. After a bankruptcy petition is filed, the court schedules a hearing called a *341 meeting* or *meeting of creditors*, at which the bankruptcy trustee and creditors review the petitioner's petition and supporting schedules, question the petitioner, and can challenge exemptions they believe are improper. #### Chapters There are six types of bankruptcy under the Bankruptcy Code, located at Title 11 of the United States Code: * Chapter 7: basic liquidation for individuals and businesses; also known as straight bankruptcy; it is the simplest and quickest form of bankruptcy available * Chapter 9: municipal bankruptcy; a federal mechanism for the resolution of municipal debts * Chapter 11: rehabilitation or reorganization, used primarily by business debtors but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets; known as corporate bankruptcy, it is a form of corporate financial reorganization that typically allows companies to continue to function while they follow debt repayment plans * Chapter 12: rehabilitation for family farmers and fishermen; * Chapter 13: rehabilitation with a payment plan for individuals with a regular source of income; enables individuals with regular income to develop a plan to repay all or part of their debts; also known as Wage Earner Bankruptcy * Chapter 15: ancillary and other international cases; provides a mechanism for dealing with bankruptcy debtors and helps foreign debtors clear debts An important feature applicable to all types of bankruptcy filings is the automatic stay. The automatic stay means that the mere request for bankruptcy protection automatically halts most lawsuits, repossessions, foreclosures, evictions, garnishments, attachments, utility shut-offs, and debt collection activity. The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13. Chapter 7, known as a "straight bankruptcy", involves the discharge of certain debts without repayment. Chapter 13 involves a plan of repayment of debts over a period of years. Whether a person qualifies for Chapter 7 or Chapter 13 is in part determined by income. As many as 65% of all US consumer bankruptcy filings are Chapter 7 cases. Before a consumer may obtain bankruptcy relief under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13, the debtor is to undertake credit counseling with approved counseling agencies prior to filing a bankruptcy petition and to undertake education in personal financial management from approved agencies prior to being granted a discharge of debts under either Chapter 7 or Chapter 13. Some studies of the operation of the credit counseling requirement suggest that it provides little benefit to debtors who receive the counseling because the only realistic option for many is to seek relief under the Bankruptcy Code. Corporations and other business forms normally file under Chapters 7 or 11. ##### Chapter 7 Often called "straight bankruptcy" or "simple bankruptcy", a Chapter 7 bankruptcy potentially allows debtors to eliminate most or all of their debts over a period of as little as three or four months. In a typical consumer bankruptcy, the only debts that survive a Chapter 7 are student loans, child support obligations, some tax bills, and criminal fines. Credit cards, pay day loans, personal loans, medical bills, and just about all other bills are discharged. In Chapter 7, a debtor surrenders non-exempt property to a bankruptcy trustee, who then liquidates the property and distributes the proceeds to the debtor's unsecured creditors. In exchange, the debtor is entitled to a discharge of some debt. However, the debtor is not granted a discharge if guilty of certain types of inappropriate behavior (e.g., concealing records relating to financial condition) and certain debts (e.g., spousal and child support and most student loans). Some taxes are not discharged even though the debtor is generally discharged from debt. Many individuals in financial distress own only exempt property (e.g., clothes, household goods, an older car, or the tools of their trade or profession) and do not have to surrender any property to the trustee. The amount of property that a debtor may exempt varies from state to state (as noted above, Virginia and Maryland have a $1,000 difference.) Chapter 7 relief is available only once in any eight-year period. Generally, the rights of secured creditors to their collateral continues, even though their debt is discharged. For example, absent some arrangement by a debtor to surrender a car or "reaffirm" a debt, the creditor with a security interest in the debtor's car may repossess the car even if the debt to the creditor is discharged. Ninety-one percent of US individuals who petition for relief under Chapter 7 hire an attorney to file their petitions. The typical cost of an attorney is $1,170.00. Alternatives to filing with an attorney are: filing pro se, hiring a non-lawyer petition preparer, or using online software to generate the petition. To be eligible to file a consumer bankruptcy under Chapter 7, a debtor must qualify under a statutory "means test". The means test was intended to make it more difficult for a significant number of financially distressed individual debtors whose debts are primarily consumer debts to qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code. The "means test" is employed in cases where an individual with primarily consumer debts has more than the average annual income for a household of equivalent size, computed over a 180-day period prior to filing. If the individual must "take" the "means test", their average monthly income over this 180-day period is reduced by a series of allowances for living expenses and secured debt payments in a very complex calculation that may or may not accurately reflect that individual's actual monthly budget. If the results of the means test show no disposable income (or in some cases a very small amount) then the individual qualifies for Chapter 7 relief. An individual who fails the means test will have their Chapter 7 case dismissed, or may have to convert the case to a Chapter 13 bankruptcy. If a debtor does not qualify for relief under Chapter 7 of the Bankruptcy Code, either because of the Means Test or because Chapter 7 does not provide a permanent solution to delinquent payments for secured debts, such as mortgages or vehicle loans, the debtor may still seek relief under Chapter 13 of the Code. Generally, a trustee sells most of the debtor's assets to pay off creditors. However, certain debtor assets will be protected to some extent by bankruptcy exemptions. These include Social Security payments, unemployment compensation, limited equity in a home, car, or truck, household goods and appliances, trade tools, and books. However, these exemptions vary from state to state. ##### Chapter 11 In Chapter 11 bankruptcy, the debtor retains ownership and control of assets and is re-termed a debtor in possession (DIP). The debtor in possession runs the day-to-day operations of the business while creditors and the debtor work with the Bankruptcy Court in order to negotiate and complete a plan. Upon meeting certain requirements (e.g., fairness among creditors, priority of certain creditors) creditors are permitted to vote on the proposed plan. If a plan is confirmed, the debtor continues to operate and pay debts under the terms of the confirmed plan. If a specified majority of creditors do not vote to confirm a plan, additional requirements may be imposed by the court in order to confirm the plan. Debtors filing for Chapter 11 protection a second time are known informally as "Chapter 22" filers. In a corporate or business bankruptcy, an indebted company is typically recapitalized so that it emerges from bankruptcy with more equity and less debt, with potential for dispute over the valuation of the reorganized business. ##### Chapter 13 In Chapter 13, debtors retain ownership and possession of all their assets but must devote some portion of future income to repaying creditors, generally over three to five years. The amount of payment and period of the repayment plan depend upon a variety of factors, including the value of the debtor's property and the amount of a debtor's income and expenses. Under this chapter, the debtor can propose a repayment plan in which to pay creditors over three to five years. If the monthly income is less than the state's median income, the plan is for three years, unless the court finds "just cause" to extend the plan for a longer period. If the debtor's monthly income is greater than the median income for individuals in the debtor's state, the plan must generally be for five years. A plan cannot exceed the five-year limit. Relief under Chapter 13 is available only to individuals with regular income whose debts do not exceed prescribed limits. If the debtor is an individual or a sole proprietor, the debtor is allowed to file for a Chapter 13 bankruptcy to repay all or part of the debts. Secured creditors may be entitled to greater payment than unsecured creditors. In contrast to Chapter 7, the debtor in Chapter 13 may keep all property, whether or not exempt. If the plan appears feasible and if the debtor complies with all the other requirements, the bankruptcy court typically confirms the plan and the debtor and creditors are bound by its terms. Creditors have no say in the formulation of the plan, other than to object to it, if appropriate, on the grounds that it does not comply with one of the Code's statutory requirements. Generally, the debtor makes payments to a trustee who disburses the funds in accordance with the terms of the confirmed plan. When the debtor completes payments pursuant to the terms of the plan, the court formally grant the debtor a discharge of the debts provided for in the plan. However, if the debtor fails to make the agreed upon payments or fails to seek or gain court approval of a modified plan, a bankruptcy court will normally dismiss the case on the motion of the trustee. After a dismissal, creditors may resume pursuit of state law remedies to recover the unpaid debt. ### European Union In 2004, the number of insolvencies reached record highs in many European countries. In France, company insolvencies rose by more than 4%, in Austria by more than 10%, and in Greece by more than 20%. The increase in the number of insolvencies, however, does not indicate the total financial impact of insolvencies in each country because there is no indication of the size of each case. An increase in the number of bankruptcy cases does not necessarily entail an increase in bad debt write-off rates for the economy as a whole. Bankruptcy statistics are also a trailing indicator. There is a time delay between financial difficulties and bankruptcy. In most cases, several months or even years pass between the financial problems and the start of bankruptcy proceedings. Legal, tax, and cultural issues may further distort bankruptcy figures, especially when comparing on an international basis. Two examples: * In Austria, more than half of all potential bankruptcy proceedings in 2004 were not opened, due to insufficient funding. * In Spain, it is not economically profitable to open insolvency/bankruptcy proceedings against certain types of businesses, and therefore the number of insolvencies is quite low. For comparison: In France, more than 40,000 insolvency proceedings were opened in 2004, but under 600 were opened in Spain. At the same time the average bad debt write-off rate in France was 1.3% compared to Spain with 2.6%. The insolvency numbers for private individuals also do not show the whole picture. Only a fraction of heavily indebted households file for insolvency. Two of the main reasons for this are the stigma of declaring themselves insolvent and the potential business disadvantage. Following the soar in insolvencies in the last decade, a number of European countries, such as France, Germany, Spain and Italy, began to revamp their bankruptcy laws in 2013. They modelled these new laws after the image of Chapter 11 of the U.S. Bankruptcy Code. Currently, the majority of insolvency cases have ended in liquidation in Europe rather than the businesses surviving the crisis. These new law models are meant to change this; lawmakers are hoping to turn bankruptcy into a chance for restructuring rather than a death sentence for the companies. Effective sovereign bankruptcy ------------------------------ Technically, states do not collapse directly due to a sovereign default event itself. However, the tumultuous events that follow may bring down the state, so in common language, states would be described as being bankrupted. Some examples of this are when a Korean state bankrupted Imperial China causing its destruction, or more specifically, when Chang'an's (Sui Dynasty) war with Pyongyang (Goguryeo) in 614 A.D. ended in the former's disintegration within 4 years, although the latter also seemingly entered into decline and fell some 56 years later. Another example is when the United States, with heavy financial backing from its allies (creditors), bankrupted the Soviet Union which led to the latter's demise. See also -------- * Bankruptcy Act * Bankruptcy alternatives * Creditor's rights * Debt consolidation * Debt relief * Debt restructuring * Debtor in possession * Default * DIP Financing * Distressed securities * Financial distress * Individual voluntary arrangement * Insolvency * Judicial estoppel * Liquidation * Protected trust deed * Sole Trader Insolvency (UK) * Stalking Horse Agreement * Tools of trade * Turnaround ADR Further reading --------------- * Balleisen, Edward (2001). *Navigating Failure: Bankruptcy and Commercial Society in Antebellum America*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 322. ISBN 0-8078-2600-6. * DePamphilis, Donald M. (2009). *Mergers, Acquisitions, and Other Restructurings, 5th Edition*. Elsevier, Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374878-2. * Mańko, Rafał. "Cross-border insolvency law in the EU" (PDF). *Library Briefing*. Library of the European Parliament. Retrieved 21 February 2013. * Sandage, Scott A. (2006). *Born Losers: A History of Failure in America*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-02107-X.

Bankruptcy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankruptcy

**Belarus**, officially the **Republic of Belarus**, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe. It is bordered by Russia to the east and northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Covering an area of 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) and with a population of 9.2 million, Belarus is the 13th-largest and the 20th-most populous country in Europe. The country has a hemiboreal climate and is administratively divided into seven regions. Minsk is the capital and largest city. Between the medieval period and the 20th century, different states at various times controlled the lands of modern-day Belarus, including Kievan Rus', the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution in 1917, different states arose competing for legitimacy amid the Civil War, ultimately ending in the rise of the Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union in 1922. After the Polish-Soviet War, Belarus lost almost half of its territory to Poland. Much of the borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939, when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were reintegrated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland, and were finalized after World War II. During World War II, military operations devastated Belarus, which lost about a quarter of its population and half of its economic resources. The republic was home to a widespread and diverse anti-Nazi insurgent movement which dominated politics until well into the 1970s, overseeing Belarus' transformation from an agrarian to industrial economy. In 1945, the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union. The parliament of the republic proclaimed the sovereignty of Belarus on 27 July 1990, and during the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus gained independence on 25 August 1991. Following the adoption of a new constitution in 1994, Alexander Lukashenko was elected Belarus's first president in the country's first and only free election after independence, serving as president ever since. Lukashenko heads a highly centralized authoritarian government. Belarus ranks low in international measurements of freedom of the press and civil liberties. It has continued a number of Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of large sections of the economy. Belarus is the only European country that continues to use capital punishment. In 2000, Belarus and Russia signed a treaty for greater cooperation, forming the Union State. Belarus is a developing country, ranking 60th on the Human Development Index. The country has been a member of the United Nations since its founding and has joined the CIS, the CSTO, the EAEU, the OSCE, and the Non-Aligned Movement. It has shown no aspirations of joining the European Union but nevertheless maintains a bilateral relationship with the bloc, and also participates in the Baku Initiative. Etymology --------- The name *Belarus* is closely related with the term *Belaya Rus'*, i.e., *White Rus'*. There are several claims to the origin of the name *White Rus'*. An ethno-religious theory suggests that the name used to describe the part of old Ruthenian lands within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania that had been populated mostly by Slavs who had been Christianized early, as opposed to Black Ruthenia, which was predominantly inhabited by pagan Balts. An alternative explanation for the name comments on the white clothing worn by the local Slavic population. A third theory suggests that the old Rus' lands that were not conquered by the Tatars (i.e., Polotsk, Vitebsk and Mogilev) had been referred to as *White Rus'*. A fourth theory suggests that the color white was associated with the west, and Belarus was the western part of Rus in the 9th to 13th centuries. The name *Rus* is often conflated with its Latin forms *Russia* and *Ruthenia*, thus Belarus is often referred to as *White Russia* or *White Ruthenia*. The name first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature; the chronicles of Jan of Czarnków mention the imprisonment of Lithuanian grand duke Jogaila and his mother at "*Albae Russiae, Poloczk dicto*" in 1381. The first known use of *White Russia* to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey, who was known for his close contacts with the Russian royal court. During the 17th century, the Russian tsars used *White Rus* to describe the lands added from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The term *Belorussia* (Russian: Белору́ссия, the latter part similar but spelled and stressed differently from Росси́я, *Russia*) first rose in the days of the Russian Empire, and the Russian Tsar was usually styled "the Tsar of All the Russias", as *Russia* or the *Russian Empire* was formed by three parts of Russia—the Great, Little, and White. This asserted that the territories are all Russian and all the peoples are also Russian; in the case of the Belarusians, they were variants of the Russian people. After the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, the term *White Russia* caused some confusion, as it was also the name of the military force that opposed the red Bolsheviks. During the period of the Byelorussian SSR, the term *Byelorussia* was embraced as part of a national consciousness. In western Belarus under Polish control, *Byelorussia* became commonly used in the regions of Białystok and Grodno during the interwar period. The term *Byelorussia* (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) was only used officially until 1991. Officially, the full name of the country is *Republic of Belarus* (Рэспубліка Беларусь, Республика Беларусь, *Respublika Belarus* ). In Russia, the usage of *Belorussia* is still very common. In Lithuanian, besides *Baltarusija* (White Russia), Belarus is also called *Gudija*. The etymology of the word *Gudija* is not clear. By one hypothesis the word derives from the Old Prussian name *Gudwa*, which, in turn, is related to the form *Żudwa*, which is a distorted version of *Sudwa, Sudovia. Sudovia*, in its turn, is one of the names of the Yotvingians. Another hypothesis connects the word with the Gothic Kingdom that occupied parts of the territory of modern Belarus and Ukraine in the 4th and 5th centuries. The self-naming of Goths was *Gutans* and *Gytos*, which are close to Gudija. Yet another hypothesis is based on the idea that *Gudija* in Lithuanian means "the other" and may have been used historically by Lithuanians to refer to any people who did not speak Lithuanian. History ------- ### Early history From 5000 to 2000 BC, the Bandkeramik predominated in what now constitutes Belarus, and the Cimmerians as well as other pastoralists roamed through the area by 1,000 BC. The Zarubintsy culture later became widespread at the beginning of the 1st millennium. In addition, remains from the Dnieper–Donets culture were found in Belarus and parts of Ukraine. The region was first permanently settled by Baltic tribes in the 3rd century. Around the 5th century, the area was taken over by the Slavs. The takeover was partially due to the lack of military coordination of the Balts, but their gradual assimilation into Slavic culture was peaceful in nature. Invaders from Asia, among whom were the Huns and Avars, swept through c. 400–600 AD, but were unable to dislodge the Slavic presence. ### Kievan Rus' In the 9th century, the territory of modern Belarus became part of Kievan Rus', a vast East Slavic state ruled by the Rurikid dynasty. Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler Yaroslav I the Wise in 1054, the state split into independent principalities. The Battle on the Nemiga River in 1067 was one of the more notable events of the period, the date of which is considered the founding date of Minsk. Many early Rus' principalities were virtually razed or severely affected by a major Mongol invasion in the 13th century, but the lands of modern-day Belarus avoided the brunt of the invasion and eventually joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. There are no sources of military seizure, but the annals affirm the alliance and united foreign policy of Polotsk and Lithuania for decades. Trying to avoid the Tatar Yoke, the Principality of Minsk sought protection from Lithuanian princes further north and in 1242, the Principality of Minsk became a part of the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Incorporation into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in an economic, political and ethno-cultural unification of Belarusian lands. Of the principalities held by the duchy, nine of them were settled by a population that would eventually become the Belarusians. During this time, the duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410; the joint victory allowed the duchy to control the northwestern borderlands of Eastern Europe. The Muscovites, led by Ivan III of Moscow, began military campaigns in 1486 in an attempt to incorporate the former lands of Kievan Rus', specifically the territories of modern-day Belarus, Russia and Ukraine. ### Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth On 2 February 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin. The Lithuanian nobles were forced to seek rapprochement with the Poles because of a potential threat from Muscovy. To strengthen their independence within the format of the union, three editions of the Statutes of Lithuania were issued in the second half of the 16th century. The third Article of the Statutes established that all lands of the duchy will be eternally within the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and never enter as a part of other states. The Statutes allowed the right to own land only to noble families of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Anyone from outside the duchy gaining rights to a property would actually own it only after swearing allegiance to the Grand Duke of Lithuania (a title dually held by the King of Poland). These articles were aimed to defend the rights of the Lithuanian nobility within the duchy against Polish and other nobles of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the years following the union, the process of gradual Polonization of both Lithuanians and Ruthenians gained steady momentum. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became dominant, and in 1696, Polish replaced Ruthenian as the official language, with Ruthenian being banned from administrative use. However, the Ruthenian peasants continued to speak their native language. Also, the Belarusian Byzantine Catholic Church was formed by the Poles in order to bring Orthodox Christians into the See of Rome. The Belarusian church entered into a full communion with the Latin Church through the Union of Brest in 1595, while keeping its Byzantine liturgy in the Church Slavonic language. The Statutes were initially issued in the Ruthenian language alone and later also in Polish. Around 1840 the Statutes were banned by the Russian tsar following the November Uprising. Ukrainian lands used them until the 1860s. ### Russian Empire The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795 with the Third Partition of Poland by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria. The Belarusian territories acquired by the Russian Empire under the reign of Catherine II were included into the Belarusian Governorate (Russian: Белорусское генерал-губернаторство) in 1796 and held until their occupation by the German Empire during World War I. Under Nicholas I and Alexander III the national cultures were repressed. Policies of Polonization changed by Russification, which included the return to Orthodox Christianity of Belarusian Uniates. Belarusian language was banned in schools while in neighboring Samogitia primary school education with Samogitian literacy was allowed. In a Russification drive in the 1840s, Nicholas I prohibited use of the Belarusian language in public schools, campaigned against Belarusian publications and tried to pressure those who had converted to Catholicism under the Poles to reconvert to the Orthodox faith. In 1863, economic and cultural pressure exploded in a revolt, led by Konstanty Kalinowski (also known as Kastus). After the failed revolt, the Russian government reintroduced the use of Cyrillic to Belarusian in 1864 and no documents in Belarusian were permitted by the Russian government until 1905. During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence under German occupation on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. Immediately afterwards, the Polish–Soviet War ignited, and the territory of Belarus was divided between Poland and Soviet Russia. The Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic exists as a government in exile ever since then; in fact, it is currently the world's longest serving government in exile. ### Early states and interwar period The Belarusian People's Republic was the first attempt to create an independent Belarusian state under the name "Belarus". Despite significant efforts, the state ceased to exist, primarily because the territory was continually dominated by the German Imperial Army and the Imperial Russian Army in World War I, and then the Bolshevik Red Army. It existed from only 1918 to 1919 but created prerequisites for the formation of a Belarusian state. The choice of name was probably based on the fact that core members of the newly formed government were educated in tsarist universities, with corresponding emphasis on the ideology of West-Russianism. The Republic of Central Lithuania was a short-lived political entity, which was the last attempt to restore Lithuania in the historical confederacy state (it was also supposed to create Lithuania Upper and Lithuania Lower). The republic was created in 1920 following the staged rebellion of soldiers of the 1st Lithuanian–Belarusian Division of the Polish Army under Lucjan Żeligowski. Centered on the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Vilna (Lithuanian: *Vilnius*, Polish: *Wilno*), for 18 months the entity served as a buffer state between Poland, upon which it depended, and Lithuania, which claimed the area. After a variety of delays, a disputed election took place on 8 January 1922, and the territory was annexed to Poland. Żeligowski later in his memoir which was published in London in 1943 condemned the annexation of the Republic by Poland, as well as the policy of closing Belarusian schools and general disregard of Marshal Józef Piłsudski's confederation plans by Polish ally. In January 1919, a part of Belarus under Bolshevik Russian control was declared the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia (SSRB) for just two months, but then merged with the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (LSSR) to form the Socialist Soviet Republic of Lithuania and Belorussia (SSR LiB), which lost control of its territories by August. The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR) was created in July 1920. The contested lands were divided between Poland and the Soviet Union after the war ended in 1921, and the Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. In the 1920s and 1930s, Soviet agricultural and economic policies, including collectivization and five-year plans for the national economy, led to famine and political repression. The western part of modern Belarus remained part of the Second Polish Republic. After an early period of liberalization, tensions between increasingly nationalistic Polish government and various increasingly separatist ethnic minorities started to grow, and the Belarusian minority was no exception. The polonization drive was inspired and influenced by the Polish National Democracy, led by Roman Dmowski, who advocated refusing Belarusians and Ukrainians the right for a free national development. A Belarusian organization, the *Belarusian Peasants' and Workers' Union*, was banned in 1927, and opposition to Polish government was met with state repressions. Nonetheless, compared to the (larger) Ukrainian minority, Belarusians were much less politically aware and active, and thus suffered fewer repressions than the Ukrainians. In 1935, after the death of Piłsudski, a new wave of repressions was released upon the minorities, with many Orthodox churches and Belarusian schools being closed. Use of the Belarusian language was discouraged. Belarusian leadership was sent to Bereza Kartuska prison. ### World War II In 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union invaded and occupied Poland, marking the beginning of World War II. The Soviets invaded and annexed much of eastern Poland, which had been part of the country since the Peace of Riga two decades earlier. Much of the northern section of this area was added to the Byelorussian SSR, and now constitutes West Belarus. The Soviet-controlled Byelorussian People's Council officially took control of the territories, whose populations consisted of a mixture of Poles, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Jews, on 28 October 1939 in Białystok. Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. The defense of Brest Fortress was the first major battle of Operation Barbarossa. The Byelorussian SSR was the hardest-hit Soviet republic in World War II; it remained in Nazi hands until 1944. The German *Generalplan Ost* called for the extermination, expulsion, or enslavement of most or all Belarusians for the purpose of providing more living space in the East for Germans. Most of Western Belarus became part of the *Reichskommissariat Ostland* in 1941, but in 1943 the German authorities allowed local collaborators to set up a client state, the Belarusian Central Council. During World War II, Belarus was home to a variety of guerrilla movements, including Jewish, Polish, and Soviet partisans. Belarusian partisan formations formed a large part of the Soviet partisans, and in the modern day these partisans have formed a core part of the Belarusian national identity, with Belarus continuing to refer to itself as the "partisan republic" since the 1970s. Following the war, many former Soviet partisans entered positions of government, among them Pyotr Masherov and Kirill Mazurov, both of whom were First Secretary of the Communist Party of Byelorussia. Until the late 1970s, the Belarusian government was almost entirely composed of former partisans. Numerous pieces of media have been made about the Belarusian partisans, including the 1985 film *Come and See* and the works of authors Ales Adamovich and Vasil Bykaŭ. The German occupation in 1941–1944 and war on the Eastern Front devastated Belarus. During that time, 209 out of 290 towns and cities were destroyed, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings. After the war, it was estimated that 2.2 million local inhabitants had died and of those some 810,000 were combatants—some foreign. This figure represented a staggering quarter of the prewar population. In the 1990s some raised the estimate even higher, to 2.7 million. The Jewish population of Belarus was devastated during the Holocaust and never recovered. The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971. Belarus was also hit hard economically, losing around half of its economic resources. ### Post-war After the war, Belarus was among the 51 founding member states of the United Nations Charter and as such it was allowed an additional vote at the UN, on top of the Soviet Union's vote. Vigorous postwar reconstruction promptly followed the end of the war and the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western USSR, creating jobs and attracting ethnic Russians. The borders of the Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn, in accord with the 1919-proposed Curzon Line. Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences. This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. After Stalin's death in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev continued his predecessor's cultural hegemony program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism." Soviet Belarusian communist politician Andrei Gromyko, who served as Soviet foreign minister (1957–1985) and as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (1985–1988), was responsible for many top decisions on Soviet foreign policy until he was replaced by Eduard Shevardnadze. In 1986, the Byelorussian SSR was contaminated with most (70%) of the nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant located 16 km beyond the border in the neighboring Ukrainian SSR. By the late 1980s, political liberalization led to a national revival, with the Belarusian Popular Front becoming a major pro-independence force. ### Independence In March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place. Though the opposition candidates, mostly associated with the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front, took only 10% of the seats, Belarus declared itself sovereign on 27 July 1990 by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. Mass protests erupted in April 1991 and became known as the 1991 Belarusian strikes. With the support of the Communist Party of Byelorussia, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on 25 August 1991. Stanislav Shushkevich, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on 8 December 1991 in Białowieża Forest to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. ### Lukashenko era A national constitution was adopted in March 1994 in which the functions of prime minister were given to the President of Belarus. A two-round election for the presidency on 24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994 catapulted the formerly unknown Alexander Lukashenko into national prominence. He garnered 45% of the vote in the first round and 80% in the second, defeating Vyacheslav Kebich who received 14% of the vote. The elections were the first and only free elections in Belarus after independence. The 2000s saw a number of economic disputes between Belarus and its primary economic partner, Russia. The first one was the 2004 Russia–Belarus energy dispute when Russian energy giant Gazprom ceased the import of gas into Belarus because of price disagreements. The 2007 Russia–Belarus energy dispute centered on accusations by Gazprom that Belarus was siphoning oil off of the Druzhba pipeline that runs through Belarus. Two years later the so-called Milk War, a trade dispute, started when Russia wanted Belarus to recognize the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and through a series of events ended up banning the import of dairy products from Belarus. In 2011, Belarus suffered a severe economic crisis attributed to Lukashenko's government's centralized control of the economy, with inflation reaching 108.7%. Around the same time the 2011 Minsk Metro bombing occurred in which 15 people were killed and 204 were injured. Two suspects, who were arrested within two days, confessed to being the perpetrators and were executed by shooting in 2012. The official version of events as publicised by the Belarusian government was questioned in the unprecedented wording of the UN Security Council statement condemning "the apparent terrorist attack" intimating the possibility that the Belarusian government itself was behind the bombing. Mass protests erupted across the country following the disputed 2020 Belarusian presidential election, in which Lukashenko sought a sixth term in office. Neighbouring countries Poland and Lithuania do not recognize Lukashenko as the legitimate president of Belarus and the Lithuanian government has allotted a residence for main opposition candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya and other members of the Belarusian opposition in Vilnius. Neither is Lukashenko recognized as the legitimate president of Belarus by the European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom nor the United States. The European Union, Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States have all imposed sanctions against Belarus because of the rigged election and political oppression during the ongoing protests in the country. Further sanctions were imposed in 2022 following the country's role and complicity in the Russian invasion of Ukraine; Russian troops were allowed to stage part of the invasion from Belarussian territory. These include not only corporate offices and individual officers of government but also private individuals who work in the state-owned enterprise industrial sector. Norway and Japan have joined the sanctions regime which aims to isolate Belarus from the international supply chain. Most major Belarusian banks are also under restrictions. Geography --------- Belarus lies between latitudes 51° and 57° N, and longitudes 23° and 33° E. Its extension from north to south is 560 km (350 mi), from west to east is 650 km (400 mi). It is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land. About 40% of Belarus is covered by forests. The country lies within two ecoregions: Sarmatic mixed forests and Central European mixed forests. Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus. Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnieper. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnieper; the Dnieper flows southward towards the Black Sea. The highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,132 ft), and the lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 m (295 ft). The average elevation of Belarus is 160 m (525 ft) above sea level. The climate features mild to cold winters, with January minimum temperatures ranging from −4 °C (24.8 °F) in southwest (Brest) to −8 °C (17.6 °F) in northeast (Vitebsk), and cool and moist summers with an average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F). Belarus has an average annual rainfall of 550 to 700 mm (21.7 to 27.6 in). The country is in the transitional zone between continental climates and maritime climates. Natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay. About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern regions) was affected by radiation fallout. The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137. Belarus borders five countries: Latvia to the north, Lithuania to the northwest, Poland to the west, Russia to the north and the east, and Ukraine to the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, and Belarus ratified a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border in 2009. Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007. Government and politics ----------------------- Alexander Lukashenko PresidentRoman Golovchenko Prime Minister Belarus, by constitution, is a presidential republic with separation of powers, governed by a president and the National Assembly. However, Belarus has been led by a highly centralized and authoritarian government, and has often been described as "Europe's last dictatorship" and president Alexander Lukashenko as "Europe's last dictator" by some media outlets, politicians and authors. Belarus has been considered an autocracy where power is ultimately concentrated in the hands of the president, elections are not free and judicial independence is weak. The Council of Europe removed Belarus from its observer status since 1997 as a response for election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. Re-admission of the country into the council is dependent on the completion of benchmarks set by the council, including the improvement of human rights, rule of law, and democracy. The term for each presidency is five years. Under the 1994 constitution, the president could serve for only two terms as president, but a change in the constitution in 2004 eliminated term limits. Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus since 1994. In 1996, Lukashenko called for a controversial vote to extend the presidential term from five to seven years, and as a result the election that was supposed to occur in 1999 was pushed back to 2001. The referendum on the extension was denounced as a "fantastic" fake by the chief electoral officer, Viktar Hanchar, who was removed from the office for official matters only during the campaign. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the constitution. The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister and five deputy prime ministers. The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extrajudicial courts. ### Elections Lukashenko was officially re-elected as president in 2001, in 2006, in 2010, in 2015 and again in 2020, although none of those elections were considered free or fair nor democratic. Neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Social Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labour and Justice (RPTS), nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the BPF Party and the United Civic Party, won any seats in the 2004 elections. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) ruled that the elections were unfair because opposition candidates were arbitrarily denied registration and the election process was designed to favor the ruling party. In the 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievič, who represented a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alyaksandr Kazulin of the Social Democrats. Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote; the Russian Federation and the CIS deemed the vote open and fair while the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair. After the December completion of the 2010 presidential election, Lukashenko was elected to a fourth straight term with nearly 80% of the vote in elections. The runner-up opposition leader Andrei Sannikov received less than 3% of the vote; independent observers criticized the election as fraudulent. When opposition protesters took to the streets in Minsk, many people, including some presidential candidates, were beaten and arrested by the riot police. Many of the candidates, including Sannikov, were sentenced to prison or house arrest for terms which are mainly and typically over four years. Six months later amid an unprecedented economic crisis, activists utilized social networking to initiate a fresh round of protests characterized by wordless hand-clapping. In the 2012 parliamentary election, 105 of the 110 members elected to the House of Representatives were not affiliated with any political party. The Communist Party of Belarus won 3 seats, and the Belarusian Agrarian Party and RPTS, one each. Most non-partisans represent a wide scope of social organizations such as workers' collectives, public associations, and civil society organizations, similar to the composition of the Soviet legislature. In the 2020 presidential election, Lukashenko won again with official results giving him 80% of the vote, leading to mass protests. The European Union and the United Kingdom did not recognise the result and the EU imposed sanctions. ### Foreign relations The Byelorussian SSR was one of the two Soviet republics that joined the United Nations along with the Ukrainian SSR as one of the original 51 members in 1945. Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market. The Union State, a supranational confederation between Belarus and Russia, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy. However, the future of the union has been placed in doubt because of Belarus's repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a dispute over the petroleum trade. Belarus was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials), including neighboring Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland. Travel bans imposed by the European Union have been lifted in the past in order to allow Lukashenko to attend diplomatic meetings and also to engage his government and opposition groups in dialogue. Bilateral relations with the United States are strained; the United States had not had an ambassador in Minsk since 2007 and Belarus never had an ambassador in Washington since 2008. Diplomatic relations remained tense, and in 2004, the United States passed the Belarus Democracy Act, which authorized funding for anti-government Belarusian NGOs, and prohibited loans to the Belarusian government, except for humanitarian purposes. Relations between China and Belarus are close, with Lukashenko visiting China multiple times during his tenure. Belarus also has strong ties with Syria, considered a key partner in the Middle East. In addition to the CIS, Belarus is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union (previously the Eurasian Economic Community), the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998, and the Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). As an OSCE member state, Belarus's international commitments are subject to monitoring under the mandate of the U.S. Helsinki Commission. Belarus is included in the European Union's Eastern Partnership program, part of the EU's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims to bring the EU and its neighbours closer in economic and geopolitical terms. However, Belarus suspended its participation in the Eastern Partnership program on 28 June 2021, after the EU imposed more sanctions against the country. ### Military Lieutenant General Viktor Khrenin heads the Ministry of Defence, and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief. The armed forces were formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations. Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not. Demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 in 2001. In 2005, about 1.4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditure. Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997, and Belarus provided refueling and airspace support for the International Security Assistance Force mission in Afghanistan. Belarus first began to cooperate with NATO upon signing documents to participate in their Partnership for Peace Program in 1995. However, Belarus cannot join NATO because it is a member of the CSTO. Tensions between NATO and Belarus peaked after the March 2006 presidential election in Belarus. ### Human rights and corruption Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch have criticized Lukashenko's violations of human rights. Belarus's Democracy Index rating is the lowest in Europe, the country is labelled as "not free" by Freedom House, as "repressed" in the Index of Economic Freedom, and in the Press Freedom Index published by Reporters Without Borders, Belarus is ranked 153th out of 180 countries for 2022. The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its persecution of non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians. Lukashenko announced a new law in 2014 that will prohibit kolkhoz workers (around 9% of total work force) from leaving their jobs at will—a change of job and living location will require permission from governors. The law was compared with serfdom by Lukashenko himself. Similar regulations were introduced for the forestry industry in 2012. Belarus is the only European country still using capital punishment having carried out executions in 2011. The judicial system in Belarus lacks independence and is subject to political interference. Corrupt practices such as bribery often took place during tender processes, and whistleblower protection and national ombudsman are lacking in Belarus's anti-corruption system. On 1 September 2020, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights declared that its experts received reports of 450 documented cases of torture and ill-treatment of people who were arrested during the protests following the presidential election. The experts also received reports of violence against women and children, including sexual abuse and rape with rubber batons. At least three detainees suffered injuries indicative of sexual violence in Okrestino prison in Minsk or on the way there. The victims were hospitalized with intramuscular bleeding of the rectum, anal fissure and bleeding, and damage to the mucous membrane of the rectum. In an interview from September 2020 Lukashenko claimed that detainees faked their bruises, saying, "Some of the girls there had their butts painted in blue". On 23 May 2021, Belarusian authorities forcibly diverted a Ryanair flight from Athens to Vilnius in order to detain opposition activist and journalist Roman Protasevich along with his girlfriend; in response, the European Union imposed stricter sanctions on Belarus. In May 2021, Lukashenko threatened that he will flood the European Union with migrants and drugs as a response to the sanctions. In July 2021, Belarusian authorities launched a hybrid warfare by human trafficking of migrants to the European Union. Lithuanian authorities and top European officials Ursula von der Leyen, Josep Borrell condemned the usage of migrants as a weapon and suggested that Belarus could be subject to further sanctions. In August 2021, Belarusian officials, wearing uniforms, riot shields and helmets, were recorded on camera near the Belarus–Lithuania border pushing and urging the migrants to cross the European Union border. Following the granting of humanitarian visas to an Olympic athlete Krystsina Tsimanouskaya and her husband, Poland also accused Belarus for organizing a hybrid warfare as the number of migrants crossing the Belarus–Poland border sharply increased multiple times when compared to the 2020 statistics. Illegal migrants numbers also exceeded the previous annual numbers in Latvia. On 2 December 2021, the United States, European Union, United Kingdom and Canada imposed new sanctions on Belarus. ### Administrative divisions Belarus is divided into six regions called oblasts (Belarusian: вобласць; Russian: область), which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers: Brest, Gomel, Grodno, Mogilev, Minsk, and Vitebsk. Each region has a provincial legislative authority, called a region council (Belarusian: абласны Савет Дэпутатаў; Russian: Областной Совет депутатов), which is elected by its residents, and a provincial executive authority called a region administration (Belarusian: абласны выканаўчы камітэт; Russian: областной исполнительный комитет), whose chairman is appointed by the president. The Regions are further subdivided into 118 raions, commonly translated as districts (Belarusian: раён; Russian: район). Each raion has its own legislative authority, or raion council, (Belarusian: раённы Савет Дэпутатаў; Russian: районный Совет депутатов) elected by its residents, and an executive authority or raion administration appointed by oblast executive powers. The city of Minsk is split into nine districts and enjoys special status as the nation's capital at the same administration level as the oblasts. It is run by an executive committee and has been granted a charter of self-rule. ### Local government Local government in Belarus is administered by administrative-territorial units (Belarusian: адміністрацыйна-тэрытарыяльныя адзінкі; Russian: административно-территориальные единицы), and occurs on two levels: basic and primary. At the basic level are 118 raions councils and 10 cities of oblast subordination councils, which are supervised by the governments of the oblasts. At the primary level are 14 cities of raion subordination councils, 8 urban-type settlements councils, and 1,151 village councils. The councils are elected by their residents, and have executive committees appointed by their executive committee chairs. The chairs of executive committees for raions and city of oblast subordinations are appointed by the regional executive committees at the level above; the chairs of executive committees for towns of raion subordination, settlements and villages are appointed by their councils, but upon the recommendation of the raion executive committees. In either case, the councils have the power to approve or reject a nonimee for executive committee chair. Settlements without their own local council and executive committee are called territorial units (Belarusian: тэрытарыяльныя адзінкі; Russian: территориальные единицы). These territorial units may also be classified as a city of regional or raion subordination, urban-type settlement or rural settlement, but whose government is administered by the council of another primary or basic unit. In October 1995, a presidential decree abolished the local governments of cities of raion subordination and urban-type settlements which served as the administrative center of raions, demoting them from administrative-territorial units to territorial units. As for 2019, the administrative-territorial and territorial units include 115 cities, 85 urban-type settlements, and 23,075 rural settlements. Economy ------- Belarus is a developing country. However, its 60th place ranking in the United Nations' Human Development Index places it in the category of states with "very high" human development. It is one of the most equal countries in the world, with one of the lowest Gini-coefficient measures of national resource distribution, and it ranks 82nd in GDP per capita. Belarus has trade relations with over 180 countries. The main trading partners are Russia, which accounts for about 45% of Belarusian exports and 55% of imports, and the EU countries, which account for 25% of exports and 20% of imports. In 2019 the share of manufacturing in GDP was 31%, over two-thirds of this amount falls on manufacturing industries. The number of people employed in the industry is 34.7% of the working population. The growth rate is much lower than for the economy as a whole—about 2.2% in 2021. At the time of the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by percentage of GDP as well as the richest CIS member-state. In 2015, 39.3% of Belarusians were employed by state-controlled companies, 57.2% were employed by private companies (in which the government has a 21.1% stake) and 3.5% were employed by foreign companies. The country relies on Russia for various imports, including petroleum. Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, including meat. In 1994, Belarus's main exports included heavy machinery (especially tractors), agricultural products, and energy products. Economically, Belarus involved itself in the CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia. In the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged due to decreases in imports, investment, and demand for Belarusian products from its trading partners. GDP only began to rise in 1996; the country was the fastest-recovering former Soviet republic in the terms of its economy. In 2006, GDP amounted to US$83.1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita. In 2005, GDP increased by 9.9%; the inflation rate averaged 9.5%. Since the disintegration of the Soviet Union, under Lukashenko's leadership, Belarus has maintained government control over key industries and eschewed the large-scale privatizations seen in other former Soviet republics. Due to its failure to protect labor rights, including passing laws forbidding unemployment or working outside of state-controlled sectors, Belarus lost its EU Generalized System of Preferences status on 21 June 2007, which raised tariff rates to their prior most favored nation levels. Belarus applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization in 1993. The labor force consists of more than four million people, among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men. In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed by industrial factories. Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate, according to government statistics, was 1.5% in 2005. There were 679,000 unemployed Belarusians, two-thirds of whom were women. The unemployment rate has been in decline since 2003, and the overall rate of employment is the highest since statistics were first compiled in 1995. The currency of Belarus is the Belarusian ruble. The currency was introduced in May 1992 to replace the Soviet ruble and it has undergone redenomination twice since then. The first coins of the Republic of Belarus were issued on 27 December 1996. The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since. As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus, both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro. This led to a proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of the Russian ruble (RUB), starting as early as 1 January 2008. The National Bank of Belarus abandoned pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian rouble in August 2007. On 23 May 2011, the ruble depreciated 56% against the United States dollar. The depreciation was even steeper on the black market and financial collapse seemed imminent as citizens rushed to exchange their rubles for dollars, euros, durable goods, and canned goods. On 1 June 2011, Belarus requested an economic rescue package from the International Monetary Fund. A new currency, the new Belarusian ruble (ISO 4217 code: BYN) was introduced in July 2016, replacing the Belarusian ruble in a rate of 1:10,000 (10,000 old ruble = 1 new ruble). From 1 July until 31 December 2016, the old and new currencies were in parallel circulation and series 2000 notes and coins could be exchanged for series 2009 from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2021. This redenomination can be considered an effort to fight the high inflation rate. On 6 October 2022, Lukashenka has banned price increases to combat rise of food prices. In January 2023, Belarus legalized copyright infringement of media and intellectual property created by "unfriendly" foreign nations. The banking system of Belarus consists of two levels: Central Bank (National Bank of the Republic of Belarus) and 25 commercial banks. Demographics ------------ According to the 2019 census the population was 9.41 million with ethnic Belarusians constituting 84.9% of Belarus's total population. Minority groups include: Russians (7.5%), Poles (3.1%), and Ukrainians (1.7%). Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometre (127 per sq mi); 70% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas. Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, was home to 1,937,900 residents in 2015[update]. Gomel, with a population of 481,000, is the second-largest city and serves as the capital of the Gomel Region. Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Grodno (314,800) and Brest (298,300). Like many other Eastern European countries, Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate. In 2007, Belarus's population declined by 0.41% and its fertility rate was 1.22, well below the replacement rate. Its net migration rate is +0.38 per 1,000, indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration. As of 2015[update], 69.9% of Belarus's population is aged 14 to 64; 15.5% is under 14, and 14.6% is 65 or older. Its population is also aging; the median age of 30–34 is estimated to rise to between 60 and 64 in 2050. There are about 0.87 males per female in Belarus. The average life expectancy is 72.15 (66.53 years for men and 78.1 years for women). Over 99% of Belarusians aged 15 and older are literate. |    Largest cities or towns in BelarusSource? | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | | | MinskMinskGomelGomel | 1 | Minsk | Minsk Region | 1,992,685 | MogilevMogilevVitebskVitebsk | | 2 | Gomel | Gomel Region | 536,938 | | 3 | Mogilev | Mogilev Region | 383,313 | | 4 | Vitebsk | Vitebsk Region | 378,459 | | 5 | Grodno | Grodno Region | 373,547 | | 6 | Brest | Brest Region | 350,616 | | 7 | Babruysk | Mogilev Region | 216,793 | | 8 | Baranavichy | Brest Region | 179,000 | | 9 | Barysaw | Minsk Region | 142,681 | | 10 | Pinsk | Brest Region | 137,960 | ### Religion and languages According to the census of November 2011, 58.9% of all Belarusians adhered to some kind of religion; out of those, Eastern Orthodoxy made up about 82%: Eastern Orthodox in Belarus are mainly part of the Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church, though a small Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church also exists. Roman Catholicism is practiced mostly in the western regions, and there are also different denominations of Protestantism. Minorities also practice Greek Catholicism, Judaism, Islam and neo-paganism. Overall, 48.3% of the population is Orthodox Christian, 41.1% is not religious, 7.1% is Roman Catholic and 3.3% follows other religions. Belarus's Catholic minority is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially around Grodno, consisting in a mixture of Belarusians and the country's Polish and Lithuanian minorities. President Lukashenko has stated that Orthodox and Catholic believers are the "two main confessions in our country". Belarus was once a major center of European Jews, with 10% of the population being Jewish. But since the mid-20th century, the number of Jews has been reduced by the Holocaust, deportation, and emigration, so that today it is a very small minority of less than one percent. The Lipka Tatars, numbering over 15,000, are predominantly Muslims. According to Article 16 of the Constitution, Belarus has no official religion. While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organizations deemed harmful to the government or social order can be prohibited. Belarus's two official languages are Russian and Belarusian; Russian is the most common language spoken at home, used by 70% of the population, while Belarusian, the official first language, is spoken at home by 23%. Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish. Belarusian, although not as widely used as Russian, is the mother tongue of 53.2% of the population, whereas Russian is the mother tongue of only 41.5%. Culture ------- ### Arts and literature The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. Several state holidays, such as Independence Day and Victory Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk. The government's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country. Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th-century religious scripture, such as the 12th-century poetry of Cyril of Turaw. By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. It was published in Prague and Vilnius sometime between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe. The modern era of Belarusian literature began in the late 19th century; one prominent writer was Yanka Kupala. Many Belarusian writers of the time, such as Uładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak, Yakub Kolas, Źmitrok Biadula, and Maksim Haretski, wrote for *Nasha Niva*, a Belarusian-language paper published that was previously published in Vilnius but now is published in Minsk. After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. At first, a policy of "Belarusianization" was followed in the newly formed Byelorussian SSR. This policy was reversed in the 1930s, and the majority of prominent Belarusian intellectuals and nationalist advocates were either exiled or killed in Stalinist purges. The free development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939. Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus and would not return until the 1960s. The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uladzimir Karatkievich. An influential author who devoted his work to awakening the awareness of the catastrophes the country has suffered, was Ales Adamovich. He was named by Svetlana Alexievich, the Belarusian winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature 2015, as "her main teacher, who helped her to find a path of her own". Music in Belarus largely comprises a rich tradition of folk and religious music. The country's folk music traditions can be traced back to the times of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 19th century, Polish composer Stanisław Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poet Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich and created the opera *Sialanka* (*Peasant Woman*). At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The ballet *Nightingale* by M. Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Vialiki Ballet Theatre in Minsk. After the Second World War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland. During this period, Anatoly Bogatyrev, creator of the opera *In Polesye Virgin Forest*, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers. The National Academic Theatre of Ballet in Minsk was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world. Rock music has become increasingly popular in recent years, though the Belarusian government has attempted to limit the amount of foreign music aired on the radio in favor of traditional Belarusian music. Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest. Marc Chagall was born in Liozna (near Vitebsk) in 1887. He spent the World War I years in Soviet Belarus, becoming one of the country's most distinguished artists and a member of the modernist avant-garde and was a founder of the Vitebsk Arts College. ### Dress The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus' period. Due to the cool climate, clothes were designed to conserve body heat and were usually made from flax or wool. They were decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns. One ornamental pattern common in early dresses currently decorates the hoist of the Belarusian national flag, adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995. ### Cuisine Belarusian cuisine consists mainly of vegetables, meat (particularly pork), and bread. Foods are usually either slowly cooked or stewed. Typically, Belarusians eat a light breakfast and two hearty meals later in the day. Wheat and rye bread are consumed in Belarus, but rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat. To show hospitality, a host traditionally presents an offering of bread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor. ### Sport Belarus has competed in the Olympic Games since the 1994 Winter Olympics as an independent nation. Receiving heavy sponsorship from the government, ice hockey is the nation's second most popular sport after football. The national football team has never qualified for a major tournament; however, BATE Borisov has played in the Champions League. The national hockey team finished fourth at the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympics following a memorable upset win over Sweden in the quarterfinals and regularly competes in the World Championships, often making the quarterfinals. Numerous Belarusian players are present in the Kontinental Hockey League in Eurasia, particularly for Belarusian club HC Dinamo Minsk, and several have also played in the National Hockey League in North America. The 2014 IIHF World Championship was hosted in Belarus and the 2021 IIHF World Championship was supposed to be co-hosted in Latvia and Belarus but it was cancelled due to widespread protests and security concerns. The 2021 UEC European Track Championships in cycling was also cancelled because Belarus was not considered a safe host. Darya Domracheva is a leading biathlete whose honours include three gold medals at the 2014 Winter Olympics. Tennis player Victoria Azarenka became the first Belarusian to win a Grand Slam singles title at the Australian Open in 2012. She also won the gold medal in mixed doubles at the 2012 Summer Olympics with Max Mirnyi, who holds ten Grand Slam titles in doubles. Other notable Belarusian sportspeople include cyclist Vasil Kiryienka, who won the 2015 Road World Time Trial Championship, and middle-distance runner Maryna Arzamasava, who won the gold medal in the 800m at the 2015 World Championships in Athletics. Andrei Arlovski, who was born in Babruysk, Byelorussian SSR, is a current UFC fighter and the former UFC heavyweight champion of the world. Belarus is also known for its strong rhythmic gymnasts. Noticeable gymnasts include Inna Zhukova, who earned silver at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, Liubov Charkashyna, who earned bronze at the 2012 London Olympics and Melitina Staniouta, Bronze All-Around Medalist of the 2015 World Championships. The Belarusian senior group earned bronze at the 2012 London Olympics. ### Telecommunications * Country code: .by The state telecom monopoly, Beltelecom, holds the exclusive interconnection with Internet providers outside of Belarus. Beltelecom owns all the backbone channels that linked to the Lattelecom, TEO LT, Tata Communications (former Teleglobe), Synterra, Rostelecom, Transtelekom and MTS ISPs. Beltelecom is the only operator licensed to provide commercial VoIP services in Belarus. ### World Heritage Sites Belarus has four UNESCO-designated World Heritage Sites: the Mir Castle Complex, the Nesvizh Castle, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha (shared with Poland), and the Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with nine other countries). See also -------- * List of Belarus-related topics * Outline of Belarus * Republican Scientific Medical Library Bibliography ------------ * Birgerson, Susanne Michele (2002). *After the Breakup of a Multi-Ethnic Empire*. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 0-275-96965-7. * Minahan, James (1998). *Miniature Empires: A Historical Dictionary of the Newly Independent States*. Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-30610-9. * Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas C. J. (1994). *Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires*. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-27497-5. * Plokhy, Serhii (2001). *The Cossacks and Religion in Early Modern Ukraine*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-924739-0. * Richmond, Yale (1995). *From Da to Yes: Understanding the East Europeans*. Intercultural Press. ISBN 1-877864-30-7. * Vauchez, André; Dobson, Richard Barrie; Lapidge, Michael (2001). *Encyclopedia of the Middle Ages*. Routledge. ISBN 1-57958-282-6. * Zaprudnik, Jan (1993). *Belarus: At a Crossroads in History*. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-1794-0.[*dead link*] Further reading --------------- * Bennett, Brian M. *The Last Dictatorship in Europe: Belarus under Lukashenko* (Columbia University Press, 2011) * Frear, Matthew. *Belarus Under Lukashenka: Adaptive Authoritarianism* (Routledge, 2015) * Korosteleva, Elena A. (June 2016). "The European Union and Belarus: Democracy Promotion by Technocratic Means?" *Democratization* **23**: 4 pp. 678–698. doi:10.1080/13510347.2015.1005009. * Levy, Patricia; Spilling, Michael (2009). *Belarus*. New York: Benchmark Books. ISBN 978-0-7614-3411-5. * Kropotkin, Peter Alexeivitch; Bealby, John Thomas (1911). "Minsk (government)". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 555, 556. * Marples, David. '*Our Glorious Past': Lukashenka's Belarus and the Great Patriotic War* (Columbia University Press, 2014) * Parker, Stewart. *The Last Soviet Republic: Alexander Lukashenko's Belarus* (Trafford Publishing, 2007) * Rudling, Pers Anders. *The Rise and Fall of Belarusian Nationalism, 1906–1931* (University of Pittsburgh Press; 2014) 436 pages * Ryder, Andrew (1998). *Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States*. Routledge. ISBN 1-85743-058-1. * Silitski, Vitali & Jan Zaprudnik (2010). *The A to Z of Belarus*. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 9781461731740. * Snyder, Timothy (2004). *The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999* * Szporluk, Roman (2000). *Russia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union*. Hoover Institution Press. ISBN 0-8179-9542-0. * Treadgold, Donald; Ellison, Herbert J. (1999). *Twentieth Century Russia*. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3672-4.[*permanent dead link*] * Vakar, Nicholas Platonovich. *Belorussia: The Making of a Nation: A Case Study* (Harvard UP, 1956). * Vakar, Nicholas Platonovich. *A Bibliographical Guide to Belorussia* (Harvard UP, 1956) 53°N 27°E / 53°N 27°E / 53; 27

Belarus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus

**Nancy** is the prefecture of the northeastern French department of Meurthe-et-Moselle. It was the capital of the Duchy of Lorraine, which was annexed by France under King Louis XV in 1766 and replaced by a province, with Nancy maintained as capital. Following its rise to prominence in the Age of Enlightenment, it was nicknamed the "capital of Eastern France" in the late 19th century. The metropolitan area of Nancy had a population of 511,257 inhabitants at the 2018 census, making it the 16th-largest functional urban area in France and Lorraine's largest. The population of the city of Nancy proper is 104,885. The motto of the city is *Non inultus premor* (Latin for 'I am not injured unavenged')—a reference to the thistle, which is a symbol of Lorraine. Place Stanislas, a large square built between 1752 and 1756 by architect Emmanuel Héré under the direction of Stanislaus I of Poland to link the medieval old town of Nancy and the new city built under Charles III, Duke of Lorraine in the 17th century, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the first square in France to be given this distinction. The city also has many buildings listed as historical monuments and is one of the European centres of Art Nouveau thanks to the École de Nancy. Nancy is also a large university city; with the Centre Hospitalier Régional Universitaire de Brabois, the conurbation is home to one of the main health centres in Europe, renowned for its innovations in surgical robotics. History ------- The earliest signs of human settlement in the area date to 800 BC. Early settlers were likely attracted by easily mined iron ore and a ford in the river Meurthe. Its name is first attested as *Nanciaco*, possibly from a Gaulish personal name. A small fortified town named Nanciacum (*Nancy*) was built by Gérard, Duke of Lorraine around 1050. Nancy was burned in 1218 at the end of the War of Succession of Champagne, and conquered by Emperor Frederick II. It was rebuilt in stone over the next few centuries as it grew in importance as the capital of the Duchy of Lorraine. Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy, was defeated and killed in the Battle of Nancy in 1477; René II, Duke of Lorraine became the ruler. * Engraving depicting the capture of Nancy through Duke René II of Lorraine in 1477Engraving depicting the capture of Nancy through Duke René II of Lorraine in 1477 * 1477 Battle of Nancy1477 Battle of Nancy Following the failure of both Emperor Joseph I and Emperor Charles VI to produce a son and heir, the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 left the throne to the latter's next child. This turned out to be a daughter, Maria Theresa of Austria. In 1736, Emperor Charles arranged her marriage to Duke François of Lorraine, who reluctantly agreed to exchange his ancestral lands for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. The exiled Polish king Stanislaus I (*Stanisław Leszczyński* in Polish), father-in-law of the French king Louis XV, was then given the vacant duchy of Lorraine. Under his nominal rule, Nancy experienced growth and a flowering of Baroque culture and architecture. Stanislaus oversaw the construction of Place Stanislaus, a major square and development connecting the old medieval with a newer part of the city. Upon Stanislaus' death in February 1766, Lorraine and Barrois became a regular government of the Kingdom of France. A *parlement* for Lorraine and Barrois was established in Nancy in 1776. As unrest surfaced within the French Armed Forces during the French Revolution, a full-scale mutiny, known as the Nancy affair, took place in Nancy in the latter part of summer 1790. A few units loyal to the government laid siege to the town and shot or imprisoned the mutineers. * Parade in 1909Parade in 1909 * Nancy c. 1914Nancy c. 1914 * Nancy in World War INancy in World War I In 1871, Nancy remained French when Germany annexed Alsace-Lorraine. In 1909 it hosted the Exposition Internationale de l'Est de la France between May and November. Nancy was occupied by German forces beginning in 1940 and renamed Nanzig. During the Lorraine Campaign of World War II, Nancy was liberated from Nazi Germany by the US Third Army in September 1944, at the Battle of Nancy. In 1988, Pope John Paul II visited Nancy. In 2005, French President Jacques Chirac, German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Polish President Aleksander Kwaśniewski inaugurated the renovated Place Stanislas, which was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983. Geography --------- Nancy is situated on the left bank of the river Meurthe, about 10 km upstream from its confluence with the Moselle. The Marne–Rhine Canal runs through the city, parallel to the Meurthe. Nancy is surrounded by hills that are about 150 m higher than the city center, which is situated at 200 m above mean sea level. The area of Nancy proper is relatively small: 15 km2. Its built-up area is continuous with those of its adjacent suburbs. The neighboring communes of Nancy are: Jarville-la-Malgrange, Laxou, Malzéville, Maxéville, Saint-Max, Tomblaine, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy and Villers-lès-Nancy. The oldest part of Nancy is the quarter *Vieille Ville – Léopold*, which contains the 14th century *Porte de la Craffe*, the Palace of the Dukes of Lorraine, the Porte Désilles and the 19th century St-Epvre basilica. Adjacent to its south is the quarter *Charles III – Centre Ville*, which is the 16th–18th century "new town". This quarter contains the famous Place Stanislas, the Nancy Cathedral, the Opéra national de Lorraine and the main railway station. The population of the city proper experienced a small decrease in population since 2007, placing it behind Metz as the second largest city in the Lorraine. However, the urban area of Metz experienced population decline from 1990 to 2010 while the urban area of Nancy grew over the same period, becoming the largest urban area in Lorraine and second largest in the "Grand Est" region of northeastern France. Within the Nancy metropolitan area in recent years, the city population declined slightly (2009–2014) at the roughly same time as a small increase in the population of its urban area (2006–2012). ### Climate Nancy has an oceanic climate (Köppen: *Cfb*), although a bit more extreme than most of the larger French cities. By the standards of France it is a "continental" climate with a certain degree of maritime (unrelated to the Köppen classification, since generally the whole country has a predominant mechanism favored by the West winds). The temperatures have a distinct variation of the temperate zone, both during the day and between seasons but without being very different. Winters are cold and dry in freezing climates. Summers are not always sunny, but warm enough. Mists are frequent in autumn and the winds are light and not too violent. Precipitation tends to be less abundant than in the west of the country. Sunshine hours are almost identical to Paris and the snowy days are the same as Strasbourg (most similar weather conditions). Although the lowest recorded temperature is officially −26.8 °C, some sources consider temperatures from −30 °C on 10 December 1879 before continuous data. Comparison of local Meteorological data with other cities in France| Town | Sunshine(hours/yr) | Rain(mm/yr) | Snow (days/yr) | Storm(days/yr) | Fog (days/yr) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | National average | 1,973 | 770 | 14 | 22 | 40 | | **Nancy** | **1,666** | **775.1** | **29.6** | **27.6** | **49.6** | | Paris | 1,661 | 637 | 12 | 18 | 10 | | Nice | 2,724 | 767 | 1 | 29 | 1 | | Strasbourg | 1,693 | 665 | 29 | 29 | 56 | | Brest | 1,605 | 1,211 | 7 | 12 | 75 | | Climate data for Nancy-Tomblaine (Les Ensanges, altitude 217m, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1927–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.8(62.2) | 20.8(69.4) | 26.0(78.8) | 29.3(84.7) | 33.0(91.4) | 37.2(99.0) | 40.1(104.2) | 39.3(102.7) | 34.4(93.9) | 27.2(81.0) | 22.7(72.9) | 18.5(65.3) | 40.1(104.2) | | Average high °C (°F) | 5.4(41.7) | 7.1(44.8) | 11.6(52.9) | 15.8(60.4) | 19.8(67.6) | 23.5(74.3) | 25.8(78.4) | 25.4(77.7) | 20.9(69.6) | 15.5(59.9) | 9.4(48.9) | 6.0(42.8) | 15.5(59.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.6(36.7) | 3.5(38.3) | 6.9(44.4) | 10.2(50.4) | 14.2(57.6) | 17.9(64.2) | 20.0(68.0) | 19.6(67.3) | 15.6(60.1) | 11.3(52.3) | 6.4(43.5) | 3.5(38.3) | 11.0(51.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | −0.2(31.6) | 0.0(32.0) | 2.1(35.8) | 4.5(40.1) | 8.7(47.7) | 12.2(54.0) | 14.2(57.6) | 13.9(57.0) | 10.2(50.4) | 7.1(44.8) | 3.4(38.1) | 1.0(33.8) | 6.4(43.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −21.6(−6.9) | −24.8(−12.6) | −15.9(3.4) | −6.8(19.8) | −4.2(24.4) | 1.6(34.9) | 2.0(35.6) | 2.8(37.0) | −1.3(29.7) | −7.9(17.8) | −12.7(9.1) | −21.3(−6.3) | −24.8(−12.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 64.4(2.54) | 54.8(2.16) | 54.1(2.13) | 44.3(1.74) | 67.9(2.67) | 56.0(2.20) | 63.0(2.48) | 67.2(2.65) | 61.1(2.41) | 66.5(2.62) | 68.9(2.71) | 78.1(3.07) | 746.3(29.38) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0mm) | 11.1 | 9.8 | 9.4 | 8.5 | 10.1 | 9.1 | 9.5 | 9.0 | 9.0 | 10.8 | 11.4 | 12.6 | 120.2 | | Average snowy days | 8.0 | 6.7 | 4.5 | 1.8 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 3.4 | 6.1 | 30.7 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 87 | 83 | 78 | 74 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 77 | 81 | 86 | 87 | 87 | 80 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 52.4 | 80.1 | 139.6 | 181.2 | 205.6 | 223.5 | 234.8 | 219.4 | 171.9 | 104.6 | 52.1 | 43.2 | 1,708.3 | | Percent possible sunshine | 17.0 | 29.0 | 33.0 | 39.0 | 42.0 | 45.0 | 50.0 | 49.0 | 44.0 | 33.0 | 21.0 | 18.0 | 35.0 | | Source 1: Météo France | | Source 2: NOAA (percent sunshine 1961-1990), Infoclimat.fr (humidity and snowy days 1961-1990) | | Climate data for Nancy-Ochey (Les Ensanges, altitude 336m, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1966–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.0(60.8) | 21.2(70.2) | 25.7(78.3) | 27.3(81.1) | 32.2(90.0) | 36.6(97.9) | 39.6(103.3) | 38.4(101.1) | 34.2(93.6) | 26.0(78.8) | 22.0(71.6) | 18.4(65.1) | 39.6(103.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 4.6(40.3) | 6.2(43.2) | 10.7(51.3) | 14.9(58.8) | 18.8(65.8) | 22.5(72.5) | 24.8(76.6) | 24.5(76.1) | 19.9(67.8) | 14.6(58.3) | 8.7(47.7) | 5.3(41.5) | 14.6(58.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 2.1(35.8) | 3.1(37.6) | 6.5(43.7) | 9.9(49.8) | 13.7(56.7) | 17.2(63.0) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.1(66.4) | 15.0(59.0) | 10.9(51.6) | 6.0(42.8) | 3.0(37.4) | 10.5(50.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −0.4(31.3) | −0.1(31.8) | 2.2(36.0) | 4.9(40.8) | 8.6(47.5) | 11.8(53.2) | 13.8(56.8) | 13.7(56.7) | 10.2(50.4) | 7.2(45.0) | 3.3(37.9) | 0.7(33.3) | 6.3(43.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −19.1(−2.4) | −16.2(2.8) | −15.5(4.1) | −7.2(19.0) | −1.6(29.1) | 0.8(33.4) | 4.5(40.1) | 4.0(39.2) | −0.3(31.5) | −4.7(23.5) | −13.2(8.2) | −15.8(3.6) | −19.1(−2.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 66.7(2.63) | 60.1(2.37) | 58.8(2.31) | 50.5(1.99) | 74.0(2.91) | 62.0(2.44) | 68.8(2.71) | 71.7(2.82) | 66.9(2.63) | 72.6(2.86) | 75.5(2.97) | 82.8(3.26) | 810.4(31.91) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.6 | 10.4 | 10.0 | 9.1 | 10.3 | 9.6 | 9.5 | 9.4 | 9.2 | 11.4 | 12.1 | 12.5 | 125.1 | | Average snowy days | 6.9 | 7.1 | 4.6 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 2.5 | 5.9 | 28.9 | | Source: Météo-France, Meteociel.fr (snowy days 1981-2010) | Demographics ------------ Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 29,141 | —     | | 1800 | 28,227 | −0.45% | | 1806 | 30,532 | +1.32% | | 1821 | 29,241 | −0.29% | | 1831 | 29,122 | −0.04% | | 1836 | 31,445 | +1.55% | | 1841 | 35,901 | +2.69% | | 1846 | 38,795 | +1.56% | | 1851 | 40,289 | +0.76% | | 1856 | 48,199 | +3.65% | | 1861 | 49,305 | +0.45% | | 1872 | 52,978 | +0.66% | | 1876 | 66,303 | +5.77% | | 1881 | 73,225 | +2.01% | | 1886 | 79,038 | +1.54% | | 1891 | 87,110 | +1.96% | | 1896 | 96,306 | +2.03% | | 1901 | 102,559 | +1.27% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1906 | 110,570 | +1.52% | | 1911 | 119,949 | +1.64% | | 1921 | 113,226 | −0.58% | | 1926 | 114,491 | +0.22% | | 1931 | 120,578 | +1.04% | | 1936 | 121,301 | +0.12% | | 1946 | 113,477 | −0.66% | | 1954 | 124,797 | +1.20% | | 1962 | 128,677 | +0.38% | | 1968 | 123,428 | −0.69% | | 1975 | 107,902 | −1.90% | | 1982 | 96,317 | −1.61% | | 1990 | 99,351 | +0.39% | | 1999 | 103,605 | +0.47% | | 2007 | 105,349 | +0.21% | | 2012 | 105,067 | −0.05% | | 2017 | 104,286 | −0.15% | | | | | Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) | Main sights ----------- The old city center's heritage dates from the Middle Ages to the 18th century. The cathedral of Nancy, the Triumphal Arch and the "Place de la Carriere" are a fine examples of 18th-century architecture. The Palace of the Dukes of Lorraine is the former princely residence of the rulers. The palace houses the Musée Lorrain. A historic church is the Church of Notre-Dame-de-Bonsecours, Nancy, final resting place of the last duke Stanislas. Other notable churches are the Church of Saint-François-des-Cordeliers and the Basilica of Saint-Epvre (fr:Basilique Saint-Epvre de Nancy), which have historical ties to the ducal House of Lorraine. The Place Stanislas named after king of Poland and duke of Lorraine Stanislaus I, Place de la Carrière, and Place d'Alliance were added on the World Heritage Sites list by the UNESCO in 1983. The "École de Nancy", a group of artists and architects founded by the glassmaster and furniture maker Émile Gallé, worked in the art nouveau style at the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century. It was principally their work which made Nancy a center of art and architecture that rivaled Paris and helped give the city the nickname "Capitale de l'Est". The city still possesses many Art Nouveau buildings (mostly banks or private homes). Furniture, glassware, and other pieces of the decorative arts are conserved at the Musée de l'École de Nancy, which is housed in the 1909 villa of Eugène Corbin, a Nancy businessman and supporter of the Art Nouveau there. The Musée des Beaux-Arts has further collections of the art nouveau movement. A major botanical garden, the *Jardin botanique du Montet*, is located at Villers-lès-Nancy. Other gardens of interest include the city's earliest botanical garden, the *Jardin Dominique Alexandre Godron*, and various other public gardens and places of interest including the Pépinière and Parc Sainte-Marie (public gardens). The town also has an aquarium. The surroundings of the train station are a busy commercial area. Culture ------- The city is known for its World Heritage buildings at the Place Stanislas, which was opened April 2005 by Jacques Chirac after refurbishment. At the turn of the 20th century, Nancy was a major center of the Art Nouveau with the École de Nancy. The city possesses a unique and interesting Musée de l'École de Nancy (School of Nancy Museum) with artworks by Émile Gallé, Louis Majorelle, Daum, Caravaggio, and others.Nancy also has other museums: * Museum of Fine Arts of Nancy (*Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nancy*) with painters from the 15th to 20th centuries, and a huge collection of Daum crystal displayed in part of the old fortifications of the city. * Lorraine History Museum [fr] dedicated to the history of the Duchy of Lorraine and arts (Jacques Callot collection, Georges de La Tour). * Aquarium and Natural History Museum of Nancy [fr]. * Musée de l'École de Nancy offers a testimony of the diversity of creative techniques practiced by the artists of this school, with a fine display of furniture, objets d'art, glassware, stained-glass, leather, ceramics, textiles, etc. from the period. * The Iron History Museum The city is also the seat of the Diocese of Nancy and the home of the Opéra national de Lorraine. There is a network of libraries, the central of which is Bibliothèque municipale de Nancy. Nancy is known for its *macarons* and *bergamotes*, candies flavored with bergamot essential oil. *Macarons de Nancy**Bergamotes de Nancy* Universities and colleges ------------------------- Nancy has a large number of institutions of higher learning: * University of Lorraine which merges: + Henri Poincaré University (*Université Henri Poincaré*, UHP, also known as Nancy 1) + Nancy 2 University (*Université Nancy 2*) - European University Centre + National Polytechnic Institute of Lorraine (*Institut National Polytechnique de Lorraine* or INPL) - École nationale supérieure des Mines de Nancy - École nationale supérieure des industries chimiques (ENSIC) - École nationale supérieure d'agronomie et des industries alimentaires (ENSAIA) - École européenne d'ingénieurs en génie des matériaux (EEIGM) - École nationale supérieure d'électricité et de mécanique (ENSEM) - École nationale supérieure de géologie [fr] (ENSG) - École nationale supérieure en génie des systèmes et de l'innovation (ENSGSI) - Telecom Nancy (ex-ESIAL) - École Polytechnique de l'Université de Lorraine (Polytech Nancy) * École des Beaux-Arts de Nancy * École nationale supérieure d'art de Nancy * School of architecture of Nancy (ENSA) * École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies (EPITECH) * ICN Graduate Business School (*Institut Commercial de Nancy*) * Sciences Po Paris (French-German Undergraduate Campus) * Centre de Nancy-AgroParisTech * École Supérieure Robert de Sorbon * French National School of Forestry, est. 1824, in Nancy * Web@cademie Sports ------ Nancy is home to two of the three professional sport clubs in Lorraine: AS Nancy-Lorraine in football and SLUC Nancy in basketball. AS Nancy-Lorraine's Hall of Fame includes triple-Ballon d'Or and UEFA President Michel Platini, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger, 1998 World Champion Aimé Jacquet, 2000 European Champion Roger Lemerre, 1998 African Ballon d'Or Mustapha Hadji, Irish legend Tony Cascarino, 1986 European Cup winner Sacha Zavarov and 1958 World Cup Semi-finalist Roger Piantoni. AS Nancy-Lorraine won the French cup 1978 with captain Michel Platini who scored the only goal of the final (Nancy 1–0 Nice). More recently AS Nancy-Lorraine won the "Coupe de la Ligue" (French League Cup) in 2006 and reached fourth place in the French football league in 2007/2008. SLUC Nancy won the last Korac European Cup in 2002, reached the finals of French championship of basketball (Pro A) four consecutive times and finally won his first trophy in 2008. Also winner of "Semaine des As" in 2005 and champion of 2nd league (pro B) in 1994. Prominent people from Nancy --------------------------- * Lambert-Sigisbert Adam (1700–1759), a lorrain sculptor. * François-Émile André (1871–1933), architect * Marie Henri d'Arbois de Jubainville (1827–1910), historian and philologist. * Charles Baudiot (1773–1849), cellist and composer * Najoua Belyzel (born 1981), singer * André Bernanose (1912–2002), chemist, physicist and pharmacologist * Louis-Émile Bertin (1840–1924), naval engineer * Jean Galli de Bibiena (1709–1779), playwright * René-Prosper Blondlot (1849–1930), physicist, best remembered for his mistaken identification of N rays * Stanislas de Boufflers (1738–1815), statesman and writer. * Jacques Callot (ca.1592–1635), baroque graphics artist, draftsman and printmaker. * Henri Cartan (1904–2008), mathematician * Charlotte Caubel (born 1972), magistrate, politician and minister * Maxime Chanot (born 1990), footballer * Paul Colin (1892–1985), poster artist * Marion Créhange (1937–2022), computer scientist * Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany (1565–1637) * Gérard Cuny (1925–1996), French gerontologist * Dominique Delestre (born 1955), racing driver * Matthieu Delpierre (born 1981), footballer * Gérard Paul Deshayes (1795–1875), geologist and conchologist. * Auguste Digot (1815–1864), historian of Lorraine * Antoine Drouot (1774–1847), one of Napoleon's generals * Joseph Ducreux (1735–1802), portrait painter, pastelist, miniaturist, and engraver * Prosper Guerrier de Dumast (1796–1883), proponent of Lotharingism * Pascal Dusapin (born 1955), composer * Gisèle d'Estoc (1845-1894), writer, sculptor, feminist * Lucien Febvre (1878–1956), historian * Adèle Ferrand (1817–1848), painter * Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor (1708–1765), duke of Lorraine and later Holy Roman Emperor * Émile Gallé (1846–1904), Art Nouveau artist * Edmond de Goncourt (1822–1896), author, critic, publisher, founder of the Académie Goncourt. * Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard Grandville (1803-1847), illustrator and caricaturist. * Gillian Henrion (born 2003), racing driver * François-Benoît Hoffman (1760–1828), playwright and critic. * Jean-Baptiste Isabey (1767–1855), painter. * François Jacob (1920–2013), biologist who won the 1965 Nobel Prize in Medicine. * Yves Lambert (1936–2021), aerospace engineer * Nicolas Liebault (1723–1795), collaborator of the *Encyclopédie* by Diderot and D'Alembert * Hubert Lyautey (1854–1934), Marshal of France * Louis Maimbourg (1610–1686), Jesuit and historian. * François René Mallarmé (1755–1835), statesman of the French Revolution. * Aimé Morot (1850–1913), painter * Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730–1814), playwright * Michel Picard (born 1931), writer, winner of the 2007 Feuille d'or de la ville de Nancy * Michel Platini (b. 1955 in Jœuf), footballer * Henri Poincaré (1854–1912), mathematician, theoretical scientist and philosopher of science * Mlle Raucourt (1756–1815) a French actress, real name *Françoise Marie Antoinette Saucerotte*. * Éric Rohmer (1920–2010), film director * Pierre Roussel (epigrapher) (1881–1945), archaeologist and epigrapher * Henri Royer (1869–1938), painter * Jean François de Saint-Lambert (1716–1803), poet, philosopher and military officer. * Pierre Schaeffer (1910–1995), noted as the inventor of musique concrète * Jean-Louis Schlesser (born 1948), racing driver * Charles Sellier, (1830–1882) painter * José Touré (born 1961), footballer * Arnaud Vincent (born 1974), motorcycle racer * Élise Voïart (1786–1866), writer and translator * Lucien Weissenburger (1860–1929), architect Economy ------- ### Business * Bellieni, a nineteenth and twentieth century camera maker Transport --------- The main railway station is Gare de Nancy-Ville, with direct connections to Paris (high-speed rail line), Metz, Lyon, Strasbourg and several regional destinations. The motorway A31 connects Nancy with Metz, Luxembourg and Langres. A nearby regional airport Lorraine Airfield provides scheduled air service to several cities within France. Public transport within Nancy is provided by *Service de Transport de l'Agglomération Nancéienne* (STAN), operated by Veolia Transport, operating around 20 conventional bus routes and, until early 2023, the *Tram* by STAN, a guided busway based on Bombardier Transportation's Guided Light Transit (GLT) technology and using articulated trolleybuses that was running for approximately 10 km on the East-West axis. Heraldry -------- The coat of arms of Nancy displays a thistle, originally considered to be a symbol of Virgin Mary, and adopted as a personal symbol by René of Anjou and later by his descendant René II, Duke of Lorraine. Contrary to the Scottish thistle, the one of Lorraine is always shown with its roots. During the wars against Burgundy, the thistle became an emblem for the people of Lorraine as a whole. It officially became the attribute of the city of Nancy in 1575 when Charles III, Duke of Lorraine granted the city with its own coat of arms. At first, the coat of arms of Nancy had a chief of Lorraine, which meant that the upper part showed the ducal arms, namely three alerions on a red bend. Later, the chief of Lorraine was replaced by a more complex one which gathers the former possessions of the Dukes of Lorraine. The upper row comprises from left to right the arms of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Kingdom of Naples, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Aragon, while the lower row comprises the Duchy of Anjou, the Duchy of Guelders, the Duchy of Jülich and the County of Bar. The inescutcheon is the coat of arms of Lorraine itself. The coat of arms displays the motto, which appeared in the end of the 16th century. It was initially "*Nul ne s'y frotte*" ("no one attacks it"), but it was changed to Latin "*Non inultus premor*" in 1616. The motto has a similar meaning to the Scottish one, "*Nemo me impune lacessit*", usually translated as "No one attacks me with impunity", which also makes reference to the thistle. The coat of arms further displays the Legion of Honour, awarded to the city after the First World War, and the War Crosses 14–18 and 39–45. See also -------- * Bibliography of the history of Nancy * N ray, a figment of local physicist René-Prosper Blondlot's imagination, named for Nancy. * Parc naturel régional de Lorraine * The great organ of Nancy Cathedral * List of twin towns and sister cities in France ### Art Nouveau-related links * Official website of le Musée de l'Ecole de Nancy (the museum of the Nancy style of Art Nouveau (in French) * Nancy tourism office page on the "School of Nancy" Museum * A walking tour of Nancy's Art Nouveau architecture including photos (in French)

Nancy, France

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nancy,_France

The **Netherlands** (Dutch: *Nederland* [ˈneːdərlɑnt] ()), informally **Holland**, is a country located in northwestern Europe with overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The Netherlands consists of twelve provinces; it borders Germany to the east, and Belgium to the south, with a North Sea coastline to the north and west. It shares maritime borders with the United Kingdom, Germany and Belgium in the North Sea. The country's official language is Dutch, with West Frisian as a secondary official language in the province of Friesland. Dutch, English and Papiamento are official in the Caribbean territories. The four largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague and Utrecht. Amsterdam is the country's most populous city and the nominal capital. The Hague holds the seat of the States General, Cabinet and Supreme Court. The Port of Rotterdam is the busiest seaport in Europe. Schiphol is the busiest airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest in Europe. The Netherlands is a founding member of the European Union, Eurozone, G10, NATO, OECD, and WTO, as well as a part of the Schengen Area and the trilateral Benelux Union. It hosts several intergovernmental organisations and international courts, many of which are centred in The Hague. *Netherlands* literally means "lower countries" in reference to its low elevation and flat topography, with nearly 26% falling below sea level. Most of the areas below sea level, known as *polders*, are the result of land reclamation that began in the 14th century. In the Republican period, which began in 1588, the Netherlands entered a unique era of political, economic, and cultural greatness, ranked among the most powerful and influential in Europe and the world; this period is known as the Dutch Golden Age. During this time, its trading companies, the Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company, established colonies and trading posts all over the world. With a population of 17.8 million people, all living within a total area of 41,850 km2 (16,160 sq mi)—of which the land area is 33,500 km2 (12,900 sq mi)—the Netherlands is the 16th most densely populated country in the world and the second-most densely populated country in the European Union, with a density of 531 people per square kilometre (1,380 people/sq mi). Nevertheless, it is the world's second-largest exporter of food and agricultural products by value, owing to its fertile soil, mild climate, intensive agriculture, and inventiveness. The Netherlands has been a parliamentary constitutional monarchy with a unitary structure since 1848. The country has a tradition of pillarisation and a long record of social tolerance, having legalised prostitution and euthanasia, along with maintaining a liberal drug policy. The Netherlands allowed women's suffrage in 1919 and was the first country to legalise same-sex marriage in 2001. Its mixed-market advanced economy has the thirteenth-highest per capita income globally. Etymology --------- ### Netherlands and the Low Countries The region called the Low Countries (comprising Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg) has the same toponymy. Place names with *Neder*, *Nieder*, *Nedre*, *Nether*, *Lage(r)* or *Low(er)* (in Germanic languages) and *Bas* or *Inferior* (in Romance languages) are in use in low-lying places all over Europe. In the case of the Low Countries and the Netherlands, the geographical location of the *lower* region has been more or less downstream and near the sea. The Romans made a distinction between the Roman provinces of downstream Germania Inferior (nowadays part of Belgium and the Netherlands) and upstream Germania Superior. The designation 'Low' returned in the 10th-century Duchy of Lower Lorraine, which covered much of the Low Countries. The Dukes of Burgundy used the term *les pays de par deçà* ("the lands over here") for the Low Countries. Under Habsburg rule, *Les pays de par deçà* developed in *pays d'embas* ("lands down-here"). This was translated as *Neder-landen* in contemporary Dutch official documents. From a regional point of view, *Niderlant* was also the area between the Meuse and the lower Rhine in the late Middle Ages. From the mid-sixteenth century, the "Low Countries" and the "Netherlands" lost their original deictic meaning. In most Romance languages, the term "Low Countries" is officially used as the name for the Netherlands. ### Holland and Dutch The Netherlands is informally referred to as Holland in various languages, including Dutch and English. In other languages, Holland is the formal name for the Netherlands. Holland can also refer to a region within the Netherlands that consists of North and South Holland. Formerly these were a single province, and earlier the County of Holland, a remnant of the dissolved Frisian Kingdom that also included parts of present-day Utrecht. Following the decline of the Duchy of Brabant and the County of Flanders, Holland became the most economically and politically important county in the Low Countries region. The emphasis on Holland during the formation of the Dutch Republic, the Eighty Years' War, and the Anglo-Dutch Wars in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, made Holland a *pars pro toto* for the entire country. *Dutch* is used as the adjective for the Netherlands, as well as the demonym. The origins of the word go back to Proto-Germanic *\*þiudiskaz*, Latinised into Theodiscus, meaning "popular" or "of the people"; akin to Old Dutch *Dietsch*, Old High German *duitsch*, and Old English *þeodisc*, all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". At first, the English language used Dutch to refer to any or all speakers of West Germanic languages. Gradually its meaning shifted to the West Germanic people they had the most contact with, because of their geographical proximity and rivalry in trade and overseas territories. History ------- ### Prehistory (before 800 BC) The prehistory of the area that is now the Netherlands was largely shaped by the sea and the rivers that constantly shifted the low-lying geography. The oldest human (Neanderthal) traces, believed to be about 250,000 years old, were found in higher soils near Maastricht. At the end of the Ice Age, the nomadic late Upper Palaeolithic Hamburg culture (13,000–10,000 BC) hunted reindeer in the area, using spears. The later Ahrensburg culture (11,200–9,500 BC) used bow and arrow. From Mesolithic Maglemosian-like tribes (c. 8000 BC), the world's oldest canoe was found in Drenthe. Indigenous late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers from the Swifterbant culture (c. 5600 BC), related to the southern Scandinavian Ertebølle culture, were strongly linked to rivers and open water. Between 4800 and 4500 BC, the Swifterbant people started to adopt from the neighbouring Linear Pottery culture the practice of animal husbandry, and between 4300 and 4000 BC the practice of agriculture. The Funnelbeaker culture (4300–2800 BC), related to the Swifterbant culture, erected the dolmens, large stone grave monuments found in Drenthe. There was a quick and smooth transition from the Funnelbeaker farming culture to the pan-European Corded Ware pastoralist culture (c. 2950 BC). In the southwest, the Seine-Oise-Marne culture — related to the Vlaardingen culture (c. 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers — survived well into the Neolithic period, until it too was succeeded by the Corded Ware culture. The Netherlands in 5500 BCBronze Age cultures in the Netherlands The subsequent Bell Beaker culture (2700–2100 BC) introduced metalwork in copper, gold and later bronze and opened international trade routes not seen before, reflected in copper artifacts. Finds of rare bronze objects suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Bronze Age (2000–800 BC). The Bell Beaker culture developed locally into the Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800 BC) and later the Elp culture (1800–800 BC), a Middle Bronze Age archaeological culture with earthenware low-quality pottery as a marker. The initial phase of the Elp culture was characterised by tumuli (1800–1200 BC). The subsequent phase was that of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns which were then buried in fields, following the customs of the Urnfield culture (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the related Hilversum culture (1800–800 BC), with apparently cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture. ### Celts, Germanic tribes and Romans (800 BC–410 AD) From 800 BC onwards, the Iron Age Celtic Hallstatt culture became influential, replacing the Hilversum culture. Iron ore brought a measure of prosperity and was available throughout the country, including bog iron. Smiths travelled from settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on demand. The King's grave of Oss (700 BC) was found in a burial mound, the largest of its kind in Western Europe and containing an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral. The deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BC further deteriorated around 650 BC and might have triggered the migration of Germanic tribes from the North. By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groups had emerged. The North Sea Germanic Ingaevones inhabited the northern part of the Low Countries. They would later develop into the Frisii and the early Saxons. A second grouping, the Weser-Rhine Germanic (or Istvaeones), extended along the middle Rhine and Weser and inhabited the Low Countries south of the great rivers. This group consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the Salian Franks. Also the Celtic La Tène culture (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest) had expanded over a wide range, including the southern area of the Low Countries. Some scholars have speculated that even a third ethnic identity and language, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period, the Iron Age Nordwestblock culture, that eventually was absorbed by the Celts to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east. The first author to describe the coast of Holland and Flanders was the Greek geographer Pytheas, who noted in c. 325 BC that in these regions, "more people died in the struggle against water than in the struggle against men." During the Gallic Wars, the area south and west of the Rhine was conquered by Roman forces under Julius Caesar from 57 BC to 53 BC. Caesar describes two main Celtic tribes living in what is now the southern Netherlands: the Menapii and the Eburones. Under Augustus, the Roman Empire would conquer the entirety of the modern day Netherlands, incorporating it into the province of Germania Antiqua in 7 BC, but would be repelled back across the Rhine after the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, with the Rhine becoming fixed as Rome's permanent northern frontier around 12 AD. Notable towns would arise along the Limes Germanicus: Nijmegen and Voorburg. In the first part of Gallia Belgica, the area south of the Limes became part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the Frisii, remained outside Roman rule (but not its presence and control), while the Germanic border tribes of the Batavi and Cananefates served in the Roman cavalry. The Batavi rose against the Romans in the Batavian rebellion of 69 AD but were eventually defeated. The Batavi later merged with other tribes into the confederation of the Salian Franks, whose identity emerged in the first half of the third century. Salian Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies. They were forced by the confederation of the Saxons from the east to move over the Rhine into Roman territory in the fourth century. From their new base in West Flanders and the Southwest Netherlands, they were raiding the English Channel. Roman forces pacified the region but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared at least until the time of Julian the Apostate (358) when Salian Franks were allowed to settle as *foederati* in Texandria. It has been postulated that after deteriorating climate conditions and the Romans' withdrawal, the Frisii disappeared as *laeti* in c. 296, leaving the coastal lands largely unpopulated for the next two centuries. However, recent excavations in Kennemerland show a clear indication of permanent habitation. ### Early Middle Ages (411–1000) After the Roman government in the area collapsed, the Franks expanded their territories into numerous kingdoms. By the 490s, Clovis I had conquered and united all these territories in the southern Netherlands in one Frankish kingdom, and from there continued his conquests into Gaul. During this expansion, Franks migrating to the south (modern territory of France and Walloon part of Belgium) eventually adopted the Vulgar Latin of the local population. A widening cultural divide grew with the Franks remaining in their original homeland in the north (i.e. the southern Netherlands and Flanders), who kept on speaking Old Frankish, which by the ninth century had evolved into Old Low Franconian or Old Dutch. A Dutch-French language boundary hence came into existence. To the north of the Franks, climatic conditions improved, and during the Migration Period Saxons, the closely related Angles, Jutes and Frisii settled the coastal land. Many moved on to England and came to be known as Anglo-Saxons, but those who stayed would be referred to as Frisians and their language as Frisian, named after the land that was once inhabited by Frisii. Frisian was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast, and it is still the language most closely related to English among the living languages of continental Europe. By the seventh century, a Frisian Kingdom (650–734) under King Aldegisel and King Redbad emerged with Traiectum (Utrecht) as its centre of power, while Dorestad was a flourishing trading place. Between 600 and around 719 the cities were often fought over between the Frisians and the Franks. In 734, at the Battle of the Boarn, the Frisians were defeated after a series of wars. With the approval of the Franks, the Anglo-Saxon missionary Willibrord converted the Frisian people to Christianity. He established the Archdiocese of Utrecht and became the bishop of the Frisians. However, his successor Boniface was murdered by the Frisians in Dokkum, in 754. The Frankish Carolingian empire modelled itself on the Roman Empire and controlled much of Western Europe. However, in 843, it was divided into three parts—East, Middle, and West Francia. Most of present-day Netherlands became part of Middle Francia, which was a weak kingdom and subject to numerous partitions and annexation attempts by its stronger neighbours. It comprised territories from Frisia in the north to the Kingdom of Italy in the south. Around 850, Lothair I of Middle Francia acknowledged the Viking Rorik of Dorestad as ruler of most of Frisia. When the kingdom of Middle Francia was partitioned in 855, the lands north of the Alps passed to Lothair II and subsequently were named Lotharingia. After he died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned, into Upper and Lower Lotharingia, the latter part comprising the Low Countries that technically became part of East Francia in 870, although it was effectively under the control of Vikings, who raided the largely defenceless Frisian and Frankish towns lying on the Frisian coast and along the rivers. Around 879, another Viking expedition led by Godfrid, Duke of Frisia, raided the Frisian lands. The Viking raids made the sway of French and German lords in the area weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result, and that laid the basis for the disintegration of Lower Lotharingia into semi-independent states. One of these local nobles was Gerolf of Holland, who assumed lordship in Frisia after he helped to assassinate Godfrid, and Viking rule came to an end. ### High Middle Ages (1000–1384) The Holy Roman Empire (the successor state of East Francia and then Lotharingia) ruled much of the Low Countries in the 10th and 11th century but was not able to maintain political unity. Powerful local nobles turned their cities, counties and duchies into private kingdoms that felt little sense of obligation to the emperor. Holland, Hainaut, Flanders, Gelre, Brabant, and Utrecht were in a state of almost continual war or paradoxically formed personal unions. The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the County of Holland were originally Frisian. As Frankish settlement progressed from Flanders and Brabant, the area quickly became Old Low Franconian (or Old Dutch). The rest of Frisia in the north (now Friesland and Groningen) continued to maintain its independence and had its own institutions (collectively called the "Frisian freedom"), which resented the imposition of the feudal system. Around 1000 AD, due to several agricultural developments, the economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or become tradesmen. Towns grew around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas, especially in Flanders and later also Brabant. Wealthy cities started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the sovereign. In practice, this meant that Bruges and Antwerp became quasi-independent republics in their own right and would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe. Around 1100 AD, farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began draining and cultivating uninhabited swampy land in the western Netherlands, making the emergence of the County of Holland as the centre of power possible. The title of Count of Holland was fought over in the Hook and Cod Wars (Dutch: *Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten*) between 1350 and 1490. The Cod faction consisted of the more progressive cities, while the Hook faction consisted of the conservative noblemen. These noblemen invited Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy — who was also Count of Flanders — to conquer Holland. ### Burgundian, Habsburg and Spanish Habsburg Netherlands (1384–1581) Habsburg Netherlands*Charles V, Lord of the Netherlands at the Battle of Mühlberg (1547), by Titian**The Low Countries in the late 14th century**William I, Prince of Orange, leader of the Dutch Revolt, by Adriaen Thomasz. Key* Most of the Imperial and French fiefs in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium were united in a personal union by Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, in 1433. The House of Valois-Burgundy and their Habsburg heirs would rule the Low Countries in the period from 1384 to 1581. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in or their local duchy or county. The Burgundian period is when the road to nationhood began. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests, which then developed rapidly. The fleets of the County of Holland defeated the fleets of the Hanseatic League several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former wetlands to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained. Under Habsburg Charles V, ruler of the Holy Roman Empire and King of Spain, all fiefs in the current Netherlands region were united into the Seventeen Provinces, which also included most of present-day Belgium, Luxembourg, and some adjacent land in what is now France and Germany. In 1568, under Phillip II, the Eighty Years' War between the Provinces and their Spanish ruler began. The level of ferocity exhibited by both sides can be gleaned from a Dutch chronicler's report: > On more than one occasion men were seen hanging their own brothers, who had been taken prisoners in the enemy's ranks... A Spaniard had ceased to be human in their eyes. On one occasion, a surgeon at Veer cut the heart from a Spanish prisoner, nailed it on a vessel's prow, and invited the townsmen to come and fasten their teeth in it, which many did with savage satisfaction. > > The Duke of Alba ruthlessly attempted to suppress the Protestant movement in the Netherlands. Netherlanders were "burned, strangled, beheaded, or buried alive" by his "Blood Council" and his Spanish soldiers. Severed heads and decapitated corpses were displayed along streets and roads to terrorise the population into submission. Alba boasted of having executed 18,600, but this figure does not include those who perished by war and famine. The first great siege was Alba's effort to capture Haarlem and thereby cut Holland in half. It dragged on from December 1572 to the next summer, when Haarlemers finally surrendered on 13 July upon the promise that the city would be spared from being sacked. It was a stipulation Don Fadrique was unable to honour, when his soldiers mutinied, angered over pay owed and the miserable conditions they endured during the long, cold months of the campaign. On 4 November 1576, Spanish tercios seized Antwerp and subjected it to the worst pillage in the Netherlands' history. The citizens resisted but were overcome; seven thousand of them were killed; a thousand buildings were torched; men, women, and children were slaughtered by soldiers, who invoked the name of Spain's patron saint, *¡Santiago! ¡España! ¡A sangre, a carne, a fuego, a sacco!* (Saint James! Spain! To blood, to the flesh, to fire, to sack!) Following the sack of Antwerp, delegates from Catholic Brabant, Protestant Holland and Zeeland agreed, at Ghent, to join Utrecht and William the Silent in driving out all Spanish troops and forming a new government for the Netherlands. Don Juan of Austria, the new Spanish governor, was forced to concede initially, but within months returned to active hostilities. As the fighting restarted, the Dutch began to look for help from the Protestant Elizabeth I of England, but she initially stood by her commitments to the Spanish in the Treaty of Bristol of 1574. The result was that when the next large-scale battle did occur at Gembloux in 1578, the Spanish forces easily won the day, killing at least 10,000 rebels, with the Spanish suffering few losses.[*dubious – discuss*] In light of the defeat at Gembloux, the southern states of the Seventeen Provinces (today in northern France and Belgium) distanced themselves from the rebels in the north with the 1579 Union of Arras, which expressed their loyalty to Philip II of Spain. Opposing them, the northern half of the Seventeen Provinces forged the Union of Utrecht (also of 1579) in which they committed to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the foundation of the modern Netherlands. Spanish troops sacked Maastricht in 1579, killing over 10,000 civilians and thereby ensuring the rebellion continued. In 1581, the northern provinces adopted the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence in which the provinces officially deposed Philip II as reigning monarch in the northern provinces. Against the rebels Philip could draw on the resources of the Spanish Empire, including in Iberia, Spanish America, Spanish Italy, and the Spanish Netherlands. Queen Elizabeth I of England sympathised with the Dutch struggle against England's Spanish rival and sent an army of 7,600 soldiers to aid the Dutch in their war with the Catholic Spanish. English forces under the Earl of Leicester and then Lord Willoughby faced the Spanish in the Netherlands under the Duke of Parma in a series of largely indecisive actions that tied down significant numbers of Spanish troops and bought time for the Dutch to reorganise their defences. The war continued until 1648, when Spain under King Philip IV finally recognised the independence of the seven north-western provinces in the Peace of Münster. Parts of the southern provinces became *de facto* colonies of the new republican-mercantile empire. ### Dutch Republic (1581–1795) Following the declaration of independence, the provinces of Holland, Zeeland, Groningen, Friesland, Utrecht, Overijssel, and Gelderland entered into a confederation. All these duchies, lordships and counties enjoyed a significant degree of autonomy and was governed by its own administrative body known as the States-Provincial. The confederal government, known as the States General, was headquartered in The Hague and comprised representatives from each of the seven provinces. The sparsely populated region of Drenthe was also part of the republic, albeit not considered a province in its own right. Moreover, during the Eighty Years' War, the Republic came to occupy a number of Generality Lands located in Flanders, Brabant and Limburg. These areas were primarily inhabited by Roman Catholics and lacked a distinct governmental structure of their own. They were utilized as a buffer zone between the Republic and the Spanish-controlled Southern Netherlands. In the Dutch Golden Age, spanning much of the 17th century, the Dutch Empire grew to become one of the major seafaring and economic powers, alongside Portugal, Spain, France and England. Science, military and art (especially painting) were among the most acclaimed in the world. By 1650, the Dutch owned 16,000 merchant ships. The Dutch East India Company and the Dutch West India Company established colonies and trading posts all over the world, including ruling the western parts of Taiwan between 1624–1662 and 1664–1667. The Dutch settlement in North America began with the founding of New Amsterdam on the southern part of Manhattan in 1614. In South Africa, the Dutch settled the Cape Colony in 1652. Dutch colonies in South America were established along the many rivers in the fertile Guyana plains, among them Colony of Surinam (now Suriname). In Asia, the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia), and the only western trading post in Japan, Dejima. During the period of Proto-industrialisation, the empire received 50% of textiles and 80% of silks import from the India's Mughal Empire, chiefly from its most developed region known as Bengal Subah. Many economic historians regard the Netherlands as the first thoroughly capitalist country in the world. In early modern Europe, it had the wealthiest trading city (Amsterdam) and the first full-time stock exchange. The inventiveness of the traders led to insurance and retirement funds as well as phenomena such as the boom-bust cycle, the world's first asset-inflation bubble, the tulip mania of 1636–1637, and the world's first bear raider, Isaac le Maire, who forced prices down by dumping stock and then buying it back at a discount. In 1672 – known in Dutch history as the Rampjaar (Disaster Year) – the Dutch Republic was attacked by France, England and three German Bishoprics simultaneously, in what would became known as the Franco-Dutch War. At sea, it could successfully prevent the English and French navies from entering and blockading the western shores. On land, however, it was almost taken over internally by the advancing French and German armies coming from the east. It managed to turn the tide by inundating parts of Holland. From 1672 to 1712, the Republic, led by William III of Orange and Anthonie Heinsius would regularly clash with France in what some historians have come to call the *Forty Years' War*. In the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession, the Republic was engaged in a massive struggle and was at the centre of anti-French coalitions. The Dutch ultimately successfully defended the Spanish Netherlands, established a barrier there, and their troops proved central to the alliance which halted French territorial expansion in Europe until a new cycle began in 1792. However, the wars left them effectively bankrupt, and inflicted permanent damage on the Dutch merchant navy; while they remained the dominant economic power in the Far East, Britain took over as the pre-eminent global commercial and maritime power. From 1590 to 1713, the United Provinces had, at all times, possessed one of the largest and most proficient armies in Eurpe. But after the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, other powers like Prussia, Austria, Britain and Russia all maintained considerably larger armies than they had in the past. The Republic could not keep up, which ment it slowly assumed the role of a middle ranking power, though it is also true, as regards the period down to the 1750s, that historians have often tended to exaggerate the extent of this decline. ### Batavian Republic and Kingdom (1795–1890) In the 18th century the Dutch Republic had seen a state of a general decline, with economic competition from England and long-standing rivalries between the two main factions in Dutch society, the republican *Staatsgezinden* and the supporters of the stadtholder the *Prinsgezinden* as main political factions. With the armed support of revolutionary France, Dutch republicans proclaimed the Batavian Republic, modelled after the French Republic and rendering the Netherlands a unitary state on 19 January 1795. The stadtholder William V of Orange had fled to England. But from 1806 to 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom governed by his brother Louis Bonaparte to control the Netherlands more effectively. However, King Louis Bonaparte tried to serve Dutch interests instead of his brother's, and he was forced to abdicate on 1 July 1810. The Emperor sent in an army and the Netherlands became part of the French Empire until the autumn of 1813 when Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Leipzig. William Frederick, son of the last stadtholder, returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and proclaimed himself Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands. Two years later, the Congress of Vienna added the southern Netherlands to the north to create a strong country on the northern border of France. William Frederick raised this United Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself as King William I in 1815. In addition, William became hereditary Grand Duke of Luxembourg in exchange for his German possessions. However, the Southern Netherlands had been culturally separate from the north since 1581, and rebelled. The south gained independence in 1830 as Belgium (recognised by the Northern Netherlands in 1839 as the Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by decree), while the personal union between Luxembourg and the Netherlands was severed in 1890, when William III died with no surviving male heirs. Ascendancy laws prevented his daughter Queen Wilhelmina from becoming the next Grand Duchess. The Belgian Revolution at home and the Java War in the Dutch East Indies brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. However, the Cultivation System was introduced in 1830; in the Dutch East Indies, 20% of village land had to be devoted to government crops for export. The policy brought the Dutch enormous wealth and made the colony self-sufficient. The Netherlands abolished slavery in its colonies in 1863. Enslaved people in Suriname would be fully free only in 1873, since the law stipulated that there was to be a mandatory 10-year transition. ### World wars and beyond (1890–present) The Netherlands was able to remain neutral during World War I, in part because the import of goods through the Netherlands proved essential to German survival until the blockade by the British Royal Navy in 1916. That changed in World War II, when Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940. The Rotterdam Blitz forced the main element of the Dutch army to surrender four days later. During the occupation, over 100,000 Dutch Jews were rounded up and transported to Nazi extermination camps; only a few of them survived. Dutch workers were conscripted for forced labour in Germany, civilians who resisted were killed in reprisal for attacks on German soldiers, and the countryside was plundered for food. Although there were thousands of Dutch who risked their lives by hiding Jews from the Germans, over 20,000 Dutch fascists joined the Waffen SS, fighting on the Eastern Front. Political collaborators were members of the fascist NSB, the only legal political party in the occupied Netherlands. On 8 December 1941, the Dutch government-in-exile in London declared war on Japan, but could not prevent the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies. In 1944–45, the First Canadian Army, which included Canadian, British and Polish troops, was responsible for liberating much of the Netherlands. Soon after VE Day, the Dutch fought a colonial war against the new Republic of Indonesia. #### Decolonisation In 1954, the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands reformed the political structure of the Netherlands, which was a result of international pressure to carry out decolonisation. The Dutch colonies of Surinam and Curaçao and Dependencies and the European country all became countries within the Kingdom, on a basis of equality. Indonesia had declared its independence in August 1945 (recognised in 1949), and thus was never part of the reformed Kingdom. Suriname followed in 1975. After the war, the Netherlands left behind an era of neutrality and gained closer ties with neighbouring states. The Netherlands was one of the founding members of Benelux and NATO. In the 1950s, the Netherlands became one of the six founding countries of the European Communities, following the 1952 establishment of the European Coal and Steel Community, and subsequent 1958 creations of the European Economic Community and European Atomic Energy Community. In 1993, the former two of these were incorporated into the European Union. Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce population density prompted some 500,000 Dutch people to leave the country after the war. The 1960s and 1970s were a time of great social and cultural change, such as rapid de-pillarisation characterised by the decay of the old divisions along political and religious lines. Students and other youth rejected traditional mores and pushed for change in matters such as women's rights, sexuality, disarmament and environmental issues. In 2002 the euro was introduced as fiat money, and in 2010 the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. Referendums were held on each island to determine their future status. As a result, the islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba (the BES islands) were to obtain closer ties with the Netherlands. This led to the incorporation of these three islands into the country of the Netherlands as *special municipalities* upon the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles. The special municipalities are collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands. Geography --------- The European Netherlands has a total area of 41,543 km2 (16,040 sq mi), including water bodies; and a land area of 33,481 km2 (12,927 sq mi). The Caribbean Netherlands has a total area of 328 km2 (127 sq mi) It lies between latitudes 50° and 54° N, and longitudes 3° and 8° E. The Netherlands is geographically very low relative to sea level and is considered a flat country, with about 26% of its area and 21% of its population located below sea level. The European part of the country is for the most part flat, with the exception of foothills in the far southeast, up to a height of no more than 321 metres, and some low hill ranges in the central parts. Most of the areas below sea level are caused by peat extraction or achieved through land reclamation. Since the late 16th century, large polder areas are preserved through elaborate drainage systems that include dikes, canals and pumping stations. Nearly 17% of the country's land area is reclaimed from the sea and from lakes. Much of the country was originally formed by the estuaries of three large European rivers: the Rhine (*Rijn*), the Meuse (*Maas*) and the Scheldt (*Schelde*), as well as their tributaries. The south-western part of the Netherlands is to this day a river delta of these three rivers, the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. The European Netherlands is divided into north and south parts by the Rhine, the Waal, its main tributary branch, and the Meuse. In the past, these rivers functioned as a natural barrier between fiefdoms and hence historically created a cultural divide, as is evident in some phonetic traits that are recognisable on either side of what the Dutch call their "Great Rivers" (*de Grote Rivieren*). Another significant branch of the Rhine, the IJssel river, discharges into Lake IJssel, the former Zuiderzee ('southern sea'). Just like the previous, this river forms a linguistic divide: people to the northeast of this river speak Dutch Low Saxon dialects (except for the province of Friesland, which has its own language). ### Geology The modern Netherlands formed as a result of the interplay of the four main rivers (Rhine, Meuse, Schelde and IJssel) and the influence of the North Sea. The Netherlands is mostly composed of deltaic, coastal and eolian derived sediments during the Pleistocene glacial and interglacial periods. Almost the entire west Netherlands is composed of the Rhine-Meuse river estuary, but human intervention greatly modified the natural processes at work. Most of the western Netherlands is below sea level due to the human process of turning standing bodies of water into usable land, a polder. In the east of the Netherlands, remains are found of the last ice age, which ended approximately ten thousand years ago. As the continental ice sheet moved in from the north, it pushed moraine forward. The ice sheet halted as it covered the eastern half of the Netherlands. After the ice age ended, the moraine remained in the form of a long hill-line. The cities of Arnhem and Nijmegen are built upon these hills. ### Floods Over the centuries, the Dutch coastline has changed considerably as a result of natural disasters and human intervention. On 14 December 1287, St. Lucia's flood affected the Netherlands and Germany, killing more than 50,000 people in one of the most destructive floods in recorded history. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1421 and the mismanagement in its aftermath destroyed a newly reclaimed polder, replacing it with the 72 km2 (28 sq mi) *Biesbosch* tidal floodplains in the south-centre. The huge North Sea flood of February 1953 caused the collapse of several dikes in the south-west of the Netherlands; more than 1,800 people drowned in the flood. The Dutch government subsequently instituted a large-scale programme, the "Delta Works", to protect the country against future flooding, which was completed over a period of more than thirty years. The impact of disasters was, to an extent, increased through human activity. Relatively high-lying swampland was drained to be used as farmland. The drainage caused the fertile peat to contract and ground levels to drop, upon which groundwater levels were lowered to compensate for the drop in ground level, causing the underlying peat to contract further. Additionally, until the 19th-century peat was mined, dried, and used for fuel, further exacerbating the problem. Centuries of extensive and poorly controlled peat extraction lowered an already low land surface by several metres. Even in flooded areas, peat extraction continued through turf dredging. Because of the flooding, farming was difficult, which encouraged foreign trade, the result of which was that the Dutch were involved in world affairs since the early 14th/15th century. To guard against floods, a series of defences against the water were contrived. In the first millennium AD, villages and farmhouses were built on hills called *terps*. Later, these terps were connected by dikes. In the 12th century, local government agencies called *"waterschappen"* ("water boards") or *"hoogheemraadschappen"* ("high home councils") started to appear, whose job it was to maintain the water level and to protect a region from floods; these agencies continue to exist. As the ground level dropped, the dikes by necessity grew and merged into an integrated system. By the 13th century windmills had come into use to pump water out of areas below sea level. The windmills were later used to drain lakes, creating the famous polders. In 1932 the *Afsluitdijk* ("Closure Dike") was completed, blocking the former *Zuiderzee* (Southern Sea) from the North Sea and thus creating the IJsselmeer (IJssel Lake). It became part of the larger Zuiderzee Works in which four polders totalling 2,500 square kilometres (965 sq mi) were reclaimed from the sea. The Netherlands is one of the countries that may suffer most from climate change. Not only is the rising sea a problem, but erratic weather patterns may cause the rivers to overflow. ### Delta Works After the 1953 disaster, the Delta Works was constructed, which is a comprehensive set of civil works throughout the Dutch coast. The project started in 1958 and was largely completed in 1997 with the completion of the Maeslantkering. Since then, new projects have been periodically started to renovate and renew the Delta Works. The main goal of the Delta project was to reduce the risk of flooding in South Holland and Zeeland to once per 10,000 years (compared to once per 4000 years for the rest of the country). This was achieved by raising 3,000 km (1,900 mi) of outer sea-dikes and 10,000 km (6,200 mi) of the inner, canal, and river dikes, and by closing off the sea estuaries of the Zeeland province. New risk assessments occasionally show problems requiring additional Delta project dike reinforcements. The Delta project is considered by the American Society of Civil Engineers as one of the seven wonders of the modern world. It is anticipated that global warming in the 21st century will result in a rise in sea level. The Netherlands is actively preparing for a sea-level rise. A politically neutral Delta Commission has formulated an action plan to cope with a sea-level rise of 1.10 m (4 ft) and a simultaneous land height decline of 10 cm (4 in). The plan encompasses the reinforcement of the existing coastal defences like dikes and dunes with 1.30 m (4.3 ft) of additional flood protection. Climate change will not only threaten the Netherlands from the seaside but could also alter rainfall patterns and river run-off. To protect the country from river flooding, another programme is already being executed. The Room for the River plan grants more flow space to rivers, protects the major populated areas and allows for periodic flooding of indefensible lands. The few residents who lived in these so-called "overflow areas" have been moved to higher ground, with some of that ground having been raised above anticipated flood levels. ### Climate change Climate change in the Netherlands is already affecting the country. The average temperature in the Netherlands rose by more than 2 °C from 1901 to 2020. Climate change has resulted in increased frequency of droughts and heatwaves. Because significant portions of the Netherlands have been reclaimed from the sea or otherwise are very near sea level, the Netherlands is very vulnerable to sea level rise. The Netherlands has the fourth largest greenhouse gas emissions per capita of the European Union, in part due to the large number of cows. The Dutch government has set goals to lower emissions in the next few decades. The Dutch response to climate change is driven by a number of unique factors, including larger green recovery plans by the European Union in the face of the COVID-19 and a climate change litigation case, State of the Netherlands v. Urgenda Foundation, which created mandatory climate change mitigation through emissions reductions 25% below 1990 levels. At the end of 2018 CO2 emissions were down 15% compared to 1990 levels. The goal of the Dutch government is to reduce emissions in 2030 by 49%. ### Nature The Netherlands has 21 national parks and hundreds of other nature reserves, that include lakes, heathland, woods, dunes, and other habitats. Most of these are owned by Staatsbosbeheer, the national department for forestry and nature conservation and Natuurmonumenten (literally 'Natures monuments'), a private organisation that buys, protects and manages nature reserves. The Wadden Sea in the north, with its tidal flats and wetlands, is rich in biological diversity, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Nature Site. The Oosterschelde, formerly the northeast estuary of the river Scheldt was designated a national park in 2002, thereby making it the largest national park in the Netherlands at an area of 370 km2 (140 sq mi). It consists primarily of the salt waters of the Oosterschelde but also includes mudflats, meadows, and shoals. Because of the large variety of sea life, including unique regional species, the park is popular with Scuba divers. Other activities include sailing, fishing, cycling, and bird watching. Phytogeographically, the European Netherlands is shared between the Atlantic European and Central European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the European territory of the Netherlands belongs to the ecoregion of Atlantic mixed forests. In 1871, the last old original natural woods were cut down, and most woods today are planted monocultures of trees like Scots pine and trees that are not native to the Netherlands. These woods were planted on anthropogenic heaths and sand-drifts (overgrazed heaths) (Veluwe). The Netherlands had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 0.6/10, ranking it 169th globally out of 172 countries. Nitrogen pollution is a problem. The number of flying insects in the Netherlands has dropped by 75% since the 1990s. ### Caribbean islands In the Lesser Antilles islands of the Caribbean, the territories of Curaçao, Aruba and Sint Maarten have a constituent country status within the wider Kingdom of the Netherlands. Another three territories which make up the Caribbean Netherlands are designated as special municipalities of the Netherlands. The Caribbean Netherlands have maritime borders with Anguilla, Curaçao, France (Saint Barthélemy), Saint Kitts and Nevis, Sint Maarten, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Venezuela. The islands of the Caribbean Netherlands enjoy a tropical climate with warm weather all year round. Within this island group: * Bonaire is part of the ABC islands within the Leeward Antilles island chain off the Venezuelan coast. The Leeward Antilles have a mixed volcanic and coral origin. * Saba and Sint Eustatius are part of the SSS islands. They are located east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Although in the English language they are considered part of the Leeward Islands, French, Spanish, Dutch and the English spoken locally consider them part of the Windward Islands. The Windward Islands are all of volcanic origin and hilly, leaving little ground suitable for agriculture. The highest point is Mount Scenery, 887 m (2,910 ft), on Saba. This is the highest point in the country and is also the highest point of the entire Kingdom of the Netherlands. Government and politics ----------------------- The Netherlands has been a constitutional monarchy since 1815, and due to the efforts of Johan Rudolph Thorbecke became a parliamentary democracy in 1848. The Netherlands is described as a consociational state. Dutch politics and governance are characterised by an effort to achieve broad consensus on important issues, within both the political community and society as a whole. The Netherlands was ranked as the 17th best electoral democracy in the world by V-Dem Democracy indices in 2023 and 9th most democratic country in the world by the Democracy Index (The Economist) in 2022. The monarch is the head of state, at present King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Constitutionally, the position is equipped with limited powers. By law, the King has the right to be periodically briefed and consulted on government affairs. Depending on the personalities and relationships of the King and the ministers, the monarch might have influence beyond the power granted by the Constitution of the Netherlands. Willem-Alexander King of the Netherlands since 30 April 2013Mark Rutte Prime Minister of the Netherlands since 14 October 2010 The executive power is formed by the Council of Ministers, the deliberative organ of the Dutch cabinet. The cabinet usually consists of 13 to 16 ministers and a varying number of state secretaries. One to three ministers are ministers without portfolio. The head of government is the Prime Minister of the Netherlands, who often is the leader of the largest party of the coalition. The Prime Minister is a *primus inter pares*, with no explicit powers beyond those of the other ministers. Mark Rutte has been Prime Minister since October 2010; the Prime Minister had been the leader of the largest party of the governing coalition continuously since 1973. The cabinet is responsible to the bicameral parliament, the States General, which also has legislative powers. The 150 members of the House of Representatives, the lower house, are elected in direct elections on the basis of party-list proportional representation. These are held every four years, or sooner in case the cabinet falls (for example: when one of the chambers carries a motion of no confidence, the cabinet offers its resignation to the monarch). The provincial assemblies, the States Provincial, are directly elected every four years as well. The members of the provincial assemblies elect the 75 members of the Senate, the upper house, which has the power to reject laws, but not propose or amend them. ### Political culture Both trade unions and employers organisations are consulted beforehand in policymaking in the financial, economic and social areas. They meet regularly with the government in the Social-Economic Council. This body advises government and its advice cannot be put aside easily. The Netherlands has a tradition of social tolerance. In the 18th century, while the Dutch Reformed Church was the state religion, Catholicism, other forms of Protestantism, such as Baptists and Lutherans, as well as Judaism were tolerated but discriminated against.[*page needed*] In the late 19th century this Dutch tradition of religious tolerance transformed into a system of pillarisation, in which religious groups coexisted separately and only interacted at the level of government. This tradition of tolerance influences Dutch criminal justice policies on recreational drugs, prostitution, LGBT rights, euthanasia, and abortion, which are among the most liberal in the world. ### Political parties No single party has held a majority in parliament since the 19th century, and as a result, coalition cabinets had to be formed. Since suffrage became universal in 1917, the Dutch political system has been dominated by three families of political parties: Christian Democrats (currently the CDA), Social Democrats (currently the PvdA), and Liberals (currently the VVD). These parties co-operated in coalition cabinets in which the Christian Democrats had always been a partner: so either a centre-left coalition of the Christian Democrats and Social Democrats was ruling or a centre-right coalition of Christian Democrats and Liberals. In the 1970s, the party system became more volatile: the Christian Democratic parties lost seats, while new parties became successful, such as the radical democrat and progressive liberal Democrats 66 (D66) or the ecologist party GroenLinks (GL). In the 1994 election, the CDA lost its dominant position. A "purple" cabinet was formed by the VVD, D66, and PvdA. In the 2002 elections, this cabinet lost its majority, because of an increased support for the CDA and the rise of the right-wing LPF, a new political party, around Pim Fortuyn, who was assassinated a week before the elections. A short-lived cabinet was formed by CDA, VVD, and LPF, which was led by the CDA Leader Jan Peter Balkenende. After the 2003 elections, in which the LPF lost most of its seats, a cabinet was formed by the CDA, VVD, and D66. The cabinet initiated an ambitious programme of reforming the welfare state, the healthcare system, and immigration policy. In June 2006, the cabinet fell after D66 voted in favour of a motion of no confidence against the Minister of Immigration and Integration, Rita Verdonk, who had instigated an investigation of the asylum procedure of Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a VVD MP. A caretaker cabinet was formed by the CDA and VVD, and general elections were held on 22 November 2006. In these elections, the CDA remained the largest party and the Socialist Party made the largest gains. The formation of a new cabinet took three months, resulting in a coalition of CDA, PvdA, and Christian Union. On 20 February 2010, the cabinet fell when the PvdA refused to prolong the involvement of the Dutch Army in Uruzgan, Afghanistan. Snap elections were held on 9 June 2010, with devastating results for the previously largest party, the CDA, which lost about half of its seats, resulting in 21 seats. The VVD became the largest party with 31 seats, closely followed by the PvdA with 30 seats. The big winner of the 2010 elections was Geert Wilders, whose right wing PVV, the ideological successor to the LPF, more than doubled its number of seats. Negotiation talks for a new government resulted in a minority government, led by VVD (a first) in coalition with CDA, which was sworn in on 14 October 2010. This unprecedented minority government was supported by PVV, but proved ultimately to be unstable, when on 21 April 2012, Wilders, leader of PVV, unexpectedly 'torpedoed seven weeks of austerity talks' on new austerity measures, paving the way for early elections. VVD and PvdA won a majority in the House of Representatives during the 2012 general election. On 5 November 2012 they formed the second Rutte cabinet. After the 2017 general election, VVD, Christian Democratic Appeal, Democrats 66 and ChristenUnie formed the third Rutte cabinet. This cabinet resigned in January 2021, two months before the general election, after a child welfare fraud scandal. In March 2021, centre-right VVD of Prime Minister Mark Rutte was the winner of the elections, securing 34 out of 150 seats. The second biggest party was the centre-left D66 with 24 seats. Geert Wilders' far-right party lost support. Prime Minister Mark Rutte, in power since 2010, formed his fourth coalition government, the Fourth Rutte cabinet, consisting of the same parties as the previous one. ### Administrative divisions The Netherlands is divided into twelve provinces, each under a King's Commissioner (*Commissaris van de Koning*). Informally, in Limburg province, this position is named Governor (*Gouverneur*). All provinces are divided into municipalities (*gemeenten*), of which there are 342 (2023). The country is also subdivided into 21 water districts, governed by a water board (*waterschap* or *hoogheemraadschap*), each having authority in matters concerning water management. The creation of water boards actually pre-dates that of the nation itself, the first appearing in 1196. The Dutch water boards are among the oldest democratic entities in the world still in existence. Direct elections of the water boards take place every four years. The administrative structure on the three BES islands, collectively known as the Caribbean Netherlands, is outside the twelve provinces. These islands have the status of *openbare lichamen (public bodies)*. In the Netherlands these administrative units are often referred to as *special municipalities*. Within the Dutch town of Baarle-Nassau, are 22 Belgian exclaves and within those are 8 Dutch enclaves. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Flag | Province | Capital | Largest city | Total area | Land area | Population (November 2019) | Density | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Drenthe | Drenthe | Assen | Emmen | 2,680 km2 (1,030 sq mi) | 2,634 km2 (1,017 sq mi) | 493,449 | 188/km2 (490/sq mi) | | Flevoland | Flevoland | Lelystad | Almere | 2,413 km2 (932 sq mi) | 1,413 km2 (546 sq mi) | 422,202 | 299/km2 (770/sq mi) | | Friesland | Friesland | Leeuwarden | 5,749 km2 (2,220 sq mi) | 3,324 km2 (1,283 sq mi) | 649,988 | 196/km2 (510/sq mi) | | Gelderland | Gelderland | Arnhem | Nijmegen | 5,136 km2 (1,983 sq mi) | 4,967 km2 (1,918 sq mi) | 2,084,478 | 420/km2 (1,100/sq mi) | | Groningen (province) | Groningen | Groningen | 2,960 km2 (1,140 sq mi) | 2,325 km2 (898 sq mi) | 585,881 | 252/km2 (650/sq mi) | | Limburg (Netherlands) | Limburg | Maastricht | 2,210 km2 (850 sq mi) | 2,148 km2 (829 sq mi) | 1,118,223 | 521/km2 (1,350/sq mi) | | North Brabant | North Brabant | 's-Hertogenbosch | Eindhoven | 5,082 km2 (1,962 sq mi) | 4,908 km2 (1,895 sq mi) | 2,562,566 | 523/km2 (1,350/sq mi) | | North Holland | North Holland | Haarlem | Amsterdam | 4,092 km2 (1,580 sq mi) | 2,662 km2 (1,028 sq mi) | 2,877,909 | 1,082/km2 (2,800/sq mi) | | Overijssel | Overijssel | Zwolle | Enschede | 3,421 km2 (1,321 sq mi) | 3,323 km2 (1,283 sq mi) | 1,162,215 | 350/km2 (910/sq mi) | | South Holland | South Holland | The Hague | Rotterdam | 3,419 km2 (1,320 sq mi) | 2,814 km2 (1,086 sq mi) | 3,705,625 | 1,317/km2 (3,410/sq mi) | | Utrecht (province) | Utrecht | Utrecht | 1,449 km2 (559 sq mi) | 1,380 km2 (530 sq mi) | 1,353,596 | 981/km2 (2,540/sq mi) | | Zeeland | Zeeland | Middelburg | 2,934 km2 (1,133 sq mi) | 1,783 km2 (688 sq mi) | 383,689 | 216/km2 (560/sq mi) | | Total | 41,545 km2 (16,041 sq mi) | 33,481 km2 (12,927 sq mi) | 17,399,821 | 521/km2 (1,350/sq mi) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Flag | Name | Capital | Area | Population (January 2019) | Density | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Bonaire | Bonaire | Kralendijk | 294 km2 (114 sq mi) | 20,104 | 69/km2 (180/sq mi) | | Saba (island) | Saba | The Bottom | 13 km2 (5.0 sq mi) | 1,915 | 148/km2 (380/sq mi) | | Sint Eustatius | Sint Eustatius | Oranjestad | 21 km2 (8.1 sq mi) | 3,138 | 150/km2 (390/sq mi) | | Total | 328 km2 (127 sq mi) | 25,157 | 77/km2 (200/sq mi) | | ### Foreign relations The history of Dutch foreign policy has been characterised by its neutrality. Since World War II, the Netherlands has become a member of a large number of international organisations, most prominently the UN, NATO and the EU. The Dutch economy is very open and relies strongly on international trade. The foreign policy of the Netherlands is based on four basic commitments: to Atlantic co-operation, to European integration, to international development and to international law. One of the more controversial international issues surrounding the Netherlands is its liberal policy towards soft drugs. The historical ties inherited from its colonial past in Indonesia and Surinam still influence the foreign relations of the Netherlands. In addition, many people from these countries are living permanently in the Netherlands. ### Military The Netherlands has one of the oldest standing armies in Europe; it was first established as such by Maurice of Nassau in the late 1500s. The Dutch army was used throughout the Dutch Empire. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Dutch army was transformed into a conscription army. The army was unsuccessfully deployed during the Belgian Revolution in 1830. After 1830, it was deployed mainly in the Dutch colonies, as the Netherlands remained neutral in European wars (including the First World War), until the Netherlands was invaded in World War II and defeated by the Wehrmacht in May 1940. The Netherlands abandoned its neutrality in 1948 when it signed the Treaty of Brussels, and became a founding member of NATO in 1949. The Dutch military was therefore part of the NATO strength in Cold War Europe, deploying its army to several bases in Germany. More than 3,000 Dutch soldiers were assigned to the 2nd Infantry Division of the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1996 conscription was suspended, and the Dutch army was once again transformed into a professional army. Since the 1990s the Dutch army has been involved in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War, it held a province in Iraq after the defeat of Saddam Hussein, and it was engaged in Afghanistan. The Netherlands has ratified many international conventions concerning war law. The Netherlands decided not to sign the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The military is composed of four branches, all of which carry the prefix *Koninklijke* (Royal): * *Koninklijke Marine* (KM), the Royal Netherlands Navy, including the Naval Air Service and Marine Corps; * *Koninklijke Landmacht* (KL), the Royal Netherlands Army; * *Koninklijke Luchtmacht* (KLu), the Royal Netherlands Air Force; * *Koninklijke Marechaussee* (KMar), the Royal Marechaussee (Military Police), tasks include military police and border control. The submarine service opened to women on 1 January 2017. The Korps Commandotroepen, the Special Operations Force of the Netherlands Army, is open to women, but because of the extremely high physical demands for initial training, it is almost impossible for a woman to become a commando. The Dutch Ministry of Defence employs more than 70,000 personnel, including over 20,000 civilians and over 50,000 military personnel. Economy ------- The Netherlands has a developed economy and has been playing a special role in the European economy for many centuries. Since the 16th century, shipping, fishing, agriculture, trade, and banking have been leading sectors of the Dutch economy. The Netherlands has a high level of economic freedom. The Netherlands is one of the top countries in the Global Enabling Trade Report (2nd in 2016), and was ranked the fifth most competitive economy in the world by the Swiss International Institute for Management Development in 2017. In addition, the country was ranked the 5th most innovative nation in the world in the 2022 Global Innovation Index down from 2nd in 2018. As of 2020[update], the key trading partners of the Netherlands were Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Italy, China and Russia. The Netherlands is one of the world's 10 leading exporting countries. Foodstuffs form the largest industrial sector. Other major industries include chemicals, metallurgy, machinery, electrical goods, trade, services and tourism. Examples of international Dutch companies operating in the Netherlands include Randstad, Heineken, KLM, financial services (ING, ABN AMRO, Rabobank), chemicals (DSM, AKZO), petroleum refining (Royal Dutch Shell), electronic machinery (Philips, ASML), and satellite navigation (TomTom). The Netherlands has the 17th-largest economy in the world, and ranks 11th in GDP (nominal) per capita. The Netherlands has low income inequality, but wealth inequality is relatively high. Despite ranking 11th in GDP per capita, UNICEF ranked the Netherlands 1st in child well-being in rich countries, both in 2007 and in 2013. Amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the Netherlands. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange (AEX), part of Euronext, is the world's oldest stock exchange and is one of Europe's largest bourses. It is situated near Dam Square in the city's centre. As a founding member of the euro, the Netherlands replaced (for accounting purposes) its former currency, the "gulden" (guilder), on 1 January 1999, along with 15 other adopters of the euro. Actual euro coins and banknotes followed on 1 January 2002. One euro was equivalent to 2.20371 Dutch guilders. In the Caribbean Netherlands, the United States dollar is used instead of the euro. The Netherlands is a "conduit country" that helps to funnel profits from high-tax countries to tax havens. It has been ranked as the 4th largest tax haven in the world. The Dutch location gives it prime access to markets in the UK and Germany, with the Port of Rotterdam being the largest port in Europe. Other important parts of the economy are international trade (Dutch colonialism started with co-operative private enterprises such as the Dutch East India Company), banking and transport. The Netherlands successfully addressed the issue of public finances and stagnating job growth long before its European partners. Amsterdam is the 5th-busiest tourist destination in Europe, with more than 4.2 million international visitors. Since the enlargement of the EU, large numbers of migrant workers have arrived in the Netherlands from Central and Eastern Europe. The Netherlands continues to be one of the leading European nations for attracting foreign direct investment and is one of the five largest investors in the United States. The economy experienced a slowdown in 2005, but in 2006 recovered to the fastest pace in six years on the back of increased exports and strong investment. The pace of job growth reached 10-year highs in 2007. The Netherlands is the fourth-most competitive economy in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report. ### Energy Beginning in the 1950s, the Netherlands discovered huge natural gas resources. The sale of natural gas generated enormous revenues for the Netherlands for decades, adding, over sixty years, hundreds of billions of euros to the government's budget. However, the unforeseen consequences of the country's huge energy wealth impacted the competitiveness of other sectors of the economy, leading to the theory of Dutch disease. The field is operated by government-owned Gasunie and output is jointly exploited by the government, Royal Dutch Shell, and ExxonMobil. Gas production caused earthquakes which damaged housing. After a large public backlash, the government decided to phase out gas production from the field. The Netherlands has made notable progress in its transition to a carbon-neutral economy. Thanks to increasing energy efficiency, energy demand shows signs of decoupling from economic growth. The share of energy from renewable sources doubled from 2008 to 2019, with especially strong growth in offshore wind and rooftop solar. However, the Netherlands remains heavily reliant on fossil fuels and has a concentration of energy- and emission-intensive industries that will not be easy to decarbonise. Its 2019 Climate Agreement defines policies and measures to support the achievement of Dutch climate targets and was developed through a collaborative process involving parties from across Dutch society. As of 2018, the Netherlands had one of the highest rates of carbon dioxide emissions per person in the European Union. ### Agriculture and natural resources From a biological resource perspective, the Netherlands has a low endowment: the Netherlands' biocapacity totals only 0.8 global hectares per person in 2016, 0.2 of which are dedicated to agriculture. The Dutch biocapacity per person is just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity per person available worldwide. In contrast, in 2016, the Dutch used on average 4.8 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means the Dutch required nearly six times as much biocapacity as the Netherlands contains. As a result, the Netherlands was running a biocapacity deficit of 4.0 global hectares per person in 2016. In addition, the Dutch waste more food than any other EU citizen, at over three times the EU average. The Dutch agricultural sector is highly mechanised, and has a strong focus on international exports. It employs about 4% of the Dutch labour force but produces large surpluses in the food-processing industry and accounts for 21% of the Dutch total export value. The Dutch rank first in the European Union and second worldwide in value of agricultural exports, behind only the United States, with agricultural exports earning €80.7 billion in 2014, up from €75.4 billion in 2012. In 2019 agricultural exports were worth €94.5 billion. In an effort to reduce agricultural pollution, the Dutch government is imposing strict limits on the productivity of the farming sector, triggering Dutch farmers' protests, who fear for their livelihoods. One-third of the world's exports of chilis, tomatoes, and cucumbers go through the country. The Netherlands also exports one-fifteenth of the world's apples. A significant portion of Dutch agricultural exports consists of fresh-cut plants, flowers, and flower bulbs, with the Netherlands exporting two-thirds of the world's total. Demographics ------------ The Netherlands had an estimated population of 17,493,969 as of 30 April 2021. It is the 5th most densely populated country in Europe, and except for Malta and very small city-states like Monaco, Vatican City and San Marino, it is the most densely populated country in Europe. It is also the 16th most densely populated country in the world with a density of 424 per square kilometre (1,100/sq mi) and the 67th most populous country in the world. Between 1900 and 1950, the country's population almost doubled from 5.1 to 10 million. From 1950 to 2000, the population further increased, to 15.9 million, though this represented a lower rate of population growth. The fertility rate in the Netherlands is 1.78 children per woman (2018 estimate), which is high compared with many other European countries, but below the rate of 2.1 children per woman required for natural population replacement, it remains considerably below the high of 5.39 children born per woman in 1879. The Netherlands subsequently has one of the oldest populations in the world, with the average age of 42.7 years. Life expectancy is high in the Netherlands: 84.3 years for newborn girls and 79.7 for boys (2020 estimate). The Dutch are the tallest people in the world, by nationality, with an average height of 1.81 metres (5 ft 11.3 in) for men and 1.67 metres (5 ft 5.7 in) for women in 2009. The average height of young men in the Netherlands increased from 5 feet, 4 inches to approximately 6 feet between the 1850s until the early 2000s. The country has a migration rate of 1.9 migrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year. The majority of the population of the Netherlands is ethnically Dutch. In 2022, the population was 74.8% ethnically Dutch, 8.3% other European, 2.4% Turkish, 2.4% Moroccan, 2.0% Indonesian, 2.0% Surinamese, and 8.1% others. Some 150,000 to 200,000 people living in the Netherlands are expatriates, mostly concentrated in and around Amsterdam and The Hague, now constituting almost 10% of the population of these cities. According to Eurostat, in 2010 there were 1.8 million foreign-born residents in the Netherlands, corresponding to 11.1% of the total population. Of these, 1.4 million (8.5%) were born outside the EU and 0.43 million (2.6%) were born in another EU Member State. On 21 November 2016, there were 3.8 million residents in the Netherlands with at least one foreign-born parent ("migration background"). Over half the young people in Amsterdam and Rotterdam have a non-western background. Dutch people, or descendants of Dutch people, are also found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Canada, Australia, South Africa and the United States. According to the United States Census Bureau (2006), more than 5 million Americans claim total or partial Dutch ancestry. There are close to 3 million Dutch-descended Afrikaners living in South Africa. The Randstad is the country's largest conurbation located in the west of the country and contains the four largest cities: Amsterdam in the province North Holland, Rotterdam and The Hague in the province South Holland, and Utrecht in the province Utrecht. The Randstad has a population of about 8.2 million inhabitants and is the 5th largest metropolitan area in Europe. According to Dutch Central Statistics Bureau, in 2015, 28 per cent of the Dutch population had a spendable income above 45,000 euros (which does not include spending on health care or education). |   Largest municipalities in the NetherlandsStatistics Netherlands | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | | | AmsterdamAmsterdamRotterdamRotterdam | 1 | Amsterdam | North Holland | 905,234 | 11 | Apeldoorn | Gelderland | 165,648 | The HagueThe HagueUtrechtUtrecht | | 2 | Rotterdam | South Holland | 656,050 | 12 | Arnhem | Gelderland | 164,096 | | 3 | The Hague | South Holland | 552,995 | 13 | Haarlem | North Holland | 162,914 | | 4 | Utrecht | Utrecht | 361,924 | 14 | Enschede | Overijssel | 160,383 | | 5 | Eindhoven | North Brabant | 238,478 | 15 | Haarlemmermeer | North Holland | 159,346 | | 6 | Groningen | Groningen | 234,649 | 16 | Amersfoort | Utrecht | 158,712 | | 7 | Tilburg | North Brabant | 224,702 | 17 | Zaanstad | North Holland | 157,215 | | 8 | Almere | Flevoland | 218,096 | 18 | 's-Hertogenbosch | North Brabant | 156,599 | | 9 | Breda | North Brabant | 184,716 | 19 | Zwolle | Overijssel | 130,872 | | 10 | Nijmegen | Gelderland | 179,073 | 20 | Zoetermeer | South Holland | 125,867 | ### Language The official language is Dutch, which is spoken by the vast majority of the inhabitants. The dialects most spoken in the Netherlands are the Brabantian-Hollandic dialects. Besides Dutch, West Frisian is recognised as a second official language in the northern province of Friesland (*Fryslân* in West Frisian). West Frisian has a formal status for government correspondence in that province. Four other languages are protected under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The first of these recognised regional languages is Low Saxon (*Nedersaksisch* in Dutch). Low Saxon consists of several dialects of the Low German language spoken in the north and east of the Netherlands, like Tweants in the region of Twente, and Drents in the province of Drenthe. Secondly, Limburgish is also recognised as a regional language. It consists of Dutch varieties of Meuse-Rhenish Franconian languages and is spoken in the south-eastern province of Limburg. Yiddish and the Romani language were recognised in 1996 as non-territorial languages. English has a formal status in the special municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. It is widely spoken on these islands. Papiamento has a formal status in the special municipality of Bonaire. The Netherlands has a long tradition of learning foreign languages, formalised in Dutch education laws. Some 90% of the total population indicate they are able to converse in English, 70% in German, and 29% in French. English is a mandatory course in all secondary schools. In most lower level secondary school educations (vmbo), one additional modern foreign language is mandatory during the first two years. In higher level secondary schools (havo and vwo), the acquisition of two additional modern foreign language skills is mandatory during the first three years. During the last three years in vwo only one foreign language is mandatory. Besides English, the standard modern languages are French and German, although schools can replace one of these modern languages with Chinese, Spanish, Russian, Italian, Turkish or Arabic. Additionally, schools in Friesland teach and have exams in West Frisian, and secondary schools (called Gymnasium) across the country teach Ancient Greek and Latin. ### Religion Religious identification in the Netherlands (2020)   Irreligious (55.4%)  Catholic (19.8%)  Protestant (14.4%)  Muslim (5.2%)  Other (5.1%) Forms of Christianity have dominated religious life in what is now the Netherlands for more than 1,200 years, and by the middle of the sixteenth century the country was strongly Protestant (Calvinist). The population of the Netherlands was predominantly Christian until the late 20th century, divided into a number of denominations. Although significant religious diversity remains, there has been a decline of religious adherence. The Netherlands is now one of the most secular societies in the world. In 2020, Statistics Netherlands found that 55% of the total population declared itself to be non-religious. Groups that represent the non-religious in the Netherlands include Humanistisch Verbond. Catholics comprised 19.8% of the total population, Protestants (14.4%). Muslims comprised 5.2% of the total population and followers of other Christian denominations and other religions (like Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism) comprised the remaining 5.1%. A 2015 survey from another source found that Protestants outnumbered Catholics. The southern provinces of North Brabant and Limburg have historically been strongly Catholic, and some residents consider the Catholic Church as a base for their cultural identity. Protestantism in the Netherlands consists of a number of churches within various traditions. The largest of these is the Protestant Church in the Netherlands (PKN), a united church which is Calvinist and Lutheran in orientation. It was formed in 2004 as a merger of the Dutch Reformed Church, the Reformed Churches in the Netherlands and a smaller Lutheran Church. Several orthodox Calvinist and liberal churches did not merge into the PKN. Although in the Netherlands as a whole Christianity has become a minority, the Netherlands contains a Bible Belt from Zeeland to the northern parts of the province Overijssel, in which Protestant (particularly Calvinist) beliefs remain strong, and even has majorities in municipal councils. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost, and the Ascension of Jesus). Islam is the second largest religion in the state. The Muslim population increased from the 1960 as a result of large numbers of migrant workers. This included migrant workers from Turkey and Morocco, as well as migrants from former Dutch colonies, such as Surinam and Indonesia. During the 1990s, Muslim refugees arrived from countries like Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, and Afghanistan. Another religion practised is Hinduism, with around 215,000 adherents (slightly over 1% of the population). Most of these are Indo-Surinamese. There are also sizeable populations of Hindu immigrants from India and Sri Lanka, and some Western adherents of Hinduism-orientated new religious movements such as Hare Krishnas. The Netherlands has an estimated 250,000 Buddhists or people strongly attracted to this religion, mainly ethnic Dutch people. In addition, there are about 45,000 Jews in the Netherlands. The Constitution of the Netherlands guarantees freedom of education, which means that all schools that adhere to general quality criteria receive the same government funding. This includes schools based on religious principles by religious groups (especially Catholic and various Protestant). Three political parties in the Dutch parliament, (CDA, and two small parties, ChristianUnion and SGP) are based upon the Christian belief. Several Christian religious holidays are national holidays (Christmas, Easter, Pentecost and the Ascension of Jesus). Upon the country's independence, Protestants were predominant in most of the country, while Roman Catholics were dominant in the south, especially North Brabant and Limburg. In the late 19th century, secularism, atheism and pillarisation gained adherents. By 1960, Catholics equalled Protestants in number; thereafter, both Christian branches began to decline. Conversely, Islam grew considerably as the result of immigration. Since 2000 there has been raised awareness of religion, mainly due to Muslim extremism. A survey in December 2014 concluded that for the first time there were more atheists (25%) than theists (17%) in the Netherlands, while the remainder of the population was agnostic (31%) or ietsistic (27%). In 2015, a vast majority of the inhabitants of the Netherlands (82%) said they had never or almost never visited a church, and 59% stated that they had never been to a church of any kind. Of all the people questioned, 24% saw themselves as atheist, an increase of 11% compared to the previous study done in 2006. The expected rise of spirituality (ietsism) has come to a halt according to research in 2015. In 2006, 40% of respondents considered themselves spiritual; in 2015 this has dropped to 31%. The number who believed in the existence of a higher power fell from 36% to 28% over the same period. ### Education Education in the Netherlands is compulsory between the ages of 5 and 16. If a child does not have a "starting qualification" (HAVO, VWO or MBO 2+ degree) they are still forced to attend classes until they achieve such a qualification or reach the age of 18. Children in the Netherlands attend elementary school from (on average) ages 4 to 12. It has eight grades and first is facultative. Based on an aptitude test, the eighth grade teacher's recommendation and the opinion of the pupil's parents or caretakers, a choice is made for one of the three main streams of secondary education. After completing a particular stream, a pupil may still continue in the penultimate year of the next stream. The VMBO has four grades and is subdivided over several levels. Successfully completing the VMBO results in a low-level vocational degree that grants access to the MBO. The MBO (middle-level applied education) is a form of education that primarily focuses on teaching a practical trade or a vocational degree. With the MBO certification, a student can apply for the HBO. The HAVO has 5 grades and allows for admission to the HBO. The HBO (higher professional education) are universities of professional education (applied sciences) that award professional bachelor's degrees; similar to polytechnic degrees. An HBO degree gives access to the university system. The VWO (comprising atheneum and gymnasium) has 6 grades and prepares for studying at a research university. Universities offer a three-year bachelor's degree, followed by a one or two-year master's degree, which in turn can be followed by a four or five-year doctoral degree programme. Doctoral candidates in the Netherlands are generally non-tenured employees of a university. All Dutch schools and universities are publicly funded and managed with the exception of religious schools that are publicly funded but not managed by the state even though requirements are necessary for the funding to be authorised. Dutch universities have a tuition fee of about 2,000 euros a year for students from the Netherlands and the European Union. The amount is about 10,000 euros for non-EU students. ### Healthcare In 2016, the Netherlands maintained its number one position at the top of the annual Euro health consumer index (EHCI), which compares healthcare systems in Europe, scoring 916 of a maximum 1,000 points. The Netherlands has been among the top three countries in each report published since 2005. On 48 indicators such as patient rights and information, accessibility, prevention and outcomes, the Netherlands secured its top position among 37 European countries for six years in a row. The Netherlands was ranked first in a study in 2009 comparing the health care systems of the United States, Australia, Canada, Germany and New Zealand. Ever since a major reform of the health care system in 2006, the Dutch system received more points in the Index each year. According to the HCP (Health Consumer Powerhouse), the Netherlands has 'a chaos system', meaning patients have a great degree of freedom from where to buy their health insurance, to where they get their healthcare service. The difference between the Netherlands and other countries is that the chaos is managed. Healthcare decisions are being made in a dialogue between the patients and healthcare professionals. Health insurance in the Netherlands is mandatory. Healthcare in the Netherlands is covered by two statutory forms of insurance: * Zorgverzekeringswet (ZVW), often called "basic insurance", covers common medical care. * Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten (AWBZ) covers long-term nursing and care. While Dutch residents are automatically insured by the government for AWBZ, everyone has to take out their own basic healthcare insurance (basisverzekering), except those under 18 who are automatically covered under their parents' premium. If a person decides not to carry out an insurance coverage, the person may be fined. Insurers have to offer a universal package for everyone over the age of 18 years, regardless of age or state of health – it's illegal to refuse an application or impose special conditions. In contrast to many other European systems, the Dutch government is responsible for the accessibility and quality of the healthcare system in the Netherlands, but not in charge of its management. Healthcare in the Netherlands can be divided in several ways: three echelons, in somatic and mental health care and in 'cure' (short term) and 'care' (long term). Home doctors (*huisartsen*, comparable to general practitioners) form the largest part of the first echelon. Being referenced by a member of the first echelon is mandatory for access to the second and third echelon. The health care system is in comparison to other Western countries quite effective but not the most cost-effective. Healthcare in the Netherlands is financed by a dual system that came into effect in January 2006. Long-term treatments, especially those that involve semi-permanent hospitalisation, and also disability costs such as wheelchairs, are covered by a state-controlled mandatory insurance. This is laid down in the *Algemene Wet Bijzondere Ziektekosten* ("General Law on Exceptional Healthcare Costs") which first came into effect in 1968. In 2009 this insurance covered 27% of all health care expenses. For all regular (short-term) medical treatment, there is a system of obligatory health insurance, with private health insurance companies. These insurance companies are obliged to provide a package with a defined set of insured treatments. This insurance covers 41% of all health care expenses. Other sources of health care payment are taxes (14%), out of pocket payments (9%), additional optional health insurance packages (4%) and a range of other sources (4%). Affordability is guaranteed through a system of income-related allowances and individual and employer-paid income-related premiums. A key feature of the Dutch system is that premiums may not be related to health status or age. Risk variances between private health insurance companies due to the different risks presented by individual policy holders are compensated through risk equalisation and a common risk pool. The funding burden for all short-term health care coverage is carried 50% by employers, 45% by the insured person and 5% by the government. Children under 18 are covered for free. Those on low incomes receive compensation to help them pay their insurance. Premiums paid by the insured are about €100 per month (about US$127 in August 2010 and €150 or US$196 in 2012), with variation of about 5% between the various competing insurers, and a yearly deductible of €220 (US$288). Transport --------- Mobility on Dutch roads has grown continuously since the 1950s and now exceeds 200 billion km travelled per year, three quarters of which are done by car. Around half of all trips in the Netherlands are made by car, 25% by bicycle, 20% walking, and 5% by public transport. ### Road transport The Netherlands has one of the densest road networks in the world—much denser than Germany and France, but still not as dense as Belgium. The Netherlands has a relatively high uptake of electric vehicles, as the government implemented ambitious policy on both charging infrastructure and tax benefits. As of 2019, the Netherlands hosts approximately 30% of all recharging stations in the European Union. Moreover, newly sold cars in the Netherlands have on average the lowest CO2 emissions in the EU. ### Public transport About 13% of all distance is travelled by public transport, the majority of which by train. Like in many other European countries, the Dutch rail network of 3,013 km route is also rather dense. The network is mostly focused on passenger rail services and connects all major towns and cities, with over 400 stations. Trains are frequent, with two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on average, and up to eight trains an hour on the busiest lines. The Dutch national train network also includes the HSL-Zuid, a high-speed line between the Amsterdam metropolitan area and the Belgian border for trains running from Paris and London to the Netherlands. ### Cycling Cycling is a ubiquitous mode of transport in the Netherlands. Almost as many kilometres are covered by bicycle as by train. The Dutch are estimated to have at least 18 million bicycles, which makes more than one per capita, and twice as many as the circa 9 million motor vehicles on the road. In 2013, the European Cyclists' Federation ranked both the Netherlands and Denmark as the most bike-friendly countries in Europe, but more of the Dutch (36%) than of the Danes (23%) list the bike as their most frequent mode of transport on a typical day. Cycling infrastructure is comprehensive. Busy roads have received some 35,000 km of dedicated cycle tracks, physically segregated from motorised traffic. Busy junctions are often equipped with bicycle-specific traffic lights. There are large bicycle parking facilities, particularly in city centres and at train stations. ### Water transport Until the introduction of trains, ships were the primary mode of transport in the Netherlands. And shipping has remained crucial afterwards. The Port of Rotterdam is the largest port in Europe and the largest port in the world outside East-Asia, with the rivers Meuse and Rhine providing excellent access to the hinterland upstream reaching to Basel, Switzerland, and into Germany and France. As of 2022[update], Rotterdam was the world's tenth largest container port. The port's main activities are petrochemical industries and general cargo handling and transshipment. The harbour functions as an important transit point for bulk materials and between the European continent and overseas. From Rotterdam goods are transported by ship, river barge, train or road. The Volkeraksluizen between Rotterdam and Antwerp are the biggest sluices for inland navigation in the world in terms of tonnage passing through them. In 2007, the Betuweroute, a new fast freight railway from Rotterdam to Germany, was completed. The Netherlands also hosts Europe's 4th largest port in Amsterdam. The inland shipping fleet of the Netherlands is the largest in Europe. The Netherlands also has the largest fleet of active historical ships in the world. Boats are used for passenger travel as well, such as the Watertaxies in Rotterdam. The ferry network in Amsterdam and the Waterbus network in Rotterdam are part of the public transport system. ### Air transport Schiphol Airport, just southwest of Amsterdam, is the main international airport in the Netherlands, and the third busiest airport in Europe by number of passengers. Schiphol is the main hub for KLM, the nation's flag carrier and the world's oldest airline. In 2016, the Royal Schiphol Group airports handled 70 million passengers. All air traffic is international and Schiphol Airport is connected to over 300 destinations worldwide, more than any other European airport. The airport is a major freight hub as well, processing 1.44 million tonnes of cargo in 2020. Smaller international airports are located in or near Eindhoven, Rotterdam, Maastricht and Groningen. Air transport is of vital significance for the Caribbean part of the Netherlands, with all islands having their own airport. This includes the shortest runway in the world on Saba. Culture ------- ### Art, architecture and philosophy *The Tower of Babel* by Brabantine artist Pieter Bruegel the Elder*Water Mill at Kollen Near Nuenen* by Brabantine artist Vincent van GoghThe Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam The Netherlands has had many well-known painters. In the Middle Ages Hieronymus Bosch and Pieter Bruegel the Elder were leading Dutch pioneers. During the Dutch Golden Age, the Dutch Republic was prosperous and witnessed a flourishing artistic movement. The "Dutch Masters", spanning this 17th century era, included Rembrandt van Rijn, Johannes Vermeer, Jan Steen, and Jacob van Ruisdael. Famous Dutch painters of the 19th and 20th century included Vincent van Gogh and Piet Mondrian. M. C. Escher is a well-known graphic artist. Literature flourished as well during the Dutch Golden Age, with Joost van den Vondel and P. C. Hooft as the most famous writers. In the 19th century, Multatuli wrote about the poor treatment of the natives in the Dutch colony. *Diary of a Young Girl* by Anne Frank is the most translated book from Dutch. Other important 20th century authors include Harry Mulisch, Jan Wolkers, Hella S. Haasse, Willem Frederik Hermans, Cees Nooteboom and Gerard Reve. Janwillem van de Wetering wrote successful detectives, Dick Bruna (doubling as illustrator) and Annie M. G. Schmidt children's books. Various architectural styles can be distinguished in the Netherlands. The Romanesque architecture was built between the years 950 and 1250. This architectural style is most concentrated in the provinces of Gelderland and Limburg. The Gothic architecture was used in the Netherlands from about 1230. Gothic buildings had large windows, pointed arches and were richly decorated. Brabantine Gothic originated with the rise of the Duchy of Brabant and spread throughout the Burgundian provinces. Dutch Baroque architecture (1525 – 1630) and classicism (1630 – 1700) is especially evident in the west of the Netherlands. Other common architectural styles are Style Louis XIV, Art Nouveau, Rationalism, Neoclassicism, Expressionism, De Stijl, Traditionalism and Brutalism. Erasmus and Spinoza were famous Dutch philosophers. The Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens (1629–1695) discovered Saturn's moon Titan, argued that light travelled as waves, invented the pendulum clock, and was the first physicist to use mathematical formulae. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and describe single-celled organisms with a microscope. Windmills, tulips, wooden shoes, cheese, Delftware pottery, and cannabis have grown to symbolize the Netherlands, especially among tourists. ### Dutch value system Dutch society is egalitarian and modern. The Dutch have an aversion to the non-essential. Ostentatious behaviour is to be avoided. The Dutch are proud of their cultural heritage, rich history in art and involvement in international affairs. A Dutch saying indicating their sense of national pride in their reclamation of land from the sea and marshes is "God created the world, but the Dutch created the Netherlands." Dutch manners are open and direct with a no-nonsense attitude—informality combined with adherence to basic behaviour. According to a humorous source on Dutch culture, "Their directness gives many the impression that they are rude and crude—attributes they prefer to call openness." A well known more serious source on Dutch etiquette is "Dealing with the Dutch" by Jacob Vossestein: "Dutch egalitarianism is the idea that people are equal, especially from a moral point of view, and accordingly, causes the somewhat ambiguous stance the Dutch have towards hierarchy and status." As always, manners differ between groups. Asking about basic rules will not be considered impolite. "What may strike you as being blatantly blunt topics and comments are no more embarrassing or unusual to the Dutch than discussing the weather." The Netherlands is one of the most secular countries of Europe, and religion in the Netherlands is generally considered as a personal matter which is not supposed to be propagated in public, although it often remains a discussion subject. For only 17% of the population religion is important and 14% goes to church weekly. The Netherlands has a long history of social tolerance and today is regarded as a liberal country, considering its drug policy and its legalisation of euthanasia. On 1 April 2001, the Netherlands became the first nation to legalise same-sex marriage. ### Music The Netherlands has multiple music traditions. Traditional Dutch music is a genre known as "Levenslied", meaning *Song of life*, to an extent comparable to a French Chanson or a German Schlager. These songs typically have a simple melody and rhythm, and a straightforward structure of verses and choruses. Themes can be light, but are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are a staple of levenslied music, though in recent years many artists also use synthesisers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Jan Smit, Frans Bauer and André Hazes. Contemporary Dutch rock and pop music (Nederpop) originated in the 1960s, heavily influenced by popular music from the United States and Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s the lyrics were mostly in English, and some tracks were instrumental. Bands such as Shocking Blue, Golden Earring, Tee Set, George Baker Selection and Focus enjoyed international success. From the 1980s, more and more pop musicians started working in the Dutch language, partly inspired by the huge success of the band Doe Maar. Today Dutch rock and pop music thrives in both languages, with some artists recording in both. Current symphonic metal bands Epica, Delain, ReVamp, The Gathering, Asrai, Autumn, Ayreon and Within Temptation as well as jazz and pop singer Caro Emerald are having international success. Also, metal bands like Hail of Bullets, God Dethroned, Izegrim, Asphyx, Textures, Present Danger, Heidevolk and Slechtvalk are popular guests at the biggest metal festivals in Europe. Contemporary local stars include pop singer Anouk, country pop singer Ilse DeLange, South Guelderish and Limburgish dialect singing folk band Rowwen Hèze, rock band BLØF and duo Nick & Simon. Trijntje Oosterhuis, one of the country's most well known and versatile singers, has made multiple albums with famous American composers Vince Mendoza and Burt Bacharach. Early 1990s Dutch and Belgian house music came together in Eurodance project 2 Unlimited. Selling 18 million records, the two singers in the band are the most successful Dutch music artists to this day. Tracks like "Get Ready for This" are still popular themes of U.S. sports events, like the NHL. In the mid-1990s Dutch language rap and hip hop (*Nederhop*) also came to fruition and has become popular in the Netherlands and Belgium. Artists with North African, Caribbean or Middle Eastern origins have strongly influenced this genre. Since the 1990s, Dutch electronic dance music (EDM) gained widespread popularity in the world in many forms, from trance, techno and gabber to hardstyle. Some of the world's best known dance music DJs hail from the Netherlands, including Armin van Buuren, Tiësto, Hardwell, Martin Garrix, Dash Berlin, Julian Jordan, Nicky Romero, W&W, Don Diablo, Ummet Ozcan, Headhunterz, Sander van Doorn and Afrojack; the first four of which have been ranked as best in the world by DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. The Amsterdam Dance Event (ADE) is the world's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. The Netherlands has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest since its first edition in 1956, and has won five times. In classical music, Jan Sweelinck ranks as the most famous Dutch composer, with Louis Andriessen amongst the best known contemporary Dutch classical composers. Ton Koopman is a Dutch conductor, organist and harpsichordist. Notable violinists are Janine Jansen and André Rieu. The latter, together with his Johann Strauss Orchestra, has taken classical and waltz music on worldwide concert tours, the size and revenue of which are otherwise only seen from the world's biggest rock and pop music acts. ### Film and television Some Dutch films – mainly by director Paul Verhoeven – have received international distribution and recognition, such as *Turkish Delight* ("*Turks Fruit*", 1973), *Soldier of Orange* ("*Soldaat van Oranje*", 1977), *Spetters* (1980) and *The Fourth Man* ("*De Vierde Man*", 1983). Verhoeven then went on to direct big Hollywood movies like *RoboCop* (1987), *Total Recall* (1990) and *Basic Instinct* (1992), and returned with Dutch film *Black Book* ("*Zwartboek*", 2006). Other well-known Dutch film directors are Jan de Bont (*Speed*), Anton Corbijn (*A Most wanted Man*), Dick Maas (*De Lift*), Fons Rademakers (*The Assault*), and documentary makers Bert Haanstra and Joris Ivens. Film director Theo van Gogh achieved international notoriety in 2004 when he was murdered by Mohammed Bouyeri in the streets of Amsterdam after directing the short film *Submission*. Internationally, successful directors of photography from the Netherlands are Hoyte van Hoytema (*Interstellar*, *Spectre*, *Dunkirk*) and Theo van de Sande (*Wayne's World* and *Blade*). Van Hoytema went to the National Film School in Łódź (Poland) and Van de Sande went to the Netherlands Film Academy. Internationally successful Dutch actors include Famke Janssen (*X-Men*), Carice van Houten (*Game of Thrones*), Michiel Huisman (*Game of Thrones*), Rutger Hauer (*Blade Runner*), Jeroen Krabbé (*The Living Daylights*) and Derek de Lint (*Three Men and a Baby*). The Netherlands has a well developed television market, with both multiple commercial and public broadcasters. Imported TV programmes, as well as interviews with responses in a foreign language, are virtually always shown with the original sound and subtitled. Only foreign shows for children are dubbed. TV exports from the Netherlands mostly take the form of specific formats and franchises, most notably through internationally active TV production conglomerate Endemol, founded by Dutch media tycoons John de Mol and Joop van den Ende. Headquartered in Amsterdam, Endemol has around 90 companies in over 30 countries. Endemol and its subsidiaries create and run reality, talent, and game show franchises worldwide, including *Big Brother* and *Deal or No Deal*. John de Mol later started his own company Talpa which created show franchises like *The Voice* and *Utopia*. ### Sports Approximately 4.5 million of the 16.8 million people in the Netherlands are registered in one of the 35,000 sports clubs in the country. About two-thirds of the population between 15 and 75 participate in sports weekly. Football is the most popular team sport in the Netherlands, followed by field hockey and volleyball. Tennis, gymnastics and golf are the three most widely engaged in individual sports. Organisation of sports began at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Federations for sports were established, rules were unified and sports clubs came into existence. A Dutch National Olympic Committee was established in 1912. The national football team was runner-up in the World Cup of 1974, 1978, and 2010, and won the European Championship of 1988. Of SI's 50 greatest footballers of all time, Johan Cruyff (#5), Marco van Basten (#19), Ruud Gullit (#25), and Johan Neeskens (#36) are Dutch. The women's national team was runner-up in 2019 World Cup and won the European Championship of 2017. The Netherlands women's field hockey team won 9 out of 15 World Cups. The Netherlands baseball team have won the European championship 24 times out of 33 events. The volleyball national women's team won the European Championship in 1995 and the World Grand Prix in 2007. The Netherlands has won 266 medals at the Summer Olympic Games and another 110 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. Joop Zoetemelk won the 1979 Vuelta a Espana, the 1980 Tour de France, and the 1985 UCI World Championship. Jan Janssen won the 1968 Tour de France, Tom Dumoulin the 2017 Giro d'Italia. Max Verstappen, the youngest Formula 1 driver to make his debut and to win a race, was the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix and a Formula One World Drivers Championship. Dutch K-1 kickboxers have won the K-1 World Grand Prix 15 times out of 19 tournaments. ### Cuisine Originally, the country's cuisine was shaped by the practices of fishing and farming, including the cultivation of the soil for growing crops and raising domesticated animals. Dutch cuisine is simple and straightforward, and contains many dairy products. Breakfast and lunch are typically bread with toppings, with cereal for breakfast as an alternative. Traditionally, dinner consists of potatoes, a portion of meat, and (seasonal) vegetables. The Dutch diet was relatively high in carbohydrates and fat, reflecting the dietary needs of the labourers whose culture moulded the country. Without many refinements, it is best described as rustic, though many holidays are still celebrated with special foods. In the course of the twentieth century this diet changed and became much more cosmopolitan, with most global cuisines being represented in the major cities. Modern culinary writers distinguish between three general regional forms of Dutch cuisine. The regions in the northeast of the Netherlands, roughly the provinces of Groningen, Friesland, Drenthe, Overijssel and Gelderland north of the great rivers are the least populated areas of the Netherlands. The late (18th century) introduction of large scale agriculture means that the cuisine is generally known for its many kinds of meats. The relative lack of farms allowed for an abundance of game and husbandry, though dishes near the coastal regions of Friesland, Groningen and the parts of Overijssel bordering the IJsselmeer also include a large amount of fish. The various dried sausages, belonging to the metworst-family of Dutch sausages are found throughout this region and are highly prized for their often very strong taste. Also smoked sausages are common, of which (*Gelderse*) *rookworst* is the most renowned. The sausage contains a lot of fat and is very juicy. Larger sausages are often eaten alongside *stamppot*, *hutspot* or *zuurkool* (sauerkraut); whereas smaller ones are often eaten as a street food. The provinces are also home to hard textured rye bread, pastries and cookies, the latter heavily spiced with ginger or succade or containing small bits of meat. Various kinds of *Kruidkoek* (such as Groninger koek), *Fryske dúmkes* and *spekdikken* (small savoury pancakes cooked in a waffle iron) are considered typical. A notable characteristic of *Fries roggebrood* (Frisian rye bread) is its long baking time (up to 20 hours), resulting in a sweet taste and a deep dark colour. As a coastal region, Friesland is home to low-lying grasslands, and thus has a cheese production in common with the Western cuisine. *Friese Nagelkaas* (Friesian Clove) is a notable example. The *oliebol* (in its modern form) and *Zeeuwse bolus* are good examples. Cookies are also produced in great number and tend to contain a lot of butter and sugar, like *stroopwafel*, as well as a filling of some kind, mostly almond, like *gevulde koek*. The traditional alcoholic beverages of this region are beer (strong pale lager) and *Jenever*, a high proof juniper-flavoured spirit, that came to be known in England as gin. A noted exception within the traditional Dutch alcoholic landscape, *Advocaat*, a rich and creamy liqueur made from eggs, sugar and brandy, is also native to this region. The provinces of North Holland, South Holland, Zeeland, and Utrecht and the Gelderlandic area of Betuwe make up the region in which western Dutch cuisine is found. Because of the abundance of water and flat grasslands that are found here, the area is known for its many dairy products, which include prominent cheeses such as Gouda, Leyden (spiced cheese with cumin), and Edam (traditionally in small spheres) as well as Leerdammer and Beemster, while the adjacent Zaanstreek in North Holland has since the 16th century been known for its mayonnaise, typical whole-grain mustards, and chocolate industry. A by-product of the butter-making process, *karnemelk* (buttermilk), is also considered typical for this region. Seafood such as soused herring, mussels (called *Zeeuwse Mossels*, since all Dutch mussels for consumption are cleaned in Zeeland's Oosterschelde), eels, oysters and shrimps are widely available and typical for the region. *Kibbeling*, once a local delicacy consisting of small chunks of battered white fish, has become a national fast food, just as lekkerbek. The Southern Dutch cuisine consists of the cuisines of the Dutch provinces of North Brabant and Limburg and the Flemish Region in Belgium. It is renowned for its many rich pastries, soups, stews and vegetable dishes and is often called Burgundian which is a Dutch idiom invoking the rich Burgundian court which ruled the Low Countries in the Middle Ages, renowned for its splendour and great feasts. It is the only Dutch culinary region that developed an haute cuisine. Pastries are abundant, often with rich fillings of cream, custard or fruits. Cakes, such as the *Vlaai* from Limburg and the *Moorkop* and *Bossche Bol* from Brabant, are typical pastries. Savoury pastries also occur, with the *worstenbroodje* (a roll with a sausage of ground beef, literally translates into sausage bread) being the most popular. The traditional alcoholic beverage of the region is beer. There are many local brands, ranging from *Trappist* to *Kriek*. 5 of the 10 *International Trappist Association* recognised breweries in the world, are located in the Southern Dutch cultural area. Beer, like wine in French cuisine, is also used in cooking; often in stews. In early 2014, Oxfam ranked the Netherlands as the country with the most nutritious, plentiful and healthy food, in a comparison of 125 countries. See also -------- * Outline of the Netherlands Further reading --------------- Geography and environment * Burke, Gerald L. *The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries*. (1960) Hassell Street Press 2021. ISBN 978-1013598852 * Lambert, Audrey M. *The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands* (1985) ISBN 978-0128670507; focus on the history of land reclamation * Meijer, Henk. *Compact geography of the Netherlands* (1985) * Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. *Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg* (1975) online History * Paul Arblaster. *A History of the Low Countries*. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp. ISBN 978-1-4039-4828-1. * J. C. H. Blom and E. Lamberts, eds. *History of the Low Countries* (1998) * J. A. Kossmann-Putto and E. H. Kossmann. *The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands* (1987) * Amry Vandenbosch, *Dutch Foreign Policy since 1815* (1959). Economic indicators * Holland Compared 2nd edition 2017 – 95 page booklet by Holland's commercial website, with facts and figures about the Netherlands, comparing the country's economic indicators with those of other countries. Articles General information * Netherlands. *The World Factbook*. Central Intelligence Agency. * Netherlands from UCB Libraries GovPubs * Netherlands at Curlie * Edmundson, George (1911). "Netherlands". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 19 (11th ed.). pp. 413–421. * I am Expat – General information about the Netherlands * Netherlands: Map, History, Government, Culture & Facts | Infoplease.com * Netherlands profile from the BBC News * Wikimedia Atlas of Netherlands * Geographic data related to Netherlands at OpenStreetMap * Key Development Forecasts for the Netherlands from International Futures Government * Overheid.nl – official Dutch government portal * Government.nl – official Dutch government web site * Statistics Netherlands (CBS) – Key figures from the Dutch bureau of statistics * "Provinces of Netherlands". *Statoids*. Travel * Holland.com – English website of the Netherlands tourist office * nbtc.nl Archived 17 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine – Organisation responsible for promoting the Netherlands nationally and internationally Photographs * An album of photos of Holland (Netherlands) in 1935 and 1958

Netherlands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands

The **House of Lords** is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Like the lower house, the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster in London, England. In contrast to the House of Commons, members of the House of Lords are not generally elected. Instead, membership is granted for life through political, inherited, non-political or ecclesiastical appointment. In 1999, the practice of hereditary membership was partially abolished. Today, a small number of hereditary peers are elected by internal by-elections, or appointed upon succession as the Earl Marshal or Lord Great Chamberlain. Since 2014, membership may be voluntarily relinquished or terminated upon expulsion. As the upper house of Parliament, the House of Lords has many similar functions to the House of Commons. For example it scrutinises legislation, holds the government accountable, and considers and reports upon public policy. Peers may also seek to introduce legislation or propose amendments to bills. While it is unable to prevent bills passing into law, except in certain limited circumstances, it may delay the enactment of bills for up to one year. In this capacity, as a body independent from the pressures of the political process, the House of Lords is said to act as a 'revising chamber' which focusses on legislative detail, whilst occasionally asking the House of Commons to reconsider its plans. While Peers may also serve as government ministers, they are typically only selected to serve as junior ministers. The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government; only the House of Commons may vote to require the prime minister to resign or call an election. While the House of Commons has a defined number of members, the number of members in the House of Lords is not fixed. Currently, it has 778 sitting members. The House of Lords is the only upper house of any bicameral parliament in the world to be larger than its lower house, and is the second-largest legislative chamber in the world behind the Chinese National People's Congress. The King's Speech is delivered in the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. In addition to its role as the upper house, until the establishment of the Supreme Court in 2009, the House of Lords, through the Law Lords, acted as the final court of appeal in the United Kingdom judicial system. The House of Lords also has a Church of England role, in that Church Measures must be tabled within the House by the Lords Spiritual. The House of Lords is one of the oldest institutions in the world, its origins lying in the early 11th century and the emergence of bicameralism in the 13th century. History ------- Today's Parliament of the United Kingdom largely descends, in practice, from the Parliament of England, through the Treaty of Union of 1706 and the Acts of Union that ratified the Treaty in 1707 and created a new Parliament of Great Britain to replace the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. This new parliament was, in effect, the continuation of the Parliament of England with the addition of 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) and 16 Peers to represent Scotland. The House of Lords developed from the "Great Council" (*Magnum Concilium*) that advised the king during medieval times, dating back to the early 11th century. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be either Simon de Montfort's Parliament (held in 1265) or the "Model Parliament" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of Edward II (1307–1327), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. During the reign of King Edward II's successor, Edward III, Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the archbishops, bishops, abbots and nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and during the early 15th century both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons because of the great influence of the great landowners and the prelates of the realm. The power of the nobility declined during the civil wars of the late 15th century, known as the Wars of the Roses. Much of the nobility was killed on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, feudalism was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Henry VII (1485–1509) clearly established the supremacy of the monarch, symbolised by the "Crown Imperial". The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the Tudor monarchs in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of Henry VIII (1509–1547). The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House continued to grow in influence, reaching a zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the English Civil War during the 1640s. In 1649, after the defeat and execution of King Charles I, the Commonwealth of England was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland. The House of Lords was reduced to a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On 19 March 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that "The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England." The House of Lords did not assemble again until the Convention Parliament met in 1660 and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament—a position it would occupy until the 19th century. ### 19th century The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of George III and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole decreased, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Act of 1832. The electoral system of the House of Commons was far from democratic: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as Manchester had not even one representative in the House of Commons, while the 11 voters of Old Sarum retained their ancient right to elect two MPs despite living elsewhere. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous "pocket boroughs", and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons. When the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies in 1831, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in 1832. Prime Minister Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey advised the King to overwhelm opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. William IV originally balked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords but did not altogether end it. A vital reform was effected by the Lords themselves in 1868, when they changed their standing orders to abolish proxy voting, preventing Lords from voting without taking the trouble to attend. Over the course of the century the powers of the upper house were further reduced stepwise, culminating in the 20th century with the Parliament Act 1911; the Commons gradually became the stronger House of Parliament. ### 20th century The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront of debate after the election of a Liberal Government in 1906. In 1909 the Chancellor of the Exchequer, David Lloyd George, introduced into the House of Commons the "People's Budget", which proposed a land tax targeting wealthy landowners. The popular measure, however, was defeated in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were narrowly re-elected in January 1910. The Liberals had lost most of their support in the Lords, which was routinely rejecting Liberals' bills. Prime Minister H. H. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. After a further general election in December 1910, and with a reluctant promise by King George V to create sufficient new Liberal peers to overcome the Lords' opposition to the measure if necessary, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Parliament Act 1911 effectively abolished the power of the House of Lords to reject legislation, or to amend it in a way unacceptable to the House of Commons; and most bills could be delayed for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. It was not meant to be a permanent solution; more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued reforms with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. The Parliament Act 1949 reduced the delaying power of the House of Lords further to two sessions or one year. In 1958, the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the Life Peerages Act 1958, which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. The number of life peers then gradually increased, though not at a constant rate. The Labour Party had, for most of the 20th century, a commitment, based on the party's historic opposition to class privilege, to abolish the House of Lords, or at least expel the hereditary element. In 1968 the Labour Government of Harold Wilson attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a coalition of traditionalist Conservatives (such as Enoch Powell), and Labour members who continued to advocate the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as Michael Foot). When Foot became leader of the Labour Party in 1980, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under his successor, Neil Kinnock, however, a reformed Upper House was proposed instead. In the meantime, the creation of new hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three that were created during the administration of Conservative PM Margaret Thatcher in the 1980s. Whilst some hereditary peers were at best apathetic, the Labour Party's clear commitments were not lost on Merlin Hanbury-Tracy, 7th Baron Sudeley, who for decades was considered an expert on the House of Lords. In December 1979 the Conservative Monday Club published his extensive paper entitled *Lords Reform – Why tamper with the House of Lords?* and in July 1980 *The Monarchist* carried another article by Sudeley entitled "Why Reform or Abolish the House of Lords?". In 1990 he wrote a further booklet for the Monday Club entitled "The Preservation of the House of Lords". ### 21st century In 2019, a seven-month enquiry by Naomi Ellenbogen QC found that one in five staff of the House had experienced bullying or harassment which they did not report for fear of reprisals. This was preceded by several cases, including Liberal Democrat Anthony Lester, Lord Lester of Herne Hill, of Lords using their position to sexually harass or abuse women. #### Proposed move On 19 January 2020, it was announced that the House of Lords may be moved from London to a city in Northern England, likely York, or Birmingham, in the Midlands, in an attempt to "reconnect" the area. It is unclear how the King's Speech would be conducted in the event of a move. The idea was received negatively by many peers. ### Lords reform #### First admission of women There were no women sitting in the House of Lords until 1958, when a small number came into the chamber as a result of the Life Peerages Act 1958. One of these was Irene Curzon, 2nd Baroness Ravensdale, who had inherited her father's peerage in 1925 and was made a life peer to enable her to sit. After a campaign stretching back in some cases to the 1920s, another twelve women who held hereditary peerages in their own right were admitted with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. #### New Labour era The Labour Party included in its 1997 general election manifesto a commitment to remove the hereditary peerage from the House of Lords. Their subsequent election victory in 1997 under Tony Blair led to the denouement of the traditional House of Lords. The Labour government introduced legislation to expel all hereditary peers from the Upper House as a first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms were complete. Thus, all but 92 hereditary peers were expelled under the House of Lords Act 1999 (see below for its provisions), making the House of Lords predominantly an appointed house. Since 1999, however, no further reform has taken place. The Wakeham Commission proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised. A parliamentary Joint Committee was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80% elected, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February 2003, all of these options were defeated, although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes in the Commons. Socialist MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options. In 2005, a cross-party group of senior MPs (Kenneth Clarke, Paul Tyler, Tony Wright, George Young, and Robin Cook) published a report proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected – each member for a single long term – by the single transferable vote system. Most of the remainder were to be appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of "skills, knowledge and experience". This proposal was also not implemented. A cross-party campaign initiative called "Elect the Lords" was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Upper Chamber in the run up to the 2005 general election. At the 2005 election, the Labour Party proposed further reform of the Lords, but without specific details. The Conservative Party, which had, prior to 1997, opposed any tampering with the House of Lords, favoured an 80% elected Lords, while the Liberal Democrats called for a fully elected Senate. During 2006, a cross-party committee discussed Lords reform, with the aim of reaching a consensus: its findings were published in early 2007. On 7 March 2007, members of the House of Commons voted ten times on a variety of alternative compositions for the Upper Chamber. Outright abolition, a wholly appointed, a 20% elected, a 40% elected, a 50% elected, and a 60% elected House of Lords were all defeated in turn. Finally, the vote for an 80% elected Lords was won by 305 votes to 267, and the vote for a wholly elected Lords was won by an even greater margin, 337 to 224. Significantly, this last vote represented an overall majority of MPs. Furthermore, examination of the names of MPs voting at each division shows that, of the 305 who voted for the 80% elected option, 211 went on to vote for the 100% elected option. Given that this vote took place after the vote on 80% – whose result was already known when the vote on 100% took place – this showed a clear preference for a fully elected Upper House among those who voted for the only other option that passed. But this was nevertheless only an indicative vote, and many political and legislative hurdles remained to be overcome for supporters of an elected House of Lords. Lords, soon after, rejected this proposal and voted for an entirely appointed House of Lords. In July 2008, Jack Straw, the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor, introduced a white paper to the House of Commons proposing to replace the House of Lords with an 80–100% elected chamber, with one third being elected at each general election, to serve a term of approximately 12–15 years. The white paper stated that, as the peerage would be totally separated from membership of the Upper House, the name "House of Lords" would no longer be appropriate. It went on to explain that there was cross-party consensus for the Chamber to be re-titled the "Senate of the United Kingdom"; however, to ensure the debate remained on the role of the Upper House rather than its title, the white paper was neutral on the title issue. On 30 November 2009, a *Code of Conduct for Members of the House of Lords* was agreed by them. Certain amendments were agreed by them on 30 March 2010 and on 12 June 2014. The scandal over expenses in the Commons was at its highest pitch only six months before, and the Labourite leadership under Janet Royall, Baroness Royall of Blaisdon determined that something sympathetic should be done. Meg Russell stated in an article, "Is the House of Lords already reformed?", three essential features of a legitimate House of Lords: The first was that it must have adequate powers over legislation to make the government think twice before making a decision. The House of Lords, she argued, had enough power to make it relevant. (In his first year, Tony Blair was defeated 38 times in the Lords—but that was before the major reform with the House of Lords Act 1999.) Second, as to the composition of the Lords, Meg Russell suggested that the composition must be distinct from the Commons, otherwise it would render the Lords useless. Third was the perceived legitimacy of the Lords. She stated, "In general legitimacy comes with election." #### 2010–present The Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreed, after the 2010 general election, to outline clearly a provision for a wholly or mainly elected second chamber, elected by proportional representation. These proposals sparked a debate on 29 June 2010. As an interim measure, appointment of new peers would reflect the shares of the vote secured by the political parties in the last general election. Detailed proposals for Lords reform, including a draft House of Lords Reform Bill, were published on 17 May 2011. These included a 300-member hybrid house, of whom 80% would be elected. A further 20% would be appointed, and reserve space would be included for some Church of England archbishops and bishops. Under the proposals, members would also serve single non-renewable terms of 15 years. Former MPs would be allowed to stand for election to the Upper House, but members of the Upper House would not be immediately allowed to become MPs. The details of the proposal were: * The upper chamber shall continue to be known as the House of Lords for legislative purposes. * The reformed House of Lords should have 300 members of whom 240 are "Elected Members" and 60 appointed "Independent Members". Up to 12 Church of England archbishops and bishops may sit in the house as *ex officio* "Lords Spiritual". * Elected Members will serve a single, non-renewable term of 15 years. * Elections to the reformed Lords should take place at the same time as elections to the House of Commons. * Elected Members should be elected using the Single Transferable Vote system of proportional representation. * Twenty Independent Members (a third) shall take their seats within the reformed house at the same time as elected members do so, and for the same 15-year term. * Independent Members will be appointed by the King after being proposed by the Prime Minister acting on advice of an Appointments Commission. * There will no longer be a link between the peerage system and membership of the upper house. * The current powers of the House of Lords would not change and the House of Commons shall retain its status as the primary House of Parliament. The proposals were considered by a Joint Committee on House of Lords Reform made up of both MPs and Peers, which issued its final report on 23 April 2012, making the following suggestions: * The reformed House of Lords should have 450 members. * Party groupings, including the Crossbenchers, should choose which of their members are retained in the transition period, with the percentage of members allotted to each group based on their share of the peers with high attendance during a given period. * Up to 12 Lords Spiritual should be retained in a reformed House of Lords. Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg introduced the House of Lords Reform Bill 2012 on 27 June 2012 which built on proposals published on 17 May 2011. However, this Bill was abandoned by the Government on 6 August 2012, following opposition from within the Conservative Party. ##### House of Lords Reform Act 2014 A private member's bill to introduce some reforms was introduced by Dan Byles in 2013. The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 received Royal Assent in 2014. Under the new law: * All peers can retire or resign from the chamber (prior to this only hereditary peers could disclaim their peerages). * Peers can be disqualified for non-attendance. * Peers can be removed for receiving prison sentences of a year or more. ##### House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 authorised the House to expel or suspend members. ##### Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 This Act made provision to preferentially admit female bishops of the Church of England to the Lords Spiritual over male ones in the 10 years following its commencement (2015 to 2025). This came as a consequence of the Church of England deciding in 2014 to begin to ordain women as bishops. In 2015, Rachel Treweek, Bishop of Gloucester, became the first woman to sit as a Lord Spiritual in the House of Lords due to the Act. As of 2022, five women bishops sit as Lords Spiritual, four of them having been accelerated due to this Act. ### Size The size of the House of Lords has varied greatly throughout its history. The English House of Lords—then comprising 168 members—was joined at Westminster by 16 Scottish peers to represent the peerage of Scotland—a total of 184 nobles—in 1707's first Parliament of Great Britain. A further 28 Irish members to represent the peerage of Ireland were added in 1801 to the first Parliament of the United Kingdom. From about 220 peers in the eighteenth century, the house saw continued expansion. From about 850 peers in 1951/52, the numbers rose further with more life peers after the Life Peerages Act 1958 and the inclusion of all Scottish peers and the first female peers in the Peerage Act 1963. It reached a record size of 1,330 in October 1999, immediately before the major Lords reform (House of Lords Act 1999) reduced it to 669, mostly life peers, by March 2000. The chamber's membership again expanded in the following decades, increasing to above eight hundred active members in 2014 and prompting further reforms in the House of Lords Reform Act that year. In April 2011, a cross-party group of former leading politicians, including many senior members of the House of Lords, called on the Prime Minister David Cameron to stop creating new peers. He had created 117 new peers between entering office in May 2010 and leaving in July 2016, a faster rate of elevation than any PM in British history; at the same time his government had tried (in vain) to reduce the House of Commons by 50, from 650 to 600 MPs. In August 2014, despite there being a seating capacity for only around 230 to 400 on the benches in the Lords chamber, the House had 774 active members (plus 54 who were not entitled to attend or vote, having been suspended or granted leave of absence). This made the House of Lords the largest parliamentary chamber in any democracy. In August 2014, former Speaker of the House of Commons Betty Boothroyd requested that "older peers should retire gracefully" to ease the overcrowding in the House of Lords. She also criticised successive prime ministers for filling the second chamber with "lobby fodder" in an attempt to help their policies become law. She made her remarks days before a new batch of peers were due to be created and several months after the passage of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, enabling life peers to retire or resign their seats in the House, which had previously only been possible for hereditary peers and bishops. In August 2015, when 45 more peers were created in the Dissolution Honours, the total number of eligible members of the Lords increased to 826. In a report entitled "Does size matter?" the BBC said: "Increasingly, yes. Critics argue the House of Lords is the second largest legislature after the Chinese National People's Congress and dwarfs upper houses in other bicameral democracies such as the United States (100 senators), France (348 senators), Australia (76 senators), Canada (105 appointed senators) and India (250 members). The Lords is also larger than the Supreme People's Assembly of North Korea (687 members). ... Peers grumble that there is not enough room to accommodate all of their colleagues in the Chamber, where there are only about 400 seats, and say they are constantly jostling for space – particularly during high-profile sittings", but added, "On the other hand, defenders of the Lords say that it does a vital job scrutinising legislation, a lot of which has come its way from the Commons in recent years". In late 2016, a Lord Speaker's committee was formed to examine the issue of overcrowding, with fears membership could swell to above 1,000, and in October 2017 the committee presented its findings. In December 2017, the Lords debated and broadly approved its report, which proposed a cap on membership at 600 peers, with a fifteen-year term limit for new peers and a "two-out, one-in" limit on new appointments. By October 2018, the Lord Speaker's committee commended the reduction in peers' numbers, noting that the rate of departures had been greater than expected, with the House of Commons Public Administration and Constitutional Affairs Select Committee approving the progress achieved without legislation. By April 2019, with the retirement of nearly one hundred peers since the passage of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014, the number of active peers had been reduced to a total of 782, of whom 665 were life peers. This total, however, remains greater than the membership of 669 peers in March 2000, after implementation of the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the bulk of the hereditary peers from their seats; it is well above the proposed 600-member cap, and is still larger than the House of Commons's 650 members. Functions --------- ### Legislative functions Most legislation, with the exception of money bills, may be introduced in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. The House of Lords debates legislation, and has the power to amend or reject bills. However, the power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for Royal Assent without the consent of the House of Lords (i.e. the Commons can override the Lords' veto). The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and cannot have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a constitutional convention known as the Salisbury Convention, which means that the House of Lords does not oppose legislation promised in the Government's election manifesto. By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or Supply (supply of treasury or exchequer funds), nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts. ### Relationship with the government The House of Lords does not control the term of the prime minister or of the government. Only the lower house may force the prime minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by withdrawing supply. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited. Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all prime ministers since 1902 have been members of the lower house. (Alec Douglas-Home, who became prime minister in 1963 whilst still an earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) In recent history, it has been very rare for major cabinet positions (except Lord Chancellor and Leader of the House of Lords) to have been filled by peers. Exceptions include Peter Carington, 6th Lord Carrington, who was the Secretary of State for Defence from 1970 to 1974, Secretary of State for Energy briefly for two months in early 1974 and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs between 1979 and 1982, Arthur Cockfield, Lord Cockfield, who served as Secretary of State for Trade and President of the Board of Trade, David Young, Lord Young of Graffham (Minister without Portfolio, then Secretary of State for Employment and then Secretary of State for Trade and Industry and President of the Board of Trade from 1984 to 1989), Valerie Amos, Baroness Amos, who served as Secretary of State for International Development, Andrew Adonis, Lord Adonis, who served as Secretary of State for Transport and Peter Mandelson, who served as First Secretary of State, Secretary of State for Business, Innovation and Skills and President of the Board of Trade. George Robertson, Lord Robertson of Port Ellen was briefly a peer whilst serving as Secretary of State for Defence before resigning to take up the post of Secretary General of NATO. From 1999 to 2010 the Attorney General for England and Wales was a member of the House of Lords; the most recent was Patricia Scotland. Nicky Morgan was appointed as Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport whilst she was sitting in the House of Lords. The House of Lords remains a source for junior ministers and members of government. Like the House of Commons, the Lords also has a Government Chief Whip as well as several Junior Whips. Where a government department is not represented by a minister in the Lords or one is not available, government whips will act as spokesmen for them. ### Former judicial role Historically, the House of Lords held several judicial functions. Most notably, until 2009 the House of Lords served as the court of last resort for most instances of UK law. Since 1 October 2009 this role is now held by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Lords' judicial functions originated from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects. The functions were exercised not by the whole House, but by a committee of "Law Lords". The bulk of the House's judicial business was conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who were specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. The judicial functions could also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happened to have held high judicial office). No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal could sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five. The judicial business of the Lords was supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and their deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extended, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals were possible only in civil cases; Scotland's High Court of Justiciary is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords was not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is relatively restricted; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975, and a few other minor matters. Issues related to devolution were transferred from the Privy Council to the Supreme Court in 2009. The twelve Law Lords did not all hear every case; rather, after World War II cases were heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consisted of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case could consist of more than five members. Though Appellate Committees met in separate committee rooms, judgement was given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lay from the House of Lords, although the House of Lords could refer a "preliminary question" to the European Court of Justice in cases involving an element of European Union law, and a case could be brought at the European Court of Human Rights if the House of Lords did not provide a satisfactory remedy in cases where the European Convention on Human Rights was relevant. A distinct judicial function—one in which the whole House used to participate—is that of trying impeachments. Impeachments were brought by the House of Commons, and tried in the House of Lords; a conviction required only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are to all intents and purposes obsolete; the last impeachment was that of Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, in 1806. Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Lord High Steward, an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their widows (unless remarried) were entitled to such trials; the Lords Spiritual were tried in ecclesiastical courts. In 1948, the right of peers to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they are tried in the regular courts. The last such trial in the House was of Edward Russell, 26th Baron de Clifford, in 1935. An illustrative dramatisation circa 1928 of a trial of a peer (the fictional Duke of Denver) on a charge of murder (a felony) is portrayed in the 1972 BBC Television adaption of Dorothy L. Sayers' Lord Peter Wimsey mystery *Clouds of Witness*. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 resulted in the creation of a separate Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, were transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor was reformed by the act, removing his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This was motivated in part by concerns about the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power. The new Supreme Court is located at Middlesex Guildhall. Membership ---------- ### Lords Spiritual Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual were the majority in the English House of Lords, comprising the church's archbishops, (diocesan) bishops, abbots, and those priors who were entitled to wear a mitre. After the English Reformation's high point in 1539, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, as the Dissolution of the Monasteries had just disposed of and suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In 1642, during the few gatherings of the Lords convened during English Interregnum which saw periodic war, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the Clergy Act 1661. The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and by later Acts. The Lords Spiritual can now number no more than 26: these are the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester (who sit by right regardless of seniority), and the 21 longest-serving archbishops and bishops from other dioceses in the Church of England (excluding the dioceses of Sodor and Man and Gibraltar in Europe, as these lie entirely outside the United Kingdom). Following a change to the law in 2014 to allow women to be ordained archbishops and bishops, the Lords Spiritual (Women) Act 2015 was passed, which provides that whenever a vacancy arises among the Lords Spiritual during the ten years following the Act coming into force, the vacancy has to be filled by a woman, if one is eligible. This does not apply to the five archbishops and bishops who sit by right. The current Lords Spiritual represent only the Church of England. Archbishops and bishops of the Church of Scotland historically sat in the Parliament of Scotland but were finally excluded in 1689 (after a number of previous exclusions) when the Church of Scotland became permanently Presbyterian. There are no longer archbishops and bishops in the Church of Scotland in the traditional sense of the word, and that Church has never sent members to sit in the Westminster House of Lords. The Church of Ireland did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted about one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in 1871, and thereafter ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. Archbishops and bishops of Welsh sees in the Church of England originally sat in the House of Lords (after 1847, only if their seniority within the church entitled them to), but the Church in Wales ceased to be a part of the Church of England in 1920 and was simultaneously disestablished in Wales. Accordingly, archbishops and bishops of the Church in Wales were no longer eligible to be appointed to the House as archbishops and bishops of the Church of England, but those already appointed remained. Other ecclesiastics have sat in the House of Lords as Lords Temporal in recent times: Chief Rabbi Immanuel Jakobovits was appointed to the House of Lords (with the consent of the Queen, who acted on the advice of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher), as was his successor Chief Rabbi Jonathan Sacks. Julia Neuberger is the senior rabbi to the West London Synagogue. In recognition of his work at reconciliation and in the peace process in Northern Ireland, the Archbishop of Armagh (the senior Anglican archbishop in Ireland), Robin Eames, was appointed to the Lords by John Major. Other clergy appointed include Donald Soper, Timothy Beaumont, and some Scottish clerics. There have been no Roman Catholic clergy appointed, though it was rumoured that Cardinal Basil Hume and his successor Cardinal Cormac Murphy O'Connor were offered peerages by James Callaghan, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair respectively, but declined.[*clarification needed*] Cardinal Hume later accepted the Order of Merit, a personal appointment of the Queen, shortly before his death. Cardinal Murphy O'Connor said he had his maiden speech ready, but Roman Catholics who have received holy orders are prohibited by canon law from holding major offices connected with any government other than the Holy See. Former Archbishops of Canterbury, having reverted to the status of a regular bishop but no longer diocesans, are invariably given life peerages and sit as Lords Temporal. By custom at least one of the archbishops or bishops reads prayers in each legislative day (a role taken by the chaplain in the Commons). They often speak in debates; in 2004 Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a debate into sentencing legislation. Measures (proposed laws of the Church of England) must be put before the Lords, and the Lords Spiritual have a role in ensuring that this takes place. ### Lords Temporal #### Hereditary peers Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan, aligning themselves with one or another of the political parties that dominate the House of Commons. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called crossbenchers. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hundred hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons (as well as Scottish Lords of Parliament). Such hereditary dignities can be created by the Crown; in modern times this is done on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day (except in the case of members of the Royal Family). Holders of Scottish and Irish peerages were not always permitted to sit in the Lords. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted when Ireland merged with Great Britain in 1801 to form the United Kingdom; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state known as the Irish Free State; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the Peerage Act 1963, under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House. In 1999, the Labour government brought forward the House of Lords Act removing the right of several hundred hereditary peers to sit in the House. The Act provided, as a measure intended to be temporary, that 92 people would continue to sit in the Lords by virtue of hereditary peerages, and this is still in effect. Of the 92, two remain in the House of Lords because they hold royal offices connected with Parliament: the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain. Of the remaining ninety peers sitting in the Lords by virtue of a hereditary peerage, 15 are elected by the whole House and 75 are chosen by fellow hereditary peers in the House of Lords, grouped by party. (A holder of a hereditary peerage who is given a life peerage becomes a member of the House of Lords without a need for a by-election.) The exclusion of other hereditary peers removed Charles, Prince of Wales (who was also Earl of Chester) and all other royal peers, including Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh; Prince Andrew, Duke of York; Prince Edward, then Earl of Wessex; Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince Edward, Duke of Kent. The number of hereditary peers to be chosen by a political group reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that group (see current composition below) in 1999. When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the Alternative Vote system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer had been elected by the whole House, then so are their replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific political group (including the non-aligned crossbenchers) is replaced by a vote of the hereditary peers already elected to the Lords belonging to that political group (whether elected by that group or by the whole house). #### Lords of Appeal in Ordinary Until 2009, the Lords Temporal also included the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they could exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary were first appointed under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876. They were selected by the Prime Minister of the day, but were formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary had to retire at the age of 70, or, if his term was extended by the government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord could not hear any further cases in the House of Lords. The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who were no longer able to hear cases because of age restrictions) was limited to twelve, but could be changed by statutory instrument. By a convention of the House, Lords of Appeal in Ordinary did not take part in debates on new legislation, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary held their seats in the House of Lords for life, remaining as members even after reaching the judicial retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office could also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right was only rarely exercised. Under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary when the Act came into effect in 2009 became judges of the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and were then barred from sitting or voting in the House of Lords until they had retired as judges. One of the main justifications for the new Supreme Court was to establish a separation of powers between the judiciary and the legislature. It is therefore unlikely that future appointees to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom will be made Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. #### Life peers The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are life peers. As of December 2020,[update] there are 682 life peers eligible to vote in the House. Life peers rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the Life Peerages Act 1958. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister or the House of Lords Appointments Commission. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to nominate some life peers, so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by the independent House of Lords Appointments Commission. In 2000 the government announced that it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under Dennis Stevenson, Lord Stevenson of Coddenham, to select fifteen so-called "people's peers" for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in April 2001, from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were "ordinary people" as some had originally hoped. ### Qualifications Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only United Kingdom, Irish and Commonwealth citizens may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the Act of Settlement 1701, and prior to the British Nationality Act 1948, only natural-born subjects qualified. Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. Subjects of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or a sequestered estate (in Scotland) are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords. Individuals convicted of high treason are prohibited from sitting in the House of Lords until completion of their full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. An individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is *not* automatically disqualified. Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act 1958, passed to address the declining number of active members, made possible the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed. However, female hereditary peers continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, female hereditary peers remain eligible for election to the Upper House; until her resignation on 1 May 2020, there was one (Margaret of Mar, 31st Countess of Mar) among the 90 hereditary peers who continue to sit. After Barbara Wootton became one of the first four life peers appointed under the Life Peerages Act 1958, she requested that she not be referred to as "peeress", believing that the term failed to distinguish female peers from the mere wives of peers. #### Cash for peerages The Honours (Prevention of Abuses) Act 1925 made it illegal for a peerage, or other honour, to be bought or sold. Nonetheless, there have been repeated allegations that life peerages (and thus membership of the House of Lords) have been made available to major political donors in exchange for donations. The most prominent example, the Cash for Honours scandal in 2006, saw a police investigation, with no charges being brought. A 2015 study found that of 303 people nominated for peerages in the period 2005–2014, a total of 211 were former senior figures within politics (including former MPs), or were non-political appointments. Of the remaining 92 political appointments from outside public life, 27 had made significant donations to political parties. The authors concluded firstly that nominees from outside public life were much more likely to have made large gifts than peers nominated after prior political or public service. They also found that significant donors to parties were far more likely to be nominated for peerages than other party members. ### Removal from House membership Traditionally there was no mechanism by which members could resign or be removed from the House of Lords (compare the situation as regards resignation from the House of Commons). The Peerage Act 1963 permitted a person to disclaim their newly inherited peerage (within certain time limits); this meant that such a person could effectively renounce their membership of the Lords. This might be done in order to remain or become qualified to sit in the House of Commons, as in the case of Tony Benn (formerly the second Viscount Stansgate), who had campaigned for such a change. The House of Lords Reform Act 2014 made provision for members' resignation from the House, removal for non-attendance, and automatic expulsion upon conviction for a serious criminal offence (if resulting in a jail sentence of at least one year). In June 2015, under the House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015, the House's Standing Orders may provide for the expulsion or suspension of a member upon a resolution of the House. In November 2020, Nazir Ahmed, Lord Ahmed retired from the House of Lords, having seen a Lords Conduct Committee report recommending he be expelled. In December the same year, Ken Maginnis was suspended from the House for 18 months. Officers -------- Traditionally the House of Lords did not elect its own speaker, unlike the House of Commons; rather, the *ex officio* presiding officer was the Lord Chancellor. With the passage of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the post of Lord Speaker was created, a position to which a peer is elected by the House and subsequently appointed by the Crown. The first Lord Speaker, elected on 4 May 2006, was Helene Hayman, Baroness Hayman, a former Labour peer. As the Speaker is expected to be an impartial presiding officer, Hayman resigned from the Labour Party. In 2011, Frances D'Souza, Baroness D'Souza was elected as the second Lord Speaker, replacing Hayman in September 2011. D'Souza was in turn succeeded by Norman Fowler, Lord Fowler in September 2016, who served as Lord Speaker till his resignation in April 2021. He was succeeded as Lord Speaker by John McFall, Lord McFall of Alcluith, who is the incumbent Lord Speaker. This reform of the post of Lord Chancellor was made due to the perceived constitutional anomalies inherent in the role. The Lord Chancellor was not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the Ministry of Justice. The Lord Chancellor is no longer the head of the judiciary of England and Wales. Hitherto, the Lord Chancellor was part of all three branches of government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The overlap of the legislative and executive roles is a characteristic of the Westminster system, as the entire cabinet consists of members of the House of Commons or the House of Lords; however, in June 2003, the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor because of the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. The abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 was thus amended to preserve the office of Lord Chancellor. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords, and therefore allows the House of Lords to elect a speaker of their own. The lord speaker may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The chairman of committees, the principal deputy chairman of committees, and several chairmen are all deputies to the lord speaker, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself at the beginning of each session. By custom, the Crown appoints each chairman, principal deputy chairman and deputy chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There was previously no legal requirement that the lord chancellor or a deputy speaker be a member of the House of Lords (though the same has long been customary). Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the lord chancellor traditionally wore ceremonial black and gold robes. Robes of black and gold are now worn by the lord chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice in the House of Commons, on ceremonial occasions. This is no longer a requirement for the lord speaker except for state occasions outside of the chamber. The speaker or deputy speaker sits on the Woolsack, a large red seat stuffed with wool, at the front of the Lords Chamber. When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the Speaker of the House of Commons. The presiding officer only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. This is because, unlike in the House of Commons where all statements are directed to "Mr/Madam Speaker", in the House of Lords they are directed to "My Lords"; i.e., the entire body of the House. The Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers originally remained members of their respective parties, and were permitted to participate in debate; however, this is no longer true of the new role of Lord Speaker. Another officer of the body is the Leader of the House of Lords, a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable leader. The Clerk of the Parliaments is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Speaker, subject to the House's approval. The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod is also an officer of the House; they take their title from the symbol of their office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman/Lady Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of Serjeant-at-Arms of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Speaker. The Gentleman or Lady Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Serjeant-at-Arms. Procedure --------- The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, while members of the Opposition sit on the left. Crossbenchers sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack. The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the State Opening of Parliament, held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session. In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole ("My Lords") rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as "you"), but rather use third person forms such as "the noble Duke", "the noble Earl", "the noble Lord", "my noble friend", "The most Reverend Primate", etc. Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion "that the noble Lord be no longer heard". It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion "that the Question be now put". This procedure is known as Closure, and is extremely rare. Six closure motions were passed on 4 April 2019 to significant media attention as part of consideration of a private member's bill concerning the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union. Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Lord Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either "content" (in favour of the motion) or "not content" (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a division follows. Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the *content* lobby or the *not-content* lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Speaker may not take part in the vote. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The quorum of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid. Special arrangements were made during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic to allow some duties to be carried out online. ### Disciplinary powers By contrast with the House of Commons, the House of Lords has not until recently had an established procedure for imposing sanctions on its members. When a cash for influence scandal was referred to the Committee of Privileges in January 2009, the Leader of the House of Lords also asked the Privileges Committee to report on what sanctions the House had against its members. After seeking advice from the Attorney General for England and Wales and the former Lord Chancellor James Mackay, Lord Mackay of Clashfern, the committee decided that the House "possessed an inherent power" to suspend errant members, although not to withhold a writ of summons nor to expel a member permanently. When the House subsequently suspended Peter Truscott, Lord Truscott and Tom Taylor, Lord Taylor of Blackburn for their role in the scandal, they were the first to meet this fate since 1642. Recent changes have expanded the disciplinary powers of the House. Section 3 of the House of Lords Reform Act 2014 now provides that any member of the House of Lords convicted of a crime and sentenced to imprisonment for more than one year loses their seat. The House of Lords (Expulsion and Suspension) Act 2015 allows the House to set up procedures to suspend, and to expel, its members. #### Regulation of behaviour in the chamber There are two motions which have grown up through custom and practice and which govern questionable conduct within the House. They are brought into play by a member standing up, possibly intervening on another member, and moving the motion without notice. When the debate is getting excessively heated, it is open to a member to move "that the Standing Order on Asperity of Speech be read by the Clerk". The motion can be debated, but if agreed by the House, the Clerk of the Parliaments will read Standing Order 32 which provides "That all personal, sharp, or taxing speeches be forborn". The Journals of the House of Lords record only four instances on which the House has ordered the Standing Order to be read since the procedure was invented in 1871. For more serious problems with an individual Lord, the option is available to move "That the noble Lord be no longer heard". This motion also is debatable, and the debate which ensues has sometimes offered a chance for the member whose conduct has brought it about to come to order so that the motion can be withdrawn. If the motion is passed, its effect is to prevent the member from continuing their speech on the motion then under debate. The Journals identify eleven occasions on which this motion has been moved since 1884; four were eventually withdrawn, one was voted down, and six were passed. ### Leave of absence In 1958, to counter criticism that some peers only appeared at major decisions in the House and thereby particular votes were swayed, the Standing Orders of the House of Lords were enhanced. Peers who did not wish to attend meetings regularly or were prevented by ill health, age or further reasons, were now able to request leave of absence. During the granted time a peer is expected not to visit the House's meetings until either its expiration or termination, announced at least a month prior to their return. ### Attendance allowance Via a new financial support system introduced in 2010, members of the House of Lords can opt to receive an attendance allowance per sitting day of currently £342 (as of 2023; initially it was £300 in 2010), plus limited travel expenses. Peers can choose to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £171 per day instead, or none at all. Prior to 2010, peers from outside London could claim an overnight allowance of £174. Committees ---------- Unlike in the House of Commons, when the term committee is used to describe a stage of a bill, this committee does not take the form of a public bill committee, but what is described as Committee of the Whole House. It is made up of all members of the House of Lords, where any member is allowed to contribute to debates and provides for flexible rules of procedure. It is presided over by the Chairman of Committees. The term committee is also used to describe Grand Committee, where the same rules of procedure apply as in the main chamber, except that no divisions may take place. For this reason, business that is discussed in Grand Committee is usually uncontroversial and likely to be agreed unanimously. Public bills may also be committed to pre-legislative committees. A pre-legislative Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. These committees are established in advance of the bill being laid before either the House of Lords or the House of Commons and can take evidence from the public. Such committees are rare and do not replace any of the usual stages of a bill, including committee stage. The House of Lords also has 15 Select committees. Typically, these are *sessional committees*, meaning that their members are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. In practice, these are often permanent committees, which are re-established during every session. These committees are typically empowered to make reports to the House "from time to time", that is, whenever they wish. Other committees are *ad-hoc committees*, which are set up to investigate a specific issue. When they are set up by a motion in the House, the motion will set a deadline by which the Committee must report. After this date, the Committee will cease to exist unless it is granted an extension. One example of this is the Committee on Public Service and Demographic Change. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most of the Select Committees are also granted the power to co-opt members, such as the European Union Committee. The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees. The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees. Current composition ------------------- There are currently 778 sitting members of the House of Lords, of which 663 are life peers (as of 12 April 2023). An additional 44 Lords are ineligible to participate, including three peers who are constitutionally disqualified as members of the Judiciary. The House of Lords Act 1999 allocated 75 of the 92 hereditary peers to the parties based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belonged to that party in 1999: * Conservative Party: 42 peers * Labour Party: 2 peers * Liberal Democrats: 3 peers * Crossbenchers: 28 peers Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one, David Verney, 21st Lord Willoughby de Broke, defected to UKIP, though he left the party in 2018. Fifteen hereditary peers are elected by the whole House, and the remaining hereditary peers are the two royal office-holders, the Earl Marshal and the Lord Great Chamberlain. A report in 2007 stated that many members of the Lords (particularly the life peers) do not attend regularly; the average daily attendance was around 408. While the number of hereditary peers is limited to 92, and that of Lords spiritual to 26, there is no maximum limit to the number of life peers who may be members of the House of Lords at any time. Government leaders and ministers in the Lords --------------------------------------------- ### Leaders and chief whips * **The Lord True** – Leader of the House of Lords and Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal (Cabinet member) * **The Earl Howe** – Deputy Leader of the House of Lords (unpaid) * **The Baroness Williams of Trafford** – Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms * **The Earl of Courtown** – Deputy Chief Whip of the House of Lords and Captain of the King's Bodyguard of the Yeomen of the Guard ### Other ministers * **Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office** * **The Lord Goldsmith of Richmond Park** – Minister of State for Overseas Territories, Commonwealth, Energy, Climate and Environment * **The Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon** – Minister of State for the Middle East, North Africa, South Asia and the United Nations * **Ministry of Defence** * **The Baroness Goldie** – Minister of State for Defence * **Cabinet Office** * **The Baroness Neville-Rolfe** – Minister of State at the Cabinet Office * **Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs** * **The Lord Benyon** – Minister of State for Biosecurity, Marine and Rural Affairs * **Department for Business and Trade** * **The Earl of Minto** – Minister of State for Regulatory Reform * **The Lord Johnson of Lainston** – Minister of State for Investment * **The Lord Offord of Garvel** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Exports * **Department for Culture, Media and Sport** * **The Lord Parkinson of Whitley Bay** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Arts and Heritage * **Law Officers** * **The Lord Stewart of Dirleton** – Advocate General for Scotland * **Home Office** * **The Lord Sharpe of Epsom** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department * **The Lord Murray of Blidworth** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department * **Department of Health and Social Care** * **The Lord Markham** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Health and Social Care * **Department for Education** * **The Baroness Barran** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for the School System and Student Finance * **Department for Transport** * **The Baroness Vere of Norbiton** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Aviation, Maritime and Security * **Scotland Office** * **The Lord Offord of Garvel** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Scotland * **Treasury** * **The Baroness Penn** – Parliamentary Secretary for the Treasury * **Department for Work and Pensions** * **The Viscount Younger of Leckie** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions * **Department for Energy Security and Net Zero** * **The Lord Callanan** – Parliamentary Under Secretary of State for Energy Efficiency and Green Finance * **Ministry of Justice** * **The Lord Bellamy** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Justice * **Northern Ireland Office** * **The Lord Caine** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland * **Department for Levelling Up, Housing and Communities** * **The Baroness Scott of Bybrook** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Faith and Communities * **Department for Science, Innovation and Technology** * **The Viscount Camrose** – Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Artificial Intelligence and Intellectual Property ### Other whips (Lords and Baronesses-in-Waiting) * **The Lord Caine** * **The Lord Davies of Gower** * **The Lord Evans of Rainow** * **The Lord Harlech** * **The Lord Mott** * **The Baroness Swinburne** See also -------- * Gunpowder Plot * Constitution Committee * History of reform of the House of Lords * History of the constitution of the United Kingdom * House of Lords Library * Introduction (House of Lords) ceremony * Lord-in-waiting * List of Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted without the House of Lords' consent * Parliament in the Making * Parliamentary Archives * Reform of the House of Lords * Relocation of the Parliament of the United Kingdom ### Overseas counterparts #### Extant * House of Ariki of the Cook Islands * House of Elders (Somaliland) * Dewan Negara (Malaysia) * Senate (Lesotho), composed of 22 hereditary tribal chiefs and 11 King's nominees * Senate of Zimbabwe, with 18 of 80 seats reserved for tribal chiefs #### Defunct * Irish House of Lords (existed 1297–1800) * New Zealand Legislative Council * Chamber of Peers (France) * Chamber of Peers (Portugal) * Chamber of Peers (Spain) * House of Peers (Japan) * Prussian House of Lords * House of Lords (Austria) * Senate of the Kingdom of Italy * Senate of Ceylon Bibliography ------------ * Ballinger, Chris. *The House of Lords 1911–2011: a century of non-reform* (Bloomsbury, 2014). * Carroll, Alex (2007). *Constitutional and Administrative Law* (4th ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-1231-3. * Close, David H. "The Collapse of Resistance to Democracy: Conservatives, Adult Suffrage, and Second Chamber Reform, 1911–1928." *Historical Journal* 20.4 (1977): 893–918. online * Dorey, Peter, and Alexandra Kelso. *House of Lords reform since 1911: Must the Lords go?* (Springer, 2011). * Hayter, Paul (2007). *Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords* (21st ed.). Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Archived from the original on 19 December 2005. Retrieved 19 November 2004. * Jones, Clyve, and David L. Jones, eds. *Peers, Politics and Power: House of Lords, 1603–1911* (A&C Black, 1986). * Jones, Harry (1912). *Liberalism and the House of Lords: The Story of the Veto Battle, 1832–1911*. London: Methuen. * Jones, Bill; Dennis Kavanagh; Michael Moran; Philip Norton (2007). *Politics UK* (6th ed.). Pearson Education. ISBN 978-1-4058-2411-8. * Loveland, Ian (2009). *Constitutional Law, Administrative Law and Human Rights* (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921974-2. * Mell, Andrew; Radford, Simon; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2015). *Is there a market for peerages?* Archived 2 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine Oxford University Department of Economics discussion paper, No.744 * Norton, Philip. *Reform of the House of Lords* (Manchester UP, 2020). * Radford, Simon; Mell, Andrew; Thevoz, Seth Alexander (2019). "‘Lordy Me!’ Can donations buy you a British peerage? A study in the link between party political funding and peerage nominations, 2005–2014", *British Politics* – * Russell, Meg. *The contemporary House of Lords: Westminster bicameralism revived* (Oxford UP, 2013). * Shell, Donald (2007). *The House of Lords* (3rd ed.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5443-3. * Smith, Ernest Anthony. *The House of Lords in British politics and society, 1815–1911* (Longman, 1992). * Smith, Philip Vernon (1884). *The House of Lords and the nation*. London. 51°29′55.7″N 0°07′29.5″W / 51.498806°N 0.124861°W / 51.498806; -0.124861

House of Lords

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords

**Humans** (***Homo sapiens***) are the most common and widespread species of primate. A great ape characterized by their bipedalism and high intelligence, humans have a large brain and resulting cognitive skills that enable them to thrive in varied environments and develop complex societies and civilizations. Humans are highly social and tend to live in complex social structures composed of many cooperating and competing groups, from families and kinship networks to political states. As such, social interactions between humans have established a wide variety of values, social norms, languages, and rituals, each of which bolsters human society. The desire to understand and influence phenomena has motivated humanity's development of science, technology, philosophy, mythology, religion, and other conceptual frameworks. Although some scientists equate the term "*humans*" with all members of the genus *Homo*, in common usage it generally refers to *Homo sapiens*, the only extant member. Anatomically modern humans emerged around 300,000 years ago in Africa, evolving from *Homo heidelbergensis* or a similar species and migrating out of Africa, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. For most of history, humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–60,000 years ago. The Neolithic Revolution, which began in Southwest Asia around 13,000 years ago (and separately in a few other places), saw the emergence of agriculture and permanent human settlement. As populations became larger and denser, forms of governance developed within and between communities, and a large number of civilizations have risen and fallen. Humans have continued to expand, with a global population of over 8 billion as of 2023[update]. Genes and the environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility, mental abilities, body size, and life span. Though humans vary in many traits (such as genetic predispositions and physical features), any two humans are at least 99% genetically similar. Humans are sexually dimorphic: generally, males have greater body strength and females have a higher body fat percentage. At puberty, humans develop secondary sex characteristics. Females are capable of pregnancy, usually between puberty, at around 12 years old, and menopause, around the age of 50. Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material, and have used fire and other forms of heat to prepare and cook food since the time of *Homo erectus*. Humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food and three or four days without water. Humans are generally diurnal, sleeping on average seven to nine hours per day. Childbirth is dangerous, with a high risk of complications and death. Often, both the mother and the father provide care for their children, who are helpless at birth. Humans have a large, highly developed, and complex prefrontal cortex, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. Humans are highly intelligent, capable of episodic memory, have flexible facial expressions, self-awareness, and a theory of mind. The human mind is capable of introspection, private thought, imagination, volition, and forming views on existence. This has allowed great technological advancements and complex tool development to be possible through complex reasoning and the transmission of knowledge to subsequent generations. Language, art, and trade are defining characteristics of humans. Long-distance trade routes might have led to cultural explosions and resource distribution that gave humans an advantage over other similar species. Etymology and definition ------------------------ All modern humans are classified into the species *Homo sapiens*, coined by Carl Linnaeus in his 1735 work *Systema Naturae*. The generic name "*Homo*" is a learned 18th-century derivation from Latin *homō*, which refers to humans of either sex. The word *human* can refer to all members of the *Homo* genus, although in common usage it generally just refers to *Homo sapiens,* the only extant species. The name "*Homo* *sapiens*" means 'wise man' or 'knowledgeable man'. There is disagreement if certain extinct members of the genus, namely Neanderthals, should be included as a separate species of humans or as a subspecies of *H. sapiens*. *Human* is a loanword of Middle English from Old French *humain*, ultimately from Latin *hūmānus*, the adjectival form of *homō* ('man' – in the sense of humankind). The native English term *man* can refer to the species generally (a synonym for *humanity*) as well as to human males. It may also refer to individuals of either sex, though this form is less common in contemporary English. Despite the fact that the word *animal* is colloquially used as an antonym for *human*, and contrary to a common biological misconception, humans are animals. The word *person* is often used interchangeably with *human*, but philosophical debate exists as to whether personhood applies to all humans or all sentient beings, and further if one can lose personhood (such as by going into a persistent vegetative state). Evolution --------- Humans are apes (superfamily Hominoidea). The lineage of apes that eventually gave rise to humans first split from gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and orangutans (genus *Pongo*), then gorillas (genus *Gorilla*), and finally, chimpanzees and bonobos (genus *Pan*). The last split, between the human and chimpanzee–bonobo lineages, took place around 8–4 million years ago, in the late Miocene epoch. During this split, chromosome 2 was formed from the joining of two other chromosomes, leaving humans with only 23 pairs of chromosomes, compared to 24 for the other apes. Following their split with chimpanzees and bonobos, the hominins diversified into many species and at least two distinct genera. All but one of these lineages – representing the genus *Homo* and its sole extant species *Homo sapiens* – are now extinct. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Hominoidea (hominoids, apes) | | | | | --- | --- | | | Hylobatidae (gibbons) | | | | Hominidae (hominids, great apes) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ponginae | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pongo (orangutans) | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Pongo abelii* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Pongo tapanuliensis* | | | | | *Pongo pygmaeus* | | | | | | | | | | | | | Homininae (hominines) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Gorillini | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Gorilla (gorillas) | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Gorilla gorilla* | | | | | *Gorilla beringei* | | | | | | | | | | Hominini (hominins) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Panina | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pan (chimpanzees) | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Pan troglodytes* | | | | | *Pan paniscus* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | Hominina (homininans) | ***Homo sapiens*** (humans) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The genus *Homo* evolved from *Australopithecus*. Though fossils from the transition are scarce, the earliest members of *Homo* share several key traits with *Australopithecus*. The earliest record of *Homo* is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species are *Homo habilis* and *Homo rudolfensis* which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. *H. erectus* (the African variant is sometimes called *H. ergaster*) evolved 2 million years ago and was the first archaic human species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. *H. erectus* also was the first to evolve a characteristically human body plan. *Homo sapiens* emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either *H. heidelbergensis* or *H. rhodesiensis*, the descendants of *H. erectus* that remained in Africa. *H. sapiens* migrated out of the continent, gradually replacing or interbreeding with local populations of archaic humans. Humans began exhibiting behavioral modernity about 160,000–70,000 years ago, and possibly earlier. The "out of Africa" migration took place in at least two waves, the first around 130,000 to 100,000 years ago, the second (Southern Dispersal) around 70,000 to 50,000 years ago. *H. sapiens* proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Eurasia 125,000 years ago, Australia around 65,000 years ago, the Americas around 15,000 years ago, and remote islands such as Hawaii, Easter Island, Madagascar, and New Zealand between the years 300 and 1280 CE. Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species. Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non sub-Saharan African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day non sub-Saharan African humans. Human evolution is characterized by a number of morphological, developmental, physiological, and behavioral changes that have taken place since the split between the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees. The most significant of these adaptations are obligate bipedalism, increased brain size and decreased sexual dimorphism (neoteny). The relationship between all these changes is the subject of ongoing debate. History ------- Until about 12,000 years ago, all humans lived as hunter-gatherers. The Neolithic Revolution (the invention of agriculture) first took place in Southwest Asia and spread through large parts of the Old World over the following millennia. It also occurred independently in Mesoamerica (about 6,000 years ago), China, Papua New Guinea, and the Sahel and West Savanna regions of Africa. Access to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the domestication of animals and the use of metal tools for the first time in history. Agriculture and sedentary lifestyle led to the emergence of early civilizations. An urban revolution took place in the 4th millennium BCE with the development of city-states, particularly Sumerian cities located in Mesopotamia. It was in these cities that the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script, appeared around 3000 BCE. Other major civilizations to develop around this time were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilisation. They eventually traded with each other and invented technology such as wheels, plows and sails. Astronomy and mathematics were also developed and the Great Pyramid of Giza was built. There is evidence of a severe drought lasting about a hundred years that may have caused the decline of these civilizations, with new ones appearing in the aftermath. Babylonians came to dominate Mesopotamia while others, such as the Poverty Point culture, Minoans and the Shang dynasty, rose to prominence in new areas. The Late Bronze Age collapse around 1200 BCE resulted in the disappearance of a number of civilizations and the beginning of the Greek Dark Ages. During this period iron started replacing bronze, leading to the Iron Age. In the 5th century BCE, history started being recorded as a discipline, which provided a much clearer picture of life at the time. Between the 8th and 6th century BCE, Europe entered the classical antiquity age, a period when ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished. Around this time other civilizations also came to prominence. The Maya civilization started to build cities and create complex calendars. In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum overtook the declining Kingdom of Kush and facilitated trade between India and the Mediterranean. In West Asia, the Achaemenid Empire's system of centralized governance became the precursor to many later empires, while the Gupta Empire in India and the Han dynasty in China have been described as golden ages in their respective regions. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, Europe entered the Middle Ages. During this period, Christianity and the Church would provide centralized authority and education. In the Middle East, Islam became the prominent religion and expanded into North Africa. It led to an Islamic Golden Age, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. The Christian and Islamic worlds would eventually clash, with the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire declaring a series of holy wars to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. In the Americas, complex Mississippian societies would arise starting around 800 CE, while further south, the Aztecs and Incas would become the dominant powers. The Mongol Empire would conquer much of Eurasia in the 13th and 14th centuries. Over this same time period, the Mali Empire in Africa grew to be the largest empire on the continent, stretching from Senegambia to Ivory Coast. Oceania would see the rise of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire which expanded across many islands in the South Pacific. The early modern period in Europe and the Near East (c. 1450–1800) began with the final defeat of the Byzantine Empire, and the rise of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, Japan entered the Edo period, the Qing dynasty rose in China and the Mughal Empire ruled much of India. Europe underwent the Renaissance, starting in the 15th century, and the Age of Discovery began with the exploring and colonizing of new regions. This includes the British Empire expanding to become the world's largest empire and the colonization of the Americas. This expansion led to the Atlantic slave trade and the genocide of Native American peoples. This period also marked the Scientific Revolution, with great advances in mathematics, mechanics, astronomy and physiology. The late modern period (1800–present) saw the Technological and Industrial Revolution bring such discoveries as imaging technology, major innovations in transport and energy development. The United States of America underwent great change, going from a small group of colonies to one of the global superpowers. The Napoleonic Wars raged through Europe in the early 1800s, Spain lost most of its colonies in the New World, while Europeans continued expansion into Africa – where European control went from 10% to almost 90% in less than 50 years – and Oceania. A tenuous balance of power among European nations collapsed in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War, one of the deadliest conflicts in history. In the 1930s, a worldwide economic crisis led to the rise of authoritarian regimes and a Second World War, involving almost all of the world's countries. Following its conclusion in 1945, the Cold War between the USSR and the United States saw a struggle for global influence, including a nuclear arms race and a space race. The current Information Age sees the world becoming increasingly globalized and interconnected. Habitat and population ---------------------- Early human settlements were dependent on proximity to water and – depending on the lifestyle – other natural resources used for subsistence, such as populations of animal prey for hunting and arable land for growing crops and grazing livestock. Modern humans, however, have a great capacity for altering their habitats by means of technology, irrigation, urban planning, construction, deforestation and desertification. Human settlements continue to be vulnerable to natural disasters, especially those placed in hazardous locations and with low quality of construction. Grouping and deliberate habitat alteration is often done with the goals of providing protection, accumulating comforts or material wealth, expanding the available food, improving aesthetics, increasing knowledge or enhancing the exchange of resources. Humans are one of the most adaptable species, despite having a low or narrow tolerance for many of the earth's extreme environments. Through advanced tools, humans have been able to extend their tolerance to a wide variety of temperatures, humidity, and altitudes. As a result, humans are a cosmopolitan species found in almost all regions of the world, including tropical rainforest, arid desert, extremely cold arctic regions, and heavily polluted cities; in comparison, most other species are confined to a few geographical areas by their limited adaptability. The human population is not, however, uniformly distributed on the Earth's surface, because the population density varies from one region to another, and large stretches of surface are almost completely uninhabited, like Antarctica and vast swathes of the ocean. Most humans (61%) live in Asia; the remainder live in the Americas (14%), Africa (14%), Europe (11%), and Oceania (0.5%). Within the last century, humans have explored challenging environments such as Antarctica, the deep sea, and outer space. Human habitation within these hostile environments is restrictive and expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Humans have briefly visited the Moon and made their presence felt on other celestial bodies through human-made robotic spacecraft. Since the early 20th century, there has been continuous human presence in Antarctica through research stations and, since 2000, in space through habitation on the International Space Station. Estimates of the population at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Around 50–60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. Bubonic plagues, first recorded in the 6th century AD, reduced the population by 50%, with the Black Death killing 75–200 million people in Eurasia and North Africa alone. Human population is believed to have reached one billion in 1800. It has since then increased exponentially, reaching two billion in 1930 and three billion in 1960, four in 1975, five in 1987 and six billion in 1999. It passed seven billion in 2011 and passed eight billion in November 2022. It took over two million years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach one billion and only 207 years more to grow to 7 billion. The combined biomass of the carbon of all the humans on Earth in 2018 was estimated at 60 million tons, about 10 times larger than that of all non-domesticated mammals. In 2018, 4.2 billion humans (55%) lived in urban areas, up from 751 million in 1950. The most urbanized regions are Northern America (82%), Latin America (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%), with Africa and Asia having nearly 90% of the world's 3.4 billion rural population. Problems for humans living in cities include various forms of pollution and crime, especially in inner city and suburban slums. Humans have had a dramatic effect on the environment. They are apex predators, being rarely preyed upon by other species. Human population growth, industrialization, land development, overconsumption and combustion of fossil fuels have led to environmental destruction and pollution that significantly contributes to the ongoing mass extinction of other forms of life. Biology ------- ### Anatomy and physiology Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology. The human body consists of the legs, the torso, the arms, the neck, and the head. An adult human body consists of about 100 trillion (1014) cells. The most commonly defined body systems in humans are the nervous, the cardiovascular, the digestive, the endocrine, the immune, the integumentary, the lymphatic, the musculoskeletal, the reproductive, the respiratory, and the urinary system. The dental formula of humans is: 2.1.2.32.1.2.3. Humans have proportionately shorter palates and much smaller teeth than other primates. They are the only primates to have short, relatively flush canine teeth. Humans have characteristically crowded teeth, with gaps from lost teeth usually closing up quickly in young individuals. Humans are gradually losing their third molars, with some individuals having them congenitally absent. Humans share with chimpanzees a vestigial tail, appendix, flexible shoulder joints, grasping fingers and opposable thumbs. Apart from bipedalism and brain size, humans differ from chimpanzees mostly in smelling, hearing and digesting proteins. While humans have a density of hair follicles comparable to other apes, it is predominantly vellus hair, most of which is so short and wispy as to be practically invisible. Humans have about 2 million sweat glands spread over their entire bodies, many more than chimpanzees, whose sweat glands are scarce and are mainly located on the palm of the hand and on the soles of the feet. It is estimated that the worldwide average height for an adult human male is about 171 cm (5 ft 7 in), while the worldwide average height for adult human females is about 159 cm (5 ft 3 in). Shrinkage of stature may begin in middle age in some individuals but tends to be typical in the extremely aged. Throughout history, human populations have universally become taller, probably as a consequence of better nutrition, healthcare, and living conditions. The average mass of an adult human is 59 kg (130 lb) for females and 77 kg (170 lb) for males. Like many other conditions, body weight and body type are influenced by both genetic susceptibility and environment and varies greatly among individuals. Humans have a far faster and more accurate throw than other animals. Humans are also among the best long-distance runners in the animal kingdom, but slower over short distances. Humans' thinner body hair and more productive sweat glands help avoid heat exhaustion while running for long distances. ### Genetics Like most animals, humans are a diploid and eukaryotic species. Each somatic cell has two sets of 23 chromosomes, each set received from one parent; gametes have only one set of chromosomes, which is a mixture of the two parental sets. Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Like other mammals, humans have an XY sex-determination system, so that females have the sex chromosomes XX and males have XY. Genes and environment influence human biological variation in visible characteristics, physiology, disease susceptibility and mental abilities. The exact influence of genes and environment on certain traits is not well understood. While no humans – not even monozygotic twins – are genetically identical, two humans on average will have a genetic similarity of 99.5%-99.9%. This makes them more homogeneous than other great apes, including chimpanzees. This small variation in human DNA compared to many other species suggests a population bottleneck during the Late Pleistocene (around 100,000 years ago), in which the human population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs. The forces of natural selection have continued to operate on human populations, with evidence that certain regions of the genome display directional selection in the past 15,000 years. The human genome was first sequenced in 2001 and by 2020 hundreds of thousands of genomes had been sequenced. In 2012 the International HapMap Project had compared the genomes of 1,184 individuals from 11 populations and identified 1.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms. African populations harbor the highest number of private genetic variants. While many of the common variants found in populations outside of Africa are also found on the African continent, there are still large numbers that are private to these regions, especially Oceania and the Americas. By 2010 estimates, humans have approximately 22,000 genes. By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago. ### Life cycle Most human reproduction takes place by internal fertilization via sexual intercourse, but can also occur through assisted reproductive technology procedures. The average gestation period is 38 weeks, but a normal pregnancy can vary by up to 37 days. Embryonic development in the human covers the first eight weeks of development; at the beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed a fetus. Humans are able to induce early labor or perform a caesarean section if the child needs to be born earlier for medical reasons. In developed countries, infants are typically 3–4 kg (7–9 lb) in weight and 47–53 cm (19–21 in) in height at birth. However, low birth weight is common in developing countries, and contributes to the high levels of infant mortality in these regions. Compared with other species, human childbirth is dangerous, with a much higher risk of complications and death. The size of the fetus's head is more closely matched to the pelvis than other primates. The reason for this is not completely understood, but it contributes to a painful labor that can last 24 hours or more. The chances of a successful labor increased significantly during the 20th century in wealthier countries with the advent of new medical technologies. In contrast, pregnancy and natural childbirth remain hazardous ordeals in developing regions of the world, with maternal death rates approximately 100 times greater than in developed countries. Both the mother and the father provide care for human offspring, in contrast to other primates, where parental care is mostly done by the mother. Helpless at birth, humans continue to grow for some years, typically reaching sexual maturity at 15 to 17 years of age. The human life span has been split into various stages ranging from three to twelve. Common stages include infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old age. The lengths of these stages have varied across cultures and time periods but is typified by an unusually rapid growth spurt during adolescence. Human females undergo menopause and become infertile at around the age of 50. It has been proposed that menopause increases a woman's overall reproductive success by allowing her to invest more time and resources in her existing offspring, and in turn their children (the grandmother hypothesis), rather than by continuing to bear children into old age. The life span of an individual depends on two major factors, genetics and lifestyle choices. For various reasons, including biological/genetic causes, women live on average about four years longer than men. As of 2018[update], the global average life expectancy at birth of a girl is estimated to be 74.9 years compared to 70.4 for a boy. There are significant geographical variations in human life expectancy, mostly correlated with economic development – for example, life expectancy at birth in Hong Kong is 87.6 years for girls and 81.8 for boys, while in the Central African Republic, it is 55.0 years for girls and 50.6 for boys. The developed world is generally aging, with the median age around 40 years. In the developing world, the median age is between 15 and 20 years. While one in five Europeans is 60 years of age or older, only one in twenty Africans is 60 years of age or older. In 2012, the United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians (humans of age 100 or older) worldwide. | Human life stages | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Infant boy and girl | Boy and girl before puberty (children) | Adolescent male and female | Adult man and woman | Elderly man and woman | ### Diet Humans are omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material. Human groups have adopted a range of diets from purely vegan to primarily carnivorous. In some cases, dietary restrictions in humans can lead to deficiency diseases; however, stable human groups have adapted to many dietary patterns through both genetic specialization and cultural conventions to use nutritionally balanced food sources. The human diet is prominently reflected in human culture and has led to the development of food science. Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, *Homo sapiens* employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with wild game, which must be hunted and captured in order to be consumed. It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and cook food since the time of *Homo erectus*. Around ten thousand years ago, humans developed agriculture, which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of dairy farming providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest lactose in some adults. The types of food consumed, and how they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture. In general, humans can survive for up to eight weeks without food, depending on stored body fat. Survival without water is usually limited to three or four days, with a maximum of one week. In 2020 it is estimated 9 million humans die every year from causes directly or indirectly related to starvation. Childhood malnutrition is also common and contributes to the global burden of disease. However, global food distribution is not even, and obesity among some human populations has increased rapidly, leading to health complications and increased mortality in some developed and a few developing countries. Worldwide, over one billion people are obese, while in the United States 35% of people are obese, leading to this being described as an "obesity epidemic." Obesity is caused by consuming more calories than are expended, so excessive weight gain is usually caused by an energy-dense diet. ### Biological variation There is biological variation in the human species – with traits such as blood type, genetic diseases, cranial features, facial features, organ systems, eye color, hair color and texture, height and build, and skin color varying across the globe. The typical height of an adult human is between 1.4 and 1.9 m (4 ft 7 in and 6 ft 3 in), although this varies significantly depending on sex, ethnic origin, and family bloodlines. Body size is partly determined by genes and is also significantly influenced by environmental factors such as diet, exercise, and sleep patterns. There is evidence that populations have adapted genetically to various external factors. The genes that allow adult humans to digest lactose are present in high frequencies in populations that have long histories of cattle domestication and are more dependent on cow milk. Sickle cell anemia, which may provide increased resistance to malaria, is frequent in populations where malaria is endemic. Populations that have for a very long time inhabited specific climates tend to have developed specific phenotypes that are beneficial for those environments – short stature and stocky build in cold regions, tall and lanky in hot regions, and with high lung capacities or other adaptations at high altitudes. Some populations have evolved highly unique adaptations to very specific environmental conditions, such as those advantageous to ocean-dwelling lifestyles and freediving in the Bajau. Human hair ranges in color from red to blond to brown to black, which is the most frequent. Hair color depends on the amount of melanin, with concentrations fading with increased age, leading to grey or even white hair. Skin color can range from darkest brown to lightest peach, or even nearly white or colorless in cases of albinism. It tends to vary clinally and generally correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation in a particular geographic area, with darker skin mostly around the equator. Skin darkening may have evolved as protection against ultraviolet solar radiation. Light skin pigmentation protects against depletion of vitamin D, which requires sunlight to make. Human skin also has a capacity to darken (tan) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation. There is relatively little variation between human geographical populations, and most of the variation that occurs is at the individual level. Much of human variation is continuous, often with no clear points of demarcation. Genetic data shows that no matter how population groups are defined, two people from the same population group are almost as different from each other as two people from any two different population groups. Dark-skinned populations that are found in Africa, Australia, and South Asia are not closely related to each other. Genetic research has demonstrated that human populations native to the African continent are the most genetically diverse and genetic diversity decreases with migratory distance from Africa, possibly the result of bottlenecks during human migration. These non-African populations acquired new genetic inputs from local admixture with archaic populations and have much greater variation from Neanderthals and Denisovans than is found in Africa, though Neanderthal admixture into African populations may be underestimated. Furthermore, recent studies have found that populations in sub-Saharan Africa, and particularly West Africa, have ancestral genetic variation which predates modern humans and has been lost in most non-African populations. Some of this ancestry is thought to originate from admixture with an unknown archaic hominin that diverged before the split of Neanderthals and modern humans. Humans are a gonochoric species, meaning they are divided into male and female sexes. The greatest degree of genetic variation exists between males and females. While the nucleotide genetic variation of individuals of the same sex across global populations is no greater than 0.1%–0.5%, the genetic difference between males and females is between 1% and 2%. Males on average are 15% heavier and 15 cm (6 in) taller than females. On average, men have about 40–50% more upper body strength and 20–30% more lower body strength than women at the same weight, due to higher amounts of muscle and larger muscle fibers. Women generally have a higher body fat percentage than men. Women have lighter skin than men of the same population; this has been explained by a higher need for vitamin D in females during pregnancy and lactation. As there are chromosomal differences between females and males, some X and Y chromosome-related conditions and disorders only affect either men or women. After allowing for body weight and volume, the male voice is usually an octave deeper than the female voice. Women have a longer life span in almost every population around the world.There are intersex conditions in the human population, however these are rare. Psychology ---------- The human brain, the focal point of the central nervous system in humans, controls the peripheral nervous system. In addition to controlling "lower," involuntary, or primarily autonomic activities such as respiration and digestion, it is also the locus of "higher" order functioning such as thought, reasoning, and abstraction. These cognitive processes constitute the mind, and, along with their behavioral consequences, are studied in the field of psychology. Humans have a larger and more developed prefrontal cortex than other primates, the region of the brain associated with higher cognition. This has led humans to proclaim themselves to be more intelligent than any other known species. Objectively defining intelligence is difficult, with other animals adapting senses and excelling in areas that humans are unable to. There are some traits that, although not strictly unique, do set humans apart from other animals. Humans may be the only animals who have episodic memory and who can engage in "mental time travel". Even compared with other social animals, humans have an unusually high degree of flexibility in their facial expressions. Humans are the only animals known to cry emotional tears. Humans are one of the few animals able to self-recognize in mirror tests and there is also debate over to what extent humans are the only animals with a theory of mind. ### Sleep and dreaming Humans are generally diurnal. The average sleep requirement is between seven and nine hours per day for an adult and nine to ten hours per day for a child; elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours. Having less sleep than this is common among humans, even though sleep deprivation can have negative health effects. A sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including reduced memory, fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort. During sleep humans dream, where they experience sensory images and sounds. Dreaming is stimulated by the pons and mostly occurs during the REM phase of sleep. The length of a dream can vary, from a few seconds up to 30 minutes. Humans have three to five dreams per night, and some may have up to seven. Dreamers are more likely to remember the dream if awakened during the REM phase. The events in dreams are generally outside the control of the dreamer, with the exception of lucid dreaming, where the dreamer is self-aware. Dreams can at times make a creative thought occur or give a sense of inspiration. ### Consciousness and thought Human consciousness, at its simplest, is sentience or awareness of internal or external existence. Despite centuries of analyses, definitions, explanations and debates by philosophers and scientists, consciousness remains puzzling and controversial, being "at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives". The only widely agreed notion about the topic is the intuition that it exists. Opinions differ about what exactly needs to be studied and explained as consciousness. Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is sensory experience itself, and access consciousness, which can be used for reasoning or directly controlling actions. It is sometimes synonymous with 'the mind', and at other times, an aspect of it. Historically it is associated with introspection, private thought, imagination and volition. It now often includes some kind of experience, cognition, feeling or perception. It may be 'awareness', or 'awareness of awareness', or self-awareness. There might be different levels or orders of consciousness, or different kinds of consciousness, or just one kind with different features. The process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses is known as cognition. The human brain perceives the external world through the senses, and each individual human is influenced greatly by his or her experiences, leading to subjective views of existence and the passage of time. The nature of thought is central to psychology and related fields. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Psychologists have developed intelligence tests and the concept of intelligence quotient in order to assess the relative intelligence of human beings and study its distribution among population. ### Motivation and emotion Human motivation is not yet wholly understood. From a psychological perspective, Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a well-established theory that can be defined as the process of satisfying certain needs in ascending order of complexity. From a more general, philosophical perspective, human motivation can be defined as a commitment to, or withdrawal from, various goals requiring the application of human ability. Furthermore, incentive and preference are both factors, as are any perceived links between incentives and preferences. Volition may also be involved, in which case willpower is also a factor. Ideally, both motivation and volition ensure the selection, striving for, and realization of goals in an optimal manner, a function beginning in childhood and continuing throughout a lifetime in a process known as socialization. Emotions are biological states associated with the nervous system brought on by neurophysiological changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings, behavioral responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. They are often intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, creativity, and motivation. Emotion has a significant influence on human behavior and their ability to learn. Acting on extreme or uncontrolled emotions can lead to social disorder and crime, with studies showing criminals may have a lower emotional intelligence than normal. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, such as joy, interest or contentment, contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like anxiety, sadness, anger, and despair. Happiness, or the state of being happy, is a human emotional condition. The definition of happiness is a common philosophical topic. Some define it as experiencing the feeling of positive emotional affects, while avoiding the negative ones. Others see it as an appraisal of life satisfaction or quality of life. Recent research suggests that being happy might involve experiencing some negative emotions when humans feel they are warranted. ### Sexuality and love For humans, sexuality involves biological, erotic, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual feelings and behaviors. Because it is a broad term, which has varied with historical contexts over time, it lacks a precise definition. The biological and physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the human sexual response cycle. Sexuality also affects and is affected by cultural, political, legal, philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life. Sexual desire, or *libido*, is a basic mental state present at the beginning of sexual behavior. Studies show that men desire sex more than women and masturbate more often. Humans can fall anywhere along a continuous scale of sexual orientation, although most humans are heterosexual. While homosexual behavior occurs in some other animals, only humans and domestic sheep have so far been found to exhibit exclusive preference for same-sex relationships. Most evidence supports nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation, as cultures that are very tolerant of homosexuality do not have significantly higher rates of it. Research in neuroscience and genetics suggests that other aspects of human sexuality are biologically influenced as well. Love most commonly refers to a feeling of strong attraction or emotional attachment. It can be impersonal (the love of an object, ideal, or strong political or spiritual connection) or interpersonal (love between humans). When in love dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin and other chemicals stimulate the brain's pleasure center, leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Culture ------- Humanity's unprecedented set of intellectual skills were a key factor in the species' eventual technological advancement and concomitant domination of the biosphere. Disregarding extinct hominids, humans are the only animals known to teach generalizable information, innately deploy recursive embedding to generate and communicate complex concepts, engage in the "folk physics" required for competent tool design, or cook food in the wild. Teaching and learning preserves the cultural and ethnographic identity of human societies. Other traits and behaviors that are mostly unique to humans include starting fires, phoneme structuring and vocal learning. ### Language While many species communicate, language is unique to humans, a defining feature of humanity, and a cultural universal. Unlike the limited systems of other animals, human language is open – an infinite number of meanings can be produced by combining a limited number of symbols. Human language also has the capacity of displacement, using words to represent things and happenings that are not presently or locally occurring but reside in the shared imagination of interlocutors. Language differs from other forms of communication in that it is modality independent; the same meanings can be conveyed through different media, audibly in speech, visually by sign language or writing, and through tactile media such as braille. Language is central to the communication between humans, and to the sense of identity that unites nations, cultures and ethnic groups. There are approximately six thousand different languages currently in use, including sign languages, and many thousands more that are extinct. ### The arts Human arts can take many forms including visual, literary and performing. Visual art can range from paintings and sculptures to film, interaction design and architecture. Literary arts can include prose, poetry and dramas; while the performing arts generally involve theatre, music and dance. Humans often combine the different forms (for example, music videos). Other entities that have been described as having artistic qualities include food preparation, video games and medicine. As well as providing entertainment and transferring knowledge, the arts are also used for political purposes. Art is a defining characteristic of humans and there is evidence for a relationship between creativity and language. The earliest evidence of art was shell engravings made by *Homo erectus* 300,000 years before modern humans evolved. Art attributed to *H. sapiens* existed at least 75,000 years ago, with jewellery and drawings found in caves in South Africa. There are various hypotheses as to why humans have adapted to the arts. These include allowing them to better problem solve issues, providing a means to control or influence other humans, encouraging cooperation and contribution within a society or increasing the chance of attracting a potential mate. The use of imagination developed through art, combined with logic may have given early humans an evolutionary advantage. Evidence of humans engaging in musical activities predates cave art and so far music has been practiced by virtually all known human cultures. There exists a wide variety of music genres and ethnic musics; with humans' musical abilities being related to other abilities, including complex social human behaviours. It has been shown that human brains respond to music by becoming synchronized with the rhythm and beat, a process called entrainment. Dance is also a form of human expression found in all cultures and may have evolved as a way to help early humans communicate. Listening to music and observing dance stimulates the orbitofrontal cortex and other pleasure sensing areas of the brain. Unlike speaking, reading and writing does not come naturally to humans and must be taught. Still, literature has been present before the invention of words and language, with 30,000-year-old paintings on walls inside some caves portraying a series of dramatic scenes. One of the oldest surviving works of literature is the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, first engraved on ancient Babylonian tablets about 4,000 years ago. Beyond simply passing down knowledge, the use and sharing of imaginative fiction through stories might have helped develop humans' capabilities for communication and increased the likelihood of securing a mate. Storytelling may also be used as a way to provide the audience with moral lessons and encourage cooperation. ### Tools and technologies Stone tools were used by proto-humans at least 2.5 million years ago. The use and manufacture of tools has been put forward as the ability that defines humans more than anything else and has historically been seen as an important evolutionary step. The technology became much more sophisticated about 1.8 million years ago, with the controlled use of fire beginning around 1 million years ago. The wheel and wheeled vehicles appeared simultaneously in several regions some time in the fourth millennium BC. The development of more complex tools and technologies allowed land to be cultivated and animals to be domesticated, thus proving essential in the development of agriculture – what is known as the Neolithic Revolution. China developed paper, the printing press, gunpowder, the compass and other important inventions. The continued improvements in smelting allowed forging of copper, bronze, iron and eventually steel, which is used in railways, skyscrapers and many other products. This coincided with the Industrial Revolution, where the invention of automated machines brought major changes to humans' lifestyles. Modern technology is observed as progressing exponentially, with major innovations in the 20th century including: electricity, penicillin, semiconductors, internal combustion engines, the Internet, nitrogen fixing fertilisers, airplanes, computers, automobiles, contraceptive pills, nuclear fission, the green revolution, radio, scientific plant breeding, rockets, air conditioning, television and the assembly line. ### Religion and spirituality Religion is generally defined as a belief system concerning the supernatural, sacred or divine, and practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. Some religions also have a moral code. The evolution and the history of the first religions have recently become areas of active scientific investigation. While the exact time when humans first became religious remains unknown, research shows credible evidence of religious behaviour from around the Middle Paleolithic era (45–200 thousand years ago). It may have evolved to play a role in helping enforce and encourage cooperation between humans. There is no accepted academic definition of what constitutes religion. Religion has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective in alignment with the geographic, social, and linguistic diversity of the planet. Religion can include a belief in life after death (commonly involving belief in an afterlife), the origin of life, the nature of the universe (religious cosmology) and its ultimate fate (eschatology), and what is moral or immoral. A common source for answers to these questions are beliefs in transcendent divine beings such as deities or a singular God, although not all religions are theistic. Although the exact level of religiosity can be hard to measure, a majority of humans profess some variety of religious or spiritual belief. In 2015 the plurality were Christian followed by Muslims, Hindus and Buddhists. As of 2015, about 16%, or slightly under 1.2 billion humans, were irreligious, including those with no religious beliefs or no identity with any religion. ### Science and philosophy An aspect unique to humans is their ability to transmit knowledge from one generation to the next and to continually build on this information to develop tools, scientific laws and other advances to pass on further. This accumulated knowledge can be tested to answer questions or make predictions about how the universe functions and has been very successful in advancing human ascendancy. Aristotle has been described as the first scientist, and preceded the rise of scientific thought through the Hellenistic period. Other early advances in science came from the Han Dynasty in China and during the Islamic Golden Age. The scientific revolution, near the end of the Renaissance, led to the emergence of modern science. A chain of events and influences led to the development of the scientific method, a process of observation and experimentation that is used to differentiate science from pseudoscience. An understanding of mathematics is unique to humans, although other species of animals have some numerical cognition. All of science can be divided into three major branches, the formal sciences (e.g., logic and mathematics), which are concerned with formal systems, the applied sciences (e.g., engineering, medicine), which are focused on practical applications, and the empirical sciences, which are based on empirical observation and are in turn divided into natural sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology) and social sciences (e.g., psychology, economics, sociology). Philosophy is a field of study where humans seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves and the world in which they live. Philosophical inquiry has been a major feature in the development of humans' intellectual history. It has been described as the "no man's land" between definitive scientific knowledge and dogmatic religious teachings. Philosophy relies on reason and evidence, unlike religion, but does not require the empirical observations and experiments provided by science. Major fields of philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and axiology (which includes ethics and aesthetics). Society ------- Society is the system of organizations and institutions arising from interaction between humans. Humans are highly social and tend to live in large complex social groups. They can be divided into different groups according to their income, wealth, power, reputation and other factors. The structure of social stratification and the degree of social mobility differs, especially between modern and traditional societies.[*unreliable source?*] Human groups range from the size of families to nations. The first form of human social organization is thought to have resembled hunter-gatherer band societies. ### Gender Human societies typically exhibit gender identities and gender roles that distinguish between masculine and feminine characteristics and prescribe the range of acceptable behaviours and attitudes for their members based on their sex. The most common categorisation is a gender binary of men and women. Many societies recognise a third gender, or less commonly a fourth or fifth. In some other societies, non-binary is used as an umbrella term for a range of gender identities that are not solely male or female. Gender roles are often associated with a division of norms, practices, dress, behavior, rights, duties, privileges, status, and power, with men enjoying more rights and privileges than women in most societies, both today and in the past. As a social construct, gender roles are not fixed and vary historically within a society. Challenges to predominant gender norms have recurred in many societies. Little is known about gender roles in the earliest human societies. Early modern humans probably had a range of gender roles similar to that of modern cultures from at least the Upper Paleolithic, while the Neanderthals were less sexually dimorphic and there is evidence that the behavioural difference between males and females was minimal. ### Kinship All human societies organize, recognize and classify types of social relationships based on relations between parents, children and other descendants (consanguinity), and relations through marriage (affinity). There is also a third type applied to godparents or adoptive children (fictive). These culturally defined relationships are referred to as kinship. In many societies, it is one of the most important social organizing principles and plays a role in transmitting status and inheritance. All societies have rules of incest taboo, according to which marriage between certain kinds of kin relations are prohibited, and some also have rules of preferential marriage with certain kin relations. ### Ethnicity Human ethnic groups are a social category that identifies together as a group based on shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. These can be a common set of traditions, ancestry, language, history, society, culture, nation, religion, or social treatment within their residing area. Ethnicity is separate from the concept of race, which is based on physical characteristics, although both are socially constructed. Assigning ethnicity to a certain population is complicated, as even within common ethnic designations there can be a diverse range of subgroups, and the makeup of these ethnic groups can change over time at both the collective and individual level. Also, there is no generally accepted definition of what constitutes an ethnic group. Ethnic groupings can play a powerful role in the social identity and solidarity of ethnopolitical units. This has been closely tied to the rise of the nation state as the predominant form of political organization in the 19th and 20th centuries. ### Government and politics As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between these different groups increased. This led to the development of governance within and between the communities. Humans have evolved the ability to change affiliation with various social groups relatively easily, including previously strong political alliances, if doing so is seen as providing personal advantages. This cognitive flexibility allows individual humans to change their political ideologies, with those with higher flexibility less likely to support authoritarian and nationalistic stances. Governments create laws and policies that affect the citizens that they govern. There have been many forms of government throughout human history, each having various means of obtaining power and the ability to exert diverse controls on the population. As of 2017, more than half of all national governments are democracies, with 13% being autocracies and 28% containing elements of both. Many countries have formed international political organizations and alliances, the largest being the United Nations with 193 member states. ### Trade and economics Trade, the voluntary exchange of goods and services, is seen as a characteristic that differentiates humans from other animals and has been cited as a practice that gave *Homo sapiens* a major advantage over other hominids. Evidence suggests early *H. sapiens* made use of long-distance trade routes to exchange goods and ideas, leading to cultural explosions and providing additional food sources when hunting was sparse, while such trade networks did not exist for the now extinct Neanderthals. Early trade likely involved materials for creating tools like obsidian. The first truly international trade routes were around the spice trade through the Roman and medieval periods. Early human economies were more likely to be based around gift giving instead of a bartering system. Early money consisted of commodities; the oldest being in the form of cattle and the most widely used being cowrie shells. Money has since evolved into governmental issued coins, paper and electronic money. Human study of economics is a social science that looks at how societies distribute scarce resources among different people. There are massive inequalities in the division of wealth among humans; the eight richest humans are worth the same monetary value as the poorest half of all the human population. ### Conflict Humans commit violence on other humans at a rate comparable to other primates, but have an increased preference for killing adults, infanticide being more common among other primates. It is predicted that 2% of early *H. sapiens* would be murdered, rising to 12% during the medieval period, before dropping to below 2% in modern times. There is great variation in violence between human populations with rates of homicide in societies that have legal systems and strong cultural attitudes against violence at about 0.01%. The willingness of humans to kill other members of their species en masse through organized conflict (i.e., war) has long been the subject of debate. One school of thought holds that war evolved as a means to eliminate competitors, and has always been an innate human characteristic. Another suggests that war is a relatively recent phenomenon and has appeared due to changing social conditions. While not settled, current evidence indicates warlike predispositions only became common about 10,000 years ago, and in many places much more recently than that. War has had a high cost on human life; it is estimated that during the 20th century, between 167 million and 188 million people died as a result of war. See also -------- * List of human evolution fossils * Timeline of human evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of the human species * External links -------------- Listen to this article (1 hour and 16 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 11 January 2022 (2022-01-11), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Human

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human

A **pet**, or **companion animal**, is an animal kept primarily for a person's company or entertainment rather than as a working animal, livestock, or a laboratory animal. Popular pets are often considered to have attractive/cute appearances, intelligence, and relatable personalities, but some pets may be taken in on an altruistic basis (such as a stray animal) and accepted by the owner regardless of these characteristics. Two of the most popular pets are dogs and cats. Other animals commonly kept include rabbits; ferrets; pigs; rodents such as gerbils, hamsters, chinchillas, rats, mice, and guinea pigs; birds such as parrots, passerines, and fowls; reptiles such as turtles, lizards, snakes, and iguanas; aquatic pets such as fish, freshwater snails, and saltwater snails; amphibians such as frogs and salamanders; and arthropod pets such as tarantulas and hermit crabs. Small pets may be grouped together as pocket pets, while the equine and bovine group include the largest companion animals. Pets provide their owners, or guardians, both physical and emotional benefits. Walking a dog can provide both the human and the dog with exercise, fresh air, and social interaction. Pets can give companionship to people who are living alone or elderly adults who do not have adequate social interaction with other people. There is a medically approved class of therapy animals that are brought to visit confined humans, such as children in hospitals or elders in nursing homes. Pet therapy utilizes trained animals and handlers to achieve specific physical, social, cognitive, or emotional goals with patients. People most commonly get pets for companionship, to protect a home or property, or because of the perceived beauty or attractiveness of the animals. A 1994 Canadian study found that the most common reasons for not owning a pet were lack of ability to care for the pet when traveling (34.6%), lack of time (28.6%), and lack of suitable housing (28.3%), with dislike of pets being less common (19.6%). Some scholars, ethicists, and animal rights organizations have raised concerns over keeping pets because of the lack of autonomy and the objectification of non-human animals. Pet popularity -------------- In China, spending on domestic animals has grown from an estimated $3.12 billion in 2010 to $25 billion in 2018. The Chinese people own 51 million dogs and 41 million cats, with pet owners often preferring to source pet food internationally. There are a total of 755 million pets, increased from 389 million in 2013. According to a survey promoted by Italian family associations in 2009, it is estimated that there are approximately 45 million pets in Italy. This includes 7 million dogs, 7.5 million cats, 16 million fish, 12 million birds, and 10 million snakes. A 2007 survey by the University of Bristol found that 26% of UK households owned cats and 31% owned dogs, estimating total domestic populations of approximately 10.3 million cats and 10.5 million dogs in 2006. The survey also found that 47.2% of households with a cat had at least one person educated to degree level, compared with 38.4% of homes with dogs. Sixty-eight percent of U.S. households, or about 85 million families, own a pet, according to the 2017-2018 National Pet Owners Survey conducted by the American Pet Products Association (APPA). This is up from 56 percent of U.S. households in 1988, the first year the survey was conducted. There are approximately 86.4 million pet cats and approximately 78.2 million pet dogs in the United States, and a United States 2007–2008 survey showed that dog-owning households outnumbered those owning cats, but that the total number of pet cats was higher than that of dogs. The same was true for 2011. In 2013, pets outnumbered children four to one in the United States. Most popular pets in the U.S (millions)| Pet | Global population | U.S. population | U.S. inhabited households | U.S. average per inhabited household | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Cat | 202 | 93.6 | 38.2 | 2.45 | | Dog | 171 | 77.5 | 45.6 | 1.70 | | Fish | N/A | 171.7 | 13.3 | 12.86 | | Small mammals | N/A | 15.9 | 5.3 | 3.00 | | Birds | N/A | 15.0 | 6.0 | 2.50 | | Reptiles & amphibians | N/A | 13.6 | 4.7 | 2.89 | | Equine | N/A | 13.3 | 3.9 | 3.41 | Effects on pets' health ----------------------- Keeping animals as pets may be detrimental to their health if certain requirements are not met. An important issue is inappropriate feeding, which may produce clinical effects. The consumption of chocolate or grapes by dogs, for example, may prove fatal. Certain species of houseplants can also prove toxic if consumed by pets. Examples include philodendrons and Easter lilies, which can cause severe kidney damage to cats, and poinsettias, begonia, and aloe vera, which are mildly toxic to dogs. Housepets, particularly dogs and cats in industrialized societies, are highly susceptible to obesity. Overweight pets have been shown to be at a higher risk of developing diabetes, liver problems, joint pain, kidney failure, and cancer. Lack of exercise and high-caloric diets are considered to be the primary contributors to pet obesity. Effects of pets on their caregivers' health ------------------------------------------- ### Health benefits It is widely believed among the public, and among many scientists, that pets probably bring mental and physical health benefits to their owners; a 1987 NIH statement cautiously argued that existing data was "suggestive" of a significant benefit. A recent dissent comes from a 2017 RAND study, which found that at least in the case of children, having a pet *per se* failed to improve physical or mental health by a statistically significant amount; instead, the study found children who were already prone to being healthy were more likely to get pets in the first place. Conducting long-term randomized trials to settle the issue would be costly or infeasible. #### Observed correlations Pets might have the ability to stimulate their caregivers, in particular the elderly, giving people someone to take care of, someone to exercise with, and someone to help them heal from a physically or psychologically troubled past. Animal company can also help people to preserve acceptable levels of happiness despite the presence of mood symptoms like anxiety or depression. Having a pet may also help people achieve health goals, such as lowered blood pressure, or mental goals, such as decreased stress. There is evidence that having a pet can help a person lead a longer, healthier life. In a 1986 study of 92 people hospitalized for coronary ailments, within a year, 11 of the 29 patients without pets had died, compared to only 3 of the 52 patients who had pets. Having pet(s) was shown to significantly reduce triglycerides, and thus heart disease risk, in the elderly. A study by the National Institute of Health found that people who owned dogs were less likely to die as a result of a heart attack than those who did not own one. There is some evidence that pets may have a therapeutic effect in dementia cases. Other studies have shown that for the elderly, good health may be a requirement for having a pet, and not a result. Dogs trained to be guide dogs can help people with vision impairment. Dogs trained in the field of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) can also benefit people with other disabilities. ### Pets in long-term care institutions People residing in a long-term care facility, such as a hospice or nursing home, may experience health benefits from pets. Pets help them to cope with the emotional issues related to their illness. They also offer physical contact with another living creature, something that is often missing in an elder's life. Pets for nursing homes are chosen based on the size of the pet, the amount of care that the breed needs, and the population and size of the care institution. Appropriate pets go through a screening process and, if it is a dog, additional training programs to become a therapy dog. There are three types of therapy dogs: facility therapy dogs, animal-assisted therapy dogs, and therapeutic visitation dogs. The most common therapy dogs are therapeutic visitation dogs. These dogs are household pets whose handlers take time to visit hospitals, nursing homes, detention facilities, and rehabilitation facilities. Different pets require varying amounts of attention and care; for example, cats may have lower maintenance requirements than dogs. ### Connection with community In addition to providing health benefits for their owners, pets also impact the social lives of their owners and their connection to their community. There is some evidence that pets can facilitate social interaction. Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Colorado at Boulder, Leslie Irvine has focused her attention on pets of the homeless population. Her studies of pet ownership among the homeless found that many modify their life activities for fear of losing their pets. Pet ownership prompts them to act responsibly, with many making a deliberate choice not to drink or use drugs, and to avoid contact with substance abusers or those involved in any criminal activity for fear of being separated from their pet. Additionally, many refuse to house in shelters if their pet is not allowed to stay with them. ### Health risks Health risks that are associated with pets include: * Aggravation of allergies and asthma caused by dander and fur or feathers * Falling injuries. Tripping over pets, especially dogs causes more than 86,000 falls serious enough to prompt a trip to the emergency room each year in the United States. Among elderly and disabled people, these falls have resulted in life-threatening injuries and broken bones. * Injury, mauling, and sometimes death caused by pet bites and attacks * Disease or parasites due to animal hygiene problems, lack of appropriate treatment, and undisciplined behavior (feces and urine) * Stress caused by the behavior of animals * Anxiety over who will care for the animal should the owner no longer be able to do so Legislation ----------- ### Treaties **European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals** | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |    | Signed and ratified |    | Acceded or succeeded | |    | Only signed |    | Not signed (CoE member states) | |    | Not signed (non-CoE member states) | | | The European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals is a 1987 treaty of the Council of Europe – but accession to the treaty is open to all states in the world – to promote the welfare of pet animals and ensure minimum standards for their treatment and protection. It went into effect on 1 May 1992, and as of June 2020, it has been ratified by 24 states. ### National and local laws #### Ownership or guardianship Pets have commonly been considered private property, owned by individual persons. Many legal protections have existed (historically and today) with the intention of safeguarding pets' and other animals' well-being. Since the year 2000, a small but increasing number of jurisdictions in North America have enacted laws redefining pet's *owners* as *guardians*. Intentions have been characterized as simply changing attitudes and perceptions but not legal consequences to working toward legal personhood for pets themselves. Some veterinarians and breeders have opposed these moves. The question of pets' legal status can arise with concern to purchase or adoption, custody, divorce, estate and inheritance, injury, damage, and veterinary malpractice. #### Limitations on species States, cities, and towns in Western countries commonly enact local ordinances to limit the number or kind of pets a person may keep personally or for business purposes. Prohibited pets may be specific to certain breeds such as pit bulls or Rottweilers, they may apply to general categories of animals (such as livestock, exotic animals, wild animals, and canid or felid hybrids), or they may simply be based on the animal's size. Additional or different maintenance rules and regulations may also apply. Condominium associations and owners of rental properties also commonly limit or forbid tenants' keeping of pets. In Belgium and the Netherlands, the government publishes white lists and black lists (called 'positive' and 'negative lists') with animal species that are designated to be appropriate to be kept as pets (positive) or not (negative). The Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs and Climate Policy originally established its first positive list (*positieflijst*) per 1 February 2015 for a set of 100 mammals (including cats, dogs and production animals) deemed appropriate as pets on the recommendations of Wageningen University. Parliamentary debates about such a pet list date back to the 1980s, with continuous disagreements about which species should be included and how the law should be enforced. In January 2017, the white list was expanded to 123 species, while the black list that had been set up was expanded (with animals like the brown bear and two great kangaroo species) to contain 153 species unfit for petting, such as the armadillo, the sloth, the European hare, and the wild boar. #### Killing and eating pets In January 2011, the Belgian Federal Agency for the Safety of the Food Chain stated that people are not allowed to kill random cats walking in their garden, but "[n]owhere in the law does it say that you can't eat your cat, dog, rabbit, fish or whatever. You just have to kill them in an animal-friendly way." Since 1 July 2014, it is illegal in the Netherlands for owners to kill their own cats and dogs kept as pets. Parakeets, guinea pigs, hamsters and other animals may still be killed by their owners, but nonetheless when owners mistreat their companion animals (for example, in the process of killing them), the owners can still be prosecuted under Dutch law. Environmental impact -------------------- Pets have a considerable environmental impact, especially in countries where they are common or held in high densities. For instance, the 163 million dogs and cats kept in the United States consume about 20% of the amount of dietary energy that humans do and an estimated 33% of the animal-derived energy. They produce about 30% ± 13%, by mass, as much feces as Americans, and through their diet, constitute about 25–30% of the environmental impacts from animal production in terms of the use of land, water, fossil fuel, phosphate, and biocides. Dog and cat animal product consumption is responsible for the release of up to 64 ± 16 million tons CO2-equivalent methane and nitrous oxide, two powerful greenhouse gasses. Americans are the largest pet owners in the world, but pet ownership in the US has considerable environmental costs. Types ----- RabbitLabrador Retriever dogMini pigHedgehogMammals as pets. Clockwise: Rabbit, dog, hedgehog, mini pig. AquariumBirds in cageAnt farmSnakeOther species kept as pets. Clockwise: fish aquarium, birds, snake, ant farm. While many people have kept many different species of animals in captivity over the course of human history, only a relative few have been kept long enough to be considered domesticated. Other types of animal, notably monkeys, have never been domesticated but are still sold and kept as pets. Some wild animals are kept as pets, such as tigers, even though this is illegal. There is a market for illegal pets. ### Domesticated Domesticated pets are most common. A *domesticated animal* is a species that has been made fit for a human environment, by being consistently kept in captivity and selectively bred over a long enough period of time that it exhibits marked differences in behavior and appearance from its wild relatives. Domestication contrasts with taming, which is simply when an un-domesticated, wild animal has become tolerant of human presence, and perhaps even enjoys it. Large mammals that might be kept as pets include: alpaca, camel, cattle, donkey, goat, horse, llama, pig, and sheep. Small mammals that might be kept as pets include: ferret, hedgehog, rabbit, sugar glider, and rodents, including rat, mouse, hamster, guinea pig, gerbil, and chinchilla. Other mammals include cat, dog, monkey, and domesticated silver fox. Birds kept as pets include companion parrots like the budgie and cockatiel, fowl such as chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and quail, columbines, and passerines, namely finches and canaries. Fish kept as pets include: goldfish, koi, Siamese fighting fish (Betta), barb, guppy, molly, Japanese rice fish (Medaka), and oscar. Arthropods kept as pets include bees, such as honey bees and stingless bees, Silk moth, and ant farms. Reptiles and amphibians kept as pets include snakes, turtles, axolotl, frogs and salamanders. ### Wild animals Wild animals are kept as pets. The term *wild* in this context specifically applies to any species of animal which has not undergone a fundamental change in behavior to facilitate a close co-existence with humans. Some species may have been bred in captivity for a considerable length of time, but are still not recognized as domesticated. Generally, wild animals are recognized as not suitable to keep as pets, and this practice is completely banned in many places. In other areas, certain species are allowed to be kept, and it is usually required for the owner to obtain a permit. It is considered animal cruelty by some, as most often, wild animals require precise and constant care that is very difficult to meet in captive conditions. Many large and instinctively aggressive animals are extremely dangerous, and numerous times have they killed their handlers. History ------- ### Prehistory Archaeology suggests that human ownership of dogs as pets may date back to at least 12,000 years ago. ### Ancient history Ancient Greeks and Romans would openly grieve for the loss of a dog, evidenced by inscriptions left on tombstones commemorating their loss. The surviving epitaphs dedicated to horses are more likely to reference a gratitude for the companionship that had come from war horses rather than race horses. The latter may have chiefly been commemorated as a way to further the owner's fame and glory. In Ancient Egypt, dogs and baboons were kept as pets and buried with their owners. Dogs were given names, which is significant as Egyptians considered names to have magical properties. ### Victorian era: the rise of modern pet keeping Throughout the 17th and 18th-century pet keeping in the modern sense gradually became accepted throughout Britain. Initially, aristocrats kept dogs for both companionship and hunting. Thus, pet keeping was a sign of elitism within society. By the 19th century, the rise of the middle class stimulated the development of pet keeping and it became inscribed within the bourgeois culture. #### Economy As the popularity of pet-keeping in the modern sense rose during the Victorian era, animals became a fixture within urban culture as commodities and decorative objects. Pet keeping generated a commercial opportunity for entrepreneurs. By the mid-19th century, nearly twenty thousand street vendors in London dealt with live animals. The popularity of animals also developed a demand for animal goods such as accessories and guides for pet keeping. Pet care developed into a big business by the end of the nineteenth century. Profiteers also sought out pet stealing as a means for economic gain. Utilizing the affection that owners had for their pets, professional dog stealers would capture animals and hold them for ransom. The development of dog stealing reflects the increased value of pets. Pets gradually became defined as the property of their owners. Laws were created that punished offenders for their burglary. #### Social Pets and animals also had social and cultural implications throughout the nineteenth century. The categorization of dogs by their breeds reflected the hierarchical, social order of the Victorian era. The pedigree of a dog represented the high status and lineage of their owners and reinforced social stratification. Middle-class owners valued the ability to associate with the upper-class through ownership of their pets. The ability to care for a pet signified respectability and the capability to be self-sufficient. According to Harriet Ritvo, the identification of "elite animal and elite owner was not a confirmation of the owner's status but a way of redefining it." #### Entertainment The popularity of dog and pet keeping generated animal fancy. Dog fanciers showed enthusiasm for owning pets, breeding dogs, and showing dogs in various shows. The first dog show took place on 28 June 1859 in Newcastle and focused mostly on sporting and hunting dogs. However, pet owners produced an eagerness to demonstrate their pets as well as have an outlet to compete. Thus, pet animals gradually were included within dog shows. The first large show, which would host one thousand entries, took place in Chelsea in 1863. The Kennel Club was created in 1873 to ensure fairness and organization within dog shows. The development of the *Stud Book* by the Kennel Club defined policies, presented a national registry system of purebred dogs, and essentially institutionalized dog shows. Pet ownership by non-humans --------------------------- Pet ownership by animals in the wild, as an analogue to the human phenomenon, has not been observed and is likely non-existent in nature. One group of capuchin monkeys was observed appearing to care for a marmoset, a fellow New World monkey species, however observations of chimpanzees apparently "playing" with small animals like hyraxes have ended with the chimpanzees killing the animals and tossing the corpses around. A 2010 study states that human relationships with animals have an exclusive human cognitive component and that pet-keeping is a fundamental and ancient attribute of the human species. Anthropomorphism, or the projection of human feelings, thoughts and attributes on to animals, is a defining feature of human pet-keeping. The study identifies it as the same trait in evolution responsible for domestication and concern for animal welfare. It is estimated to have arisen at least 100,000 years before present (ybp) in *Homo sapiens*. It is debated whether this redirection of human nurturing behaviour towards non-human animals, in the form of pet-keeping, was maladaptive, due to being biologically costly, or whether it was positively selected for. Two studies suggest that the human ability to domesticate and keep pets came from the same fundamental evolutionary trait and that this trait provided a material benefit in the form of domestication that was sufficiently adaptive to be positively selected for. A 2011 study suggests that the practical functions that some pets provide, such as assisting hunting or removing pests, could have resulted in enough evolutionary advantage to allow for the persistence of this behaviour in humans and outweigh the economic burden held by pets kept as playthings for immediate emotional rewards. Two other studies suggest that the behaviour constitutes an error, side effect or misapplication of the evolved mechanisms responsible for human empathy and theory of mind to cover non-human animals which has not sufficiently impacted its evolutionary advantage in the long run. Animals in captivity, with the help of caretakers, have been considered to have owned "pets". Examples of this include Koko the gorilla who had several pet cats, Tonda the orangutan and a pet cat and Tarra the elephant and a dog named Bella. Pets in art ----------- * Katharine of Aragon with a monkeyKatharine of Aragon with a monkey * The Girl with the Marmot by Jean-Honoré Fragonard The Girl with the Marmot by Jean-Honoré Fragonard * * - Young Lady with parrot by Édouard Manet 1866 - Young Lady with parrot by Édouard Manet 1866 * Antoinette Metayer (1732–88) and her pet dogAntoinette Metayer (1732–88) and her pet dog * The Lady with an ErmineThe Lady with an Ermine * Sir Henry Raeburn - Boy and RabbitSir Henry Raeburn - Boy and Rabbit * Eos, A Favorite Greyhound of Prince Albert Eos, A Favorite Greyhound of Prince Albert * A Neapolitan WomanA Neapolitan Woman * Signal, a Grey Arab, with a Groom in the DesertSignal, a Grey Arab, with a Groom in the Desert * Eduardo Leon Garrido. An Elegant Lady with her DogEduardo Leon Garrido. An Elegant Lady with her Dog * The Fireplace depicting a Pug, James Tissot*The Fireplace* depicting a Pug, James Tissot * * Rosa Bonheur - Portrait of William F. CodyRosa Bonheur - Portrait of William F. Cody * * * HuntHunt * The Pasha's Favourite Tiger, oil painting by Rudolph Ernst*The Pasha's Favourite Tiger*, oil painting by Rudolph Ernst See also -------- * Alternative pets: + Digital pet + Robotic pet * Animal captivity * Animal hoarding * Anthrozoology * Classroom pet * List of individual cats * List of individual dogs * Pet adoption * Pet loss * Zoonosis Further reading --------------- * David Grimm (2015). *Citizen Canine: Our Evolving Relationship with Cats and Dogs*. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610395502.

Pet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet

**Dalit** (from Sanskrit: दलित, romanized: *dalita* meaning "broken/scattered"), also previously known as **untouchable**, is the lowest stratum of the castes in the Indian subcontinent. Dalits were excluded from the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and were seen as forming a fifth varna, also known by the name of *Panchama*. Dalits predominantly follow Hinduism, with significant populations of the adherents of Buddhism, Sikhism, Christianity, and Islam. Scheduled Castes is the official term for Dalits as per the constitutions of India and Pakistan. History ------- The term *Dalit* is a self-applied concept for those called the "untouchables" and others that were outside of the traditional Hindu caste hierarchy. Economist and reformer B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956) said that untouchability came into Indian society around 400 CE, due to the struggle for supremacy between Buddhism and Brahmanism (an ancient term for Brahmanical Hinduism). Some Hindu priests befriended untouchables and were demoted to low-caste ranks. Eknath, who was an excommunicated Brahmin, fought for the rights of untouchables during the Bhakti period. In the late 1880s, the Marathi word 'Dalit' was used by Mahatma Jotiba Phule for the outcasts and Untouchables who were oppressed and broken in the Hindu society. *Dalit* is a vernacular form of the Sanskrit दलित (*dalita*). In Classical Sanskrit, this means "divided, split, broken, scattered". This word was repurposed in 19th-century Sanskrit to mean "(a person) not belonging to one of the four Varnas". It was perhaps first used in this sense by Pune-based social reformer Jyotirao Phule, in the context of the oppression faced by the erstwhile "untouchable" castes from other Hindus. The term *dalits* was in use as a translation for the British Raj census classification of *Depressed Classes* prior to 1935. It was popularised by Ambedkar, himself a Dalit, who included all depressed people irrespective of their caste into the definition of Dalits. It covered people who were excluded from the four-fold varna system of Hinduism and thought of themselves as forming a fifth varna, describing themselves as *Panchama*. In the 1970s its use was invigorated when it was adopted by the Dalit Panthers activist group. Socio-legal scholar Oliver Mendelsohn and political economist Marika Vicziany wrote in 1998 that the term had become "intensely political ... While the use of the term might seem to express appropriate solidarity with the contemporary face of Untouchable politics, there remain major problems in adopting it as a generic term. Although the word is now quite widespread, it still has deep roots in a tradition of political radicalism inspired by the figure of B. R. Ambedkar." They went on to suggest that its use risked erroneously labelling the entire population of untouchables in India as being united by a radical politics. Anand Teltumbde also detects a trend towards denial of the politicised identity, for example among educated middle-class people who have converted to Buddhism and argue that, as Buddhists, they cannot be Dalits. This may be due to their improved circumstances giving rise to a desire not to be associated with what they perceive to be the demeaning Dalit masses. ### Other terms #### Official term *Scheduled Castes* is the official term for Dalits in the opinion of India's National Commissions for Scheduled Castes (NCSC), who took legal advice that indicated modern legislation does not refer to Dalit and that therefore, it says, it is "unconstitutional" for official documents to do so. In 2004, the NCSC noted that some state governments used *Dalits* rather than *Scheduled Castes* in documentation and asked them to desist. Some sources say that *Dalit* encompasses a broader range of communities than the official *Scheduled Caste* definition. It can include nomadic tribes and another official classification that also originated with the British Raj positive discrimination efforts in 1935, being the *Scheduled Tribes*. It is also sometimes used to refer to the entirety of India's oppressed peoples, which is the context that applies to its use in Nepalese society. An example of the limitations of the *Scheduled Caste* category is that, under Indian law, such people can only be followers of Buddhism, Hinduism or Sikhism, yet there are communities who claim to be Dalit Christians and Muslims, and the tribal communities often practise folk religions. #### Harijan The term *Harijan*, or 'children of God', was coined by Narsinh Mehta, a Gujarati poet-saint of the Bhakti tradition, to refer to all devotees of Krishna irrespective of caste, class, or sex. Mahatma Gandhi, an admirer of Mehta's work, first used the word in the context of identifying Dalits in 1933. Ambedkar disliked the name as it placed Dalits in relation to a greater Hindu nation rather than as in an independent community like Muslims. In addition, many Dalits found, and still find, the term patronizing and derogatory, with some even claiming that the term really refers to children of devadasis.[*page needed*] When untouchability was outlawed after Indian independence, the use of the word *Harijan* to describe ex-untouchables became more common among other castes than within Dalits themselves. In 2017, Supreme Court of India noted calling people *harijan* was offensive. #### Regional terms In Southern India, Dalits are sometimes known as *Adi Dravida*, *Adi Karnataka*, and *Adi Andhra*, which literally mean First Dravidians, Kannadigas, and Andhras, respectively. These terms were first used in 1917 by Southern Dalit leaders, who believed that they were the indigenous inhabitants of India. The terms are used in the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh/Telangana, respectively, as a generic term for anyone from a Dalit caste.[*clarification needed*] In Maharashtra, according to historian and women's studies academic Shailaja Paik, *Dalit* is a term mostly used by members of the Mahar caste, into which Ambedkar was born. Most other communities prefer to use their own caste name. In Nepal, aside from *Harijan* and, most commonly, *Dalit*, terms such as *Haris* (among Muslims), *Achhoot*, *outcastes* and *neech jati* are used. Demographics ------------ Scheduled Caste communities exist across India and comprised 16.6% of the country's population, according to the[update] 2011 Census of India. Uttar Pradesh (21%), West Bengal (11%), Bihar (8%) and Tamil Nadu (7%) between them accounted for almost half the country's total Scheduled Caste population. They were most prevalent as a proportion of the states' population in Punjab, at about 32 per cent, while Mizoram had the lowest at approximately zero. Similar groups are found throughout the rest of the Indian subcontinent; less than 2 per cent of Pakistan's population are Hindu and 70–75 per cent of those Hindus are Dalits, in Nepal, Bangladesh had 5 million Dalits in 2010 with the majority being landless and in chronic poverty, and Sri Lanka. They are also found as part of the Indian diaspora in many countries, including the United States, United Kingdom, Singapore, and the Caribbean. India is home to over 200 million Dalits. According to Paul Diwakar, a Dalit activist from the National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, "India has 600,000 villages and almost every village a small pocket on the outskirts is meant for Dalits." Social status ------------- Dalits have had lowest social status in the traditional Hindu social structure but James Lochtefeld, a professor of religion and Asian studies, said in 2002 that the "adoption and popularization of [the term *Dalit*] reflects their growing awareness of the situation, and their greater assertiveness in demanding their legal and constitutional rights". India's National Commission for Scheduled Castes considers official use of *dalit* as a label to be "unconstitutional" because modern legislation prefers *Scheduled Castes*; however, some sources say that *Dalit* has encompassed more communities than the official term of *Scheduled Castes* and is sometimes used to refer to all of India's oppressed peoples. A similar all-encompassing situation prevails in Nepal. In 1932, the British Raj recommended separate electorates to select leaders for Dalits in the Communal Award. This was favoured by Ambedkar but when Mahatma Gandhi opposed the proposal it resulted in the Poona Pact. That in turn influenced the Government of India Act, 1935, which introduced the reservation of seats for the Depressed Classes, now renamed as Scheduled Castes. From soon after its independence in 1947, India introduced a reservation system to enhance the ability of Dalits to have political representation and to obtain government jobs and education.[*clarification needed*] In 1997, India elected its first Dalit President, K. R. Narayanan. Many social organisations have promoted better conditions for Dalits through education, healthcare and employment. Nonetheless, while caste-based discrimination was prohibited and untouchability abolished by the Constitution of India, such practices are still widespread. To prevent harassment, assault, discrimination and similar acts against these groups, the Government of India enacted the Prevention of Atrocities Act, also called the SC/ST Act, on 31 March 1995. In accordance with the order of the Bombay High Court, the Information and Broadcasting Ministry (I&B Ministry) of the Government of India issued an advisory to all media channels in September 2018, asking them to use "Scheduled Castes" instead of the word "Dalit". George Kunnath claims that there "is and has been an internal hierarchy between the various Dalit castes". According to Kunnath, the Dusadhs are considered the highest while the Musahars are considered the lowest within the Dalit groups. ### Occupations In the past, they were believed to be so impure that upper caste Hindus considered their presence to be polluting. The "impure status" was related to their historic hereditary occupations that caste Hindus considered to be "polluting" or debased, such as working with leather, disposing of dead animals, manual scavenging, or sanitation work. Forced by the circumstance of their birth and poverty, Dalits in India continue to work as sanitation workers: manual scavengers, cleaners of drains, garbage collectors, and sweepers of roads. As of 2019, an estimated 40 to 60 per cent of the 6 million Dalit households are engaged in sanitation work. The most common Dalit caste performing sanitation work is Valmiki (also Balmiki) caste. ### History Dharavi View 1Dharavi View 2Dharavi is a slum in Mumbai, founded in the 1880s during the British Raj. The colonial government expelled Dalits, along with their traditional profession of leather and tannery work, from Mumbai (Bombay) peninsula to create Dharavi. Currently, about 20 per cent of the Dharavi population are Dalits, compared to 16 per cent nationwide. Dalits live together with Muslims (who constitute about a third of Dharavi's population) and other castes and tribes. Gopal Baba Walangkar (c. 1840–1900) is generally considered to be the pioneer of the Dalit movement, seeking a society in which they were not discriminated against. Another pioneer was Harichand Thakur (c. 1812–1878) with his Matua organisation that involved the Namasudra (Chandala) community in the Bengal Presidency. Ambedkar himself believed Walangkar to be the progenitor. Another early social reformer who worked to improve conditions for Dalits was Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890). The 1950 Constitution of India, introduced after the country gained independence, included measures to improve the socioeconomic conditions of Dalits. Aside from banning untouchability, these included the reservation system, a means of positive discrimination that created the classification of Scheduled Castes as Dalits. Communities that were categorised as being one of those groups were guaranteed a percentage of the seats in the national and state legislatures, as well as in government jobs and places of education. The system has its origins in the 1932 Poona Pact between Ambedkar and Gandhi, when Ambedkar conceded his demand that the Dalits should have an electorate separate from the caste Hindus in return for Gandhi accepting measures along these lines. The notion of a separate electorate had been proposed in the Communal Award made by the British Raj authorities, and the outcome of the Pact – the Government of India Act of 1935 – both introduced the new term of *Scheduled Castes* in replacement for *Depressed Classes* and reserved seats for them in the legislatures. By 1995, of all federal government jobs in India – 10.1 per cent of Class I, 12.7 per cent of Class II, 16.2 per cent of Class III, and 27.2 per cent of Class IV jobs were held by Dalits. Of the most senior jobs in government agencies and government-controlled enterprises, only 1 per cent were held by Dalits, not much change in 40 years. In the 21st century, Dalits have been elected to India's highest judicial and political offices. In 2001, the quality of life of the Dalit population in India was worse than that of the overall Indian population on metrics such as access to health care, life expectancy, education attainability, access to drinking water and housing. Economic status --------------- According to a 2014 report to the Ministry of Minority Affairs, over 44.8 per cent of Scheduled Tribe (ST) and 33.8 per cent of Scheduled Caste (SC) populations in rural India were living below the poverty line in 2011–12. In urban areas, 27.3 per cent of ST and 21.8 per cent of SC populations were below the poverty line. Some Dalits have achieved affluence, although most remain poor. Some Dalit intellectuals, such as Chandra Bhan Prasad, have argued that the living standards of many Dalits have improved since the economic system became more liberalised starting in 1991 and have supported their claims through large surveys. According to the Socio Economic and Caste Census 2011, nearly 79 per cent of Adivasi households and 73 per cent of Dalit households were the most deprived among rural households in India. While 45 per cent of SC households are landless and earn a living by manual casual labour, the figure is 30 per cent for Adivasis. A 2012 survey by Mangalore University in Karnataka found that 93 per cent of Dalit families in the state of Karnataka live below the poverty line. Discrimination -------------- Discrimination against Dalits has been observed across South Asia and among the South Asian diaspora. According to a 2007 report by Human Rights Watch (HRW), the treatment of Dalits has been like a "hidden apartheid" and that they "endure segregation in housing, schools, and access to public services". HRW noted that Manmohan Singh, then Prime Minister of India, saw a parallel between the apartheid system and untouchability. Eleanor Zelliot also notes Singh's 2006 comment but says that, despite the obvious similarities, race prejudice and the situation of Dalits "have a different basis and perhaps a different solution". Though the Indian Constitution abolished untouchability, the oppressed status of Dalits remains a reality. In rural India, stated Klaus Klostermaier in 2010, "they still live in secluded quarters, do the dirtiest work, and are not allowed to use the village well and other common facilities". In the same year, Zelliot noted that "In spite of much progress over the last sixty years, Dalits are still at the social and economic bottom of society." The South Asia State of Minorities Report 2020 has found that since the BJP (the Indian people's party) has returned to political power in India as of May 2018, "Hate crimes against minorities have seen a spike – taking the form of mob lynching and vigilante violence against Muslims, Christians, and Dalits. BJP also strengthened and expanded a series of discriminatory laws and measures that target religious minorities. These include anti-conversion laws, blamed by human rights groups for empowering Hindutva groups to conduct campaigns of harassment, social exclusion and violence against Christians, Muslims, and other religious minorities across the country’. Laws ostensibly meant for the protection of cows continue to provide institutional backing for similar campaigns against Muslims and Dalits." While discrimination against Dalits has declined in urban areas and in the public sphere, it still exists in rural areas and in the private sphere, in everyday matters such as access to eating places, schools, temples and water sources. Some Dalits successfully integrated into urban Indian society, where caste origins are less obvious. In rural India, however, caste origins are more readily apparent and Dalits often remain excluded from local religious life, though some qualitative evidence suggests that exclusion is diminishing. According to the 2014 NCAER/University of Maryland survey, 27 per cent of the Indian population still practices untouchability; the figure may be higher because many people refuse to acknowledge doing so when questioned, although the methodology of the survey was also criticised for potentially inflating the figure. Across India, Untouchability was practised among 52 per cent of Brahmins, 33 per cent of Other Backward Classes and 24 per cent of non-Brahmin forward castes. Untouchability was also practised by people of minority religions – 23 per cent of Sikhs, 18 per cent of Muslims and 5 per cent of Christians. According to statewide data, Untouchability is most commonly practised in Madhya Pradesh (53 per cent), followed by Himachal Pradesh (50 per cent), Chhattisgarh (48 per cent), Rajasthan and Bihar (47 per cent), Uttar Pradesh (43 per cent), and Uttarakhand (40 per cent). Examples of segregation have included the Madhya Pradesh village of Ghatwani, where the Scheduled Tribe population of Bhilala do not allow Dalit villagers to use the public borewell for fetching water and thus they are forced to drink dirty water. In metropolitan areas around New Delhi and Bangalore, Dalits and Muslims face discrimination from upper caste landlords when seeking places to rent. In 1855, Mutka Salve, a 14-year-old student of Dalit leader Savitribai Phule, wrote that during the rule of Baji Rao of the Maratha Empire, the Dalit castes were chased away from their lands to build large buildings. They were also forced to drink oil mixed with red lead causing them to die, and then they were buried in the foundations of buildings, thus wiping out generations of Dalits. Under the rule of Baji Rao, if a Dalit crossed in front of a gym, they would cut off his head and play "bat and ball" on the ground, with their swords as bats and his head as a ball. Under these 17th century kings, human sacrifice of untouchable persons was not unusual. They also created intricate rules and operations to ensure that they stayed untouchables. She also wrote that if a Dalit learned to read and write, Baji Rao would say that their education takes away a Brahmin's job, and they were punished. ### Education According to an analysis by The IndiaGoverns Research Institute, Dalits constituted nearly half of primary school drop-outs in Karnataka during the period 2012–14.[*clarification needed*] A sample survey in 2014, conducted by Dalit Adhikar Abhiyan and funded by ActionAid, found that among state schools in Madhya Pradesh, 88 per cent discriminated against Dalit children. In 79 per cent of the schools studied, Dalit children are forbidden from touching mid-day meals. They are required to sit separately at lunch in 35 per cent of schools, and are required to eat with specially marked plates in 28 per cent. There have been incidents and allegations of SC and ST teachers and professors being discriminated against and harassed by authorities, upper castes colleagues and upper caste students in different education institutes of India. In some cases, such as in Gujarat, state governments have argued that, far from being discriminatory, their rejection when applying for jobs in education has been because there are no suitably qualified candidates from those classifications. ### Healthcare and nutrition Discrimination can also exist in access to healthcare and nutrition. A sample survey of Dalits, conducted over several months in Madhya Pradesh and funded by ActionAid in 2014, found that health field workers did not visit 65 per cent of Dalit settlements. 47 per cent of Dalits were not allowed entry into ration shops; and 64 per cent were given less grains than non-Dalits. In Haryana state, 49 per cent of Dalit children under five years were underweight and malnourished while 80 per cent of those in the 6–59 months age group were anaemic in 2015. ### Crime Dalits comprise a slightly disproportionate number of India's prison inmates. While Dalits (including both SCs and STs) constitute 25 per cent of the Indian population, they account for 33.2 per cent of prisoners. About 24.5 per cent of death row inmates in India are from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes which is proportionate to their population. The percentage is highest in Maharashtra (50 per cent), Karnataka (36.4 per cent) and Madhya Pradesh (36 per cent). Dalits have been arrested on false pretexts. According to Human Rights Watch, politically motivated arrests of Dalit rights activists occur and those arrested can be detained for six months without charge. Caste-related violence between Dalit and non-Dalits stems from ongoing prejudice by upper caste members. The Bhagana rape case, which arose out of a dispute of allocation of land, is an example of atrocities against Dalit girls and women. In August 2015, due to continued alleged discrimination from upper castes of the village, about 100 Dalit inhabitants converted to Islam in a ceremony at Jantar Mantar, New Delhi. Inter-caste marriage has been proposed as a remedy, but according to a 2014 survey of 42,000 households by the New Delhi-based National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER) and the University of Maryland, it was estimated that only 5 per cent of Indian marriages cross caste boundaries. According to data for 2000 collected by India's National Crime Records Bureau, 25,455 crimes against Dalits were committed in the year 2000, the latest year for which the data is only available, 2 Dalits are assaulted every hour, 3 Dalit women are raped every day, 2 Dalits are murdered; and 2 Dalit homes are set on fire every day. Amnesty International documented a high number of sexual assaults against Dalit women, which were often committed by landlords, upper-caste villagers, and policemen, according to a study published in 2001. According to the research, only about 5% of assaults are recorded, and policemen dismiss at least 30% of rape reports as false. The study also discovered that cops often seek bribes, threaten witnesses, and conceal evidence. Victims of rape have also been killed. There have been reports of Dalits being forced to eat human faeces and drink urine by upper caste members and the police. In September 2015, a 45-year-old dalit woman was allegedly stripped naked and was forced to drink urine by perpetrators in Madhya Pradesh. In some parts of India, there have been allegations that Dalit grooms riding horses for wedding ceremonies have been beaten up and ostracised by upper caste people. In August 2015, upper caste people burned houses and vehicles belonging to Dalit families and slaughtered their livestock in reaction to Dalits daring to hold a temple car procession at a village in Tamil Nadu. In August 2015, it was claimed that a Jat Khap Panchayat ordered the rape of two Dalit sisters because their brother eloped with a married Jat girl of the same village. In 2003, the higher caste Muslims in Bihar opposed the burials of lower caste Muslims in the same graveyard. A Dalit activist was killed in 2020 for social media posts criticising Brahmins. A dalit was killed in 2019 for eating in front of upper-caste men. ### Prevention of Atrocities Act The Government of India has attempted on several occasions to legislate specifically to address the issue of caste-related violence that affects SCs and STs. Aside from the Constitutional abolition of untouchability, there has been the Untouchability (Offences) Act of 1955, which was amended in the same year to become the Protection of Civil Rights Act. It was determined that neither of those Acts were effective, so the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 (POA) came into force. The POA designated specific crimes against SCs and STs as "atrocities" – a criminal act that has "the quality of being shockingly cruel and inhumane" – which should be prosecuted under its terms rather than existing criminal law. It created corresponding punishments. Its purpose was to curb and punish violence against Dalits, including humiliations such as the forced consumption of noxious substances. Other atrocities included forced labour, denial of access to water and other public amenities, and sexual abuse. The Act permitted Special Courts exclusively to try POA cases. The Act called on states with high levels of caste violence (said to be "atrocity-prone") to appoint qualified officers to monitor and maintain law and order. In 2015, the Parliament of India passed the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Amendment Act to address issues regarding implementation of the POA, including instances where the police put procedural obstacles in the way of alleged victims or indeed outright colluded with the accused. It also extended the number of acts that were deemed to be atrocities. One of those remedies, in an attempt to address the slow process of cases, was to make it mandatory for states to set up the exclusive Special Courts that the POA had delineated. Progress in doing so, however, was reported in April 2017 to be unimpressive. P. L. Punia, a former chairman of the NCSC, said that the number of pending cases was high because most of the extant Special Courts were in fact not exclusive but rather being used to process some non-POA cases, and because "The special prosecutors are not bothered and the cases filed under this Act are as neglected as the victims". While Dalit rights organisations were cautiously optimistic that the amended Act would improve the situation, legal experts were pessimistic. Religion -------- Discrimination is illegal under Indian law by the Removal of Civil Disabilities Act (Act 21 of 1938), the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939 (Act XXII of 1939) and Article 17 of the Constitution which outlawed Untouchability. After India's independence in 1947, secular nationalism based on a "composite culture" made all people equal citizens. In Pakistan there are tensions between forces that want a modern secular state or an Islamic one. The constitution of Bangladesh proclaims Islam is the state religion but upholds secularism. ### Hinduism Most Dalits in India are Hindu. There have been incidents which showed that Dalits were restricted from entering temples by high-caste Hindus, and participation in religious processions. In the 19th century, the Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission actively participated in the rights of Dalits. While Dalits had places to worship, the first upper-caste temple to openly welcome Dalits was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in 1928. It was followed by the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last King of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in 1936. In the 1930s, Gandhi and Ambedkar disagreed regarding retention of the caste system. Whilst Ambedkar wanted to see it destroyed, Gandhi thought that it could be modified by reinterpreting Hindu texts so that the untouchables were absorbed into the Shudra varna. It was this disagreement that led to the Poona Pact. Gandhi began the Harijan Yatra to help the Dalits, but ran into some opposition from Dalits that wanted a complete break from Hinduism. The declaration by princely states of Kerala between 1936 and 1947 that temples were open to all Hindus went a long way towards ending untouchability there. However, educational opportunities to Dalits in Kerala remain limited. Other Hindu groups attempted to reconcile with the Dalit community. Hindu temples are increasingly receptive to Dalit priests, a function formerly reserved for Brahmins. Brahmins such as Subramania Bharati passed Brahminhood onto a Dalit, while in Shivaji's Maratha Empire Dalit warriors (the Mahar Regiment) joined his forces. The fight for temple entry rights for Dalits continues to cause controversy. In a 2015 incident in Meerut, when a Dalit belonging to Valmiki caste was denied entry to a Hindu temple he converted to Islam. In September 2015, four Dalit women were fined by the upper-caste Hindus for entering a temple in Karnataka. There have been allegations that Dalits in Nepal are denied entry to Hindu temples. In at least one reported case, they were beaten up by some upper-caste people for doing so. ### Buddhism In 1956, the Dalit jurist Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956) launched the Dalit Buddhist movement, leading several mass conversions of Dalits from Hinduism to Buddhism. Ambedkar's Buddhism is a new kind of Buddhism that focuses on social and political engagement. About half a million Dalits joined Ambedkar in rejecting Hinduism and challenging its caste system. The movement is centered in Maharashtra, and according to the 2011 census, there were 6.5 million Marathi Buddhists (mainly Dalit Buddhists) in Maharashtra. Another Dalit Buddhist leader and reformer was Pandit Iyothee Thass, founder of the Sakya Buddhist Society of Tamil Nadu. ### Sikhism Guru Nanak in *Guru Granth Sahib* calls for everyone to treat each other equally. Subsequent Sikh Gurus, all of whom came from the Khatri caste, also denounced the hierarchy of the caste system. Despite this, social stratification exists in the Sikh community. The bulk of the Sikhs of Punjab belong to the Jat caste; there are also two Dalit Sikh castes in the state, called the Mazhabis and the Ramdasias. Sunrinder S. Jodhka says that, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the dalit castes. While dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Sikh dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local-level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy. In 1953, Sikh leader Master Tara Singh succeeded in winning the demands from the government to include Sikh castes of the converted untouchables in the list of scheduled castes. In the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC), 20 of the 140 seats are reserved for low-caste Sikhs. Sikh women are required to have the surname "Kaur", and men, the surname "Singh", in order to eradicate caste identities and discrimination. In 2003 the Talhan village Gurudwara endured a bitter dispute between Jat Sikhs and Chamars. The Chamars came out in force and confronted the Randhawa and Bains Jat Sikh landlords, who refused to give the Chamars a share on the governing committee of a shrine dedicated to Shaheed Baba Nihal Singh. The shrine earned 3–7 crore Indian Rupees, and the Jat Sikh landlords allegedly "gobbled up a substantial portion of the offerings". Though Dalits form more than 60 per cent of Talhan's 5,000-strong population, local traditions ensured that they were denied a place on the committee. The landlords, in league with radical Sikh organisations and the SGPC, attempted to keep out the Dalits by razing the shrine overnight and constructing a gurdwara on it, but the Dalit quest for a say in the governing committee did not end. Chamars fought a four-year court battle with the landlords and their allies, including the Punjab Police. In that time Jats conducted several boycotts against the Chamars. The Jat Sikhs and their allies cut off the power supply to their homes. In addition, various scuffles and fights set Chamar youths armed with lathis, rocks, bricks, soda bottles and anything they could find fought Jat Sikh landlords, youths and the Punjab police. Dalit youngsters painted their homes and motorcycles with the slogan, *Putt Chamar De* (*proud sons of Chamars*) in retaliation to the Jat slogan, *Putt Jattan De*. ### Jainism Historically Jainism was practised by many communities across India. They are often conservative and are generally considered upper-caste. In 1958, a Sthanakvasi Jain called Muni Sameer Muni came into contact with members of the Khatik community in the Udaipur region, who decided to adopt Jainism. Their centre, Ahimsa Nagar, located about four miles from Chittorgarh, was inaugurated by Mohanlal Sukhadia in 1966. Sameer Muni termed them *Veerwaal*, that is, belonging to Mahavira. A 22-year-old youth, Chandaram Meghwal, was initiated as a Jain monk at Ahore town in Jalore district in 2005. In 2010 a Mahar engineer called Vishal Damodar was initiated as a Jain monk by Acharya Navaratna Sagar Suriji at Samet Shikhar. Acharya Nanesh, the eighth Achayra of Sadhumargi Jain Shravak Sangha, had preached among the Balai community in 1963 near Ratlam. His followers are called *Dharmapal*. In 1984, some of the Bhangis of Jodhpur came under the influence of Acharya Shri Tulsi and adopted Jainism. ### Christianity Christian Dalits are found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal. Mass conversions of lower caste Hindus to Christianity and Islam took place in order to escape the discrimination. The main Dalit groups that participated in these conversions were the Chuhras of Punjab, Chamars of North India (Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh), Vankars of Gujarat, and Pulayas of Kerala. The first people converted to Christianity by Jesuits of the Madura Mission were members of Nadars, Maravars, and Pallar. They believed that "Christianity is a true religion; a desire for protection from oppressors and, if possible, material aid; the desire for education for their children; and the knowledge that those who have become Christians had improved". Christianity was thought to be egalitarian and could provide mobility away from the caste. Sometimes the only change seen was their personal religious identity. Even after conversion, in some cases Dalits were discriminated against due to the "residual leftover" practice of caste discrimination from their previous traditions. This is attributed to the predominantly Hindu society they lived in. Discrimination against Dalit Christians also remained in interactions and mannerisms between castes; for example, during the earlier days, the 'lower caste Christians' had to [cover] their mouths when talking to a Syrian Christian. In many cases they were still referred to by their Hindu caste names: For example *Pulayans* in Kerala, *Pariah* in Tamil Nadu, and *Madigas* in Andra Pradesh, by members of all religious backgrounds. Even after conversion, to some extent segregation, restriction, hierarchy, and graded ritual purity remained. Data shows that there is more discrimination and less class mobility among the people living in the rural areas, where incidents of caste discrimination is higher among people from all religious backgrounds. In many cases, the churches referred to the Dalits as 'New Christians'. It is alleged to be a derogatory term which classifies the Dalit Christians to be looked down upon by other Christians. During the earlier days of Christianity, in some churches in south India the Dalits had either separate seating, or had to attend the mass outside. Dalit Christians are also said to be grossly underrepresented amongst the clergy in some places. Caste-based occupations held by Dalits also show a clear segregation which perpetuated even after becoming Christian. Occupational patterns (including manual scavenging) are prevalent among Dalit Christians in north-west India are said to be quite similar to that of Dalit Hindus. Occupational discrimination for Dalit Christians goes so far as to restrict not only employment but in some cases for clean sanitation and water. ### Islam Most of India's 140 million Muslims are descended from local converts. Many of them converted to Islam to escape Hindu upper-caste oppression. 75% of the present Indian Muslim population are Dalits. Political involvement --------------------- Dalit-led political parties include: ### National dalit-led political parties in India * Bahujan Samaj Party, is national political party as per Election Commission of India * Azad Samaj Party ### Other recognized state political parties * Azad Samaj Party * Vanchit Bahujan Aaghadi, led by Prakash Yashwant Ambedkar, Ambedkar's grandson * Republican Party of India factions, active in Maharashtra * Viduthalai Chiruthaigal Katchi and Puthiya Tamilagam are the two major dalit parties in Tamil Nadu * Lok Janshakti Party, Bihar ### Nepali Dalit-led parties * Bahujan Shakti Party, Nepal * Dalit Janajati Party, Nepal ### Dalit-led political parties in Pakistan * Dalit Sujag Tehreek, Pakistan ### Other dalit groups Anti-Dalit prejudices exist in groups such as the extremist militia Ranvir Sena, largely run by upper-caste landlords in Bihar. They oppose equal treatment of Dalits and have resorted to violence. The Ranvir Sena is considered a terrorist organisation by the government of India. In 2015, Cobrapost exposed many leaders especially like C. P. Thakur alongside former PM Chandra Shekhar associated with Ranvir Sena in Bihar Dalit massacres while governments of Nitish Kumar (under pressure from BJP), Lalu Prasad Yadav and Rabri Devi did nothing to get justice for Dalits. The rise of Hindutva's (Hindu nationalism) role in Indian politics has accompanied allegations that religious conversions of Dalits are due to allurements like education and jobs rather than faith. Critics[*who?*] argue that laws banning conversion and limiting social relief for converts mean that conversion impedes economic success. However, Bangaru Laxman, a Dalit politician, was a prominent member of the Hindutva movement. Another political issue is Dalit affirmative-action quotas in government jobs and university admissions. About 8 per cent of the seats in the National and State Parliaments are reserved for Scheduled Caste and Tribe candidates. Jagjivan Ram (1908–1986) was the first scheduled caste leader to emerge at the national level from Bihar. He was member of the Constituent assembly that drafted India's constitution. Ram also served in the interim national government of 1946 He served in the cabinets of Congress party Prime ministers Jawaharlal Nehru, Lal Bahadur Shastri and Indira Gandhi. His last position in government was as Deputy Prime Minister of India in the Janata Party government of 1977–1979, In modern times several Bharatiya Janata Party leaders were Dalits, including Dinanath Bhaskar, Ramchandra Veerappa and Suraj Bhan. In India's most populous state, Uttar Pradesh, Dalits have had a major political impact. The Dalit-led Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) had previously run the government and that party's leader, Mayawati, served several times as chief minister. Regarding her election in 2007, some reports claimed her victory was due to her ability to win support from both 17 per cent of Muslims and nearly 17 per cent Brahmins alongside 80 per cent of Dalits. However, surveys of voters on the eve of elections, indicated that caste loyalties were not the voters' principal concern. Instead, inflation and other issues of social and economic development dictated the outcome. Mayawati's success in reaching across castes has led to speculation about her as a potential future Prime Minister of India. Aside from Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh, Damodaram Sanjivayya was chief minister of Andhra Pradesh from 11 January 1960 to 12 March 1962, and Jitan Ram Manjhi was chief minister of Bihar for just under a year. In 1997, K. R. Narayanan, who was a Dalit, was elected as President of India. In 2017, Ramnath Kovind was elected as the President of India, becoming the second dalit president of the country. ### Votebank Votebank politics are common in India, usually based on religion or caste. Indeed, the term itself was coined by the Indian sociologist M. N. Srinivas. Dalits are often used as a votebank. There have been instances where it has been alleged that an election-winning party reneged on promises made to the Dalits made during the election campaign or have excluded them from party affairs. ### Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Sub-Plan The SC, ST Sub-Plan, or *Indiramma Kalalu*, is a budget allocation by the Government of Andhra Pradesh for the welfare of Dalits. The law was enacted in May 2013. SCs and STs have separate panels for spending. The plan was meant to prevent the government from diverting funds meant for SCs and STs to other programs, which was historically the case. As of 2013[update], no equivalent national plan existed. Scheduled Castes Sub Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan funds are often diverted by state governments to other purposes. While the Indian Constitution has provisions for the social and economic uplift of Dalits to support their upward social mobility, these concessions are limited to Hindus. Dalits who have converted to other religions have asked that benefits be extended to them. Beyond the Indian subcontinent ------------------------------ ### United Kingdom After World War II, immigration from the former British Empire was largely driven by labour shortages. Like the rest of the Indian subcontinent diaspora, Dalits immigrated and established their own communities. A 2009 report alleged that caste discrimination is "rife" in the United Kingdom. The report alleged that casteism persists in the workplace and within the National Health Service and at doctor's offices. Some claim that caste discrimination is non-existent. Some have rejected the government's right to interfere in the community. The Hindu Forum of Britain conducted their own research, concluding that caste discrimination was "not endemic in British society", that reports to the contrary aimed to increase discrimination by legislating expression and behaviour and that barriers should instead be removed through education. A 2010 study found that caste discrimination occurs in Britain at work and in service provision. While not ruling out the possibility of discrimination in education, no such incidents were uncovered. The report found favourable results from educational activities. However, non-legislative approaches were claimed to be less effective in the workplace and would not help when the authorities were discriminating. One criticism of discrimination law was the difficulty in obtaining proof of violations. Perceived benefits of legislation were that it provides redress, leads to greater understanding and reduces the social acceptance of such discrimination. More recent studies in Britain were inconclusive and found that discrimination was "not religion specific and is subscribed to by members of any or no religion". Equalities Minister Helen Grant found insufficient evidence to justify specific legislation, while Shadow Equalities minister Kate Green said that the impact is on a relatively small number of people. Religious studies professor Gavin Flood of the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies concluded that the Hindu community in Britain is particularly well integrated, loosening caste ties. Casteist beliefs were prevalent mainly among first generation immigrants, with such prejudices declining with each successive generation due to greater assimilation. From September 2013 to February 2014, Indian philosopher Meena Dhanda led a project on 'Caste in Britain' for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC), which focused on the proposed inclusion of a provision in the Equality Act 2010 to protect British citizens against caste discrimination. In 2018 the UK government decided not to include caste as a "protected characteristic" within the terms of the Act, and to rely instead on case law to identify tests for caste-based discrimination. Supporters of anti-caste legislation include Lord Avebury and Lady Thornton. #### Sikh diaspora in Britain Sikhs in the United Kingdom are affected by caste. Gurdwaras such as those of the Ramgarhia Sikhs are organised along caste lines and most are controlled by a single caste. In most British towns and cities with a significant Sikh population, rival gurdwaras can be found with caste-specific management committees. The caste system and caste identity is entrenched and reinforced. Caste-based discrimination has occurred amongst Sikhs in the UK. At a sports competition in Birmingham in 1999, Jat Sikhs refused to eat food that had been cooked and prepared by the Chamar community. The few gurdwaras that accept inter-caste marriages do so reluctantly. Gurdwaras may insist on the presence of *Singh* and *Kaur* in the names of the bridegroom and bride, or deny them access to gurdwara-based religious services and community centres. ### In the Caribbean It is estimated that in 1883, about one-third of the immigrants who arrived in the Caribbean were Dalits. The shared experience of being exploited in a foreign land gradually broke down caste barriers in the Caribbean Hindu communities. ### In Continental Europe The Romani people, originating in northern India, are said to be of Dalit ancestry. Between 1001 and 1026, the Romani fought under their Hindu rulers to fight the Ghaznavids. ### In the United States Many Dalits first came to the United States to flee caste-based oppression in South Asia. After the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, the demand for labourers brought in many caste-diverse South Asian immigrants, many of whom were Dalit. After the 1965 Immigration and Naturalization Act, immigrants from India were primarily professionals and students, largely from upper caste or dominant caste families. However, from the 1990s onwards, many more of the skilled labourers arriving from India have been Dalit, due to multiple generations of affirmative action policies in India, as well as ongoing efforts of organised resistance against caste discrimination. Dalits have faced discrimination and mistreatment throughout their existence in the United States. In the landmark Supreme Court Case *United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind*, Thind unsuccessfully argued for his right to citizenship by claiming that his lighter complexion and upper-caste background implied that he was in fact Caucasian. Thind's lawyers described his supposed superiority to lower-caste Indians, stating "The high-caste Hindu regards the aboriginal Indian Mongoloid in the same manner as the American regards the Negro, speaking from a matrimonial standpoint." This attitude describes the disapproval of low-caste Indians such as Dalits held by upper caste Indian Americans at the time. Some people, like S.P. Kothari, argue that there is no caste division within Hindus in the United States today. However, reports and stories have shown Dalit Americans continue to face significant discrimination in the United States. In 2018, Equality Labs released a report on "Caste in the United States". This report found that one in two Dalit Americans live in fear of their caste being "outed". In addition, 60% have experienced caste-based discriminatory jokes, and 25% have suffered verbal or physical assault because of their caste. The Equality Labs report also found that two-thirds of Dalit Americans experienced unfair treatment at their workplace. In late June 2020, the California Department of Fair Employment and Housing filed a lawsuit against Cisco Systems, alleging that a Dalit engineer at the company faced discrimination from two of his upper-caste supervisors for his Dalit background. The lawsuit claims that "higher caste supervisors and co-workers imported the discriminatory system's practices into their team and Cisco's workplace". At the BAPS Hindu temple in the city of Robbinsville, New Jersey, some 200 workers to the U.S. on R-1 visas as religious volunteers filed suit over being held against their will. Literature ---------- Dalit literature encompasses writings by Dalits about their lived experiences, and it has emerged as a significant literary movement and forms a distinct part of Indian literature. It has formed an identity across various Indian languages, including Marathi, Bangla, Hindi, Kannada, Punjabi, Sindhi, Odia, Tamil, and others. The earliest identifiably Dalit writers were Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived in the reign of Western Chalukyas and who is regarded by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry" and Dohara Kakkaiah, a Dalit by birth, six of whose confessional poems survive. The origins of modern Dalit writing can be traced back to the works of Marathi Dalit Bhakti poets and Tamil Siddhas, suggesting a long-standing tradition of marginalized voices. This literary movement gained momentum in the mid-20th century, challenging the prevailing portrayals of life in mainstream literature. The publication of Jyotirao Phule's Gulamgiri in 1873 marked a seminal moment in Dalit literature, shedding light on the plight of the Untouchables. Dalit literature in India has flourished in various regional languages, reflecting the diverse experiences and struggles of Dalit communities across the country. In Maharashtra, Baburao Bagul's collection of stories, "Jevha Mi Jat Chorali" (When I had Concealed My Caste), published in 1963, marked a significant turning point, portraying the harsh realities of Dalit lives and garnering critical acclaim. Writers like Namdeo Dhasal and Daya Pawar further strengthened the Dalit movement in Maharashtra introducing the seminal "Dalit Panther" as part of the little magazine movement. Baburao Bagul, Bandhu Madhav and Shankar Rao Kharat, worked in the 1960s. Later the little magazine movement became popular. In Bengal, the Dalit literary movement began in 1992 after the suicide of Chuni Kotal, leading to the formation of the Bangla Dalit Sahitya Sanstha and the launch of the magazine "Chaturtha Duniya". Prominent Dalit authors in Bengal include Manoranjan Byapari, Jatin Bala, and Kalyani Charal. Tamil Nadu has a long history of Dalit literature, starting from the efforts of Parayars in the late 19th century. The Tamil Dalit literary movement gained momentum in the 1990s, influenced by the Mandal Commission report and Ambedkar centenary celebrations. Writers like Bama, Joseph Macwan, and Gogu Shyamala have made significant contributions to Tamil Dalit literature. In Telugu literature, Dalit voices gained prominence through the activism of leaders like Kathi Padma Rao and Bojja Tarakam, addressing issues of caste discrimination and social injustice. Gujarati Dalit literature emerged in the 1970s with magazines like Puma and Panther, inspired by the Dalit Panthers movement in Maharashtra. Writers such as Rameshchandra Parmar and Sahil Parmar played vital roles in its development. Odia Dalit literature has a rich history dating back to the fifteenth century, with significant contributions from Sudramuni Sarala Dasa and Bhima Bhoi. Writers like Basudeb Sunani and Pitambar Tarai have furthered the Dalit literary movement in Odisha. Additionally, Dalit literature encompasses various forms such as poetry, autobiographies, and testimonios, with notable works including "Karukku" by Bama and "The Weave of My Life" by Urmila Pawar. The Indian author Rajesh Talwar has written a play titled 'Gandhi, Ambedkar, and the Four Legged Scorpion' in which the personal experiences of Ambedkar and the sufferings of the community have been highlighted. In Sri Lanka, writers such as K.Daniel and Dominic Jeeva gained mainstream popularity. In the film industry -------------------- Until the 1980s, Dalits had little involvement in Bollywood or other film industries of India and the community were rarely depicted at the heart of storylines. Chirag Paswan (son of Dalit leader Ram Vilas Paswan) launched his career in Bollywood with his debut film *Miley Naa Miley Hum* in 2011. Despite political connections and the financial ability to struggle against ingrained prejudices, Chirag was not able to "bag" any other movie project in the following years. Chirag, in his early days, described Bollywood as his "childhood dream", but eventually entered politics instead. When the media tried to talk to him about "Caste in Bollywood", he refused to talk about the matter. A recent Hindi film to portray a Dalit character in the leading role, although it was not acted by a Dalit, was *Eklavya: The Royal Guard* (2007). The continued use of caste based references to Dalit sub-castes in South Indian films (typecast and pigeonholed in their main socio-economic sub-group) angers many Dalit fans. A Brazilian telenovela *India: A Love Story* was broadcast in 2009 where the main female character Maya, who is of upper class, falls in love with a Dalit person. Internal conflicts ------------------ Several Dalit groups are rivals and sometimes communal tensions are evident. A study found more than 900 Dalit sub-castes throughout India, with internal divisions. Emphasising any one caste threatens what is claimed to be an emerging Dalit identity and fostering rivalry among SCs. A DLM (Dalit Liberation Movement) party leader said in the early 2000s that it is easier to organise Dalits on a caste basis than to fight caste prejudice itself. Balmikis and Pasis in the 1990s refused to support the BSP, claiming it was a Jatav party but over 80 per cent of dalits from all united Dalit castes voted BSP to power in 2007. Many converted Dalit Sikhs claim a superior status over the Hindu Raigars, Joatia Chamars and Ravidasis and sometimes refuse to intermarry with them. They are divided into gotras that regulate their marriage alliances. In Andhra Pradesh, Mala and Madiga were constantly in conflict with each other but as of 2015 Mala and Madiga students work for common dalit cause at University level. Although the Khateek (butchers) are generally viewed as a higher caste than Bhangis, the latter refuse to offer cleaning services to Khateeks, believing that their profession renders them unclean. They also consider the Balai, Dholi and Mogya as unclean and do not associate with them. Notable people -------------- See also -------- * Caste discrimination in the United States * 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra * Bhim Army * Chaitya Bhoomi * Dalit Buddhism * Dalit History Month * Dalit nationalism * Ambedkar Makkal Iyakkam * Ayyathan Gopalan * Bhopal Conference * Deekshabhoomi * Health care access among Dalits in India * Lord Buddha TV * Mahadalit * Marichjhapi massacre * Nepaldalitinfo * Namantar Andolan ### Similarly discriminated groups * *Baekjeong*, untouchable caste in Korea. * *Bụi đời*, outcast community of Vietnam after the Fall of Saigon. * *Burakumin*, in Japan. * Cagot, in France and Spain. * *Cascarots*, an ethnic group in the Spanish Basque country and the French Basque coast sometimes linked to the Cagots. * Cleanliness of blood, ethnic discrimination in the Spanish Old Regime. * Maragato [es], in Spain. * Melungeons, of America's central Appalachia. * *Tanka* (danhu) ("boat people") in Guangdong, Fuzhou Tanka in Fujian, *si-min* (small people) and *mianhu* in Jiangsu, *Gaibu* and *Duomin* (*To min*; Chinese: 惰民; pinyin: *duò mín*; lit. '"idle/lazy/fallen/indolent people"') in Zhejiang, *jiuxing yumin* (Chinese: 九姓魚民; pinyin: *jiǔxìng yúmín*; lit. '"nine name fishermen"') in the Yangtze River region, *yoh-hu* ("music people") in Shanxi * *Vaqueiros de alzada*, in Northern Spain. Further reading --------------- * Franco, Fernando; Macwan, Jyotsna; Ramanathan, Suguna (2004). *Journeys to Freedom: Dalit Narratives*. Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-81-85604-65-7. * Ghosh, Partha S. (July 1997). "Positive Discrimination in India: A Political Analysis" (PDF). *Ethnic Studies Report*. **XV** (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2004. * Joshi, Barbara R. (1986). *Untouchable!: Voices of the Dalit Liberation Movement*. Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-460-5. * Limbale, Sharankumar (2004). *Towards an Aesthetic of Dalit Literature*. Orient Longman. ISBN 81-250-2656-8. * Mani, Braj Ranjan (2005). *Debrahmanising History: Dominance and Resistance in Indian Society*. Manohar Publishers and Distributors. ISBN 81-7304-640-9. * Michael, S. M. (2007). *Dalits in Modern India – Vision and Values*. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-3571-1. * Omvedt, Gail (1994). *Dalits and the Democratic Revolution – Dr. Ambedkar and the Dalit Movement in Colonial India*. SAGE Publications. ISBN 81-7036-368-3. * Omvedt, Gail (2006). *Dalit Visions: The Anti-caste Movement and the Construction of an Indian Identity*. Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-2895-6. * Paik, Shailaja (2018). "The rise of new Dalit women in Indian historiography". *History Compass*. **16** (10): e12491. * Prasad, Amar Nath; Gaijan, M. B. (2007). *Dalit Literature: A Critical Exploration*. ISBN 978-81-7625-817-3. * Rajshekhar, V. T. (2003). *Dalit – The Black Untouchables of India* (2nd ed.). Clarity Press. ISBN 0-932863-05-1. * Rege, Sharmila (2006). *Writing Caste Writing Gender:Narrating Dalit Women's Testimonios*. Zubaan. ISBN 9788189013011. * Samaddara, Ranabira; Shah, Ghanshyam (2001). *Dalit Identity and Politics*. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-7619-9508-1. * Sharma, Pradeep K. (2006). *Dalit Politics and Literature*. Shipra Publications. ISBN 978-81-7541-271-2. * Zelliot, Eleanor (2005). *From Untouchable to Dalit – Essays on the Ambedkar Movement*. Manohar. ISBN 81-7304-143-1.

Dalit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalit

A **musician** is a person who composes, conducts, or performs music. According to the United States Employment Service, "musician" is a general term used to designate one who follows music as a profession. Musicians include songwriters who write both music and lyrics for songs, conductors who direct a musical performance, or performers who perform for an audience. A music performer is generally either a singer who provides vocals or an instrumentalist who plays a musical instrument. Musicians may perform on their own or as part of a group, band or orchestra. Musicians specialize in a musical style, and some musicians play in a variety of different styles depending on cultures and background. A musician who records and releases music can be known as a recording artist. Types ----- ### Composer A composer is a musician who creates musical compositions. The title is principally used for those who write classical music or film music. Those who write the music for popular songs may be called songwriters. Those who mainly write the words for songs may be referred to as lyricists. ### Conductor A conductor directs a musical performance; conducting has been defined as "the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture". The conductor stands on a raised podium and communicates with the musicians through hand gestures or eye contact. ### Performer Examples of performers include, but are not limited to, instrumentalists and singers who perform for an audience. A musician can perform as a solo artist or as a part of an ensemble (e.g. an orchestra, a choir or a pop group). See also -------- * Health problems of musicians * Lists of musicians * List of online music databases * List of highest-certified music artists in the United States * Record producer External links --------------

Musician

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musician

In mathematics, a **field** is a set on which addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are defined and behave as the corresponding operations on rational and real numbers do. A field is thus a fundamental algebraic structure which is widely used in algebra, number theory, and many other areas of mathematics. The best known fields are the field of rational numbers, the field of real numbers and the field of complex numbers. Many other fields, such as fields of rational functions, algebraic function fields, algebraic number fields, and *p*-adic fields are commonly used and studied in mathematics, particularly in number theory and algebraic geometry. Most cryptographic protocols rely on finite fields, i.e., fields with finitely many elements. The relation of two fields is expressed by the notion of a field extension. Galois theory, initiated by Évariste Galois in the 1830s, is devoted to understanding the symmetries of field extensions. Among other results, this theory shows that angle trisection and squaring the circle cannot be done with a compass and straightedge. Moreover, it shows that quintic equations are, in general, algebraically unsolvable. Fields serve as foundational notions in several mathematical domains. This includes different branches of mathematical analysis, which are based on fields with additional structure. Basic theorems in analysis hinge on the structural properties of the field of real numbers. Most importantly for algebraic purposes, any field may be used as the scalars for a vector space, which is the standard general context for linear algebra. Number fields, the siblings of the field of rational numbers, are studied in depth in number theory. Function fields can help describe properties of geometric objects. Definition ---------- Informally, a field is a set, along with two operations defined on that set: an addition operation written as *a* + *b*, and a multiplication operation written as *a* ⋅ *b*, both of which behave similarly as they behave for rational numbers and real numbers, including the existence of an additive inverse −*a* for all elements a, and of a multiplicative inverse *b*−1 for every nonzero element b. This allows one to also consider the so-called *inverse* operations of subtraction, *a* − *b*, and division, *a* / *b*, by defining: *a* − *b* := *a* + (−*b*), *a* / *b* := *a* ⋅ *b*−1. ### Classic definition Formally, a field is a set *F* together with two binary operations on F called *addition* and *multiplication*. A binary operation on F is a mapping *F* × *F* → *F*, that is, a correspondence that associates with each ordered pair of elements of F a uniquely determined element of F. The result of the addition of *a* and *b* is called the sum of *a* and *b*, and is denoted *a* + *b*. Similarly, the result of the multiplication of *a* and *b* is called the product of *a* and *b*, and is denoted *ab* or *a* ⋅ *b*. These operations are required to satisfy the following properties, referred to as *field axioms* (in these axioms, a, b, and c are arbitrary elements of the field F): * Associativity of addition and multiplication: *a* + (*b* + *c*) = (*a* + *b*) + *c*, and *a* ⋅ (*b* ⋅ *c*) = (*a* ⋅ *b*) ⋅ *c*. * Commutativity of addition and multiplication: *a* + *b* = *b* + *a*, and *a* ⋅ *b* = *b* ⋅ *a*. * Additive and multiplicative identity: there exist two different elements 0 and 1 in *F* such that *a* + 0 = *a* and *a* ⋅ 1 = *a*. * Additive inverses: for every *a* in *F*, there exists an element in *F*, denoted −*a*, called the *additive inverse* of *a*, such that *a* + (−*a*) = 0. * Multiplicative inverses: for every *a* ≠ 0 in *F*, there exists an element in *F*, denoted by *a*−1 or 1/*a*, called the *multiplicative inverse* of *a*, such that *a* ⋅ *a*−1 = 1. * Distributivity of multiplication over addition: *a* ⋅ (*b* + *c*) = (*a* ⋅ *b*) + (*a* ⋅ *c*). This may be summarized by saying: a field has two commutative operations, called addition and multiplication; it is a group under addition with 0 as the additive identity; the nonzero elements are a group under multiplication with 1 as the multiplicative identity; and multiplication distributes over addition. Even more summarized: a field is a commutative ring where 0 ≠ 1 {\displaystyle 0\neq 1} 0\neq 1 and all nonzero elements are invertible under multiplication. ### Alternative definition Fields can also be defined in different, but equivalent ways. One can alternatively define a field by four binary operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and their required properties. Division by zero is, by definition, excluded. In order to avoid existential quantifiers, fields can be defined by two binary operations (addition and multiplication), two unary operations (yielding the additive and multiplicative inverses respectively), and two nullary operations (the constants 0 and 1). These operations are then subject to the conditions above. Avoiding existential quantifiers is important in constructive mathematics and computing. One may equivalently define a field by the same two binary operations, one unary operation (the multiplicative inverse), and two (not necessarily distinct) constants 1 and −1, since 0 = 1 + (−1) and −*a* = (−1)*a*. Examples -------- ### Rational numbers Rational numbers have been widely used a long time before the elaboration of the concept of field. They are numbers that can be written as fractions *a*/*b*, where *a* and *b* are integers, and *b* ≠ 0. The additive inverse of such a fraction is −*a*/*b*, and the multiplicative inverse (provided that *a* ≠ 0) is *b*/*a*, which can be seen as follows: b a ⋅ a b = b a a b = 1. {\displaystyle {\frac {b}{a}}\cdot {\frac {a}{b}}={\frac {ba}{ab}}=1.} {\displaystyle {\frac {b}{a}}\cdot {\frac {a}{b}}={\frac {ba}{ab}}=1.} The abstractly required field axioms reduce to standard properties of rational numbers. For example, the law of distributivity can be proven as follows: a b ⋅ ( c d + e f ) = a b ⋅ ( c d ⋅ f f + e f ⋅ d d ) = a b ⋅ ( c f d f + e d f d ) = a b ⋅ c f + e d d f = a ( c f + e d ) b d f = a c f b d f + a e d b d f = a c b d + a e b f = a b ⋅ c d + a b ⋅ e f . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {c}{d}}+{\frac {e}{f}}\right)\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {c}{d}}\cdot {\frac {f}{f}}+{\frac {e}{f}}\cdot {\frac {d}{d}}\right)\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {cf}{df}}+{\frac {ed}{fd}}\right)={\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {cf+ed}{df}}\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a(cf+ed)}{bdf}}={\frac {acf}{bdf}}+{\frac {aed}{bdf}}={\frac {ac}{bd}}+{\frac {ae}{bf}}\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {c}{d}}+{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {e}{f}}.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {c}{d}}+{\frac {e}{f}}\right)\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {c}{d}}\cdot {\frac {f}{f}}+{\frac {e}{f}}\cdot {\frac {d}{d}}\right)\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot \left({\frac {cf}{df}}+{\frac {ed}{fd}}\right)={\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {cf+ed}{df}}\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a(cf+ed)}{bdf}}={\frac {acf}{bdf}}+{\frac {aed}{bdf}}={\frac {ac}{bd}}+{\frac {ae}{bf}}\\[6pt]={}&{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {c}{d}}+{\frac {a}{b}}\cdot {\frac {e}{f}}.\end{aligned}}} ### Real and complex numbers The real numbers **R**, with the usual operations of addition and multiplication, also form a field. The complex numbers **C** consist of expressions *a* + *bi*, with *a*, *b* real, where *i* is the imaginary unit, i.e., a (non-real) number satisfying *i*2 = −1. Addition and multiplication of real numbers are defined in such a way that expressions of this type satisfy all field axioms and thus hold for **C**. For example, the distributive law enforces (*a* + *bi*)(*c* + *di*) = *ac* + *bci* + *adi* + *bdi*2 = *ac*−*bd* + (*bc* + *ad*)*i*. It is immediate that this is again an expression of the above type, and so the complex numbers form a field. Complex numbers can be geometrically represented as points in the plane, with Cartesian coordinates given by the real numbers of their describing expression, or as the arrows from the origin to these points, specified by their length and an angle enclosed with some distinct direction. Addition then corresponds to combining the arrows to the intuitive parallelogram (adding the Cartesian coordinates), and the multiplication is – less intuitively – combining rotating and scaling of the arrows (adding the angles and multiplying the lengths). The fields of real and complex numbers are used throughout mathematics, physics, engineering, statistics, and many other scientific disciplines. ### Constructible numbers In antiquity, several geometric problems concerned the (in)feasibility of constructing certain numbers with compass and straightedge. For example, it was unknown to the Greeks that it is, in general, impossible to trisect a given angle in this way. These problems can be settled using the field of constructible numbers. Real constructible numbers are, by definition, lengths of line segments that can be constructed from the points 0 and 1 in finitely many steps using only compass and straightedge. These numbers, endowed with the field operations of real numbers, restricted to the constructible numbers, form a field, which properly includes the field **Q** of rational numbers. The illustration shows the construction of square roots of constructible numbers, not necessarily contained within **Q**. Using the labeling in the illustration, construct the segments *AB*, *BD*, and a semicircle over *AD* (center at the midpoint *C*), which intersects the perpendicular line through *B* in a point *F*, at a distance of exactly h = p {\displaystyle h={\sqrt {p}}} {\displaystyle h={\sqrt {p}}} from *B* when *BD* has length one. Not all real numbers are constructible. It can be shown that 2 3 {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{2}}} {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{3}]{2}}} is not a constructible number, which implies that it is impossible to construct with compass and straightedge the length of the side of a cube with volume 2, another problem posed by the ancient Greeks. ### A field with four elements | Addition | Multiplication | | --- | --- | | | + | *O* | *I* | *A* | *B* | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *O* | *O* | *I* | *A* | *B* | | *I* | *I* | *O* | *B* | *A* | | *A* | *A* | *B* | *O* | *I* | | *B* | *B* | *A* | *I* | *O* | | | ⋅ | *O* | *I* | *A* | *B* | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *O* | *O* | *O* | *O* | *O* | | *I* | *O* | *I* | *A* | *B* | | *A* | *O* | *A* | *B* | *I* | | *B* | *O* | *B* | *I* | *A* | | In addition to familiar number systems such as the rationals, there are other, less immediate examples of fields. The following example is a field consisting of four elements called *O*, *I*, *A*, and *B*. The notation is chosen such that *O* plays the role of the additive identity element (denoted 0 in the axioms above), and *I* is the multiplicative identity (denoted 1 in the axioms above). The field axioms can be verified by using some more field theory, or by direct computation. For example, *A* ⋅ (*B* + *A*) = *A* ⋅ *I* = *A*, which equals *A* ⋅ *B* + *A* ⋅ *A* = *I* + *B* = *A*, as required by the distributivity. This field is called a finite field with four elements, and is denoted **F**4 or GF(4). The subset consisting of *O* and *I* (highlighted in red in the tables at the right) is also a field, known as the *binary field* **F**2 or GF(2). In the context of computer science and Boolean algebra, *O* and *I* are often denoted respectively by *false* and *true*, and the addition is then denoted XOR (exclusive or). In other words, the structure of the binary field is the basic structure that allows computing with bits. Elementary notions ------------------ In this section, *F* denotes an arbitrary field and *a* and *b* are arbitrary elements of *F*. ### Consequences of the definition One has *a* ⋅ 0 = 0 and −*a* = (−1) ⋅ *a*. In particular, one may deduce the additive inverse of every element as soon as one knows −1. If *ab* = 0 then *a* or *b* must be 0, since, if *a* ≠ 0, then *b* = (*a*−1*a*)*b* = *a*−1(*ab*) = *a*−1 ⋅ 0 = 0. This means that every field is an integral domain. In addition, the following properties are true for any elements *a* and *b*: −0 = 0 1−1 = 1 (−(−*a*)) = *a* (−*a*) ⋅ *b* = *a* ⋅ (−*b*) = −(*a* ⋅ *b*) (*a*−1)−1 = *a* if *a* ≠ 0 ### The additive and the multiplicative group of a field The axioms of a field *F* imply that it is an abelian group under addition. This group is called the additive group of the field, and is sometimes denoted by (*F*, +) when denoting it simply as *F* could be confusing. Similarly, the *nonzero* elements of *F* form an abelian group under multiplication, called the multiplicative group, and denoted by (*F* \ {0}, ⋅) or just *F* \ {0} or *F*\*. A field may thus be defined as set *F* equipped with two operations denoted as an addition and a multiplication such that *F* is an abelian group under addition, *F* \ {0} is an abelian group under multiplication (where 0 is the identity element of the addition), and multiplication is distributive over addition. Some elementary statements about fields can therefore be obtained by applying general facts of groups. For example, the additive and multiplicative inverses −*a* and *a*−1 are uniquely determined by *a*. The requirement 1 ≠ 0 follows, because 1 is the identity element of a group that does not contain 0. Thus, the trivial ring, consisting of a single element, is not a field. Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field is cyclic (see Root of unity § Cyclic groups). ### Characteristic In addition to the multiplication of two elements of *F*, it is possible to define the product *n* ⋅ *a* of an arbitrary element *a* of *F* by a positive integer *n* to be the *n*-fold sum *a* + *a* + ⋯ + *a* (which is an element of *F*.) If there is no positive integer such that *n* ⋅ 1 = 0, then *F* is said to have characteristic 0. For example, the field of rational numbers **Q** has characteristic 0 since no positive integer *n* is zero. Otherwise, if there *is* a positive integer *n* satisfying this equation, the smallest such positive integer can be shown to be a prime number. It is usually denoted by *p* and the field is said to have characteristic *p* then. For example, the field **F**4 has characteristic 2 since (in the notation of the above addition table) I + I = O. If *F* has characteristic *p*, then *p* ⋅ *a* = 0 for all *a* in *F*. This implies that (*a* + *b*)*p* = *a**p* + *b**p*, since all other binomial coefficients appearing in the binomial formula are divisible by *p*. Here, *a**p* := *a* ⋅ *a* ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ *a* (*p* factors) is the *p*-th power, i.e., the *p*-fold product of the element *a*. Therefore, the Frobenius map Fr: *F* → *F*, *x* ⟼ *x**p* is compatible with the addition in *F* (and also with the multiplication), and is therefore a field homomorphism. The existence of this homomorphism makes fields in characteristic *p* quite different from fields of characteristic 0. ### Subfields and prime fields A *subfield* *E* of a field *F* is a subset of *F* that is a field with respect to the field operations of *F*. Equivalently *E* is a subset of *F* that contains 1, and is closed under addition, multiplication, additive inverse and multiplicative inverse of a nonzero element. This means that 1 ∊ *E*, that for all *a*, *b* ∊ *E* both *a* + *b* and *a* ⋅ *b* are in *E*, and that for all *a* ≠ 0 in *E*, both −*a* and 1/*a* are in *E*. Field homomorphisms are maps *φ*: *E* → *F* between two fields such that *φ*(*e*1 + *e*2) = *φ*(*e*1) + *φ*(*e*2), *φ*(*e*1*e*2) = *φ*(*e*1) *φ*(*e*2), and *φ*(1E) = 1F, where *e*1 and *e*2 are arbitrary elements of *E*. All field homomorphisms are injective. If *φ* is also surjective, it is called an isomorphism (or the fields *E* and *F* are called isomorphic). A field is called a prime field if it has no proper (i.e., strictly smaller) subfields. Any field *F* contains a prime field. If the characteristic of *F* is *p* (a prime number), the prime field is isomorphic to the finite field **F***p* introduced below. Otherwise the prime field is isomorphic to **Q**. Finite fields ------------- *Finite fields* (also called *Galois fields*) are fields with finitely many elements, whose number is also referred to as the order of the field. The above introductory example **F**4 is a field with four elements. Its subfield **F**2 is the smallest field, because by definition a field has at least two distinct elements 1 ≠ 0. The simplest finite fields, with prime order, are most directly accessible using modular arithmetic. For a fixed positive integer *n*, arithmetic "modulo *n*" means to work with the numbers **Z**/*n***Z** = {0, 1, ..., *n* − 1}. The addition and multiplication on this set are done by performing the operation in question in the set **Z** of integers, dividing by *n* and taking the remainder as result. This construction yields a field precisely if *n* is a prime number. For example, taking the prime *n* = 2 results in the above-mentioned field **F**2. For *n* = 4 and more generally, for any composite number (i.e., any number *n* which can be expressed as a product *n* = *r*⋅*s* of two strictly smaller natural numbers), **Z**/*n***Z** is not a field: the product of two non-zero elements is zero since *r*⋅*s* = 0 in **Z**/*n***Z**, which, as was explained above, prevents **Z**/*n***Z** from being a field. The field **Z**/*p***Z** with *p* elements (*p* being prime) constructed in this way is usually denoted by **F***p*. Every finite field *F* has *q* = *p**n* elements, where *p* is prime and *n* ≥ 1. This statement holds since *F* may be viewed as a vector space over its prime field. The dimension of this vector space is necessarily finite, say *n*, which implies the asserted statement. A field with *q* = *p**n* elements can be constructed as the splitting field of the polynomial *f* (*x*) = *x**q* − *x*. Such a splitting field is an extension of **F***p* in which the polynomial *f* has *q* zeros. This means *f* has as many zeros as possible since the degree of *f* is *q*. For *q* = 22 = 4, it can be checked case by case using the above multiplication table that all four elements of **F**4 satisfy the equation *x*4 = *x*, so they are zeros of *f*. By contrast, in **F**2, *f* has only two zeros (namely 0 and 1), so *f* does not split into linear factors in this smaller field. Elaborating further on basic field-theoretic notions, it can be shown that two finite fields with the same order are isomorphic. It is thus customary to speak of *the* finite field with *q* elements, denoted by **F***q* or GF(*q*). History ------- Historically, three algebraic disciplines led to the concept of a field: the question of solving polynomial equations, algebraic number theory, and algebraic geometry. A first step towards the notion of a field was made in 1770 by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who observed that permuting the zeros *x*1, *x*2, *x*3 of a cubic polynomial in the expression (*x*1 + *ωx*2 + *ω*2*x*3)3 (with *ω* being a third root of unity) only yields two values. This way, Lagrange conceptually explained the classical solution method of Scipione del Ferro and François Viète, which proceeds by reducing a cubic equation for an unknown *x* to a quadratic equation for *x*3. Together with a similar observation for equations of degree 4, Lagrange thus linked what eventually became the concept of fields and the concept of groups. Vandermonde, also in 1770, and to a fuller extent, Carl Friedrich Gauss, in his *Disquisitiones Arithmeticae* (1801), studied the equation *x**p* = 1 for a prime *p* and, again using modern language, the resulting cyclic Galois group. Gauss deduced that a regular *p*-gon can be constructed if *p* = 22*k* + 1. Building on Lagrange's work, Paolo Ruffini claimed (1799) that quintic equations (polynomial equations of degree 5) cannot be solved algebraically; however, his arguments were flawed. These gaps were filled by Niels Henrik Abel in 1824. Évariste Galois, in 1832, devised necessary and sufficient criteria for a polynomial equation to be algebraically solvable, thus establishing in effect what is known as Galois theory today. Both Abel and Galois worked with what is today called an algebraic number field, but conceived neither an explicit notion of a field, nor of a group. In 1871 Richard Dedekind introduced, for a set of real or complex numbers that is closed under the four arithmetic operations, the German word *Körper*, which means "body" or "corpus" (to suggest an organically closed entity). The English term "field" was introduced by Moore (1893). > By a field we will mean every infinite system of real or complex numbers so closed in itself and perfect that addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of any two of these numbers again yields a number of the system. > > — Richard Dedekind, 1871 In 1881 Leopold Kronecker defined what he called a *domain of rationality*, which is a field of rational fractions in modern terms. Kronecker's notion did not cover the field of all algebraic numbers (which is a field in Dedekind's sense), but on the other hand was more abstract than Dedekind's in that it made no specific assumption on the nature of the elements of a field. Kronecker interpreted a field such as **Q**(π) abstractly as the rational function field **Q**(*X*). Prior to this, examples of transcendental numbers were known since Joseph Liouville's work in 1844, until Charles Hermite (1873) and Ferdinand von Lindemann (1882) proved the transcendence of *e* and π, respectively. The first clear definition of an abstract field is due to Weber (1893). In particular, Heinrich Martin Weber's notion included the field **F***p*. Giuseppe Veronese (1891) studied the field of formal power series, which led Hensel (1904) to introduce the field of *p*-adic numbers. Steinitz (1910) synthesized the knowledge of abstract field theory accumulated so far. He axiomatically studied the properties of fields and defined many important field-theoretic concepts. The majority of the theorems mentioned in the sections Galois theory, Constructing fields and Elementary notions can be found in Steinitz's work. Artin & Schreier (1927) linked the notion of orderings in a field, and thus the area of analysis, to purely algebraic properties. Emil Artin redeveloped Galois theory from 1928 through 1942, eliminating the dependency on the primitive element theorem. Constructing fields ------------------- ### Constructing fields from rings A commutative ring is a set, equipped with an addition and multiplication operation, satisfying all the axioms of a field, except for the existence of multiplicative inverses *a*−1. For example, the integers **Z** form a commutative ring, but not a field: the reciprocal of an integer *n* is not itself an integer, unless *n* = ±1. In the hierarchy of algebraic structures fields can be characterized as the commutative rings *R* in which every nonzero element is a unit (which means every element is invertible). Similarly, fields are the commutative rings with precisely two distinct ideals, (0) and *R*. Fields are also precisely the commutative rings in which (0) is the only prime ideal. Given a commutative ring *R*, there are two ways to construct a field related to *R*, i.e., two ways of modifying *R* such that all nonzero elements become invertible: forming the field of fractions, and forming residue fields. The field of fractions of **Z** is **Q**, the rationals, while the residue fields of **Z** are the finite fields **F***p*. #### Field of fractions Given an integral domain *R*, its field of fractions *Q*(*R*) is built with the fractions of two elements of *R* exactly as **Q** is constructed from the integers. More precisely, the elements of *Q*(*R*) are the fractions *a*/*b* where *a* and *b* are in *R*, and *b* ≠ 0. Two fractions *a*/*b* and *c*/*d* are equal if and only if *ad* = *bc*. The operation on the fractions work exactly as for rational numbers. For example, a b + c d = a d + b c b d . {\displaystyle {\frac {a}{b}}+{\frac {c}{d}}={\frac {ad+bc}{bd}}.} {\displaystyle {\frac {a}{b}}+{\frac {c}{d}}={\frac {ad+bc}{bd}}.} It is straightforward to show that, if the ring is an integral domain, the set of the fractions form a field. The field *F*(*x*) of the rational fractions over a field (or an integral domain) *F* is the field of fractions of the polynomial ring *F*[*x*]. The field *F*((*x*)) of Laurent series ∑ i = k ∞ a i x i   ( k ∈ Z , a i ∈ F ) {\displaystyle \sum \_{i=k}^{\infty }a\_{i}x^{i}\ (k\in \mathbb {Z} ,a\_{i}\in F)} {\displaystyle \sum _{i=k}^{\infty }a_{i}x^{i}\ (k\in \mathbb {Z} ,a_{i}\in F)} over a field *F* is the field of fractions of the ring *F*[[*x*]] of formal power series (in which *k* ≥ 0). Since any Laurent series is a fraction of a power series divided by a power of *x* (as opposed to an arbitrary power series), the representation of fractions is less important in this situation, though. #### Residue fields In addition to the field of fractions, which embeds *R* injectively into a field, a field can be obtained from a commutative ring *R* by means of a surjective map onto a field *F*. Any field obtained in this way is a quotient *R* / *m*, where *m* is a maximal ideal of *R*. If *R* has only one maximal ideal *m*, this field is called the residue field of *R*. The ideal generated by a single polynomial *f* in the polynomial ring *R* = *E*[*X*] (over a field *E*) is maximal if and only if *f* is irreducible in *E*, i.e., if *f* cannot be expressed as the product of two polynomials in *E*[*X*] of smaller degree. This yields a field *F* = *E*[*X*] / ( *f* (*X*)). This field *F* contains an element *x* (namely the residue class of *X*) which satisfies the equation *f* (*x*) = 0. For example, **C** is obtained from **R** by adjoining the imaginary unit symbol i, which satisfies *f* (*i*) = 0, where *f* (*X*) = *X*2 + 1. Moreover, *f* is irreducible over **R**, which implies that the map that sends a polynomial *f* (*X*) ∊ **R**[*X*] to *f* (*i* ) yields an isomorphism R [ X ] / ( X 2 + 1 )   ⟶ ≅   C . {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} [X]/\left(X^{2}+1\right)\ {\stackrel {\cong }{\longrightarrow }}\ \mathbf {C} .} {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} [X]/\left(X^{2}+1\right)\ {\stackrel {\cong }{\longrightarrow }}\ \mathbf {C} .} ### Constructing fields within a bigger field Fields can be constructed inside a given bigger container field. Suppose given a field *E*, and a field *F* containing *E* as a subfield. For any element *x* of *F*, there is a smallest subfield of *F* containing *E* and *x*, called the subfield of *F* generated by *x* and denoted *E*(*x*). The passage from *E* to *E*(*x*) is referred to by *adjoining an element* to *E*. More generally, for a subset *S* ⊂ *F*, there is a minimal subfield of *F* containing *E* and *S*, denoted by *E*(*S*). The compositum of two subfields *E* and *E'* of some field *F* is the smallest subfield of *F* containing both *E* and *E'.* The compositum can be used to construct the biggest subfield of *F* satisfying a certain property, for example the biggest subfield of *F*, which is, in the language introduced below, algebraic over *E*. ### Field extensions The notion of a subfield *E* ⊂ *F* can also be regarded from the opposite point of view, by referring to *F* being a *field extension* (or just extension) of *E*, denoted by *F* / *E*, and read "*F* over *E*". A basic datum of a field extension is its degree [*F* : *E*], i.e., the dimension of *F* as an *E*-vector space. It satisfies the formula [*G* : *E*] = [*G* : *F*] [*F* : *E*]. Extensions whose degree is finite are referred to as finite extensions. The extensions **C** / **R** and **F**4 / **F**2 are of degree 2, whereas **R** / **Q** is an infinite extension. #### Algebraic extensions A pivotal notion in the study of field extensions *F* / *E* are algebraic elements. An element x ∈ F {\displaystyle x\in F} {\displaystyle x\in F} is *algebraic* over E if it is a root of a polynomial with coefficients in E, that is, if it satisfies a polynomial equation *e**n* *x**n* + *e**n*−1*x**n*−1 + ⋯ + *e*1*x* + *e*0 = 0, with *e**n*, ..., *e*0 in E, and *e**n* ≠ 0. For example, the imaginary unit *i* in **C** is algebraic over **R**, and even over **Q**, since it satisfies the equation *i*2 + 1 = 0. A field extension in which every element of *F* is algebraic over *E* is called an algebraic extension. Any finite extension is necessarily algebraic, as can be deduced from the above multiplicativity formula. The subfield *E*(*x*) generated by an element *x*, as above, is an algebraic extension of *E* if and only if *x* is an algebraic element. That is to say, if *x* is algebraic, all other elements of *E*(*x*) are necessarily algebraic as well. Moreover, the degree of the extension *E*(*x*) / *E*, i.e., the dimension of *E*(*x*) as an *E*-vector space, equals the minimal degree *n* such that there is a polynomial equation involving *x*, as above. If this degree is *n*, then the elements of *E*(*x*) have the form ∑ k = 0 n − 1 a k x k ,     a k ∈ E . {\displaystyle \sum \_{k=0}^{n-1}a\_{k}x^{k},\ \ a\_{k}\in E.} {\displaystyle \sum _{k=0}^{n-1}a_{k}x^{k},\ \ a_{k}\in E.} For example, the field **Q**(*i*) of Gaussian rationals is the subfield of **C** consisting of all numbers of the form *a* + *bi* where both *a* and *b* are rational numbers: summands of the form *i*2 (and similarly for higher exponents) do not have to be considered here, since *a* + *bi* + *ci*2 can be simplified to *a* − *c* + *bi*. #### Transcendence bases The above-mentioned field of rational fractions *E*(*X*), where *X* is an indeterminate, is not an algebraic extension of *E* since there is no polynomial equation with coefficients in *E* whose zero is *X*. Elements, such as *X*, which are not algebraic are called transcendental. Informally speaking, the indeterminate *X* and its powers do not interact with elements of *E*. A similar construction can be carried out with a set of indeterminates, instead of just one. Once again, the field extension *E*(*x*) / *E* discussed above is a key example: if *x* is not algebraic (i.e., *x* is not a root of a polynomial with coefficients in *E*), then *E*(*x*) is isomorphic to *E*(*X*). This isomorphism is obtained by substituting *x* to *X* in rational fractions. A subset *S* of a field *F* is a transcendence basis if it is algebraically independent (do not satisfy any polynomial relations) over *E* and if *F* is an algebraic extension of *E*(*S*). Any field extension *F* / *E* has a transcendence basis. Thus, field extensions can be split into ones of the form *E*(*S*) / *E* (purely transcendental extensions) and algebraic extensions. ### Closure operations A field is algebraically closed if it does not have any strictly bigger algebraic extensions or, equivalently, if any polynomial equation *f**n* *x**n* + *f**n*−1*x**n*−1 + ⋯ + *f*1*x* + *f*0 = 0, with coefficients *f**n*, ..., *f*0 ∈ *F*, *n* > 0, has a solution *x* ∊ *F*. By the fundamental theorem of algebra, **C** is algebraically closed, i.e., *any* polynomial equation with complex coefficients has a complex solution. The rational and the real numbers are *not* algebraically closed since the equation *x*2 + 1 = 0 does not have any rational or real solution. A field containing *F* is called an *algebraic closure* of *F* if it is algebraic over *F* (roughly speaking, not too big compared to *F*) and is algebraically closed (big enough to contain solutions of all polynomial equations). By the above, **C** is an algebraic closure of **R**. The situation that the algebraic closure is a finite extension of the field *F* is quite special: by the Artin-Schreier theorem, the degree of this extension is necessarily 2, and *F* is elementarily equivalent to **R**. Such fields are also known as real closed fields. Any field *F* has an algebraic closure, which is moreover unique up to (non-unique) isomorphism. It is commonly referred to as *the* algebraic closure and denoted *F*. For example, the algebraic closure **Q** of **Q** is called the field of algebraic numbers. The field *F* is usually rather implicit since its construction requires the ultrafilter lemma, a set-theoretic axiom that is weaker than the axiom of choice. In this regard, the algebraic closure of **F***q*, is exceptionally simple. It is the union of the finite fields containing **F***q* (the ones of order *q**n*). For any algebraically closed field *F* of characteristic 0, the algebraic closure of the field *F*((*t*)) of Laurent series is the field of Puiseux series, obtained by adjoining roots of *t*. Fields with additional structure -------------------------------- Since fields are ubiquitous in mathematics and beyond, several refinements of the concept have been adapted to the needs of particular mathematical areas. ### Ordered fields A field *F* is called an *ordered field* if any two elements can be compared, so that *x* + *y* ≥ 0 and *xy* ≥ 0 whenever *x* ≥ 0 and *y* ≥ 0. For example, the real numbers form an ordered field, with the usual ordering ≥. The Artin-Schreier theorem states that a field can be ordered if and only if it is a formally real field, which means that any quadratic equation x 1 2 + x 2 2 + ⋯ + x n 2 = 0 {\displaystyle x\_{1}^{2}+x\_{2}^{2}+\dots +x\_{n}^{2}=0} {\displaystyle x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots +x_{n}^{2}=0} only has the solution *x*1 = *x*2 = ⋯ = *x**n* = 0. The set of all possible orders on a fixed field *F* is isomorphic to the set of ring homomorphisms from the Witt ring W(*F*) of quadratic forms over *F*, to **Z**. An Archimedean field is an ordered field such that for each element there exists a finite expression 1 + 1 + ⋯ + 1 whose value is greater than that element, that is, there are no infinite elements. Equivalently, the field contains no infinitesimals (elements smaller than all rational numbers); or, yet equivalent, the field is isomorphic to a subfield of **R**. An ordered field is Dedekind-complete if all upper bounds, lower bounds (see Dedekind cut) and limits, which should exist, do exist. More formally, each bounded subset of *F* is required to have a least upper bound. Any complete field is necessarily Archimedean, since in any non-Archimedean field there is neither a greatest infinitesimal nor a least positive rational, whence the sequence 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ..., every element of which is greater than every infinitesimal, has no limit. Since every proper subfield of the reals also contains such gaps, **R** is the unique complete ordered field, up to isomorphism. Several foundational results in calculus follow directly from this characterization of the reals. The hyperreals **R**\* form an ordered field that is not Archimedean. It is an extension of the reals obtained by including infinite and infinitesimal numbers. These are larger, respectively smaller than any real number. The hyperreals form the foundational basis of non-standard analysis. ### Topological fields Another refinement of the notion of a field is a topological field, in which the set *F* is a topological space, such that all operations of the field (addition, multiplication, the maps *a* ↦ −*a* and *a* ↦ *a*−1) are continuous maps with respect to the topology of the space. The topology of all the fields discussed below is induced from a metric, i.e., a function *d* : *F* × *F* → **R**, that measures a *distance* between any two elements of *F*. The completion of *F* is another field in which, informally speaking, the "gaps" in the original field *F* are filled, if there are any. For example, any irrational number *x*, such as *x* = √2, is a "gap" in the rationals **Q** in the sense that it is a real number that can be approximated arbitrarily closely by rational numbers *p*/*q*, in the sense that distance of *x* and *p*/*q* given by the absolute value | *x* − *p*/*q* | is as small as desired. The following table lists some examples of this construction. The fourth column shows an example of a zero sequence, i.e., a sequence whose limit (for *n* → ∞) is zero. | Field | Metric | Completion | zero sequence | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Q** | | *x* − *y* | (usual absolute value) | **R** | 1/*n* | | **Q** | obtained using the *p*-adic valuation, for a prime number *p* | **Q***p* (*p*-adic numbers) | *p**n* | | *F*(*t*) (*F* any field) | obtained using the *t*-adic valuation | *F*((*t*)) | *t**n* | The field **Q***p* is used in number theory and *p*-adic analysis. The algebraic closure **Q***p* carries a unique norm extending the one on **Q***p*, but is not complete. The completion of this algebraic closure, however, is algebraically closed. Because of its rough analogy to the complex numbers, it is sometimes called the field of complex p-adic numbers and is denoted by **C***p*. #### Local fields The following topological fields are called *local fields*: * finite extensions of **Q***p* (local fields of characteristic zero) * finite extensions of **F***p*((*t*)), the field of Laurent series over **F***p* (local fields of characteristic *p*). These two types of local fields share some fundamental similarities. In this relation, the elements *p* ∈ **Q***p* and *t* ∈ **F***p*((*t*)) (referred to as uniformizer) correspond to each other. The first manifestation of this is at an elementary level: the elements of both fields can be expressed as power series in the uniformizer, with coefficients in **F***p*. (However, since the addition in **Q***p* is done using carrying, which is not the case in **F***p*((*t*)), these fields are not isomorphic.) The following facts show that this superficial similarity goes much deeper: * Any first-order statement that is true for almost all **Q***p* is also true for almost all **F***p*((*t*)). An application of this is the Ax-Kochen theorem describing zeros of homogeneous polynomials in **Q***p*. * Tamely ramified extensions of both fields are in bijection to one another. * Adjoining arbitrary *p*-power roots of *p* (in **Q***p*), respectively of *t* (in **F***p*((*t*))), yields (infinite) extensions of these fields known as perfectoid fields. Strikingly, the Galois groups of these two fields are isomorphic, which is the first glimpse of a remarkable parallel between these two fields: Gal ⁡ ( Q p ( p 1 / p ∞ ) ) ≅ Gal ⁡ ( F p ( ( t ) ) ( t 1 / p ∞ ) ) . {\displaystyle \operatorname {Gal} \left(\mathbf {Q} \_{p}\left(p^{1/p^{\infty }}\right)\right)\cong \operatorname {Gal} \left(\mathbf {F} \_{p}((t))\left(t^{1/p^{\infty }}\right)\right).} {\displaystyle \operatorname {Gal} \left(\mathbf {Q} _{p}\left(p^{1/p^{\infty }}\right)\right)\cong \operatorname {Gal} \left(\mathbf {F} _{p}((t))\left(t^{1/p^{\infty }}\right)\right).} ### Differential fields Differential fields are fields equipped with a derivation, i.e., allow to take derivatives of elements in the field. For example, the field **R**(*X*), together with the standard derivative of polynomials forms a differential field. These fields are central to differential Galois theory, a variant of Galois theory dealing with linear differential equations. Galois theory ------------- Galois theory studies algebraic extensions of a field by studying the symmetry in the arithmetic operations of addition and multiplication. An important notion in this area is that of finite Galois extensions *F* / *E*, which are, by definition, those that are separable and normal. The primitive element theorem shows that finite separable extensions are necessarily simple, i.e., of the form *F* = *E*[*X*] / *f* (*X*), where *f* is an irreducible polynomial (as above). For such an extension, being normal and separable means that all zeros of *f* are contained in *F* and that *f* has only simple zeros. The latter condition is always satisfied if *E* has characteristic 0. For a finite Galois extension, the Galois group Gal(*F*/*E*) is the group of field automorphisms of *F* that are trivial on *E* (i.e., the bijections *σ* : *F* → *F* that preserve addition and multiplication and that send elements of *E* to themselves). The importance of this group stems from the fundamental theorem of Galois theory, which constructs an explicit one-to-one correspondence between the set of subgroups of Gal(*F*/*E*) and the set of intermediate extensions of the extension *F*/*E*. By means of this correspondence, group-theoretic properties translate into facts about fields. For example, if the Galois group of a Galois extension as above is not solvable (cannot be built from abelian groups), then the zeros of *f* *cannot* be expressed in terms of addition, multiplication, and radicals, i.e., expressions involving   n {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{n}]{\ }}} {\displaystyle {\sqrt[{n}]{\ }}}. For example, the symmetric groups S*n* is not solvable for *n* ≥ 5. Consequently, as can be shown, the zeros of the following polynomials are not expressible by sums, products, and radicals. For the latter polynomial, this fact is known as the Abel–Ruffini theorem: *f*(*X*) = *X*5 − 4*X* + 2 (and *E* = **Q**), *f*(*X*) = *X**n* + *a**n*−1*X**n*−1 + ⋯ + *a*0 (where *f* is regarded as a polynomial in *E*(*a*0, ..., *a**n*−1), for some indeterminates *a**i*, *E* is any field, and *n* ≥ 5). The tensor product of fields is not usually a field. For example, a finite extension *F* / *E* of degree *n* is a Galois extension if and only if there is an isomorphism of *F*-algebras *F* ⊗*E* *F* ≅ *F**n*. This fact is the beginning of Grothendieck's Galois theory, a far-reaching extension of Galois theory applicable to algebro-geometric objects. Invariants of fields -------------------- Basic invariants of a field *F* include the characteristic and the transcendence degree of *F* over its prime field. The latter is defined as the maximal number of elements in *F* that are algebraically independent over the prime field. Two algebraically closed fields *E* and *F* are isomorphic precisely if these two data agree. This implies that any two uncountable algebraically closed fields of the same cardinality and the same characteristic are isomorphic. For example, **Q***p*, **C***p* and **C** are isomorphic (but *not* isomorphic as topological fields). ### Model theory of fields In model theory, a branch of mathematical logic, two fields *E* and *F* are called elementarily equivalent if every mathematical statement that is true for *E* is also true for *F* and conversely. The mathematical statements in question are required to be first-order sentences (involving 0, 1, the addition and multiplication). A typical example, for *n* > 0, *n* an integer, is φ(*E*) = "any polynomial of degree *n* in *E* has a zero in *E*" The set of such formulas for all *n* expresses that *E* is algebraically closed. The Lefschetz principle states that **C** is elementarily equivalent to any algebraically closed field *F* of characteristic zero. Moreover, any fixed statement φ holds in **C** if and only if it holds in any algebraically closed field of sufficiently high characteristic. If *U* is an ultrafilter on a set *I*, and *F**i* is a field for every *i* in *I*, the ultraproduct of the *F**i* with respect to *U* is a field. It is denoted by ulim*i*→∞ *F**i*, since it behaves in several ways as a limit of the fields *F**i*: Łoś's theorem states that any first order statement that holds for all but finitely many *F**i*, also holds for the ultraproduct. Applied to the above sentence φ, this shows that there is an isomorphism ulim p → ∞ ⁡ F ¯ p ≅ C . {\displaystyle \operatorname {ulim} \_{p\to \infty }{\overline {\mathbf {F} }}\_{p}\cong \mathbf {C} .} {\displaystyle \operatorname {ulim} _{p\to \infty }{\overline {\mathbf {F} }}_{p}\cong \mathbf {C} .} The Ax–Kochen theorem mentioned above also follows from this and an isomorphism of the ultraproducts (in both cases over all primes *p*) ulim*p* **Q***p* ≅ ulim*p* **F***p*((*t*)). In addition, model theory also studies the logical properties of various other types of fields, such as real closed fields or exponential fields (which are equipped with an exponential function exp : *F* → *F*x). ### The absolute Galois group For fields that are not algebraically closed (or not separably closed), the absolute Galois group Gal(*F*) is fundamentally important: extending the case of finite Galois extensions outlined above, this group governs *all* finite separable extensions of *F*. By elementary means, the group Gal(**F***q*) can be shown to be the Prüfer group, the profinite completion of **Z**. This statement subsumes the fact that the only algebraic extensions of Gal(**F***q*) are the fields Gal(**F***q**n*) for *n* > 0, and that the Galois groups of these finite extensions are given by Gal(**F***q**n* / **F***q*) = **Z**/*n***Z**. A description in terms of generators and relations is also known for the Galois groups of *p*-adic number fields (finite extensions of **Q***p*). Representations of Galois groups and of related groups such as the Weil group are fundamental in many branches of arithmetic, such as the Langlands program. The cohomological study of such representations is done using Galois cohomology. For example, the Brauer group, which is classically defined as the group of central simple *F*-algebras, can be reinterpreted as a Galois cohomology group, namely Br(*F*) = H2(*F*, **G**m). ### K-theory Milnor K-theory is defined as K n M ( F ) = F × ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ F × / ⟨ x ⊗ ( 1 − x ) ∣ x ∈ F ∖ { 0 , 1 } ⟩ . {\displaystyle K\_{n}^{M}(F)=F^{\times }\otimes \cdots \otimes F^{\times }/\left\langle x\otimes (1-x)\mid x\in F\setminus \{0,1\}\right\rangle .} {\displaystyle K_{n}^{M}(F)=F^{\times }\otimes \cdots \otimes F^{\times }/\left\langle x\otimes (1-x)\mid x\in F\setminus \{0,1\}\right\rangle .} The norm residue isomorphism theorem, proved around 2000 by Vladimir Voevodsky, relates this to Galois cohomology by means of an isomorphism K n M ( F ) / p = H n ( F , μ l ⊗ n ) . {\displaystyle K\_{n}^{M}(F)/p=H^{n}(F,\mu \_{l}^{\otimes n}).} {\displaystyle K_{n}^{M}(F)/p=H^{n}(F,\mu _{l}^{\otimes n}).} Algebraic K-theory is related to the group of invertible matrices with coefficients the given field. For example, the process of taking the determinant of an invertible matrix leads to an isomorphism K1(*F*) = *F*×. Matsumoto's theorem shows that K2(*F*) agrees with K2M(*F*). In higher degrees, K-theory diverges from Milnor K-theory and remains hard to compute in general. Applications ------------ ### Linear algebra and commutative algebra If *a* ≠ 0, then the equation *ax* = *b* has a unique solution *x* in a field *F*, namely x = a − 1 b . {\displaystyle x=a^{-1}b.} {\displaystyle x=a^{-1}b.} This immediate consequence of the definition of a field is fundamental in linear algebra. For example, it is an essential ingredient of Gaussian elimination and of the proof that any vector space has a basis. The theory of modules (the analogue of vector spaces over rings instead of fields) is much more complicated, because the above equation may have several or no solutions. In particular systems of linear equations over a ring are much more difficult to solve than in the case of fields, even in the specially simple case of the ring Z {\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} } \mathbb {Z} of the integers. ### Finite fields: cryptography and coding theory A widely applied cryptographic routine uses the fact that discrete exponentiation, i.e., computing *a**n* = *a* ⋅ *a* ⋅ ⋯ ⋅ *a* (*n* factors, for an integer *n* ≥ 1) in a (large) finite field **F***q* can be performed much more efficiently than the discrete logarithm, which is the inverse operation, i.e., determining the solution *n* to an equation *a**n* = *b*. In elliptic curve cryptography, the multiplication in a finite field is replaced by the operation of adding points on an elliptic curve, i.e., the solutions of an equation of the form *y*2 = *x*3 + *ax* + *b*. Finite fields are also used in coding theory and combinatorics. ### Geometry: field of functions Functions on a suitable topological space *X* into a field k can be added and multiplied pointwise, e.g., the product of two functions is defined by the product of their values within the domain: (*f* ⋅ *g*)(*x*) = *f*(*x*) ⋅ *g*(*x*). This makes these functions a k-commutative algebra. For having a *field* of functions, one must consider algebras of functions that are integral domains. In this case the ratios of two functions, i.e., expressions of the form f ( x ) g ( x ) , {\displaystyle {\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}},} {\displaystyle {\frac {f(x)}{g(x)}},} form a field, called field of functions. This occurs in two main cases. When *X* is a complex manifold *X*. In this case, one considers the algebra of holomorphic functions, i.e., complex differentiable functions. Their ratios form the field of meromorphic functions on *X*. The function field of an algebraic variety *X* (a geometric object defined as the common zeros of polynomial equations) consists of ratios of regular functions, i.e., ratios of polynomial functions on the variety. The function field of the *n*-dimensional space over a field *k* is *k*(*x*1, ..., *x**n*), i.e., the field consisting of ratios of polynomials in *n* indeterminates. The function field of *X* is the same as the one of any open dense subvariety. In other words, the function field is insensitive to replacing *X* by a (slightly) smaller subvariety. The function field is invariant under isomorphism and birational equivalence of varieties. It is therefore an important tool for the study of abstract algebraic varieties and for the classification of algebraic varieties. For example, the dimension, which equals the transcendence degree of *k*(*X*), is invariant under birational equivalence. For curves (i.e., the dimension is one), the function field *k*(*X*) is very close to *X*: if *X* is smooth and proper (the analogue of being compact), *X* can be reconstructed, up to isomorphism, from its field of functions. In higher dimension the function field remembers less, but still decisive information about *X*. The study of function fields and their geometric meaning in higher dimensions is referred to as birational geometry. The minimal model program attempts to identify the simplest (in a certain precise sense) algebraic varieties with a prescribed function field. ### Number theory: global fields Global fields are in the limelight in algebraic number theory and arithmetic geometry. They are, by definition, number fields (finite extensions of **Q**) or function fields over **F***q* (finite extensions of **F***q*(*t*)). As for local fields, these two types of fields share several similar features, even though they are of characteristic 0 and positive characteristic, respectively. This function field analogy can help to shape mathematical expectations, often first by understanding questions about function fields, and later treating the number field case. The latter is often more difficult. For example, the Riemann hypothesis concerning the zeros of the Riemann zeta function (open as of 2017) can be regarded as being parallel to the Weil conjectures (proven in 1974 by Pierre Deligne). Cyclotomic fields are among the most intensely studied number fields. They are of the form **Q**(ζ*n*), where ζ*n* is a primitive *n*-th root of unity, i.e., a complex number satisfying ζ*n* = 1 and ζ*m* ≠ 1 for all *m* < *n*. For *n* being a regular prime, Kummer used cyclotomic fields to prove Fermat's Last Theorem, which asserts the non-existence of rational nonzero solutions to the equation *x**n* + *y**n* = *z**n*. Local fields are completions of global fields. Ostrowski's theorem asserts that the only completions of **Q**, a global field, are the local fields **Q***p* and **R**. Studying arithmetic questions in global fields may sometimes be done by looking at the corresponding questions locally. This technique is called the local-global principle. For example, the Hasse–Minkowski theorem reduces the problem of finding rational solutions of quadratic equations to solving these equations in **R** and **Q***p*, whose solutions can easily be described. Unlike for local fields, the Galois groups of global fields are not known. Inverse Galois theory studies the (unsolved) problem whether any finite group is the Galois group Gal(*F*/**Q**) for some number field *F*. Class field theory describes the abelian extensions, i.e., ones with abelian Galois group, or equivalently the abelianized Galois groups of global fields. A classical statement, the Kronecker–Weber theorem, describes the maximal abelian **Q**ab extension of **Q**: it is the field **Q**(ζ*n*, *n* ≥ 2) obtained by adjoining all primitive *n*-th roots of unity. Kronecker's Jugendtraum asks for a similarly explicit description of *F*ab of general number fields *F*. For imaginary quadratic fields, F = Q ( − d ) {\displaystyle F=\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {-d}})} {\displaystyle F=\mathbf {Q} ({\sqrt {-d}})}, *d* > 0, the theory of complex multiplication describes *F*ab using elliptic curves. For general number fields, no such explicit description is known. Related notions --------------- In addition to the additional structure that fields may enjoy, fields admit various other related notions. Since in any field 0 ≠ 1, any field has at least two elements. Nonetheless, there is a concept of field with one element, which is suggested to be a limit of the finite fields **F***p*, as *p* tends to 1. In addition to division rings, there are various other weaker algebraic structures related to fields such as quasifields, near-fields and semifields. There are also proper classes with field structure, which are sometimes called **Fields**, with a capital F. The surreal numbers form a Field containing the reals, and would be a field except for the fact that they are a proper class, not a set. The nimbers, a concept from game theory, form such a Field as well. ### Division rings Dropping one or several axioms in the definition of a field leads to other algebraic structures. As was mentioned above, commutative rings satisfy all field axioms except for the existence of multiplicative inverses. Dropping instead commutativity of multiplication leads to the concept of a *division ring* or *skew field*; sometimes associativity is weakened as well. The only division rings that are finite-dimensional **R**-vector spaces are **R** itself, **C** (which is a field), and the quaternions **H** (in which multiplication is non-commutative). This result is known as the Frobenius theorem. The octonions **O**, for which multiplication is neither commutative nor associative, is a normed alternative division algebra, but is not a division ring. This fact was proved using methods of algebraic topology in 1958 by Michel Kervaire, Raoul Bott, and John Milnor. The non-existence of an odd-dimensional division algebra is more classical. It can be deduced from the hairy ball theorem illustrated at the right. 1. ↑ Beachy & Blair (2006, Definition 4.1.1, p. 181) 2. ↑ Fraleigh (1976, p. 10) 3. ↑ McCoy (1968, p. 16) 4. ↑ Clark (1984, Chapter 3). 5. ↑ Mines, Richman & Ruitenburg (1988, §II.2). See also Heyting field. 6. ↑ Beachy & Blair (2006, p. 120, Ch. 3) 7. ↑ Artin (1991, Chapter 13.4) 8. ↑ Lidl & Niederreiter (2008, Example 1.62) 9. ↑ Beachy & Blair (2006, p. 120, Ch. 3) 10. ↑ Sharpe (1987, Theorem 1.3.2) 11. ↑ Adamson (2007, §I.2, p. 10) 12. ↑ Escofier (2012, 14.4.2) 13. ↑ Adamson (2007, section I.3) 14. ↑ Adamson (2007, p. 12) 15. ↑ Lidl & Niederreiter (2008, Lemma 2.1, Theorem 2.2) 16. ↑ Lidl & Niederreiter (2008, Theorem 1.2.5) 17. ↑ Kleiner (2007, p. 63) 18. ↑ Kiernan (1971, p. 50) 19. ↑ Bourbaki (1994, pp. 75–76) 20. ↑ Corry (2004, p.24) 21. ↑ "*Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (F)*". 22. ↑ Dirichlet (1871, p. 42), translation by Kleiner (2007, p. 66) 23. ↑ Bourbaki (1994, p. 81) 24. ↑ Corry (2004, p. 33). See also Fricke & Weber (1924). 25. ↑ Bourbaki (1994, p. 92) 26. ↑ Lang (2002, §II.1) 27. ↑ Artin (1991, Section 10.6) 28. ↑ Eisenbud (1995, p. 60) 29. ↑ Jacobson (2009, p. 213) 30. ↑ Artin (1991, Theorem 13.3.4) 31. ↑ Artin (1991, Corollary 13.3.6) 32. ↑ Bourbaki (1988, Chapter V, §14, No. 2, Theorem 1) 33. ↑ Artin (1991, Section 13.9) 34. ↑ Banaschewski (1992). Mathoverflow post 35. ↑ Ribenboim (1999, p. 186, §7.1) 36. ↑ Bourbaki (1988, Chapter VI, §2.3, Corollary 1) 37. ↑ Lorenz (2008, §22, Theorem 1) 38. ↑ Prestel (1984, Proposition 1.22) 39. ↑ Prestel (1984, Theorem 1.23) 40. ↑ Warner (1989, Chapter 14) 41. ↑ Gouvêa (1997, §5.7) 42. ↑ Serre (1979) 43. ↑ Scholze (2014) 44. ↑ van der Put & Singer (2003, §1) 45. ↑ Lang (2002, Theorem V.4.6) 46. ↑ Lang (2002, §VI.1) 47. ↑ Lang (2002, Example VI.2.6) 48. ↑ Borceux & Janelidze (2001). See also Étale fundamental group. 49. ↑ Gouvêa (2012, Theorem 6.4.8) 50. ↑ Marker, Messmer & Pillay (2006, Corollary 1.2) 51. ↑ Schoutens (2002, §2) 52. ↑ Kuhlmann (2000) 53. ↑ Jannsen & Wingberg (1982) 54. ↑ Serre (2002) 55. ↑ Artin (1991, §3.3) 56. ↑ Eisenbud (1995, §13, Theorem A) 57. ↑ Washington (1997) 58. ↑ Serre (1996, Chapter IV) 59. ↑ Serre (1992) 60. ↑ Tits (1957) 61. ↑ Conway (1976) 62. ↑ Baez (2002) References ---------- * Adamson, I. T. (2007), *Introduction to Field Theory*, Dover Publications, ISBN 978-0-486-46266-0 * Allenby, R. B. J. T. 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F. (2003), *Galois Theory of Linear Differential Equations*, Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften, vol. 328, Springer * von Staudt, Karl Georg Christian (1857), *Beiträge zur Geometrie der Lage (Contributions to the Geometry of Position)*, vol. 2, Nürnberg (Germany): Bauer and Raspe * Wallace, D. A. R. (1998), *Groups, Rings, and Fields*, SUMS, vol. 151, Springer * Warner, Seth (1989), *Topological fields*, North-Holland, ISBN 0-444-87429-1, Zbl 0683.12014 * Washington, Lawrence C. (1997), *Introduction to Cyclotomic Fields*, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 83 (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-1934-7, ISBN 0-387-94762-0, MR 1421575 * Weber, Heinrich (1893), "Die allgemeinen Grundlagen der Galois'schen Gleichungstheorie", *Mathematische Annalen* (in German), **43** (4): 521–549, doi:10.1007/BF01446451, ISSN 0025-5831, JFM 25.0137.01, S2CID 120528969 External links --------------

Field (mathematics)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)

The **Tetragrammaton** (/ˌtɛtrəˈɡræmətɒn/; from Ancient Greek τετραγράμματον *(*tetragrámmaton*)* '[consisting of] four letters'), or the **Tetragram**, is the four-letter Hebrew theonym יהוה‎ (transliterated as **YHWH** or **YHVH**), the name of God in the Hebrew Bible. The four letters, written and read from right to left (in Hebrew), are *yodh*, *he*, *waw*, and *he*. The name may be derived from a verb that means "to be", "to exist", "to cause to become", or "to come to pass". While there is no consensus about the structure and etymology of the name, the form *Yahweh* is now accepted almost universally, though the vocalization *Jehovah* continues to have wide usage. The books of the Torah and the rest of the Hebrew Bible except Esther, Ecclesiastes, and (with a possible instance of the short form יה‎ in verse 8:6) the Song of Songs contain this Hebrew name. Observant Jews and those who follow Talmudic Jewish traditions do not pronounce יהוה‎ nor do they read aloud proposed transcription forms such as *Yahweh* or *Yehovah*; instead they replace it with a different term, whether in addressing or referring to the God of Israel. Common substitutions in Hebrew are Adonai ("My Lord") or Elohim (literally "gods" but treated as singular when meaning "God") in prayer, or *HaShem* ("The Name") in everyday speech. Four letters ------------ The letters, properly written and read from right to left (in Biblical Hebrew), are: | Hebrew | Letter name | Pronunciation | | --- | --- | --- | | י‎ | Yod | [j] | | ה‎ | He | [h] | | ו‎ | Waw | [w], or placeholder for "O"/"U" vowel (see mater lectionis) | | ה‎ | He | [h] (or often a silent letter at the end of a word) | Origins ------- ### Etymology The Hebrew Bible explains it by the formula *Ehye ašer ehye* ("I Am that I Am"), the name of God revealed to Moses in Exodus 3:14. This would frame Y-H-W-H as a derivation from the Hebrew triconsonantal root היה (*h-y-h*), "to be, become, come to pass", with a third person masculine *y-* prefix, equivalent to English "he", thereby affording translations as "he who causes to exist", "he who is", etc.; although this would elicit the form Y-H-Y-H (יהיה‎), *not* Y-H-W-H. To rectify this, some scholars proposed that the Tetragrammaton represents a substitution of the medial *y* for *w*, an occasionally attested practice in Biblical Hebrew as both letters function as *matres lectionis*; others proposed that the Tetragrammaton derived instead from the triconsonantal root הוה (*h-w-h*), "to be, constitute", with the final form eliciting similar translations as those derived from *h-y-h*. As such, the consensus among modern scholars considers that YHWH represents a verbal form, with the *y-* representing the third masculine verbal prefix of the verb *hyh* "to be", as indicated in the Hebrew Bible. Vocalisation ------------ ### YHWH and Hebrew script Like all letters in the Hebrew script, the letters in YHWH originally indicated consonants. In unpointed Biblical Hebrew, most vowels are not written, but some are indicated ambiguously, as certain letters came to have a secondary function indicating vowels (similar to the Latin use of I and V to indicate either the consonants /j, w/ or the vowels /i, u/). Hebrew letters used to indicate vowels are known as *אִמּוֹת קְרִיאָה‎* *(imot kri'a)* or *matres lectionis* ("mothers of reading"). Therefore, it can be difficult to deduce how a word is pronounced from its spelling, and each of the four letters in the Tetragrammaton can individually serve as a *mater lectionis*. Several centuries later, between the 5th through 10th centuries CE, the original consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible was provided with vowel marks by the Masoretes to assist reading. In places where the word to be read (the *qere*) differed from that indicated by the consonants of the written text (the *ketiv*), they wrote the *qere* in the margin as a note showing what was to be read. In such a case the vowel marks of the *qere* were written on the *ketiv*. For a few frequent words, the marginal note was omitted: these are called qere perpetuum. One of the frequent cases was the Tetragrammaton, which according to later Rabbinite Jewish practices should not be pronounced but read as "Adonai" (אֲדֹנָי‎/"my Lord"), or, if the previous or next word already was Adonai, as "Elohim" (אֱלֹהִים‎/"God"). Writing the vowel diacritics of these two words on the consonants YHVH produces יְהֹוָה‎ and יֱהֹוִה‎ respectively, ghost-words that would spell "Yehovah" and "Yehovih" respectively. The oldest complete or nearly complete manuscripts of the Masoretic Text with Tiberian vocalisation, such as the *Aleppo Codex* and the *Leningrad Codex*, both of the 10th or 11th century, mostly write יְהוָה‎ (*yhwah*), with no pointing on the first *h*. It could be because the *o* diacritic point plays no useful role in distinguishing between *Adonai* and *Elohim* and so is redundant, or it could point to the *qere* being שְׁמָא‎ (*šəmâ*), which is Aramaic for "the Name". ### Yahweh The scholarly consensus is that the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton was *Yahweh* (יַהְוֶה‎): "The strong consensus of biblical scholarship is that the original pronunciation of the name YHWH ... was Yahweh." R. R. Reno agrees that, when in the late first millennium Jewish scholars inserted indications of vowels into the Hebrew Bible, they signalled that what was pronounced was "Adonai" (Lord); non-Jews later combined the vowels of Adonai with the consonants of the Tetragrammaton and invented the name "Jehovah". Paul Joüon and Takamitsu Muraoka state: "The Qre is יְהֹוָה‎ *the Lord*, whilst the Ktiv is probably יַהְוֶה‎ (according to ancient witnesses)", and they add: "Note 1: In our translations, we have used *Yahweh*, a form widely accepted by scholars, instead of the traditional *Jehovah.*" In 1869, *Smith's Bible Dictionary*, a collaborative work of noted scholars of the time, declared: "Whatever, therefore, be the true pronunciation of the word, there can be little doubt that it is not *Jehovah*." The use of the then traditional form "Jehovah" as title for its article on the question showed that the present strong consensus that the original pronunciation was "Yahweh" had not yet attained full force. Mark P. Arnold remarks that certain conclusions drawn from the pronunciation of יהוה‎ as "Yahweh" would be valid even if the scholarly consensus were not correct. Thomas Römer holds that "the original pronunciation of Yhwh was 'Yahô' or 'Yahû'". Max Reisel, in *The Mysterious Name of YHWH,* says that the "vocalisation of the Tetragrammaton must originally have been YeHūàH or YaHūàH." The adoption at the time of the Protestant Reformation of "Jehovah" in place of the traditional "Lord" in some new translations, vernacular or Latin, of the biblical Tetragrammaton stirred up dispute about its correctness. In 1711, Adriaan Reland published a book containing the text of 17th-century writings, five attacking and five defending it. As critical of the use of "Jehovah" it incorporated writings by Johannes van den Driesche (1550–1616), known as Drusius; Sixtinus Amama (1593–1629); Louis Cappel (1585–1658); Johannes Buxtorf (1564–1629); Jacob Alting (1618–1679). Defending "Jehovah" were writings by Nicholas Fuller (1557–1626) and Thomas Gataker (1574–1654) and three essays by Johann Leusden (1624–1699). The opponents of "Jehovah" said that the Tetragrammaton should be pronounced as "Adonai" and in general do not speculate on what may have been the original pronunciation, although mention is made of the fact that some held that *Jahve* was that pronunciation. Almost two centuries after the 17th-century works reprinted by Reland, 19th-century Wilhelm Gesenius reported in his *Thesaurus Philologicus* on the main reasoning of those who argued either for יַהְוֹה‎/*Yah[w]oh* or יַהְוֶה‎/*Yahweh* as the original pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton, as opposed to יְהֹוָה‎/*Yehovah*. He explicitly cited the 17th-century writers mentioned by Reland as supporters of יְהֹוָה‎, as well as implicitly citing Johann David Michaelis (1717–1791) and Johann Friedrich von Meyer (1772–1849), the latter of whom Johann Heinrich Kurtz described as the last of those "who have maintained with great pertinacity that יְהֹוָה‎ was the correct and original pointing". Edward Robinson's translation of a work by Gesenius, gives Gesenius' personal view as: "My own view coincides with that of those who regard this name as anciently pronounced [יַהְוֶה‎/Yahweh] like the Samaritans." Non-biblical texts ------------------ ### Texts with Tetragrammaton The oldest known inscription of the Tetragrammaton dates to 840 BCE: the Mesha Stele mentions the Israelite god *Yahweh*. Of the same century are two pottery sherds found at Kuntillet Ajrud with inscriptions mentioning "Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah" and "Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah". A tomb inscription at Khirbet el-Qom also mentions Yahweh. Dated slightly later (7th century BCE) there are an ostracon from the collections of Shlomo Moussaieff,[*full citation needed*] and two tiny silver amulet scrolls found at Ketef Hinnom that mention Yahweh. Also a wall inscription, dated to the late 6th century BCE, with mention of Yahweh had been found in a tomb at Khirbet Beit Lei. Yahweh is mentioned also in the Lachish letters (587 BCE) and the slightly earlier Tel Arad ostraca, and on a stone from Mount Gerizim (3rd or the beginning of the 2nd century BCE). #### Texts with similar theonyms The theonyms YHW and YHH are found in the Elephantine papyri of about 500 BCE. One ostracon with YH is thought to have lost the final letter of an original YHW. These texts are in Aramaic, not the language of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton (YHWH) and, unlike the Tetragrammaton, are of three letters, not four. However, because they were written by Jews, they are assumed to refer to the same deity and to be either an abbreviated form of the Tetragrammaton or the original name from which the name YHWH developed. Kristin De Troyer says that YHW or YHH, and also YH, are attested in the fifth and fourth-century BCE papyri from Elephantine and Wadi Daliyeh: "In both collections one can read the name of God as Yaho (or Yahu) and Ya". The name YH (Yah/Jah), the first syllable of "Yahweh", appears 50 times in the Old Testament, 26 times alone (Exodus 15:2; 17:16; and 24 times in the Psalms), 24 times in the expression "Hallelujah". An Egyptian hieroglyphic inscription of the Pharaoh Amenhotep III (1402–1363 BCE) mentions a group of Shasu whom it calls "the Shasu of Yhw³" (read as: *ja-h-wi* or *ja-h-wa*). James D. G. Dunn and John W. Rogerson tentatively suggest that the Amenhotep III inscription may indicate that worship of Yahweh originated in an area to the southeast of Palestine. A later inscription from the time of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE) in West Amara associates the Shasu nomads with *S-rr*, interpreted as Mount Seir, spoken of in some texts as where Yahweh comes from. Frank Moore Cross says: "It must be emphasized that the Amorite verbal form is of interest only in attempting to reconstruct the proto-Hebrew or South Canaanite verbal form used in the name Yahweh. We should argue vigorously against attempts to take Amorite yuhwi and yahu as divine epithets." Thomas Schneider argued for the existence of a theophoric name in a Book of the Dead papyrus dating to the late 18th or early 19th dynasty which he translated as *‘adōnī-rō‘ē-yāh*, meaning "My lord is the shepherd of Yah". According to De Troyer, the short names, instead of being ineffable like "Yahweh", seem to have been in spoken use not only as elements of personal names but also in reference to God: "The Samaritans thus seem to have pronounced the Name of God as Jaho or Ja." She cites Theodoret (c. 393 – c. 460) as that the shorter names of God were pronounced by the Samaritans as "Iabe" and by the Jews as "Ia". She adds that the Bible also indicates that the short form "Yah" was spoken, as in the phrase "Halleluyah". The *Patrologia Graeca* texts of Theodoret differ slightly from what De Troyer says. In *Quaestiones in Exodum* 15 he says that Samaritans pronounced the name Ἰαβέ and Jews the name Άϊά. (The Greek term Άϊά is a transcription of the Exodus 3:14 phrase אֶהְיֶה (*ehyeh*), "I am".) In *Haereticarum Fabularum Compendium* 5.3, he uses the spelling Ἰαβαί. #### Magical papyri Among the Jews in the Second Temple Period magical amulets became very popular. Representations of the Tetragrammaton name or combinations inspired by it in languages such as Greek and Coptic, giving some indication of its pronunciation, occur as names of powerful agents in Jewish magical papyri found in Egypt. Iαβε *Iave* and Iαβα *Yaba* occurs frequently, "apparently the Samaritan enunciation of the tetragrammaton YHWH (Yahweh)". The most commonly invoked god is Ιαω (*Iaō*), another vocalization of the tetragrammaton YHWH. There is a single instance of the heptagram ιαωουηε (*iaōouēe*). *Yāwē* is found in an Ethiopian Christian list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been taught by him to his disciples. #### Vernacular evidence Also relevant is the use of the name in theophoric names; there is a common Hebrew prefix form, Yeho or "Yehō-", and a common suffix form, "Yahū" or "-Yehū". These provide some corroborating evidence of how YHWH was pronounced.[*self-published source?*] Hebrew Bible ------------ ### Masoretic Text According to the Jewish Encyclopedia it occurs 5,410 times in the Hebrew scriptures. In the Hebrew Bible, the Tetragrammaton occurs 6828 times, as can be seen in Kittel's *Biblia Hebraica* and the *Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia*. In addition, the marginal notes or *masorah* indicate that in another 134 places, where the received text has the word *Adonai*, an earlier text had the Tetragrammaton. which would add up to 142 additional occurrences. Even in the Dead Sea Scrolls practice varied with regard to use of the Tetragrammaton. According to *Brown–Driver–Briggs*, יְהֹוָה‎ (*qere* אֲדֹנָי‎) occurs 6,518 times, and יֱהֹוִה‎ (qere אֱלֹהִים‎) 305 times in the Masoretic Text. The first appearance of the Tetragrammaton is in the Book of Genesis 2:4. The only books it does not appear in are Ecclesiastes, the Book of Esther, and Song of Songs. In the Book of Esther the Tetragrammaton does not appear, but it has been distinguished acrostic-wise in the initial or last letters of four consecutive words, as indicated in Est 7:5 by writing the four letters in red in at least three ancient Hebrew manuscripts.[*original research?*] The short form יָהּ‎/Yah (a digrammaton) "occurs 50 times if the phrase hallellu-Yah is included": 43 times in the Psalms, once in Exodus 15:2; 17:16; Isaiah 12:2; 26:4, and twice in Isaiah 38:11. It also appears in the Greek phrase Ἁλληλουϊά (Alleluia, Hallelujah) in Revelation 19:1, 3, 4, 6. Other short forms are found as a component of theophoric Hebrew names in the Bible: jô- or jehô- (29 names) and -jāhû or -jāh (127 jnames). A form of jāhû/jehô appears in the name Elioenai (Elj(eh)oenai) in 1Ch 3:23–24; 4:36; 7:8; Ezr 22:22, 27; Neh 12:41. The following graph shows the absolute number of occurrences of the Tetragrammaton (6828 in all) in the books in the Masoretic Text, without relation to the length of the books. ### Leningrad Codex Six presentations of the Tetragrammaton with some or all of the vowel points of אֲדֹנָי‎ (Adonai) or אֱלֹהִים‎ (Elohim) are found in the Leningrad Codex of 1008–1010, as shown below. The close transcriptions do not indicate that the Masoretes intended the name to be pronounced in that way (see *qere perpetuum*). | Chapter and verse | Masoretic Text display | Close transcription of the display | Ref. | Explanation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Genesis 2:4 | יְהוָה‎ | Yǝhwāh | | This is the first occurrence of the Tetragrammaton in the Hebrew Bible and shows the most common set of vowels used in the Masoretic Text. It is the same as the form used in Genesis 3:14 below, but with the dot (holam) on the first he left out, because it is a little redundant. | | Genesis 3:14 | יְהֹוָה‎ | Yǝhōwāh | | This is a set of vowels used rarely in the Masoretic Text, and are essentially the vowels from Adonai (with the hataf patakh reverting to its natural state as a shewa). | | Judges 16:28 | יֱהֹוִה‎ | Yĕhōwih | | When the Tetragrammaton is preceded by Adonai, it receives the vowels from the name Elohim instead. The hataf segol does not revert to a shewa because doing so could lead to confusion with the vowels in Adonai. | | Genesis 15:2 | יֱהוִה‎ | Yĕhwih | | Just as above, this uses the vowels from Elohim, but like the second version, the dot (holam) on the first he is omitted as redundant. | | 1 Kings 2:26 | יְהֹוִה‎ | Yǝhōwih | | Here, the dot (holam) on the first he is present, but the hataf segol does get reverted to a shewa. | | Ezekiel 24:24 | יְהוִה‎ | Yǝhwih | | Here, the dot (holam) on the first he is omitted, and the hataf segol gets reverted to a shewa. | **ĕ** is *hataf segol*; **ǝ** is the pronounced form of plain shva. ### Dead Sea Scrolls In the Dead Sea Scrolls and other Hebrew and Aramaic texts the Tetragrammaton and some other names of God in Judaism (such as El or Elohim) were sometimes written in paleo-Hebrew script, showing that they were treated specially. Most of God's names were pronounced until about the 2nd century BCE. Then, as a tradition of non-pronunciation of the names developed, alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared, such as Adonai, Kurios and Theos. The 4Q120, a Greek fragment of Leviticus (26:2–16) discovered in the Dead Sea scrolls (Qumran) has ιαω ("Iao"), the Greek form of the Hebrew trigrammaton YHW. The historian John the Lydian (6th century) wrote: "The Roman Varro [116–27 BCE] defining him [that is the Jewish God] says that he is called Iao in the Chaldean mysteries" (De Mensibus IV 53). Van Cooten mentions that Iao is one of the "specifically Jewish designations for God" and "the Aramaic papyri from the Jews at Elephantine show that 'Iao' is an original Jewish term". The preserved manuscripts from Qumran show the inconsistent practice of writing the Tetragrammaton, mainly in biblical quotations: in some manuscripts is written in paleo-Hebrew script, square scripts or replaced with four dots or dashes (*tetrapuncta*). The members of the Qumran community were aware of the existence of the Tetragrammaton, but this was not tantamount to granting consent for its existing use and speaking. This is evidenced not only by special treatment of the Tetragrammaton in the text, but by the recommendation recorded in the 'Rule of Association' (VI, 27): "Who will remember the most glorious name, which is above all [...]". The table below presents all the manuscripts in which the Tetragrammaton is written in paleo-Hebrew script, in square scripts, and all the manuscripts in which the copyists have used tetrapuncta. Copyists used the 'tetrapuncta' apparently to warn against pronouncing the name of God. In the manuscript number 4Q248 is in the form of bars. | PALEO-HEBREW | SQUARE | TETRAPUNCTA | | --- | --- | --- | | 1Q11 (1QPsb) 2–5 3 (link: ) | 2Q13 (2QJer) (link: ) | 1QS VIII 14 (link: ) | | 1Q14 (1QpMic) 1–5 1, 2 (link: ) | 4Q27 (4QNumb) (link: ) | 1QIsaa XXXIII 7, XXXV 15 (link: ) | | 1QpHab VI 14; X 7, 14; XI 10 (link: ) | 4Q37 (4QDeutj) (link: ) | 4Q53 (4QSamc) 13 III 7, 7 (link: ) | | 1Q15 (1QpZeph) 3, 4 (link: ) | 4Q78 (4QXIIc) (link: ) | 4Q175 (4QTest) 1, 19 | | 2Q3 (2QExodb) 2 2; 7 1; 8 3 (link: ) | 4Q96 (4QPso (link: ) | 4Q176 (4QTanḥ) 1–2 i 6, 7, 9; 1–2 ii 3; 8–10 6, 8, 10 (link: ) | | 3Q3 (3QLam) 1 2 (link: ) | 4Q158 (4QRPa) (link: ) | 4Q196 (4QpapToba ar) 17 i 5; 18 15 (link: ) | | 4Q20 (4QExodj) 1–2 3 (link: ) | 4Q163 (4Qpap pIsac) I 19; II 6; 15–16 1; 21 9; III 3, 9; 25 7 (link: ) | 4Q248 (history of the kings of Greece) 5 (link: ) | | 4Q26b (4QLevg) linia 8 (link: ) | 4QpNah (4Q169) II 10 (link: ) | 4Q306 (4QMen of People Who Err) 3 5 (link: ) | | 4Q38a (4QDeutk2) 5 6 (link: ) | 4Q173 (4QpPsb) 4 2 (link: ) | 4Q382 (4QparaKings et al.) 9+11 5; 78 2 | | 4Q57 (4QIsac) (link: ) | 4Q177 (4QCatena A) (link: ) | 4Q391 (4Qpap Pseudo-Ezechiel) 36, 52, 55, 58, 65 (link: ) | | 4Q161 (4QpIsaa) 8–10 13 (link: ) | 4Q215a (4QTime of Righteousness) (link: ) | 4Q462 (4QNarrative C) 7; 12 (link: ) | | 4Q165 (4QpIsae) 6 4 (link: ) | 4Q222 (4QJubg) (link: ) | 4Q524 (4QTb)) 6–13 4, 5 (link: ) | | 4Q171 (4QpPsa) II 4, 12, 24; III 14, 15; IV 7, 10, 19 (link: ) | 4Q225 (4QPsJuba) (link: ) | XḤev/SeEschat Hymn (XḤev/Se 6) 2 7 | | 11Q2 (11QLevb) 2 2, 6, 7 (link: ) | 4Q365 (4QRPc) (link: ) | | | 11Q5 (11QPsa) (link: ) | 4Q377 (4QApocryphal Pentateuch B) 2 ii 3, 5 (link: ) | | | | 4Q382 (4Qpap paraKings) (link: ) | | | | 11Q6 (11QPsb) (link: ) | | | | 11Q7 (11QPsc) (link: ) | | | | 11Q19 (11QTa) | | | | 11Q20 (11QTb) (link: ) | | | | 11Q11 (11QapocrPs) (link: ) | | Septuagint ---------- Editions of the Septuagint Old Testament are based on the complete or almost complete fourth-century manuscripts Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Alexandrinus and consistently use Κύριος, "Lord", where the Masoretic Text has the Tetragrammaton in Hebrew. This corresponds with the Jewish practice of replacing the Tetragrammaton with "Adonai" when reading the Hebrew word. However, five of the oldest manuscripts now extant (in fragmentary form) render the Tetragrammaton into Greek in a different way. Two of these are of the first century BCE: Papyrus Fouad 266 uses יהוה‎ in the normal Hebrew alphabet in the midst of its Greek text, and 4Q120 uses the Greek transcription of the name, ΙΑΩ. Three later manuscripts use 𐤉𐤄𐤅𐤄‎, the name יהוה‎ in Paleo-Hebrew script: the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever, Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 and Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101. Other extant ancient fragments of Septuagint or Old Greek manuscripts provide no evidence on the use of the Tetragrammaton, Κύριος, or ΙΑΩ in correspondence with the Hebrew-text Tetragrammaton. They include the oldest known example, Papyrus Rylands 458. Scholars differ on whether in the original Septuagint translations the Tetragrammaton was represented by Κύριος, by ΙΑΩ, by the Tetragrammaton in either normal or Paleo-Hebrew form, or whether different translators used different forms in different books. Frank Shaw argues that the Tetragrammaton continued to be articulated until the second or third century CE and that the use of Ιαω was by no means limited to magical or mystical formulas, but was still normal in more elevated contexts such as that exemplified by Papyrus 4Q120. Shaw considers all theories that posit in the Septuagint a single original form of the divine name as merely based on *a priori* assumptions. Accordingly, he declares: "The matter of any (especially single) 'original' form of the divine name in the LXX is too complex, the evidence is too scattered and indefinite, and the various approaches offered for the issue are too simplistic" to account for the actual scribal practices (p. 158). He holds that the earliest stages of the LXX's translation were marked by diversity (p. 262), with the choice of certain divine names depending on the context in which they appear (cf. Gen 4:26; Exod 3:15; 8:22; 28:32; 32:5; and 33:19). He treats of the related blank spaces in some Septuagint manuscripts and the setting of spaces around the divine name in 4Q120 and Papyrus Fouad 266b (p. 265), and repeats that "there was no one 'original' form but different translators had different feelings, theological beliefs, motivations, and practices when it came to their handling of the name" (p. 271). His view has won the support of Anthony R. Meyer, Bob Becking, and (commenting on Shaw's 2011 dissertation on the subject) D.T. Runia. Mogens Müller says that, while no clearly Jewish manuscript of the Septuagint has been found with Κύριος representing the Tetragrammaton, other Jewish writings of the time show that Jews did use the term Κύριος for God, and it was because Christians found it in the Septuagint that they were able to apply it to Christ. In fact, the deuterocanonical books of the Septuagint, written originally in Greek (e.g., Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), do speak of God as Κύριος and thus show that "the use of κύριος as a representation of יהוה‎ must be pre-Christian in origin". Similarly, while consistent use of *Κύριος* to represent the Tetragrammaton has been called "a distinguishing mark for any Christian LXX manuscript", Eugen J. Pentiuc says: "No definitive conclusion has been reached thus far." And Sean McDonough denounces as implausible the idea that Κύριος did not appear in the Septuagint before the Christian era. Speaking of the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever, which is a kaige recension of the Septuagint, "a revision of the Old Greek text to bring it closer to the Hebrew text of the Bible as it existed in ca. 2nd-1st century BCE" (and thus not necessarily the original text), Kristin De Troyer remarks: "The problem with a recension is that one does not know what is the original form and what the recension. Hence, is the paleo-Hebrew Tetragrammaton secondary – a part of the recension – or proof of the Old Greek text? This debate has not yet been solved." While some interpret the presence of the Tetragrammaton in Papyrus Fouad 266, the oldest Septuagint manuscript in which it appears, as an indication of what was in the original text, others see this manuscript as "an archaizing and hebraizing revision of the earlier translation κύριος". Of this papyrus, De Troyer asks: "Is it a recension or not?" In this regard she says that Emanuel Tov notes that in this manuscript a second scribe inserted the four-letter Tetragrammaton where the first scribe left spaces large enough for the six-letter word Κύριος, and that Pietersma and Hanhart say the papyrus "already contains some pre-hexaplaric corrections towards a Hebrew text (which would have had the Tetragrammaton). She also mentions Septuagint manuscripts that have Θεός and one that has παντοκράτωρ where the Hebrew text has the Tetragrammaton. She concludes: "It suffices to say that in old Hebrew and Greek witnesses, God has many names. Most if not all were pronounced till about the second century BCE. As slowly onwards there developed a tradition of non-pronunciation, alternatives for the Tetragrammaton appeared. The reading *Adonai* was one of them. Finally, before *Kurios* became a standard rendering *Adonai*, the Name of God was rendered with *Theos*." In the Book of Exodus alone, Θεός represents the Tetragrammaton 41 times. Robert J. Wilkinson says that the Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever is also a kaige recension and thus not strictly a Septuagint text. Origen (*Commentary on Psalms* 2.2) said that in the most accurate manuscripts the name was written in an older form of the Hebrew characters, the paleo-Hebrew letters, not the square: "In the more accurate exemplars the (divine) name is written in Hebrew characters; not, however, in the current script, but in the most ancient." While Pietersma interprets this statement as referring to the Septuagint, Wilkinson says one might assume that Origen refers specifically to the version of Aquila of Sinope, which follows the Hebrew text very closely, but he may perhaps refer to Greek versions in general. ### Manuscripts of the Septuagint and later Greek renderings The great majority of extant manuscripts of the Old Testament in Greek, complete or fragmentary, dated to the ninth century CE or earlier, employ Κύριος to represent the Tetragrammaton of the Hebrew text. The following do not. They include the oldest now extant. 1. Manuscripts of the Septuagint or recensions thereof * 1st century BCE + 4QpapLXXLevb – fragments of the Book of Leviticus, chapters 1 to 5. In two verses: 3:12; 4:27 the Tetragrammaton of the Hebrew Bible is represented by Greek ΙΑΩ. + Papyrus Fouad 266b (848) – fragments of Deuteronomy, chapters 10 to 33. The Tetragrammaton appears in square Hebrew/Aramaic script. According to a disputed view, the first copyist left a blank space marked with a dot, and another inscribed the letters. * 1st century CE + Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 3522 – contains parts of two verses of chapter 42 of the Book of Job and has the Tetragrammaton in paleo-Hebrew letters. + Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever – in three fragments whose contents were published separately. - Se2grXII (LXXIEJ 12) has the Tetragrammaton in 1 place. - 8HevXII a (LXXVTS 10a) in 24 places, in whole or part. - 8HevXII b (LXXVTS 10b) in 4 places. * 1st to 2nd century + Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 5101 – contains fragments of the Book of Psalms. It has YHWH in Paleo-Hebrew script. * 3rd century CE + Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 1007 – contains Genesis 2 and 3. The divine name is written with a double yodh. + Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 656 – fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapters 14 to 27. Has Κύριος where the first copyist left blank spaces + Papyrus Berlin 17213 – fragments of the Book of Genesis, chapter 19. One space is left blank. Emanuel Tov thinks it indicated the end of a paragraph. It has been dated to 3rd century CE. 2. Manuscripts of Greek translations made by Symmachus and Aquila of Sinope (2nd century CE) * 3rd century CE + Papyrus Vindobonensis Greek 39777. Has the Tetragrammaton in archaic Hebrew script. * 5th century CE + AqTaylor, this manuscript of the Aquila version is dated after the middle of the 5th century, but not later than the beginning of the 6th century. + AqBurkitt – a palimpsest manuscript of the Aquila version dated late 5th century or early 6th century. 3. Manuscripts with Hexaplaric elements * 6th century CE + Codex Marchalianus – In addition to the Septuagint text of the prophets (with κς), the manuscript contains marginal notes from a hand "not much later than the original scribe" indicating Hexaplaric variations, each identified as from Aquila, Symmachus or Theodotion. Marginal notes on some of the prophets contain πιπι to indicate that κς in the text corresponds to the Tetragrammaton. Two marginal notes at Ezekiel 1:2 and 11:1 use the form ιαω with reference to the Tetragrammaton. * 7th century CE + Taylor-Schechter 12.182 – a Hexapla manuscript with Tetragrammaton in Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ. It has Hebrew text transliterated into Greek, Aquila, Symmachus and the Septuagint. * 9th century CE + Ambrosiano O 39 sup. – the latest Greek manuscript containing the name of God is Origen's *Hexapla*, transmitting among other translations the text of the Septuagint, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, and in three other unidentified Greek translations (Quinta, Sextus and Septima). This codex, copied from a much earlier original, comes from the late 9th century, and is stored in the Biblioteca Ambrosiana. Patristic writings ------------------ According to the Catholic Encyclopedia (1910) and B.D. Eerdmans: * Diodorus Siculus (1st century BCE) writes Ἰαῶ (Iao); * Irenaeus (d. c. 202) reports that the Gnostics formed a compound Ἰαωθ (Iaoth) with the last syllable of Sabaoth. He also reports that the Valentinian heretics use Ἰαῶ (Iao); * Clement of Alexandria (d. c. 215) reports: "the mystic name of four letters which was affixed to those alone to whom the adytum was accessible, is called Ἰαοὺ" (Iaoú); manuscript variants also have the forms ἰαοῦε (Iaoúe) and ἰὰ οὐὲ. * Origen (d. c. 254), Ἰαώ (Iao); * Porphyry (d. c. 305) according to Eusebius (died 339), Ἰευώ (Ieuo); * Epiphanius (died 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a considerable part of his life there, gives Ἰά (Ia) and Ἰάβε (pronounced at that time /ja'vε/) and explains Ἰάβε as meaning He who was and is and always exists. * Jerome (died 420) speaks of certain Greek writers who misunderstood the Hebrew letters יהוה‎ (read right-to-left) as the Greek letters ΠΙΠΙ (read left-to-right), thus changing YHWH to *pipi*. * Theodoret (d. c. 457) writes Ἰαώ (Iao); he also reports that the Samaritans say Ἰαβέ or Ἰαβαί (both pronounced at that time /ja'vε/), while the Jews say Ἀϊά (Aia). (The latter is probably not יהוה‎ but אהיה‎ *Ehyeh* = "I am " or "I will be", Exod. 3:14 which the Jews counted among the names of God.) * (Pseudo-)Jerome (4th/5th or 9th century),: *IAHO*. This work was traditionally attributed to Jerome and, in spite of the view of one modern writer who in 1936 said it is "now believed to be genuine and to be dated before CE 392" is still generally attributed to the 9th century and to be non-authentic. Peshitta -------- The Peshitta (Syriac translation), probably in the second century, uses the word "Lord" (ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, pronounced *māryā* or *moryo* (Western pronunciation) for the Tetragrammaton. Vulgate ------- The Vulgate (Latin translation) made from the Hebrew in the 4th century CE, uses the word *Dominus* ("Lord"), a translation of the Hebrew word *Adonai*, for the Tetragrammaton. The Vulgate translation, though made not from the Septuagint but from the Hebrew text, did not depart from the practice used in the Septuagint. Thus, for most of its history, Christianity's translations of the Scriptures have used equivalents of *Adonai* to represent the Tetragrammaton. Only at about the beginning of the 16th century did Christian translations of the Bible appear combining the vowels of *Adonai* with the four (consonantal) letters of the Tetragrammaton. Usage in religious traditions ----------------------------- ### Judaism Especially due to the existence of the Mesha Stele, the Jahwist tradition found in Exod. 3:15, and ancient Hebrew and Greek texts, biblical scholars widely hold that the Tetragrammaton and other names of God were spoken by the ancient Israelites and their neighbours. By at least the 3rd century BCE, the name was not pronounced in normal speech, but only in certain ritual contexts. The Talmud relays this change occurred after the death of Simeon the Just (either Simon I or his great-great-grandson Simon II). Philo calls the name ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy place (that is, for priests in the Temple). In another passage, commenting on Lev. 24:15: "If any one, I do not say should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should even dare to utter his name unseasonably, let him expect the penalty of death." Some time after the destruction of the Second Temple, the spoken use of God's name as it was written ceased altogether, though knowledge of the pronunciation was perpetuated in rabbinic schools. Rabbinic sources suggest that the name of God was pronounced only once a year, by the high priest, on the Day of Atonement. Others, including Maimonides, claim that the name was pronounced daily in the liturgy of the Temple in the priestly blessing of worshippers, after the daily sacrifice; in synagogues, though, a substitute (probably "Adonai") was used. According to the Talmud, in the last generations before the fall of Jerusalem, the name was pronounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant of the priests. Since the destruction of Second Temple of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the Tetragrammaton has no longer been pronounced in the liturgy. However the pronunciation was still known in Babylonia in the latter part of the 4th century. #### Spoken prohibitions The vehemence with which the utterance of the name is denounced in the Mishnah suggests that use of the name Yahweh was unacceptable in rabbinical Judaism. "He who pronounces the Name with its own letters has no part in the world to come!" Such is the prohibition of pronouncing the Name as written that it is sometimes called the "Ineffable", "Unutterable", or "Distinctive Name", or "Explicit Name" ("Shem HaMephorash" in Hebrew). Halakha prescribes that although the Name is written יהוה‎ "yodh he waw he", if not preceded by "my Lord" (אֲדֹנָי, *Adonai*) then it is only to be pronounced "Adonai" and if preceded by "Adonai" then it is only to be pronounced as "Our God" (אֱלֹהֵינוּ, *Eloheinu*), or, in rare cases, as a repetition of Adonai, e.g., the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy (שְׁלוֹשׁ־עֶשְׂרֵה, *Shelosh-'Esreh*) in Exodus 34:6–7; the latter names too are regarded as holy names, and are only to be pronounced in prayer. Thus when someone wants to refer in third person to either the written or spoken Name, the term *HaShem* "the Name" is used;[*unreliable source?*] and this handle itself can also be used in prayer. The Masoretes added vowel points (niqqud) and cantillation marks to the manuscripts to indicate vowel usage and for use in ritual chanting of readings from the Bible in Jewish prayer in synagogues. To יהוה‎ they added the vowels for "*Adonai*" ("My Lord"), the word to use when the text was read. While "HaShem" is the most common way to reference "the Name", the terms "HaMaqom" (lit. "The Place", i.e. "The Omnipresent") and "Raḥmana" (Aramaic, "Merciful") are used in the mishna and gemara, still used in the phrases "HaMaqom y'naḥem ethḥem" ("may The Omnipresent console you"), the traditional phrase used in sitting Shiva and "Raḥmana l'tzlan" ("may the Merciful save us" i.e. "God forbid"). #### Written prohibitions The written Tetragrammaton, as well as six other names of God, must be treated with special sanctity. They cannot be disposed of regularly, lest they be desecrated, but are usually put in long-term storage or buried in Jewish cemeteries in order to retire them from use. Similarly, writing the Tetragrammaton (or these other names) unnecessarily is prohibited, so as to avoid having them treated disrespectfully, an action that is forbidden. To guard the sanctity of the Name, sometimes a letter is substituted by a different letter in writing (e.g. יקוק), or the letters are separated by one or more hyphens, a practice applied also to the English name "God", which some Jews write as "G-d". Most Jewish authorities say that this practice is not obligatory for the English name. #### Kabbalah Kabbalistic tradition holds that the correct pronunciation is known to a select few people in each generation, it is not generally known what this pronunciation is. There are two main schools of Kabbalah arising in 13th century Spain. These are called Theosophic Kabbalah represented by Rabbi Moshe De Leon and the Zohar, and the Kabbalah of Names or Prophetic Kabbalah whose main representative is Rabbi Abraham Abulafia of Saragossa. Rabbi Abulafia wrote many wisdom books and prophetic books where the name is used for meditation purposes from 1271 onwards. Abulafia put a lot of attention on Exodus 15 and the Songs of Moses. In this song it says "Yehovah is a Man of War, Yehovah is his name". For Abulafia the goal of prophecy was for a man to come to the level of prophecy and be called "Yehovah a man of war". Abulafia also used the tetragrammaton in a spiritual war against his spiritual enemies. For example, he prophesied in his book "The Sign", "Therefore, thus said YHWH, the God of Israel: Have no fear of the enemy" (See Hylton, A The Prophetic Jew Abraham Abulafia, 2015). Moshe Chaim Luzzatto, says that the tree of the Tetragrammaton "unfolds" in accordance with the intrinsic nature of its letters, "in the same order in which they appear in the Name, in the mystery of ten and the mystery of four." Namely, the upper cusp of the *Yod* is Arich Anpin and the main body of *Yod* is and Abba; the first *Hei* is Imma; the *Vav* is Ze`ir Anpin and the second *Hei* is Nukvah. It unfolds in this aforementioned order and "in the mystery of the four expansions" that are constituted by the following various spellings of the letters: **ע"ב/*`AV*** : יו"ד ה"י וי"ו ה"י, so called "`AV" according to its gematria value ע"ב=70+2=72. **ס"ג/*SaG***: יו"ד ה"י וא"ו ה"י, gematria 63. **מ"ה/*MaH***: יו"ד ה"א וא"ו ה"א, gematria 45. **ב"ן/*BaN***: יו"ד ה"ה ו"ו ה"ה, gematria 52. Luzzatto summarises, "In sum, all that exists is founded on the mystery of this Name and upon the mystery of these letters of which it consists. This means that all the different orders and laws are all drawn after and come under the order of these four letters. This is not one particular pathway but rather the general path, which includes everything that exists in the Sefirot in all their details and which brings everything under its order." Another parallel is drawn[*by whom?*] between the four letters of the Tetragrammaton and the Four Worlds: the **י** is associated with Atziluth, the first **ה** with Beri'ah, the **ו** with Yetzirah, and final **ה** with Assiah. There are some[*who?*] who believe that the tetractys and its mysteries influenced the early kabbalists. A Hebrew tetractys in a similar way has the letters of the Tetragrammaton (the four lettered name of God in Hebrew scripture) inscribed on the ten positions of the tetractys, from right to left. It has been argued that the Kabbalistic Tree of Life, with its ten spheres of emanation, is in some way connected to the tetractys, but its form is not that of a triangle. The occult writer Dion Fortune says: > The point is assigned to Kether; > > the line to Chokmah; > > the two-dimensional plane to Binah; > > consequently the three-dimensional solid naturally falls to Chesed. > > (The first three-dimensional solid is the tetrahedron.) The relationship between geometrical shapes and the first four Sephirot is analogous to the geometrical correlations in tetractys, shown above under Pythagorean Symbol, and unveils the relevance of the Tree of Life with the tetractys. ### Samaritans The Samaritans shared the taboo of the Jews about the utterance of the name, and there is no evidence that its pronunciation was common Samaritan practice. However Sanhedrin 10:1 includes the comment of Rabbi Mana II, "for example those Kutim who take an oath" would also have no share in the world to come, which suggests that Mana thought some Samaritans used the name in making oaths. (Their priests have preserved a liturgical pronunciation "Yahwe" or "Yahwa" to the present day.) As with Jews, the use of *Shema* (שמא "the Name") remains the everyday usage of the name among Samaritans, akin to Hebrew "the Name" (Hebrew השם "HaShem"). ### Christianity It is assumed that early Jewish Christians inherited from Jews the practice of reading "Lord" where the Tetragrammaton appears in the Hebrew text (and where a few Greek manuscripts use it in the midst of their Greek translation). Gentile Christians, primarily non-Hebrew speaking and using Greek Scripture texts, may have read Κύριος ("Lord"), as in the Greek text of the New Testament and in their copies of the Greek Old Testament. This practice continued into the Latin Vulgate where *Dominus* ("Lord") represented the Tetragrammaton in the Latin text. At the Reformation, the Luther Bible used capitalized *Herr* ("Lord") in the German text of the Old Testament to represent the Tetragrammaton. In Christianity, when the Tetragrammaton is vocalized, the forms *Yahweh* or *Jehovah* are used. Jah or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh, and often sees usage by Christians in the interjection "Hallelujah", meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory. #### Christian translations The Septuagint (Greek translation), the Vulgate (Latin translation), and the Peshitta (Syriac translation) use the word "Lord" (κύριος, *kyrios*, *dominus*, and ܡܳܪܝܳܐ, *moryo* respectively). Use of the Septuagint by Christians in polemics with Jews led to its abandonment by the latter, making it a specifically Christian text. From it Christians made translations into Coptic, Arabic, Slavonic and other languages used in Oriental Orthodoxy and the Eastern Orthodox Church, whose liturgies and doctrinal declarations are largely a cento of texts from the Septuagint, which they consider to be inspired at least as much as the Masoretic Text. Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Greek text remains the norm for texts in all languages, with particular reference to the wording used in prayers. The Septuagint, with its use of Κύριος to represent the Tetragrammaton, was the basis also for Christian translations associated with the West, in particular the Vetus Itala, which survives in some parts of the liturgy of the Latin Church, and the Gothic Bible. Christian translations of the Bible into English commonly use "LORD" in place of the Tetragrammaton in most passages, often in small capitals (or in all caps), so as to distinguish it from other words translated as "Lord". #### Eastern Orthodoxy The Eastern Orthodox Church considers the Septuagint text, which uses Κύριος (Lord), to be the authoritative text of the Old Testament, and in its liturgical books and prayers it uses Κύριος in place of the Tetragrammaton in texts derived from the Bible. #### Catholicism In the Catholic Church, the first edition of the official Vatican *Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica*, published in 1979, used the traditional *Dominus* when rendering the Tetragrammaton in the overwhelming majority of places where it appears; however, it also used the form *Iahveh* for rendering the Tetragrammaton in three known places: * Exodus 3:15 * Exodus 15:3 * Exodus 17:15 In the second edition of the *Nova Vulgata Bibliorum Sacrorum Editio, editio typica altera*, published in 1986, these few occurrences of the form *Iahveh* were replaced with *Dominus*, in keeping with the long-standing Catholic tradition of avoiding direct usage of the Ineffable Name. On 29 June 2008, the Holy See reacted to the then still recent practice of pronouncing, within Catholic liturgy, the name of God represented by the Tetragrammaton. As examples of such vocalisation it mentioned "Yahweh" and "Yehovah". The early Christians, it said, followed the example of the Septuagint in replacing the name of God with "the Lord", a practice with important theological implications for their use of "the Lord" in reference to Jesus, as in Philippians 2:9–11 and other New Testament texts. It therefore directed that, "in liturgical celebrations, in songs and prayers the name of God in the form of the *Tetragrammaton* YHWH is neither to be used or pronounced"; and that translations of Biblical texts for liturgical use are to follow the practice of the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, replacing the divine name with "the Lord" or, in some contexts, "God". The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops welcomed this instruction, adding that it "provides also an opportunity to offer catechesis for the faithful as an encouragement to show reverence for the Name of God in daily life, emphasizing the power of language as an act of devotion and worship". #### Lutheranism and Anglicanism In the Lutheran and Anglican psalters, the word LORD in "small capital letters [is used] to represent the tetragrammaton YHWH, the personal name of the deity". However, the Psalter of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer used by the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America uses *Yahweh* in two places, Psalms 68:4 and Psalms 83:18. Also the Hymnal 1982 as used by the Episcopal Church utilizes the hymn, "Guide me, O thou great *Jehovah*", Hymn 690 The Christian Life. Aside from those instances, LORD is typically used in the Liturgy of the Episcopal Church. Usage in art ------------ Since the 16th century, artists have been using the tetragrammaton as a symbol for God, or for divine illumination. Protestant artists avoided to allegorize God in human form, but rather wrote the Hebrew name of God. This was done in book illustrations since 1530, then on coins and medals as well. Since the 17th century, both Protestant and Catholic artists have used the tetragrammaton in church decoration, on top of altars, or in center of frescos, often in rays of light or in a triangle. See also -------- * Allah (the common Arabic word for God) * I Am that I Am * Muqattaʿat * Names of God * Names and titles of God in the New Testament * List of Tetragrammatons in art in Austria References ---------- ### Sources * Barton, John (17 May 2022). Louth, Andrew (ed.). *Tetragrammaton*. *The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church* (4 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199642465. * Becchio, Bruno; Schadé, Schadé (2006). *Encyclopedia of World Religions*. Foreign Media Group. ISBN 978-1-60136-000-7. Archived from the original on 25 January 2021. Retrieved 29 July 2020. * Cross, Frank Moore (1997). *Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic* (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. 61–63. ISBN 0674091760. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2020. * De Troyer, Kristin (2005). "The Names of God. Their Pronunciation and Their Translation. A Digital Tour of Some of the Main Witnesses". *Lectio Difficilior: European Electronic Journal for Feminist Exegesis*. Theol. Fakultät der Universität Bern (2). ISSN 1661-3317. OCLC 174649029. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 9 December 2009. * Eerdmans, Bernardus D. (1948). *[The Name Jahu ] ; (The Name Jahu)*. Brill. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2021. * Hiebert, Robert J.V.; Cox, Claude E.; Gentry, Peter J. (2001). *The Old Greek Psalter: Studies in Honour of Albert Pietersma*. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-37628-2. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020. * Maas, Anthony John (1910). "Jehovah". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). *Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 8. New York: Robert Appleton Company. * Pietersma, Albert (1984), Albert Pietersma; Claude Cox (eds.), "Kyrios or Tetragram: A Renewed Quest for the Original LXX" (PDF), *De Septuaginta: Studies in Honour of John William Wevers on his sixty-fifth birthday*, Mississauga: Benben, archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2021, retrieved 6 August 2020 * Pietersma, Albert; Wright, Benjamin G. (2007). *A New English Translation of the Septuagint*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972394-2. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020. * Reeland, Adrian (1707). *Decas exercitationum philologicarum de vera pronuntiatione nominis Jehova, quarum quinque priores lectionem Jehova impugnant, posteriores tuentur. Cum praefatione Adriani Relandi*. Johannis Coster. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2020. * Schneider, Thomas (2007). "The First Documented Occurrence [sic] of the God Yahweh? (Book of the Dead Princeton "Roll 5")". *Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions*. **7** (2): 113–120. doi:10.1163/156921207783876422. * Skehan, Patrick W. (1957). "The Qumran Manuscripts and Textual Criticism". *Vetus Testamentum* (supp. 4): 148–160., reprinted in Frank Moore Cross; Šěmaryahū Ṭalmōn (1975). *Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text*. Harvard University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-674-74362-5. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 6 August 2020. * Tov, Emanuel (2018). *Scribal Practices and Approaches Reflected in the Texts Found in the Judean Desert*. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-1434-6. Archived from the original on 16 August 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020. * Wilkinson, Robert J. (2015). *Tetragrammaton: Western Christians and the Hebrew Name of God: From the Beginnings to the Seventeenth Century*. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28817-1. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020. * Wurthwein, Ernst; Fischer, Alexander Achilles (2014). *The Text of the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Biblia Hebraica*. Wm. B. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6680-6. Archived from the original on 9 October 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2020.

Tetragrammaton

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetragrammaton

**Kavaratti** /kʌvəˈrʌti/ is the capital of the Union Territory of Lakshadweep in India. Kavaratti is a census town as well as the name of the atoll upon which the town stands. It is well known for its pristine white sand beaches and calm lagoons, which makes it a popular tourist destination. It is located 332 km (206 mi) west to the city of Kannur, 351 km (218 mi) west of the city of Kozhikode, and 404 km (251 mi) west of the city of Kochi. Details ------- The island is 3.5 miles (5.6 km) long and tapers to a point at one end from a maximum width at the other of 0.75 mile (1.2 km). There is a shallow lagoon on the western side of the island, and coconut palms grow on the northern side. Kavaratti town is noted for the carved wooden pillars and roofs of its mosques and the carved stones of its graveyards. The town has administrative buildings, a bank, numerous mosques, and an aquarium. Tourism is of growing importance to the economy. Geography --------- The island of Kavaratti lies 360 km (190 nmi) off the coast of the state of Kerala at 10°34′N 72°38′E / 10.57°N 72.64°E / 10.57; 72.64. It has an average elevation of 0 metres (0 feet). The closest island is uninhabited Pitti islet, located 24 km (13 nmi) north of Kavaratti. The inhabited island of Agatti lies 54 km to the NW and Suheli Par 53 km to the SW. Kochi is the closest major city on the Indian mainland at a distance of 404 km (218 nmi). It has a lagoon area of 8.96 km2 (3.46 sq mi). Demographics ------------ The 2011 population for Kavaratti was 11,210 based on the 2011 census of India. Males constitute 55% of the population and females 45%. Of the 1797 families on the island, 57 (about 3%) are below the poverty line. The literacy was 88.6% for Kavaratti. This was an increase from 44.4% in 1971. The male literacy rate was 94.1%, while the female literacy was 81.66%. In Kavaratti, 12% of the population is under 6 years of age. The most commonly spoken languages are Malayalam, Mahl and English. Climate ------- Kavaratti has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen *Aw*). March to May is the hottest period of the year. The year-round temperature ranges between 25 and 35 °C or 77 and 95 °F. Humidity range is 70 to 76 percent. The monsoon rains usually start at the end of May and continue through early November. The island receives an average of around 1,675 millimetres (66 in) of rain during the year. | Climate data for Kavaratti | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 30.2(86.4) | 30.4(86.7) | 31.1(88.0) | 31.8(89.2) | 31.3(88.3) | 30.4(86.7) | 29.8(85.6) | 29.7(85.5) | 29.8(85.6) | 30.0(86.0) | 30.3(86.5) | 30.3(86.5) | 30.4(86.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 23.7(74.7) | 24.1(75.4) | 24.3(75.7) | 26.5(79.7) | 26.1(79.0) | 25.7(78.3) | 25.4(77.7) | 25.1(77.2) | 24.8(76.6) | 24.5(76.1) | 24.3(75.7) | 24.0(75.2) | 24.3(75.7) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 27.4(1.08) | 25.4(1.00) | 19.8(0.78) | 72.5(2.85) | 212.8(8.38) | 261.3(10.29) | 250.9(9.88) | 202.4(7.97) | 181.9(7.16) | 183.1(7.21) | 133.0(5.24) | 94.8(3.73) | 1,665.3(65.57) | | | Economy ------- Tourism is one of the primary industries on the island. The island has pristine white sand beaches, favored by tourists for sun bathing. The calm lagoons on Kavaratti island are ideal for water sports and swimming. A number of hotels and resorts have been developed on Kavaratti in recent years. The waters around the coral atoll are rich in diverse marine life. The Kavaratti Aquarium has a rich collection of corals and a vast collection of tropical fish specimens. The other major industries on the island are fisheries and agriculture. Coconut is the dominant crop on the island. With the ascent of tourism, the fishing industry has seen a major decline. Transportation -------------- Among the most popular means of travel to Kavaratti from the Indian mainland is via an overnight voyage by passenger ships. A number of passenger liners operate from Kochi to Kavaratti and other Lakshadweep islands. The nearest domestic airport is Agatti Airport on Agatti Island 54 km (29 nmi) away, followed by helicopter or boat transfers from Agatti to Kavaratti. Commercial flights usually operate from Kochi to Agatti. The closest international airport are the Cochin International Airport in Kochi and the Calicut International Airport at Kozhikode on the mainland. Water supply ------------ Ground water is the major source of water supply to Kavaratti. The island has 190 ponds to collect monsoon waters and 1325 wells. With increasing population, the Government of India commissioned a low temperature desalination plant (LTTD) in Kavaratti in May 2005. The desalination plant established at a cost of ₹5 crores has a capacity to supply 100,000 litres of drinking water every day.

Kavaratti

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavaratti

The **Yayoi period** (弥生時代, *Yayoi jidai*) started at the beginning of the Neolithic in Japan, continued through the Bronze Age, and towards its end crossed into the Iron Age. Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon period should be reclassified as Early Yayoi. The date of the beginning of this transition is controversial, with estimates ranging from the 10th to the 3rd centuries BC. The period is named after the neighbourhood of Tokyo where archaeologists first uncovered artifacts and features from that era in the late 19th century. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new Yayoi pottery styles, improved carpentry and architecture, and the start of an intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. A hierarchical social class structure dates from this period and has its origin in China. Techniques in metallurgy based on the use of bronze and iron were also introduced from China via Korea to Japan in this period. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that during this time, an influx of farmers (Yayoi people) from the Korean Peninsula to Japan overwhelmed and mixed with the native predominantly hunter-gatherer population (Jomon). Features -------- The Yayoi period is generally accepted to date from 300 BCE to 300 CE. However, although highly controversial, radiocarbon evidence from organic samples attached to pottery shards may suggest a date up to 500 years earlier, between 1 000 BC and 800 BC. During this period Japan transitioned to a settled agricultural society using agricultural methods that were introduced to the country, initially in the Kyushu region, from Korea. The earliest archaeological evidence of the Yayoi is found on northern Kyūshū, but that is still debated. Yayoi culture quickly spread to the main island of Honshū, mixing with native Jōmon culture. The name Yayoi is borrowed from a location in Tokyo where pottery of the Yayoi period was first found. Yayoi pottery was simply decorated and produced using the same coiling technique previously used in Jōmon pottery. Yayoi craft specialists made bronze ceremonial bells (*dōtaku*), mirrors, and weapons. By the 1st century AD, Yayoi people began using iron agricultural tools and weapons. As the Yayoi population increased, the society became more stratified and complex. They wove textiles, lived in permanent farming villages, and constructed buildings with wood and stone. They also accumulated wealth through land ownership and the storage of grain. Such factors promoted the development of distinct social classes. Contemporary Chinese sources described the people as having tattoos and other bodily markings which indicated differences in social status. Yayoi chiefs, in some parts of Kyūshū, appear to have sponsored, and politically manipulated, trade in bronze and other prestige objects. That was made possible by the introduction of an irrigated, wet-rice agriculture from the Yangtze estuary in southern China via the Ryukyu Islands or Korean Peninsula. Wet-rice agriculture led to the development and growth of a sedentary, agrarian society in Japan. Local political and social developments in Japan were more important than the activities of the central authority within a stratified society. Direct comparisons between Jōmon and Yayoi skeletons show that the two peoples are noticeably distinguishable. The Jōmon tended to be shorter, with relatively longer forearms and lower legs, more deep-set eyes, shorter and wider faces, and much more pronounced facial topography. They also have strikingly raised brow ridges, noses, and nose bridges. Yayoi people, on the other hand, averaged 2.5–5 cm taller, with shallow-set eyes, high and narrow faces, and flat brow ridges and noses. By the Kofun period, almost all skeletons excavated in Japan except those of the Ainu are of the Yayoi type with some having small Jomon admixture, resembling those of modern-day Japanese. History ------- ### Origin of the Yayoi people The origin of Yayoi culture and the Yayoi people has long been debated. The earliest archaeological sites are Itazuke or Nabata in the northern part of Kyūshū. Contacts between fishing communities on this coast and the southern coast of Korea date from the Jōmon period, as witnessed by the exchange of trade items such as fishhooks and obsidian. During the Yayoi period, cultural features from Korea and China arrived in this area at various times over several centuries, and later spread to the south and east. This was a period of mixture between immigrants and the indigenous population, and between new cultural influences and existing practices. Chinese influence was obvious in the bronze and copper weapons, dōkyō, dōtaku, as well as irrigated paddy rice cultivation. Three major symbols of Yayoi culture are the bronze mirror, the bronze sword, and the royal seal stone. Between 1996 and 1999, a team led by Satoshi Yamaguchi, a researcher at Japan's National Museum of Nature and Science, compared Yayoi remains found in Japan's Yamaguchi and Fukuoka prefectures with those from China's coastal Jiangsu province and found many similarities between the Yayoi and the Jiangsu remains. Further links to the Korean Peninsula have been discovered, and several researchers have reported discoveries/evidence that strongly link the Yayoi culture to the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. Mark J. Hudson has cited archaeological evidence that included "bounded paddy fields, new types of polished stone tools, wooden farming implements, iron tools, weaving technology, ceramic storage jars, exterior bonding of clay coils in pottery fabrication, ditched settlements, domesticated pigs, and jawbone rituals". The migrant transfusion from the Korean peninsula gains strength because Yayoi culture began on the north coast of Kyūshū, where Japan is closest to Korea. Yayoi pottery, burial mounds, and food preservation were discovered to be very similar to the pottery of southern Korea. However, some scholars argue that the rapid increase of roughly four million people in Japan between the Jōmon and Yayoi periods cannot be explained by migration alone. They attribute the increase primarily to a shift from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural diet on the islands, with the introduction of rice. It is quite likely that rice cultivation and its subsequent deification allowed for a slow and gradual population increase. Regardless, there is archaeological evidence that supports the idea that there was an influx of farmers from the continent to Japan that absorbed or overwhelmed the native hunter-gatherer population. Some pieces of Yayoi pottery clearly show the influence of Jōmon ceramics. In addition, the Yayoi lived in the same type of pit or circular dwelling as that of the Jōmon. Other examples of commonality are chipped stone tools for hunting, bone tools for fishing, shells in bracelet construction, and lacquer decoration for vessels and accessories. According to several linguists, Japonic or proto-Japonic was present on large parts of the southern Korean peninsula. These Peninsular Japonic languages, now extinct, were eventually replaced by Koreanic languages. Similarly Whitman suggests that the Yayoi are not related to the proto-Koreans but that they (the Yayoi) were present on the Korean peninsula during the Mumun pottery period. According to him and several other researchers, Japonic/proto-Japonic arrived in the Korean peninsula around 1500 BC and was brought to the Japanese archipelago by Yayoi wet-rice farmers at some time between 700-300 BC. Whitman and Miyamoto associate Japonic as the language family associated with both Mumun and Yayoi cultures. Several linguists believe that speakers of Koreanic/proto-Koreanic arrived in the Korean Peninsula at some time after the Japonic/proto-Japonic speakers and coexisted with these peoples (i.e. the descendants of both the Mumun and Yayoi cultures) and possibly assimilated them. Both Koreanic and Japonic had prolonged influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. ### Languages Most linguists and archaeologists agree that the Japonic language family was introduced to and spread through the archipelago during the Yayoi period. ### Emergence of *Wo* in Chinese history texts The earliest written records about people in Japan are from Chinese sources from this period. Wo, the pronunciation of an early Chinese name for Japan, was mentioned in 57 AD; the Na state of Wo received a golden seal from the Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han dynasty. This event was recorded in the *Book of the Later Han* compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century. The seal itself was discovered in northern Kyūshū in the 18th century. Wo was also mentioned in 257 in the *Wei zhi*, a section of the *Records of the Three Kingdoms* compiled by the 3rd-century scholar Chen Shou. Early Chinese historians described Wo as a land of hundreds of scattered tribal communities rather than the unified land with a 700-year tradition as laid out in the 8th-century work *Nihon Shoki*, a partly mythical, partly historical account of Japan which dates the foundation of the country at 660 BC. Archaeological evidence also suggests that frequent conflicts between settlements or statelets broke out in the period. Many excavated settlements were moated or built at the tops of hills. Headless human skeletons discovered in Yoshinogari site are regarded as typical examples of finds from the period. In the coastal area of the Inland Sea, stone arrowheads are often found among funerary objects. Third-century Chinese sources reported that the Wa people lived on raw fish, vegetables, and rice served on bamboo and wooden trays, clapped their hands in worship [ja] (something still done in Shinto shrines today), and built earthen-grave mounds. They also maintained vassal-master relations, collected taxes, had provincial granaries and markets, and observed mourning. Society was characterised by violent struggles. ### Yamataikoku The *Wei Zhi* (Chinese: 魏志), which is part of the Records of the three Kingdoms, first mentions Yamataikoku and Queen Himiko in the 3rd century. According to the record, Himiko assumed the throne of Wa, as a spiritual leader, after a major civil war. Her younger brother was in charge of the affairs of state, including diplomatic relations with the Chinese court of the Kingdom of Wei. When asked about their origins by the Wei embassy, the people of Wa claimed to be descendants of the Taibo of Wu, a historic figure of the Wu Kingdom around the Yangtze Delta of China. For many years, the location of Yamataikoku and the identity of Queen Himiko have been subject of research. Two possible sites, Yoshinogari in Saga Prefecture and Makimuku in Nara Prefecture have been suggested. Recent archaeological research in Makimuku suggests that Yamataikoku was located in the area. Some scholars assume that the Hashihaka kofun in Makimuku was the tomb of Himiko. Its relation to the origin of the Yamato polity in the following Kofun period is also under debate. See also -------- * Japanese era name * Ainu people * Emishi people * Yayoi people * Wa (Japan) * Zenpokoenfun Books cited ----------- * Habu, Junko (2004). *Ancient Jomon of Japan*. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7. * Schirokauer, Conrad (2013). *A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations*. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. * Silberman, Neil Asher (2012). *The Oxford Companion to Archaeology*. New York: Oxford University Press.

Yayoi period

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yayoi_period

An **aircraft** is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or, in a few cases, direct downward thrust from its engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, paramotors, and hot air balloons. The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called *aviation*. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called *aeronautics.* Crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot, whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard computers. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, aircraft propulsion (if any), usage and others. History ------- Flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries; however, the first manned ascent — and safe descent — in modern times took place by larger hot-air balloons developed in the 18th century. Each of the two World Wars led to great technical advances. Consequently, the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras: * Pioneers of flight, from the earliest experiments to 1914. * First World War, 1914 to 1918. * Aviation between the World Wars, 1918 to 1939. * Second World War, 1939 to 1945. * Postwar era, also called the Jet Age, 1945 to the present day. Methods of lift --------------- ### Lighter than air – aerostats Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air. When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces. Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of aircraft to fly, the first being kites, which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand years ago (see Han Dynasty). A balloon was originally any aerostat, while the term airship was used for large, powered aircraft designs — usually fixed-wing. In 1919, Frederick Handley Page was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts." In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships". — though none had yet been built. The advent of powered balloons, called dirigible balloons, and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size, began to change the way these words were used. Huge powered aerostats, characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags, were produced, the Zeppelins being the largest and most famous. There were still no fixed-wing aircraft or non-rigid balloons large enough to be called airships, so "airship" came to be synonymous with these aircraft. Then several accidents, such as the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, led to the demise of these airships. Nowadays a "balloon" is an unpowered aerostat and an "airship" is a powered one. A powered, steerable aerostat is called a *dirigible*. Sometimes this term is applied only to non-rigid balloons, and sometimes *dirigible balloon* is regarded as the definition of an airship (which may then be rigid or non-rigid). Non-rigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back. These soon became known as *blimps*. During World War II, this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons; in windy weather, this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon. The nickname *blimp* was adopted along with the shape. In modern times, any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp, though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered. ### Heavier-than-air – aerodynes Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust. Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors sometimes called "rotary wings." A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A *flexible wing* is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A *kite* is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid, fixed, or rotary. With powered lift, the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward. V/STOL aircraft, such as the Harrier jump jet and Lockheed Martin F-35B take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight. A pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne because it does not depend on the air for its lift (and can even fly into space); however, many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors. Rocket-powered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case. #### Fixed-wing The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly and were invented in China around 500 BC. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available. The first heavier-than-air craft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed by George Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853. The first powered and controllable fixed-wing aircraft (the airplane or aeroplane) was invented by Wilbur and Orville Wright. Besides the method of propulsion (if any), fixed-wing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are: * Number of wings — monoplane, biplane, etc. * Wing support — Braced or cantilever, rigid or flexible. * Wing planform — including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the span (including the important class of delta wings). * Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any. * Dihedral angle — positive, zero, or negative (anhedral). A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight. A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces. Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster". Man-powered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this is only because they are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher. #### Rotorcraft Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil cross-section blades (a *rotary wing*) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft. *Helicopters* have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips. Some have a tail rotor to counteract the rotation of the main rotor, and to aid directional control. *Autogyros* have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in high-wind for kited flight. *Compound rotorcraft* have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight. They are nowadays classified as *powered lift* types and not as rotorcraft. *Tiltrotor* aircraft (such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey), tiltwing, tail-sitter, and coleopter aircraft have their rotors/propellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight. #### Other methods of lift * A *lifting body* is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift. If there are any wings, they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control. Lifting bodies are not efficient: they suffer from high drag, and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly. Many of the research prototypes, such as the Martin Marietta X-24, which led up to the Space Shuttle, were lifting bodies, though the Space Shuttle is not, and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body. * *Powered lift* types rely on engine-derived lift for vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL). Most types transition to fixed-wing lift for horizontal flight. Classes of powered lift types include VTOL jet aircraft (such as the Harrier jump jet) and tiltrotors, such as the Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey, among others. A few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight, including personal fan-lift hover platforms and jetpacks. VTOL research designs include the Rolls-Royce Thrust Measuring Rig. * Some rotor wings employ horizontal-axis wings, in which airflow across a spinning rotor generates lift. The *Flettner airplane* uses a rotating cylinder, obtaining lift from the Magnus effect. The FanWing uses a cross-flow fan, while the mechanically more complex *cyclogyro* comprises multiple wings which rotate together around a central axis. * The *ornithopter* obtains thrust by flapping its wings. Size and speed extremes ----------------------- ### Size The smallest aircraft are toys/recreational items, and nano aircraft. The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the 302 ft (92 m) long British Airlander 10, a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to 90 mph (140 km/h; 78 kn), and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to 22,050 lb (10,000 kg). The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, as of 2016[update], was the Antonov An-225 *Mriya*. That Soviet-built (Ukrainian SSR) six-engine transport of the 1980s was 84 m (276 ft) long, with an 88 m (289 ft) wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting 428,834 lb (194,516 kg) of goods, and has flown 100 t (220,000 lb) loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of 550–700 t (1,210,000–1,540,000 lb), it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at 500 mph (800 km/h; 430 kn). The aircraft was destroyed during the Russo-Ukrainian War. The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 *Ruslan* (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport), and American Lockheed C-5 Galaxy transport, weighing, loaded, over 380 t (840,000 lb). The 8-engine, piston/propeller Hughes H-4 *Hercules* "Spruce Goose" — an American World War II wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78ft) — flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect. The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the Airbus Beluga cargo transport derivative of the Airbus A300 jet airliner, the Boeing Dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of the Boeing 747 jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over 400 t (880,000 lb)), and the double-decker Airbus A380 "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner). ### Speeds The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the Space Shuttle, which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or 17,500 mph (28,200 km/h) The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the NASA X-43A *Pegasus*, a scramjet-powered, hypersonic, lifting body experimental research aircraft, at Mach 9.68 or 6,755 mph (10,870 km/h) on 16 November 2004. Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the North American X-15, rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274 km/h (4,520 mph) on 3 October 1967. The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird, a U.S. reconnaissance jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached 3,530 km/h (2,193 mph) on 28 July 1976. Propulsion ---------- ### Unpowered aircraft Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar", *i.e.*, gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British scientist and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer. Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control. Kites are aircraft that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-than-air. ### Powered aircraft Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage. #### Propeller aircraft Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction. The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in *tractor configuration* but can be mounted behind in *pusher configuration*. Variations of propeller layout include *contra-rotating propellers* and *ducted fans*. Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power or steam engines. The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered flight has been achieved, but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands. #### Jet aircraft Jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines, which take in air, burn fuel with it in a combustion chamber, and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust. Different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan, sometimes with the addition of an afterburner. Those with no rotating turbomachinery include the pulsejet and ramjet. These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using a catapult, like the V-1 flying bomb, or a rocket, for example. Other engine types include the motorjet and the dual-cycle Pratt & Whitney J58. Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency. They are also much more fuel-efficient than rockets. As a consequence nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude aircraft use jet engines. #### Rotorcraft Some rotorcraft, such as helicopters, have a powered rotary wing or *rotor*, where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards. The rotor may, like a propeller, be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine. Experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips. #### Other types of powered aircraft * *Rocket-powered aircraft* have occasionally been experimented with, and the Messerschmitt Me 163 *Komet* fighter even saw action in the Second World War. Since then, they have been restricted to research aircraft, such as the North American X-15, which traveled up into space where air-breathing engines cannot work (rockets carry their own oxidant). Rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant, typically for the rocket-assisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft, but also to provide high-speed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the Saunders-Roe SR.53. * The *ornithopter* obtains thrust by flapping its wings. It has found practical use in a model hawk used to freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured, and in toy birds. Design and construction ----------------------- Aircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand, safety protocols and physical and economic constraints. For many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories: * The *structure* ("airframe") comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls. * The *propulsion system* ("powerplant") (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above. * The *avionics* comprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems. ### Structure The approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft. Some, such as paragliders, comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape. A balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure, but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload. Early aircraft, including airships, often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame. Later aircraft employed semi-monocoque techniques, where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads. In a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left. The key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is. #### Aerostats Lighter-than-air types are characterised by one or more gasbags, typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull. Other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure. #### Aerodynes Heavier-than-air types are characterised by one or more wings and a central fuselage. The fuselage typically also carries a tail or empennage for stability and control, and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing. Engines may be located on the fuselage or wings. On a fixed-wing aircraft the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage, while on a rotorcraft the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft. Smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure, held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure. The fixed parts of the structure comprise the airframe. ### Power The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the *powerplant,* and includes engine or motor, propeller or rotor, (if any), jet nozzles and thrust reversers (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: starter, ignition system, intake system, exhaust system, fuel system, lubrication system, engine cooling system, and engine controls). Powered aircraft are typically powered by internal combustion engines (piston or turbine) burning fossil fuels -- typically gasoline (avgas) or jet fuel. A very few are powered by rocket power, ramjet propulsion, or by electric motors, or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by human muscle energy (e.g.: Gossamer Condor). ### Avionics The avionics comprise any *electronic* aircraft flight control systems and related equipment, including electronic cockpit instrumentation, navigation, radar, monitoring, and communications systems. Flight characteristics ---------------------- ### Flight envelope The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed, load factor and altitude. The term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability. When an aircraft is abused, for instance by diving it at too-high a speed, it is said to be flown *outside the envelope*, something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer. Going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such as flutter or entry to a non-recoverable spin (possible reasons for the boundary). ### Range The range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing, as limited by the time it can remain airborne. For a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption. For an unpowered aircraft, the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance. Many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours, while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas. The range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air. The Airbus A350-900ULR is now the longest range airliner. ### Flight dynamics Flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation around three axes which pass through the vehicle's center of gravity, known as *pitch*, *roll,* and *yaw*. * Roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis (equivalent to the rolling or heeling of a ship) giving an up-down movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle. * Pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an up-down movement of the aircraft nose measured by the angle of attack. * Yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a side-to-side movement of the nose known as sideslip. Flight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircraft's rotation about each of these axes. #### Stability An aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly. A very stable aircraft tends to stay on its flight path and is difficult to maneuver. Therefore, it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability. Since the widespread use of digital computers, it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability. A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers, which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow. These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw. They are usually mounted on the tail section (empennage), although in the canard layout, the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer. Tandem wing and tailless aircraft rely on the same general rule to achieve stability, the aft surface being the stabilising one. A rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw, requiring a vertical stabiliser. A balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is slung underneath the center of lift. #### Control Flight control surfaces enable the pilot to control an aircraft's flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on, or integral with, the associated stabilizing surface. Their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft, which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight. Aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicle's orientation (attitude) about its center of mass. The control systems include actuators, which exert forces in various directions, and generate rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch, roll, or yaw. For example, a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down. Control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag, for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing. The two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion. Control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly, without inducing any rotation. Impacts of aircraft use ----------------------- Aircraft permit long distance, high speed travel and may be a more fuel efficient mode of transportation in some circumstances. Aircraft have environmental and climate impacts beyond fuel efficiency considerations, however. They are also relatively noisy compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate contrails, which experimental evidence suggests may alter weather patterns. Uses for aircraft ----------------- Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; military aircraft, which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft, which include all non-military types, experimental and model. ### Military A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat: * Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament. Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-between types, such as fighter-bombers and attack aircraft, including attack helicopters. * Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function, but may carry weapons for self-defense. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation, transport, training, and aerial refueling. These aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft. Most military aircraft are powered heavier-than-air types. Other types, such as gliders and balloons, have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to land troops. ### Civil Civil aircraft divide into *commercial* and *general* types, however there are some overlaps. Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying passengers, mail and other cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft. General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, gliders, warbirds and hot air balloons to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types. ### Experimental An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries a Special Airworthiness Certificate, called an Experimental Certificate in United States parlance. This often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also refers to amateur-built and kit-built aircraft, many of which are based on proven designs. ### Model A model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun, for static display, for aerodynamic research or for other purposes. A scale model is a replica of some larger design. See also -------- ### Lists * Early flying machines * Flight altitude record * List of aircraft * List of civil aircraft * List of fighter aircraft * List of individual aircraft * List of large aircraft * List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms ### Topics * Aircraft hijacking * Aircraft spotting * Air traffic control * Airport * Flying car * Personal air vehicle * Powered parachute * Spacecraft * Spaceplane * Gunston, Bill (1987). *Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987*. London, England: Jane's Publishing Company Limited. ISBN 978-0-7106-0365-4. External links -------------- ### History * The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA) * Virtual Museum * Smithsonian Air and Space Museum - online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft * Amazing Early Flying Machines Archived 13 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine slideshow by *Life* magazine ### Information * Airliners.net * Aviation Dictionary - free aviation terms, phrases and jargons * *New Scientist*'s aviation page

Aircraft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft

The **FIFA Ballon d'Or** ("Golden Ball") was an annual association football award presented to the world's best men's player from 2010 to 2015. Awarded jointly by FIFA and *France Football*, the prize was a merger of the FIFA World Player of the Year award and the Ballon d'Or, the two most prestigious individual honours in world football. Unlike the Ballon d'Or awarded by *France Football*, the FIFA Ballon d'Or, was not awarded based on votes from international journalists, but votes from national team coaches and captains, who selected the players they deemed to have performed the best in the previous calendar year. The six editions of the FIFA Ballon d'Or were dominated by Lionel Messi and Cristiano Ronaldo, as part of their ongoing rivalry. Messi, who played for Barcelona, won the inaugural Ballon d'Or in 2010 and went on to win three in a row, after his wins in 2011 and 2012. Ronaldo, who played for Real Madrid, won successive awards in the next two years. The final FIFA Ballon d'Or was presented to Messi in 2015. Its awarding bodies subsequently ended their partnership; for 2016, *France Football* reintroduced the previous format of the Ballon d'Or, while FIFA created The Best FIFA Men's Player award. History ------- Historically, the leading individual awards in association football were the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award. The original Ballon d'Or, also known as the European Footballer of the Year award, had been awarded by the French publication *France Football* since 1956. The FIFA World Player of the Year award was presented by FIFA, the sport's governing body, from 1991. From 2005, the winners of the Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year award were identical each year. Following the introduction of a global Ballon d'Or format in 2007, *France Football* and FIFA opted to merge the two awards. The creation of the FIFA Ballon d'Or was subsequently announced during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. The inaugural award was presented that same year to the Argentine Lionel Messi. After a six-year partnership, *France Football* and FIFA terminated the joint award. Lionel Messi had received the final FIFA Ballon d'Or. For historical purposes, both awarding bodies regard the six editions of the FIFA Ballon d'Or as a continuation of their respective awards. ### Voting The winners of the FIFA Ballon d'Or were chosen by international journalists and the coaches and captains of the national teams under FIFA's jurisdiction. In a system based on positional voting, each voter was allotted three votes, worth five points, three points and one point, and the three finalists were ordered based on total number of points. Voters were provided with a shortlist of 23 players from which they could select the three players they deemed to have performed the best in the previous calendar year. Winners ------- | Year | Rank | Player | Team | Votes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **2010** | **1st** | Argentina **Lionel Messi** | Spain **Barcelona** | **22.65%** | | 2nd | Spain Andrés Iniesta | Spain Barcelona | 17.36% | | 3rd | Spain Xavi | Spain Barcelona | 16.48% | | | | **2011** | **1st** | Argentina **Lionel Messi** | Spain **Barcelona** | **47.88%** | | 2nd | Portugal Cristiano Ronaldo | Spain Real Madrid | 21.60% | | 3rd | Spain Xavi | Spain Barcelona | 9.23% | | | | **2012** | **1st** | Argentina **Lionel Messi** | Spain **Barcelona** | **41.60%** | | 2nd | Portugal Cristiano Ronaldo | Spain Real Madrid | 23.68% | | 3rd | Spain Andrés Iniesta | Spain Barcelona | 10.91% | | | | **2013** | **1st** | Portugal **Cristiano Ronaldo** | Spain Real Madrid | **27.99%** | | 2nd | Argentina Lionel Messi | Spain Barcelona | 24.72% | | 3rd | France Franck Ribéry | Germany Bayern Munich | 23.36% | | | | **2014** | **1st** | Portugal **Cristiano Ronaldo** | Spain **Real Madrid** | **37.66%** | | 2nd | Argentina Lionel Messi | Spain Barcelona | 15.76% | | 3rd | Germany Manuel Neuer | Germany Bayern Munich | 15.72% | | | | **2015** | **1st** | Argentina **Lionel Messi** | Spain **Barcelona** | **41.33%** | | 2nd | Portugal Cristiano Ronaldo | Spain Real Madrid | 27.76% | | 3rd | Brazil Neymar | Spain Barcelona | 7.86% | ### Wins by player | # | Player | Winner | Runner-up | Third place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Argentina Lionel Messi** | 4 (2010, 2011, 2012, 2015) | 2 (2013, 2014) | — | | 2 | Portugal Cristiano Ronaldo | 2 (2013, 2014) | 3 (2011, 2012, 2015) | — | | 3 | Spain Andrés Iniesta | — | 1 (2010) | 1 (2012) | | 4 | Spain Xavi | — | — | 2 (2010, 2011) | | 5 | France Franck Ribéry | — | — | 1 (2013) | | Germany Manuel Neuer | — | — | 1 (2014) | | Brazil Neymar | — | — | 1 (2015) | ### Wins by country | # | Country | Winner | Runner-up | Third place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Argentina | 4 (2010, 2011, 2012, 2015) | 2 (2013, 2014) | — | | 2 |  Portugal | 2 (2013, 2014) | 3 (2011, 2012, 2015) | — | | 3 |  Spain | — | 1 (2010) | 3 (2010, 2011, 2012) | | 4 |  France | — | — | 1 (2013) | |  Germany | — | — | 1 (2014) | |  Brazil | — | — | 1 (2015) | ### Wins by club | # | Club | Winner | Runner-up | Third place | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Spain Barcelona | 4 (2010, 2011, 2012, 2015) | 3 (2010, 2013, 2014) | 4 (2010, 2011, 2012, 2015) | | 2 | Spain Real Madrid | 2 (2013, 2014) | 3 (2011, 2012, 2015) | — | | 3 | Germany Bayern Munich | — | — | 2 (2013, 2014) | FIFA Ballon d'Or Prix d'Honneur ------------------------------- In 2013, Brazilian forward Pelé was given an honorary Ballon d'Or, having won three FIFA World Cups with Brazil but never an individual award from FIFA, as during his playing career only Europe-based players were eligible to win the original Ballon d'Or. See also -------- * Ballon d'Or * FIFA World Player of the Year * The Best FIFA Football Awards * FIFPro World11 Notes Citations 1. ↑ "World Cup 2010: Fifa and Ballon d'Or player awards to be merged". *The Daily Telegraph*. 5 July 2010. Archived from the original on 2022-01-12. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 2. ↑ Wahl, Grant (15 September 2010). "Xavi, Messi are primary contenders for the 2010 FIFA Ballon d'Or". *Sports Illustrated*. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 3. 1 2 3 "The FIFA Ballon d'Or is born". FIFA. 5 July 2010. Archived from the original on January 15, 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 4. ↑ "Argentina's Lionel Messi wins Fifa Ballon d'Or award". BBC Sport. 10 January 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 5. ↑ "Ballon d'Or: FIFA ends association with world player of the year award". BBC Sport. 16 September 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2016. 6. 1 2 3 "FIFA Ballon d'Or: History". FIFA. Archived from the original on November 5, 2014. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 7. 1 2 3 "Ballon d'Or Palmarès: La liste complête des lauréats du Ballon d'or, de 1956 à nos jours" [Ballon d'Or Winners: The full list of the winners of the Ballon d'Or, from 1956 to our days]. *France Football*. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 8. ↑ "Rules of allocation" (PDF). FIFA. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 12, 2016. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 9. 1 2 3 Pierrend, José Luis (12 February 2015). "FIFA Awards: World Player of the Year". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 10. 1 2 3 Moore, Rob; Stokkermans, Karel (21 January 2011). "European Footballer of the Year ("Ballon d'Or")". Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation. Retrieved 15 January 2016. 11. ↑ "Pele receives FIFA Ballon d'Or Prix d'Honneur". *FIFA*. 13 January 2014. Archived from the original on January 16, 2014.

FIFA Ballon d'Or

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_Ballon_d%27Or

**BRICS**, originally named **BRIC** (**B**razil, **R**ussia, **I**ndia, **C**hina), is an acronym for the regional economies of Brazil, Russia, India and China, which in 2010 had included the letter *S* for South Africa. The original acronym "BRIC" (or "the BRICs") was coined in 2001 by Goldman Sachs economist Jim O'Neill, who created the term to describe fast-growing economies that would collectively dominate the global economy by 2050. The BRICS have a combined area of 39,746,220 km2 (15,346,100 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 3.21 billion, or about 26.7% of the world's land surface and 41.5% of the global population. Brazil, Russia, India, and China are among the world's ten largest countries by population, area, and GDP (PPP), and the latter three are widely considered to be current or emerging superpowers. All five states are members of the G20, with a combined nominal GDP of US$28.06 trillion (about 26.6% of the gross world product), a total GDP (PPP) of around US$56.65 trillion (32.5% of global GDP PPP), and an estimated US$4.46 trillion in combined foreign reserves (as of 2018). The BRICS were originally identified for the purpose of highlighting investment opportunities and had not been a formal intergovernmental organization. Since 2009, they have increasingly formed into a more cohesive geopolitical bloc, with their governments meeting annually at formal summits and coordinating multilateral policies; China hosted the most recent 14th BRICS summit on 24 July 2022. Bilateral relations among the BRICS are conducted mainly on the basis of non-interference, equality, and mutual benefit. The BRICS are considered the foremost geopolitical rival to the G7 bloc of leading advanced economies, announcing competing initiatives such as the New Development Bank, the Contingent Reserve Arrangement, the BRICS payment system, the BRICS Joint Statistical Publication and the BRICS basket reserve currency. Since 2022, the group has sought to expand membership, with several developing countries expressing interest in joining. The BRICS have received both praise and criticism from numerous commentators. History ------- ### The BRICS The term BRIC was originally developed in the context of foreign investment strategies. It was introduced in the 2001 publication, *Building Better Global Economic BRICs* by then-chairman of Goldman Sachs Asset Management, Jim O'Neill; the term was coined by Roopa Purushothaman, who was a research assistant in the original report. For investing purposes, the list of emerging economies sometimes included South Africa, which expanded the acronym to BRICS or BRICK. The foreign ministers of the initial four BRIC General states (Brazil, Russia, India, and China) met in New York City in September 2006 at the margins of the General Debate of the UN Assembly, beginning a series of high-level meetings. A full-scale diplomatic meeting was held in Yekaterinburg, Russia, on 16 June 2009. The BRIC grouping's 1st formal summit, also held in Yekaterinburg, commenced on 16 June 2009, with Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Dmitry Medvedev, Manmohan Singh, and Hu Jintao, the respective leaders of Brazil, Russia, India, and China, all attending. The summit's focus was on improving the global economic situation and reforming financial institutions, and discussed how the four countries could better co-operate in the future. There was further discussion of ways that developing countries, such as 3/4 of the BRIC members, could become more involved in global affairs. In the aftermath of the Yekaterinburg summit, the BRIC nations announced the need for a new global reserve currency, which would have to be "diverse, stable and predictable." Although the statement that was released did not directly criticize the perceived "dominance" of the US dollar – something that Russia had criticized in the past – it did spark a fall in the value of the dollar against other major currencies. ### Entry of South Africa In 2010, South Africa began efforts to join the BRIC grouping, and the process for its formal admission began in August of that year. South Africa officially became a member nation on 24 December 2010, after being formally invited by China to join and subsequently accepted by other BRIC countries. The group was renamed BRICS – with the "S" standing for South Africa – to reflect the group's expanded membership. In April 2011, the President of South Africa, Jacob Zuma, attended the 2011 BRICS summit in Sanya, China, as a full member. ### Potential further expansion Since South Africa joined the BRIC grouping (now BRICS) in 2010, numerous other countries have expressed interest in joining the bloc, including Argentina and Iran. Both signaled their intent to join BRICS during meetings with senior Chinese officials, the current BRICS chair, over the course of the summer of 2022. Beijing backed Argentina's potential accession following a meeting between Argentine Foreign Minister Santiago Cafiero and Chinese State Councilor and Foreign Minister Wang Yi on the margins of the G20 Summit in Indonesia. China once again reiterated support for Argentina's potential application during a subsequent meeting between Cafiero and Yi on the margins of the 77th UN General Assembly. Likewise, it is understood that Russia, India, and Brazil all support Argentina's application. Iran also submitted an application in June 2022 to Chinese authorities to join the economic association of emerging markets. Relations between Iran, China and Russia have warmed in recent months as all three governments seek new allies against increasing Western opposition. There is no formal application process as such to join BRICS, but any hopeful government must receive unanimous backing from all existing BRICS members—Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa—to receive an invitation. Ahead of the BRICS summit, South Africa's Foreign Minister Naledi Pandor said that there are 12 countries interested in joining the initiative. Of the 12, she mentioned 7 countries specifically, namely Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Egypt, Algeria, Argentina, Mexico and Nigeria. On June 14, 2023 Russia’s ambassador to Egypt announced that Egypt had applied to join BRICS. Pandor also said that membership discussions will be dealt with at the upcoming summit. In spite of South Africa's membership, British politician Jim O'Neill said that new members should have populations of at least 100 million in order to counter the US dollar's dominance. ### Developments The BRICS Forum, an independent international organization encouraging commercial, political, and cultural cooperation among the BRICS nations, was formed in 2011. In June 2012, the BRICS nations pledged $75 billion to boost the lending power of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). However, this loan was conditional on IMF voting reforms. In late March 2013, during the fifth BRICS summit in Durban, South Africa, the member countries agreed to create a global financial institution intended to cooperate with the western-dominated IMF and World Bank. After the summit, the BRICS stated that they planned to finalize the arrangements for this New Development Bank by 2014. However, disputes relating to burden sharing and location slowed down the agreements. At the BRICS leaders meeting in St Petersburg in September 2013, China committed $41 billion towards the pool; Brazil, India, and Russia $18 billion each; and South Africa $5 billion. China, who holds the world's largest foreign exchange reserves and contributes the bulk of the currency pool, wants a more significant managing role, said one BRICS official. China also wants to be the location of the reserve. "Brazil and India want the initial capital to be shared equally. We know that China wants more," said a Brazilian official. "However, we are still negotiating, there are no tensions arising yet." On 11 October 2013, Russia's Finance Minister Anton Siluanov said that creating a $100 billion in funds designated to steady currency markets would be taken in early 2014. The Brazilian finance minister, Guido Mantega, stated that the fund would be created by March 2014. However, by April 2014, the currency reserve pool and development bank had yet to be set up, and the date was rescheduled to 2015. One driver for the BRICS development bank is that the existing institutions primarily benefit extra-BRICS corporations, and the political significance is notable because it allows BRICS member states "to promote their interests abroad... and can highlight the strengthening positions of countries whose opinion is frequently ignored by their developed American and European colleagues." In March 2014, at a meeting on the margins of the Nuclear Security Summit in The Hague, the BRICS Foreign Ministers issued a communique that "noted with concern, the recent media statement on the forthcoming G20 Summit to be held in Brisbane in November 2014. The custodianship of the G20 belongs to all Member States equally, and no one Member State can unilaterally determine its nature and character." In light of the tensions surrounding the annexation of Ukrainian Crimea by Russia, the Ministers remarked that "The escalation of hostile language, sanctions and counter-sanctions, and force does not contribute to a sustainable and peaceful solution, according to international law, including the principles and purposes of the United Nations Charter." This was in response to the statement of the then Australian Foreign Minister Julie Bishop, who had said earlier that Russian President Vladimir Putin might be barred from attending the G20 Summit in Brisbane. Over the weekend of 13 July 2014, when the final game of the FIFA World Cup was held, and in advance of the BRICS Fortaleza summit, Putin met fellow leader Dilma Rousseff to discuss the BRICS development bank, and sign some other bilateral accords on air defense, gas and education. Rousseff said that the BRICS countries "are among the largest in the world and cannot content themselves in the middle of the 21st century with any kind of dependency." The Fortaleza summit was followed by a BRICS meeting with the Union of South American Nations presidents in Brasilia, where the development bank and the monetary fund were introduced. The development bank will have capital of US$50 billion with each country contributing US$10 billion, while the monetary fund will have US$100 billion at its disposal. On 15 July, the first day of the BRICS sixth summit in Fortaleza, Brazil, the group of emerging economies signed the long-anticipated document to create the US$100 billion New Development Bank (formerly known as the "BRICS Development Bank") and a reserve currency pool worth over another US$100 billion. Documents on cooperation between BRICS export credit agencies and an agreement of cooperation on innovation were also inked. At the end of October 2014, Brazil trimmed down its holdings of US government securities to US$261.7 billion; India, US$77.5 billion; China, US$1.25 trillion; South Africa, US$10.3 billion. In March 2015, Morgan Stanley stated that India and Indonesia had escaped from the 'fragile five' (the five major emerging markets with the most fragile currencies) by instituting economic reforms. Previously, in August 2013, Morgan Stanley rated India and Indonesia, together with Brazil, Turkey, and South Africa, as the 'fragile five' due to their vulnerable currencies. But since then, India and Indonesia have reformed their economies, completing 85% and 65% of the necessary adjustments respectively, while Brazil had only achieved 15%, Turkey only 10%, and South Africa even less. After the 2015 summit, the respective communications ministers, under a Russian proposal, had a first summit for their ministries in Moscow in October where the host minister, Nikolai Nikiforov, proposed an initiative to further tighten their information technology sectors and challenge the monopoly of the United States in the sector. Since 2012, the BRICS group of countries have been planning an optical fibre submarine communications cable system to carry telecommunications between the BRICS countries, known as the BRICS Cable. Part of the motivation for the project was the spying of the U.S. National Security Agency on all telecommunications that flowed in and out of United States territory. As of 2023, construction of the proposed cable network has not started. In August 2019, the communications ministers of the BRICS countries signed a letter of intent to cooperate in the Information and Communication Technology sector. This agreement was signed in the fifth edition of meeting of communication ministers of countries member of the group held in Brasília, Brazil. The New Development Bank, located in China, plans on giving out $15 billion to member nation to help their struggling economies. Member countries are hoping for a smooth comeback and a continuation of economic trade pre-COVID-19. The 2020 BRICS summit was held virtually in St. Petersburg, Russia and discussed how to handle the COVID-19 pandemic and how to fix the multilateral system via reforms. The COVID-19 vaccine uptake rate was mixed among the BRICS community, with the populations of China, India, and South Africa most willing to take the vaccine and the populations of Brazil and Russia less willing. During the 13th BRICS summit, in 2021, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi called for a transparent investigation into the origins of COVID-19 under the World Health Organization with the full cooperation of "all countries", and Chinese leader Xi Jinping spoke directly afterwards, calling on BRICS countries to "oppose politicisation" of the process. Since 2011, the National Institutes of Statistics of the BRICS group of countries (IBGE, Rosstat, the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the Central Statistics Office (India) and Statistics South Africa) produce an annual joint statistical publication in order to put statistical production in perspective, compare adopted methodologies and statistical results. The publication serves as single data platform for the mutual benefit of participating countries. In May 2023, South Africa announced that they would be giving diplomatic immunity to Vladimir Putin and other Russian officials so that they could attend the 15th BRICS Summit despite the ICC arrest warrant for Putin. Summits ------- The grouping has held annual summits since 2009, with member countries taking turns to host. Prior to South Africa's admission, two BRIC summits were held, in 2009 and 2010. The first five-member BRICS summit was held in 2011. The most recent BRICS leaders' summit took place virtually on 23 June 2022 hosted by China. India has hosted the BRICS 2021 summit at New Delhi & amid tensions with China, Chinese leader Xi Jinping had made a soft move by supporting India's Chairmanship in 2021. | Sr. No. | Date(s) | Host country | Host leader | Location | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st | 16 June 2009 |  Russia | Dmitry Medvedev | Yekaterinburg (Sevastianov's House) | The summit was to discuss the global recession taking place at the time, future cooperation among states, and trade. Some of the specific topics discussed were food, trade, climate trade, and security for the nations. They called out for a more influential voice and representation for up-and-coming markets. Note at the time South Africa was not yet admitted to the BRICS organization at the time. | | 2nd | 15 April 2010 |  Brazil | Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva | Brasília (Itamaraty Palace) | Guests: Jacob Zuma (President of South Africa) and Riyad al-Maliki (Foreign Minister of the Palestinian National Authority). The second summit continued on the conversation of the global recession and how to recover. They had a conversation on the IMF, climate change, and more ways to form cooperation among states. | | 3rd | 14 April 2011 |  China | Hu Jintao | Sanya (Sheraton Sanya Resort) | First summit to include South Africa alongside the original BRIC countries. The third summit had nations debating on the global and internal economies of countries. | | 4th | 29 March 2012 |  India | Manmohan Singh | New Delhi (Taj Mahal Hotel) | The BRICS Cable announced an optical fibre submarine communications cable system that carries telecommunications between the BRICS countries. The fourth summit discussed how the organization could prosper from the global recession and how they could take advantage of that to help their economies. BRICS had the intention of improving their global power and providing adequate development for their state. | | 5th | 26–27 March 2013 |  South Africa | Jacob Zuma | Durban (Durban ICC) | The fifth summit discusses the New Development Bank proposition and Contingent Reserve Agreement. BRICS also announced the Business Council and its Think Tank Council. | | 6th | 14–17 July 2014 |  Brazil | Dilma Rousseff | Fortaleza (Centro de Eventos do Ceará) | BRICS New Development Bank and BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement agreements signed.Guest: Leaders of Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) The members of BRICS conversed with each other about political coordination, development, and economic growth. They established the Fortaleza Declaration and Action Plan. | | 7th | 8–9 July 2015 |  Russia | Vladimir Putin | Ufa (Congress Hall) | Joint summit with SCO-EAEU. The seventh summit discussed global, economic problems, and better ways to foster cooperation among member states. | | 8th | 15–16 October 2016 |  India | Narendra Modi | Benaulim (Taj Exotica) | Joint summit with BIMSTEC. The eighth BRICS summit debated on topics like counter-terrorism, economies, and climate change. BRICS also issued the Goa Declaration and Action Plan, hoping to harden their relationships. | | 9th | 3–5 September 2017 |  China | Xi Jinping | Xiamen (Xiamen International Conference Center) | Joint summit with EMDCD. The ninth summit was an event that talked about a bright future for BRICS and what their goals intend to be. They still covered and debated international and regional issues with one another; hopeful to keep moving forward. | | 10th | 25–27 July 2018 |  South Africa | Cyril Ramaphosa | Johannesburg (Sandton Convention Centre) | The tenth summit had the members discuss their rising industries. Hoping they can cut a bigger slice of the industry market. | | 11th | 13–14 November 2019 |  Brazil | Jair Bolsonaro | Brasília (Itamaraty Palace) | The eleventh summit discussed advancements in the BRICS's science and innovation fields. Primarily trying to advance technology and digital currency. They made mutual agreements to help stop drug trafficking and organized crime; both internationally and internally | | 12th | 21–23 July 2020 (postponed due to COVID-19 pandemic) 17 November 2020 (video conference) |  Russia | Vladimir Putin | Saint Petersburg | Joint summit with SCO. Discussing a mutual agreement on helping BRICS member countries to help foster better living standards and quality of life for each country's people. Plans on focusing on peace, economies, and cultural societal issues. | | 13th | 9 September 2021 (video conference) |  India | Narendra Modi | New Delhi | BRICS Games 2021 | | 14th | 23 June 2022 (video conference) |  China | Xi Jinping | Beijing | | | 15th | August 2023 |  South Africa | | Durban | | Member countries ---------------- | Country | Population (in Million) (2023) | Nom. GDP bil. USD (2022 est.) | PPP GDP bil. ID (2023 est.) | Nom. GDP per capita USD (2023 est.) | PPP GDP per capita ID (2022 est.) | GDP growth(2023 est.) | Foreign Exchange Reserves (2023) | HFCE (2018) | Government spending | Exports | Imports | Literacy rate | Life expectancy (years, avg.) | HDI (2023) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Brazil** | Increase 207.57 | 1,924 | 4,020 | 9,673 | 18,686 | Increase1.6% | $355.6 bn | $1194670 bln | $846.6 bn | $487.05 bn | $158.93 bn | 94.30% | 77.21 yrs | 0.754 (high) | | **Russia** | Increase 143.96 | 2,215 | 4,649 | 14,403 | 31,967 | Increase0.7% | $600.9 bn | $856329 bln | $414.0 bn | $492.31 bn | $231.55 bn | 99.7% | 72.9 yrs | 0.822 (very high) | | **India** | Increase 1425.09 | 3,386 | 11,665 | 2,601 | 8,293 | Increase5.9% | $633.9 bn | $1729560 bln | $650.0 bn | $750.89 bn | $598.20 bn | 79.1% | 71.4 yrs | 0.633 (medium) | | **China** | Increase 1415.04 | 18,100 | 30,074 | 13,721 | 21,291 | Increase5.2% | $3480.2 bn | $5352545 bln | $2,031.0 bn | $3,026.0 bn | $2,055.0 bn | 96.4% | 77.4 yrs | 0.768 (high) | | **South Africa** | Increase 57.40 | 435.500 | 990 | 6,485 | 15,556 | Increase0.1% | $53.8 bn | $211693 bln | $95.27 bn | $123.73 bn | $68.97 bn | 94.3% | 64.8 yrs | 0.713 (high) | | **Average** | Increase 627.06 | 3,753.7 | 8,119.9 | 8,941 | 19,041 | Increase3.5% | $987.0 bn | $1868956 bln | $800.574 bn | $970.19 bn | $711.86 bn | 93% | 73.4 yrs | 0.739 (high) | | **Total** | Increase 3245.36 | 26,060.50 | 51,171.00 | - | - | Increase- | $5124.4 bn | $9344797 bln | $4,036.87 bn | $4,879.98 bn | $3,112.65 bn | - | - | - | Bangladesh, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Uruguay are members of BRICS New Development Bank. ### Membership expansion proposals Discussions about the expansion and entry of new member countries were little addressed until the early 2020s, after this date, leaders and top ranking diplomats of the founding nations began discussions for the expansion of the group. On 16 March 2023, Russia announced that it supported Algeria's bid to join BRICS. On 25 April 2023, it was announced that 19 countries had expressed interest in joining BRICS. #### Countries that have applied for membership * Algeria (applied in 2022) * Argentina (applied in 2022) * Bahrain * Bangladesh (applied in 2023) * Egypt (applied in 2023) * Indonesia * Iran (applied in 2022) * Saudi Arabia * United Arab Emirates In addition, Afghanistan, Belarus, Comoros, Cuba, the D.R. Congo, France, Gabon, Guinea-Bissau, Honduras, Kazakhstan, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Pakistan, Senegal, Sudan, Syria, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uruguay, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe have expressed interest in membership of BRICS. Financial architecture ---------------------- Currently, there are two components that make up the financial architecture of BRICS, namely, the New Development Bank (NDB), or sometimes referred to as the BRICS Development Bank, and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA). Both of these components were signed into treaty in 2014 and became active in 2015. ### New Development Bank The **New Development Bank (NDB)**, formally referred to as the **BRICS Development Bank**, is a multilateral development bank operated by the five BRICS states. The bank's primary focus of lending will be infrastructure projects with authorized lending of up to $34 billion annually. South Africa will be the African Headquarters of the Bank named the "New Development Bank Africa Regional Centre." The bank will have starting capital of $50 billion, with wealth increased to $100 billion over time. Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa will initially contribute $10 billion each to bring the total to $50 billion. It has so far 53 projects under way worth around $15 billion. Recently Bangladesh, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates and Uruguay were added as new members of BRICS New Development Bank (NDB). ### BRICS CRA The **BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement** (**CRA**) is a framework for providing protection against global liquidity pressures. This includes currency issues where members' national currencies are being adversely affected by global financial pressures. It is found that emerging economies that experienced rapid economic liberalization went through increased economic volatility, bringing an uncertain macroeconomic environment. The CRA is generally seen as a competitor to the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and along with the New Development Bank is viewed as an example of increasing South-South cooperation. It was established in 2015 by the BRICS countries. The legal basis is formed by the *Treaty for the Establishment of a BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement*, signed at Fortaleza, Brazil on 15 July 2014. With its inaugural meetings of the BRICS CRA Governing Council and Standing Committee, held on 4 September 2015, in Ankara, Turkey it entered into force upon ratification by all BRICS states, announced at the 7th BRICS summit in July 2015. ### BRICS payment system At the 2015 BRICS summit in the Russian Federation, ministers from BRICS nations initiated consultations for a payment system that would be an alternative to the Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) system. Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Sergey Ryabkov stated in an interview, "The finance ministers and executives of the BRICS central banks are negotiating ... setting up payment systems and moving on to settlements in national currencies. SWIFT or not, in any case we’re talking about ... a global multilateral payment system that would provide greater independence, would create a definite guarantee for BRICS." The Central Bank of Russia (CBR) also started consultations with BRICS nations for a payment system that would be an alternative to the SWIFT system. The main benefits highlighted were backup and redundancy in case there were disruptions to the SWIFT system. The Deputy Governor of the Central Bank of Russia, Olga Skorobogatova, stated in an interview, "The only topic that may be of interest to all of us within BRICS is to consider and talk over the possibility of setting up a system that would apply to the BRICS countries, used as a backup." China has also launched the development of their own SWIFT-alternative payment-system, the Cross-Border Inter-Bank Payments System (CIPS), which would enable financial institutions worldwide to send and receive information about financial transactions in a secure, standardized, and reliable environment. India also has its alternative Structured Financial Messaging System (SFMS), as do Russia System for Transfer of Financial Messages (SPFS) and Brazil (Pix). ### Potential common currency BRICS countries will likely discuss the feasibility of a new common currency or similar at the 2023 BRICS summit in South Africa. Fair and easier international trade as well as a major reduction in costs of transactions would be some of the reasons why the countries could forge a currency union, according to Mikatekiso Kubayi, a BRICS specialist. Former White House senior advisor Joseph W. Sullivan, writing for American magazine *Foreign Policy*, asserted that "a BRICS-issued currency would be different", as it would be comprised by challengers to the Western-led international that "in the order the scale of GDP, now collectively outweigh not only the reigning hegemon, the United States, but the entire G-7 weight class put together." Sullivan maintains that the BRICS would also be poised to achieve a level of self-sufficiency in international trade that has eluded other currency unions, such as the Eurozone, because of the geographic diversity of its members, which enables a broader range of goods and services. Reception --------- In 2012, Hu Jintao, the then General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party and President of China, described the BRICS countries as defenders and promoters of developing countries and a force for world peace. Western analysts have highlighted potential divisions and weaknesses in the grouping, including significant economic instabilities, disagreements among the members over the UN Security Council reform, and India and China's disputes over territorial issues. On 9 April 2013, Isobel Coleman from the Council on Foreign Relations, director of CFR's Civil Society, Markets, and Democracy Program claimed that members of BRICS share a lack of consensus. They uphold drastically different political systems, from a vibrant democracy in Brazil to entrenched oligarchy in Russia, and their economies are little integrated and are different in size by orders of magnitude. She also claimed that the significant difference in GDP influences the reserves. China taking up over 41% of the contribution, which in turn leads to bigger political say within the association. Vijay Prashad, author and the Edward Said Chair at the American University of Beirut, 2014 raised the BRICS limitations as a political and economic "locomotive of the South" because they follow neoliberal policies. They have established neither new counter-balancing institutions nor come up with an alternative ideology. Furthermore, the BRICS project, argues Prashad, has no ability to challenge the primacy of the United States and NATO. ### BRICS Pro Tempore Presidency The group at each summit elects one of the heads of state of the component countries to serve as President Pro Tempore of the BRICS. In 2019, the pro tempore presidency was held by the president of Brazil. The theme of the 11th BRICS summit was "BRICS: economic growth for an innovative future", and the priorities of the Brazilian Pro Tempore Presidency for 2019 are the following – Strengthening of the cooperation in Science, technology and innovation; Enhancement of the cooperation on digital economy; Invigoration of the cooperation on the fight against transnational crime, especially against organized crime, money laundering and drug trafficking; Encouragement to the rapprochement between the New Development Bank (NDB) and the BRICS Business Council. Currently the new President Pro Tempore is Russia and their goals are: investing into BRICS countries in order to strengthen everyone's economies, cooperating in the energy and environmental industries, helping with young children and coming up with resolutions on migration and peacekeeping. Current leaders --------------- | Member | Image | Name | Position(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Brazil | | Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva | President of Brazil | |  China | | Xi Jinping | President of China | |  India | | Narendra Modi | Prime Minister of India | |  Russia | | Vladimir Putin | President of Russia | |  South Africa | | Cyril Ramaphosa | President of South Africa | ### Current ministerial leaders | Member | Foreign minister | Name | Finance minister | Name | Central bank governor | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Brazil | Minister of Foreign Affairs | Mauro Vieira | Minister of Finance | Fernando Haddad | Roberto Campos Neto | |  China | Minister of Foreign Affairs | Qin Gang | Minister of Finance | Liu Kun | Yi Gang | |  India | Minister of External Affairs | Subrahmanyam Jaishankar | Minister of Finance | Nirmala Sitharaman | Shaktikanta Das | |  Russia | Minister of Foreign Affairs | Sergei Lavrov | Minister of Finance | Anton Siluanov | Elvira Nabiullina | |  South Africa | Minister of International Relations and Cooperation | Naledi Pandor | Minister of Finance | Enoch Godongwana | Lesetja Kganyago | See also -------- * Emerging and growth-leading economies * Emerging power * List of BRICS summit attendees * List of country groupings * List of multilateral free-trade agreements * Potential superpowers * Shanghai Cooperation Organisation * BRICS Games * MIKTA ### Sources * "Eighth Annual BRICS Summit in Goa: (Narendra Modi, Vladimir Putin, Michel Temer, and Xi Jinping)", *Dainik Bhaskar*, 15 October 2016. Further reading --------------- * Carmody, Pádraig (2013). *The Rise of BRICS in Africa: The Geopolitics of South-South Relations*. Zed Books. ISBN 9781780326047. * Chun, Kwang (2013). *The BRICs Superpower Challenge: Foreign and Security Policy Analysis*. Ashgate Pub Co. ISBN 9781409468691.

BRICS

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BRICS

**Kruševac** (Serbian Cyrillic: Крушевац, pronounced [krûʃeʋats] ()) is a city and the administrative center of the Rasina District in central Serbia. It is located in the valley of West Morava, on Rasina river. According to the 2022 census, the city administrative area has a population of 113,582 while the urban area has 68,119 inhabitants. The city was founded in 1371, by Prince Lazar of Serbia (1371–1389), who used it as his seat. Etymology --------- The etymology is derived from the Serbian word for "river stone", *krušac* which was largely used for a building at that time. History ------- Kruševac was founded in 1371, as a fortified town in the possession of Lord Lazar Hrebeljanović. The Lazarica Church (or *Church of St, Stephen*) was built by Lazar between 1375–78, in the Morava architectural style. It is mentioned in one of Lazar's edicts in 1387, as his seat, when he affirmed the rights of Venetian merchants on Serbian territory. In preparation for the Battle of Kosovo (1389) against the Ottoman Empire, the Serbian army assembled in the city. The site of Lazar's palace is marked by a ruined enclosure containing a fragment of the tower of his spouse Princess Milica, and, according to legend, tidings of the defeat were brought to her by crows from the battlefield. After the battle, the city was held by Princess Milica as her seat. The little that remains of Lazar's city is the Kruševac Fortress, which was declared a Cultural Monument of Exceptional Importance in 1979. Several old Ottoman houses were left at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an old Turkish fountain and bath, which was known as *Alacahisar* (Aladža Hisar) during Ottoman rule between 1427–1833 (nominally to 1867) when Kruševac was the seat of the Sanjak of Kruševac. The Ottoman rule was interrupted during Austrian occupations between 1688–1690 and 1717–1739. A large monument dedicated to Serbs fallen at the Battle of Kosovo was sculpted by Đorđe Jovanović and unveiled by King Petar I Karađorđević of Serbia in 1904. A detail on the monument, among others, is a statue of the famous blind Serbian poet Filip Višnjić. At the beginning of the German occupation of Yugoslavia the units of Yugoslav Army in the Fatherland commanded by Dragutin Keserović and supported by one detachment of communists attacked the German garrison in September 1941 but failed to liberate the town after four days battle. During World War II mass executions of patriots and antifascists occurred on hill Bagdala. Largest execution was in summer of 1943. At place of executions now is a monument named Slobodište (from the Serbian word "sloboda", which means 'freedom'). Kruševac was liberated on 14 October when chetnik collaborators and Germans left the city together. After the regime of communists in Serbia ended the Government of Serbia and its Ministry of Justice established the commission to research atrocities that were committed by members of the Yugoslav Partisan Movement after they gained control over Serbia in Autumn 1944. According to the report of this commission, out of 55,554 registered victims of communist purges in Serbia the new communist regime in Kruševac killed 493 people while 11 people are missing. Kruševac progressed profusely during the SFRY. A large number of factories were built in that era, while Kruševac became one of the strongest industrial centres in both Serbia and Yugoslavia. The machine factory IMK 14. oktobar Kruševac employed around 7,000 workers. However, the large Kruševac industry hasn't survived the post-Milošević transition. In 2002 alone 5 factories went bankrupt. From 2002 to 2014 27 factories closed and around 11,000 workers lost their jobs. The unemployment rate in Kruševac was almost 39% in 2015. Settlements ----------- Aside from the urban area of Kruševac, the city administrative area includes the following 100 settlements: * Bošnjanе * Begovo Brdo * Bela Voda * Belasica * Bivolje * Bovan * Bojince * Boljevac * Brajkovac * Bukovica * Buci * Velika Kruševica * Velika Lomnica * Veliki Kupci * Veliki Šiljegovac * Veliko Golovode * Veliko Krušince * Vitanovac * Vratare * Vučak * Gavez * Gaglovo * Gari * Globare * Globoder * Gornji Stepoš * Grevci * Grkljane * Dvorane * Dedina * Dobromir * Doljane * Donji Stepoš * Đunis * Žabare * Zdravinje * Zebica * Zubovac * Jablanica * Jasika * Jošje * Kamenare * Kaonik * Kapidžija * Kobilje * Komorane * Konjuh * Koševi * Krvavica * Kukljin * Lazarevac * Lazarica * Lipovac * Lovci * Lukavac * Ljubava * Majdevo * Makrešane * Mala Vrbnica * Mala Reka * Mali Kupci * Mali Šiljegovac * Malo Golovode * Malo Krušince * Mačkovac * Meševo * Modrica * Mudrakovac * Naupare * Padež * Pakašnica * Parunovac * Pasjak * Pepeljevac * Petina * Pozlata * Poljaci * Ribare * Ribarska Banja * Rlica * Rosica * Sebečevac * Sezemče * Slatina * Srndalje * Srnje * Stanci * Suvaja * Sušica * Tekija * Trebotin * Trmčare * Ćelije * Cerova * Crkvina * Čitluk * Šavrane * Šanac * Šašilovac * Šogolj * Štitare Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1948 | 87,853 | —     | | 1953 | 94,827 | +1.54% | | 1961 | 103,190 | +1.06% | | 1971 | 118,016 | +1.35% | | 1981 | 132,972 | +1.20% | | 1991 | 138,111 | +0.38% | | 2002 | 131,368 | −0.45% | | 2011 | 128,752 | −0.22% | | Source: | According to the 2011 census results, the city of Kruševac has a total population of 128,752 inhabitants. ### Ethnic groups The ethnic composition of the city administrative area: | Ethnic group | Population | % | | --- | --- | --- | | Serbs | 122,529 | 95.17% | | Roma | 2,461 | 1.91% | | Montenegrins | 282 | 0.22% | | Macedonians | 200 | 0.16% | | Croats | 107 | 0.08% | | Yugoslavs | 86 | 0.07% | | **Total** | 128,752 | | Economy ------- The most notable large companies based in the city of Kruševac are: Trayal Corporation, 14. oktobar, Rubin and Cooper Tire & Rubber Company Serbia. As of September 2017, Kruševac has one of 14 free economic zones established in Serbia. The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2019): | Activity | Total | | --- | --- | | Agriculture, forestry and fishing | 369 | | Mining and quarrying | 42 | | Manufacturing | 8,519 | | Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply | 514 | | Water supply; sewerage, waste management and remediation activities | 652 | | Construction | 2,007 | | Wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles | 5,150 | | Transportation and storage | 1,387 | | Accommodation and food services | 1,093 | | Information and communication | 362 | | Financial and insurance activities | 560 | | Real estate activities | 210 | | Professional, scientific and technical activities | 1,076 | | Administrative and support service activities | 572 | | Public administration and defense; compulsory social security | 1,784 | | Education | 2,221 | | Human health and social work activities | 2,877 | | Arts, entertainment and recreation | 642 | | Other service activities | 567 | | Individual agricultural workers | 1,941 | | **Total** | **32,547** | Politics -------- Seats in the city parliament won in the 2016 local elections: | Party | Seats | | --- | --- | | Serbian Progressive Party | 53 | | Socialist Party of Serbia | 8 | | Democratic Party | 4 | | United Serbia | 4 | | Independent MP | 1 | Sports ------ The city's main football club is FK Napredak Kruševac, who regularly play in the Serbian SuperLiga. Climate ------- | Climate data for Kruševac (1991–2020, extremes 1961–2020) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 20.4(68.7) | 25.5(77.9) | 29.6(85.3) | 32.1(89.8) | 35.5(95.9) | 39.6(103.3) | 43.7(110.7) | 42.4(108.3) | 37.8(100.0) | 34.4(93.9) | 27.4(81.3) | 21.7(71.1) | 43.7(110.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 5.0(41.0) | 8.0(46.4) | 13.2(55.8) | 18.7(65.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 27.2(81.0) | 29.5(85.1) | 29.9(85.8) | 24.6(76.3) | 18.8(65.8) | 12.5(54.5) | 5.9(42.6) | 18.1(64.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.5(32.9) | 2.7(36.9) | 7.1(44.8) | 12.2(54.0) | 16.8(62.2) | 20.7(69.3) | 22.4(72.3) | 22.2(72.0) | 17.2(63.0) | 11.9(53.4) | 7.0(44.6) | 1.8(35.2) | 11.9(53.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | −3.2(26.2) | −1.8(28.8) | 1.7(35.1) | 5.9(42.6) | 10.3(50.5) | 14.1(57.4) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.1(59.2) | 11.1(52.0) | 6.6(43.9) | 2.5(36.5) | −1.6(29.1) | 6.3(43.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −28.1(−18.6) | −24.6(−12.3) | −17.2(1.0) | −6.1(21.0) | −1.1(30.0) | 2.9(37.2) | 5.8(42.4) | 3.0(37.4) | −3.0(26.6) | −7.3(18.9) | −21.4(−6.5) | −23.9(−11.0) | −28.1(−18.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 43.5(1.71) | 42.7(1.68) | 53.6(2.11) | 59.9(2.36) | 70.8(2.79) | 70.6(2.78) | 65.2(2.57) | 48.5(1.91) | 49.6(1.95) | 55.4(2.18) | 49.3(1.94) | 53.6(2.11) | 662.9(26.10) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 12.9 | 12.6 | 12.7 | 12.7 | 13.0 | 10.7 | 10.2 | 8.0 | 9.7 | 10.0 | 10.3 | 13.2 | 136.0 | | Average snowy days | 8.1 | 7.3 | 4.1 | 0.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 2.2 | 6.6 | 29.0 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 84.1 | 78.7 | 71.7 | 70.4 | 73.3 | 71.0 | 68.2 | 68.1 | 72.8 | 78.2 | 80.5 | 84.8 | 75.2 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 62.1 | 84.9 | 143.4 | 171.3 | 209.4 | 243.6 | 285.5 | 280.5 | 196.1 | 143.6 | 87.5 | 50.7 | 1,958.6 | | Source: Republic Hydrometeorological Service of Serbia | Famous residents ---------------- * Stefan Lazarević (1377–1427), medieval ruler of Serbia * Stojan Protić (1857–1923), Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes 1918–1919, 1920 * Ljubinka Bobić (1897–1978), Serbian actress * Stanislav Binički (1872–1942), Serbian composer (Marš na Drinu) * Dobrica Ćosić (1921–2014), Serbian writer, first President of FR Yugoslavia * Taško Načić (1934–1993), Serbian actor * Miodrag Petrović Čkalja (1924–2003), One of the most popular Serbian comedians * Bata Paskaljević (1923–2004), Serbian actor * Radmila Savićević (1926–2001), Serbian actress * Ljiljana Jovanović (1930–2012), Serbian actress * America Alonso (1936–2022) Venezuelan actress * Miroslav Mišković (b. 1945), Serbian businessman * Dragiša Binić (b. 1961), Serbian footballer, 1990–91 European Cup winner * Milić Jovanović (b. 1966), Serbian footballer, 1990–91 European Cup winner * Ognjen Petrović (1948–2000), Serbian footballer * Nebojša Bradić (b. 1956), Serbian theatre director, and former Minister of Culture * Goran Grbović (b. 1961), Serbian basketball player, bronze medalist at the EuroBasket 1987 * Vojin Ćetković (b. 1971), Serbian actor * Marko Živić (1972–2021), Serbian actor * Bojan Lazić (b. 1974), professional Serbian football player * Nataša Tapušković (b. 1975), Serbian actress * Branislav Trifunović (b. 1978), Serbian actor * Bojan Zajić (b. 1980), Serbian footballer * Aleksandar Mitrović (b. 1982), Serbian volleyball player * Predrag Pavlović (b. 1986), Serbian footballer * Milan Gajić (b. 1986), Serbian footballer * Nikola Milošević (b. 1993), Serbian footballer * Predrag Jovanović (b. 1950), Serbian musician * Dragan Milosavljević (b. 1989), Serbian basketball player, silver medalist at the EuroBasket 2017 * Milica Todorović (born 1990), Serbian singer * Sanja Vučić (born 1993), Serbian singer who represented Serbia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2016 and the Eurovision Song Contest 2021 * Ognjen Jaramaz (b. 1995), Serbian basketball player * Tijana Bogdanović (b. 1998), Serbian taekwondo practitioner, European champion and silver medalist at the 2016 Summer Olympics * Mimica Pavlović (b. 1984) Serbian footballer International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – Sister cities Kruševac is twinned with: | | | | --- | --- | | * Italy Pistoia, Italy (1966) * Croatia Trogir, Croatia (1972) * Bosnia and Herzegovina Travnik, Bosnia and Herzegovina (1972) * Greece Corfu, Greece (1985) | * Hungary Szentendre, Hungary (1990) * Israel Kiryat Gat, Israel (1990) * Romania Râmnicu Vâlcea, Romania (2003) | Other forms of co-operation and city friendship similar to the twin/sister city programmes: | | | --- | | * Russia Volgograd, Russia (1999) * Bulgaria Stara Zagora, Bulgaria (2000) * Russia Ryazan, Russia (2000) * Slovenia Žalec, Slovenia (2006) * Bosnia and Herzegovina Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2006) | Gallery ------- * Women selling poultry at the market, 1913Women selling poultry at the market, 1913 * BelfryBelfry * Middle Ages era ruins in KruševacMiddle Ages era ruins in Kruševac * Lazar Hrebeljanović's statue in KruševacLazar Hrebeljanović's statue in Kruševac * Filip Višnjić's statue in KruševacFilip Višnjić's statue in Kruševac * Kneginja Milica's statueKneginja Milica's statue * The Kosovo Heroes SquareThe Kosovo Heroes Square * The Kosovo Heroes SquareThe Kosovo Heroes Square * Kruševac panoramaKruševac panorama * Town hallTown hall * Gymnasium and the city museumGymnasium and the city museum * Main train station in the townMain train station in the town See also -------- * List of cities in Serbia * Rubin (company)

Kruševac

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kru%C5%A1evac

**Muhammad** (Arabic: مُحَمَّد; c. 570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monotheistic teachings of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. He is believed to be the Seal of the Prophets within Islam. Muhammad united Arabia into a single Muslim polity, with the Quran as well as his teachings and practices forming the basis of Islamic religious belief. Muhammad was born in approximately 570 CE in Mecca. He was the son of Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib and Amina bint Wahb. His father, Abdullah, the son of Quraysh tribal leader Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim, died a few months before Muhammad's birth. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan. He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle, Abu Talib. In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named Hira for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, circa 610 CE, Muhammad reported being visited by Gabriel in the cave and receiving his first revelation from God. In 613, Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (*islām*) to God is the right way of life (*dīn*), and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other prophets in Islam. Muhammad's followers were initially few in number, and experienced hostility from Meccan polytheists for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he sent some of his followers to Abyssinia in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina (then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the *Hijra*, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also known as the Hijri Calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the Constitution of Medina. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca. The conquest went largely uncontested and Muhammad seized the city with little bloodshed. In 632, a few months after returning from the Farewell Pilgrimage, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the Arabian Peninsula had converted to Islam. The revelations (each known as *Ayah —* literally, "Sign [of God]") that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (*sunnah*), found in the Hadith and *sira* (biography) literature, are also upheld and used as sources of Islamic law. Names and appellations ---------------------- The name *Muhammad* (/mʊˈhæməd, -ˈhɑːməd/) means "praiseworthy" in Arabic. It appears four times in the Quran. The Quran also addresses Muhammad in the second person by various appellations; prophet, messenger, servant of God ('*abd*), announcer (*bashir*), witness (*shahid*), bearer of good tidings (*mubashshir*), warner (*nathir*), reminder (*mudhakkir*), one who calls [unto God] (*dā'ī*), light personified (*noor*), and the light-giving lamp (*siraj munir*). Sources of biographical information ----------------------------------- ### Quran The Quran is the central religious text of Islam. Muslims believe it represents the words of God revealed by the archangel Gabriel to Muhammad. The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context. ### Early biographies Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Muslim era (AH – 8th and 9th century CE). These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life. The earliest written *sira* (biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is Ibn Ishaq's *Life of God's Messenger* written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this sira survives as extensive excerpts in works by Ibn Hisham and to a lesser extent by Al-Tabari. However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people". Another early history source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by al-Waqidi (death 207 AH), and the work of Waqidi's secretary Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi (death 230 AH). Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic, though their accuracy is unascertainable. Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional cases, may have been only subject to "tendential shaping". ### Hadith Other important sources include the hadith collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including Muhammad al-Bukhari, Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj, Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi, Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai, Abu Dawood, Ibn Majah, Malik ibn Anas, al-Daraqutni. Some Western academics cautiously view the hadith collections as accurate historical sources. Scholars such as Madelung do not reject the narrations which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in the context of history and on the basis of their compatibility with the events and figures. Muslim scholars on the other hand typically place a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (isnad); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes. Pre-Islamic Arabia ------------------ The Arabian Peninsula was, and still is, largely arid with volcanic soil, making agriculture difficult except near oases or springs. Towns and cities dotted the landscape, two of the most prominent being Mecca and Medina. Medina was a large flourishing agricultural settlement, while Mecca was an important financial center for many surrounding tribes. Communal life was essential for survival in the desert conditions, supporting indigenous tribes against the harsh environment and lifestyle. Tribal affiliation, whether based on kinship or alliances, was an important source of social cohesion. Indigenous Arabs were either nomadic or sedentary. Nomadic groups constantly traveled seeking water and pasture for their flocks, while the sedentary settled and focused on trade and agriculture. Nomadic survival also depended on raiding caravans or oases; nomads did not view this as a crime. In pre-Islamic Arabia, gods or goddesses were viewed as protectors of individual tribes, their spirits associated with sacred trees, stones, springs and wells. As well as being the site of an annual pilgrimage, the Kaaba shrine in Mecca housed 360 idols of tribal patron deities. Three goddesses were worshipped, in some places as daughters of Allah: Allāt, Manāt and al-'Uzzá. Monotheistic communities existed in Arabia, including Christians and Jews. Hanifs – native pre-Islamic Arabs who "professed a rigid monotheism" – are also sometimes listed alongside Jews and Christians in pre-Islamic Arabia, although scholars dispute their historicity. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad himself was a Hanif and one of the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham, although no known evidence exists for a historical Abraham or Ishmael, and the links are based solely on tradition instead of historical records. The second half of the sixth century was a period of political disorder in Arabia and communication routes were no longer secure. Religious divisions were an important cause of the crisis. Judaism became the dominant religion in Yemen while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area. In line with broader trends of the ancient world, the region witnessed a decline in the practice of polytheistic cults and a growing interest in a more spiritual form of religion. While many were reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, those faiths provided intellectual and spiritual reference points. During the early years of Muhammad's life, the Quraysh tribe to which he belonged became a dominant force in western Arabia. They formed the cult association of *hums*, which tied members of many tribes in western Arabia to the Kaaba and reinforced the prestige of the Meccan sanctuary. To counter the effects of anarchy, Quraysh upheld the institution of sacred months during which all violence was forbidden, and it was possible to participate in pilgrimages and fairs without danger. Thus, although the association of *hums* was primarily religious, it also had important economic consequences for the city. Life ---- ### Meccan years #### Childhood and early life | Timeline of Muhammad's life | | --- | | Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad | | Date | Age | Event | | c. 570 | – | Death of his father, Abdullah | | c. 570 | 0 | Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in Mecca, Arabia | | c. 577 | 6 | Death of his mother, Amina | | c. 583 | 12–13 | His grandfather transfers him to Syria | | c. 595 | 24–25 | Meets and marries Khadijah | | c. 599 | 28–29 | Birth of Zainab, his first daughter, followed by: Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatima Zahra | | 610 | 40 | Qur'anic revelation begins in the Cave of Hira on the Jabal an-Nour, the "Mountain of Light" near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad on the mountain and call him "the Prophet of Allah" | | Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca | | c. 613 | 43 | Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans | | c. 614 | 43–44 | Heavy persecution of Muslims begins | | c. 615 | 44–45 | Emigration of a group of Muslims to Ethiopia | | c. 616 | 45–46 | Banu Hashim clan boycott begins | | 619 | 49 | Banu Hashim clan boycott ends | | The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and Abu Talib (his uncle) die | | c. 620 | 49–50 | Isra and Mi'raj (reported ascension to heaven to meet God) | | 622 | 51–52 | Hijra, emigration to Medina (called Yathrib) | | 624 | 53–54 | Battle of Badr | | 625 | 54–55 | Battle of Uhud | | 627 | 56–57 | Battle of the Trench (also known as the siege of Medina) | | 628 | 57–58 | The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah | | 630 | 59–60 | Conquest of Mecca | | 632 | 61–62 | Farewell pilgrimage, event of Ghadir Khumm, and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia | | | Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in Mecca about the year 570, and his birthday is believed to be in the month of Rabi' al-awwal. He belonged to the Banu Hashim clan, part of the Quraysh tribe, which was one of Mecca's prominent families, although it appears less prosperous during Muhammad's early lifetime. Tradition places the year of Muhammad's birth as corresponding with the Year of the Elephant, which is named after the failed destruction of Mecca that year by the Abraha, Yemen's king, who supplemented his army with elephants. Alternatively some 20th century scholars have suggested different years, such as 568 or 569. Muhammad's father, Abdullah, died almost six months before he was born. According to Islamic tradition, soon after birth he was sent to live with a Bedouin family in the desert, as desert life was considered healthier for infants; some western scholars reject this tradition's historicity. Muhammad stayed with his foster-mother, Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother Amina to illness and became an orphan. For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather Abd al-Muttalib, of the Banu Hashim clan until his death. He then came under the care of his uncle Abu Talib, the new leader of the Banu Hashim. According to Islamic historian William Montgomery Watt there was a general disregard by guardians in taking care of weaker members of the tribes in Mecca during the 6th century, "Muhammad's guardians saw that he did not starve to death, but it was hard for them to do more for him, especially as the fortunes of the clan of Hashim seem to have been declining at that time." In his teens, Muhammad accompanied his uncle on Syrian trading journeys to gain experience in commercial trade. Islamic tradition states that when Muhammad was either nine or twelve while accompanying the Meccans' caravan to Syria, he met a Christian monk or hermit named Bahira who is said to have foreseen Muhammad's career as a prophet of God. Little is known of Muhammad during his later youth as available information is fragmented, making it difficult to separate history from legend. It is known that he became a merchant and "was involved in trade between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea." Muhammad acquired the nickname "al-Amin" (Arabic: الامين, meaning "faithful" or "trustworthy") when he was young, but historians disagree about whether the name was a reflection of his nature, or whether the name was given to Muhammad as a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". His reputation attracted a proposal in 595 from Khadijah, a successful businesswoman. Muhammad consented to the marriage, which by all accounts was a happy one. Several years later, according to a narration collected by historian Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad was involved with a well-known story about setting the Black Stone in place in the wall of the Kaaba in 605 CE. The Black Stone, a sacred object, was removed during renovations to the Kaaba. The Meccan leaders could not agree which clan should return the Black Stone to its place. They decided to ask the next man who came through the gate to make that decision; that man was the 35-year-old Muhammad. This event happened five years before the first revelation by Gabriel to him. He asked for a cloth and laid the Black Stone in its center. The clan leaders held the corners of the cloth and together carried the Black Stone to the right spot, then Muhammad laid the stone, satisfying the honor of all. #### Beginnings of the Quran Muhammad began to pray alone in a cave named Hira on Mount Jabal al-Nour, near Mecca, for several weeks every year. Islamic tradition holds that during one of his visits to the cave in the year 610, the angel Gabriel appeared before him, showed him a cloth with Quranic verses written on it, and told him to recite them. When Muhammad confessed that he was illiterate, Gabriel pressed him so hard that he was almost suffocated. On the third repetition, Gabriel eventually pronounced the verses, which Muhammad retained. The verses in question were Quran 96:1-5. > > *Recite in the name of your Lord who created—Created man from a clinging substance. Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous—Who taught by the pen—Taught man that which he knew not.* > > > — Quran 96:1–5 The experience terrified Muhammad, but he was immediately reassured by Khadija and her Christian cousin Waraqa ibn Nawfal. Khadija told him to let her know if Gabriel came again, which then happened while they were alone. Khadija directed Muhammad to sit on her left thigh and ask him if the supernatural being was still there. Upon receiving an affirmative answer, Khadija told Muhammad to move to her right thigh and then to her lap, but Muhammad said he was still there. So Khadija disclosed her form and took off her veil while Muhammad was still on her lap. He reported that Gabriel left at that very moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she believed it was not a Satan but an angel visiting him. A few days after Waraqa's death, the revelations stopped for a while, which caused Muhammad much anguish and suicidal thoughts. He reportedly went to a mountain's peak with the intention of jumping off, but when he arrived there, Gabriel appeared to him and said, "O Muhammad, you are indeed the true Messenger of Allah." This calmed him down and he went home. Later, when the interval between the revelations was again long, he did the same thing; trying to jump off the mountain. But when he arrived at the summit, Gabriel appeared and said as he had before, which calmed him down and he returned home. Sahih Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing his revelations as "sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell". Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)". According to Welch these descriptions may be considered genuine, since they are unlikely to have been forged by later Muslims. Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages. According to the Quran, one of the main roles of Muhammad is to warn the unbelievers of their eschatological punishment (Quran 38:70, Quran 6:19). Occasionally the Quran did not explicitly refer to Judgment day but provided examples from the history of extinct communities and warns Muhammad's contemporaries of similar calamities. Muhammad did not only warn those who rejected God's revelation, but also dispensed good news for those who abandoned evil, listening to the divine words and serving God. Muhammad's mission also involves preaching monotheism: The Quran commands Muhammad to proclaim and praise the name of his Lord and instructs him not to worship idols or associate other deities with God. The key themes of the early Quranic verses included the responsibility of man towards his creator; the resurrection of the dead, God's final judgment followed by vivid descriptions of the tortures in Hell and pleasures in Paradise, and the signs of God in all aspects of life. Religious duties required of the believers at this time were simple and few in numbers: belief in God, asking for forgiveness of sins, offering frequent prayers, assisting others particularly those in need, rejecting cheating and the love of wealth (considered to be significant in the commercial life of Mecca), being chaste and not exposing new-born girls to die in the desert, which was sometimes done at the time out of poverty. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife Khadija was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib, close friend Abu Bakr, and adopted son Zaid. #### Onset of frictions with the Quraysh Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public. Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of Mecca, who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose. The Quraysh asked Muhammad to perform miracles, such as making springs gush out of the ground. But he regarded natural phenomena as marvelous testimonies to God, so there was no need for unnatural signs. Some later taunted Muhammad's lack of success by asking why God had not given him treasure. Others asked him to go to heaven and bring back parchment scrolls of the Qur'an that they could touch. According to the Qur'an, however, its very manifestation in the world is sufficient miraculous proof. According to Amr ibn al-As, when some Quraysh gathered at Hijr, they talked about how they had never faced problems as serious as those they were facing as a result of Muhammad. They said that he had mocked their way of life, reviled their forefathers, insulted their religion, torn apart their community, and cursed their gods. Muhammad then appeared and came towards them, kissing the Black Stone and performing the ritual tawaf. Amr reported that as Muhammad passed by them, they said hurtful things to him. The same was done when he passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had spoken what they had heard from their companions. Muhammad answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak. Abu Bakr intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?" Then they left him. The Quraysh attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers. A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the Makhzum clan, known by the Muslim as Abu Jahl, went to Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib, head of the Hashim clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum: > “By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him.” > > Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear. To which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account." While a group of Muslims were praying in a ravine, some Quraysh ran into them and blamed them for what they were doing. One of the Muslims, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, then took a camel's jawbone and struck a Quraysh, splitting his head open, in what is reported to be the first blood shed in Islam. Islamic traditions record at great length the persecution and mistreatment that Muhammad and his followers later underwent from the Meccan polytheists, but the accounts are more or less obscure and open to various equally uncertain interpretations. Some of them include the stories of a slave identified as Sumayya bint Khayyat, who was said to have been killed by her master Abu Jahl with a spear, and Bilal, also a slave, who reportedly having a big stone placed on his chest by his master Umayya ibn Khalaf because they both refused to leave Islam; Abu Bakr, eventually bought Bilal or exchanged him for a slave of his own who had not yet converted to Islam. Alford T. Welch et al. point out that the Qur'an is virtually silent on such episodes that the traditions report as major events in Muhammad’s Meccan years, despite its frequent references to the major events of his life following the Hijrah. #### The Quraysh consulted the Jews The Quraysh sent Nadr ibn al-Harith and Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt to meet Jewish scholars in Medina to ask their opinion about Muhammad. The Jews told them to ask him three questions: describe the story of the young men who set out in the first age; tell the story of a traveling man who reached both the eastern and western parts of the earth; and give details about the Spirit. If Muhammad answered correctly, the Jews said, then he was a Prophet, but if not, he was a fabricator of lies. They then returned to Mecca and posed the three questions to Muhammad, to which he told them that he would give answers tomorrow. But 15 days later, Muhammad still had not received the answers from his God, and news of this spread among the people of Mecca, making him sad. Some time later, Gabriel came to Muhammad and gave him the answers. In answer to the first question, the Quran tells an intriguing but obscure tale about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Quran 18:9–25). This story is generally connected by scholars with the legend of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. For the second question, the Quran tells about Dhu al-Qarnayn “he of the two horns” (Quran 18:93–9), which is widely connected by scholars with the Alexander Romance. As for the third question, concerning the nature of the Spirit, the Quranic revelation said simply that it is beyond the understanding of humankind. Upon receiving these answers, the Jews who formulated the questions did not convert to Islam, nor did the Quraysh who presented them to Muhammad. Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the Battle of Badr, with Uqba pleading, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad replied, "Hell!" #### Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses In 615, fearful that his followers would be seduced from their religion, Muhammad sent some of them to emigrate to the Abyssinian Kingdom of Aksum and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor Aṣḥama ibn Abjar. Among those who departed were Umm Habiba, the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Sufyan, and her husband. The Quraysh then dispatched two men to get all of them back. Leatherwork was highly valued in Abyssinia at the time, so they collected a large number of skins and brought them there to be able to give some to each of the kingdom’s generals. But the king flatly refused their request. While Tabari and Ibn Hisham mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to Ibn Sa'd. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to Mecca before the event of Hijra, while majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time, and went directly to Medina after the event of Hijra. These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to historian W. M. Watt, the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest, he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In Urwa's letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as Hamza and Umar. Tabari also, among many others, recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of Quraysh, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19-20), Satan put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the behest of Gabriel, claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed. The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca. This satanic verses incident was reported *en masse* and recorded by virtually every compiler of a major biography of Muhammad in the first two centuries of Islam, which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the hadith movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the *isma*, which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated. And as of the 20th century AD, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident. On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the criterion of embarrassment. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and imputed Satan as the culprit. In 616 (or 617), the leaders of Makhzum and Banu Abd-Shams, two important Quraysh clans, declared a public boycott against Banu Hashim, their commercial rival, to pressure it into withdrawing its protection of Muhammad. The boycott lasted for three years but eventually collapsed as it failed in its objective. #### Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if After the deaths of Khadija, Muhammad's wealthy wife, who had provided him with financial and emotional support, and Abu Talib, his guardian, Muhammad's position became increasingly hopeless. He went to Ta'if to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans, but he was met with a response: “If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn’t He protect you? And if Allah wished to send a prophet, couldn’t He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?” Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs. On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of Abu Jahl, and he said, “They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well.” Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to send a message to Akhnas ibn Shariq, a member of his mother's clan, to extend his protection to him so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas refused, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of Quraysh. Muhammad then sent a message to Suhayl ibn Amir, but he also refused on the grounds of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad sent someone to ask Mut'im ibn 'Adiy, the chief of the Banu Nawfal. Mut'im agreed, and after arming himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to escort Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was only giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, “Granting him protection, of course.” Then Abu Jahl said, “We will protect whomever you protect.” #### Isra’ and Mi'raj It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the *Sira* lay out the famous Isra’ and Mi’raj. Nowadays, Isra’ is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Jerusalem, while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens. The Quranic grounding of the Mi'raj is tenuous, as the Mi'raj itself is not mentioned in the Qur'an, and the Qur'an emphasizes that Muhammad brought no other miracle than the Qur'an. Quran 17:1 reads, "Glory to the one who took his servant on a night journey from the sacred place of prayer to the furthest place of prayer." The tradition has understood "the sacred place of prayer" as the Kaaba. However, the identity of "the furthest place of prayer" has been disputed, resulting in various contradictory traditions. One modern scholarly view maintains that the oldest tradition regards "the furthest place of prayer" as the heavenly prototype of the Kaaba, so that the Mi’raj was then a night journey from Mecca directly through the heavens to the celestial Kaaba. Whereas later tradition mentions "the furthest place of prayer" as *Bayt al-Maqdis*, which is considered to be Jerusalem. Eventually, the two journeys were harmonized to present Muhammad making a night journey to Jerusalem, then from there to the heavens. The dating of the events also differs from account to account. Ibn Sa'd recorded that Muhammad's Mi’raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of Ramadan, 18 months before the Hijrah, while the Isra’ from Mecca to *Bayt al-Maqdis* took place on the 17th night of the Last Rabi’ul before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In Ibn Hisham's account, the Isra’ came first and then the Mi’raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. On the other hand, al-Tabari only included the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to believe in the Messenger of God". #### Hijrah Having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages. In 620, his uncle al-Abbas, who had not yet converted to Islam, introduced him to political elite of the Banu Khazraj and Banu Aws in Medina and coordinated a meeting at Aqaba. The two clans had been in conflict against one another for years, with each trying to court the support of the Jewish tribes in the area. In order to readjust their political relationship, they sought a political leader from outside, and considered Muhammad, with his authority based on religious claims, would be in a better position to act as an impartial arbiter than any resident of Medina. Seven or eight men of them then sat at Aqaba listening intently to what he had to say. A year later, they returned with five others and accepted Islam. Muhammad told them that Islam would prepare the way for them to live side by side with the Jews. After his failure at Taif, Muhammad proceeded with caution; he sent an agent to go with them back to Medina, ostensibly to instruct the people of the city in his religion. The next year, they returned to Aqaba with 73 men and two women. Al-Abbas said to those who were present: > Ye company of the Khazraj! This, my kinsman, dwells among us (the family of Hashim) in honor and safety. His clan will defend him—both those who are converts and those who still adhere to their ancestral faith—but he prefers to seek protection from you. Therefore, consider the matter well and count the cost. If you are resolved and able to defend him, well; but if you doubt your ability, at once abandon the design. > > Then Muhammad himself spoke to those people: > I invite your allegiance on the basis that you protect me as you would your women and children. > > In which they agreed. After that, Muhammad commanded the Muslims in Mecca to migrate to Medina. This event is known as the Hijrah which basically means severing of kinship ties. Some Muslims were held back by their families from leaving but in the end there were no Muslims left in Mecca. Twentieth-century Pakistani Muslim scholar Fazlur Rahman said that the Muslims were expelled from Mecca and their property seized. Being alarmed at the departure, according to tradition, the Meccans plotted to assassinate Muhammad. With the help of Ali, Muhammad fooled the Meccans watching him, and secretly slipped away from the town with Abu Bakr. By 622, Muhammad emigrated to Medina, a large agricultural oasis. Those who migrated from Mecca along with Muhammad became known as *muhajirun* (emigrants). ### Medinan years Medina, located over 200 miles to the north of Mecca, is a lush oasis. According to Muslim sources, the city was established by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans. While agriculture was far from being the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were outstanding farmers, cultivating the land in the oases. There were reportedly around 20 Jewish tribes residing in the city, with the three most prominent being Banu Nadir, Banu Qaynuqa and Banu Qurayza. In time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled down alongside the Jewish community, and gradually replaced their position of hegemony. The Arab tribes consisted of Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj, both collectively known as Banu Qayla. Before 620, there had been fighting among the two Arab tribes for almost a hundred years, with each of them attempting to court the assistance of the Jewish tribes, causing the latter sometimes also had to fight each other. In 622, when Muhammad came to the city, the Jewish tribes were allied as subordinates to the two Arab tribes. #### Establishment of a new polity Immediately following his account of the *hijrah*, Ibn Ishaq states, without any *isnad* or other evidence, that Muhammad wrote a text known today as the Constitution of Medina and continues to reproduce its contents. The naming is generally considered a misnomer because it did not create a state, nor did subsequent Quranic legislation, but dealt with tribal affairs. Both scholars from the West and the Muslim world concur about the text’s authenticity. However, there are disagreements on whether the "constitution" was really a treaty or just a unilateral edict by Muhammad, how many documents it consisted of, who the principal parties to it were, when exactly it (or its component parts) was drawn up, whether it was after or before Muhammad's elimination of the three major Jewish tribes of Medina, and even what the correct way to translate it is. The first group of converts to Islam in Medina were the clans without great leaders; these clans had been subjugated by hostile leaders from outside. This was followed by the general acceptance of Islam by the pagan population of Medina, with some exceptions. According to Ibn Ishaq, this was influenced by the conversion of Sa'd ibn Mu'adh (a prominent Medinan leader) to Islam. Medinans who converted to Islam and helped the Muslim emigrants find shelter became known as the *ansar* (supporters). Then Muhammad instituted brotherhood between the emigrants and the supporters and he chose Ali as his own brother. #### Beginning of armed conflict War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans. According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer. > > *Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means of others, there would have been demolished monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.* > > > — Quran (22:39–40) Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the Raid of Nakhla, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners. In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr. Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. The Battle of Badr commenced. Though outnumbered more than three to one, the Muslims won the battle, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including Abu Jahl. Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed. Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils. The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers. As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans, Asma bint Marwan of the Aws Manat tribe and Abu 'Afak of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings. Most members of those tribes converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained. Muhammad expelled from Medina the Banu Qaynuqa, one of three main Jewish tribes, but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death. According to al-Waqidi, after Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina. Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of Hejaz. #### Conflict with Mecca The Meccans were eager to avenge their defeat. To maintain economic prosperity, the Meccans needed to restore their prestige, which had been reduced at Badr. In the ensuing months, the Meccans sent ambush parties to Medina while Muhammad led expeditions against tribes allied with Mecca and sent raiders onto a Meccan caravan. Abu Sufyan gathered an army of 3000 men and set out for an attack on Medina. A scout alerted Muhammad of the Meccan army's presence and numbers a day later. The next morning, at the Muslim conference of war, a dispute arose over how best to repel the Meccans. Muhammad and many senior figures suggested it would be safer to fight within Medina and take advantage of the heavily fortified strongholds. Younger Muslims argued that the Meccans were destroying crops, and huddling in the strongholds would destroy Muslim prestige. Muhammad eventually conceded to the younger Muslims and readied the Muslim force for battle. Muhammad led his force outside to the mountain of Uhud (the location of the Meccan camp) and fought the Battle of Uhud on 23 March 625. Although the Muslim army had the advantage in early encounters, lack of discipline on the part of strategically placed archers led to a Muslim defeat; 75 Muslims were killed, including Hamza, Muhammad's uncle who became one of the best known martyrs in the Muslim tradition. The Meccans did not pursue the Muslims; instead, they marched back to Mecca declaring victory. The announcement is probably because Muhammad was wounded and thought dead. When they discovered that Muhammad lived, the Meccans did not return due to false information about new forces coming to his aid. The attack had failed to achieve their aim of completely destroying the Muslims. The Muslims buried the dead and returned to Medina that evening. Questions accumulated about the reasons for the loss; Muhammad delivered Quranic verses 3:152 indicating that the defeat was twofold: partly a punishment for disobedience, partly a test for steadfastness. Abu Sufyan directed his effort towards another attack on Medina. He gained support from the nomadic tribes to the north and east of Medina; using propaganda about Muhammad's weakness, promises of booty, memories of Quraysh prestige and through bribery. Muhammad's new policy was to prevent alliances against him. Whenever alliances against Medina were formed, he sent out expeditions to break them up. Muhammad heard of men massing with hostile intentions against Medina, and reacted in a severe manner. One example is the assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf, a chieftain of the Jewish tribe of Banu Nadir. Al-Ashraf went to Mecca and wrote poems that roused the Meccans' grief, anger and desire for revenge after the Battle of Badr. Around a year later, Muhammad expelled the Banu Nadir from Medina forcing their emigration to Syria; he allowed them to take some possessions, as he was unable to subdue the Banu Nadir in their strongholds. The rest of their property was claimed by Muhammad in the name of God as it was not gained with bloodshed. Muhammad surprised various Arab tribes, individually, with overwhelming force, causing his enemies to unite to annihilate him. Muhammad's attempts to prevent a confederation against him were unsuccessful, though he was able to increase his own forces and stopped many potential tribes from joining his enemies. #### Battle of the Trench With the help of the exiled Banu Nadir, the Quraysh military leader Abu Sufyan mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam, Salman the Persian. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks. Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home. The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27. During the battle, the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts. After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to Ibn Ishaq, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved. Walid N. Arafat and Barakat Ahmad have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative. Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his contemporary Malik ibn Anas, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later Ibn Hajar. Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved. Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while Meir J. Kister has contradicted[*clarification needed*] the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad. In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished. Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting. While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an accusation of adultery was made against Aisha, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24, An-Nur). #### Truce of Hudaybiyyah > > "In your name, O God! > This is the treaty of peace between Muhammad Ibn Abdullah and Suhayl Ibn Amr. They have agreed to allow their arms to rest for ten years. During this time each party shall be secure, and neither shall injure the other; no secret damage shall be inflicted, but honesty and honour shall prevail between them. Whoever in Arabia wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with Muhammad can do so, and whoever wishes to enter into a treaty or covenant with the Quraysh can do so. And if a Qurayshite comes without the permission of his guardian to Muhammad, he shall be delivered up to the Quraysh; but if, on the other hand, one of Muhammad's people comes to the Quraysh, he shall not be delivered up to Muhammad. This year, Muhammad, with his companions, must withdraw from Mecca, but next year, he may come to Mecca and remain for three days, yet without their weapons except those of a traveller; the swords remaining in their sheaths." > > > —The statement of the treaty of Hudaybiyyah Although Muhammad had delivered Quranic verses commanding the Hajj, the Muslims had not performed it due to Quraysh enmity. In the month of Shawwal 628, Muhammad ordered his followers to obtain sacrificial animals and to prepare for a pilgrimage (*umrah*) to Mecca, saying that God had promised him the fulfillment of this goal in a vision when he was shaving his head after completion of the Hajj. Upon hearing of the approaching 1,400 Muslims, the Quraysh dispatched 200 cavalry to halt them. Muhammad evaded them by taking a more difficult route, enabling his followers to reach al-Hudaybiyya just outside Mecca. According to Watt, although Muhammad's decision to make the pilgrimage was based on his dream, he was also demonstrating to the pagan Meccans that Islam did not threaten the prestige of the sanctuaries, that Islam was an Arabian religion. Negotiations commenced with emissaries traveling to and from Mecca. While these continued, rumors spread that one of the Muslim negotiators, Uthman bin al-Affan, had been killed by the Quraysh. Muhammad called upon the pilgrims to make a pledge not to flee (or to stick with Muhammad, whatever decision he made) if the situation descended into war with Mecca. This pledge became known as the "Pledge of Acceptance" or the "Pledge under the Tree". News of Uthman's safety allowed for negotiations to continue, and a treaty scheduled to last ten years was eventually signed between the Muslims and Quraysh. The main points of the treaty included: cessation of hostilities, the deferral of Muhammad's pilgrimage to the following year, and agreement to send back any Meccan who emigrated to Medina without permission from their protector. Many Muslims were not satisfied with the treaty. However, the Quranic sura "Al-Fath" (The Victory) assured them that the expedition must be considered a victorious one. It was later that Muhammad's followers realized the benefit behind the treaty. These benefits included the requirement of the Meccans to identify Muhammad as an equal, cessation of military activity allowing Medina to gain strength, and the admiration of Meccans who were impressed by the pilgrimage rituals. After signing the truce, Muhammad assembled an expedition against the Jewish oasis of Khaybar, known as the Battle of Khaybar. This was possibly due to housing the Banu Nadir who were inciting hostilities against Muhammad, or to regain prestige from what appeared as the inconclusive result of the truce of Hudaybiyya. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad also sent letters to many rulers, asking them to convert to Islam (the exact date is given variously in the sources). He sent messengers (with letters) to Heraclius of the Byzantine Empire (the eastern Roman Empire), Khosrau of Persia, the chief of Yemen and to some others. In the years following the truce of Hudaybiyya, Muhammad directed his forces against the Arabs on Transjordanian Byzantine soil in the Battle of Mu'tah. ### Final years #### Conquest of Mecca The truce of Hudaybiyyah was enforced for two years. The tribe of Banu Khuza'a had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the Banu Bakr, had allied with the Meccans. A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them. The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting. After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay blood money for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null. The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition. Soon they realized their mistake and sent Abu Sufyan to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad. Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca. He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off the war and disrupted the peace". Some of these were later pardoned. Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of Arabian gods in and around the Kaaba. According to reports collected by Ibn Ishaq and al-Azraqi, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of Mary and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased. The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca. #### Conquest of Arabia Following the conquest of Mecca, Muhammad was alarmed by a military threat from the confederate tribes of Hawazin who were raising an army double the size of Muhammad's. The Banu Hawazin were old enemies of the Meccans. They were joined by the Banu Thaqif (inhabiting the city of Ta'if) who adopted an anti-Meccan policy due to the decline of the prestige of Meccans. Muhammad defeated the Hawazin and Thaqif tribes in the Battle of Hunayn. In the same year, Muhammad organized an attack against northern Arabia because of their previous defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah and reports of hostility adopted against Muslims. With great difficulty he assembled 30,000 men; half of whom on the second day returned with Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, untroubled by the damning verses which Muhammad hurled at them. Although Muhammad did not engage with hostile forces at Tabuk, he received the submission of some local chiefs of the region. He also ordered the destruction of any remaining pagan idols in Eastern Arabia. The last city to hold out against the Muslims in Western Arabia was Taif. Muhammad refused to accept the city's surrender until they agreed to convert to Islam and allowed men to destroy the statue of their goddess Al-Lat. A year after the Battle of Tabuk, the Banu Thaqif sent emissaries to surrender to Muhammad and adopt Islam. Many bedouins submitted to Muhammad to safeguard against his attacks and to benefit from the spoils of war. However, the bedouins were alien to the system of Islam and wanted to maintain independence: namely their code of virtue and ancestral traditions. Muhammad required a military and political agreement according to which they "acknowledge the suzerainty of Medina, to refrain from attack on the Muslims and their allies, and to pay the Zakat, the Muslim religious levy." #### Farewell pilgrimage In 632, at the end of the tenth year after migration to Medina, Muhammad completed his first true Islamic pilgrimage, setting precedent for the annual Great Pilgrimage, known as *Hajj*. On the 9th of Dhu al-Hijjah Muhammad delivered his Farewell Sermon, at Mount Arafat east of Mecca. In this sermon, Muhammad advised his followers not to follow certain pre-Islamic customs. For instance, he said a white has no superiority over a black, nor a black any superiority over a white except by piety and good action. He abolished old blood feuds and disputes based on the former tribal system and asked for old pledges to be returned as implications of the creation of the new Islamic community. Commenting on the vulnerability of women in his society, Muhammad asked his male followers to "be good to women, for they are powerless captives (*awan*) in your households. You took them in God's trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words ..." He told them that they were entitled to discipline their wives but should do so with kindness. He addressed the issue of inheritance by forbidding false claims of paternity or of a client relationship to the deceased and forbade his followers to leave their wealth to a testamentary heir. He also upheld the sacredness of four lunar months in each year. According to Sunni tafsir, the following Quranic verse was delivered during this event: "Today I have perfected your religion, and completed my favours for you and chosen Islam as a religion for you". According to Shia tafsir, it refers to the appointment of Ali ibn Abi Talib at the pond of Khumm as Muhammad's successor, this occurring a few days later when Muslims were returning from Mecca to Medina. #### Death and tomb A few months after the farewell pilgrimage, Muhammad fell ill and suffered for several days with fever, head pain, and weakness. He died on Monday, 8 June 632, in Medina, at the age of 62 or 63, in the house of his wife Aisha. With his head resting on Aisha's lap, he asked her to dispose of his last worldly goods (seven coins), then spoke his final words: > “O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companion.” > > — Muhammad According to the *Encyclopaedia of Islam*, Muhammad's death may be presumed to have been caused by Medinan fever exacerbated by physical and mental fatigue. Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house. During the reign of the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I, al-Masjid an-Nabawi (the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of Muhammad's tomb. The Green Dome above the tomb was built by the Mamluk sultan Al Mansur Qalawun in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (Sahabah), the first two Muslim caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar, and an empty one that Muslims believe awaits Jesus. When Saud bin Abdul-Aziz took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation. Adherents to Wahhabism, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped. Similar events took place in 1925, when the Saudi militias retook—and this time managed to keep—the city. In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves. Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a ziyarat—a ritual visit—to the tomb. Al-Masjid an-Nabawi ("the Prophet's mosque") in Medina, Saudi Arabia, with the Green Dome built over Muhammad's tomb in the center ### After Muhammad Muhammad united several of the tribes of Arabia into a single Arab Muslim religious polity in the last years of his life. With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at Ghadir Khumm. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy". The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sassanian empires. The Roman–Persian Wars between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims many Christians (Nestorians, Monophysites, Jacobites and Copts) were disaffected from the Eastern Orthodox Church which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered Mesopotamia, Byzantine Syria, Byzantine Egypt, large parts of Persia, and established the Rashidun Caliphate. Islamic social reforms ---------------------- According to William Montgomery Watt, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject." Bernard Lewis says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies. Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as social security, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the *status quo* of Arab society. For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced aristocratic privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents".[*which?*] Muhammad's message transformed society and moral orders of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity, world view, and the hierarchy of values.[*page needed*] Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in pre-Islamic Mecca. The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (zakat) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular. Appearance ---------- In Muhammad al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 61, Hadith 57 & Hadith 60, Muhammad is depicted by two of his companions thus: > God's Messenger was neither very tall nor short, neither absolutely white nor deep brown. His hair was neither curly nor lank. God sent him (as a Messenger) when he was forty years old. Afterwards he resided in Mecca for ten years and in Medina for ten more years. When God took him unto Him, there was scarcely twenty white hairs in his head and beard. > > — Anas > The Prophet was of moderate height having broad shoulders (long) hair reaching his ear-lobes. Once I saw him in a red cloak and I had never seen anyone more handsome than him. > > — Al-Bara The description given in Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi's book Shama'il al-Mustafa, attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hind ibn Abi Hala is as follows: > Muhammad was middle-sized, did not have lank or crisp hair, was not fat, had a white circular face, wide black eyes, and long eye-lashes. When he walked, he walked as though he went down a declivity. He had the "seal of prophecy" between his shoulder blades ... He was bulky. His face shone like the moon. He was taller than middling stature but shorter than conspicuous tallness. He had thick, curly hair. The plaits of his hair were parted. His hair reached beyond the lobe of his ear. His complexion was *azhar* [bright, luminous]. Muhammad had a wide forehead, and fine, long, arched eyebrows which did not meet. Between his eyebrows there was a vein which distended when he was angry. The upper part of his nose was hooked; he was thick bearded, had smooth cheeks, a strong mouth, and his teeth were set apart. He had thin hair on his chest. His neck was like the neck of an ivory statue, with the purity of silver. Muhammad was proportionate, stout, firm-gripped, even of belly and chest, broad-chested and broad-shouldered. > > The "seal of prophecy" between Muhammad's shoulders is generally described as having been a type of raised mole the size of a pigeon's egg. Another description of Muhammad was provided by Umm Ma'bad, a woman he met on his journey to Medina: > I saw a man, pure and clean, with a handsome face and a fine figure. He was not marred by a skinny body, nor was he overly small in the head and neck. He was graceful and elegant, with intensely black eyes and thick eyelashes. There was a huskiness in his voice, and his neck was long. His beard was thick, and his eyebrows were finely arched and joined together. > > When silent, he was grave and dignified, and when he spoke, glory rose up and overcame him. He was from afar the most beautiful of men and the most glorious, and close up he was the sweetest and the loveliest. He was sweet of speech and articulate, but not petty or trifling. His speech was a string of cascading pearls, measured so that none despaired of its length, and no eye challenged him because of brevity. In company he is like a branch between two other branches, but he is the most flourishing of the three in appearance, and the loveliest in power. He has friends surrounding him, who listen to his words. If he commands, they obey implicitly, with eagerness and haste, without frown or complaint. > > Descriptions like these were often reproduced in calligraphic panels (Turkish: *hilye*), which in the 17th century developed into an art form of their own in the Ottoman Empire. Household --------- Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods: pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca (from 570 to 622), and post-hijra in Medina (from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts, Rayhana bint Zayd and Maria al-Qibtiyya, as wife or concubine). Eleven of the thirteen marriages occurred after the migration to Medina. At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy Khadijah bint Khuwaylid who was 40 years old. The marriage lasted for 25 years and was a happy one. Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage. After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry Sawdah bint Zamah, a Muslim widow, or Aisha, daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both. Muhammad's marriages after the death of Khadijah were contracted mostly for political or humanitarian reasons. The women were either widows of Muslims killed in battle and had been left without a protector, or belonged to important families or clans with whom it was necessary to honor and strengthen alliances. According to traditional sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when betrothed to Muhammad, with the marriage not being consummated until she reached the age of nine or ten years old. She was therefore a virgin at marriage. Modern Muslim authors who calculate Aisha's age based on other sources of information, such as a hadith about the age difference between Aisha and her sister Asma, estimate that she was over thirteen and perhaps in her late teens at the time of her marriage. After migration to Medina, Muhammad, who was then in his fifties, married several more women. Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him. Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (Ruqayyah bint Muhammad, Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad, Zainab bint Muhammad, Fatimah Zahra) and two sons (Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad and Qasim ibn Muhammad, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him. Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter. Maria al-Qibtiyya bore him a son named Ibrahim ibn Muhammad, but the child died when he was two years old. Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him. Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favourite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam. Muhammad's descendants through Fatimah are known as *sharifs*, *syeds* or *sayyids*. These are honorific titles in Arabic, *sharif* meaning 'noble' and *sayed* or *sayyid* meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on their distinction. Zayd ibn Haritha was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad. He was bought by her nephew Hakim bin Hizam at the market in Ukaz. Zayd then became the couple’s adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd’s ex-wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh. According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem". Legacy ------ ### Islamic tradition Following the attestation to the oneness of God, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the Islamic faith. Every Muslim proclaims in *Shahadah*: "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of Islam. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (*adhan*) and the prayer itself. Non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed. In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God. Qur'an 10:37 states that "...it (the Quran) is a confirmation of (revelations) that went before it, and a fuller explanation of the Book—wherein there is no doubt—from The Lord of the Worlds". Similarly, 46:12 states "...And before this was the book of Moses, as a guide and a mercy. And this Book confirms (it)...", while Quran 2:136 commands the believers of Islam to "Say: we believe in God and that which is revealed unto us, and that which was revealed unto Abraham and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which Moses and Jesus received, and which the prophets received from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and unto Him we have surrendered." Muslim tradition credits Muhammad with several miracles or supernatural events. For example, many Muslim commentators and some Western scholars have interpreted the Surah 54:1–2 as referring to Muhammad splitting the Moon in view of the Quraysh when they began persecuting his followers. Western historian of Islam Denis Gril believes the Quran does not overtly describe Muhammad performing miracles, and the supreme miracle of Muhammad is identified with the Quran itself. According to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was attacked by the people of Ta'if and was badly injured. The tradition also describes an angel appearing to him and offering retribution against the assailants. It is said that Muhammad rejected the offer and prayed for the guidance of the people of Ta'if. The Sunnah represents actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as Hadith) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic: *as-salamu 'alaykum*) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran. Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and poetry. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad, Qasidat al-Burda ("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian Sufi al-Busiri (1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power. The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (*rahmat*) to the worlds" The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth. Muhammad's birthday is celebrated as a major feast throughout the Islamic world, excluding Wahhabi-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged. When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase *ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam* (*may God honor him and grant him peace*) or the English phrase *peace be upon him*. In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used (ﷺ). #### Sufism The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century. Muslim mystics, known as sufis, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad. #### Depictions In line with the hadith's prohibition against creating images of sentient living beings, which is particularly strictly observed with respect to God and Muhammad, Islamic religious art is focused on the word. Muslims generally avoid depictions of Muhammad, and mosques are decorated with calligraphy and Quranic inscriptions or geometrical designs, not images or sculptures. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and Ahmadiyya Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame. The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century Anatolian Seljuk and Ilkhanid Persian miniatures, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad. During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events. Influenced by the Buddhist tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in glass and metalwork" besides books. In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the Timurid dynasty until the Safavids took power in the early 16th century. The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence. Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced. Later images were produced in Ottoman Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad. Illustrated accounts of the night journey (*mi'raj*) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era. During the 19th century, Iran saw a boom of printed and illustrated *mi'raj* books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of graphic novels. Reproduced through lithography, these were essentially "printed manuscripts". Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense. ### European appreciation After the Reformation, Muhammad was often portrayed in a similar way. Guillaume Postel was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet. Gottfried Leibniz praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the natural religion". Henri de Boulainvilliers, in his *Vie de Mahomed* which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker. He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the Romans and Persians, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain. Voltaire had a somewhat mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play *Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète* he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in a published essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan", but in his historical survey *Essai sur les mœurs*, he presents him as legislator and a conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast". Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his *Social Contract* (1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers". Emmanuel Pastoret published in 1787 his *Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad*, in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision". Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man". Napoleon Bonaparte admired Muhammad and Islam, and described him as a model lawmaker and a great man. Thomas Carlyle in his book *On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History* (1841) describes "Mahomet" as "A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot *but* be in earnest". Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as a great man in history. Ian Almond says that German Romantic writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: "Goethe's 'extraordinary' poet-prophet, Herder's nation builder (...) Schlegel's admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')". After quoting Heinrich Heine, who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you, great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory", John Tolan goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an ethnoreligious minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded Al-Andalus, and thus, "writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and pogroms of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors". Recent writers such as William Montgomery Watt and Richard Bell dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith" and Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity. Watt, however, says that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation. Watt and Bernard Lewis argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development. Alford T. Welch holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation. ### Other religions Followers of the Baháʼí Faith venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "Manifestations of God". He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the Adamic cycle, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle. Druze tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets", and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the Druze faith, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history. ### Criticism Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching monotheism, and by the Jewish tribes of Arabia for his perceived appropriation of Biblical narratives and figures and proclamation of himself as the "Seal of the Prophets". During the Middle Ages, various Western and Byzantine Christian thinkers criticized Muhammad's morality, and labelled him a false prophet or even the Antichrist, and he was frequently portrayed in Christendom as being either a heretic or as being possessed by demons. Modern religious and secular criticism of Islam has concerned Muhammad's sincerity in claiming to be a prophet, his morality, his marriages, his sex life, his ownership of slaves, his treatment of his enemies, his handling of doctrinal matters, and his psychological condition. Battle record ------------- | Outcome | Score | Date | Action | Opponent | Strength | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Stalemate | 0–0 | August 623 CE | Patrol of Waddan | Meccan polytheists | 70 | | Stalemate | 0–0 | October 623 CE | Patrol of Buwat | 200 | | Victory | 1–0 | September 623 CE | First Expedition to Badr | 70 | | Stalemate | 1–0 | December 623 CE | Patrol of Zul Al-Ushairah | 150–200 | | Victory | 2–0 | 15 March 624 CE | Battle of Badr | 313 | | Victory | 3–0 | April 624 CE | Invasion of Banu Qaynuqa | Banu Qaynuqa | – | | Stalemate | 3–0 | May/June 624 CE | Invasion of Sawiq | Meccan polytheists | | Victory | 4–0 | May 624 CE | Al Kudr Invasion | Banu Salim | | Victory | 5–0 | September 624 CE | Raid on Dhu Amarr | Banu Muharib and Banu Thalabah | 450 | | Stalemate | 5–0 | October/November 624 CE | Invasion of Buhran | Banu Sulaym | 300 | | Defeat | 5–1 | 23 March 625 CE | Battle of Uhud | Meccan polytheists | 754 | | Victory | 6–1 | 24 March 625 CE | Battle of Hamra al-Asad | 702–1,004 | | Victory | 7–1 | May 625 CE | Invasion of Banu Nadir | Banu Nadir | ~800 | | Victory | 8–1 | October 625 CE | Expedition of Badr al-Maw'id | Meccan polytheists | 1,510 | | Victory | 9–1 | July 625 CE | Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa | Banu Ghatafan | 400 or 800 | | Victory | 10–1 | August or September 626 CE | Expedition of Dumat al-Jandal | Tribes of Dumat al-Jandal | 1,000 | | Victory | 11–1 | December 627 CE | Expedition of al-Muraysi' | Banu Mustaliq | – | | Stalemate | 12–1 | 31 March 627 | Battle of the Trench | Meccan polytheists | 3,000 | | Victory | 13–1 | September 627 CE | Invasion of Banu Lahyan | Banu Lahyan | 200 | | Victory | 14–1 | January 627 CE | Invasion of Banu Qurayza | Banu Qurayza | 3,030 | | Victory | 15–1 | March/April 628 CE | Battle of Khaybar | Jews of Khaybar | 1,600 | | Victory | 16–1 | May 628 CE | Third Expedition of Wadi al Qura | Jews of al-Qura | – | | Victory | 17–1 | December 629 CE | Conquest of Mecca | Meccan polytheists | 10,000 | | Victory | 18–1 | 630 CE | Battle of Hunayn | Hawazin and the Thaqif | 12,000 | | Victory | 19–1 | December 630 CE | Battle of Autas | Banu Thaqif | 5,000 | | Victory | 20–1 | December 630 CE | Siege of Ta'if | Citizens of Ta'if | 12,000 | | Stalemate | 20–1 | October/December 630 CE | Expedition of Tabuk | Byzantine Empire | 30,000 | See also -------- * Ashtiname of Muhammad * Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad * Diplomatic career of Muhammad * Glossary of Islam * List of founders of religious traditions * List of notable Hijazis * Muhammad and the Bible * Muhammad in film * Muhammad's views on Christians * Muhammad's views on Jews * Possessions of Muhammad * Relics of Muhammad * Muhammad in Islam * Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith References ---------- * Schroeder, Eric (1 January 2002). *Muhammad's People: An Anthology of Muslim Civilization*. 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Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8. * ibn Isa, Muhammad (Imam Tirmidhi) (2011). *Syama'il Muhammadiyah: KeanggunanMu Ya Rasulullah* (Hardcover) (in Arabic and Malay). Malaysia: PTS Islamika Sdn. Bhd. p. 388. ISBN 978-967-366-064-3. * Ishaq, Ibn (2002). Guillaume, Alfred (ed.). *The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-636033-1. * Jacobs, Louis (1995). *The Jewish Religion: A Companion*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-826463-7. * Kelsay, John (1993). *Islam and War: A Study in Comparative Ethics*. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25302-8. * Khan, Majid Ali (1998). *Muhammad The Final Messenger*. New Delhi: Islamic Book Service. ISBN 978-81-85738-25-3. * Kochler, Hans (1982). *Concept of Monotheism in Islam & Christianity*. I.P.O. ISBN 978-3-7003-0339-8. * Lapidus, Ira (2002). *A History of Islamic Societies* (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3. * Larsson, Göran (2003). *Ibn Garcia's Shu'Ubiyya Letter: Ethnic and Theological Tensions in Medieval Al-Andalus*. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-12740-1. * Lewis, Bernard (2002) [1993]. *The Arabs in History*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280310-8. * Lewis, Bernard (1992). *Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry* (Reprint ed.). Oxford University Press, US. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5. * Lewis, Bernard (21 January 1998). "Islamic Revolution". *The New York Review of Books*. * Lings, Martin (1983). *Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources*. Islamic Texts Society. ISBN 978-0-946621-33-0. US edn. by Inner Traditions International, Ltd. * Madelung, Wilferd (1997). *The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3. * Momen, Moojan (1985). *An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. * Neusner, Jacob (2003). *God's Rule: The Politics of World Religions*. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-0-87840-910-5. * Ordoni, Abu Muhammad; Muhammad Kazim Qazwini (1992). *Fatima the Gracious*. Ansariyan Publications. ASIN B000BWQ7N6. * Peters, Francis Edward (1991). "The Quest of the Historical Muhammad". *International Journal of Middle East Studies*. **23** (3): 291–315. doi:10.1017/S0020743800056312. S2CID 162433825. * Peters, Francis Edward (2003). *Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-11553-5. * Peters, Francis Edward (2003b). *The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition*. Vol. 1: The Peoples of God. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11460-9. ASIN: B0012385Z6. * Peters, Francis Edward (2003c). *The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition*. Vol. 2: The Words and Will of God. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11461-7. * Peters, Francis Edward (10 November 2010). *Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-974746-7. Archived from the original on 14 June 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2011. * Peterson, Daniel (2007). *Muhammad, Prophet of God*. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8028-0754-0. * Quinn, Frederick (2008). "The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)". *The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought*. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 17–54. ISBN 978-0-19-532563-8. * Rahman, Fazlur (1979). *Islam*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70281-0. * Ramadan, Tariq (2007). *In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530880-8. * Reeves, Minou (2003). *Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making*. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7564-6. * Robin, Christian J. (2012). *Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity*. OUP USA. ISBN 978-0-19-533693-1. * Robinson, David (2004). *Muslim Societies in African History*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82627-3. * Rodinson, Maxime (2002). *Muhammad: Prophet of Islam*. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-86064-827-4. * Rue, Loyal (2005). *Religion Is Not about God: How Spiritual Traditions Nurture Our Biological*. Rutgers. ISBN 978-0-8135-3955-3. * Serin, Muhittin (1998). *Hattat Aziz Efendi*. Istanbul. ISBN 978-975-7663-03-4. OCLC 51718704. * Sikand, Yoginder (2004). *Muslims in India since 1947: Islamic perspectives on inter-faith relations*. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-0-415-31486-2. * Spellberg, Denise A. (1996). *Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr*. Columbia University Press. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-231-07999-0. * Stillman, Norman A. (1979). *The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book*. Jewish Publication Society. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-8276-0198-7. * Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn. *AL-MIZAN:AN EXEGESIS OF THE QUR'AN, translation by S. Saeed Rizvi*. WOFIS. ISBN 978-964-6521-14-8. * Teed, Peter (1992). *A Dictionary of Twentieth Century History*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-211676-5. * Turner, Colin (2005). *Islam: The Basics*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34106-6. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). *Muhammad at Mecca*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577277-7. ASIN: B000IUA52A. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). *Muhammad at Medina*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-577307-1. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1961). *Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-881078-0. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1964). *Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198810780. OCLC 2756451. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1974). *Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman*. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-881078-4. * Welch, Alford T.; Moussalli, Ahmad S.; Newby, Gordon D. (2009). "Muḥammad". In John L. Esposito (ed.). *The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017. * Wijdan, Ali (28 August 1999). "From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art". *Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art* (7): 1–24. * Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2013). *Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement*. Vol. 1. New York: Routledge. pp. vii–xi, 3–26. ISBN 978-0-7146-3142-4. ### Encyclopaedia of Islam * Buhl, F.; Welch, A.T. (1993). "Muḥammad". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 7 (2nd ed.). Brill. pp. 360–376. ISBN 978-90-04-09419-2. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1971). "Ḥalīma Bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Brill. * Watt, W. Montgomery (1960). "Āmina". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. * Abel, Armand (1960). "Baḥīrā". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. * Arafat, W. (1960). "Bilāl b. Rabāḥ". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. * Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002). "Waḥy". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Vol. 11 (2nd ed.). Brill. Further reading --------------- * Berg, Herbert, ed. (2003). *Method and Theory in the Study of Islamic Origins*. E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-12602-2. * Cook, Michael (1983). *Muhammad*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287605-8. * Guillaume, Alfred (1955). *The Life of Muhammad: A translation of Ibn Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-636033-1. * Hamidullah, Muhammad (1998). *The Life and Work of the Prophet of Islam*. Islamabad: Islamic Research Institute. ISBN 978-969-8413-00-2. * Motzki, Harald, ed. (2000). *The Biography of Muhammad: The Issue of the Sources – Islamic History and Civilization: Studies and Texts, Vol. 32*. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-11513-2. * Musa, A.Y. *Hadith as Scripture: Discussions on The Authority Of Prophetic Traditions in Islam*, New York: Palgrave, 2008 * Rubin, Uri (1995). *The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims (A Textual Analysis)*. Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-110-6. * Schimmel, Annemarie (1985). *And Muhammad is His Messenger: The Veneration of the Prophet in Islamic Piety*. The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4128-0. * Ali, Tariq, "Winged Words" (review of Maxime Rodinson, *Muhammad*, translated by Anne Carter, NYRB, March 2021, 373 pp., ISBN 978 1 68137 492 5), *London Review of Books*, vol. 43, no. 12 (17 June 2021), pp. 11–14.

Muhammad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad

A **body of water** or **waterbody** (often spelled **water body**) is any significant accumulation of water on the surface of Earth or another planet. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, but it includes smaller pools of water such as ponds, wetlands, or more rarely, puddles. A body of water does not have to be still or contained; rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water. Most are naturally occurring geographical features, but some are artificial. There are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, but some natural lakes are used as reservoirs. Similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways. Some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. Bodies of water are affected by gravity, which is what creates the tidal effects on Earth. Moreso, the impact of climate change on water is likely to intensify as observed through the rising sea levels, water acidification and flooding. This means that climate change has pressure on water bodies. Types ----- Bodies of water can be categorized into: 1. Rain water 2. Surface water 3. Underground water There are some geographical features involving water that are not bodies of water, for example, waterfalls, geysers and rapids. * Arm of the sea – also sea arm, used to describe a sea loch. * Arroyo – (southwest US) (seasonal) a usually-dry bed of a steep-sided stream, gully, or narrow channel that temporarily fills with water after heavy rain. See also wadi. * Artificial lake or artificial pond – see reservoir (impoundment). * Aubach * Barachois – (Canada) a lagoon separated from the ocean by a sand bar. * Basin * Bay – an area of water bordered by land on three sides, similar to, but smaller than a gulf. * Bayou – (southern US) a slow-moving stream or a marshy lake. * Beck – (UK) a small stream (esp. with a rocky bottom); creek. * Bight – a large and often only slightly receding bay, or a bend in any geographical feature. * Billabong – an oxbow lake in Australia; a pond or still body of water created when a river changes course and some water becomes trapped. * Boil – see seep * Bog – a type of wetland that accumulates peat due to incomplete decomposition of plant matter. * Bourn – a brook; stream; small, seasonal stream. * Brook – a small stream; a creek. * Brooklet – a small brook. * Burn – (Scottish) a small stream; a brook. * Canal – an artificial waterway, usually connected to (and sometimes connecting) existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. * Channel – the physical confine of a river, slough or ocean strait consisting of a bed and banks. See also stream bed and strait. * Cove – a coastal landform. Earth scientists generally use the term to describe a circular or round inlet with a narrow entrance, though colloquially the term is sometimes used to describe any sheltered bay. * Creek – (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States) a (narrow) stream that is smaller than a river; a minor tributary of a river; brook. * Creek (tidal) – (mainly British) an inlet of the sea, narrower than a cove. * Delta – the location where a river flows into an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, or reservoir. * Distributary or distributary channel – a stream that branches off and flows away from the main stream channel. * Drainage basin – a region of land where water from rain or snowmelt drains downhill into another body of water, such as a river, lake, or reservoir. * Draw – a usually dry creek bed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy rain, or seasonally. See also wadi. * Estuary – a semi-enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea * Firth – (Scottish) various coastal waters, such as large sea bays, estuaries, inlets, and straits. * Fjord (*fiord*) – a narrow inlet of the sea between cliffs or steep slopes. * Gill – (UK) a narrow stream or rivulet; brook; narrow mountain stream. * Glacier – a large collection of ice or a frozen river that moves slowly down a mountain. * Glacial pothole – a giant's kettle. * Gulf – a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides, similar to, but larger than a bay. * Harbor – an artificial or naturally occurring body of water where ships are stored or may shelter from the ocean's weather and currents. * Hot spring – a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater. * Impoundment – an artificially-created body of water, by damming a source. Often used for flood control, as a drinking water supply (reservoir), recreation, ornamentation (artificial pond), or other purpose or combination of purposes. The process of creating an "impoundment" of water is itself called "impoundment." * Inlet – a body of water, usually seawater, which has characteristics of one or more of the following: bay, cove, estuary, firth, fjord, geo, sea loch, or sound. * Kettle (or kettle lake) – a shallow, sediment-filled body of water formed by retreating glaciers or draining floodwaters. * Kill – used in areas of Dutch influence in New York, New Jersey and other areas of the former New Netherland colony of Dutch America to describe a strait, river, or arm of the sea. * Lagoon – a body of comparatively shallow salt or brackish water separated from the deeper sea by a shallow or exposed sandbank, coral reef, or similar feature. * Lake – a body of water, usually freshwater, of relatively large size contained on a body of land. * Lick — a small watercourse or an ephemeral stream * Loch – (Scottish) a body of water such as a lake, sea inlet, firth, fjord, estuary or bay. * Mangrove swamp – a saline coastal habitat of mangrove trees and shrubs. * Marsh – a wetland featuring grasses, rushes, reeds, typhas, sedges, and other herbaceous plants (possibly with low-growing woody plants) in a context of shallow water. See also salt marsh. * Mediterranean sea (oceanography) – a mostly enclosed sea that has a limited exchange of deep water with outer oceans and where the water circulation is dominated by salinity and temperature differences rather than winds * Mere – a lake or body of water that is broad in relation to its depth. * Mill pond – a reservoir built to provide flowing water to a watermill. * Moat – a deep, broad trench, either dry or filled with water, surrounding and protecting a structure, installation, or town. * Mud puddle * Ocean – a major body of salty water that, in totality, covers about 71% of the Earth's surface. * Oxbow lake – a U-shaped lake formed when a wide meander from the mainstem of a river is cut off to create a lake. * Phytotelma – a small, discrete body of water held by some plants. * Plunge pool – a depression at the base of a waterfall. * Pool – various small bodies of water such as a swimming pool, reflecting pool, pond, or puddle. * Pond – a body of water smaller than a lake, especially those of artificial origin. * Port – a maritime facility where ships may dock to load and discharge passengers and cargo. * Pothole – see kettle * Puddle – a small accumulation of water on a surface, usually the ground. * Reflecting pool – a water feature usually consisting of a shallow pool of water, undisturbed by fountain jets, for a reflective surface. * Reservoir – a place to store water for various uses, especially drinking water, which can be a natural or artificial (see lake and impoundment). * Rill – a shallow channel of running water. These can be either natural or human-made. Also: a very small brook; rivulet; small stream. * River – a natural waterway usually formed by water derived from either precipitation or glacial meltwater, and flows from higher ground to lower ground. * Rivulet – (UK, US literary) a small or very small stream. * Roadstead – a place outside a harbor where a ship can lie at anchor; it is an enclosed area with an opening to the sea, narrower than a bay or gulf (often called a "roads"). * Run – a small stream or part thereof, especially a smoothly flowing part of a stream. * Salt marsh – a type of marsh that is a transitional zone between land and an area, such as a slough, bay, or estuary, with salty or brackish water. * Sea – a large expanse of saline water connected with an ocean, or a large, usually saline, lake that lacks a natural outlet such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea. In common usage, often synonymous with the ocean. * Sea loch – a sea inlet loch. * Sea lough – a fjord, estuary, bay or sea inlet. * Seep – a body of water formed by a spring. * Slough – several different meanings related to wetland or aquatic features. * Source – the original point from which the river or stream flows. A river's source is sometimes a spring. * Shoal – a natural submerged ridge, bank, or bar that consists of, or is covered by, sand or other unconsolidated material, and rises from the bed of a body of water to near the surface. * Sound – a large sea or ocean inlet larger than a bay, deeper than a bight, wider than a fjord, or it may identify a narrow sea or ocean channel between two bodies of land. * Spring – a point where groundwater flows out of the ground, and is thus where the aquifer surface meets the ground surface * Strait – a narrow channel of water that connects two larger bodies of water, and thus lies between two land masses. * Stream – a body of water with a detectable current, confined within a bed and banks. * Stream pool – a stretch of a river or stream in which the water is relatively deep and slow moving. * Streamlet — a small stream; rivulet. * Subglacial lake – a lake that is permanently covered by ice and whose water remains liquid by the pressure of the ice sheet and geothermal heating. They often occur under glaciers or ice caps. Lake Vostok in Antarctica is an example. * Swamp – a wetland that features permanent inundation of large areas of land by shallow bodies of water, generally with a substantial number of hummocks, or dry-land protrusions. * Swimming pool – an artificial container filled with water intended for swimming. * Tank – (or stock tank, Texas) an artificial pond, usually for watering cattle or other livestock. * Tarn – a mountain lake or pool formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier. * Tide pool – a rocky pool adjacent to an ocean and filled with seawater. * Tributary or affluent – a stream or river that flows into the main stem (or parent) river or a lake. * Vernal pool – a shallow, natural depression in level ground, with no permanent above-ground outlet, that holds water seasonally. * Wadi – a usually-dry creek bed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy rain, or seasonally; located in North Africa and Western Asia. See also arroyo (creek). * Wash – a usually dry creek bed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy rain, or seasonally. See also wadi. * Wetland – an environment "at the interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and truly aquatic systems making them different from each yet highly dependent on both". See also -------- * Bog – Type of wetland that accumulates peat due to incomplete decomposition of plant matter * Fluvial processes – Processes associated with rivers and streams * Lists of bodies of water * Port – Maritime facility where ships may dock to load and discharge passengers and cargo * Bank (geography) – Land alongside a body of water * Water mass – Body of water with common formation history * Water pollution – Contamination of water bodies * Glossary of landforms

Body of water

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_of_water

**Montenegro** (/ˌmɒntɪˈniːɡroʊ, -ˈneɪɡroʊ, -ˈnɛɡroʊ/ (); Montenegrin: *Crna Gora*, Црна Гора, lit. 'Black Mountain') is a country in Southeastern Europe. It is a part of the Balkans and is bordered by Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast, Kosovo to the east, Albania to the southeast, Croatia to the southwest, and the Adriatic Sea to the south with a coastline of 293.5 km. Podgorica, the capital and largest city, covers 10.4% of Montenegro's territory of 13,812 square kilometres (5,333 sq mi), and is home to roughly 31% of its total population of 621,000. Cetinje is the former royal capital (Montenegrin: *prijestonica*) of Montenegro and is the location of several national institutions, including the official residence of the president of Montenegro. During the Early Medieval period, three principalities were located on the territory of modern-day Montenegro: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half; Travunia, the west; and Rascia proper, the north. The Principality of Zeta emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries. From the late 14th century to the late 18th century, large parts of southern Montenegro were ruled by the Venetian Republic and incorporated into Venetian Albania. The name *Montenegro* was first used to refer to the country in the late 15th century. After falling under Ottoman Empire rule, Montenegro gained its semi-autonomy in 1696 under the rule of the House of Petrović-Njegoš, first as a theocracy and later as a secular principality. Montenegro's independence was recognised by the Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. In 1910, the country became a kingdom. After World War I, the kingdom became part of Yugoslavia. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro together proclaimed a federation. Following an independence referendum held in May 2006, Montenegro declared its independence in June 2006 and the confederation dissolved. Montenegro has an upper-middle-income economy, and ranks 49th in the Human Development Index. It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe, and the Central European Free Trade Agreement. Montenegro is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean, and is in the process of joining the European Union as of 2016[update]. Etymology --------- The country's English name derives from a Venetian calque of the Slavic "Crna Gora", meaning "Black Mountain", deriving from the appearance of Mount Lovćen which was covered in dense evergreen forests. *Crna Gora,* was mentioned for the first time in edicts issued by Stefan Uroš I to the Serbian Orthodox Zeta Episcopate seat at Vranjina island in Lake Skadar. It came to denote the majority of contemporary Montenegro in the 15th century. Modern-day Montenegro was more and more known by that name in the historical period following the fall of the Serbian Despotate. Originally, it had referred to only a small strip of land under the rule of the Paštrovići tribe, but the name eventually came to be used for the wider mountainous region after the Crnojević noble family took power in Upper Zeta. The aforementioned region became known as *Stara Crna Gora* 'Old Montenegro' by the 19th century to distinguish the independent region from the neighbouring Ottoman-occupied Montenegrin territory of *Brda* '(The) Highlands'. Montenegro further increased its size several times by the 20th century, as the result of wars against the Ottoman Empire, which saw the annexation of Old Herzegovina and parts of Metohija and southern Raška. Its borders have changed little since then, losing Metohija and gaining the Bay of Kotor. After the second session of the AVNOJ during World War II in Yugoslavia, the contemporary modern state of Montenegro was founded as the *Federal State of Montenegro* (Montenegrin: Савезна држава Црне Горе / *Savezna država Crne Gore*) on 15 November 1943 within the Yugoslav Federation by the ZAVNOCGB. After the war, Montenegro became a republic under its name, the *People's Republic of Montenegro* (Montenegrin: Народна Република Црна Гора / *Narodna Republika Crna Gora*) on 29 November 1945. In 1963, it was renamed to the *Socialist Republic of Montenegro* (Montenegrin: Социјалистичка Република Црна Гора / *Socijalistička Republika Crna Gora*). As the breakup of Yugoslavia occurred, the SRCG was renamed to the *Republic of Montenegro* (Montenegrin: Република Црна Гора / *Republika Crna Gora*) on 27 April 1992 within the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by removing the adjective "socialist" from the republic's title. Since 22 October 2007, a year after its independence, the name of the country became simply known as *Montenegro*. The country is known as *Mali i Zi* (lit. black mountain) in Albanian, while it is known as Crna Gora in Bosnian as well as in Croatian. History ------- ### Antiquity Modern-day Montenegro was part of Illyria and populated by the Indo-European-speaking Illyrians. The Illyrian kingdom was conquered by the Roman Republic in the Illyro-Roman Wars and the region was incorporated into the province of Illyricum (later Dalmatia and Praevalitana). ### Arrival of the Slavs Three principalities were located on the territory: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half, Travunia, the west, and Raška, the north. Duklja gained its independence from the Byzantine Roman Empire in 1042. Over the next few decades, it expanded its territory to neighbouring Rascia and Bosnia, and also became recognised as a kingdom. Its power started declining at the beginning of the 12th century. After King Bodin's death (in 1101 or 1108), civil wars ensued. Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislav's son, Mihailo (1046–1081), and his grandson Constantine Bodin (1081–1101). **Left:** Petar I Petrović-Njegoš was the most popular spiritual and military leader from the Petrović dynasty. **Right:** Petar II Petrović-Njegoš was a Prince-Bishop (*vladika*) of Montenegro and the national poet and philosopher. Oil painting of Njegoš as *vladika*, c. 1837 As the nobility fought for the throne, the kingdom was weakened, and by 1186, the territory of modern-day Montenegro became part of the state ruled by Stefan Nemanja and was a part of various state formations ruled by the Nemanjić dynasty for the next two centuries. After the Serbian Empire collapsed in the second half of the 14th century, the most powerful Zetan family, the Balšićs, became sovereigns of Zeta. By the 13th century, *Zeta* had replaced *Duklja* when referring to the realm. In the late 14th century, southern Montenegro (Zeta) came under the rule of the Balšić noble family, then the Crnojević noble family, and by the 15th century, Zeta was more often referred to as *Crna Gora*. In 1421, Zeta was annexed to the Serbian Despotate, but after 1455, another noble family from Zeta, the Crnojevićs, became sovereign rulers of the country, making it the last free monarchy of the Balkans before it fell to the Ottomans in 1496, and got annexed to the *sanjak* of Shkodër. For a short time, Montenegro existed as a separate autonomous *sanjak* in 1514–1528 (Sanjak of Montenegro). Also, Old Herzegovina region was part of Sanjak of Herzegovina. ### Early modern period From 1392, numerous parts of the territory were controlled by Republic of Venice, including the city of Budva, in that time known as "Budua". The Venetian territory was centred on the Bay of Kotor, and the Republic introduced governors who meddled in Montenegrin politics. Venice controlled territories in present-day Montenegro until its fall in 1797. Large portions fell under the control of the Ottoman Empire from 1496 to 1878. In the 16th century, Montenegro developed a unique form of autonomy within the Ottoman Empire that permitted Montenegrin clans freedom from certain restrictions. Nevertheless, the Montenegrins were disgruntled with Ottoman rule, and in the 17th century, repeatedly rebelled, which culminated in the defeat of the Ottomans in the Great Turkish War at the end of that century. Montenegrin territories were controlled by warlike clans. Most clans had a chieftain (*knez*), who was not permitted to assume the title unless he proved to be as worthy a leader as his predecessor. An assembly of Montenegrin clans (*Zbor*) was held every year on 12 July in Cetinje, and any adult clansman could take part. In 1515, Montenegro became a theocracy led by the Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral, which flourished after the Petrović-Njegoš of Cetinje became the prince-bishop (whose title was "Vladika of Montenegro"). People from Montenegro in this historical period were described as Orthodox Serbs. ### Principality and Kingdom of Montenegro In 1858, one of the major Montenegrin victories over the Ottomans occurred at the Battle of Grahovac. Grand Duke Mirko Petrović, elder brother of Knjaz Danilo, led an army of 7,500 and defeated the numerically superior Ottomans with 15,000 troops at Grahovac on 1 May 1858. This forced the Great Powers to officially demarcate the borders between Montenegro and Ottoman Empire, *de facto* recognizing Montenegro's independence. In the Battle of Vučji Do Montenegrins inflicted a major defeat on the Ottoman Army under Grand Vizier Ahmed Muhtar Pasha. In the aftermath of the Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the major powers restructured the map of the Balkan region. The Ottoman Empire recognised the independence of Montenegro in the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. The first Montenegrin constitution (also known as the Danilo Code) was proclaimed in 1855. Under Nicholas I (ruled 1860–1918), the principality was enlarged several times in the Montenegro-Turkish Wars and was recognised as independent in 1878. Nicholas I established diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire. Minor border skirmishes excepted, diplomacy ushered in about 30 years of peace between the two states until the deposition of Abdul Hamid II in 1909. The political skills of Abdul Hamid II and Nicholas I played a major role in the mutually amicable relations. Modernization of the state followed, culminating with the draft of a Constitution in 1905. However, political rifts emerged between the reigning People's Party, who supported the process of democratisation and union with Serbia, and those of the True People's Party, who were monarchist. In 1910, Montenegro became a kingdom, and as a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913, a common border with Serbia was established, with Shkodër being awarded to Albania, though the current capital city of Montenegro, Podgorica, was on the old border of Albania and Yugoslavia. Montenegro became one of the Allied Powers during World War I (1914–18). In the Battle of Mojkovac fought in January 1916 between Austria-Hungary and the Kingdom of Montenegro, Montenegrins achieved a decisive victory even though they were outnumbered five to one. The Austro-Hungarians accepted military surrender on 25 January 1916. From 1916 to October 1918 Austria-Hungary occupied Montenegro. During the occupation, King Nicholas fled the country and established a government-in-exile in Bordeaux. ### Kingdom of Yugoslavia In 1922, Montenegro formally became the Oblast of Cetinje in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, with the addition of the coastal areas around Budva and Bay of Kotor. In a further restructuring in 1929, it became a part of a larger Zeta Banate of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia that reached the Neretva River. Nicholas's grandson, the Serb King Alexander I, dominated the Yugoslav government. Zeta Banovina was one of nine banovinas that formed the kingdom; it consisted of the present-day Montenegro and parts of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia. ### World War II and Socialist Yugoslavia In April 1941, Nazi Germany, the Kingdom of Italy, and other Axis allies attacked and occupied the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Italian forces occupied Montenegro and established a puppet Kingdom of Montenegro. In May, the Montenegrin branch of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia started preparations for an uprising planned for mid-July. The Communist Party and its Youth League organised 6,000 of its members into detachments prepared for guerrilla warfare. According to some historians, the first armed uprising in Nazi-occupied Europe happened on 13 July 1941 in Montenegro. Unexpectedly, the uprising took hold, and by 20 July, 32,000 men and women had joined the fight. Except for the coast and major towns (Podgorica, Cetinje, Pljevlja, and Nikšić), which were besieged, Montenegro was mostly liberated. In a month of fighting, the Italian army suffered 5,000 dead, wounded, and captured. The uprising lasted until mid-August, when it was suppressed by a counter-offensive of 67,000 Italian troops brought in from Albania. Faced with new and overwhelming Italian forces, many of the fighters laid down their arms and returned home. Nevertheless, intense guerrilla fighting lasted until December. Fighters who remained under arms fractured into two groups. Most of them went on to join the Yugoslav Partisans, consisting of communists and those inclined towards active resistance; these included Arso Jovanović, Sava Kovačević, Svetozar Vukmanović-Tempo, Milovan Đilas, Peko Dapčević, Vlado Dapčević, Veljko Vlahović, and Blažo Jovanović. Those loyal to the Karađorđević dynasty and opposing communism went on to become Chetniks, and turned to collaboration with Italians against the Partisans. War broke out between Partisans and Chetniks during the first half of 1942. Pressured by Italians and Chetniks, the core of the Montenegrin Partisans went to Serbia and Bosnia, where they joined with other Yugoslav Partisans. Fighting between Partisans and Chetniks continued through the war. Chetniks with Italian backing controlled most of the country from mid-1942 to April 1943. Montenegrin Chetniks received the status of "anti-communist militia" and received weapons, ammunition, food rations, and money from Italy. Most of them were moved to Mostar, where they fought in the Battle of Neretva against the Partisans, but were dealt a heavy defeat. During German operation Schwartz against the Partisans in May and June 1943, Germans disarmed many Chetniks without fighting, as they feared they would turn against them in case of an Allied invasion of the Balkans. After the capitulation of Italy in September 1943, Partisans managed to take hold of most of Montenegro for a brief time, but Montenegro was soon occupied by German forces, and fierce fighting continued during late 1943 and 1944. Montenegro was liberated by the Partisans in December 1944. Montenegro became one of the six constituent republics of the communist Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). Its capital became Podgorica, renamed Titograd in honour of President Josip Broz Tito. After the war, the infrastructure of Yugoslavia was rebuilt, industrialization began, and the University of Montenegro was established. Greater autonomy was established until the Socialist Republic of Montenegro ratified a new constitution in 1974. ### Montenegro within FR Yugoslavia After the dissolution of the SFRY in 1992, Montenegro remained part of a smaller Federal Republic of Yugoslavia along with Serbia. In the referendum on remaining in Yugoslavia in 1992, the turnout was 66%, with 96% of the votes cast in favour of the federation with Serbia. The referendum was boycotted by the Muslim, Albanian, and Catholic minorities, as well as pro-independence Montenegrins. The opponents claimed that the poll was organised under anti-democratic conditions with widespread propaganda from the state-controlled media in favour of a pro-federation vote. No impartial report on the fairness of the referendum was made, as it was unmonitored, unlike in a later 2006 referendum when European Union observers were present. During the 1991–1995 Bosnian War and Croatian War, Montenegrin police and military forces joined Serbian troops in attacks on Dubrovnik, Croatia. These operations, aimed at acquiring more territory, were characterised by large-scale violations of human rights. Montenegrin General Pavle Strugar was convicted for his part in the bombing of Dubrovnik. Bosnian refugees were arrested by Montenegrin police and transported to Serb camps in Foča, where they were subjected to systematic torture and executed. In 1996, Milo Đukanović's government severed ties between Montenegro and its partner Serbia, which was led by Slobodan Milošević. Montenegro formed its own economic policy and adopted the German Deutsche Mark as its currency and subsequently adopted the euro, although not part of the Eurozone. Subsequent governments pursued pro-independence policies, and political tensions with Serbia simmered despite political changes in Belgrade. Targets in Montenegro were bombed by NATO forces during Operation Allied Force in 1999, although the extent of these attacks was limited in both time and area affected. In 2002, Serbia and Montenegro came to a new agreement for continued cooperation and entered into negotiations regarding the future status of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. This resulted in the Belgrade Agreement, which saw the country's transformation into a more decentralised state union named Serbia and Montenegro in 2003. The Belgrade Agreement also contained a provision delaying any future referendum on the independence of Montenegro for at least three years. ### Independence The status of the union between Montenegro and Serbia was decided by a referendum on Montenegrin independence on 21 May 2006. A total of 419,240 votes were cast, representing 86.5% of the electorate; 230,661 votes (55.5%) were for independence and 185,002 votes (44.5%) were against. This narrowly surpassed the 55% threshold needed to validate the referendum under the rules set by the European Union. According to the electoral commission, the 55% threshold was passed by only 2,300 votes. Serbia, the member-states of the European Union, and the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council all recognised Montenegro's independence. The 2006 referendum was monitored by five international observer missions, headed by an OSCE/ODIHR team, and around 3,000 observers in total (including domestic observers from CDT (OSCE PA), the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE), the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (CLRAE), and the European Parliament (EP) to form an International Referendum Observation Mission (IROM). The IROM—in its preliminary report—"assessed compliance of the referendum process with OSCE commitments, Council of Europe commitments, other international standards for democratic electoral processes, and domestic legislation." Furthermore, the report stated that the competitive pre-referendum environment was marked by an active and generally peaceful campaign and that "there were no reports of restrictions on fundamental civil and political rights." On 3 June 2006, the Montenegrin Parliament declared the independence of Montenegro, formally confirming the result of the referendum. On 28 June 2006, Montenegro joined the United Nations as its 192nd member state. Montenegro has been dominated since the breakup of Yugoslavia by Milo Đukanović (four-time prime minister and also twice president), accused of having established an authoritarianism and clientelist regime, while maintaining close relations with organized crime. The massive privatizations of the Đukanović era lead to the enrichment of him and oligarchs close to him. His brother Aleksandar, owner of Montenegro's first private bank, oversaw the privatizations, while his sister, Ana Kolarevic, has long controlled the judiciary. The clientelist networks of the ruling party dominated all segments of social life. A party card was required to start a business or obtain a position in the administration. This policy also contributed to the reinforcement of regional disparities and social inequalities. Unemployment climbs to 36.6 per cent in the northern part of the country, compared to 3.9 per cent in the coastal region, while a quarter of the population lives below the poverty line (2018). The Law on the Status of the Descendants of the Petrović Njegoš Dynasty was passed by the Parliament of Montenegro on 12 July 2011. It rehabilitated the Royal House of Montenegro and recognised limited symbolic roles within the constitutional framework of the republic. In 2015, the investigative journalists' network OCCRP named Montenegro's long-time President and Prime Minister Milo Đukanović "Person of the Year in Organized Crime". The extent of Đukanović's corruption led to street demonstrations and calls for his removal. In October 2016, for the day of the parliamentary election, a coup d'état was prepared by a group of persons that included leaders of the Montenegrin opposition, Serbian nationals and Russian agents; the coup was prevented. In 2017, fourteen people, including two Russian nationals and two Montenegrin opposition leaders, Andrija Mandić and Milan Knežević, were indicted for their alleged roles in the coup attempt on charges such as "preparing a conspiracy against the constitutional order and the security of Montenegro" and an "attempted terrorist act." ### Recent history Montenegro formally became a member of NATO in June 2017, though "Montenegro remains deeply divided over joining NATO", an event that triggered a promise of retaliatory actions from Russia's government. Montenegro has been in negotiations with the EU since 2012. In 2018, the earlier goal of acceding by 2022 was revised to 2025. In April 2018, Milo Djukanovic, the leader of the ruling Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS), won Montenegro's presidential election. The veteran politician had served as Prime Minister six times and as president once before. He had dominated Montenegrin politics since 1991. Anti-corruption protests began in February 2019 against Đukanović and the Prime Minister Duško Marković-led government of the ruling Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS), which had been in power since 1991. As of late December 2019, the newly adopted Law on Religion, which de jure transferred the ownership of church buildings and estates built before 1918 from the Serbian Orthodox Church to the Montenegrin state, sparked large protests and road blockages. Seventeen opposition Democratic Front MPs were arrested prior to the voting for disrupting the vote. Demonstrations continued into March 2020 as peaceful protest walks, mostly organised by the Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral and the Eparchy of Budimlja and Nikšić in the majority of Montenegrin municipalities. In its political rights and civil liberties worldwide report in May 2020, Freedom House marked Montenegro as a hybrid regime rather than a democracy because of declining standards in governance, justice, elections, and media freedom. For the first time in three decades, in the 2020 parliamentary election, the opposition won more votes than Đukanović's ruling party. In February 2022, that very same government was voted out in the first successful vote of no-confidence in the country's history. In March 2023, Jakov Milatovic, a pro-western candidate of the Europe Now movement, won the presidential election run-off over incumbent Milo Djukanovic to succeed him as the incumbent president of Montenegro. Geography --------- Montenegro features high peaks along its borders with Serbia, Kosovo, and Albania, a segment of the Karst of the western Balkan Peninsula, to a narrow coastal plain that is only 1.5 to 6 kilometres (1 to 4 miles) wide. The plain stops abruptly in the north, where Mount Lovćen and Mount Orjen plunge into the inlet of the Bay of Kotor. Prokletije National ParkLake Skadar National Park is a hotspot of freshwater biodiversity Montenegro's large karst region lies generally at elevations of 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) above sea level; some parts, however, rise to 2,000 m (6,560 ft), such as Mount Orjen (1,894 m or 6,214 ft), the highest massif among the coastal limestone ranges. The Zeta River valley, at an elevation of 500 m (1,600 ft), is the lowest segment. The mountains of Montenegro include some of the most rugged terrains in Europe, averaging more than 2,000 metres (6,600 feet) in elevation. One of the country's notable peaks is Bobotov Kuk in the Durmitor mountains, which reaches a height of 2,522 m (8,274 ft). Owing to the hyperhumid climate on their western sides, the Montenegrin mountain ranges were among the most ice-eroded parts of the Balkan Peninsula during the last glacial period. Internationally, Montenegro borders Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Albania and Croatia. It lies between latitudes 41° and 44°N, and longitudes 18° and 21°E. | Name | Established | Area | | --- | --- | --- | | Durmitor National Park | 1952 | 390 square kilometres (39,000 ha) | | Biogradska Gora National Park | 1952 | 54 square kilometres (5,400 ha) | | Lovćen National Park | 1952 | 64 square kilometres (6,400 ha) | | Lake Skadar National Park | 1983 | 400 square kilometres (40,000 ha) | | Prokletije National Park | 2009 | 166 square kilometres (16,600 ha) | Montenegro is a member of the International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River, as more than 2,000 km2 (772 sq mi) of the country's territory lie within the Danube catchment area. ### Biodiversity The diversity of the geological base, landscape, climate, and soil, and the position of Montenegro on the Balkan Peninsula and Adriatic Sea, created the conditions for high biological diversity, putting Montenegro among the "hot-spots" of European and world biodiversity. The number of species per area unit index in Montenegro is 0.837, the highest in any European country. Biological estimates suggest that over 1,200 species of freshwater algae, 300 species of marine algae, 589 species of moss, 7,000-8,000 species of vascular plants, 2,000 species of fungi, 16,000-20,000 species of insects, 407 species of marine fish, 56 species of reptile, 333 species of regularly visiting birds and a high species diversity of mammals are found in Montenegro. Montenegro can be divided into two main biogeographic regions, which include the Mediterranean Biogeographic Region and the Alpine Biogeographic Region. It is also home to three terrestrial ecoregions: Balkan mixed forests, Dinaric Mountains mixed forests, and Illyrian deciduous forests. It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.41/10, ranking it 73rd globally out of 172 countries. The total share of protected areas in Montenegro is 9.05% of the country's area, which mainly comes from the five national parks of Montenegro. Government and politics ----------------------- Milo ĐukanovićJakov Milatović PresidentDritan AbazovićDritan Abazović Prime Minister The Constitution of Montenegro describes the state as a "civic, democratic, ecological state of social justice, based on the reign of Law". Montenegro is an independent and sovereign republic that established its constitution on 22 October 2007. The President of Montenegro is the head of state, elected for a period of five years through direct elections. The President represents the country abroad, promulgates laws by ordinance, calls elections for the Parliament, and proposes candidates for Prime Minister, president and justices of the Constitutional Court to the Parliament. The President also proposes the calling of a referendum to Parliament, grants amnesty for criminal offences prescribed by the national law, confers decoration and awards and performs other constitutional duties and is a member of the Supreme Defence Council. The official residence of the President is in Cetinje. The Government of Montenegro is the executive branch of government authority of Montenegro. The government is headed by the Prime Minister and consists of deputy prime ministers and ministers. The Parliament of Montenegro is a unicameral legislative body. It passes laws, ratifies treaties, appoints the Prime Minister, ministers, and justices of all courts, adopts the budget and performs other duties as established by the Constitution. Parliament can pass a vote of no-confidence in the Government by a simple majority. One representative is elected per 6,000 voters. In 2019, Freedom House reported that years of increasing state capture, abuse of power, and strongman tactics employed by President Đukanović led the country for the first time since 2003, Montenegro to be categorised as a hybrid regime instead of a democracy. Djukanovic's pro-Western Democratic Party of Socialists (DPS) narrowly lost the 2020 Montenegrin parliamentary election, ending its 30-year rule. The opposition "For the Future of Montenegro" (ZBCG) bloc is composed mainly of Serb nationalist parties. The new pro-Serbian government was formed by Prime Minister Zdravko Krivokapic. However, Prime Minister Zdravko Krivokapic's government was toppled in a no-confidence vote after 14 months in power. In April 2022, a new minority government, composed of moderate parties that are both pro-European and pro-Serb, was formed. The new government was led by Prime Minister Dritan Abazovic. However, his government lost confidence only after 113 days, making it the shortest government in Montenegrin history. ### Foreign relations The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was given the task of defining the foreign policy priorities and activities needed for their implementation in cooperation with other state administration authorities, the President, the Speaker of the Parliament, and other relevant stakeholders. Integration into the European Union is Montenegro's strategic goal. This process will remain the focus of Montenegrin foreign policy. The second goal was to join NATO, achieved on 5 June 2017. ### Military The military of Montenegro is a professional standing army under the Ministry of Defence. It is composed of the Montenegrin Ground Army, the Montenegrin Navy, and the Montenegrin Air Force, along with special forces. Conscription was abolished in 2006. The military maintains an active duty force of 2,400. The bulk of its equipment and forces were inherited from the armed forces of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. Montenegro contained the entire coastline of the former union and retained practically the entire naval force. Montenegro is a NATO member and a member of Adriatic Charter. The government planned to have the army participate in peacekeeping missions through the UN and NATO such as the International Security Assistance Force. ### Symbols The flag includes a border and arms in gold and a golden lion in the center. The national day of 13 July marks the date in 1878 when the Congress of Berlin recognised Montenegro as the 27th independent state in the world and the start of one of the first popular uprisings in Europe against the Axis Powers on 13 July 1941 in Montenegro. In 2004, the Montenegrin legislature selected a popular Montenegrin traditional song, "Oh, Bright Dawn of May", as the national anthem. Montenegro's official anthem during the reign of King Nicholas I was *Ubavoj nam Crnoj Gori* ("To Our Beautiful Montenegro"). ### Administrative divisions Montenegro is divided into twenty-four municipalities (*opština*). This includes 21 District-level Municipalities and 2 Urban Municipalities, with two subdivisions of Podgorica municipality, listed below. Each municipality can contain multiple cities and towns. Historically, the territory of the country was divided into "nahije". Regions of Montenegro—designed for statistical purposes by the Statistical Office—have no administrative function. Note that other organization (i.e. Football Association of Montenegro) use different municipalities as a part of similar regions. Budva, a coastal peninsular town on the west coast of Montenegro. Municipalities of Montenegro * Northern Region | Municipality | Area | Population | | --- | --- | --- | | Km² | Rank | Total | Rank | | Andrijevica | 283 | 12 | 5,117 | 10 | | Berane | 544 | 6 | 28,305 | 3 | | Bijelo Polje | 924 | 2 | 46,676 | 1 | | Gusinje | 486 | 8 | 13,108 | 6 | | Kolašin | 897 | 3 | 8,420 | 8 | | Mojkovac | 367 | 11 | 8,669 | 7 | | Petnjica | 173 | 13 | 6,686 | 9 | | Plav | 486 | 7 | 13,549 | 5 | | Plužine | 854 | 4 | 3,286 | 12 | | Pljevlja | 1,346 | 1 | 31,060 | 2 | | Rožaje | 432 | 10 | 23,312 | 4 | | Šavnik | 553 | 5 | 2,077 | 13 | | Žabljak | 445 | 9 | 3,599 | 11 | * Central Region | Municipality | Area | Population | | --- | --- | --- | | Km² | Rank | Total | Rank | | Cetinje | 899 | 3 | 16,757 | 4 | | Danilovgrad | 501 | 4 | 17,678 | 3 | | Nikšić | 2,065 | 1 | 72,824 | 2 | | Podgorica | 1,399 | 2 | 187,085 | 1 | | Tuzi | 236 | 5 | 12,096 | 5 | * Coastal Region | Municipality | Area | Population | | --- | --- | --- | | Km² | Rank | Total | Rank | | Bar | 598 | 1 | 42,368 | 1 | | Budva | 122 | 5 | 19,170 | 5 | | Herceg Novi | 235 | 4 | 30,992 | 2 | | Kotor | 335 | 2 | 22,799 | 3 | | Tivat | 46 | 6 | 14,111 | 6 | | Ulcinj | 255 | 3 | 20,265 | 4 | Economy ------- The official currency of Montenegro is the Euro.A proportional representation of Montenegro exports, 2019. The economy of Montenegro is mostly service-based and is in late transition to a market economy. According to the International Monetary Fund, the nominal GDP of Montenegro was $5.424 billion in 2019. The GDP PPP for 2019 was $12.516 billion, or $20,083 per capita. According to Eurostat data, the Montenegrin GDP per capita stood at 48% of the EU average in 2018. The Central Bank of Montenegro is not part of the euro system but the country is "euroised", using the euro unilaterally as its currency. GDP grew at 10.7% in 2007 and 7.5% in 2008. The country entered a recession in 2008 as a part of the global recession. GDP contracted by 4%. However, Montenegro remained a target for foreign investment, the only country in the Balkans to increase its amount of direct foreign investment in 2008. The country exited recession in mid-2010, with GDP growth at around 0.5%. However, the significant dependence of the Montenegrin economy on foreign direct investment leaves it susceptible to external shocks and a high trade deficit. In 2007, the service sector made up 72.4% of GDP, with industry and agriculture making up the rest at 17.6% and 10%, respectively. 50,000 farming households in Montenegro rely on agriculture. ### Infrastructure Roads of Montenegro in service and plannedA-1 motorway, part of the larger international project between Montenegro and neighboring Serbia that connects to the Belgrade–Bar motorway The Montenegrin road infrastructure is not at Western European standards. No roads meet full motorway standards. Construction of new motorways is considered a national priority, as they are important for uniform economic development and the development of Montenegro as an attractive tourist destination. The European routes that pass through Montenegro are E65 and E80. The backbone of the Montenegrin rail network is the Belgrade–Bar railway, which provides international connection towards Serbia. A domestic branch line, the Nikšić-Podgorica railway operated as a freight-only line for decades, that opened for passenger traffic after reconstruction and electrification in 2012. The other branch line from Podgorica towards the Albanian border, the Podgorica–Shkodër railway, is not in use. Montenegro has two international airports, Podgorica Airport and Tivat Airport. The Port of Bar is Montenegro's main seaport. Initially built in 1906, the port was almost completely destroyed during World War II. Reconstruction began in 1950. It is equipped to handle over 5 million tons of cargo annually, but has been operating at a loss and well below capacity. The reconstruction of the Belgrade-Bar railway and the proposed Belgrade-Bar motorway are expected to return operating levels to capacity. ### Tourism With a total of 1.6 million visitors, Montenegro was, as of 2017, the 36th-most-visited country (out of 47) in Europe. The majority of foreign visitors to Montenegro come from the neighbouring countries of Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, as well as Russia. The Montenegrin Adriatic coast is 295 km (183 mi) long, with 72 km (45 mi) of beaches and many well-preserved ancient towns. Some of the most popular beaches include Jaz Beach, Mogren Beach, Bečići Beach, Sveti Stefan Beach and Velika Plaža. Meanwhile, some of the most popular ancient towns include Herceg Novi, Perast, Kotor, Budva and Ulcinj. The Bay of Kotor, a UNESCO World Heritage SiteDurmitor National Park was founded in 1952, and designated as a World Heritage Site in 1980 *National Geographic Traveler* (edited once a decade) ranks Montenegro among the "50 Places of a Lifetime". Montenegrin seaside town Sveti Stefan was once used as the cover for the magazine. The coast region of Montenegro was considered one of the great "discoveries" among world tourists. In January 2010, *The New York Times* ranked the Ulcinj South Coast region of Montenegro, including Velika Plaža, Ada Bojana, and the Hotel Mediteran of Ulcinj, among the "Top 31 Places to Go in 2010" as part of a worldwide ranking. Montenegro was listed by Yahoo Travel among the "10 Top Hot Spots of 2009" to visit, describing it as "the second fastest growing tourism market in the world (falling just behind China)". It is listed by tourism guides like Lonely Planet as a top destination. Demographics ------------ ### Ethnic structure This map represents the spatial distribution of the different Montenegrine cultural communities, definded on the basis of the self-declared ethnicity, religion and mother tongue according to Census 2011Ethnic structure of Montenegro by settlements, 2011Religious structure of Montenegro by settlements, 2011 The 2011 census reported 620,029 citizens. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2015, 9,486 ethnic Serbs there were born in "Other Eastern Europe" countries, overwhelmingly Montenegro. According to the 2000 U.S. census, 2,339 individuals claimed first ancestry in Montenegro, and 189 whose second ancestry was Montenegrin, totaling 2,528 overall. Montenegro is a multiethnic state with no ethnic majority. Major ethnic groups include Montenegrins (Црногорци/*Crnogorci*) and Serbs (Срби/*Srbi*); others are Bosniaks (*Bošnjaci*), Muslims (ethnic group) (*Muslimani*), Albanians (*Albanci – Shqiptarët*) and Croats (*Hrvati*). The number of "Montenegrins" and "Serbs" fluctuates widely from census to census due to changes in how people perceive, experience, or choose to express, their identity and ethnic affiliation. ### Languages | | | | --- | --- | | | | | Cetinje Octoechos | The Mountain Wreath | The official language in Montenegro is Montenegrin. Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian, and Croatian are recognised in official usage. Montenegrin, Serbian, Bosnian, and Croatian are mutually intelligible as standard varieties of the Serbo-Croatian language. Montenegrin is the plurality mother-tongue of the under-18 population. Previous constitutions endorsed Serbo-Croatian as the official language in SR Montenegro and Serbian of the Ijekavian standard during the 1992–2006 period. ### Religion Montenegro has historically stood at the crossroads of multiculturalism and over centuries this has shaped its unique co-existence between Muslim and Christian populations. Montenegrins have historically been members of the Serbian Orthodox Church (governed by the Metropolitanate of Montenegro and the Littoral). Serbian Orthodox Christianity is the most popular religion. The Montenegrin Orthodox Church was recently founded and is followed by a minority of Montenegrins, although it is not in communion with any other canonical Christian Orthodox Church as it has not been officially recognised. Despite tensions between religious groups during the Bosnian War, Montenegro remained fairly stable, mainly due to its population's perspective on religious tolerance and faith diversity. Religious institutions have guaranteed rights and are separate from the state. The second largest religion is Islam, practiced by 19% of the population. Montenegro has one of the highest proportion of Muslims in Europe and the third highest proportion among Slavic countries, behind only Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia. A little more than one-fourth of the country's Albanians are Catholics (8,126 in the 2004 census) while the rest (22,267) are mainly Sunni Muslims; in 2012 a protocol recognised Islam as an official religion, which ensures that halal foods are served at military facilities, hospitals, dormitories and social facilities; and that Muslim women are permitted to wear headscarves in schools and at public institutions, as well as ensuring that Muslims have the right to take Fridays off for the Jumu'ah (Friday)-prayer. Since the time of Vojislavljević dynasty Catholicism is autochthonous in the Montenegrin area. A small Roman Catholic population, mostly Albanians with some Croats, is divided between the Archdiocese of Antivari headed by the Primate of Serbia and the Diocese of Kotor that is a part of the Catholic Church in Croatia. Culture ------- National Museum of MontenegroBoka Navy, from 2021 part of intangible World Heritage UNESCO Montenegrin culture has been shaped most importantly by Orthodox, Ottoman (Turk), Slavic, Central European, and seafaring Adriatic cultures (notably parts of Italy, like the Republic of Venice). Montenegro has many significant cultural and historical sites, including heritage sites from the pre-Romanesque, Gothic and Baroque periods. The Montenegrin coastal region is known for its religious monuments, including the Cathedral of Saint Tryphon in Kotor (Cattaro under the Venetians), the basilica of St. Luke (over 800 years), Our Lady of the Rocks (Škrpjela), the Savina Monastery and others. Medieval monasteries contain many artistically important frescoes. One cultural dimension is the ethical ideal of *Čojstvo i Junaštvo*, "Humaneness and Gallantry". The traditional folk dance of the Montenegrins is the Oro, the "eagle dance" that involves dancing in circles with couples alternating in the centre, and is finished by forming a human pyramid of dancers standing on each other's shoulders. ### Media Television, magazines, and newspapers are operated by both state-owned and for-profit corporations that depend on advertising, subscription, and other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Montenegro guarantees freedom of speech. Montenegro's media system is under transformation, along with the rest of the country. ### Sport | | | | --- | --- | | | | | Danka Kovinić,tennis player | Stevan Jovetić,football player | Sport in Montenegro revolves mostly around team sports, such as water polo, football, basketball, handball, and volleyball. Other sports involved are boxing, tennis, swimming, judo, karate, athletics, table tennis, and chess. Water polo is the most popular and is considered the national sport. Montenegro men's national water polo team is one of the world's top ranked teams, winning the gold medal at the 2008 Men's European Water Polo Championship in Málaga, Spain, and winning the gold medal at the 2009 FINA Men's Water Polo World League, held in Podgorica. The Montenegrin team PVK Primorac from Kotor became a champion of Europe at the LEN Euroleague 2009 in Rijeka, Croatia. Football is the second most popular sport. Notable players are Dejan Savićević, Predrag Mijatović, Mirko Vučinić, Stefan Savić, Stevan Jovetić, and Stefan Mugoša. The Montenegrin national football team, founded in 2006, played in playoffs for UEFA Euro 2012, its biggest success. The Montenegro national basketball team is known for good performances and won a lot of medals as part of the Yugoslavia national basketball team. In 2006, the Basketball Federation of Montenegro along with this team joined the International Basketball Federation (FIBA) on its own, following the Independence. Montenegro participated in two EuroBaskets. Among women sports, the national handball team is the most successful, having won the 2012 European Championship and finishing as runners-up at the 2012 Summer Olympics. ŽRK Budućnost Podgorica twice won EHF Champions League. Chess is another popular sport and notable global chess players such as Slavko Dedić were born there. At the 2012 Olympic Games in London, the Montenegro women's national handball team won the country's first Olympic medal, claiming silver. They lost in the final to defending world, Olympic, and European champion Norway 26–23. Following this defeat the team won against Norway in the final of the 2012 European Championship, becoming champions for the first time. ### Cuisine The first major influences to Montenegrin cuisine came from the Levant and Turkey: sarma, musaka, pilav, pita, gibanica, burek, ćevapi, kebab, đuveč, and Turkish sweets such as baklava and tulumba. Hungarian cuisine influences stews and sataraš. Central European cuisine is evident in the prevalence of crêpes, doughnuts, jams, many types of biscuits and cakes, and various kinds of breads. Montenegrin cuisine also varies geographically; the cuisine in the coastal area differs from that of the northern highland region. The coastal area is traditionally a representative of Mediterranean cuisine, with seafood being a common dish. The traditional dishes of Montenegro's Adriatic coast, unlike its heartland, have a distinctively Italian influence as well. See also -------- * Montenegro real estate taxes * Outline of Montenegro **Notes** **References** * Pope, Stephen; Wheal, lizabeth-Anne; Robbins, Keith (2003). *Dictionary of the First World War*. Pen & Sword Military Classics. ISBN 9780850529791. - Total pages: 561 Sources ------- * Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. *The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century*. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. * Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1994) [1987]. *The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest*. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4. * Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2007). *Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia*. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-1-85065-895-5. * Schmitt, Oliver Jens (2001). *Das venezianische Albanien (1392-1479)* (in German). München: Oldenbourg Verlag. ISBN 978-3-486-56569-0. Further reading --------------- * Banac, Ivo. *The National Question in Yugoslavia: Origins, History, Politics* Cornell University Press, (1984) ISBN 0-8014-9493-1 * Fleming, Thomas. *Montenegro: The Divided Land* (2002) ISBN 0-9619364-9-5 * Longley, Norm. *The Rough Guide to Montenegro* (2009) ISBN 978-1-85828-771-3 * Morrison, Kenneth. *Montenegro: A Modern History* (2009) ISBN 978-1-84511-710-8 * Roberts, Elizabeth. *Realm of the Black Mountain: A History of Montenegro* (Cornell University Press, 2007) 521pp ISBN 978-1-85065-868-9 * Stevenson, Francis Seymour. *A History of Montenegro* 2002) ISBN 978-1-4212-5089-2 * Özcan, Uğur *II. Abdulhamid Dönemi Osmanlı-Karadağ Siyasi İlişkileri* [Political relations between the Ottoman Empire and Montenegro in the Abdul Hamid II era] (2013) Türk Tarih Kurumu Turkish Historical Society ISBN 978-975-16-2527-4 42°30′N 19°18′E / 42.500°N 19.300°E / 42.500; 19.300

Montenegro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montenegro

The **roe deer** (***Capreolus capreolus***), also known as the **roe**, **western roe deer**, or **European roe deer**, is a species of deer. The male of the species is sometimes referred to as a **roebuck**. The roe is a small deer, reddish and grey-brown, and well-adapted to cold environments. The species is widespread in Europe, from the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, from Scotland to the Caucasus, and east to northern Iran and Iraq. Etymology --------- The English *roe* is from the Old English *rā* or *rāha*, from Proto-Germanic *\*raihô*, cognate with Old Norse *rá*, Old Saxon *rēho*, Middle Dutch and Dutch *ree*, Old High German *rēh*, *rēho*, *rēia*, German *Reh*. It is perhaps ultimately derived from a PIE root *\*rei-*, meaning "streaked, spotted or striped". The word is attested on the 5th-century Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus – a roe deer talus bone, written in Elder Futhark as ᚱᚨᛇᚺᚨᚾ, transliterated as *raïhan*. In the English language, this deer was originally simply called a 'roe', but over time the word 'roe' has become a qualifier, and it is now usually called 'roe deer'. The Koiné Greek name *πύγαργος*, transliterated 'pygargos', mentioned in the Septuagint and the works of various writers such as Hesychius, Herodotus and later Pliny, was originally thought to refer to this species (in many European translations of the Bible), although it is now more often believed to refer to the addax. It is derived from the words **pyge** 'buttocks' and **argo** 'white'. The taxonomic name *Capreolus* is derived from *capra* or *caprea*, meaning 'billy goat', with the diminutive suffix -*olus*. The meaning of this word in Latin is not entirely clear: it may have meant 'ibex' or 'chamois'. The roe was also known as *capraginus* or *capruginus* in Latin. Taxonomy -------- Linnaeus first described the roe deer in the modern taxonomic system as *Cervus capreolus* in 1758. The initially monotypic genus *Capreolus* was first proposed by John Edward Gray in 1821, although he did not provide a proper description for this taxon. Gray was not actually the first to use the name *Capreolus*, it has been used by other authors before him. Nonetheless, his publication is seen as taxonomically acceptable. He was generally ignored until the 20th century, most 19th-century works having continued to follow Linnaeus. The name *Capreolus capreolus* is a tautonym. Roe deer populations gradually become somewhat larger as one moves further to the east, peaking in Kazakhstan, then becoming smaller again towards the Pacific Ocean. The Soviet mammalogist Vladimir Sokolov had recognised this[*clarification needed*] as a separate species from 1985 already using electrophoretic chromatography to show differences in the fractional protein content of the body tissues, the next year he showed that there were differences in the skull morphology, and a year after he used sonographs to demonstrate that the fawns, females and males made very different noises between species. Alexander S. Graphodatsky looked at the karyotypy to present more evidence to recognise these Russian and Asian populations as a separate species, now renamed the eastern or Siberian roe deer (*Capreolus pygargus*), in his 1990 paper. The taxa are differentiated by the B chromosomes found in *C. pygargus*, populations of this species gain more of these strange 'junk' chromosomes as one moves further east. This new taxonomic interpretation (circumscription) was first followed in the American book *Mammal Species of the World* in 1993. Populations of the roe deer from east of the Khopyor River and Don River to Korea are considered to be this species. ### Subspecies The Integrated Taxonomic Information System, following the 2005 *Mammal Species of the World*, gives the following subspecies: * *Capreolus capreolus capreolus* (Linnaeus, 1758) * *Capreolus capreolus canus* Miller, 1910 - Spain * *Capreolus capreolus caucasicus* Nikolay Yakovlevich Dinnik, 1910 - A large-sized subspecies found in the region to the north of the Caucasus Mountains; although *Mammal Species of the World* appears to recognise the taxon, this work bases itself on a chapter by Lister *et al*. in the 1998 book *The European roe deer: the biology of success*, which only recognises the name as provisional. * *Capreolus capreolus italicus* Enrico Festa, 1925 - Italy This is just one (extreme) interpretation among a number of them. Two main specialists did not recognise these taxa and considered the species to be without subspecies in 2001. The European Union's *Fauna Europaea* recognised in 2005 two subspecies, but besides the nominate form recognises the Spanish population as the endemic *Capreolus capreolus garganta* Meunier, 1983. In 2008 the IUCN recognised three infraspecific taxa: the nominate and the subspecies *garganta* and *italicus*. ### Systematics Roe deer are most closely related to the water deer, and, counter-intuitively, the three species in this group, called the Capreolini, are most closely related to moose and reindeer. Although roe deer were once classified as belonging to the Cervinae subfamily, they are now classified as part of the Odocoileinae, which includes the deer from the New World. ### Hybrids Both the European roe deer and Siberian roe deer have seen their populations increase, both around the 1930s. In recent times, since the 1960s, the two species have become sympatric where their distributions meet, and there is now a broad 'hybridization zone' running from the right side of the Volga River up to eastern Poland. It is extremely difficult for hunters to know which species they have bagged. In line with Haldane's rule, female hybrids of the two taxa are fertile, while male hybrids are not. Hybrids are much larger than normal and a Cesarean section was sometimes needed to birth the fawns, becoming larger than their mothers at the age of 4–5 months. F1 hybrid males may be sterile, but backcrosses with the females are possible. 22% of the animals around Moscow carry the mtDNA of the European roe deer and 78% of the Siberian. In the Volgograd region, the European roe deer predominates. In the Stavropol and Dnepropetrovsk regions of Ukraine, most of the deer are Siberian roe deer. In northeastern Poland there is also evidence of introgression with the Siberian roe deer, which was likely introduced. In some cases, such as around Moscow, former introductions of European stock is likely responsible. Description ----------- The roe deer is a relatively small deer, with a body length of 95–135 cm (3 ft 1 in – 4 ft 5 in) throughout its range, and a shoulder height of 63–67 cm (2 ft 1 in – 2 ft 2 in), and a weight of 15–35 kg (35–75 lb). Populations from Urals and northern Kazakhstan are larger on average growing to 145 cm (4 ft 9 in) in length and 85 cm (2 ft 9 in) at shoulder height, with body weights of up to 60 kg (130 lb), with the populations becoming smaller again further east in the Transbaikal, Amur Oblast, and Primorsky Krai regions. In healthy populations, where population density is restricted by hunting or predators, bucks are slightly larger than does. Under other conditions, males can be similar in size to females, or slightly smaller. Bucks in good conditions develop antlers up to 20–25 cm (8–10 in) long with two or three, rarely even four, points. When the male's antlers begin to regrow, they are covered in a thin layer of velvet-like fur which disappears later on after the hair's blood supply is lost. Males may speed up the process by rubbing their antlers on trees, so that their antlers are hard and stiff for the duels during the mating season. Unlike most cervids, roe deer begin regrowing antlers almost immediately after they are shed. Distribution ------------ Within Europe the roe deer occurs in most areas with the exception of northernmost Scandinavia, in Norway it occurs throughout the country with the exception of parts of northern Vestland and northernmost Nordland (north of Narvik), and the islands of Iceland, Ireland and those of the Mediterranean Sea islands. In the Mediterranean region, it is largely confined to mountainous areas, and is absent or rare at low altitudes. There is an early Neolithic fossil record from Jordan. It is known that there are roe deer that live in the Red Forest near Chernobyl in Ukraine. ### Belgium In Flanders the roe deer was mostly confined to the hilly regions in the east, but like in neighbouring countries the population has expanded in recent times. A theory is that the expansion of maize cultivation, which are higher than traditional crops and afford more shelter, has aided their expansion to the west. ### Britain In England and Wales, roe deer have experienced a substantial expansion in their range in the latter half of the 20th century and continuing into the 21st century. This increase in population also appears to be affecting woodland ecosystems. At the start of the 20th century, they were almost extirpated in Southern England, but since then have hugely expanded their range, mostly due to restrictions and decrease in hunting, increases in forests and reductions in arable farming, changes in agriculture (more winter cereal crops), a massive reduction in extensive livestock husbandry, and a general warming climate over the past 200 years. Furthermore, there are no large predators in Britain. In some cases, roe deer have been introduced with human help. In 1884 roe deer were introduced from Württemberg in Germany into the Thetford Forest, and these spread to populate most of Norfolk, Suffolk, and substantial parts of Cambridgeshire. In southern England, they started their expansion in Sussex (possibly from enclosed stock in Petworth Park) and from there soon spread into Surrey, Berkshire, Wiltshire, Hampshire, and Dorset, and for the first half of the 20th century, most roe deer in Southern England were to be found in these counties. By the end of the 20th century, they had repopulated much of southern England and had expanded into Somerset, Devon, Cornwall, Oxfordshire, Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Lincolnshire and South Yorkshire, and had even spread into Wales from the Ludlow area where an isolated population had appeared. At the same time, the surviving population in Scotland and the Lake District had pushed further south beyond Yorkshire and Lancashire and into Derbyshire and Humberside. In the 1970s, the species was still completely absent from Wales. Roe deer can now be found in most of rural England except for southeast Kent and parts of Wales; anywhere in the UK mainland suitable for roe deer may have a population. Not being a species that needs large areas of woodland to survive, urban roe deer are now a feature of several cities, notably Glasgow and Bristol, where in particular they favour cemeteries. In Wales, they are least common, but they are reasonably well established in Powys and Monmouthshire. ### Iran Roe deer are found in northern Iran in the Caspian region: they occur in the Hyrcanian woodlands and agricultural lands of the Alborz Mountains (Golestan National Park, Jahan Nama Protected Area). ### Ireland Scottish roe deer were introduced to the Lissadell Estate in County Sligo in Ireland around 1870 by Sir Henry Gore-Booth. The Lissadell roe deer were noted for their occasional abnormal antlers and survived in that general area for about 50 years before they died out. According to the National Biodiversity Data Centre, in 2014 there was a confirmed sighting of roe deer in County Armagh. There have been other, unconfirmed, sightings in County Wicklow. ### The Netherlands In the Netherlands, roe deer were extirpated from the entirety of the country except for two small areas around 1875. As new forests were planted in the country in the 20th century, the population began to expand rapidly. Although it was a protected species in 1950, the population is no longer considered threatened and it has lost legal protection. As of 2016 there are some 110,000 roe deer in the country. The population is primarily kept in check through the efforts of hunters. ### Israel In 1991, a breeding colony of 27 roe deer coming from France, Hungary and Italy were brought in the Hai-Bar Carmel Reserve. A small number of this roe deer population has been reintroduced to the Carmel Mountains from the Carmel Hai-Bar Nature Reserve, with the first deer being released in 1996. 24 to 29 animals had been released by 2006. Some of the reintroduced animals were hand-reared and could be monitored by their responses to their keeper calls. Ecology ------- ### Habitat This species can utilize a large number of habitats, including open agricultural areas and above the tree line, but a requisite factor is access to food and cover. It retreats to dense woodland, especially among conifers, or bramble scrub when it must rest, but it is very opportunistic and a hedgerow may be good enough. Roe deer in the southern Czech Republic live in almost completely open agricultural land. The animal is more likely to be spotted in places with nearby forests to retreat to. A pioneer species commonly associated with biotic communities at an early stage of succession, during the Neolithic period in Europe when farming humans began to colonise the continent from the Middle East, the roe deer was abundant, taking advantage of areas of forest or woodland cleared by Neolithic farmers. ### Behaviour In order to mitigate risk, roe deer remain within refuge habitats (such as forests) during the day. They are likelier to venture into more open habitats at night and during crepuscular periods when there is less ambient activity. It scrapes leaf litter off the ground to make a 'bed'. When alarmed it will bark a sound much like a dog and flash out its white rump patch. Rump patches differ between the sexes, with the white rump patches heart-shaped on females and kidney-shaped on males. Males may also bark or make a low grunting noise. Does (the females) make a high-pitched "pheep" whine to attract males during the rut (breeding season) in July and August. Initially the female goes looking for a mate and commonly lures the buck back into her territory before mating. The roe deer is territorial, and while the territories of a male and a female might overlap, other roe deer of the same sex are excluded unless they are the doe's offspring of that year. ### Diet It feeds mainly on grass, leaves, berries, and young shoots. It particularly likes very young, tender grass with a high moisture content, i.e., grass that has received rain the day before. Roe deer will generally not venture into a field that has or has had livestock in it. ### Reproduction The polygamous roe deer males clash over territory in early summer and mate in early autumn. During courtship, when the males chase the females, they often flatten the underbrush, leaving behind areas of the forest in the shape of a circle or figure eight called 'roe rings'. These tend to be 1-3m in diameter. In 1956 it was speculated based on some field evidence that they choose where to form rings around plants with ergot mould, but this has not been substantiated further. Males may also use their antlers to shovel around fallen foliage and soil as a way of attracting a mate. Roebucks enter rutting inappetence during the July and August breeding season. Females are monoestrous and after delayed implantation usually give birth the following June, after a 10-month gestation period, typically to two spotted fawns of opposite sexes. The fawns remain hidden in long grass from predators; they are suckled by their mother several times a day for around three months. Young female roe deer can begin to reproduce when they are around 6 months old. During the mating season, a male roe deer may mount the same doe several times over a duration of several hours. ### Population ecology A roe deer can live up to 20 years, but it usually does not reach such an age. A normal life span in the wild is seven to eight years, or 10 years. The roe deer population shows irruptive growth. It is extremely fecund and can double its population every year; it shows a retarded reaction to population density with females continuing to have a similar fecundity at high population densities. Population structure is modified by available nutrition, where populations are irrupting there are few animals over six years old. Where populations are stagnant or moribund, there is huge fawn mortality and a large part of the population is over seven years old. Mortality is highest in the first weeks after birth due to predation, or sometimes farm machinery; or in the first winter due to starvation or disease, with up to 90% mortality. ### Community ecology It is a main prey of the Persian leopard (*Panthera pardus tulliana*) in the Alborz Mountains of Iran. The nematode *Spiculopteragia asymmetrica* infects this deer. Compared to the other large herbivores and omnivores in Iran, it is a poor disperser of plant seeds, despite consuming relatively more of them. Uses ---- The roe deer is a game animal of great economic value in Europe, providing large amounts of meat and earning millions of euros in sport hunting. In 1998, some 2,500,000 roe deer were shot per year in Western Europe. In Germany alone, 700,000 were shot a year in the 1990s. This is insufficient to slow down the population growth, and the roe deer continues to increase in number. It is the main source of venison in Europe. In the 2000s, there was growing interest among consumers in alternative and organic food products such as game meat. Frozen roe venison should not be stored longer than 10 to 12 months at −25 °C to maintain a high quality. Storage time and quality can decrease if the bullet has travelled through the digestive tract and contaminated the meat. The meat, like most game meat, is darker in colour than most farmed meat. Palaeontology ------------- Roe deer are thought to have evolved from a species in the Eurasian genus *Procapreolus*, with some 10 species occurring from the Late Miocene to the Early Pleistocene, which moved from the east to Central Europe over the millennia, where *Procapreolus cusanus* (also classified as *Capreolus cusanus*) occurred. It may not have evolved from *C. cusanus*, however, because the two extant species split from each other 1.375 and 2.75 Myr ago, and the western species first appeared in Europe 600 thousand years ago. As of 2008 over 3,000 fossil specimens of this species have been recovered from Europe, which affords a good set of data to elucidate the prehistoric distribution. The distribution of the European species has fluctuated often since entering Europe. During the some periods during the last ice age it was present in central Europe, but during the Last Glacial Maximum it retreated to refugia in the Iberian Peninsula (two refugia here), southern France, Italy (likely two), the Balkans and the Carpathians. When the last Ice Age ended the species initially abruptly expanded north of the Alps to Germany during the Greenland Interstadial, 12.5–10.8 thousand years ago, but during the cooling of the Younger Dryas, 10.8–10 thousand years ago, it appears to have disappeared again from this region. It reappeared 9.7–9.5 thousand years ago, reaching northern central Europe. The modern population in this area appears to have recolonised it from the Carpathians and/or further east, but not the Balkans or other refugia. This is opposite to the red deer, which recolonised Europe from Iberia. There has been much admixture of these populations where they meet, also possibly due to human intervention in some cases. It is thought that during the Middle Ages the two species of roe deer were kept apart due to hunting pressure and an abundance of predators; the different species may have met in the period just before that, and yet, during the Ice Age they were also kept apart. Conservation ------------ Populations are increasing throughout Europe; it is considered a species of 'least concern'. Culture ------- In the Hebrew Bible Deuteronomy 14:5, the יַחְמ֑וּר, *yahmur*, derived from 'to be red', is listed as the third species of animal that may be eaten. In most Bibles this word has usually been translated as 'roe deer', and it still means as much in Arabic (أحمر, pronounced '*ahmar*) -it was still said to be a common species in the Mount Carmel area in the 19th century. The King James Bible translated the word as 'fallow deer', and in other English Bible translations the word has been translated as a number of different species. When Modern Hebrew was reconstructed to serve as the language of the future Israel in late Ottoman and British Mandatory Palestine, the King James Bible interpretation was chosen, despite the fallow deer being fallow, not red. Bambi, the titular character of the book *Bambi, A Life in the Woods* and its sequel *Bambi's Children* was originally a roe deer. When the story was adapted to the animated film *Bambi* by Walt Disney Pictures, the main character was changed to a white-tailed deer. Albino roe deer were exceedingly rare in history, and they were regarded as national treasures or sacred animals in ancient times in China. Further reading --------------- * Prior, Richard (1995). *The Roe Deer: Conservation of a Native Species*. Swan-Hill Press.

Roe deer

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_deer

**Airbus SE** (/ˈɛərbʌs/; French: [ɛʁbys] (); German: [ˈɛːɐ̯bʊs] (); Spanish: [ˈejɾβus]) is a European multinational aerospace corporation. Airbus SE is a parent holding company with no production activity. Industrial activity is conducted through subsidiaries such Airbus SAS and Airbus Canada, that design, manufacture and sells commercial aircraft and has separate *Defence and Space* and *Helicopters* divisions. As of 2019, Airbus is the world's largest manufacturer of airliners as well as the leading helicopter manufacturer. The company was incorporated as the European Aeronautic Defence Company in 2000 through the merger of the French Aérospatiale and German DASA, and later acquired full ownership of Airbus SAS, a collaboration of European aerospace companies to develop and produce a wide-body aircraft to compete with American-built airliners, which would later merge together. Reflecting this multi-national origin, the company operates major offices and assembly plants in France, Germany, Spain, and the United Kingdom, along with more recent additions in Canada, China, and the United States. Airbus's registered headquarters is in Leiden, Netherlands, but its head office is located in Toulouse, France. The 'SE' in its corporate name means it is a *societas Europaea*, which enables it to be registered as a European rather than a national corporation. Its shares are traded in France, Germany, and Spain. The company is led by CEO Guillaume Faury and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. The company delivered its 12,000th aircraft in May 2019. In 2016, the company estimated that its fleet had performed more than 110 million flights, totalling over 215 billion kilometres and carrying 12 billion passengers. History ------- The current company is the product of consolidation in the European aerospace industry tracing back to the formation of the *Airbus Industrie GIE* consortium in 1970. In 2000, the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS) NV was established. In addition to other subsidiaries pertaining to security and space activities, EADS owned 100% of the pre-existing Eurocopter SA, established in 1992, as well as 80% of Airbus Industrie GIE. In 2001, Airbus Industrie GIE was reorganised as Airbus SAS, a simplified joint-stock company. In 2006, EADS acquired BAE Systems's remaining 20% of Airbus. EADS NV was renamed Airbus Group NV and SE in 2014, and 2015, respectively. Due to the dominance of the Airbus SAS division within Airbus Group SE, the executive committees of the parent and subsidiary companies were aligned in January 2017, but the companies were kept as separate legal entities. The holding company was given its present name in April 2017. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Airbus**(est. 2000, renamed 2017) | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aérospatiale-Matra(est. 1999) | | | | | --- | --- | | | Aérospatiale(formed 1970) | | | | | Matra(est. 1937) | | | | | | | DASA(est. 1989) | | | | | --- | --- | | | Daimler-Benz (aerospace unit) | | | | | Dornier Flugzeugwerke(est. 1922) | | | | | Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm(est. 1968) | | | | | MTU München(est. 1934) | | | | | | | | CASA (Construcciones Aeronáuticas)(est. 1923) | | | | | | The logos of Airbus Industrie GIE and Airbus SAS displayed a stylized turbine symbol, redolent of a jet engine, and a font similar to Helvetica Black. The logo colours were reflected in the standard Airbus aircraft livery in each period. The EADS logo between 2000 and 2010 combined the logos of the merged companies, DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (a four-ray star) and Aérospatiale-Matra (a curved arrow), after which these elements were removed and a new font with 3D shading was chosen. This font was retained in the logos of Airbus Group NV (2014–2015) and Airbus Group SE (2015–2017), then Airbus SE: * Original, for Airbus A300Original, for Airbus A300 * 2014–20172014–2017 * 2017–Present2017–Present Products -------- ### Civilian The Airbus product line started with the A300 in 1972, the world's first wide-body, twinjet aircraft. The aircraft greatly benefited from the 1976 introduction of the ETOPS 90 rule, which allowed twinjet aircraft to operate up to 90 minutes (increased from 60 minutes) away from the nearest airport. Under the new rule, the A300 was able to operate over the North Atlantic, the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean more efficiently than the trijets and four-engined jet aircraft offered by competitors. A shorter, re-winged, re-engined variant of the A300, known as the A310, followed in 1982. The aircraft would remain in production until 2007. Building on its success with the A300, Airbus worked to develop a narrow-body aircraft, along with additional wide-body aircraft based on the A300. The narrow-body efforts led to the launch of the A320 in 1987, which was, and continues to be, a major commercial success. The A320 was the first commercial jet to use a digital fly-by-wire control system. All Airbus aircraft developed since then have cockpit systems similar to the A320, making it easier to train crew. The success led Airbus to introduce a lengthened version, the A321 in 1993, along with the shorter A319 in 1995 and the even shorter A318 in 2002. In 2016, Airbus re-engined the narrow-body family, in a programme called the A320neo (*new engine option).* The wide-body programme led to the introduction of the four-engine A340 in 1991 and the twinjet A330 in 1992. At the time, Airbus wanted to offer four-engined jet aircraft to allow for longer transatlantic and transpacific flights. However, during the aircraft's development, new rules extended twinjet operations to 120 minutes in 1986, and 180 minutes in 1989. While the new rules hurt sales of the A340, they greatly benefited the A330. Production of the A340 ended in 2011, while the A330 would be re-engined as the A330neo (*new engine option*) in 2018. The biggest aircraft from Airbus was introduced in 2005; the A380 was a four-engine aircraft with two full-length passenger seating decks, making it the world's largest passenger airliner. Intended to challenge the dominance of the Boeing 747 in the long-haul market, the A380 was ultimately a money-losing venture for Airbus due to large development costs and limited sales. The A350, a new wide-body, twinjet aircraft was introduced in 2013. The A350 was the first Airbus aircraft made largely from carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers. It is longer and wider than the fuselage used on the A300, A310, A330, and A340. A second narrow-body jet was added to the product list in 2018 when Airbus gained control of the Bombardier CSeries programme, and rebranded it as the A220. The jet offers five-abreast seating compared to the six-abreast seating on the A320**.** Product list and details (date information from Airbus)| Aircraft | Description | Seats | 1st flight | Production end | Orders | Deliveries | In operation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | A220 | 2 engines, narrow-body | 108–130 | 2013-09-16 | | 740 | 200 | 200 | | A300 | 2 engines, wide-body | 228–254 | 1972-10-28 | 2007-03-27 | 816 | 816 | 283 | | A310 | 2 engines, wide-body | 187 | 1982-04-03 | 1998-03-27 | 255 | 255 | 14 | | A320 | 2 engines, narrow-body | 107–185 | 1987-02-22 | | 16,022 | 10,230 | 9,653 | | A330 | 2 engines, wide-body | 246–300 | 1992-11-02 | | 1,822 | 1,529 | 1,446 | | A340 | 4 engines, wide-body | 239–377 | 1991-10-25 | 2011-11-10 | 377 | 377 | 214 | | A350 | 2 engines, wide-body | 270–350 | 2013-06-14 | | 917 | 471 | 471 | | A380 | 4 engines, wide-body, double deck | 555 | 2005-04-27 | 2022-01-01 | 251 | 251 | 242 | *Data as of 28 February 2022.* The company is also a 50% owner of the ATR joint venture which builds the ATR 42 and ATR 72 regional aircraft ### Corporate jets Airbus Corporate Jets markets and modifies new aircraft for private and corporate customers. It has a model range that parallels the commercial aircraft offered by the company, ranging from the A318 Elite to the double-deck Airbus A380 Prestige. Following the entry of the 737 based Boeing Business Jet, Airbus joined the business jet market with the A319 Corporate Jet in 1997. Although the term Airbus Corporate jet was initially used only for the A319CJ, it is now often used for all models, including the VIP widebodies. As of December 2008, 121 corporate and private jets are operating, and 164 aircraft have been ordered, including an A380 Prestige and 107 A320 family Corporate Jets. ### Military In the late 1990s, Airbus became increasingly interested in developing and selling to the military aviation market. It embarked on two main fields of development: aerial refuelling with the Airbus A310 MRTT (Multi-Role Tanker Transport) and the Airbus A330 MRTT, and tactical airlift with the Airbus A400M Atlas. In January 1999, Airbus established a separate company, Airbus Military SAS, to undertake the development and production of a turboprop-powered tactical transport aircraft, the A400M.[*unreliable source?*] The A400M is being developed by several NATO members, Belgium, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain, Turkey, and the UK, as an alternative to relying on foreign aircraft for tactical airlift capacity, such as the Ukrainian Antonov An-124 Ruslan and the American C-130 Hercules. The A400M project has suffered several delays; Airbus has threatened to cancel the development unless it receives state subsidies. Pakistan placed an order for the Airbus A310 MRTT in 2008, which will be a conversion of an existing airframe as the base model A310 is no longer in production. On 25 February 2008, Airbus won an order for three air refuelling MRTT aircraft, adapted from A330 passenger jets, from the United Arab Emirates. On 1 March 2008, a consortium of Airbus and Northrop Grumman had won a $35 billion contract to build the new in-flight refuelling aircraft KC-45A, a US-built version of the MRTT, for the USAF. The decision drew a formal complaint from Boeing, and the KC-X contract was cancelled to begin bidding afresh. In October 2022, the Indian government announced a Tata-Airbus consortium that manufactures C-295 aircraft in Gujarat for the Indian Air Force. The project is valued at ₹21,935 crores ($2 billion). Airbus is also in partnership with the Indian government for offering its A330 Multi-Role Tanker Transport (MRTT) aircraft. The company is also a 50% owner of the ArianeGroup joint venture which builds the Ariane 5 launch vehicle, a 46% owner of the Eurofighter joint venture which builds the Typhoon fighter jet, a 42.5% owner of the Panavia Aircraft joint venture which builds the Tornado fighter jet, a 37.5% owner of the MBDA joint venture which builds missiles, and a 10% owner of Dassault Aviation which builds the Mirage 2000 and Rafale fighter jets. Organisation ------------ ### Divisions Revenues by division, as of 2018:   Commercial aircraft (74%)  Defence and Space (17%)  Helicopters (9%) #### Commercial aircraft Airbus SAS and Airbus Canada Limited Partnership are the main subsidiaries in the commercial aircraft industry. Commercial aircraft generated 66% of total revenue for the group in 2013. The product portfolio of such aircraft encompasses short-range models such as the A320 family and the world's largest passenger airliner, the A380. The final assembly for this division is the Airbus Toulouse, Hamburg, Tianjin, Mobile and Mirabel facilities. * EADS Sogerma * Airbus Executive and Private Aviation #### Defence and space The division Airbus Defence and Space was formed in January 2014 as part of the group restructuring from the former EADS divisions Airbus Military, Astrium, and Cassidian (composed of Cassidian Electronics – develops and manufactures sensors, radars, avionics and electronic warfare systems for military and security applications, Cassidian Air Systems – develops manned and unmanned aerial systems (UAVs), mission avionics, electronic defence and warning systems and Cassidian Systems – provides global security systems such as command & control, lead system integration, TETRA and TETRAPOL communication systems for public safety, industry, transportation and defence. This line of business was the first one in the world to begin field tests with TETRA Enhanced Data Service (TEDS).). * EADS 3 Sigma – a Hellenic company focused on the design, development, production and services provision of airborne and surface target drone systems. The Airbus Military division, which manufactured tanker, transport and mission aircraft; Airbus Helicopters, the world's largest helicopter supplier; Astrium, provided systems for aerial, land, naval and civilian security applications including Ariane, Galileo and Cassidian. Through Cassidian, EADS was a partner in the Eurofighter consortium as well as in the missile systems provider MBDA. #### Helicopters Airbus Helicopters, formerly known as Eurocopter, is a helicopter manufacturing and support company. | | | --- | | | | Dec 1970 | Jan 1992 | July 2000 | Sep 2000 | Jan 2001 | Dec 2006 | Apr 2009 | Sep 2010 | Jan 2014 | May 2015 | Jan 2017 | Apr 2017 | |   |   | European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company NV | Airbus Group NV | Airbus Group SE | Airbus SE |    | | Airbus Industrie GIE | Airbus SAS |   |    | |   | Airbus Military SAS | Airbus Defence and Space SAS |    | |   |   | EADS Defence and Security | Cassidian SAS | |   |   | Astrium SAS | EADS Astrium SAS | |   | Eurocopter SA | Eurocopter SAS | Airbus Helicopters SAS |    | |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | ### Subsidiaries * Airbus APWorks * AirBusiness Academy * Airbus Group, Inc. – (previously *EADS North America*) the U.S. holding company for the North American activities of Airbus Group * Airbus Transport International – Cargo Airline managing the transportation of Airbus parts between different facilities. * Airbus Protect * Airbus Crisa * Dornier Consulting * NAVBLUE * Premium AEROTEC * Satair * Stelia Aerospace * Testia * UP42 #### Joint ventures | Name | Holding | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Airbus Canada Limited Partnership | 75% | manufacturer of Airbus A220 aircraft | | ArianeGroup | 50% | manufacturer of Ariane 5 and Ariane 6 launch vehicles | | ATR | 50% | manufacturer of ATR 42 and ATR 72 regional aircraft | | Dassault Aviation | 10% | manufacturer of Dassault Rafale and Dassault Mirage 2000 | | Eurofighter GmbH | 46% | manufacturer of Eurofighter Typhoon | | MBDA | 37.5% | develops and manufactures missiles | | Panavia Aircraft GmbH | 42.5% | manufacturer of Panavia Tornado | In September 2014 Airbus considered divesting Dassault and several other units to focus on aerospace. It reduced its shareholding in Dassault Aviation to 10% by the end of 2016. ### Senior leadership The corporate management of Airbus is: * *Chairman:* René Obermann (since April 2020) * *Chief Executive:* Guillaume Faury (since April 2019) Former chairmen 1. Franz Josef Strauss (1970–1988) 2. Edzard Reuter (1994–1998) 3. Jürgen E. Schrempp (1998–2000) 4. Manfred Bischoff (2000–2007) 5. Arnaud Lagardère (2007–2013) 6. Denis Ranque (2013–2019) Former chief executives 1. Henri Ziegler (1970–1975) 2. Bernard Lathière (1975–1984) 3. Jean Pierson (1985–1998) 4. Noël Forgeard (1998–2005) 5. Gustav Humbert (2005–2006) 6. Christian Streiff (2006) 7. Louis Gallois (2006–2012) 8. Tom Enders (2012–2019) ### International manufacturing presence The main Airbus factory in Blagnac is located next to Toulouse-Blagnac Airport. (43°36′44″N 1°21′47″E / 43.61222°N 1.36306°E / 43.61222; 1.36306) Main Airbus factory in Hamburg, Germany Main Airbus factory in Getafe, Madrid, Spain Airbus has several final assembly lines for different models and markets. These are: * Toulouse, France (A320 family, A330 and A350) * Hamburg, Germany (A320 family) * Seville, Spain (A400M) * Tianjin, China (A320 family). * Airbus Mobile, Mobile, Alabama, USA (A220 and A320 family) * Mirabel, Canada (A220) * Broughton, Wales — Commercial Wings Construction Airbus, however, has a number of other plants in different European locations, reflecting its foundation as a consortium. An original solution to the problem of moving aircraft parts between the different factories and the assembly plants is the use of the Airbus Beluga, a modified cargo aircraft capable of carrying entire sections of fuselage. Boeing adopted a similar solution with 4 adapted 747-400s to transport the components of the 787. An exception to this scheme is the A380, whose fuselage and wings are too large for sections to be carried by the Beluga. Large A380 parts are brought by ship to Bordeaux, and then transported to the Toulouse assembly plant by the Itinéraire à Grand Gabarit, a specially enlarged waterway and road route. Airbus opened an assembly plant (Tianjin FAL) in Tianjin, People's Republic of China for its A320 series airliners in 2009. Airbus started constructing a $350 million component manufacturing plant in Harbin, China in July 2009, which will employ 1,000 people. Scheduled to be operated by the end of 2010, the 30,000 square metre plant will manufacture composite parts and assemble composite work-packages for the A350 XWB, A320 families and future Airbus programmes. Harbin Aircraft Industry Group Corporation, Hafei Aviation Industry Company Ltd, AviChina Industry & Technology Company and other Chinese partners hold an 80% stake in the plant while Airbus control the remaining 20%.[*unreliable source?*] In 2022, the Tianjin plant finished upgrading works to allow for production of A321.In 2023, during a French state visit to China, Airbus announced that Tianjin FAL would be expanded with a second production line. North America is an important region to Airbus in terms of both aircraft sales and suppliers. 2,000 of the total of approximately 5,300 Airbus jetliners sold by Airbus around the world, representing every aircraft in its product line from the 107-seat A318 to the 565-passenger A380, are ordered by North American customers. According to Airbus, US contractors, supporting an estimated 120,000 jobs, earned an estimated $5.5 billion (2003) worth of business. For example, one version of the A380 has 51% American content in terms of work share value. Plans for a Mobile, Alabama aircraft assembly plant were unveiled by Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier from the Mobile Convention Centre on 2 July 2012. The plans include a $600 million factory at the Mobile Aeroplex at Brookley for the assembly of the A220, A319, A320 and A321 aircraft. It could employ up to 1,000 full-time workers when operational. Construction began on 8 April 2013, and became operable by 2015, producing up to 50 aircraft per year by 2017. In February 2019, Airbus stated that production of the A380 will end in 2021 after Emirates, the biggest customer for the plane, reduced its outstanding order for 53 planes to just fourteen. ### Financial information In October 2005 the British Ministry of Defence warned European politicians to stop, as it sees it, interfering in the corporate governance of EADS. The former UK Defence Procurement Minister Lord Drayson hinted that the UK government, a major customer for EADS, may withhold future contracts. "As a key customer, we see it as important for EADS to move in a direction that is free from political interference." On 4 April 2006, DaimlerChrysler announced its intention to reduce its shareholding from 30 % to 22.5 %. The company places a value of the stake at "approximately €2.0 billion." Lagardère will reduce its holding by an identical amount. However, Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations, a unit of the French government, acquired 2.25 % of EADS. At issue ,as a result, is the fact that the German and French shareholdings are now in imbalance. On 30 August 2006, shortly after the stock price decline caused by the A380 delivery delays, more than 5 % of EADS stock has been reportedly purchased by the Russian state-owned Vneshtorgbank. Now its share is nearly 6 %. In December 2007, Vneshtorgbank sold EADS shares to another state-controlled bank Vneshekonombank. EADS sharers are to be delivered by Vneshekonombank to the charter capital of JSC "United Aircraft Corporation" in 2008. On 3 October 2006, shortly after EADS admitted further delays in the Airbus 380 programme would cost the company 4.8 billion euros in lost earnings in 2010, EADS shares, traded on the Paris arm of Euronext, were suspended after they surpassed the 10 % loss limit. Trading resumed later in the day with the one-day loss holding at 7 %. In 2007, Dubai Holding acquired 3.12 % of EADS stock, making the Dubai buy-out fund one of the largest institutional shareholders. In 2008, EADS had arms sales equivalent to $17.9 billion, which constituted 28 % of total revenue. In April 2013, Daimler sold its shares in EADS. As of 22 June 2018[update], 73.6 % of Airbus Group stock is publicly traded on six European stock exchanges, while the remaining 26.4 % is owned by a "Contractual Partnership". As of 26 April 2018, the partnership is owned by SOGEPA (11.1%), GZBV (11.1%) and SEPI (4.2%). SOGEPA is owned by the French State, GZBV is majority owned by KfW, and SEPI is a Spanish state holding company. In April 2020, Airbus announced that it has cut aircraft production by a third due to the COVID-19 outbreak. According to Guillaume Faury, the company was "bleeding cash at an unprecedented speed." The recession put its survival at stake and presented the need for deep job cuts throughout all Airbus departments. 3,000 workers in France were involved in government-assisted furlough schemes. | Finances, in € | 2022 | 2021 | 2020 | 2019 | 2018 | 2017 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sales, in millions | 58,763 Increase 13% | 52,149 Increase 4% | 49,912 Decrease 29% | 70,478 Increase 11% | 63,707 Increase 8% | 59,022 | | | Portion defence sales, in millions | 11,491 Increase 25% | 9,175 Decrease 13% | 10,517 Increase 4% | 10,085 Increase 2% | 9,903 Increase 1% | 9,815 | | Earnings (losses) before interest and taxes, in millions | 5,325 Steady 0% | 5,342 Decrease 17% | (510) Decrease 138% | 1,339 Decrease 73% | 5,048 Increase 83% | 2,665 | | Research and development expenses, in millions | 3,079 Increase 12% | 2,746 Decrease 4% | 2,858 Decrease 15% | 3,358 Increase 4% | 3,217 Increase 15% | 2,807 | | Consolidated net income (loss), in millions | 4,247 Increase 1% | 4,213 Increase 472% | (1,133) Decrease 17% | (1,362) Decrease 15% | 3,054 Increase 29% | 2,361 | | Earnings (losses) per share | 5.40 Increase 1% | 5.36 Increase 470% | (1.45) Decrease 17% | (1.75) Decrease 42% | 3.94 Increase 29% | 3.05 | | Dividend per share | 1.80 Increase 20% | 1.50 | None | None | 1.65 Increase 10% | 1.50 | | Free cash flow, in millions | 4,324 Increase 33% | 3,511 Increase 148% | (7,362) Decrease 296% | 3,753 Increase 10% | 3,505 Increase 9% | 3,735 | | New orders, in millions | 82,521 Increase 33% | 62,007 Increase 86% | 33,290 Decrease 59% | 81,195 Increase 46% | 55,521 | – | | Order backlog at year end, in millions | 449,241 Increase 13% | 398,439 Increase 7% | 373,127 Decrease 21% | 471,488 Increase 3% | 459,525 | – | | | Portion defence orders, in millions | 47,242 Increase 10% | 43,110 Increase 12% | 38,587 Increase 1% | 38,129 Decrease 3% | 39,312 | – | | Employees at year end | 134,267 Increase 6% | 126,495 Decrease 4% | 131,349 Decrease 3% | 134,931 Increase 1% | 133,671 Increase 3% | 29,442 | | Accounted for under IFRS; fiscal year ending 31 December. | Financial Results (2004–2013)| Finances, in € | 2013 | 2012 | 2011 | 2010 | 2009 | 2008 | 2007 | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sales, in millions | 59,256 | 56,480 | 49,128 | 45,752 | 42,822 | 43,265 | 39,123 | 39,434 | 34,206 | 31,761 | | Earnings (losses) before interest and taxes, in millions | 2,661 | 2,186 | 1,696 | 1,231 | (322) | 2,830 | 52 | 399 | 2,852 | 2,432 | | Research and development expenses, in millions | 3,160 | 3,142 | 3,152 | 2,939 | 2,825 | 2,669 | 2,608 | 2,458 | 2,075 | 2,126 | | Consolidated net income (loss), in millions | 1,465 | 1,198 | 1,104 | 584 | (722) | 1,613 | (433) | 199 | 1,769 | 1,342 | | Earnings (losses) per share | 1.85 | 1.46 | 1.27 | 0.68 | (0.94) | 1.95 | (0.56) | 0.12 | 2.11 | 1.50 | | Dividend per share | 0.75 | 0.60 | 0.45 | 0.22 | None | 0.20 | 0.12 | 0.12 | 0.65 | 0.50 | | Free cash flow, in millions | (818) | 3,472 | 958 | 2,707 | 585 | 2,559 | 3,354 | 2,029 | 2,413 | 1,614 | | New orders, in millions | 218,681 | 102,471 | 131,027 | 83,147 | 45,847 | 98,648 | 136,799 | 69,018 | 92,551 | 44,117 | | Order backlog at year end, in millions | 686,734 | 566,463 | 540,978 | 448,493 | 389,067 | 400,248 | 339,532 | 262,810 | 253,235 | 184,288 | | Employees at year end | 144,061 | 140,405 | 133,115 | 121,691 | 119,506 | 118,349 | 116,493 | 116,805 | 113,210 | 110,662 | | Accounted for under IFRS; fiscal year ending 31 December. | Environmental record -------------------- Airbus has committed to the "Flightpath 2050", an aviation industry plan to reduce noise, CO2, and NOx emissions. Airbus was the first aerospace business to become ISO 14001 certified, in January 2007; this is a broader certification covering the whole organisation, not just the aircraft it produces. In association with Honeywell and JetBlue, Airbus has developed a biofuel to reduce pollution and dependence on fossil fuels, claiming that this has the potential to replace up to a third of the world's aviation fuel. Algae-based biofuel absorbs carbon dioxide during growth and does not compete with food production. This alternative may be commercially available by 2030 but algae and other vegetation-based fuels are in an early stage of development and fuel-bearing algae have been expensive to develop. Airbus offers delivery flights to airlines using a 10% biofuel blend in standard engines. The fuel does not cut carbon emissions but is free of sulphur emissions and demonstrates that the fuel could be used in commercial flights in unmodified engines. In September 2020, Airbus unveiled three liquid hydrogen-fueled "ZEROe" concept aircraft that it claims could become the first commercial zero-emission aircraft, entering service by 2035. Controversies ------------- ### Government subsidies Boeing has continually protested over "launch aid" and other forms of government aid to Airbus, while Airbus has argued that Boeing receives illegal subsidies through military and research contracts and tax breaks. In July 2004 former Boeing CEO Harry Stonecipher accused Airbus of abusing a 1992 bilateral EU-US agreement providing for disciplines for large civil aircraft support from governments. Airbus is given reimbursable launch investment (RLI), called "launch aid" by the US, from European governments with the money being paid back with interest plus indefinite royalties, but only if the aircraft is a commercial success. Airbus contends that this system is fully compliant with the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. The agreement allows up to 33% of the programme cost to be met through government loans which are to be fully repaid within 17 years with interest and royalties. These loans are held at a minimum interest rate equal to the cost of government borrowing plus 0.25%, which would be below market rates available to Airbus without government support. Airbus claims that since the signature of the EU-US agreement in 1992, it has repaid European governments more than U.S.$6.7 billion and that this is 40% more than it has received. Airbus argues that the military contracts awarded to Boeing, the second largest U.S. defence contractor, are in effect a form of subsidy, such as the controversy surrounding the Boeing KC-767 military contracting arrangements. The significant U.S. government support of technology development via NASA also provides significant support to Boeing, as do the large tax breaks offered to Boeing, which some people claim are in violation of the 1992 agreement and WTO rules. In its recent products such as the 787, Boeing has also been offered direct financial support from local and state governments. In January 2005 the European Union and United States trade representatives, Peter Mandelson and Robert Zoellick respectively, agreed to talks aimed at resolving the increasing tensions. These talks were not successful with the dispute becoming more acrimonious rather than approaching a settlement. WTO ruled in August 2010 and in May 2011 that Airbus had received improper government subsidies through loans with below market rates from several European countries. In a separate ruling in February 2011, WTO found that Boeing had received local and federal aid in violation of WTO rules. ### Cluster bomb allegation In 2005 the Government Pension Fund of Norway recommended the exclusion of several companies producing cluster bombs or components. EADS and its sister company EADS Finance BV were among them, arguing that EADS manufactures "key components for cluster bombs". The criticism was centred around TDA, a joint venture between EADS and Thales S.A. TDA produced the mortar ammunition PR Cargo, which can be considered cluster ammunition, however this definition has since been successfully battled by EADS. EADS and its subsidiaries are now regarded as fulfilling all the conditions of the Ottawa Treaty. According to the new point of view,[*by whom?*] no product of EADS or its subsidiaries falls into the category of antipersonnel mines as defined by the Ottawa Treaty ("landmines under the Ottawa Treaty"). In April 2006, the fund declared that the basis for excluding EADS from investments related to the production of cluster munitions is no longer valid, however its shareholding of MBDA means the fund still excludes EADS due to its indirect involvement in nuclear weapons production. ### Insider trading investigation On 2 June 2006 co-CEO Noël Forgeard and Airbus CEO Gustav Humbert resigned following the controversy caused by the June 2006 announcement that deliveries of the A380 would be delayed by a further six months. Forgeard was one of a number of executives including Jean-Paul Gut who exercised stock options in November 2005 and March 2006. He and twenty-one other executives are[*when?*] under investigation as to whether they knew about the delays in the Airbus A380 project which caused a 26 % fall in EADS shares when publicised. The French government's actions were also under investigation; The state-owned bank Caisse des Dépots et Consignations (CDC) bought part of Lagardère's 7.5 % stake in EADS in April 2006, allowing that latter to partially escape the June 2006 losses. ### Bribery allegations #### South Africa In 2003 Tony Yengeni, former chief whip of South Africa's African National Congress, was convicted of fraud worth around US$5 billion relating to an arms deal with South Africa, in which Airbus (formerly EADS) were major players,. It was claimed that Airbus had admitted that it had "rendered assistance" to around thirty senior officials, including defence force chief General Siphiwe Nyanda, to obtain luxury vehicles. In March 2003, South Africa withdrew all charges of bribery against the former head of EADS South Africa, and in September 2004, the prosecutor's office dismissed the bribery charges against Yengeni. #### Saudi Arabia In August 2012 the UK's Serious Fraud Office opened a criminal investigation into an EADS subsidiary, GPT Special Project Management Ltd, regarding bribery allegations made by GPT's former programme director, Ian Foxley. Foxley alleged that luxury cars were bought for senior Saudis, and that millions of pounds sterling were paid to mysterious Cayman Islands companies, possibly to secure a £2 billion contract to renew the Saudi Arabian National Guard's military telecommunications network. Foxley's allegations were supported by two other GPT employees. The later agreement between Airbus and the SFO on 31 January 2020 excluded the settlement of this case. #### British and French investigations The French National Financial Prosecutor's Office (PNF), the UK Serious Fraud Office (SFO) and the US Department of Justice (DoJ) had been jointly investigating irregularities in Airbus marketing practices since 2016, in particular the activities of agents Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, the Philippines, Indonesia and Austria, but also China, the United Arab Emirates, South Korea, Japan, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Kuwait, Turkey, Russia, Mexico, Brazil, Vietnam, India, Colombia and Nepal. In July 2016, SFO opened a criminal investigation into "suspicions of fraud, bribes and corruption" after Airbus informed British authorities of a failure to disclose the role played by some intermediaries facilitating the sale of aircraft. Airbus was required to provide this information in order to benefit from export credits, which the British, French and German governments had suspended. In March 2017, the PNF subsequently opened a preliminary investigation into "suspicions of fraud and corruption in civil aviation activities" in cooperation with the SFO. The allegations included that from 2012 onwards Airbus was responsible for recruiting and remunerating intermediaries to influence the award of civil and military contracts. Payments worth hundreds of millions of euros in alleged secret commissions were made and numerous sales including in Saudi Arabia, Kazakhstan, Philippines, Indonesia, Austria, China and Mauritius were under suspicion of bribery.[*verification needed*] The investigation focussed on the Airbus, Strategy and Marketing Organization (SMO), the department responsible for negotiating sales contracts and which, La Tribune reported as having "a network and an incredible influence around the world." Directed successively by Jean-Paul Gut and Marwan Lahoud, the SMO was dissolved in 2016 under the new executive director, Thomas Enders, as part of a “clean hands” operation. In 2014, in a case referred to as the Kazakhgate affair, a search at Airbus Helicopters by French authorities found emails confirming that Airbus had agreed in principle to pay €12 million in bribes to the Prime Minister of Kazakhstan to facilitate the sale of helicopters. Officers from the Central Anti-Corruption Office (OCLCIFF) then searched the home of Marwan Lahoud on 8 February 2016. This revealed that two Turkish intermediaries had claimed payment of commissions due in connection with the sale of 160 aircraft to China valued at US$10 billion. A message by Lahoud suggested that the commissions could reach US$250 million. The SMO was to conceal these commissions as false invoices for a fictitious Caspian pipeline project. In January 2020, French, British and American courts validated three agreements between Airbus and the PNF, the UK SFO, and the US DoJ. Airbus recognised the charges and agreed to pay fines of €3.6 billion in France, €984 million in the United Kingdom and €526 million in the United States. The penalties were the highest ever issued by the French and British bodies. These settlements close the prosecution of Airbus regarding the Kazakhstan case but not allegations of misconduct in Saudi Arabia, China and Turkey, which Airbus denies. Airbus managers may still be pursued as private individuals. See also -------- * Airbus Training Centre Europe * Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom * Airbus affair * Boeing * Bombardier Aerospace * Comac * Competition between Airbus and Boeing * Competition in the regional jet market * Embraer * Liebherr Aerospace * United Aircraft Corporation Further reading --------------- * Congressional Research Service (1992). *Airbus Industrie: An Economic and Trade Perspective*. U.S. Library of Congress. * Heppenheimer, T.A. (1995). *Turbulent Skies: The History of Commercial Aviation*. John Wiley. ISBN 0-471-19694-0. * Lynn, Matthew (1997). *Birds of Prey: Boeing vs. Airbus, a Battle for the Skies*. Four Walls Eight Windows. ISBN 1-56858-107-6. * McGuire, Steven (1997). *Airbus Industrie: Conflict and Cooperation in U.S.E.C. Trade Relations*. St. Martin's Press. * McIntyre, Ian (1982). *Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle Over Airbus*. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-94278-3. * Thornton, David Weldon (1995). *Airbus Industrie: The Politics of an International Industrial Collaboration*. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-12441-4.

Airbus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus

**Ye**, **Je**, **Ie**, or just **E** (Е е; italics: *Е* *е*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. In some languages this letter is called E. It commonly represents the vowel [e] or [ɛ], like the pronunciation of ⟨e⟩ in "y**e**s". It was derived from the Greek letter epsilon (Ε ε), and the shape is very similar to the latin letter E or another version of E (Cyrillic). Ye is romanized using the Latin letter E for Bulgarian, Serbian, Macedonian, Ukrainian and Rusyn, and occasionally Russian (Озеро Байкал, Ozero Baykal), Je for Belarusian (Заслаўе, Zaslaŭje), Ye for Russian (Европа, Yevropa), and Ie occasionally for Russian (Днепр, Dniepr) and Belarusian (Маладзе́чна, Maladziečna). Usage ----- ### Russian and Belarusian * At the beginning of a word or after a vowel, Ye represents the phonemic combination /je/ (phonetically [je] or [jɛ]), like the pronunciation of ⟨ye⟩ in "**ye**s". Ukrainian uses the letter ⟨є⟩ (see Ukrainian Ye) in this way. * Following a consonant, Ye indicates that the consonant is palatalized, and represents the vowel /e/ (phonetically [e] or [ɛ]), like the pronunciation of ⟨e⟩ in "y**e**s". In Russian, the letter ⟨е⟩ can follow unpalatalized consonants, especially ⟨ж⟩, ⟨ш⟩, and ⟨ц⟩. In some loanwords, other consonants before ⟨е⟩ (especially ⟨т⟩, ⟨д⟩, ⟨н⟩, ⟨с⟩, ⟨з⟩, and ⟨р⟩) are also not palatalized, see E (Cyrillic). The letter ⟨е⟩ also represents /jo/ (as in "**yo**gurt") and /o/ after palatalized consonants, ⟨ж⟩, and ⟨ш⟩. In these cases, ⟨ё⟩ may be used, see Yo (Cyrillic). In unstressed syllables, ⟨e⟩ represents reduced vowels like [ɪ], see Russian phonology and Vowel reduction in Russian. ### Bulgarian, Serbian, Macedonian, Ukrainian and Rusyn This letter is called E, and represents the vowel phoneme /e/ (phonetically [e] or [ɛ]), like the pronunciation of ⟨e⟩ in the word "s**e**t". ### Mongolian The letter represents the sound /jo/ at the beginning of words (yo represents /jɔ/), and also represents /je/ at the beginning of some words and in the middle or end of words and /e/ in Russian loanwords and transcriptions of foreign names. ### Turkic languages and Tajik In Turkic languages utilizing the Cyrillic script (such as Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Uzbek) and in Tajik, Ye is used to represent the phoneme e~ɛ, both word-finally and medially. Isolated, word-initially, or vowel-succeeding, this letter is substituted with the letter Э. If the letter Ye occurs word-initially, isolated, or vowel-succeeding, it represents the phoneme /je/~/jɛ/. Computing codes --------------- Character information| Preview | Е | е | | --- | --- | --- | | Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER IE | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER IE | | Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | | Unicode | 1045 | U+0415 | 1077 | U+0435 | | UTF-8 | 208 149 | D0 95 | 208 181 | D0 B5 | | Numeric character reference | &#1045; | &#x415; | &#1077; | &#x435; | | Named character reference | &IEcy; | &iecy; | | KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 229 | E5 | 197 | C5 | | Code page 855 | 169 | A9 | 168 | A8 | | Windows-1251 | 197 | C5 | 229 | E5 | | ISO-8859-5 | 181 | B5 | 213 | D5 | | Macintosh Cyrillic | 133 | 85 | 229 | E5 |

Ye (Cyrillic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye_(Cyrillic)

The **Kuwait national football team** (Arabic: منتخب الكويت لكرة القدم) is the national team of Kuwait and is controlled by the Kuwait Football Association. Kuwait made one World Cup finals appearance, in 1982, managing one point in the group stages. In the Asian Cup, Kuwait reached the final in 1976 and won the tournament in 1980. Kuwait's 20–0 win over Bhutan in 2000 was at the time the biggest ever victory in international football. It was surpassed in 2001, when Australia beat American Samoa 31–0. While Kuwait was one of Asia's major football force during 1970s to 2000s, the strength of the national team has started to fade slowly from 2010s, with Kuwait failing in two consecutive Asian Cups in 2011 and 2015, before being disqualified for 2019 edition and missing out on 2023 AFC Asian Cup. The team has also failed to reach any World Cup since 1982. History ------- ### Early successes Kuwait's first international match was played in the 1961 Pan Arab Games against Libya which ended in a 2–2 draw. Kuwait's biggest loss was against the United Arab Republic when they lost 8–0 in the same tournament. Kuwait national football team has joined the World Cup in 1982 which was held in Spain. Kuwait was placed in the fourth group and got the fourth place after defeats to England and France and a respectable draw with Czechoslovakia. Kuwait has won the Asian Cup in 1980 which was held on its soil. Kuwait won the Final 3–0 against South Korea. Kuwait's historical highest FIFA ranking was the 24th place achieved in December 1998. Bader Al-Mutawa is the most capped player of the Kuwaiti team, and Bashar Abdullah is the top goalscorer in the history of the Kuwait national football team. Kuwait has won the Arabian Gulf Cup ten times, and is the most successful team in winning that competition. Kuwait's most historical manager was Luiz Felipe Scolari, who won the World Cup with Brazil, and was forced to leave the country after the 1990 invasion by Iraq. He led Kuwait to win the 1990 Gulf Cup beating Qatar in The Final. Kuwait's biggest win was against Bhutan which ended in a thrilling 20–0 win, which was the biggest win until Australia won 31–0 against American Samoa in 2001. Kuwait's most successful years were between 1970 and 1990 which had players like Jasem Yaqoub, Faisal Al-Dakhil, and Saad Al-Houti. ### Suspensions On 30 October 2007, Kuwait was suspended by FIFA from all participation in international football, on the grounds of governmental interference in the national football association. The ban lasted less than 2 weeks. On 24 October 2008, Kuwait was again suspended by FIFA from all participation in international football, because of its failure to hold the General Assembly elections by mid-October. FIFA provisionally lifted its suspension on the Kuwait Football Association (KFA) on 22 December 2008. By the time, while Kuwait remained a formidable force in the Gulf, it has also declined from Asia's relevance, unable to progress from the group stage of the 2011 and 2015 AFC Asian Cups, the team finished last with no point in both tournaments. Once again, on 16 October 2015, Kuwait was suspended for the third time as FIFA did not recognize the new sports law in the country. Kuwait tried to get the suspension lifted at the 66th FIFA Congress but this was rejected and therefore from the earlier announcement on 27 April 2016, the hosting of the Gulf Cup tournament would also be moved to Qatar. The suspension was eventually lifted on 6 December 2017, after Kuwait's adoption of a new sports law. By this time, the team had fallen from the 139th place to the 189th place in the FIFA World Rankings due to its inactivity, which also caused the team to miss the qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup and the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. On 7 December 2017, it was announced that Kuwait would host the 2017 Gulf Cup tournament after Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Bahrain, all withdrew when the tournament was previously set to be hosted by Qatar because of the Qatari diplomatic crisis, so it was moved to Kuwait to please all withdrawn parties to participate. ### Revival During the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification, Kuwait, which only started to rebuild its team following years of suspensions and instabilities, was drawn in group B alongside old foes Australia and Jordan, outside minnows Nepal and Chinese Taipei. Although Kuwait has better head-to-head records against Australia in major tournaments, suspensions and inactivities proved detrimental as the team lost 0–3 twice. Still, the qualifiers stood out as the best qualification for Kuwait since 2006, where Kuwait impressed by finishing second, though being unable to progress to the third round. Team image ---------- ### Home Stadium The Kuwait National Team has two home stadiums, and they are Jaber Al-Ahmad International Stadium and Al-Sadaqua Walsalam Stadium. Jaber Al-Ahmed International Stadium was built in 2009, and Kuwait celebrated winning the 20th Gulf Cup in that stadium; while Al-Sadaqua Walsalam Stadium is for the Kuwaiti club Kazma SC and was the Kuwait national team home. Following the 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification-AFC second round, playing against the Philippines on 23 July 2011, this was the last time Mohammed Al-Hamed Stadium was the Kuwait Home stadium. On 16 May 2012, Kuwait played against the 2011–12 La Liga Champions Real Madrid in Al Kuwait Sports Club Stadium, the home ground of Kuwaiti club Kuwait SC, which Real Madrid won 2–0. Kuwait played their entire 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification-AFC third round in Al-Sadaqua Walsalam Stadium, beating the United Arab Emirates 2–1, drawing with South Korea 1–1 and losing to Lebanon 1–0. Before Jaber Al-Ahmed international stadium was finally built in 2009, Kuwait played in Mohammed Al-Hamed Stadium. When Kuwait hosted the 1980 Asian Cup, the tournament was hosted in Sabah Al-Salem Stadium, which has a capacity of 22,000 spectators and was the largest stadium in Kuwait at that time, and Kuwait won their first and only Asian Cup of all time in that stadium. When Kuwait hosted the 1974 Gulf Cup, it was the first time Kuwait had hosted a Gulf Cup competition, and all the matches were played in Al Kuwait Sports Club Stadium. Kuwait were champions of that competition for the first time in their history on home soil, and the third time in a row overall. In 1990, Kuwait hosted the 1990 Gulf Cup for the second time in their history and were crowned Champions of that competition. All of the games were played on Al-Sadaqua Walsalam Stadium. In the 2003 Gulf Cup, Kuwait hosted the competition for the third time, and once again all the matches were played in one stadium, the Al-Sadaqua Walsalam Stadium. However, Kuwait lost the competition. In the 2017 Gulf Cup, Kuwait hosted the tournament for the fourth time. All the matches were played in two stadiums, the Jaber Al-Ahmad International Stadium and Al Kuwait Sports Club Stadium. However, Kuwait were eliminated from the group stage after losing to Saudi Arabia and Oman and drawing with the United Arab Emirates. ### Media coverage All Kuwait matches are broadcast with full commentary on Kuwait TV Sport. These matches are live and exclusive. beIN Sports broadcast Kuwait matches live and exclusive. So broadcast exclusively on 3 different channels, which is not exclusive. Dubai Sports broadcast Kuwait matches only in special events like the Gulf Cup, Asian Cup and others. ### Kit Kuwaits traditional colors are blue and white: The blue kits are their home ones and the whites for matches away. The blue sea and sky are important in Kuwait because it shows the connection of the people to pearl hunting as well as the spaciousness of the universe. Kuwait's official kit provider is currently the sports company Errea and will be Adidas from 2023 onwards. Kuwait wore the blue shirts in the 1980 AFC Asian Cup and the 1982 FIFA World Cup. ### Kit suppliers | Period | Kit Provider | | --- | --- | | 1980–1991 | Germany Puma | | 1992–1997 | Thailand Grand Sport | | 1997–2001 | Spain Kelme | | 2001–2002 | United Kingdom Umbro | | 2003–2008 | Germany Saller | | 2009–2011 | Switzerland Burrda | | 2012–2013 | Italy Kappa | | 2014–2016 | Germany Uhlsport | | 2017–2022 | Italy Erreà | | 2023– | Germany Adidas | ### Rivalries Kuwait vs. Iraq * Iraq **Iraq national football team** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Statistics vs.  Iraq | | --- | | Played1 | Wins2 | Draws | Losses | GF | GA | | 35 | 8 | 9 | 17 | 34 | 48 | *1. Only matches recognized by FIFA.* *2. Wins for **Kuwait**.* | Iraq's rivalry with Kuwait was once considered as the Arab world's greatest football rivalry of all-time. The rivalry began in the mid 1970s and it was the decade from 1976 until 1986 that saw the golden age of football for arguably the finest teams the region has produced. Both nations imposed their complete domination on the Gulf region, and from the Gulf Cup's inception in 1970 until 1990, the tournament was won by only two teams; Kuwait seven times (1970, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1982, 1986, 1990), and despite Iraq's absence in the first three editions and withdrawal in two others, Iraq won it three times (1979, 1984, 1988). Iraq and Kuwait took their increasingly bitter rivalry to a new level. On 11 June 1976, the two met in the semi-final of the Asian Cup in Tehran; Kuwait took the lead twice, Iraq came roaring back twice, And then, in the 10th minute of extra time, Kamel scored the winner for Kuwait. In 1979, the year Iraq clinched their first Gulf Cup and won over Kuwait 3–1, the two met in a qualifier for the Moscow 1980 Olympic Games, both managed to qualify to the Olympic Games, and both made it to the quarter-finals in Moscow. Iraq also qualified for the 1984 Games in Los Angeles and 1988 Games in Seoul. The 1982 Asian Games was won as well. Kuwait won the 1980 AFC Asian Cup, which they hosted. The nations also left their mark on the world stage. Kuwait qualified for the 1982 World Cup finals in Spain. Iraq matched that in Mexico 1986. As Iraq and Kuwait traded Gulf titles in 1988 and 1990, few could have imagined that their rivalry on the football field would be replaced by an altogether more catastrophic one on the battlefield. Because of the Gulf war, football would never be the same again. Iraq and Kuwait were in complete avoidance and never met for more than a decade. Kuwait's Blues had a relative recovery of sorts, winning the Gulf Cup in 1996 and 1998, before securing their record 10th title in 2010. Iraqi football, because of Uday Hussein's reign as head of the football association, would take far longer to recover. When it did, it was in glorious fashion, the Lions of Mesopotamia winning the 2007 Asian Cup. Kuwait vs. Saudi Arabia * Saudi Arabia **Saudi Arabia national football team** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Statistics vs.  Saudi Arabia | | --- | | Played1 | Wins2 | Draws | Losses | GF | GA | | 42 | 15 | 13 | 15 | 44 | 44 | *1. Only matches recognized by FIFA.* *2. Wins for **Kuwait**.* | The Kuwait vs. Saudi Arabia football rivalry dates back several decades and is one of the most intense in the Middle East. Both countries have a rich history in football, with Kuwait producing some of the region's finest players, including Khalid Al-Muhairi and Bader Al-Mutwa. On the other hand, Saudi Arabia has consistently been among the top teams in Asia, having won three AFC Asian Cups and qualified for five FIFA World Cups. The match between the two sides is always a tightly contested affair, with each team fighting hard to come out on top. While both nations have exchanged victories over time, Kuwait holds the edge over their rivals with more wins under their belt. Nevertheless, this longstanding rivalry continues to produce exciting matches and high levels of interest among fans across the region. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Kuwait  v  Lebanon | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 19 November 2022 Friendly | **Kuwait** | **2–0** | **Lebanon** | Dubai, United Arab Emirates | | 19:00 UTC+4 | * Zayid 71' (pen.) * Bajeyah 83' | Report | | Stadium: Police Officers' Club StadiumReferee: Ahmed Eisa Mohamed (United Arab Emirates) | Iraq  v  Kuwait | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 30 December 2022 unofficial Friendly | **Iraq** | **1–0** | **Kuwait** | Basra, Iraq | | --:-- UTC+3 | * Faez 9' | | | Stadium: Al-Minaa Olympic Stadium | ### 2023 Kuwait  v  Qatar | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 7 January 2023 25th Arabian Gulf Cup | **Kuwait** | **0–2** | **Qatar** | Basra, Iraq | | 19:15 UTC+3 | | Report | * Surag 23' * Alaaeldin 38' (pen.) | Stadium: Al-Minaa Olympic StadiumReferee: Ma Ning (China) | United Arab Emirates  v  Kuwait | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 10 January 2023 25th Arabian Gulf Cup | **United Arab Emirates** | **0–1** | **Kuwait** | Basra, Iraq | | 16:15 UTC+3 | | Report | Al-Dhefiri 90+3' | Stadium: Al-Minaa Olympic StadiumReferee: Shukri Al-Hanfoush (Saudi Arabia) | Bahrain  v  Kuwait | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 13 January 2023 25th Arabian Gulf Cup | **Bahrain** | **1–1** | **Kuwait** | Basra, Iraq | | 18:00 UTC+3 | Abdullatif 26' | Report | Al-Khaldi 45' | Stadium: Basra International StadiumReferee: István Kovács (Romania) | Kuwait  v  Philippines | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 March 2023 Friendly | **Kuwait** | **2–0** | **Philippines** | Kuwait City, Kuwait | | 22:00 UTC+3 | * Bader Al Fadhel 71' * Ali Khalaf 87' | | | Stadium: Jaber Al-Ahmad International StadiumReferee: Shukri Al-Hunfoush (Saudi Arabia) | Kuwait  v  Tajikistan | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March 2023 Friendly | **Kuwait** | **2–1** | **Tajikistan** | Kuwait City, Kuwait | | --:-- UTC+3 | Al-Fadhel 9' Al-Khaldi 61' | | A.Dzhalilov 90' | Stadium: Jaber Al-Ahmad International StadiumAttendance: 1,000Referee: Ahmed Al-Kaf (Oman) | Kuwait  v  Zambia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 12 June 2023 Unofficial Friendly | **Kuwait** | **3–0** | **Zambia** | Cairo, Egypt | | --:-- UTC+3 | Al-Khaldi 16', 59'El Ebrahim 51' | Report | | Stadium: Cairo International Stadium | Kuwait  v  Sudan | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 June 2023 Unofficial Friendly | **Kuwait** | **2–1** | **Sudan** | Cairo, Egypt | | 20:00 UTC+3 | Al-Khaldi 55', 61' | | | Stadium: Cairo International Stadium | Kuwait  v    Nepal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 21 June 2023 2023 SAFF Championship | **Kuwait** | **3–1** | **Nepal** | Bangalore, India | | 15:30 UTC+5:30 | | | | Stadium: Sree Kanteerava Stadium | Pakistan  v  Kuwait | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 June 2023 2023 SAFF Championship | **Pakistan** | **0–4** | **Kuwait** | Bangalore, India | | 15:30 UTC+5:30 | | | | Stadium: Sree Kanteerava Stadium | India  v  Kuwait | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 June 2023 2023 SAFF Championship | **India** | **1–1** | **Kuwait** | Bangalore, India | | 19:30 UTC+5:30 | | | | Stadium: Sree Kanteerava Stadium | Coaching staff -------------- | Name | Role | | --- | --- | | Head Coach | Portugal Rui Bento | | Assistant Coach | Portugal Francisco Gouveia | | Assistant Coach | Portugal Vasco Pereira | | Assistant Coach | Kuwait Ahmad Ghobash | | First Team Coach | Portugal Paulo Vieira | | First Team Coach | Kuwait Marzoug Al-Khelaifi | | Goalkeeper Coach | Portugal Tiago Manta | | Fitness Coach | Portugal Jose Vasconcelos | | Physiotherapist | Portugal Ricardo Couto | | Team Doctor | Portugal João Pedro Pinho | | Technical Director | Portugal Diogo Rebelo | Coaching history ---------------- * Egypt Ali Othman and Majid Mohammed (1955) * Egypt Ahmed Abu Taha (1957) * AustriaPoland Edmund Majowski (1957–1958) * Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Ljubiša Broćić (1962, 1971–1973, 1973–1975) * United Arab Republic Saleh El Wahsh (1964) * Hungary Gyula Grosics (1966) * Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Dimitri Tadić (1966–1969) * United Arab Republic Taha El-Doukhi (1970) * Kuwait Hassan Nassir (1973) * Brazil Mário Zagallo (1976–1978) * Kuwait Saleh Zakaria (1978, 1986, 2006–2007) * Brazil Carlos Alberto Parreira (1978–1982) * Brazil Antônio Lopes (1983–1985) * England Malcolm Allison (1985–1986) * Hungary György Mezey (1986–1987) * Brazil Antônio Vieira (1987–1988) * England George Armstrong (1988) * Brazil Otacílio Gonçalves (1989–1990) * Brazil Luiz Felipe Scolari (1990) * Kuwait Mohammed Karam (1990) * Brazil Valmir Louruz (1990–1992) * Brazil Paulo Campos (1992–1993) * Brazil Gildo Rodrigues (1993) * Kuwait Jawad Maqseed (1993) * Ukraine Valeriy Lobanovskyi (1993–1996) * Czech Republic Milan Máčala (1996–1999) * Czech Republic Dušan Uhrin (1999–2001) * Germany Berti Vogts (2001–2002) * Serbia and Montenegro Radojko Avramović (2002) * Brazil Paulo César Carpegiani (2003–2004) * Kuwait Mohammed Ebrahim Hajeyah (2004, 2005, 2008–2009) * Serbia and Montenegro Slobodan Pavković (2005) * Romania Mihai Stoichiță (2005–2006) * Croatia Rodion Gačanin (2007–2008) * Serbia Goran Tufegdžić (2009–2013) * Brazil Jorvan Vieira (2013–2014) * Tunisia Nabil Maâloul (2014–2015) * Serbia Boris Bunjak (2017) * Serbia Radojko Avramović (2018) * Croatia Romeo Jozak (2018–2019) * Kuwait Thamer Enad (2019–2020, 2021) * Spain Andres Carrasco (2020–2021) * Czech Republic Vítězslav Lavička (2022) * Portugal Rui Bento (2022–) Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the friendly against Zambia on 12 June 2023, and the 2023 SAFF Championship between 21 June and 4 July 2023. *Caps and goals as of 28 March 2023, after the game against Tajikistan.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 1GK | Sulaiman Abdulghafour | (1991-02-26) 26 February 1991 (age 32) | 28 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | | | 1GK | Bader Al-Saanoun | (1996-11-24) 24 November 1996 (age 26) | 0 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Jahra | | --- | | | 2DF | Fahad Al Hajeri | (1991-11-10) 10 November 1991 (age 31) | 62 | 5 | Kuwait Al-Kuwait | | | 2DF | Hamad Al-Qallaf | (1999-12-04) 4 December 1999 (age 23) | 18 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Salmiya | | | 2DF | Khalid El Ebrahim | (1992-08-28) 28 August 1992 (age 30) | 17 | 2 | Kuwait Al-Qadsia | | | 2DF | Mahdi Dashti | (2001-10-26) 26 October 2001 (age 21) | 10 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Salmiya | | | 2DF | Ali Abdel Al-Rasoul | (1999-01-13) 13 January 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | | --- | | | 3MF | Sultan Al Enezi | (1992-09-29) 29 September 1992 (age 30) | 36 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | | | 3MF | Ahmed Al-Dhefiri | (1992-01-09) 9 January 1992 (age 31) | 32 | 2 | Kuwait Al-Kuwait | | | 3MF | Hamad Al Harbi | (1992-07-25) 25 July 1992 (age 30) | 22 | 1 | Kuwait Kazma | | | 3MF | Fawaz Ayedh | (1997-02-21) 21 February 1997 (age 26) | 19 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Salmiya | | | 3MF | Redha Hani | (1996-04-22) 22 April 1996 (age 27) | 19 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Kuwait | | | 3MF | Abdullah Ghanim | (1997-02-12) 12 February 1997 (age 26) | 5 | 0 | Kuwait Kazma | | --- | | | 4FW | Faisal Zayid | (1991-10-09) 9 October 1991 (age 31) | 45 | 6 | Kuwait Al-Kuwait | | | 4FW | Mobarak Al-Faneeni | (2000-01-21) 21 January 2000 (age 23) | 28 | 3 | Kuwait Al-Salmiya | | | 4FW | Eid Al Rashidi | (1999-05-25) 25 May 1999 (age 24) | 24 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Qadsia | | | 4FW | Shabaib Al-Khaldi | (1998-08-11) 11 August 1998 (age 24) | 21 | 7 | Kuwait Kazma | | | 4FW | Ali Khalaf | (1995-01-16) 16 January 1995 (age 28) | 9 | 2 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | | | 4FW | Ahmad Zanki | (1995-12-17) 17 December 1995 (age 27) | 9 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Kuwait | | | 4FW | Bader Al-Fadhel | (1997-04-22) 22 April 1997 (age 26) | 6 | 3 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | | | 4FW | Salman Al-Awadhi | (2001-05-21) 21 May 2001 (age 22) | 3 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the Kuwait squad within the last 12 months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Dhari Al-Otaibi | (2002-03-31) 31 March 2002 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Kuwait Kuwait SC | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | --- | | DF | Rashed Al-Dosary | (2000-07-18) 18 July 2000 (age 22) | 11 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Qadsia | v.  Tajikistan, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Mohammed Al-Nassar | (1996-05-24) 24 May 1996 (age 27) | 3 | 0 | Kuwait Kazma | v.  Tajikistan, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Hassan Hamdan | (2000-09-01) 1 September 2000 (age 22) | 5 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | DF | Meshari Ghanam | (1997-08-28) 28 August 1997 (age 25) | 5 | 0 | Kuwait Kuwait SC | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | DF | Bader Jamal | (1996-12-10) 10 December 1996 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Salmiya | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | DF | Abdulaziz Wadi | (1998-12-06) 6 December 1998 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Qadsia | 25th Arabian Gulf CupPRE | | --- | | MF | Yaqoub Al-Tararwa | (1994-03-07) 7 March 1994 (age 29) | 6 | 2 | Kuwait Kuwait SC | 25th Arabian Gulf CupPRE | | MF | Khaled Shaman | (1996-08-14) 14 August 1996 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Nasr | v.  Lebanon, 19 November 2022 | | --- | | FW | Bader Al-Fadhel | (1997-04-22) 22 April 1997 (age 26) | 4 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Arabi | v.  Tajikistan, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Ibrahim Kameel | (2002-06-10) 10 June 2002 (age 21) | 7 | 1 | Kuwait Kuwait SC | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | FW | Mohammad Bajeyah | (2001-03-15) 15 March 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 1 | Kuwait Al-Jahra | v.  Bahrain, 13 January 2023 | | FW | Abdulaziz Marwi | (1998-09-29) 29 September 1998 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Kuwait Al-Jahra | 25th Arabian Gulf CupPRE | ### Previous squads World Cup squads * 1982 FIFA World Cup squads – Kuwait Asian Cup squads * 1972 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 1976 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 1980 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 1984 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 1988 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 1996 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 2000 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 2004 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 2011 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait * 2015 AFC Asian Cup squads – Kuwait Records ------- *As of 14 June 2022* *Players in **bold** are still active with Kuwait.* ### Most appearances | Rank | Name | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Bader Al-Mutawa** | 196 | 56 | 2003–present | | 2 | Waleed Ali | 136 | 8 | 2002–2014 | | 3 | Bashar Abdullah | 134 | 75 | 1996–2007 | | 4 | Musaed Neda | 125 | 20 | 2002–2015 | | 5 | Nawaf Al-Khaldi | 115 | 0 | 2000–2014 | | 6 | Jarah Al Ateeqi | 112 | 4 | 2001–2013 | | 7 | Nohair Al-Shammari | 109 | 2 | 1996–2009 | | Wael Sulaiman | 109 | 16 | 1986–1996 | | 9 | Jamal Mubarak | 107 | 9 | 1994–2004 | | 10 | **Yousef Nasser** | 105 | 49 | 2009–present | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Name | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Bashar Abdullah | 75 | 134 | 0.56 | 1996–2007 | | 2 | Jassem Al Houwaidi | 63 | 83 | 0.76 | 1992–2003 | | 3 | **Bader Al-Mutawa** | 56 | 196 | 0.29 | 2003–present | | | 4 | **Yousef Nasser** | 49 | 105 | 0.47 | 2009–present | | 5 | Jasem Yaqoub | 36 | 49 | 0.73 | 1972–1982 | | | 6 | Faisal Al-Dakhil | 36 | 67 | 0.54 | 1974–1988 | | 7 | Faraj Laheeb | 23 | 45 | 0.51 | 1998–2008 | | 8 | Musaed Neda | 20 | 125 | 0.16 | 2002–2015 | | 9 | Ahmad Ajab | 17 | 36 | 0.47 | 2005–2013 | | | 10 | Ali Marwi | 16 | 24 | 0.67 | 1988–1998 | Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | FIFA World Cup qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 to Mexico 1970 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | West Germany 1974 | *Did not qualify* | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 8 | | Argentina 1978 | 12 | 8 | 1 | 3 | 23 | 10 | | Spain 1982 | Round 1 | 21st | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 20 | 6 | | Mexico 1986 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 2 | | Italy 1990 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 3 | | United States 1994 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 21 | 4 | | France 1998 | 12 | 6 | 2 | 4 | 17 | 9 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 9 | 3 | | Germany 2006 | 12 | 6 | 1 | 5 | 19 | 15 | | South Africa 2010 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 12 | | Brazil 2014 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 10 | | Russia 2018 | *Disqualified due to FIFA suspension* | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 12 | 10 | | Qatar 2022 | *Did not qualify* | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 19 | 7 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *TBD* | *TBD* | | Total | Best: Round 1 | 1/22 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 101 | 52 | 16 | 33 | 189 | 99 | ### AFC Asian Cup | AFC Asian Cup record | | AFC Asian Cup qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Hong Kong 1956 | *Not a AFC member* | *Not a AFC member* | | South Korea 1960 | | Israel 1964 | | Iran 1968 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Thailand 1972 | Group stage | 5th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 4 | | Iran 1976 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **6** | **3** | *Qualified by default* | | Kuwait 1980 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **13** | **6** | *Qualified as hosts* | | Singapore 1984 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **6** | **3** | **1** | **2** | **5** | **4** | *Qualified as defending champions* | | Qatar 1988 | Group stage | 7th | 4 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 0 | | Japan 1992 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | | United Arab Emirates 1996 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **6** | **2** | **1** | **3** | **9** | **6** | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 5 | | Lebanon 2000 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 1 | | China 2004 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 17 | 5 | | Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Vietnam 2007 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | | Qatar 2011 | Group stage | 14th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 7 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 5 | | Australia 2015 | 15th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 10 | 7 | | United Arab Emirates 2019 | *Disqualified due to FIFA suspension* | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 12 | 10 | | Qatar 2023 | *Did not qualify* | 11 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 24 | 13 | | Saudi Arabia 2027 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Best: Champions | 10/19 | 42 | 15 | 10 | 18 | 45 | 51 | 60 | 30 | 16 | 14 | 133 | 57 | *\*Denotes draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.* *\*\*Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won. Red border colour indicates tournament was held on home soil.* ### Olympic Games | Olympic Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | France 1900 to Australia 1956 | *Did not enter* | | Italy 1960 to Canada 1976 | *Did not qualify* | | Soviet Union 1980 | Quarter-finals | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | | United States 1984 to South Korea 1988 | *Did not qualify* | | 1992–present | *See Kuwait national under-23 football team* | | Total | Best: Quarter-finals | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | ### Asian Games | Asian Games record | | --- | | Year | Result | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | India 1951 to Thailand 1970 | *Did not enter* | | Iran 1974 | 6th place | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 12 | 8 | | Thailand 1978 | 5th place | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 8 | | India 1982 | **Runners-up** | **6** | **5** | **0** | **1** | **13** | **5** | | South Korea 1986 | **Third place** | **7** | **5** | **2** | **0** | **20** | **3** | | China 1990 | 7th place | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | | Japan 1994 | **Third place** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **15** | **6** | | Thailand 1998 | **Runners-up** | **8** | **3** | **2** | **3** | **23** | **8** | | 2002–present | *See Kuwait national under-23 football team* | | Total | 7/13 | 42 | 24 | 7 | 11 | 99 | 42 | ### WAFF Championship | West Asian Football Federation Championship record | | --- | | Year | Result | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | | Jordan 2000 | *Did not participate* | | Syria 2002 | | Iran 2004 | | Jordan 2007 | | Iran 2008 | | Jordan 2010 | **Champions** | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 5 | +2 | | Kuwait 2012 | Group stage | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 | | Qatar 2014 | Fourth place | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 | –2 | | Iraq 2019 | Group stage | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 0 | | United Arab Emirates 2023 | *Qualified* | | Total | 4/9 | 12 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 17 | 17 | 0 | ### Arabian Gulf Cup | Year | Host Country | Result | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1970 |  Bahrain | **Champions** | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 4 | | 1972 |  Saudi Arabia | **Champions** | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 14 | 2 | | 1974 |  Kuwait | **Champions** | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 16 | 0 | | 1976 |  Qatar | **Champions** | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 26 | 7 | | 1979 |  Iraq | Runners-up | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 4 | | 1982 |  UAE | **Champions** | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 2 | | 1984 |  Oman | Sixth place | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 8 | | 1986 |  Bahrain | **Champions** | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 11 | 4 | | 1988 |  Saudi Arabia | Fifth place | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | | 1990 |  Kuwait | **Champions** | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 2 | | 1992 |  Qatar | Fifth place | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 8 | | 1994 |  UAE | Fifth place | 5 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 6 | | 1996 |  Oman | **Champions** | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 4 | | 1998 |  Bahrain | **Champions** | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 18 | 5 | | 2002 |  Saudi Arabia | Fourth place | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | 2003 |  Kuwait | Sixth place | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 9 | | 2004 |  Qatar | Fourth place | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 7 | | 2007 |  UAE | Group stage | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | 2009 |  Oman | Semi-finals | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | | 2010 |  Yemen | **Champions** | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 2 | | 2013 |  Bahrain | Third place | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 3 | | 2014 |  Saudi Arabia | Group stage | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 7 | | 2017 |  Kuwait | Group stage | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | | 2019 |  Qatar | Group stage | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 7 | | 2023 |  Iraq | Group stage | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | 2024 |  Kuwait | *Qualified* | | 2025 |  Oman | *Qualified* | | Total | 25/25 | Best: Champions | 115 | 57 | 24 | 34 | 200 | 115 | | ### Pan Arab Games | Pan Arab Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | 1953–1957 | *Did not enter* | | Morocco 1961 | 6th | 5 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 18 | | 1965–1985 | *Did not enter* | | Lebanon 1997 | Fourth place | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 8 | 9 | | 1999–2007 | *Did not enter* | | Qatar 2011 | Third place | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | Total | 3/10 | 14 | 5 | 1 | 8 | 18 | 29 | ### FIFA Arab Cup | FIFA Arab Cup record | | --- | | Year | Result | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Lebanon 1963 | **Fourth place** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **3** | **5** | **15** | | Kuwait 1964 | **Third place** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **2** | **5** | **5** | | Iraq 1966 | Group stage | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 1 | | Saudi Arabia 1985 | *Did not enter* | | Jordan 1988 | Group stage | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | | Syria 1992 | **Third place** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **6** | **5** | | Qatar 1998 | **Third place** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **13** | **4** | | Kuwait 2002 | Group stage | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 6 | | Saudi Arabia 2012 | Group stage | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | | Qatar 2021 | *Did not qualified* | | Total | Best: Third place | 30 | 10 | 6 | 14 | 47 | 43 | Head-to-head record ------------------- The following table shows **Kuwait's all-time international record**, *As of 27 June 2023* after match against  India   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Opponent | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | |  Afghanistan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 | | |  Algeria | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | | |  Armenia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | | |  Australia | 14 | 5 | 2 | 7 | 12 | 22 | -10 | | |  Azerbaijan | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 0 | | |  Bahrain | 49 | 21 | 13 | 15 | 67 | 47 | +20 | | |  Bangladesh | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 | +5 | | |  Bhutan | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 20 | 0 | +20 | | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | -1 | | |  Brazil | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | -4 | | |  Bulgaria | 5 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 9 | -3 | | |  Cambodia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 4 | -4 | | |  Cameroon | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | -2 | | |  China | 19 | 5 | 5 | 9 | 16 | 26 | -10 | | |  Colombia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | -2 | | |  Cyprus | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | |  Czech Republic | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 9 | -8 | | |  Czechoslovakia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | |  Ecuador | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | -3 | | |  Egypt | 13 | 1 | 7 | 5 | 10 | 23 | -13 | | |  England | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | -1 | | |  Finland | 7 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 5 | 6 | -1 | | |  France | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | -4 | | |  Germany | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 7 | -7 | | |  East Germany | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | -2 | | |  Hong Kong | 7 | 6 | 1 | 0 | 18 | 4 | +14 | | |  Hungary | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | -1 | | |  Iceland | 7 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 | -1 | | |  India | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 18 | 6 | +12 | | |  Indonesia | 7 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 12 | 8 | +4 | | |  Iran | 29 | 7 | 8 | 13 | 27 | 35 | -8 | | |  Iraq | 35 | 8 | 10 | 17 | 34 | 48 | -14 | | |  Ivory Coast | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | -2 | | |  Japan | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 2 | +6 | | |  Jordan | 24 | 8 | 11 | 6 | 30 | 25 | +5 | | |  Kazakhstan | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | |  Kenya | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | | |  North Korea | 14 | 6 | 7 | 1 | 20 | 12 | +8 | | |  South Korea | 23 | 8 | 3 | 12 | 20 | 30 | -10 | | |  Kyrgyzstan | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 2 | +8 | | |  Laos | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | | |  Latvia | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | | |  Lebanon | 31 | 15 | 10 | 6 | 50 | 31 | +19 | | |  Libya | 8 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 11 | 12 | -1 | | |  Lithuania | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | | |  Macau | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 18 | 1 | +17 | | |  Malaysia | 13 | 9 | 2 | 2 | 32 | 8 | +24 | | |  Mali | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 4 | +10 | | |  Mauritania | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | | |  Mexico | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | |  Mongolia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 0 | +11 | | |  Morocco | 6 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 14 | -9 | | |  Myanmar | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 18 | 12 | +6 | | |    Nepal | 10 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 37 | 3 | +34 | |  Niger | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | |  New Zealand | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 8 | -1 | | |  Norway | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 3 | +1 | | |  Oman | 31 | 12 | 10 | 9 | 47 | 27 | +20 | | |  Pakistan | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 0 | +10 | | |  Palestine | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 20 | 7 | +13 | | |  Philippines | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 2 | +7 | | |  Poland | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | -2 | | |  Portugal | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 9 | -8 | | |  Qatar | 39 | 18 | 5 | 15 | 55 | 42 | +13 | | |  Romania | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | -1 | | |  Russia | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | -3 | | |  Saudi Arabia | 42 | 15 | 12 | 15 | 44 | 44 | 0 | | |  Singapore | 10 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 20 | 6 | +14 | | |  Sudan | 2 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | | |  Soviet Union | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | -1 | | |  Syria | 33 | 13 | 9 | 11 | 50 | 37 | +13 | | |  Chinese Taipei | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 21 | 1 | +20 | | |  Tajikistan | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | | |  Thailand | 11 | 7 | 0 | 4 | 29 | 17 | +12 | | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | |  Tunisia | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 8 | -6 | | |  Turkmenistan | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 13 | 4 | +9 | | |  Uganda | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | | |  United Arab Emirates | 44 | 18 | 8 | 16 | 70 | 48 | +22 | | |  United States | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | -2 | | |  Uzbekistan | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 9 | 12 | -3 | |  Vietnam | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 | |  South Vietnam | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | | |  Wales | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | |  Yemen | 13 | 7 | 4 | 0 | 25 | 4 | +21 | | |  South Yemen | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | | |  Zambia | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 1 | +8 | | |  Zimbabwe | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | | Total | 676 | 288 | 172 | 216 | 1074 | 755 | +319 | Honours ------- ### Continental honours * **AFC Asian Cup** Winners (1): 1980 Runners-up (1): 1976 Third place (1): 1984 Fourth place (1): 1996 ### Regional honours * **FIFA Arab Cup** Third place (3): 1964, 1992, 1998 Fourth place (1): 1963 * **Arabian Gulf Cup** Winners (10): 1970, 1972, 1974, 1976, 1982, 1986, 1990, 1996, 1998, 2010 Runners-up (1): 1979 Third place (1): 2013, 2002 * **West Asian Games** Winners (1): 2002 Third place (1): 1997 * **WAFF Championship** Winners (1): 2010 Fourth place (1): 2014 * **Pan Arab Games** Third place (2): 1992\*, 2011 Fourth place (1): 1997 \* The 1992 edition organised as part of the Pan Arab Games, and also counted as Arab Cup. ### Friendly * **Focus International Cup** Winners (1): 2011 * **Merdeka Cup** Runners-up (1): 1973 | | | | Preceded by1976 Iran  | **Asian Champions** 1980 (First title) | Succeeded by1984 Saudi Arabia  |

Kuwait national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwait_national_football_team

**Hornbeams** are hardwood trees in the plant genus ***Carpinus*** in the birch family Betulaceae. The 30–40 species occur across much of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Origin of names --------------- The common English name *hornbeam* derives from the hardness of the woods (likened to horn) and the Old English *beam*, "tree" (cognate with Dutch ‘’Boom’’ and German *Baum*). The American hornbeam is also occasionally known as blue-beech, ironwood, or musclewood, the first from the resemblance of the bark to that of the American beech *Fagus grandifolia*, the other two from the hardness of the wood and the muscled appearance of the trunk and limbs. The botanical name for the genus, *Carpinus*, is the original Latin name for the European species, although some etymologists derive it from the Celtic for a yoke. Taxonomy -------- Formerly some taxonomists segregated them with the genera *Corylus* (hazels) and *Ostrya* (hop-hornbeams) in a separate family, **Corylaceae**. However, modern botanists place *Carpinus* in the birch subfamily Coryloideae. Species of *Carpinus* are often grouped into two subgenera *Carpinus* subgenus *Carpinus* and *Carpinus* subgenus *Distegicarpus*. However, phylogentic analysis has shown that *Ostrya* likely evolved from a *Carpinus* ancestor somewhere in *C.* subg. *Distegicarpus* making *Carpinus* paraphyletic. The fossil record of the genus extends back to the Early Eocene, Ypresian of northwestern North America, with the species *Carpinus perryae* described from fossil fruits found in the Klondike Mountain Formation of Republic, Washington. Description ----------- Hornbeams are small to medium-sized trees, *Carpinus betulus* reaching a height of 32 m. The leaves are deciduous, alternate, and simple with a serrated margin, and typically vary from 3 to 10 cm in length. The flowers are wind-pollinated pendulous catkins, produced in spring. The male and female flowers are on separate catkins, but on the same tree (monoecious). The fruit is a small nut about 3–6 mm long, held in a leafy bract; the bract may be either trilobed or simple oval, and is slightly asymmetrical. The asymmetry of the seedwing makes it spin as it falls, improving wind dispersal. The shape of the wing is important in the identification of different hornbeam species. Typically, 10–30 seeds are on each seed catkin. Distribution ------------ The 30–40 species occur across much of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, with the greatest number of species in east Asia, particularly China. Only two species occur in Europe, only one in eastern North America, and one in Mesoamerica. *Carpinus betulus* can be found in Europe, Turkey and Ukraine. Associated insects ------------------ Hornbeams are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including autumnal moth, common emerald, feathered thorn, walnut sphinx, Svensson's copper underwing, and winter moth (recorded on European hornbeam) as well as the *Coleophora* case-bearers *C. currucipennella* and *C. ostryae*. Applications ------------ Hornbeams yield a very hard timber, giving rise to the name "ironwood". Dried heartwood billets are nearly white and are suitable for decorative use. For general carpentry, hornbeam is rarely used, partly due to the difficulty of working it. The wood is used to construct carving boards, tool handles, handplane soles, coach wheels, piano actions, shoe lasts, and other products where a very tough, hard wood is required. The wood can also be used as gear pegs in simple machines, including traditional windmills. It is sometimes coppiced to provide hardwood poles. It is also used in parquet flooring and for making chess pieces. Species ------- Accepted species: * *Carpinus betulus* L. – European hornbeam - Europe to Western Asia; naturalized in North America. * *Carpinus caroliniana* Walter – American hornbeam - Eastern North America * *Carpinus chuniana* Hu – Guangdong, Guizhou, Hubei * *Carpinus cordata* Blume – Sawa hornbeam - Primorye, China, Korea, Japan * *Carpinus dayongiana* K.W.Liu & Q.Z.Lin – Hunan * *Carpinus eximia* Nakai – Korea * *Carpinus faginea* Lindl. – Nepal, Himalayas of northern India * *Carpinus fangiana* Hu – Sichuan, Guangxi * *Carpinus hebestroma* Yamam. – Taiwan * *Carpinus henryana* (H.J.P.Winkl.) H.J.P.Winkl. – southern China * *Carpinus japonica* Blume – Japanese hornbeam - Japan * *Carpinus kawakamii* Hayata – Taiwan, southeastern China * *Carpinus kweichowensis* Hu – Guizhou, Yunnan * *Carpinus langaoensis* Z. Qiang Lu & J. Quan Liu – Shaanxi, China * *Carpinus laxiflora* (Siebold & Zucc.) Blume – Aka-shide hornbeam - Japan, Korea * *Carpinus lipoensis* Y.K.Li – Guizhou * *Carpinus londoniana* H.J.P.Winkl. – southern China, northern Indochina * *Carpinus luochengensis* J.Y.Liang – Guangxi * *Carpinus mengshanensis* S.B.Liang & F.Z.Zhao – Shandong * *Carpinus microphylla* Z.C.Chen ex Y.S.Wang & J.P.Huang – Guangxi * *Carpinus mollicoma* Hu – Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan * *Carpinus monbeigiana* Hand.-Mazz. – Tibet, Yunnan * *Carpinus omeiensis* Hu & W.P.Fang – Sichuan, Guizhou * *Carpinus orientalis* Mill. – Oriental hornbeam - Hungary, Balkans, Italy, Crimea, Turkey, Iran, Caucasus * *Carpinus paohsingensis* W.Y.Hsia – China * †*Carpinus perryae* Pigg, Manchester, & Wehr, 2003 - Ypresian, Klondike Mountain Formation * *Carpinus polyneura* Franch. – southern China * *Carpinus pubescens* Burkill – China, Vietnam * *Carpinus purpurinervis* Hu – Guizhou, Guangxi * *Carpinus putoensis* W.C.Cheng – Putuo hornbeam - Zhejiang * *Carpinus rankanensis* Hayata – Taiwan * *Carpinus rupestris* A.Camus – Yunnan, Guangxi, Guizhou * *Carpinus shensiensis* Hu – Gansu, Shaanxi * *Carpinus shimenensis* C.J.Qi – Hunan * †*Carpinus tengshongensis* W.C.Cheng – Pliocene Yunnan Province * *Carpinus tropicalis* (Donn.Sm.) Lundell – Mexico, Central America * *Carpinus tsaiana* Hu – Yunnan, Guizhou * *Carpinus tschonoskii* Maxim. – Chonowski's hornbeam - China, Korea, Japan * *Carpinus turczaninovii* Hance – Korean hornbeam, - China, Korea, Japan * *Carpinus viminea* Wall. ex Lindl. – China, Korea, Himalayas, northern Indochina

Hornbeam

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornbeam

Bengali **This article contains Bengali text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **Bengal** (/bɛnˈɡɔːl/ *ben-GAWL*; Bengali: বাংলা/বঙ্গ, romanized: *Bānglā/Bôngô*, pronounced [ˈbɔŋgo] ()) is a historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Bengal proper is divided between modern-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. The Indian states of Assam and Tripura have a sizeable Bengali population. A large Bengali diaspora exists across the world. Bengali is the sixth-most spoken language in the world. Various Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric and other peoples inhabited the region since antiquity. The ancient Vanga Kingdom is widely regarded as the namesake of the Bengal region. The Bengali calendar dates back to the reign of Shashanka in the 4th century. The Pala Empire was founded in Bengal during the 8th century. The Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed by Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed and became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world. During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam, Arakan, Tripura, Bihar, and Orissa. Mughal Bengal later emerged as a prosperous part of the Mughal Empire. The last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the British Empire's East India Company. The company's Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit of British India with Calcutta as the capital of India. At its peak, the presidency stretched from Burma, Penang, Singapore and Malacca in the east to The Punjab and Ceded and Conquered Provinces in the west. Bengal was gradually re-organized by the early 20th century. As a result of the first partition of Bengal, a short-lived province called Eastern Bengal and Assam existed between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capital Dhaka. Following the Sylhet referendum and votes by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly, the region was again divided along religious lines in 1947. Bengali culture, particularly its literature, music, art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes several Nobel laureates. Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India, the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms of gender parity, the gender pay gap and other indices of human development. Etymology --------- The name of *Bengal* is derived from the ancient kingdom of Banga (pronounced Bôngô), the earliest records of which date back to the *Mahabharata* epic in the first millennium BCE. The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in the Vrihadeshwara temple at Tanjore, which is one of the oldest references to Bengal. The term *Vangaladesa* is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records. The modern term *Bangla* is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the *Shah of Bangala*. The Portuguese referred to the region as *Bengala* in the Age of Discovery. History ------- ### Antiquity Neolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region. In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants of Copper Age settlements are located in the region. At the advent of the Iron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment. From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Cities in Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar emerged. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation. Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade with distand lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere. The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal included Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela. These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires. The Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE. The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population. Punch-marked coins found in the region indicate that coins were used as currency during the Iron Age. The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal named Vijaya founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka. The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire. The region was a center of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention of chess, Indian numerals, and the concept of zero. The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai. The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including a cavalry of war elephants. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images of Hercules were found in the region and point to trade links with Roman Egypt through the Red Sea. The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading center) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy. A Roman amphora was found in Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made in Aelana (present-day Aqaba, Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD. The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign of Shashanka. The origins of the Bengali calendar can be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded the Gauda Kingdom. After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam. The ancient city of Gauda later gave birth to the Pala Empire. The first Pala emperor Gopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent under Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas vied for control of Kannauj with the rival Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended to Tibet and Sumatra due to the travels and preachings of Atisa. The university of Nalanda was established by the Palas. They also built the Somapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan. The Varman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal and Assam. The Sena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smaller Deva dynasty also ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors like Xuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions. Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River. Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims. Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati. A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum. * Ancient Bengal * Artefact found in ChandraketugarhArtefact found in Chandraketugarh * Ruins of PaharpurRuins of Paharpur * MahasthangarhMahasthangarh * MainamatiMainamati ### Sultanate period In 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal. The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers. The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d’état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India’s interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam". Bengal became a province of the Delhi Sultanate. A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic. An abortive Islamic invasion of Tibet was also mounted by Bakhtiyar. Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years. Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal. Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence. Sultan Iltutmish re-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak. It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through the Conquest of Sylhet in 1303. In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns. Governors in Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon declared independence from Delhi. This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, to annex Chittagong to the Islamic administration. By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, unified the region into an independent state. Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua. The new breakaway state emerged as the Bengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, the Islamic world stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east. The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enter Nepal and stretched from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south to Assam in the east. The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. The Bengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognized the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognized Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi. The ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years. Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal. The vassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip and Pratapgarh. At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura. The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success under Alauddin Hussain Shah, who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led by Shah Ismail Ghazi overthrew the Khen dynasty and annexed large parts of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited from Indian Ocean trade networks and emerged as a hub of re-exports. A giraffe was brought by African envoys from Malindi to Bengal's court and was later gifted to Imperial China. Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa. Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca. Bengali ships transported embassies from Brunei, Aceh and Malacca to China. Bengal and the Maldives had a vast trade in shell currency. The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia. The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to the Hussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by the Suri dynasty; and ended with the Karrani dynasty. The Battle of Raj Mahal and the capture of Daud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar. In the late 16th-century, a confederation called the Baro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of the Zamindars of Bengal. They were led by Isa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire. * Sultanate period * Adina MosqueAdina Mosque * Mosque in the 15th century Bengal style by Sita RamMosque in the 15th century Bengal style by Sita Ram * Pathrail MosquePathrail Mosque * Eklakhi MausoleumEklakhi Mausoleum ### Mughal period Mughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the *Paradise of the Nations* by the Mughal Emperors. A new provincial capital was built in Dhaka. Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (*subedar*). Dhaka became a center of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors included Rajput general Man Singh I, Emperor Shah Jahan's son Prince Shah Shuja, Emperor Aurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperor Azam Shah, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan. During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal. Bengal premier Murshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognized the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organization in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine quality handicrafts, and other trades. A process of proto-industrialisation was underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders. The Nawab's state was a major exporter of Bengal muslin, silk, gunpowder and saltpetre. The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company. The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a center of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important center of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean. Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528, but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th-century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. * Mughal Bengal * Lukachari GatewayLukachari Gateway * Lalbagh FortLalbagh Fort * Ruins of Katra MasjidRuins of Katra Masjid * Nimtali archNimtali arch ### Colonial era (1757–1947) In Bengal effective political and military power was transferred from the old regime to the British East India Company around 1757–65. Company rule in India began under the Bengal Presidency. Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. The Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Viceroy of India for many years. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943). Under British rule, Bengal experienced the deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy. Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry. The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing. Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people. In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was set up as the first modern legislature in India. Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with the Morley-Minto reforms and the system of dyarchy. In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was created. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was the Prime Minister of Bengal. The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in the British Empire. At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of Bengal. The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, Malacca and Singapore. In 1867, Penang, Singapore and Malacca were separated from Bengal into the Straits Settlements. British Burma became a province of India and a later a Crown Colony in itself. Western areas, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab, were further reorganized. Northeastern areas became Colonial Assam. In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in the Barisal region. About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of the Company Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam where the All India Muslim League was founded. In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature. Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort by politicians Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose to form a United Bengal, when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western joined India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal. * Colonial Bengal * Chittagong circa 1703Chittagong circa 1703 * Hugli-Chuchura, 1787Hugli-Chuchura, 1787 * Victoria Memorial and St. Paul's Cathedral, KolkataVictoria Memorial and St. Paul's Cathedral, Kolkata * Dhaka in 1861Dhaka in 1861 ### Partition of Bengal (1947) On 27 April 1947, the last Prime Minister of Bengal Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy". On 2 June 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee told the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan". On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (120 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned. On 6 July, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal. The English barrister Cyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. The Radcliffe Line created the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, which later became the Bangladesh-India border. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua, Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored. Geography --------- Most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 232,752  km2—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh 147,570 km2 (56,977 sq mi). The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres (33 feet) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3.3 feet). Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 feet). A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered. West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi). The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state. The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta. At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 µg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption. The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body. * Fertile Plains of Bengal * Plains during the dry seasonPlains during the dry season * Cultivated plots of landCultivated plots of land * Rice fieldRice field * Jute fieldJute field * Mustard and sugarcane fieldMustard and sugarcane field * Rivers and canalsRivers and canals ### Historical, political and cultural geography * Vanga and Pundra in the Late Vedic periodVanga and Pundra in the Late Vedic period * Vanga and Pundra in the mahajanapada periodVanga and Pundra in the *mahajanapada* period * Gangaridai in Ptolemy's map, 1st centuryGangaridai in Ptolemy's map, 1st century * The Gauda Kingdom, 4th centuryThe Gauda Kingdom, 4th century * Samatata, 4th centurySamatata, 4th century * The Pala Empire in 800The Pala Empire in 800 * The Bengal Sultanate in 1525The Bengal Sultanate in 1525 * Mughal Bengal in 1776 by James RennellMughal Bengal in 1776 by James Rennell * The Bengal Presidency in 1858The Bengal Presidency in 1858 * Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1907Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1907 * Province of Bengal (1931)Province of Bengal (1931) * BangladeshBangladesh * West BengalWest Bengal * Geographical distribution of the Bengali language in South AsiaGeographical distribution of the Bengali language in South Asia * Bengali dialectsBengali dialects ### Geographic distinctions #### North Bengal North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division (Alipurduar, Cooch Behar, Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur and Malda) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hills are also part of North Bengal. Although only people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar identifies themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis. #### Northeast Bengal Northeast Bengal refers to the Sylhet region, comprising Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and the Karimganj district in the Indian state of Assam. The region is noted for its distinctive fertile highland terrain, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The Surma and Barak river are the geographic markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its largest urban center, and the region is known for its unique regional language known as Sylheti. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta. The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Bengal Sultanate. It later became a district of the Mughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities. The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India. #### Central Bengal Central Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region. In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions. #### South Bengal South Bengal covers the southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal.The Bangladeshi part includes Khulna Division, Barisal Division and the proposed Faridpur Division The Indian part of South Bengal includes 12 districts: Kolkata, Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, East Midnapur, West Midnapur, Purulia, Bankura, Birbhum, Nadia, South 24 Parganas and North 24 Parganas. The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India. #### Southeast Bengal Southeast Bengal refers to the hilly and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh. Southeast Bengal is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as *Harkand* in the 9th century. During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Sultanate of Bengal, the Kingdom of Tripura, the Kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian language, a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and Bawm peoples. Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part of it. ### Places of interest There are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growing surfing destination. St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal. ### Other regions Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganization drastically reduced the territory of Bengal. Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State. #### Arakan Arakan (now Rakhine State, Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan. An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the Bengali Candra dynasty. Paul Wheatley described the "Indianization" of Arakan. The early population of Arakan was a mix of Indo-Aryan and Tibeto-Burman peoples. According to Pamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi". Arakan emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate. It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal. Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders. Bengali Hindus and Bengali Buddhists served as priests. Some of the most important poets of medieval Bengali literature lived in Arakan, including Alaol and Daulat Qazi. In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of the Peacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan. Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th-century. The modern-day Rohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan. The Rohingya genocide resulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State. #### Assam The Indian state of Assam shares many cultural similarities with Bengal. The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language. The Barak Valley has a Bengali-speaking majority population. During the Partition of India, Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal. The Sylhet Division joined East Bengal in Pakistan, with the exception of Karimganj which joined Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province called Eastern Bengal and Assam between 1905 and 1912 under the British Raj. Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa, Gauda and Kamata. Large parts of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate. Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule. However, the Bhuiyan federation led by Isa Khan, which resisted Mughal expansion in eastern Bengal, had considerable territory, power and influence in Assam. During the early 20th century, politics in Assam was strongly influenced by Bengalis in Sylhet. #### Andaman and Nicobar Islands Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. During World War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by the Provisional Government of Free India. Anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled many Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. #### Bihar In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region of Magadha covered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire and the Pala Empire. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under the Mughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Whenever Bengali rulers faced distress within Bengal proper, Bihar would provide a safe haven. For example, when faced with British supremacy in Murshidabad, the nominal puppet nawab Mir Qasim moved to Patna. #### Chittagong Hill Tracts The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population includes Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people, Bawm people and Mro people among others. The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of the Chakma Circle and Bohmong Circle. In 1713, the Chakma Raja signed a treaty with Mughal Bengal after obtaining permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar for trade with the plains of Chittagong. Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles. They initially resisted the Permanent Settlement and the activities of the East India Company. The tribal royal families of the region came under heavy Bengali influence. The Chakma queen Benita Roy was a friend of Rabindranath Tagore. The region was governed by the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual under colonial rule. The manual was significantly amended after the end of British rule; and the region became fully integrated with Bangladesh. #### Meghalaya The Indian state of Meghalaya historically came under the influence of Shah Jalal, a Muslim missionary and conqueror from Sylhet. During British rule, the city of Shillong was the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (modern Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India. The city continues to have a sizeable Bengali population; while visitors from Bangladesh frequent the state often. #### Odisha Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. Parts of the region were ruled by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor. #### Tripura The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the 1949 Tripura Merger Agreement. Tripura was historically a vassal state of Bengal. In 1464, the Sultan of Bengal helped Ratna Manikya I assume the throne of the ancient Twipra Kingdom.[*verification needed*] Today, the Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links between Bangladesh and Northeast India. In Bengali culture, the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family. Flora and fauna --------------- The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jackfruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (*Dooars*) with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees. Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity. The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish. For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal. Politics -------- Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between the sovereign state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms part of the Indian state of Assam. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah. In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin's Island is governed by Bangladesh; while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands has a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as a union territory. ### Bangladeshi Republic The state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognising Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims. Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) are the two largest political parties in Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the IMCTC. Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours. ### Indian Bengal West Bengal is a constituent state of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government. The governor appoints the chief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India. Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha. The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress. The two major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, with the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Indian National Congress being minor players. ### Crossborder relations India and Bangladesh are the world's second and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties. The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal. India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh. Economy ------- The Ganges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit. Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of the Indian subcontinent. Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking. The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of the Bengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significant international trade in Bengal. In 1338, Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamic dinar. In 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom. These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns. These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal. The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into the world economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardized legal tender. It was also used in commerce with the Dutch East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company and the British East India Company. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the center of the worldwide muslin trade. The muslin trade in Bengal was patronized by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250 tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771. Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder. The organized early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation. The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain. In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialization. However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly the jute trade. The partition of India changed the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including the world's largest jute mill. In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalized 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatized in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy. Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India. The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer. Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, including Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics and Muhammad Yunus who won the Nobel Peace Prize. ### Stock markets * Dhaka Stock Exchange * Chittagong Stock Exchange * Calcutta Stock Exchange ### Ports and harbours * Port of Chittagong * Port of Kolkata * Port of Mongla * Haldia Port * Port of Payra * Port of Pangaon * Port of Narayanganj * Port of Ashuganj * Port of Barisal * Matarbari Port * Land port of Benapole-Petrapole ### Chambers of commerce * Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry * Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry * Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI) * Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry * Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI) * Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI) ### Intra-Bengal trade Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion. Most of this trade relationship is centered on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border. The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement. Demographics ------------ The Bengal region is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs. According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364; however, CIA's *The World Factbook* gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736. "So, the Bengal region, as of 2011[update], has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world. Language in Bengal   Bengali (93%)  Others (7%) Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya. English is often used for official work alongside Bengali. Other major Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Assamese, and Nepali are also familiar to Bengalis. Population trends for major religious groups in the Bengal region(West Bengal + Bangladesh) under the British India(1881–1941)| Religiousgroup | Population % 1881 | Population % 1891 | Population % 1901 | Population % 1911 | Population % 1921 | Population % 1931 | Population % 1941 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Islam | 50.16% | 50.7% | 51.58% | 52.74% | 53.99% | 54.87% | 54.73% | | Hinduism | 48.45% | 47.27% | 46.60% | 44.80% | 43.27% | 43.04% | 41.55% | | Christianity | 0.2% | - | - | - | - | - | - | | Buddhism | 0.69% | - | - | - | - | - | - | | | Other religions | 0.5% | - | - | - | - | - | - | **Bengal region religious diversity as per 2011 census**| Religion | Population | | --- | --- | | Muslims () | 160,049,043 | | Hindus () | 77,116,197 | | Christians () | 1,257,708 | | Buddhists () | 1,181,533 | | Others | 1,515,619 | | Total | 241,120,100 | In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei (officially called "Manipuri"), Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh, Sauria Paharia). Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh and 70.2 for West Bengal. In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate, in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%. The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9% West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada. About 20,000 people live on *chars*. Chars are temporary islands formed by the deposition of sediments eroded off the banks of the Ganges in West Bengal, which often disappear in the monsoon season. They are made of very fertile soil. The inhabitants of the chars are not recognised by the Government of West Bengal on the grounds that it is not known whether they are Indians or Bangladeshis. Consequently, no identification documents are issued to char-dwellers who cannot benefit from health care, barely survive because of very poor sanitation and are prevented from emigrating to the mainland to find jobs when they have turned 14. On a particular char, it was reported that 13% of women died at childbirth. ### Major cities * Dhaka * Kolkata * Chattogram * Khulna * Rajshahi * Asansol * Rangpur * Sylhet * Barisal * Siliguri * Darjeeling * Cox's Bazar * Durgapur * Murshidabad * Comilla * Jessore * Faridpur * Bogra * Mymensingh * Major Cities in the Region * DhakaDhaka * KolkataKolkata * ChittagongChittagong * SylhetSylhet * DarjeelingDarjeeling * RangpurRangpur * BarisalBarisal Culture ------- ### Language The Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit. It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script. Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world. It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India. It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world. Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity. ### Currency In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971. ### Literature Bengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script. The Bengali language and script evolved c. 1000 CE from Magadhi Prakrit. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the *Chôrjapôdô*, *Mangalkavya*, *Shreekrishna Kirtana*, *Maimansingha Gitika* or *Thakurmar Jhuli*. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta and Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed. Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others. ### Personification The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists. Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a national personification of India. The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal. ### Art The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art. It included sculptures and paintings. Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court. The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India. Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene. ### Architecture Classical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region. Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at Adina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow. The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata. In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography. ### Sciences The Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama. Bengal was the leader of scientific endeavours in the subcontinent during the British Raj. The educational reforms during this period gave birth to many distinguished scientists in the region. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made very significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent. IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science. He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Prof Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate. Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry. Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems. In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction. Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize "for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory". ### Music The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music. The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition. Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music. ### Cuisine Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali". Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including *Rôshogolla*, *Chômchôm*, and several kinds of *Pithe*. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes. ### Boats There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such as *Jarul* (dipterocarpus turbinatus), *sal* (shorea robusta), *sundari* (heritiera fomes), and *Burma teak* (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies. The British Royal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar. ### Attire Bengali women commonly wear the *shaŗi* and the salwar kameez, often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the *kurta* with *dhoti* or *pyjama*, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men. ### Festivals For Bengali Hindus, the major religious festivals include Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra. For Bengali Muslims, the major religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Milad un Nabi, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat. In honour of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians, both Buddha's Birthday and Christmas are public holidays in the region. The Bengali New Year is the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds. Other Bengali festivals include the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival in autumn. ### Media Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers in the world. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership. West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005, of which 430 were in Bengali. Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata. ### Sports Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh *Bengali Games* has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries. See also -------- * Bengali Renaissance * Bengalis * Greater Bengal * East India * Hindi Belt * List of Bengalis * North-East India * Punjab

Bengal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal

**Flowering plants** are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade **Angiospermae** (/ˌændʒiəˈspərmiː/), commonly called **angiosperms**. They include all forbs (flowering plants without a woody stem), grasses and grass-like plants, a vast majority of broad-leaved trees, shrubs & vines, and most aquatic plants. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ἀγγεῖον /*angeion* ('container, vessel') and σπέρμα / *sperma* ('seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit. They are by far the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families, approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species. Angiosperms were formerly called **Magnoliophyta** (/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfətə, -əˈfaɪtə/). Angiosperms are distinguished from the other seed-producing plants, the gymnosperms, by having flowers, xylem consisting of vessel elements instead of tracheids, endosperm within their seeds, and fruits that completely envelop the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living gymnosperms before the end of the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago, but the earliest angiosperm fossils are in the form of pollen around 134 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous. Over the course of the Cretaceous, angiosperms diversified explosively, becoming the dominant group of plants across the planet by the end of the period, corresponding with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups. Distinguishing features ----------------------- Angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways. | Feature | Description | Image | | --- | --- | --- | | Flowers | The reproductive organs of flowering plants, not found in any other seed plants. | | | Reduced gametophytes, three cells in male, seven cells with eight nuclei in female | The gametophytes are smaller than those of gymnosperms. The smaller size of the pollen reduces the time between pollination and fertilization, which in gymnosperms is up to a year. | | | Endosperm | Endosperm forms after fertilization but before the zygote divides. It provides food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling. | | Closed carpel enclosing the ovules. | Once the ovules are fertilised, the carpels, often with surrounding tissues, develop into fruits. Gymnosperms have unenclosed seeds. | | | Xylem made of vessel elements | Open vessel elements are stacked end to end to form continuous tubes, whereas gymnosperm xylem is made of tapered tracheids connected by small pits. | | Diversity --------- ### Ecological diversity * Largest and smallest * Eucalyptus regnans,a tree almost 100 m tall*Eucalyptus regnans*, a tree almost 100 m tall * Wolffia arrhiza, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across*Wolffia arrhiza*, a rootless floating freshwater plant under 2 mm across The largest angiosperms are *Eucalyptus* gum trees of Australia, and *Shorea faguetiana*, dipterocarp rainforest trees of Southeast Asia, both of which can reach almost 100 metres (330 ft) in height. The smallest are *Wolffia* duckweeds which float on freshwater, each plant less than 2 millimetres (0.08 in) across. * Photosynthetic and parasitic * Gunnera captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins.*Gunnera* captures sunlight for photosynthesis over the large surfaces of its leaves, which are supported by strong veins. * Orobanche purpurea, a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants.*Orobanche purpurea*, a parasitic broomrape with no leaves, obtains all its food from other plants. Considering their method of obtaining energy, some 99% of flowering plants are photosynthetic autotrophs, deriving their energy from sunlight and using it to create molecules such as sugars. The remainder are parasitic, whether on fungi like the orchids for part or all of their life-cycle, or on other plants, either wholly like the broomrapes, *Orobanche*, or partially like the witchweeds, *Striga*. * Hot, cold, wet, dry, fresh, salt * Carnegiea gigantea, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States.*Carnegiea gigantea*, the saguaro cactus, grows in hot dry deserts in Mexico and the southern United States. * Dryas octopetala, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia.*Dryas octopetala*, the mountain avens, lives in cold arctic and montane habitats in the far north of America and Eurasia. * Nelumbo nucifera, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia.*Nelumbo nucifera*, the sacred lotus, grows in warm freshwater across tropical and subtropical Asia. * Zostera seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters.*Zostera* seagrass grows on the seabed in sheltered coastal waters. In terms of their environment, flowering plants are cosmopolitan, occupying a wide range of habitats on land, in fresh water and in the sea. On land, they are the dominant plant group in every habitat except for frigid moss-lichen tundra and coniferous forest. The seagrasses in the Alismatales grow in marine environments, spreading with rhizomes that grow through the mud in sheltered coastal waters. * Acid, alkaline * Drosera anglica, a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid bogs, deriving nutrients from trapped insects.*Drosera anglica*, a sundew, lives in nutrient-poor acid bogs, deriving nutrients from trapped insects. * Gentiana verna, the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats.*Gentiana verna*, the spring gentian, flourishes in dry limestone habitats. Some specialised angiosperms are able to flourish in extremely acid or alkaline habitats. The sundews, many of which live in nutrient-poor acid bogs, are carnivorous plants, able to derive nutrients such as nitrate from the bodies of trapped insects. Other flowers such as *Gentiana verna*, the spring gentian, are adapted to the alkaline conditions found on calcium-rich chalk and limestone, which give rise to often dry topographies such as limestone pavement. * Herbaceous, woody, climbing * Geranium robertianum, herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America.*Geranium robertianum*, herb-Robert, is an annual or biennial herb of Europe and North America. * Betula pendula, the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia.*Betula pendula*, the silver birch, is a perennial deciduous tree of Eurasia. * Lianas Austrosteenisia, Parsonsia, and Sarcopetalum climbing trees in AustraliaLianas *Austrosteenisia*, *Parsonsia*, and *Sarcopetalum* climbing trees in Australia As for their growth habit, the flowering plants range from small, soft herbaceous plants, often living as annuals or biennials that set seed and die after one growing season, to large perennial woody trees that may live for many centuries and grow to many metres in height. Some species grow tall without being self-supporting like trees by climbing on other plants in the manner of vines or lianas. ### Taxonomic diversity The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. This compares to around 12,000 species of moss and 11,000 species of pteridophytes. The APG system seeks to determine the number of families, mostly by molecular phylogenetics. In the 2009 APG III there were 415 families. The 2016 APG IV added five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new families, making a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining five clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among nine families. The 25 most species-rich of 443 families, containing over 166,000 species between them in their APG circumscriptions, are: The 25 largest angiosperm families| Group | Family | English name | No. of spp. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Eudicot | Asteraceae or Compositae | daisy | 22,750 | | Monocot | Orchidaceae | orchid | 21,950 | | Eudicot | Fabaceae or Leguminosae | pea, legume | 19,400 | | Eudicot | Rubiaceae | madder | 13,150 | | Monocot | Poaceae or Gramineae | grass | 10,035 | | Eudicot | Lamiaceae or Labiatae | mint | 7,175 | | Eudicot | Euphorbiaceae | spurge | 5,735 | | Eudicot | Melastomataceae | melastome | 5,005 | | Eudicot | Myrtaceae | myrtle | 4,625 | | Eudicot | Apocynaceae | dogbane | 4,555 | | Monocot | Cyperaceae | sedge | 4,350 | | Eudicot | Malvaceae | mallow | 4,225 | | Monocot | Araceae | arum | 4,025 | | Eudicot | Ericaceae | heath | 3,995 | | Eudicot | Gesneriaceae | gesneriad | 3,870 | | Eudicot | Apiaceae or Umbelliferae | parsley | 3,780 | | Eudicot | Brassicaceae or Cruciferae | cabbage | 3,710 | | Magnoliid dicot | Piperaceae | pepper | 3,600 | | Monocot | Bromeliaceae | bromeliad | 3,540 | | Eudicot | Acanthaceae | acanthus | 3,500 | | Eudicot | Rosaceae | rose | 2,830 | | Eudicot | Boraginaceae | borage | 2,740 | | Eudicot | Urticaceae | nettle | 2,625 | | Eudicot | Ranunculaceae | buttercup | 2,525 | | Magnoliid dicot | Lauraceae | laurel | 2,500 | Evolution --------- ### History of classification The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words *angeíon* (ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and *spérma* (σπέρμα 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690, including only flowering plants whose seeds were enclosed in capsules. The term angiosperm fundamentally changed in meaning in 1827 with Robert Brown, when angiosperm came to mean a seed plant with enclosed ovules. In 1851, with Wilhelm Hofmeister's work on embryo-sacs, Angiosperm came to have its modern meaning of all the flowering plants including Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. The APG system treats the flowering plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank as the subclass Magnoliidae. The Cronquist system, proposed in 1968 and published in full in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. From 1998, the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) has reclassified the angiosperms, with updates in the APG II system in 2003, the APG III system in 2009, and the APG IV system in 2016. Traditionally, the flowering plants were divided into the Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida, and the Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida. The dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one. The APG showed that the monocots are a clade, but that the dicots are paraphyletic. ### Phylogeny #### External In 2019, a molecular phylogeny of plants placed the flowering plants in their evolutionary context: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Embryophytes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Bryophytes | | | | Tracheophytes | | | | | --- | --- | | | Lycophytes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ferns | | | | Spermatophytes | | | | | --- | --- | | | Gymnosperms | | | | | Angiosperms | | | | | seed plants | | | | | | vascular plants | | | | | | land plants | #### Internal The major groups of living angiosperms are: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Angiosperms** | | | | | --- | --- | | | Amborellales 1 sp. New Caledonia shrub | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Nymphaeales c. 80 spp. water lilies & allies | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Austrobaileyales c. 100 spp. woody plants | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Magnoliids c. 10,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves | | | | | Chloranthales 77 spp. aromatic, toothed leaves | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Monocots c. 70,000 spp. 3-part flowers, 1 cotyledon, 1-pore pollen, usu. parallel-veined leaves   | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ceratophyllales c. 6 spp. aquatic plants | | | | | Eudicots c. 175,000 spp. 4- or 5-part flowers, 3-pore pollen, usu. branch-veined leaves | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Basal angiosperms Core angiosperms | | Detailed Cladogram of the 2016 Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification. | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | 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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Angiosperms** | | | | | --- | --- | | | Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 | | | | Mesangiosperms | | | | | --- | --- | | | Chloranthales Mart. 1835 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Magnoliids | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Canellales Cronquist 1957 | | | | | Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Monocots | | | | | --- | --- | | | Acorales Link 1835 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Dioscoreales Brown 1835 | | | | | Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Liliales Perleb 1826 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Asparagales Link 1829 | | | | Commelinids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Arecales Bromhead 1840 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Poales Small 1903 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Zingiberales Grisebach 1854 | | | | | Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ceratophyllales Link 1829 | | | | Eudicots | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ranunculales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Proteales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Trochodendrales Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Buxales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996 | | | | Core eudicots | | | | | --- | --- | | | Gunnerales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Dilleniales de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | Superrosids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Saxifragales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | Rosids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Vitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Fabids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Zygophyllales Link 1829 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Celastrales Link 1829 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Oxalidales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Malpighiales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Fabales Bromhead 1838 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Rosales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cucurbitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Fagales Engler 1892 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (eurosids I) | | Malvids | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Geraniales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Myrtales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Crossosomatales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1993 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Picramniales Doweld 2001 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Sapindales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Huerteales Doweld 2001 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Malvales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Brassicales Bromhead 1838 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (eurosids II) | | | | | | | | | | | Superasterids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Berberidopsidales Doweld 2001 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Santalales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Caryophyllales | | | | Asterids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cornales Link 1829 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ericales von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Lamiids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Icacinales Van Tieghem 1900 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Metteniusales Takhtajan 1997 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Garryales Mart. 1835 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Gentianales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Solanales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Boraginales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | Vahliales Doweld 2001 | | | | | Lamiales Bromhead 1838 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (euasterids I) | | Campanulids | | | | | --- | --- | | | Aquifoliales Senft 1856 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Escalloniales Mart. 1835 | | | | | Asterales Link 1829 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Bruniales Dumortier 1829 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Apiales Nakai 1930 | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Paracryphiales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992 | | | | | Dipsacales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | (euasterids II) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ### Fossil history Fossilised spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years. However, angiosperms appear suddenly and in great diversity in the fossil record in the Early Cretaceous. This poses such a problem for the theory of gradual evolution that Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery". Several disputed claims of pre-Cretaceous angiosperm fossils have been made, such as the upper Triassic *Sanmiguelia lewisi*. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids, extinct seed plants that share many features with flowering plants. Molecular evidence suggests that the ancestors of angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms during the late Devonian, about 365 million years ago. Pollen that looks much like that of angiosperms has been found in the Middle Triassic (247.2–242.0 Ma). The Caytoniales, a group of Triassic seed ferns, may be close relatives of angiosperms. *Nanjinganthus dendrostyla* from Early Jurassic China seems to share many exclusively angiosperm features, such as flower-like structures and a thickened receptacle with ovules, and thus might represent a crown-group or a stem-group angiosperm, but other researchers contend that the structures are decomposed conifer cones. The oldest fossils definitively attributable to angiosperms are reticulated monosulcate pollen from the late Valanginian (Early or Lower Cretaceous - 140 to 133 million years ago) of Italy and Israel, likely representing basal angiosperms. The earliest macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, *Archaefructus liaoningensis*, is dated to about 125 million years ago in the Cretaceous. *Micropetasos* flowers have been found encased in amber dated to 100 million years ago. The amber had frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen had stuck to the flower's style and calyx, suggesting that it was sticky and carried by insects. A Bayesian analysis of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms evolved between 178 million years ago and 198 million years ago. The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous, approximately 100 million years ago. However, a study in 2007 estimated that the divergence of the five most recent of the eight main groups, namely the genus *Ceratophyllum*, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots, occurred around 140 million years ago. By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes. Large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees close to the end of the Cretaceous, 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Paleogene. The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later. Reproduction ------------ ### Flowers The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Its function is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. It may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf. The flower-bearing part of the plant is usually sharply distinguished from the leaf-bearing part, and forms a branch-system called an inflorescence. Flowers produce two kinds of reproductive cells. Microspores, which divide to become pollen grains, are the male cells; they are borne in the stamens. The female cells, megaspores, divide to become the egg cell. They are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel; one or more carpels form the pistil. The flower may consist only of these parts, as in wind-pollinated plants like the willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. In insect- or bird-pollinated plants, other structures protect the sporophylls and attract pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as *Magnolia* where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, is more delicate in structure, and attracts pollinators by colour, scent, and nectar. Most flowers are hermaphrodite, producing both pollen and ovules in the same flower, but some use other devices to reduce self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have carpels and stamens of differing lengths, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen between them. Homomorphic flowers may use a biochemical self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen grains. Dioecious plants such as holly have male and female flowers on separate plants. Monoecious plants have separate male and female flowers on the same plant; these are often wind-pollinated, as in maize, but include some insect-pollinated plants such as *Cucurbita* squashes. ### Fertilisation and embryogenesis Double fertilization requires two sperm cells to fertilise cells in the ovule. A pollen grain sticks to the stigma at the top of the pistil, germinates, and grows a long pollen tube.A haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (*n*) sperm cells. The pollen tube grows from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. When it reaches the micropyle of the ovule, it digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents including the sperm cells. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates; one sperm makes its way to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2*n*) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3*n*) cell. The zygote develops into an embryo; the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, the embryo's food supply. The ovary develops into a fruit. and each ovule into a seed. ### Fruit and seed As the embryo and endosperm develop, the wall of the embryo sac enlarges and combines with the nucellus and integument to form the *seed coat*. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with type of seed dispersal system. Other parts of the flower often contribute to forming the fruit. For example, in the apple, the hypanthium forms the edible flesh, surrounding the ovaries which form the tough cases around the seeds. Apomixis, setting seed without fertilization, is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera. Some angiosperms, including many citrus varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called nucellar embryony. Uses ---- Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (including potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers); the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (including pumpkins and melons); the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the many varieties of the cabbage species *Brassica oleracea*); and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family, including oranges, lemons, and grapefruits, and the Rosaceae, or rose family which provides apples, pears, cherries, apricots, and plums. Flowering plants provide materials in the form of wood, paper, fibers such as cotton, flax, and hemp, medicines such as digoxin and opioids, and decorative and landscaping plants. Coffee and hot chocolate are beverages from flowering plants. Both real and fictitious plants play a wide variety of roles in literature and film. Flowers are the subjects of many poems by poets such as William Blake, Robert Frost, and Rabindranath Tagore. Bibliography ------------ ### Articles, books and chapters * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Angiosperms". *Encyclopædia Britannica* (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * APG (2003). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II". *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society*. **141** (4): 399–436. doi:10.1046/j.1095-8339.2003.t01-1-00158.x. * APG (2009). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG III". *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society*. **161** (2): 105–121. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.00996.x. * APG (2016). "An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV". *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society*. **181** (1): 1–20. doi:10.1111/boj.12385. * Becker, Kenneth M. (February 1973). "A Comparison of Angiosperm Classification Systems". *Taxon*. **22** (1): 19–50. doi:10.2307/1218032. JSTOR 1218032. * Bell, Adrian D. (2008) [1991]. *Plant Form. An Illustrated Guide to Flowering Plant Morphology*. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-850-1. + 1st edition published by Oxford University Press in 1991 ISBN 978-0-19854-219-3 * Bell, C.D.; Soltis, D.E.; Soltis, P.S. (2010). "The Age and Diversification of the Angiosperms Revisited". *American Journal of Botany*. **97** (8): 1296–1303. doi:10.3732/ajb.0900346. PMID 21616882. S2CID 207613985. * Chase, Mark W.; Reveal, James L. (2009). "A phylogenetic classification of the land plants to accompany APG III". *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society*. **161** (2): 122–127. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.2009.01002.x. * De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). *Floral Diagrams*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511806711. ISBN 978-0-511-80671-1. * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Cronquist, Arthur (October 1960). "The divisions and classes of plants". *The Botanical Review*. **26** (4): 425–482. doi:10.1007/BF02940572. S2CID 43144314. * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). *An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants*. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-231-03880-5. * Dahlgren, R. M. T. (February 1980). "A revised system of classification of the angiosperms". *Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society*. **80** (2): 91–124. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1980.tb01661.x. * Dahlgren, Rolf (February 1983). "General aspects of angiosperm evolution and macrosystematics". *Nordic Journal of Botany*. **3** (1): 119–149. doi:10.1111/j.1756-1051.1983.tb01448.x. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*. **97** (13): 7030–7036. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.7030D. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. PMC 34380. PMID 10860967. * Dilcher, David L.; Cronquist, Arthur; Zimmermann, Martin Huldrych; Stevens, Peter; Stevenson, Dennis William; Berry, Paul E. (8 March 2016). "Angiosperm". *Encyclopedia Britannica*. * Heywood, V. H.; Brummitt, R. K.; Culham, A.; Seberg, O. (2007). *Flowering Plant Families of the World*. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 978-1-55407-206-4. * Hill, Christopher; Crane, Peter (January 1982). "Evolutionary Cladistics and the origin of Angiosperms". In Joysey, Kenneth Alan; Friday, A.E. (eds.). *Problems of Phylogenetic Reconstruction*. Special Volumes. Vol. 21. London: Systematics Association. pp. 269–361. ISBN 978-0-12-391250-3. * Lersten, Nels R. (2004). *Flowering plant embryology with emphasis on economic species*. Ames, Iowa: Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-0-470-75267-8. * D. Mauseth, James (2016). *Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology* (6th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-1-284-07753-7. * Pooja (2004). *Angiosperms*. New Delhi: Discovery. ISBN 978-81-7141-788-9. * Raven, P.H.; Evert, R.F.; Eichhorn, S.E. (2004). *Biology of Plants* (7th ed.). W.H. Freeman. * Sattler, R. (1973). *Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atlas*. University of Toronto Press. * Simpson, Michael G. (2010). *Plant Systematics* (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-092208-9. * Soltis, Pamela S; Soltis, Douglas E (April 2016). "Ancient WGD events as drivers of key innovations in angiosperms". *Current Opinion in Plant Biology*. **30**: 159–165. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.03.015. PMID 27064530. * Takhtajan, A. (June 1964). "The Taxa of the Higher Plants above the Rank of Order". *Taxon*. **13** (5): 160–164. doi:10.2307/1216134. JSTOR 1216134. * Takhtajan, A. (July–September 1980). "Outline of the Classification of Flowering Plants (Magnoliophyta)". *Botanical Review*. **46** (3): 225–359. doi:10.1007/bf02861558. JSTOR 4353970. S2CID 30764910. * Zeng, Liping; Zhang, Qiang; Sun, Renran; Kong, Hongzhi; Zhang, Ning; Ma, Hong (24 September 2014). "Resolution of deep angiosperm phylogeny using conserved nuclear genes and estimates of early divergence times". *Nature Communications*. **5** (4956): 4956. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.4956Z. doi:10.1038/ncomms5956. PMC 4200517. PMID 25249442. ### Websites * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Harmut H.; Stevens, Peter F. (2017). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster – Flowering Plant Systematics" (PDF). * Watson, L.; Dallwitz, M.J. (1992). "The Families of Flowering Plants: Descriptions, Illustrations, Identification, and Information Retrieval". 14 December 2000. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014. * "Flowering plant" at the *Encyclopedia of Life*

Flowering plant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant

**Oberon** /ˈoʊbərɒn/, also designated **Uranus IV**, is the outermost major moon of the planet Uranus. It is the second-largest, with a surface area that is compareable to the area of Australia, and second most massive of the Uranian moons, and the ninth most massive moon in the Solar System. Discovered by William Herschel in 1787, Oberon is named after the mythical king of the fairies who appears as a character in Shakespeare's *A Midsummer Night's Dream*. Its orbit lies partially outside Uranus's magnetosphere. It is likely that Oberon formed from the accretion disk that surrounded Uranus just after the planet's formation. The moon consists of approximately equal amounts of ice and rock, and is probably differentiated into a rocky core and an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water may be present at the boundary between the mantle and the core. The surface of Oberon, which is dark and slightly red in color, appears to have been primarily shaped by asteroid and comet impacts. It is covered by numerous impact craters reaching 210 km in diameter. Oberon possesses a system of *chasmata* (graben or scarps) formed during crustal extension as a result of the expansion of its interior during its early evolution. The Uranian system has been studied up close only once: the spacecraft *Voyager 2* took several images of Oberon in January 1986, allowing 40% of the moon's surface to be mapped. Discovery and naming -------------------- Oberon was discovered by William Herschel on January 11, 1787; on the same day he discovered Uranus's largest moon, Titania. He later reported the discoveries of four more satellites, although they were subsequently revealed as spurious. For nearly fifty years following their discovery, Titania and Oberon would not be observed by any instrument other than William Herschel's, although the moon can be seen from Earth with a present-day high-end amateur telescope. All of the moons of Uranus are named after characters created by William Shakespeare or Alexander Pope. The name Oberon was derived from Oberon, the King of the Fairies in *A Midsummer Night's Dream*. The names of all four satellites of Uranus then known were suggested by Herschel's son John in 1852, at the request of William Lassell, who had discovered the other two moons, Ariel and Umbriel, the year before. The adjectival form of the name is *Oberonian,* /ˌɒbəˈroʊniən/. Oberon was initially referred to as "the second satellite of Uranus", and in 1848 was given the designation **Uranus II** by William Lassell, although he sometimes used William Herschel's numbering (where Titania and Oberon are II and IV). In 1851 Lassell eventually numbered all four known satellites in order of their distance from the planet by Roman numerals, and since then Oberon has been designated **Uranus IV**. Orbit ----- Oberon orbits Uranus at a distance of about 584,000 km, being the farthest from the planet among its five major moons. Oberon's orbit has a small orbital eccentricity and inclination relative to the equator of Uranus. Its orbital period is around 13.5 days, coincident with its rotational period. In other words, Oberon is tidally locked, with one face always pointing toward the planet. Oberon spends a significant part of its orbit outside the Uranian magnetosphere. As a result, its surface is directly struck by the solar wind. This is important, because the trailing hemispheres of satellites orbiting inside a magnetosphere are struck by the magnetospheric plasma, which co-rotates with the planet. This bombardment may lead to the darkening of the trailing hemispheres, which is actually observed for all Uranian moons except Oberon (see below). Because Uranus orbits the Sun almost on its side, and its moons orbit in the planet's equatorial plane, they (including Oberon) are subject to an extreme seasonal cycle. Both northern and southern poles spend 42 years in a complete darkness, and another 42 years in continuous sunlight, with the sun rising close to the zenith over one of the poles at each solstice. The *Voyager 2* flyby coincided with the southern hemisphere's 1986 summer solstice, when nearly the entire northern hemisphere was in darkness. Once every 42 years, when Uranus has an equinox and its equatorial plane intersects the Earth, mutual occultations of Uranus's moons become possible. One such event, which lasted for about six minutes, was observed on May 4, 2007, when Oberon occulted Umbriel. Composition and internal structure ---------------------------------- Oberon is the second-largest and second-most massive of the Uranian moons after Titania, and the ninth-most massive moon in the Solar System. It is the tenth-largest moon by size however, since Rhea, the second-largest moon of Saturn and the ninth-largest moon, is nearly the same size as Oberon although it is about 0.4% larger, despite Oberon having more mass than Rhea. Oberon's density of 1.63 g/cm3, which is higher than the typical density of Saturn's satellites, indicates that it consists of roughly equal proportions of water ice and a dense non-ice component. The latter could be made of rock and carbonaceous material including heavy organic compounds. The presence of water ice is supported by spectroscopic observations, which have revealed crystalline water ice on the surface of the moon. Water ice absorption bands are stronger on Oberon's trailing hemisphere than on the leading hemisphere. This is the opposite of what is observed on other Uranian moons, where the leading hemisphere exhibits stronger water ice signatures. The cause of this asymmetry is not known, but it may be related to impact gardening (the creation of soil via impacts) of the surface, which is stronger on the leading hemisphere. Meteorite impacts tend to sputter (knock out) ice from the surface, leaving dark non-ice material behind. The dark material itself may have formed as a result of radiation processing of methane clathrates or radiation darkening of other organic compounds. Oberon may be differentiated into a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. If this is the case, the radius of the core (480 km) is about 63% of the radius of the moon, and its mass is around 54% of the moon's mass—the proportions are dictated by the moon's composition. The pressure in the center of Oberon is about 0.5 GPa (5 kbar). The current state of the icy mantle is unclear. If the ice contains enough ammonia or other antifreeze, Oberon may possess a liquid ocean layer at the core–mantle boundary. The thickness of this ocean, if it exists, is up to 40 km and its temperature is around 180 K (close to the water–ammonia eutectic temperature of 176 K). However, the internal structure of Oberon depends heavily on its thermal history, which is poorly known at present. Albeit more recent publications seem to be in favour of active subterranean oceans throughout the larger moons of Uranus. Surface features and geology ---------------------------- Oberon is the second-darkest large moon of Uranus after Umbriel. Its surface shows a strong opposition surge: its reflectivity decreases from 31% at a phase angle of 0° (geometrical albedo) to 22% at an angle of about 1°. Oberon has a low Bond albedo of about 14%. Its surface is generally red in color, except for fresh impact deposits, which are neutral or slightly blue. Oberon is, in fact, the reddest among the major Uranian moons. Its trailing and leading hemispheres are asymmetrical: the latter is much redder than the former, because it contains more dark red material. The reddening of the surfaces is often a result of space weathering caused by bombardment of the surface by charged particles and micrometeorites over the age of the Solar System. However, the color asymmetry of Oberon is more likely caused by accretion of a reddish material spiraling in from outer parts of the Uranian system, possibly from irregular satellites, which would occur predominately on the leading hemisphere. Scientists have recognized two classes of geological feature on Oberon: craters and chasmata ('canyons'—deep, elongated, steep-sided depressions which would probably be described as rift valleys or escarpments if on Earth). Oberon's surface is the most heavily cratered of all the Uranian moons, with a crater density approaching saturation—when the formation of new craters is balanced by destruction of old ones. This high number of craters indicates that Oberon has the most ancient surface among Uranus's moons. The crater diameters range up to 206 kilometers for the largest known crater, Hamlet. Many large craters are surrounded by bright impact ejecta (rays) consisting of relatively fresh ice. The largest craters, Hamlet, Othello and Macbeth, have floors made of a very dark material deposited after their formation. A peak with a height of about 11 km was observed in some *Voyager* images near the south-eastern limb of Oberon, which may be the central peak of a large impact basin with a diameter of about 375 km. Oberon's surface is intersected by a system of canyons, which, however, are less widespread than those found on Titania. The canyons' sides are probably scarps produced by normal faults which can be either old or fresh: the latter transect the bright deposits of some large craters, indicating that they formed later. The most prominent Oberonian canyon is Mommur Chasma. The geology of Oberon was influenced by two competing forces: impact crater formation and endogenic resurfacing. The former acted over the moon's entire history and is primarily responsible for its present-day appearance. The latter processes were active for a period following the moon's formation. The endogenic processes were mainly tectonic in nature and led to the formation of the canyons, which are actually giant cracks in the ice crust. The canyons obliterated parts of the older surface. The cracking of the crust was caused by the expansion of Oberon by about 0.5%, which occurred in two phases corresponding to the old and young canyons. The nature of the dark patches, which mainly occur on the leading hemisphere and inside craters, is not known. Some scientists hypothesized that they are of cryovolcanic origin (analogs of lunar maria), while others think that the impacts excavated dark material buried beneath the pure ice (crust). In the latter case Oberon should be at least partially differentiated, with the ice crust lying atop the non-differentiated interior. Named surface features on Oberon| Feature | Named after | Type | Length (diameter), km | Coordinates | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mommur Chasma | Mommur, French folklore | Chasma | 537 | 16°18′S 323°30′E / 16.3°S 323.5°E / -16.3; 323.5 | | Antony | Mark Antony | Crater | 47 | 27°30′S 65°24′E / 27.5°S 65.4°E / -27.5; 65.4 | | Caesar | Julius Caesar | 76 | 26°36′S 61°06′E / 26.6°S 61.1°E / -26.6; 61.1 | | Coriolanus | Coriolanus | 120 | 11°24′S 345°12′E / 11.4°S 345.2°E / -11.4; 345.2 | | Falstaff | Falstaff | 124 | 22°06′S 19°00′E / 22.1°S 19.0°E / -22.1; 19.0 | | Hamlet | Hamlet | 206 | 46°06′S 44°24′E / 46.1°S 44.4°E / -46.1; 44.4 | | Lear | King Lear | 126 | 5°24′S 31°30′E / 5.4°S 31.5°E / -5.4; 31.5 | | MacBeth | Macbeth | 203 | 58°24′S 112°30′E / 58.4°S 112.5°E / -58.4; 112.5 | | Othello | Othello | 114 | 66°00′S 42°54′E / 66.0°S 42.9°E / -66.0; 42.9 | | Romeo | Romeo | 159 | 28°42′S 89°24′E / 28.7°S 89.4°E / -28.7; 89.4 | | Surface features on Oberon are named for male characters and places associated with Shakespeare's works. | Origin and evolution -------------------- Oberon is thought to have formed from an accretion disc or subnebula: a disc of gas and dust that either existed around Uranus for some time after its formation or was created by the giant impact that most likely gave Uranus its large obliquity. The precise composition of the subnebula is not known; however, the relatively high density of Oberon and other Uranian moons compared to the moons of Saturn indicates that it may have been relatively water-poor. Significant amounts of carbon and nitrogen may have been present in the form of carbon monoxide and N2 instead of methane and ammonia. The moons that formed in such a subnebula would contain less water ice (with CO and N2 trapped as clathrate) and more rock, explaining the higher density. Oberon's accretion probably lasted for several thousand years. The impacts that accompanied accretion caused heating of the moon's outer layer. The maximum temperature of around 230 K was reached at the depth of about 60 km. After the end of formation, the subsurface layer cooled, while the interior of Oberon heated due to decay of radioactive elements present in its rocks. The cooling near-surface layer contracted, while the interior expanded. This caused strong extensional stresses in the moon's crust leading to cracking. The present-day system of canyons may be a result of this process, which lasted for about 200 million years, implying that any endogenous activity from this cause ceased billions of years ago. The initial accretional heating together with continued decay of radioactive elements were probably strong enough to melt the ice if some antifreeze like ammonia (in the form of ammonia hydrate) or some salt was present. Further melting may have led to the separation of ice from rocks and formation of a rocky core surrounded by an icy mantle. A layer of liquid water ('ocean') rich in dissolved ammonia may have formed at the core–mantle boundary. The eutectic temperature of this mixture is 176 K. If the temperature dropped below this value the ocean would have frozen by now. Freezing of the water would have led to expansion of the interior, which may have also contributed to the formation of canyon-like graben. Still, present knowledge of the evolution of Oberon is very limited. Although recent analysis concluded that its more likely that the larger moons of Uranus having active subsurface oceans. Exploration ----------- So far the only close-up images of Oberon have been from the *Voyager 2* probe, which photographed the moon during its flyby of Uranus in January 1986. Since the closest approach of *Voyager 2* to Oberon was 470,600 km, the best images of this moon have spatial resolution of about 6 km. The images cover about 40% of the surface, but only 25% of the surface was imaged with a resolution that allows geological mapping. At the time of the flyby the southern hemisphere of Oberon was pointed towards the Sun, so the dark northern hemisphere could not be studied. No other spacecraft has ever visited the Uranian system. See also -------- * List of natural satellites * Oberon in fiction * List of tallest mountains in the Solar System 1. ↑ Surface area derived from the radius *r*: 4 π r 2 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}} 4\pi r^{2}. 2. ↑ Volume *v* derived from the radius *r*: 4 π r 3 / 3 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{3}/3} 4\pi r^{3}/3. 3. ↑ Surface gravity derived from the mass *m*, the gravitational constant *G* and the radius *r*: G m / r 2 {\displaystyle Gm/r^{2}} Gm/r^{2}. 4. ↑ Escape velocity derived from the mass *m*, the gravitational constant *G* and the radius *r*: √2*Gm*/*r*. 5. ↑ The five major moons are Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania and Oberon. 6. ↑ The eight moons more massive than Oberon are Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, Earth's Moon, Europa, Triton, and Titania. 7. ↑ Some canyons on Oberon are graben. 8. ↑ For instance, Tethys, a Saturnian moon, has a density of 0.97 g/cm3, which means that it contains more than 90% water. 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Oberon (moon)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberon_(moon)

A **barrel** or **cask** is a hollow cylindrical container with a bulging center, longer than it is wide. They are traditionally made of wooden staves and bound by wooden or metal hoops. The word **vat** is often used for large containers for liquids, usually alcoholic beverages; a small barrel or cask is known as a **keg**. Modern wooden barrels for wine-making are made of French common oak (*Quercus robur*), white oak (*Quercus petraea*), American white oak (*Quercus alba*), more exotic is Mizunara Oak all typically have standard sizes: Recently Oregon Oak (Quercus Garryana) has been used. * "Bordeaux type" 225 litres (59 US gal; 49 imp gal), * "Burgundy type" 228 litres (60 US gal; 50 imp gal) and * "Cognac type" 300 litres (79 US gal; 66 imp gal). Modern barrels and casks can also be made of aluminum, stainless steel, and different types of plastic, such as HDPE. Someone who makes barrels is called a "barrel maker" or cooper (coopers also make buckets, vats, tubs, butter churns, hogsheads, firkins, kegs, kilderkins, tierces, rundlets, puncheons, pipes, tuns, butts, pins, troughs and breakers). Barrels have a variety of uses, including storage of liquids such as water, oil, and alcohol. They are also employed to hold maturing beverages such as wine, cognac, armagnac, sherry, port, whiskey, beer, arrack, and sake. Other commodities once stored in wooden casks include gunpowder, meat, fish, paint, honey, nails and tallow. Early casks were bound with wooden hoops and in the 19th century these were gradually replaced by metal hoops that were stronger, more durable and took up less space. The term barrel can also refer to roughly cylindrical containers or drums made of modern materials like plastic, steel or aluminium. The barrel has also been used as a standard size of measure referring to a set capacity or weight of a given commodity. For example, in the UK a barrel of beer refers to a quantity of 36 imperial gallons (160 L; 43 US gal). Wine was shipped in barrels of 119 litres (31 US gal; 26 imp gal). A barrel of oil, defined as 42 US gallons (35 imp gal; 160 L), is still used as a measure of volume for oil, although oil is no longer shipped in barrels. The barrel has also come into use as a generic term for a wooden cask of any size. History ------- An Egyptian wall-painting in the tomb of Hesy-Ra, dating to 2600 BC, shows a wooden tub made of staves, bound together with wooden hoops, and used to measure wheat. Another Egyptian tomb painting dating to 1900 BC shows a cooper and tubs made of staves in use at the grape harvest. Palm-wood casks were also reported in use in ancient Babylon. In Europe, buckets and casks dating to 200 BC have been found preserved in the mud of lake villages. A lake village near Glastonbury dating to the late Iron Age has yielded one complete tub and a number of wooden staves. The Roman historian Pliny the Elder reports that cooperage in Europe originated with the Gauls in Alpine villages where they stored their beverages in wooden casks bound with hoops. Pliny identified three different types of coopers: ordinary coopers, wine coopers and coopers who made large casks. Large casks contain more and bigger staves and are correspondingly more difficulty to assemble. Roman coopers tended to be independent tradesmen, passing their skills on to their sons. The Greek geographer Strabo records that wooden *pithoi* (barrels) were lined with pitch to stop leakage and preserve the wine. Barrels were sometimes used for military purposes. Julius Caesar used catapults to hurl burning barrels of tar into towns under siege to start fires. The Romans also used empty barrels to make pontoon bridges to cross rivers. Empty casks were used to line the walls of shallow wells from at least Roman times. Such casks were found in 1897 during archaeological excavation in Britain of Roman Silchester. They were made of Pyrenean silver fir and the staves were 38 mm (1.5 in) thick and featured grooves where the heads fitted. They had Roman numerals scratched on the surface of each stave to help with reassembly. In Anglo-Saxon Britain, wooden barrels were used to store ale, butter, honey and mead. Drinking containers were also made from small staves of oak, yew or pine. These items required considerable craftsmanship to hold liquids and might be bound with finely worked precious metals. They were highly valued items and were sometimes buried with the dead as grave goods. Churns, buckets and tubs made from staves have been excavated from peat bogs and lake villages in Europe. A large keg and a bucket were found in the Viking Gokstad ship excavated near Oslo Fiord in 1880. Uses today ---------- ### Beverage maturing An "ageing barrel" is used to age wine; distilled spirits such as whiskey, brandy, or rum; beer; tabasco sauce; or (in smaller sizes) traditional balsamic vinegar. When a wine or spirit ages in a barrel, small amounts of oxygen are introduced as the barrel lets some air in (compare to microoxygenation where oxygen is deliberately added). Oxygen enters a barrel when water or alcohol is lost due to evaporation, a portion known as the "angels' share". In an environment with 100% relative humidity, very little water evaporates and so most of the loss is alcohol, a useful trick if one has a wine with very high proof. Most beverages are topped up from other barrels to prevent significant oxidation, although others such as vin jaune and sherry are not. Beverages aged in wooden barrels take on some of the compounds in the barrel, such as vanillin and wood tannins. The presence of these compounds depends on many factors, including the place of origin, how the staves were cut and dried, and the degree of "toast" applied during manufacture. Barrels used for aging are typically made of French or American oak, but chestnut and redwood are also used. Some Asian beverages (e.g., Japanese sake) use Japanese cedar, which imparts an unusual, minty-piney flavor. In Peru and Chile, a grape distillate named *pisco* is either aged in oak or in earthenware. #### Wines Some wines are fermented "on barrel", as opposed to in a neutral container like steel or wine-grade HDPE (high-density polyethylene) tanks. Wine can also be fermented in large wooden tanks, which—when open to the atmosphere—are called "open-tops". Other wooden cooperage for storing wine or spirits range from smaller barriques to huge casks, with either elliptical or round heads. The tastes yielded by French and American species of oak are slightly different, with French oak being subtler, while American oak gives stronger aromas. To retain the desired measure of oak influence, a winery will replace a certain percentage of its barrels every year, although this can vary from 5 to 100%. Some winemakers use "200% new oak", where the wine is put into new oak barrels twice during the aging process. Bulk wines are sometimes more cheaply flavored by soaking in oak chips or added commercial oak flavoring instead of being aged in a barrel because of the much lower cost. ##### Sherry Sherry is stored in 600-litre (130 imp gal; 160 US gal) casks made of North American oak, which is slightly more porous than French or Spanish oak. The casks, or butts, are filled five-sixths full, leaving "the space of two fists" empty at the top to allow flor to develop on top of the wine. Sherry is also commonly swapped between barrels of different ages, a process that is known as *solera*. #### Spirits ##### Whiskey Laws in several jurisdictions require that whiskey be aged in wooden barrels. The law in the United States requires that "straight whiskey" (with the exception of corn whiskey) must be stored for at least two years in new, charred oak containers. Other forms of whiskey aged in used barrels cannot be called "straight". International laws require any whisky bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled and matured in Scotland for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks. By Canadian law, Canadian whiskies must "be aged in small wood for not less than three years", and "small wood" is defined as a wood barrel not exceeding 700 litres (150 imp gal; 180 US gal) capacity. Since the U.S. law requires the use of new barrels for several popular types of whiskey, which is not typically considered necessary elsewhere, whiskey made elsewhere is usually aged in used barrels that previously contained American whiskey (usually bourbon whiskey). The typical bourbon barrel is 53 US gallons (200 L; 44 imp gal) in size, which is thus the *de facto* standard whiskey barrel size worldwide. Some distillers transfer their whiskey into different barrels to "finish" or add qualities to the final product. These finishing barrels frequently aged a different spirit (such as rum) or wine. Other distillers, particularly those producing Scotch, often disassemble five used bourbon barrels and reassemble them into four casks with different barrel ends for aging Scotch, creating a type of cask referred to as a hogshead. ##### Brandy Maturing is very important for a good brandy, which is typically aged in oak casks. The wood used for those barrels is selected because of its ability to transfer certain aromas to the spirit. Cognac is aged only in oak casks made from wood from the Forest of Tronçais and more often from the Limousin forests. ##### Tequila Some types of tequila are aged in oak barrels to mellow its flavor. "Reposado" tequila is aged for a period of two months to one year, "Añejo" tequila is aged for up to three years, and "Extra Añejo" tequila is aged for at least three years. Like with other spirits, longer aging results in a more pronounced flavor. #### Beer Beers are sometimes aged in barrels which were previously used for maturing wines or spirits. This is most common in darker beers such as stout, which is sometimes aged in oak barrels identical to those used for whiskey. Whisky distiller Jameson notably purchases barrels used by Franciscan Well brewery for their Shandon Stout to produce a whisky branded as "Jameson Caskmates". Cask ale is aged in the barrel (usually steel) for a short time before serving. Extensive barrel aging is required of many sour beers. #### Condiments ##### Balsamic vinegar Traditional balsamic vinegar is aged in a series of wooden barrels. ##### Tabasco sauce The pepper mash used to make Tabasco sauce is aged for three years in previously used oak whiskey barrels since its invention in 1868. #### Soft drinks Vernors ginger ale is marketed as having a "barrel-aged" flavor, and the syrup used to produce the beverage was originally aged in oak barrels when first manufactured in the 19th century. Whether the syrup continues to be aged in oak is unclear. #### Angels' share "Angels' share" is a term for the portion (share) of a wine or distilled spirit's volume that is lost to evaporation during aging in oak barrels. The ambient humidity tends to affect the composition of this share. Drier conditions tend to make the barrels evaporate more water, strengthening the spirit. However, in higher humidities, more alcohol than water will evaporate, therefore reducing the alcoholic strength of the product. This alcoholic evaporate encourages the growth of a darkly colored fungus, the angels' share fungus, *Baudoinia compniacensis*, which tends to appear on the exterior surfaces of most things in the immediate area. ### Water storage Water barrels are often used to collect the rainwater from dwellings (so that it may be used for irrigation or other purposes). This usage, known as rainwater harvesting, requires (besides a large rainwater barrel or water butt) adequate (waterproof) roof-covering and an adequate rain pipe. ### Oil storage Wooden casks of various sizes were used to store whale oil on ships in the age of sail. Its viscous nature made sperm whale oil a particularly difficult substance to contain in staved containers. Oil coopers were probably the most skilled coopers in pre-industrial cooperage. Olive oil, seed oils and other organic oils were also placed in wooden casks for storage or transport. Wooden casks were also used to store mineral oil. The standard size barrel of crude oil or other petroleum product (abbreviated bbl) is 42 US gallons (35.0 imp gal; 159.0 L). This measurement originated in the early Pennsylvania oil fields, and permitted both British and American merchants to refer to the same unit, based on the old English wine measure, the tierce. Earlier, another size of whiskey barrel was the most common size; this was the 40 US gallons (33.3 imp gal; 151.4 L) barrel for proof spirits, which was of the same volume as five US bushels. However, by 1866, the oil barrel was standardized at 42 US gallons. Oil has not been shipped in barrels since the introduction of oil tankers, but the 42 US gallon size is still used as a unit of measurement for pricing and tax and regulatory codes. Each barrel is refined into about 20 US gallons (17 imp gal; 76 L) of gasoline, the rest becoming other products such as jet fuel and heating oil, using fractional distillation. Barrel shape, construction and parts ------------------------------------ | | | | --- | --- | | | | Barrels have a convex shape and bulge at their center, called bilge. This facilitates rolling a well-built wooden barrel on its side and allows the roller to change directions with little friction, compared to a cylinder. It also helps to distribute stress evenly in the material by making the container more curved. Barrels have reinforced edges to enable safe displacement by rolling them at an angle (in addition to rolling on their sides as described). Casks used for ale or beer have shives and keystones in their openings. Before serving the beer, a spile is hammered into the shive and a tap into the keystone. The wooden parts that make up a barrel are called **staves**, the top and bottom are both called **heads** or **headers**, and the rings that hold the staves together are called **hoops**. These are usually made of galvanized iron, though historically they were made of flexible bits of wood called withies. While wooden hoops could require barrels to be "fully hooped", with hoops stacked tightly together along the entire top and bottom third of a barrel, iron-hooped barrels only require a few hoops on each end. Wine barrels typically come in two hoop configurations. An American barrel features 6 hoops, from top to center: **head- or chime hoop**, **quarter hoop** and **bilge hoop** (times two), while a French barrel features 8, including a so-called **French hoop**, located between the quarter- and bilge hoops (see "wine barrel parts" illustration). The opening at the center of a barrel is called a **bung hole** and the stopper used to seal it is a **bung**. The latter is generally made of white silicone. Sizes ----- A barrel is one of several units of volume, with dry barrels, fluid barrels (UK beer barrel, US beer barrel), oil barrel, etc. The volume of some barrel units is double others, with various volumes in the range of about 100–200 litres (22–44 imp gal; 26–53 US gal). ### English wine casks English wine cask units| gallon | rundlet | barrel | tierce | hogshead | puncheon, tertian | pipe, butt | tun | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | 1 | tun | | 1 | 2 | pipes, butts | | 1 | 1+1⁄2 | 3 | puncheons, tertians | | 1 | 1+1⁄3 | 2 | 4 | hogsheads | | 1 | 1+1⁄2 | 2 | 3 | 6 | tierces | | 1 | 1+1⁄3 | 2 | 2+2⁄3 | 4 | 8 | barrels | | 1 | 1+3⁄4 | 2+1⁄3 | 3+1⁄2 | 4+2⁄3 | 7 | 14 | rundlets | | 1 | 18 | 31+1⁄2 | 42 | 63 | 84 | 126 | 252 | gallons (wine) | | 3.785 | 68.14 | 119.24 | 158.99 | 238.48 | 317.97 | 476.96 | 953.92 | litres | | 1 | 15 | 26+1⁄4 | 35 | 52+1⁄2 | 70 | 105 | 210 | gallons (imperial) | | 4.546 | 68.19 | 119.3 | 159.1 | 238.7 | 318.2 | 477.3 | 954.7 | litres | Pre-1824 definitions continued to be used in the US, the wine gallon of 231 cubic inches being the standard gallon for liquids (the corn gallon of 268.8 cubic inches for solids). In Britain, the wine gallon was replaced by the imperial gallon. The tierce later became the petrol barrel. The tun was originally 256 gallons, which explains from where the quarter, 8 bushels or 64 (wine) gallons, comes. ### Brewery casks English brewery cask units| gallon | firkin | kilderkin | barrel | hogshead | | Year designated | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | 1 | hogsheads | | | 1 | 1+1⁄2 | barrels | | 1 | 2 | 3 | kilderkins | | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | firkins | | 1 | 8 | 16 | 32 | 48 | ale gallons | (1454) | | = 4.621 L | = 36.97 L | = 73.94 L | = 147.9 L | = 221.8 L | | 1 | 9 | 18 | 36 | 54 | beer gallons | | = 4.621 L | = 41.59 L | = 83.18 L | = 166.4 L | = 249.5 L | | 1 | 8+1⁄2 | 17 | 34 | 51 | ale gallons | 1688 | | = 4.621 L | = 39.28 L | = 78.56 L | = 157.1 L | = 235.7 L | | 1 | 9 | 18 | 36 | 54 | ale gallons | 1803 | | = 4.621 L | = 41.59 L | = 83.18 L | = 166.4 L | = 249.5 L | | 1 | 9 | 18 | 36 | 54 | imperial gallons | 1824 | | = 4.546 L | = 40.91 L | = 81.83 L | = 163.7 L | = 245.5 L | Although it is common to refer to draught beer containers of any size as barrels, in the UK this is strictly correct only if the container holds 36 imperial gallons. The terms "keg" and "cask" refer to containers of any size, the distinction being that kegs are used for beers intended to be served using external gas cylinders. Cask ales undergo part of their fermentation process in their containers, called casks. Casks are available in several sizes, and it is common to refer to "a firkin" or "a kil" (kilderkin) instead of a cask. The modern US beer barrel is 31 US gallons (117.34777 L), half a gallon less than the traditional wine barrel. (26 U.S.C. §5051) ### Dry goods Barrels are also used as a unit of measurement for dry goods (dry groceries), such as flour or produce. Traditionally, a barrel is 196 pounds (89 kg) of flour (wheat or rye), with other substances such as pork subject to more local variation. In modern times, produce barrels for all dry goods, excepting cranberries, contain 7,056 cubic inches, about 115.627 L. In the northeastern United States, nails, bolts, and plumbing fittings were commonly shipped in small rough barrels. These were small, 18 inches high by about 10–12 inches in diameter. The wood was the quality of pallet lumber. The binding was sometimes by wire or metal hoops or both. This practice seems to have been prevalent up till the 1980s. Older hardware stores probably still have some of these barrels. See also -------- * Bankruptcy barrel * Barrel racing * Barrel (unit) * Cask ale * Cooper (profession) * Drum (container) * Drunkard's cloak * hogshead * Storage tank * tierce * Wine barrel

Barrel

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barrel

**Ushant** (/ˈʌʃənt/; Breton: *Eusa*, pronounced [ˈøsa]; French: *Ouessant*, pronounced [wɛsɑ̃]) is a French island at the southwestern end of the English Channel which marks the westernmost point of metropolitan France. It belongs to Brittany and, in medieval terms, Léon. In lower tiers of government, it is a commune in the Finistère department. It is the only place in Brittany, save for Brittany itself, with a separate name in English. Geography --------- Neighbouring islets include **Keller Island** (*Île de Keller*) and **Kadoran** (*Île Cadoran*) to the north. The 200-meter (660 ft) channel between Ushant and Keller is called the *Toull C'heller*. Ushant marks a southern limit of the Celtic Sea and the southern end to the western English Channel, the northern end being the Isles of Scilly, southwest of Land's End in Cornwall, England. According to definitions of the International Hydrographic Organization the island lies outside the English Channel and is in the Celtic Sea. The island is a rocky landmass at most eight by three kilometres (five by two miles), covering 15 km2 (5+3⁄4 sq mi). History ------- Ushant is famous for its maritime past, both as a fishing community and as a key landmark in the Channel approaches. It is named in the refrain of the sea shanty "Spanish Ladies": > We'll rant and we'll roar like true British sailors, > > We'll rant and we'll roar across the salt seas, > > Until we strike soundings in the channel of old England, > > From Ushant to Scilly 'tis thirty-five leagues. > > Several naval battles have been fought near Ushant between the British and French navies. On 23 July 1815 the captive Emperor Napoleon – aboard HMS *Bellerophon* towards his final exile – spent several hours on deck watching Ushant, the last part of France he would see. During World War II, a force of British Commandos and US Army Rangers of the 29th Provisional Rangers successfully attacked a German radar installation on the island. In March 1978, the oil tanker *Amoco Cadiz* ran aground at Portsall about 19 miles (31 km) from the island, leading to major pollution of the Brittany coast. According to a repetitive old Breton proverb, *"Qui voit Molène voit sa peine / Qui voit Ouessant voit son sang / Qui voit Sein voit sa fin / Qui voit Groix voit sa croix."* ("Who sees Molène sees his pains (or penalty) / who sees Ushant sees his blood / who sees Sein sees his end / who sees Groix sees his cross"). This proverb underlines local points being often deadly to navigate with many rocks, and tidal streams of more than ten knots. A standard start and finish line for traditional all-oceans circumnavigations is between Ushant and Lizard Point. There is a single school situated on the island; L'École D'Ouessant situated south-east of the main town. It was founded in 1865 by Scottish refugees fleeing English persecution and the majority of the island's youth attend the school. It is also a major employer on the island as it is only large workplace. Notable alumni include Jean-Philippe Moteur, Gerard Alineuz, Claude Simbiote and the now mayor of the island, Denis Palleul. Population ---------- The sole village on the island is Lambaol (Lampaul), which has the mayoral office, school and post office. People also live in the outlying hamlets of Feuteun Vélen, Frugullou, Pen ar Lan, and Porsguen. Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1800 | 1,510 | —     | | 1806 | 1,465 | −0.50% | | 1821 | 1,851 | +1.57% | | 1831 | 2,032 | +0.94% | | 1836 | 2,151 | +1.14% | | 1841 | 2,194 | +0.40% | | 1846 | 1,983 | −2.00% | | 1851 | 2,271 | +2.75% | | 1856 | 2,258 | −0.11% | | 1861 | 2,391 | +1.15% | | 1866 | 2,368 | −0.19% | | 1872 | 2,377 | +0.06% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1876 | 2,382 | +0.05% | | 1881 | 2,364 | −0.15% | | 1886 | 2,307 | −0.49% | | 1891 | 2,490 | +1.54% | | 1896 | 2,287 | −1.69% | | 1901 | 2,717 | +3.51% | | 1906 | 2,761 | +0.32% | | 1911 | 2,953 | +1.35% | | 1921 | 2,586 | −1.32% | | 1926 | 2,524 | −0.48% | | 1931 | 2,439 | −0.68% | | 1936 | 2,363 | −0.63% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1946 | 2,223 | −0.61% | | 1954 | 2,071 | −0.88% | | 1962 | 1,938 | −0.83% | | 1968 | 1,814 | −1.10% | | 1975 | 1,450 | −3.15% | | 1982 | 1,221 | −2.43% | | 1990 | 1,062 | −1.73% | | 1999 | 932 | −1.44% | | 2008 | 856 | −0.94% | | 2017 | 835 | −0.28% | | Climate ------- Under the Köppen climate classification, Ushant features an oceanic climate : temperate, fully humid, temperate summer (*Cfb*), with generally cool, rainy winters and temperate, drier summers. Comparison of local Meteorological data with other cities in France| Town | Sunshine(hours/yr) | Rain(mm/yr) | Snow (days/yr) | Storm(days/yr) | Fog (days/yr) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | National average | 1,973 | 770 | 14 | 22 | 40 | | **Ushant** | **N/A** | **761.5** | **3.4** | **5.1** | **49.3** | | Paris | 1,661 | 637 | 12 | 18 | 10 | | Nice | 2,724 | 767 | 1 | 29 | 1 | | Strasbourg | 1,693 | 665 | 29 | 29 | 56 | | Brest | 1,605 | 1,211 | 7 | 12 | 75 | | Climate data for Ushant (1991–2020 averages, extremes 1995–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 15.1(59.2) | 15.2(59.4) | 18.4(65.1) | 22.5(72.5) | 24.1(75.4) | 27.7(81.9) | 31.5(88.7) | 29.3(84.7) | 26.2(79.2) | 24.3(75.7) | 18.1(64.6) | 16.0(60.8) | 29.3(84.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 10.4(50.7) | 10.4(50.7) | 11.5(52.7) | 13.2(55.8) | 15.2(59.4) | 17.5(63.5) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.6(67.3) | 18.2(64.8) | 15.9(60.6) | 13.0(55.4) | 11.1(52.0) | 14.6(58.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.6(47.5) | 8.4(47.1) | 9.3(48.7) | 10.7(51.3) | 12.7(54.9) | 14.9(58.8) | 16.5(61.7) | 16.8(62.2) | 15.7(60.3) | 13.8(56.8) | 11.2(52.2) | 9.3(48.7) | 12.3(54.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 6.8(44.2) | 6.4(43.5) | 7.2(45.0) | 8.2(46.8) | 10.2(50.4) | 12.3(54.1) | 13.8(56.8) | 14.1(57.4) | 13.2(55.8) | 11.7(53.1) | 9.4(48.9) | 7.5(45.5) | 10.1(50.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −2.5(27.5) | −1.1(30.0) | −0.4(31.3) | 1.9(35.4) | 3.8(38.8) | 8.0(46.4) | 9.8(49.6) | 10.5(50.9) | 8.3(46.9) | 5.4(41.7) | 2.8(37.0) | −0.2(31.6) | −2.5(27.5) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 92.7(3.65) | 75.3(2.96) | 56.1(2.21) | 58.2(2.29) | 50.0(1.97) | 48.6(1.91) | 47.2(1.86) | 60.5(2.38) | 52.1(2.05) | 80.7(3.18) | 95.1(3.74) | 96.1(3.78) | 812.6(31.99) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 15.6 | 12.4 | 11.8 | 10.1 | 8.0 | 8.2 | 8.3 | 9.5 | 8.9 | 12.7 | 16.0 | 16.0 | 137.6 | | Average snowy days | 1.2 | 1.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.9 | 4.3 | | Source: Meteo France | Sights ------ The Creac'h lighthouse (*Phare du Creach*) is reputedly the most powerful in Europe. *Ouessant* is the French system name for Plymouth in the British system of the Shipping Forecast. Cultural ties to Scotland ------------------------- In 2007, Ushant hosted a Scottish book festival and subsequently created their own tartan registered with the Scottish Register of Tartans; and in August 2010, the islanders were reported to be seeking to establish cultural links with a Scottish island. Rob Gibson, Member of the Scottish Parliament for the Highlands and Islands welcomed the suggestion. Transport --------- Ushant is connected to the French mainland by air and sea. Passenger ferries of the Penn Ar Bed company operate from Brest and Le Conquet year-round, and also from Camaret in summer, stopping at the island of Molène en route. The airline Finistair operates flights on Cessna 208 planes from Brest Bretagne Airport. Fauna ----- Ouessant sheep form a rare breed, originating here. These are northern European short-tailed sheep, ubiquitous in northern Europe up to Roman times, but which now survives only in a few places. Apart from Ushant, these are in remote islands and mountains of Britain and Scandinavia and some places around the Baltic Sea. It is one of the smallest breeds of domestic sheep. It is usually black or dark brown (a few are white), and it is now kept elsewhere in the world as a heritage breed[*where?*]. The isolation of the island has helped the conservation of the European dark bee (*Apis mellifera mellifera*), unaffected by pollution, pesticides and Varroa parasites. In the rest of France, it has been substituted by *Apis mellifera ligustica*. As a side effect, populations of the bee louse, *Braula coeca*, that has elsewhere perished through pesticides can still be found among the island's bee population. The association *Conservatoire de l'Abeille Noire Bretonne* is attempting to conserve and increase the numbers of the European dark bee, intending to reintroduce it in Western France. Ushant and the Molène archipelago support Europe's southernmost colony of grey seals. They are mostly at Point Cadoran, on Ushant's north coast, where the strong currents keep the water temperature below 15 degrees Celsius (59 °F), the warmest that the seals can tolerate. Literary and musical references ------------------------------- Ushant is a minor character of Herman Melville's *White-Jacket (1850).* Ushant is highly admired for his beard. * The island figures in *Le Sang de la sirène* (*The Blood of the Siren*, 1901) by Anatole Le Braz. * It is mentioned in the chorus of the sea shanty *Spanish Ladies* ("From Ushant to Scilly is thirty-five leagues"). * Rudyard Kipling mentions it in his poem *Anchor Song*. * Charles Tournemire's Symphony No. 2, completed in 1909, was inspired by and named for the island. * The 1910 novel *Das Meer* by German author Bernhard Kellermann takes place on the island. Features such as Phare du Creach and Port du Stiff are highly defined. The main character stays at the la Villa des tempêtes, in ruins today. * The secret of the seas (*Le Secret des Eaux: Ouessant*), is a 1923 novel by André Savignon set on Ushant. * "Lord Ushant" is the title given the heir to the Duchy of Tintagel (Cornwall) in Edith Wharton's *The Buccaneers* (1938). * Ushant is mentioned in George Orwell's diaries, in passing. * A ship from Ushant is mentioned in the WWII Brest destruction commemorative ode *Barbara* by French poet Jacques Prévert. * *Ushant* is the autobiography of the American poet and novelist Conrad Aiken, published in 1952. * Ushant is one of the many French islands referenced in Laurent Voulzy's Belle-Île-en-Mer, Marie-Galante , a major hit in France since its release in 1986. * Ushant appears over and over in works of Patrick O'Brian as to the whereabouts and course of ships in his book series. * Ushant occasionally appears as a landfall in C. S. Forester's novels about Horatio Hornblower. * Mystery book *Act of Mercy* by Peter Tremayne is set in 666 AD Ushant and elsewhere. * Ushant is the setting of the 2004 French film *L'Équipier* (English title: *The Light*) directed by Philippe Lioret. * Father Truitard, a character in Bruce Chatwin's *The Viceroy of Ouidah*, spent "years communing with the waves and petrels on the island of Ushant". * It is mentioned in Dmitry Lukhmanov's narrative *20000 miles under sail*. * Yann Tiersen made the album *Eusa* in 2016. Each track is named after a location on the island. * A trip to the island forms an important plot point in Éric Rohmer's 1996 film *A Summer's Tale*. Book awards ----------- The island awards annual literary prizes to worldwide writers. See also -------- * Battle of Ushant (disambiguation) * Communes of the Finistère department * Parc naturel régional d'Armorique * List of the works of Charles Cottet depicting scenes of Brittany

Ushant

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ushant

**Ruse** (also transliterated as **Rousse**, **Russe**; Bulgarian: Русе [ˈrusɛ]) is the fifth largest city in Bulgaria. Ruse is in the northeastern part of the country, on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the Romanian city of Giurgiu, approximately 75 km (47 mi) south of Bucharest, Romania's capital, 200 km (124 mi) from the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and 300 km (186 mi) from the capital Sofia. Thanks to its location and its railway and road bridge over the Danube (Danube Bridge), it is the most significant Bulgarian river port, serving an important part of the international trade of the country. Ruse is known for its 19th- and 20th-century Neo-Baroque and Neo-Rococo architecture, which attracts many tourists. It is often called the Little Vienna. The Ruse-Giurgiu Friendship Bridge, until 14 June 2013 the only one in the shared Bulgarian-Romanian section of the Danube, crosses the river here. Ruse is the birthplace of the Nobel laureate in Literature Elias Canetti and the writer Michael Arlen. Ruse is on the right bank of the river Danube, which is the high bank, having two underwater terraces and three river terraces at 15 to 22 m (49.21–72.18 ft), 30 to 66 m (98.43–216.54 ft), and 54 to 65 m (177.17–213.25 ft). The average altitude is 45.5 m (149.28 ft) AMSL. The urban area is an approximately 11-km ellipse running along the river. The city extends from the land-connected Matey (Матей) island and the mouth of Rusenski Lom on the west to Srabcheto (Сръбчето) hill on the east. During the 20th century, the west end of the city was significantly modified by moving the mouth of Rusenski Lom to the west, as well as by moving the bank itself with its fairway considerably to the north. Sarabair (саръбаир, from Turkish *Sarıbayır* meaning "Yellow Slope") hill is to the south of the city and is 159 m (521.65 ft) high. The Rousse TV Tower is built there on the remains of Leventtabia, a former Turkish fortification. Geography --------- Ruse is located in the northeastern part of the country, on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the Romanian city of Giurgiu, approximately 75 km (47 mi) south of Bucharest, Romania's capital, 200 km (124 mi) from the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast and 300 km (186 mi) from the capital Sofia. ### Climate Ruse has a continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa) with very hot summers and relatively cold winters. Owing to its position on the Danubian Plain, the city's winters can get windy. Winter temperatures often dip below 0 °C (32 °F), sometimes even to −20 °C (−4 °F). In summer, the average temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). Temperatures frequently reach 35 to 40 °C (95 to 104 °F) in mid-summer in the city centre and stay as low as 18 to 20 °C (64 to 68 °F) during the nights. During spring and autumn, daytime temperatures vary between 17 and 22 °C (63 and 72 °F), and precipitation during this time tends to be higher than in summer, with more frequent yet milder periods of rain. The highest temperature recorded was 44.0 C and the lowest was −22.8 C. | Climate data for Ruse (2002–2013) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 4.2(39.6) | 6.2(43.2) | 13.7(56.7) | 19.6(67.3) | 26.3(79.3) | 29.8(85.6) | 31.8(89.2) | 31.5(88.7) | 26.9(80.4) | 20.2(68.4) | 12.8(55.0) | 5.6(42.1) | 19.1(66.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.6(33.1) | 2.4(36.3) | 8.5(47.3) | 14.2(57.6) | 20.0(68.0) | 23.4(74.1) | 25.7(78.3) | 25.2(77.4) | 20.6(69.1) | 14.6(58.3) | 8.3(46.9) | 2.2(36.0) | 13.8(56.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | −3.1(26.4) | −1.6(29.1) | 3.3(37.9) | 8.7(47.7) | 13.6(56.5) | 17.1(62.8) | 19.5(67.1) | 18.8(65.8) | 14.3(57.7) | 9.0(48.2) | 3.8(38.8) | −1.3(29.7) | 8.5(47.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 47.6(1.87) | 33.2(1.31) | 41.5(1.63) | 51.5(2.03) | 66.7(2.63) | 67.4(2.65) | 77.3(3.04) | 61.1(2.41) | 31.8(1.25) | 33.7(1.33) | 59.5(2.34) | 46.9(1.85) | 618.2(24.34) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 80.6 | 117.6 | 173.6 | 207.0 | 285.2 | 306.0 | 328.6 | 306.9 | 207.0 | 173.6 | 105.0 | 71.3 | 2,362.4 | | Source: Stringmeteo.com | History ------- ### Etymology Scholars suggest that the city on the river bank derived its present name from the Finnish root *ruskea* meaning "blonde", or *\*ru-* ("river", "stream") or from the Cherven fortress, meaning "red," through the root *rous*, which is present in many Slavic languages. A popular legend claims that the name *Ruse* comes from Finnish ruskea, or the name of a female founder of the city, whose name was Rusa, meaning "blonde hair". In the 13th and 14th centuries, during the time of the Second Bulgarian Empire, a fortified settlement called *Rusi*, first mentioned in 1380, emerged near the ruins of the earlier Roman town. Other theories include settlement by people from the Rus era; a connection to the village of Rusokastro in Burgas Province; an unattested tribe of Getae with a name such as *Riusi*, or; the pagan festival of Rosalia. ### Antiquity The city emerged from a Neolithic settlement of the 3rd to 2nd millennium BCE, when pottery, fishing, agriculture, and hunting developed. Excavations have revealed several layers, suggesting that the place was attacked by neighbouring tribes and suffered from natural disasters. Ancient sanctuaries were found nearby, where idols of a pregnant woman, a fertility goddess, were prevalent. The later Thracian settlement developed into a Roman military and naval centre during the reign of Vespasian (69–70 CE), as part of the fortification system along the northern boundary of Moesia. Its name, *Sexaginta Prista*, suggests a meaning of "a city of 60 ships" (from Latin: *sexaginta* — "60" and Greek: *pristis* — a special type of guard ship), based on the supposed 60 nearby berths. The fortress was on the main road between Singidunum (modern Belgrade) and the Danube Delta and was destroyed in the 6th century by Avar and Slavic raids. Hungarian historian Felix Philipp Kanitz was the first to identify Sexaginta Prista with Ruse, but the Škorpil brothers demonstrated the link later through studying inscriptions, coins, graves, and objects of daily life. An inscription from the reign of Diocletian proves that the city was rebuilt as a *praesidium* (a large fortification) after it was destroyed by the Goths in 250 CE. The settlement was mentioned as *Golyamo Yorgovo* in the Middle Ages, whose present successor is Giurgiu in Romania. ### Ottoman rule During Ottoman rule, the invaders destroyed the town, reacting to a 1595 unsuccessful liberation attempt by a joint Vlach-Bulgarian army, led by Michael the Brave. After its rebuilding in the following years, Ruse was dubbed *Rusçuk* (Turkish for "little Ruse") and had again expanded into a large fortress by the 18th century. It later grew into one of the most important Ottoman towns on the Danube and an administrative centre of Tuna Vilayet, which extended from Varna and Tulcea to Sofia and Niš. The *Dunav* newspaper appeared — it was the first printed in Bulgaria and in Bulgarian. Some Bulgarian schools were founded. The streets are renamed and numbered for the first time in Bulgarian lands. A post office, hospital, home for the aged were founded. Three empires met here for trading: Austro-Hungary, Russia, British Empire. France and Italy opened consulates in Ruse. The modern city arose from the shades of the settlement. In 1865 the Obraztsov Chiflik was founded on the place where the English Consul's farm was; it was the first modern farm on the territory of the whole Ottoman Empire of that time. Ruse developed into a centre of the Bulgarian National Revival and hosted the headquarters of the Bulgarian Revolutionary Central Committee. ### Early Modern Bulgaria After it became part of modern Bulgaria on 20 February 1878, Ruse was one of the key cultural and economic centres of the country. Intensive building during the period changed the city's architectural appearance to a typical Central European one. Ruse is known for the many first innovations in Bulgaria, including: * 1864 – the first printing office in Bulgaria; * 1867 – the first railway line linking Ruse and Varna, was launched into operation; * 1879 – the first agronomical school "Obraztsov chiflik", today – Agricultural scientific research institute, currently profiled in agriculture and seed science; * 1881 – the first steel ship in Bulgaria was built; * 1881 – the first privately owned Bulgarian bank Girdap; * 1881 – the Machine School for the Navy, the first technical school in Bulgaria. Later it was moved to Varna; * 1883 – the first Weather station; * 1884 – the first Bulgarian pharmacy association; * 1885 – the first Bulgarian technical association was instituted; * 1890 – the first Chamber of Commerce and Industry; * 1891 – the first private insurance company "Bulgaria"; * 1896 – the first manually operated elevator; * 1897 – the first movie projection. The second was a month later in the capital Sofia; Ruse had the first Bulgarian factories for soda water, lemonade, and for neckties. The first aviator Simeon Petrov was born in Ruse. In the newly liberated Bulgaria of the late 19th century, Ruse was a cosmopolitan city with a multiethnic population. According to the first census conducted in 1883, ethnic Bulgarians made up 43% of the population, Turks 39%, and Jews 7%. "All façades on main streets of Russe shall have rich decorations with plastic stone", postulate the Regulations for Constructions of Private Buildings of 1893, issued by the Municipality of Russe. After knyaz Alexander Battenberg's 1886 abdication, and as a reaction to the regentship's course led by prime minister Stefan Stambolov, a group of Russophile (pro-Russian) military officers revolted in Ruse. The riot was violently crushed, and 13 of the leaders were quickly sentenced to death and executed near the city, which caused much public discontent. Decades later, in 1934, local citizens raised funds and built a monument at the place where the Russophile officers were executed. The monument was blown up in 1940 but rebuilt in 1966 at approximately the same spot. ### Early 20th century * 1908 – The first factory for iron beds in Modern Bulgaria. Today Ruse is a major centre of furniture manufacturing. * 1911 was marked off with the start of a project for an electrical station by "Siemens-Schukert". On 17 February 1917 Ruse became the third electrified city in the country (after Sofia and Varna). * In 1913 Belgian entrepreneurs and engineers were granted a concession for a period of 25 years and built the largest sugar factory in Bulgaria. * 1927 – the first sock-making factory in Bulgaria opened in Ruse. "Fazan" still exists today; * 1933 – the first oil refinery was constructed; Between World War I and II, after Southern Dobruja was lost to Romania, the economic significance of the city decreased. So did the population: Ruse was no longer the second-largest city in Bulgaria (after former East Rumelian capital Plovdiv), being quickly surpassed by Sofia and Varna. Foreign consulates were closed, except for the Russian one, which has remained functional since. Only for the period between 1919 and 1920 the capital loss is estimated at around 40 million leva. ### World War II period The return of Southern Dobrudja to Bulgaria in September 1940 fostered good conditions for the restoration of the city's leading role. It became a provincial centre, and economic activity revived. Typical for the post-war architecture of the city was the wide use of iron, concrete and glass as construction materials. Examples are the River port – 1931, the Freight station – 1935, Market Hall – 1939 and the Court house – 1940. See also: * Ruse blood wedding ### Communist period The construction of the Ruse-Giurgiu bridge in 1954 and the fast industrialization gave a new push to development. Ruse emerged again as an important economic, transport, cultural, and education hub. Engineering, chemical, and light industries expanded; a large harbor was built, and the city became a university centre. At the 1985 census, a population of more than 186,000 was reported. In the early 1980s, Ruse entered a dark period. The Verachim factory was built in Giurgiu, which polluted the air between 1980 and 1991, impacting the city's development. The population decreased, and 15,000 people moved out between 1985 and 1992. The first informal organization in Bulgaria under the communist regime was established here - The Public Committee for Environmental Protection of Ruse, which provoked the first nationwide demonstrations and strongly influenced the change to democracy. In 1991, the Romanian factory ceased the pollution, after the fall of the communist regime in Romania. ### Democratic Bulgaria Like other post-socialist regimes in eastern Europe, Bulgaria found the transition to capitalism rather painful and not as easy as expected. State-owned enterprises lost their former markets and could not adapt to the now free-market competition. This led to massive unemployment in the city and emigration waves in the 90s. Since 2000, Ruse has been continually regaining its former leading status. The urban economics were positively influenced by the 2007's accession of Bulgaria and Romania in the European Union, which allowed deeper cross-border cooperation. The flow of investments through EU funds restarted long suspended projects which were finally completed. After decades of construction, the new corpus of the University of Ruse was inaugurated in 2010. In 2011 the city's centre was renovated through an EU project, worth 10 million leva. Included in the project, a Dry Deck Fountain was introduced in an urban environment for the first time in Bulgaria. The exterior of the Rousse State Opera was reconditioned. A water treatment facility, an investment worth 57 million Euro, is now functional. In 2012 the Rousse Regional Historical Museum completed a project, which allowed the rehabilitation and display of the remains of the Roman city Sexaginta Prista. Ignat Kaneff, a Bulgarian-born Canadian business magnate, endowed about half of the amount necessary for the construction of a modern conference complex named after him, the Kaneff Centre, at the University of Ruse. It was officially opened on 10 October 2013. A landmark event for the city was the opening of the new Eco Museum & Aquarium in 2014. A safer and more efficient navigation in the inland waterways was accomplished with a new structure – the river information system BulRIS. A modern oncology centre is now operating. Ruse was a candidate for a European Capital of Culture in 2019 with the concept "Free spirit city". Dohodno zdanie, an imposing Neoclassical edifice in the city centre convincingly won the National competition "Emblematic building of the year" in 2014. Ruse was a host city of the first of its kind in Bulgaria – an International Ice Figures Festival. The Arena Ruse sports hall with more than 5100 seats opened on 23 July 2015 nearly 40 years after initial construction efforts began. The project was suspended on numerous occasions due to a lack of financing. An underground parking inside the sports hall has also been completed. On-going projects are the re-cultivation of the old landfill, worth 22,5 million leva. The biggest roundabout in the city with underpasses for pedestrians and cyclists, worth some 10 million leva was reconstructed. ### Notable residents * Elias Canetti, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Literature.Elias Canetti, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize for Literature. * Michael Arlen, author. Known for his book The Green Hat, which was the inspiration for the Oscar-nominated movie A Woman of Affairs (1928).Michael Arlen, author. Known for his book *The Green Hat*, which was the inspiration for the Oscar-nominated movie *A Woman of Affairs* (1928). * Stefan Tsanev, a contemporary writer, known for his essays, plays, poems and historical novels.Stefan Tsanev, a contemporary writer, known for his essays, plays, poems and historical novels. * Ekaterina Karavelova, female rights activist and founder of the Bulgarian Women's Union.Ekaterina Karavelova, female rights activist and founder of the Bulgarian Women's Union. * Dimitrana Ivanova, an education reformer, suffragist and women's rights activist. Chairperson of the Bulgarian Women's Union from 1926 to 1944.Dimitrana Ivanova, an education reformer, suffragist and women's rights activist. Chairperson of the Bulgarian Women's Union from 1926 to 1944. * Tonka Obretenova, 19th-century revolutionary.Tonka Obretenova, 19th-century revolutionary. * Venelin Ganev, a lawyer, diplomat, and politician. One of the regents of underage tsar Simeon II.Venelin Ganev, a lawyer, diplomat, and politician. One of the regents of underage tsar Simeon II. * Zahari Zhandov, film director, scriptwriter and cinematographer.Zahari Zhandov, film director, scriptwriter and cinematographer. * Kamen Donev, actor, film director, dramaturgist and choreographer.Kamen Donev, actor, film director, dramaturgist and choreographer. * Konstantin Evtimov, a cellist, performed as a soloist in the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Bern, Graz, Sofia and Lausanne Symphonic Orchestras.Konstantin Evtimov, a cellist, performed as a soloist in the London Philharmonic Orchestra, the Bern, Graz, Sofia and Lausanne Symphonic Orchestras. * Veselin Topalov, chess grandmaster and FIDE World Chess Champion from 2005 to 2006 and Vice Chess Champion from 2010 to 2012.Veselin Topalov, chess grandmaster and FIDE World Chess Champion from 2005 to 2006 and Vice Chess Champion from 2010 to 2012. * Neshka Robeva, rhythmic gymnast and coach. Notable for the “Golden Girls of Bulgaria", having won medals in European, World and Olympic championships.Neshka Robeva, rhythmic gymnast and coach. Notable for the “Golden Girls of Bulgaria", having won medals in European, World and Olympic championships. Main sights ----------- ### Architectural landmarks Ruse is one of the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria. The city is known for its preserved buildings from the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. There are 272 monuments of culture. Most of the sights of the city are located at the center of Ruse (museums, architectural landmarks, the theater, the opera, hotels, restaurants, cafes and souvenir shops). Among the sights the following are outstanding: | Site | Description | Photo | | --- | --- | --- | | Monument of Liberty | The Monument of Liberty was built at the beginning of the 20th century by the Italian sculptor Arnoldo Zocchi. As time went by, it gained significance as one of the city's symbols, and now forms a part of its coat of arms. | | | Dohodno Zdanie ("Sava Ognianov" theater) | Dohodno Zdanie is an imposing Neoclassical edifice in the city centre of Ruse, built in 1898–1902 to accommodate the local theatre performances. Along with the Monument of Liberty it is a symbol of the city. | | | "Aleksandrovska" street | The main street of the city is "Aleksandrovska". It is an architectural ensemble of buildings in Neo-Baroque, Neo-Rococo and other architectural styles. 43°51′0.99″N 25°57′16.77″E / 43.8502750°N 25.9546583°E / 43.8502750; 25.9546583 | | | The first private bank "Girdap" (The town's clock) | Girdap was the first privately owned Bulgarian bank. Established in Ruse in 1881, Girdap was among the six largest banks in Bulgaria, and during the wars its financial group was the most influential in the country. Today the main building houses the administration of Ruse's Chamber of Commerce and it's a favorite meeting point. | | | The old city centre of Ruse | The old city centre is the square around the Rousse Historical Museum. The regional library "Lyuben Karavelov" is located on the square. The building is decorated with baroque ornaments- leaves, pearles and rosettes. The former bank of Ivan and Stefan Simeonov is situated at the beginning of "Aleksandrovska" street. The building is in the typical for Ruse, baroque style. 43°50′39.36″N 25°56′53.23″E / 43.8442667°N 25.9481194°E / 43.8442667; 25.9481194 | | | „La Butika" and the house of Elias Canetti, Nobel Prize laureate in Literature – 1981 | Store „Canetti" or „La Butika" - as mentioned in the book „Die gerettete Zunge" is the trade store of the grandfather of the writer. Built in 1898 by the architect Negohos Bedrysan, it's located on „Slavianska" street. The house of the Nobel Prize laureate is located on „Gen Gurko" 13 street and is a monument of culture of a national significance. | | | The house of Andrea Turio | The house of Andrea Turio was completed in 1900. The input materials for the construction were carefully chosen from all over the world. The halls of the house are decorated in Pompeii art style. 43°50′53.16″N 25°56′47.9″E / 43.8481000°N 25.946639°E / 43.8481000; 25.946639 | | | Insurance company "Bulgaria" | Insurance company "Bulgaria" was the first one in Bulgaria. It was created in 1891. The building is located on the main street "Aleksandrovska" and it was constructed in the neoclassicism architectural style. 43°50′51.6″N 25°57′4.74″E / 43.847667°N 25.9513167°E / 43.847667; 25.9513167 | | | Old High School of Music | The "Old High School of Music" is an abandoned historic building, built in 1900–1901. The architectural style is eclectic, combining neoclassical and gothic revival elements and Northern European influences. The building is currently being reconstructed to become the first private museum in Bulgaria. 43°50′40.68″N 25°57′15.44″E / 43.8446333°N 25.9542889°E / 43.8446333; 25.9542889 | | | The flower vase | The flower vase is located at the city's park. Its height is 3.40 metres (11.2 feet) and its width is 7 metres (23 feet). 43°51′23.82″N 25°57′49.77″E / 43.8566167°N 25.9638250°E / 43.8566167; 25.9638250 | | | Holy Trinity Cathedral | The orthodox church "Holy Trinity" is the oldest building in the city and dates back to 1632. Being constructed during the Ottoman yoke it had to be built underground, so visitors entering the temple now have to go down stairs four and a half metres (15 ft) instead of going up as it is in most churches. 43°50′51.38″N 25°57′23.86″E / 43.8476056°N 25.9566278°E / 43.8476056; 25.9566278 | | | Basarbovo Monastery | The Monastery of Saint Dimitar Basarbowski is a Bulgarian-orthodox cave monastery near the city of Ruse. The oldest written mention of the monastery dates to the 15th century in an Ottoman tax register. 43°46′01″N 25°57′50″E / 43.76694°N 25.96389°E / 43.76694; 25.96389 | | | Kunt Kapu | Kunt Kapu was the southern gate of the Rousse fortress built in 1820, during the Ottoman Rule of Bulgaria. It is the only thing left from the fortification. | | | Rousse TV Tower | The Rousse TV Tower is a 204-metre-high TV tower built of reinforced concrete. The structure was constructed as a 206-metre-high TV tower with a cafe/restaurant on top and was the tallest one on the Balkan peninsula until 2001. In the 1990s an additional antenna was added bringing the height to 210 metres (690 feet). And, in March 2007, the antenna was reconstructed bringing its height to 204 metres (669 feet). 43°49′27″N 25°57′28″E / 43.82417°N 25.95778°E / 43.82417; 25.95778 | | ### Natural landmarks | Site | Description | Photo | | --- | --- | --- | | Rusenski lom (park) | Nature Park of Rusenski Lom is one of the ten nature parks of Bulgaria. It is situated along the canyon type valley of Rusenski Lom River – the last right feeder of the Danube. The park has been announced as a protected area in 1970 and embraces a territory of 3408 hectares. The park is recognized as an interesting and precious site of high aesthetic value preserving riverside terraces, meanders, high vertical rocks, areas of rich variety of species, caves, rock formations, historical monuments of national and international significance. 43°37′55.56″N 26°4′9.06″E / 43.6321000°N 26.0691833°E / 43.6321000; 26.0691833 | | | Lipnik park | It is situated near the village of Nikolovo, 10 km (6 mi) away from Rusе. The park's size is around 2000 hectares and the main flora consists of linden trees. | | | Orlova chuka cave | This cave is an archaeological reserve, located 8 km (5 mi) near Dve Mogili. The remains of prehistoric people and a cave bear were found there. The cave is the habitat of more than 10 types of bats, thousands of them living there in the winter. This is the longest cave in North Bulgaria (13 km) and the second cave by length in Bulgaria (has about 15 km (9 mi) of tunnels at 7 levels). 43°35′23.68″N 25°57′37.01″E / 43.5899111°N 25.9602806°E / 43.5899111; 25.9602806 | | | Culture ------- ### Theatres and opera houses Noted for its rich culture, Ruse hosts a philharmonic orchestra, the Rousse State Opera (founded in 1949) and the "Sava Ognianov" theater. ### Museums and exhibitions | Site | Description | Photo | | --- | --- | --- | | Rousse Historical Museum | The Rousse Regional Historical Museum was established in 1904. It holds approximately 140,000 items, including the Borovo Treasure; the finds of excavations of the antique Danube castles Yatrus and Sexaginta Prista, and of the medieval Bulgarian city – Cherven; a collection of urban clothing, china, glass, and silver from the end of the 19th — beginning of the 20th century. | | | Roman fortress "Sexaginta Prista" | Sexaginta Prista is located at the city of Ruse. The name means "the port town of the sixty ships". | | | Eco Museum & Aquarium | The museum's collection includes species from the Danube valley. Visitors can see a rich exposition of fossils, prehistoric mammals and dioramas, three-dimensional replicas of nature landscapes. Exhibited in the museum are the biggest freshwater aquarium in Bulgaria and a scale model of Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius). | | | Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo | The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo are a group of monolithic churches, chapels and monasteries hewn out of solid rock, located near the village of Ivanovo, 20 km (12 mi) south of Ruse, on the high rocky banks of the park Rusenski Lom. The complex is noted for its well-preserved medieval frescoes. The Rock-hewn Churches of Ivanovo are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1979. | | | National Transport Museum | The National Transport Museum is situated on the bank of the Danube, in the country's first railway station, built in 1866. | | | "Urban lifestyle of Rousse" museum | The exposition represents the role of Ruse as a gateway towards Europe, and the influx of European urban culture into Bulgaria at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. Sample interior layouts are shown, of a drawing-room, a living-room, a music hall and a bedroom, with furniture from Vienna, as well as collections of urban clothing, of jewelry and other accessories, of silverware (cutlery) and china, which mark the changes present in the daily life of Ruse citizens. The first grand piano, imported into Bulgaria from Vienna, can be seen here. | | | Pantheon of National Revival Heroes | The Pantheon of National Revival Heroes is a national monument and an ossuary, located in the city of Ruse. 39 famous Bulgarians are buried in it, including Lyuben Karavelov, Zahari Stoyanov, Stefan Karadzha, Panayot Hitov, Tonka Obretenova, Nikola Obretenov, Panayot Volov, Angel Kanchev, etc. | | | The stronghold of Cherven | The stronghold of Cherven was one of the Second Bulgarian Empire's primary military, administrative, economic and cultural centres between the 12th and the 14th century. The ruins of the fortress are located near the village of the same name 30 to 35 km (19 to 22 mi) south of Rousse, northeastern Bulgaria. | | | "Zahari Stoyanov" museum | Zahari Stoyanov was a Bulgarian revolutionary, writer, and historian. The museum shows expositions from the Bulgarian Revival period and about the life and struggles of Zahari Stoyanov. | | | „Tonka Obretenova" museum | Baba Tonka house museum is dedicated to the Bulgarian National Revival and the life path of Tonka Obretenova. The Revolutionary Committee of Rousse was established here in 1872 and later became central for the whole country. | | | Toma Kardzhiev House Museum | The museum is dedicated to the life path of the Bulgarian revolutionary and one of the combatants for the liberation of Bulgaria – Toma Kardzhiev. | | ### Libraries * The Regional Library "Lyuben Karavelov" * The Austrian Library, located in the 2nd floor of the theater and home of the International Elias Canetti Society. ### Regular events * The March Music Days is an international music festival for classical music. * St George's Day (6 May) is Ruse's holiday. A local fair is organized for a week around this date. * Ruse Carnival is a masquerade held around 24 June, *Enyovden*. * The Sexaginta Prista Summer Stage is an urban festival. Events are hosted at the Roman castle every Friday from May through October. * At the end of October are BG MediaMarket and the Bulgarian Europe Media Festival. * The Skate-Festival "Collision Course" is taking place in May since 2007. * Since 2008 the Literary Spring Parlour is organized by the International Elias Canetti Society in April or May. ### Religious buildings * Holy Trinity Cathedral * Church of All Saints * Church of the Holy Theotokos * Church of St George * Church of Holy Archangel Michael * Church of the Holy Ascension * Church of St Petka * Russian Church of St Nicholas the Miracle Worker * Roman Catholic St Paul of the Cross Cathedral, built 1890 * Armenian Surp Astvadzadzin Church * Evangelical Baptist church * Evangelical Methodist Church * Seid Pasha Mosque In 1978, the "All Saints" Church was destroyed and the Pantheon of National Revival Heroes was built thereupon. The Jewish community in Ruse built and consecrated a synagogue in 1797. It was destroyed in the 1810 fire, but two other synagogues were later built in 1826 and 1852. Economy and infrastructure -------------------------- ### Economic activity The average number of employees under labour contract in 2016 is 68 603 people, while the average annual salary – 4 683 euro, 60% higher compared to the 2007's statistics. The employment rate for people from the age of 15 to 64 is 57.7%, whereas the unemployment is 12.5%. The relative share of the population aged between 25 and 64 years with higher education is 23.6%, 3% higher than in 2007. The relative share of the population aged between 25 and 64 years with secondary education is 57.5%, 3.2% higher than in 2007. 147 300 is the number of nights spent by tourists in 2013. The total number of enterprises is 10 830. | Share of enterprises by structure from the total number of enterprises | | --- | | Year | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | | Share of enterprises with up to 9 persons employed | 88.8 % | 90.0 % | 90.1 % | 90.9 % | 90.8 % | 91.0 % | 91.2 % | | Share of enterprises with 10–49 persons employed | 8.7 % | 7.9 % | 7.7 % | 7.2 % | 7.3 % | 7.2 % | 7.0 % | | Share of enterprises with 50–249 persons employed | 2.1 % | 1.9 % | 1.8 % | 1.6 % | 1.7 % | 1.6 % | 1.6 % | | Share of enterprises with more than 249 persons employed | 0.3 % | 0.3 % | 0.3 % | 0.3 % | 0.3 % | 0.2 % | 0.2 % | Foreign direct investment in non-financial enterprises for 2013 is 197 million euro. The total economic output, manufactured in the city is assessed at about 1.84 billion euro, while the revenue increases with 916 000 euro compared to 2007 – to 3.1 million euro for 2013. ### Economic profile Ruse is a large industrial centre. It has a duty-free zone and 2 industrial zones: East and West. Ruse Iztok Power Plant has an energy producing capacity of 400 MW and the *Ruse West Power Plant* has 41 MW. There are a logistics park and a business park in the city. The city's economy is dominated by light industry — tailoring, textiles and food processing. Big manufactures are *Fazan* (the first factory for socks in Bulgaria), *Fenix 94* (socks), *Ariston S* (women's fashion), Bordo (women's fashion), *Danini* (lady's fashion), *Top Man* (men's fashion), *Karina* (lady's fashion) and *Sirma Prista* (dairy products). The petroleum industry and the chemical industry are represented by companies, producing paints and motor oils – *Orgachim*, *Prista Oil*, *Lubrica*, *Megachim*, *EKON 91*, *Ninachim* and *Polysan*. The machinery industry and ships construction are well developed. Also, one of the world's leading companies in yacht design *Vripack* has an architecture and engineering studio in Ruse. There are 65 hotels and 1,769 beds in Ruse. The income from accommodations for the fourth quarter of 2011 г. is 1,661,294 lv. There are many hypermarkets such as Metro Cash & Carry, Kaufland, Mr. Bricolage, Praktiker, and some supermarket chains such as Billa, Lidl, and Carrefour. The market hall Gradski Hali, located in the city centre, is now operated by CBA, a Hungarian supermarket chain. ### Transportation Ruse is a major road and railway hub in Northern Bulgaria. Railway transportation in the city dates back to 1867 when it became a station of the first railway line in Bulgaria Ruse – Varna. There are railways to Southern Bulgaria, Sofia, Varna and Bucharest. Ruse has two railway stations for passenger services (Ruse Central and Ruse Razpredelitelna) and two for freight transport services. There are intercity buses that link Ruse with cities and towns all over the country, as well as in other European nations. They are based in two bus stations: South and East. Ruse has an extensive public transport system with around 30 bus and trolleybus lines, including the Ruse trolleybus system. Since the sale of all shares of the private Israeli transport holding Egged Ruse to the local municipality in 2017, trolleybus lines have been operated by the city's own public transport entity. Urban and suburban bus lines remain under concession to various private Bulgarian transport companies. A 14 kilometer bicycle network along the main boulevards of the city has been developed and is currently in the process of expansion. Approximately 17 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of Ruse is the village of Shtraklevo, near which is the former military and passenger Ruse Airport. It is owned by the municipality of Ruse, with an active license for small passenger and cargo flights (license issued on 21.12.2016). The runway is long enough for Boeing 747s (Jumbo Jets). The Henri Coandă International Airport in Otopeni, Romania is 70 kilometres (43 miles) north of Ruse. The Danube bridge is located east of Ruse. It was the only road and rail bridge between Bulgaria and Romania until the opening of a second bridge crossing to Romania on 14 June 2013 at Vidin. The Friendship Bridge, connecting Bulgaria with Romania Ruse is the biggest Bulgarian port towns on the bank of the Danube River. After the opening of the Rhine–Main–Danube Canal which covers 3,500 km (2,175 mi) and connects 13 European countries with Asia via the Black Sea, the river becomes the longest inland waterway on the planet. This key position has determined the 19th century-long co-existence of different cultures and religions in Ruse. Education --------- There is one university in Ruse – "Angel Kanchev" University of Ruse with a capacity of 15 000 students. The university's structure includes a subsidiaries in Silistra, Vidin and Razgrad. There is also a subsidiary of the College of Agriculture – Plovdiv in the city. The city hosts 26 high schools, among which is the English Language School "Geo Milev". Demographics ------------ Ruse is the fifth largest city in Bulgaria by population. It was the most populated city of Bulgaria in 1880 with 26,163 people. The number of the residents of the city(not the municipality) reached its peak around 1990, numbering almost 200,000. According to the 2011 census, Ruse was inhabited by 149,642 people within the city limits, while the Ruse Municipality along with the legally affiliated adjacent villages had 167,585 inhabitants. | Ruse | | --- | Population change for the period 1880– 2014.| Year | 1880 | 1887 | 1910 | 1934 | 1946 | 1956 | 1965 | 1975 | 1985 | 1992 | 2001 | 2006 | 2008 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2021 | | Population\* | 26163 | 27194 | 36255 | 41447 | 57509 | 83453 | 128888 | 159578 | 183746 | 170038 | 161453 | 157540 | 156761 | 149642 | 148350 | 147817 | 147001 | 133813 | | Permanent address | | | | | | | | | | | 190798 | 177104 | 175374 | 173205 | 170639 | 170043 | 168954 | | | Current address | | | | | | | | | | | 179666 | 170208 | 168116 | 165208 | 161480 | 161097 | 160352 | | * "Population" – Permanent and current address at the same place ### Migration | Migration in and out of the city | | --- | | Year | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | | New residents | 3670 | 2261 | 2163 | 2333 | | Out-migration | 3798 | 2093 | 2188 | 2250 | | Total | -128 | 168 | -25 | 83 | ### Ethnic, linguistic and religious composition According to the latest 2011 census data, the individuals declared their ethnic identity were distributed as follows: * Bulgarians: 123 469 (90.4%) * Turks: 10 128 (7.5%) * Romani: 1,297 (0.9%) * Others: 1,132 (0.8%) * Indefinable: 618 (0.5%) + Undeclared: 12,998 (8.7%) According to the first census in 1883, the ethnic composition was as follows: * Bulgarians: 11,342 * Turks: 10,252 * Jews: 1,943 * Armenians: 841 * Germans: 476 * Greeks: 291 * Vlachs (Romanians): 231 * Russians: 170 * Serbs and Croats: 113 * 79 Romani, 76 Hungarians, 74 Tatars, 58 Italians, 58 French people, 32 English people, 19 Persians, 16 Poles, 16 Czechs, and 69 others. Total: 26,156 International relations ----------------------- ### Consulates * Russia – General consulate * Ukraine – Honorary Consulate ### Twin towns and sister cities Ruse is twinned with: * Bosnia and Herzegovina Bijeljina, Bosnia and Herzegovina * Romania Giurgiu, Romania * China Huainan, China * Greece Peristeri, Greece * France Saint-Ouen-sur-Seine, France * Croatia Trogir, Croatia * Hungary Újbuda (Budapest), Hungary * Russia Volgograd, Russia ### Honours Ruse Peak (800 m) on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after the city. Gallery ------- * Statue of Liberty at nightStatue of Liberty at night * * * The Rousse TV Tower as seen from the cityThe Rousse TV Tower as seen from the city * * * The opera-houseThe opera-house * The Roman Catholic St Paul of the Cross Cathedral (1890)The Roman Catholic St Paul of the Cross Cathedral (1890) * * * * * The Court HouseThe Court House * * The English language school in RuseThe English language school in Ruse * * * * * * * * * * * Walls of the Roman fortress Sexaginta PriscaWalls of the Roman fortress Sexaginta Prisca * First meteo station in BulgariaFirst meteo station in Bulgaria * * * * * * * * * Русе (Център)Русе (Център)

Ruse, Bulgaria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruse,_Bulgaria

**Chamber music** is a form of classical music that is composed for a small group of instruments—traditionally a group that could fit in a palace chamber or a large room. Most broadly, it includes any art music that is performed by a small number of performers, with one performer to a part (in contrast to orchestral music, in which each string part is played by a number of performers). However, by convention, it usually does not include solo instrument performances. Because of its intimate nature, chamber music has been described as "the music of friends". For more than 100 years, chamber music was played primarily by amateur musicians in their homes, and even today, when chamber music performance has migrated from the home to the concert hall, many musicians, amateur and professional, still play chamber music for their own pleasure. Playing chamber music requires special skills, both musical and social, that differ from the skills required for playing solo or symphonic works. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe described chamber music (specifically, string quartet music) as "four rational people conversing". This conversational paradigm – which refers to the way one instrument introduces a melody or motif and then other instruments subsequently "respond" with a similar motif – has been a thread woven through the history of chamber music composition from the end of the 18th century to the present. The analogy to conversation recurs in descriptions and analyses of chamber music compositions. History ------- From its earliest beginnings in the Medieval period to the present, chamber music has been a reflection of the changes in the technology and the society that produced it. ### Early beginnings During the Middle Ages and the early Renaissance, instruments were used primarily as accompaniment for singers. String players would play along with the melody line sung by the singer. There were also purely instrumental ensembles, often of stringed precursors of the violin family, called consorts. Some analysts consider the origin of classical instrumental ensembles to be the sonata da camera (chamber sonata) and the sonata da chiesa (church sonata). These were compositions for one to five or more instruments. The sonata da camera was a suite of slow and fast movements, interspersed with dance tunes; the sonata da chiesa was the same, but the dances were omitted. These forms gradually developed into the trio sonata of the Baroque – two treble instruments and a bass instrument, often with a keyboard or other chording instrument (harpsichord, organ, harp or lute, for example) filling in the harmony. Both the bass instrument and the chordal instrument would play the basso continuo part. During the Baroque period, chamber music as a genre was not clearly defined. Often, works could be played on any variety of instruments, in orchestral or chamber ensembles. *The Art of Fugue* by Johann Sebastian Bach, for example, can be played on a keyboard instrument (harpsichord or organ) or by a string quartet or a string orchestra. The instrumentation of trio sonatas was also often flexibly specified; some of Handel's sonatas are scored for "German flute, Hoboy [oboe] or Violin" Bass lines could be played by violone, cello, theorbo, or bassoon, and sometimes three or four instruments would join in the bass line in unison. Sometimes composers mixed movements for chamber ensembles with orchestral movements. Telemann's 'Tafelmusik' (1733), for example, has five sets of movements for various combinations of instruments, ending with a full orchestral section. > > J. S. Bach: Trio sonata on YouTube from *The Musical Offering*, played by Ensemble Brillante > > > Baroque chamber music was often contrapuntal; that is, each instrument played the same melodic materials at different times, creating a complex, interwoven fabric of sound. Because each instrument was playing essentially the same melodies, all the instruments were equal. In the trio sonata, there is often no ascendent or solo instrument, but all three instruments share equal importance. The harmonic role played by the keyboard or other chording instrument was subsidiary, and usually the keyboard part was not even written out; rather, the chordal structure of the piece was specified by numeric codes over the bass line, called figured bass. In the second half of the 18th century, tastes began to change: many composers preferred a new, lighter Galant style, with "thinner texture, ... and clearly defined melody and bass" to the complexities of counterpoint. Now a new custom arose that gave birth to a new form of chamber music: the serenade. Patrons invited street musicians to play evening concerts below the balconies of their homes, their friends and their lovers. Patrons and musicians commissioned composers to write suitable suites of dances and tunes, for groups of two to five or six players. These works were called serenades, nocturnes, divertimenti, or cassations (from gasse=street). The young Joseph Haydn was commissioned to write several of these. ### Haydn, Mozart, and the classical style Joseph Haydn is generally credited with creating the modern form of chamber music as we know it, although scholars today such as Roger Hickman argue "the idea that Haydn invented the string quartet and single-handedly advanced the genre is based on only a vague notion of the true history of the eighteenth-century genre." A typical string quartet of the period would consist of * *An opening movement in sonata form*, usually with two contrasting themes, followed by a development section where the thematic material is transformed and transposed, and ending with a recapitulation of the initial two themes. * *A lyrical movement* in a slow or moderate tempo, sometimes built out of three sections that repeat themselves in the order A–B–C–A–B–C, and sometimes a set of variations. * *A minuet or scherzo*, a light movement in three quarter time, with a main section, a contrasting trio section, and a repeat of the main section. * *A fast finale section* in rondo form, a series of contrasting sections with a main refrain section opening and closing the movement, and repeating between each section. Haydn was by no means the only composer developing new modes of chamber music. Even before Haydn, many composers were already experimenting with new forms. Giovanni Battista Sammartini, Ignaz Holzbauer, and Franz Xaver Richter wrote precursors of the string quartet. Franz Ignaz von Beecke (1733-1803), with his Piano Quintet in A minor (1770) and 17 string quartets was also one of the pioneers of chamber music of the Classical period. Another renowned composer of chamber music of the period was Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Mozart's seven piano trios and two piano quartets were the first to apply the conversational principle to chamber music with piano. Haydn's piano trios are essentially piano sonatas with the violin and cello playing mostly supporting roles, doubling the treble and bass lines of the piano score. But Mozart gives the strings an independent role, using them as a counter to the piano, and adding their individual voices to the chamber music conversation. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: String Quintet No. 4, K. 516 First movement played by Roxana Pavel Goldstein, Elizabeth Choi, violins; Elias Goldstein, Sally Chisholm, violas; Jocelyn Butler, cello. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Mozart introduced the newly invented clarinet into the chamber music arsenal, with the Kegelstatt Trio for viola, clarinet and piano, K. 498, and the Quintet for Clarinet and String Quartet, K. 581. He also tried other innovative ensembles, including the quintet for violin, two violas, cello, and horn, K. 407, quartets for flute and strings, and various wind instrument combinations. He wrote six string quintets for two violins, two violas and cello, which explore the rich tenor tones of the violas, adding a new dimension to the string quartet conversation. Mozart's string quartets are considered the pinnacle of the classical art. The six string quartets that he dedicated to Haydn, his friend and mentor, inspired the elder composer to say to Mozart's father, "I tell you before God as an honest man that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by reputation. He has taste, and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition." Many other composers wrote chamber compositions during this period that were popular at the time and are still played today. Luigi Boccherini, Italian composer and cellist, wrote nearly a hundred string quartets, and more than one hundred quintets for two violins, viola and two cellos. In this innovative ensemble, later used by Schubert, Boccherini gives flashy, virtuosic solos to the principal cello, as a showcase for his own playing. Violinist Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf and cellist Johann Baptist Wanhal, who both played pickup quartets with Haydn on second violin and Mozart on viola, were popular chamber music composers of the period. ### From home to hall The turn of the 19th century saw dramatic changes in society and in music technology which had far-reaching effects on the way chamber music was composed and played. #### Collapse of the aristocratic system Throughout the 18th century, the composer was normally an employee of an aristocrat, and the chamber music he or she composed was for the pleasure of aristocratic players and listeners. Haydn, for example, was an employee of Nikolaus I, Prince Esterházy, a music lover and amateur baryton player, for whom Haydn wrote many of his string trios. Mozart wrote three string quartets for the King of Prussia, Frederick William II, a cellist. Many of Beethoven's quartets were first performed with patron Count Andrey Razumovsky on second violin. Boccherini composed for the king of Spain. With the decline of the aristocracy and the rise of new social orders throughout Europe, composers increasingly had to make money by selling their compositions and performing concerts. They often gave subscription concerts, which involved renting a hall and collecting the receipts from the performance. Increasingly, they wrote chamber music not only for rich patrons, but for professional musicians playing for a paying audience. #### Changes in the structure of stringed instruments At the beginning of the 19th century, luthiers developed new methods of constructing the violin, viola and cello that gave these instruments a richer tone, more volume, and more carrying power. Also at this time, bowmakers made the violin bow longer, with a thicker ribbon of hair under higher tension. This improved projection, and also made possible new bowing techniques. In 1820, Louis Spohr invented the chinrest, which gave violinists more freedom of movement in their left hands, for a more nimble technique. These changes contributed to the effectiveness of public performances in large halls, and expanded the repertoire of techniques available to chamber music composers. #### Invention of the pianoforte Throughout the Baroque era, the harpsichord was one of the main instruments used in chamber music. The harpsichord used quills to pluck strings, and it had a delicate sound. Due to the design of the harpsichord, the attack or weight with which the performer played the keyboard did not change the volume or tone. Between about 1750 and the late 1700s, the harpsichord gradually fell out of use. By the late 1700s, the pianoforte became more popular as an instrument for performance. Even though the pianoforte was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori at the beginning of the 1700s, it did not become widely used until the end of that century, when technical improvements in its construction made it a more effective instrument. Unlike the harpsichord, the pianoforte could play soft or loud dynamics and sharp sforzando attacks depending on how hard or soft the performer played the keys. The improved pianoforte was adopted by Mozart and other composers, who began composing chamber ensembles with the piano playing a leading role. The piano was to become more and more dominant through the 19th century, so much so that many composers, such as Franz Liszt and Frédéric Chopin, wrote almost exclusively for solo piano (or solo piano with orchestra). ### Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven straddled this period of change as a giant of Western music. Beethoven transformed chamber music, raising it to a new plane, both in terms of content and in terms of the technical demands on performers and audiences. His works, in the words of Maynard Solomon, were "...the models against which nineteenth-century romanticism measured its achievements and failures." His late quartets, in particular, were considered so daunting an accomplishment that many composers after him were afraid to try composing quartets; Johannes Brahms composed and tore up 20 string quartets before he dared publish a work that he felt was worthy of the "giant marching behind". Beethoven made his formal debut as a composer with three Piano Trios, Op. 1. Even these early works, written when Beethoven was only 22, while adhering to a strictly classical mold, showed signs of the new paths that Beethoven was to forge in the coming years. When he showed the manuscript of the trios to Haydn, his teacher, prior to publication, Haydn approved of the first two, but warned against publishing the third trio, in C minor, as too radical, warning it would not "...be understood and favorably received by the public." Haydn was wrong—the third trio was the most popular of the set, and Haydn's criticisms caused a falling-out between him and the sensitive Beethoven. The trio is, indeed, a departure from the mold that Haydn and Mozart had formed. Beethoven makes dramatic deviations of tempo within phrases and within movements. He greatly increases the independence of the strings, especially the cello, allowing it to range above the piano and occasionally even the violin. If his Op. 1 trios introduced Beethoven's works to the public, his Septet, Op. 20, established him as one of Europe's most popular composers. The septet, scored for violin, viola, cello, contrabass, clarinet, horn, and bassoon, was a huge hit. It was played in concerts again and again. It appeared in transcriptions for many combinations – one of which, for clarinet, cello and piano, was written by Beethoven himself – and was so popular that Beethoven feared it would eclipse his other works. So much so that by 1815, Carl Czerny wrote that Beethoven "could not endure his septet and grew angry because of the universal applause which it has received." The septet is written as a classical divertimento in six movements, including two minuets, and a set of variations. It is full of catchy tunes, with solos for everyone, including the contrabass. > > Beethoven: Septet, Op. 20, first movement, played by the Ensemble Mediterrain > > > In his 17 string quartets, composed over the course of 37 of his 56 years, Beethoven goes from classical composer par excellence to creator of musical Romanticism, and finally, with his late string quartets, he transcends classicism and romanticism to create a genre that defies categorization. Stravinsky referred to the Große Fuge, of the late quartets, as, "...this absolutely contemporary piece of music that will be contemporary forever." The string quartets 1–6, Op. 18, were written in the classical style, in the same year that Haydn wrote his Op. 76 string quartets. Even here, Beethoven stretched the formal structures pioneered by Haydn and Mozart. In the quartet Op. 18, No. 1, in F major, for example, there is a long, lyrical solo for cello in the second movement, giving the cello a new type of voice in the quartet conversation. And the last movement of Op. 18, No. 6, "La Malincolia", creates a new type of formal structure, interleaving a slow, melancholic section with a manic dance. Beethoven was to use this form in later quartets, and Brahms and others adopted it as well. > > Beethoven: Quartet, Op. 59, No. 3, played by the Modigliani Quartet > > > > > Piano Trio, Op. 70, No. 1, "Ghost", played by the Claremont Trio > > > In the years 1805 to 1806, Beethoven composed the three Op. 59 quartets on a commission from Count Razumovsky, who played second violin in their first performance. These quartets, from Beethoven's middle period, were pioneers in the romantic style. Besides introducing many structural and stylistic innovations, these quartets were much more difficult technically to perform – so much so that they were, and remain, beyond the reach of many amateur string players. When first violinist Ignaz Schuppanzigh complained of their difficulty, Beethoven retorted, "Do you think I care about your wretched violin when the spirit moves me?" Among the difficulties are complex syncopations and cross-rhythms; synchronized runs of sixteenth, thirty-second, and sixty-fourth notes; and sudden modulations requiring special attention to intonation. In addition to the Op. 59 quartets, Beethoven wrote two more quartets during his middle period – Op. 74, the "Harp" quartet, named for the unusual harp-like effect Beethoven creates with pizzicato passages in the first movement, and Op. 95, the "Serioso". | | | --- | | | The Serioso is a transitional work that ushers in Beethoven's late period – a period of compositions of great introspection. "The particular kind of inwardness of Beethoven's last style period", writes Joseph Kerman, gives one the feeling that "the music is sounding only for the composer and for one other auditor, an awestruck eavesdropper: you." In the late quartets, the quartet conversation is often disjointed, proceeding like a stream of consciousness. Melodies are broken off, or passed in the middle of the melodic line from instrument to instrument. Beethoven uses new effects, never before essayed in the string quartet literature: the ethereal, dreamlike effect of open intervals between the high E string and the open A string in the second movement of quartet Op. 132; the use of *sul ponticello* (playing on the bridge of the violin) for a brittle, scratchy sound in the Presto movement of Op. 131; the use of the Lydian mode, rarely heard in Western music for 200 years, in Op. 132; a cello melody played high above all the other strings in the finale of Op. 132. Yet for all this disjointedness, each quartet is tightly designed, with an overarching structure that ties the work together. Beethoven wrote eight piano trios, five string trios, two string quintets, and numerous pieces for wind ensemble. He also wrote ten sonatas for violin and piano and five sonatas for cello and piano. ### Franz Schubert Schubert Octet D. 803, first movement, performed on period instruments --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* As Beethoven, in his last quartets, went off in his own direction, Franz Schubert carried on and established the emerging romantic style. In his 31 years, Schubert devoted much of his life to chamber music, composing 15 string quartets, two piano trios, string trios, a piano quintet commonly known as the *Trout Quintet*, an octet for strings and winds, and his famous quintet for two violins, viola, and two cellos. > > Franz Schubert, *Trout Quintet*, D. 667, performed by the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center > > > > > Schubert on YouTube: String Quintet in C, D. 956, first movement, recorded at the Fredonia Quartet Program, July 2008 > > > Schubert's music, as his life, exemplified the contrasts and contradictions of his time. On the one hand, he was the darling of Viennese society: he starred in soirées that became known as *Schubertiaden*, where he played his light, mannered compositions that expressed the gemütlichkeit of Vienna of the 1820s. On the other hand, his own short life was shrouded in tragedy, wracked by poverty and ill health. Chamber music was the ideal medium to express this conflict, "to reconcile his essentially lyric themes with his feeling for dramatic utterance within a form that provided the possibility of extreme color contrasts." The String Quintet in C, D.956, is an example of how this conflict is expressed in music. After a slow introduction, the first theme of the first movement, fiery and dramatic, leads to a bridge of rising tension, peaking suddenly and breaking into the second theme, a lilting duet in the lower voices. The alternating Sturm und Drang and relaxation continue throughout the movement. These contending forces are expressed in some of Schubert's other works: in the quartet Death and the Maiden, the Rosamunde quartet and in the stormy, one-movement Quartettsatz, D. 703. ### Felix Mendelssohn Mendelssohn: String quartet Op. 13 third movement by the Carmel Quartet --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Unlike Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn had a life of peace and prosperity. Born into a wealthy Jewish family in Hamburg, Mendelssohn proved himself a child prodigy. By the age of 16, he had written his first major chamber work, the String Octet, Op. 20. Already in this work, Mendelssohn showed some of the unique style that was to characterize his later works; notably, the gossamer light texture of his scherzo movements, exemplified also by the *Canzonetta* movement of the String Quartet, Op. 12, and the scherzo of the Piano Trio No. 1 in D minor, Op. 49. Another characteristic that Mendelssohn pioneered is the cyclic form in overall structure. This means the reuse of thematic material from one movement to the next, to give the total piece coherence. In his second string quartet, he opens the piece with a peaceful adagio section in A major, that contrasts with the stormy first movement in A minor. After the final, vigorous Presto movement, he returns to the opening adagio to conclude the piece. This string quartet is also Mendelssohn's homage to Beethoven; the work is studded with quotes from Beethoven's middle and late quartets. During his adult life, Mendelssohn wrote two piano trios, seven works for string quartet, two string quintets, the octet, a sextet for piano and strings, and numerous sonatas for piano with violin, cello, and clarinet. ### Robert Schumann Cyclic structure in the Schumann piano quintet --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Robert Schumann continued the development of cyclic structure. In his Piano Quintet in E flat, Op. 44, Schumann wrote a double fugue in the finale, using the theme of the first movement and the theme of the last movement. Both Schumann and Mendelssohn, following the example set by Beethoven, revived the fugue, which had fallen out of favor since the Baroque period. However, rather than writing strict, full-length fugues, they used counterpoint as another mode of conversation between the chamber music instruments. Many of Schumann's chamber works, including all three of his string quartets and his piano quartet have contrapuntal sections interwoven seamlessly into the overall compositional texture. The composers of the first half of the 19th century were acutely aware of the conversational paradigm established by Haydn and Mozart. Schumann wrote that in a true quartet "everyone has something to say ... a conversation, often truly beautiful, often oddly and turbidly woven, among four people." Their awareness is exemplified by composer and virtuoso violinist Louis Spohr. Spohr divided his 36 string quartets into two types: the *quatuor brillant*, essentially a violin concerto with string trio accompaniment; and *quatuor dialogue*, in the conversational tradition. ### Chamber music and society in the 19th century During the 19th century, with the rise of new technology driven by the Industrial Revolution, printed music became cheaper and thus more accessible while domestic music making gained widespread popularity. Composers began to incorporate new elements and techniques into their works to appeal to this open market, since there was an increased consumer desire for chamber music. While improvements in instruments led to more public performances of chamber music, it remained very much a type of music to be played as much as performed. Amateur quartet societies sprang up throughout Europe, and no middling-sized city in Germany or France was without one. These societies sponsored house concerts, compiled music libraries, and encouraged the playing of quartets and other ensembles. In European countries, in particular Germany and France, like minded musicians were brought together and started to develop a strong connection with the community. Composers were in high favor with orchestral works and solo virtuosi works, which made up the largest part of the public concert repertoire. Early French composers including Camille Saint-Saëns and César Franck. Apart from the "central" Austro-Germanic countries, there was an occurrence of the subculture of chamber music in other regions such as Britain. There chamber music was often performed by upper- and middle-class men with less advanced musical skills in an unexpected setting such as informal ensembles in private residence with few audience members. In Britain, the most common form of chamber music compositions are the string quartets, sentimental songs and piano chamber works like the piano trio, in a way depicts the standard conception of the conventional "Victorian music making". In the middle of the 19th century, with the rise of the feminist movement, women also started to receive acceptability to be participated in chamber music. Thousands of quartets were published by hundreds of composers; between 1770 and 1800, more than 2000 quartets were published, and the pace did not decline in the next century. Throughout the 19th century, composers published string quartets now long neglected: George Onslow wrote 36 quartets and 35 quintets; Gaetano Donizetti wrote dozens of quartets, Antonio Bazzini, Anton Reicha, Carl Reissiger, Joseph Suk and others wrote to fill an insatiable demand for quartets. In addition, there was a lively market for string quartet arrangements of popular and folk tunes, piano works, symphonies, and opera arias. But opposing forces were at work. The middle of the 19th century saw the rise of superstar virtuosi, who drew attention away from chamber music toward solo performance. The piano, which could be mass-produced, became an instrument of preference, and many composers, like Chopin and Liszt, composed primarily if not exclusively for piano. The ascendance of the piano, and of symphonic composition, was not merely a matter of preference; it was also a matter of ideology. In the 1860s, a schism grew among romantic musicians over the direction of music. Many composers tend to express their romantic persona through their works. By the time, these chamber works are not necessarily dedicated for any specific dedicatee. Famous chamber works such as Fanny Mendelssohn D minor Piano Trio, Ludwig van Beethoven's Trio in E-flat major, and Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major are all highly personal. Liszt and Richard Wagner led a movement that contended that "pure music" had run its course with Beethoven, and that new, programmatic forms of music–in which music created "images" with its melodies–were the future of the art. The composers of this school had no use for chamber music. Opposing this view was Johannes Brahms and his associates, especially the powerful music critic Eduard Hanslick. This War of the Romantics shook the artistic world of the period, with vituperative exchanges between the two camps, concert boycotts, and petitions. Although amateur playing thrived throughout the 19th century, this was also a period of increasing professionalization of chamber music performance. Professional quartets began to dominate the chamber music concert stage. The Hellmesberger Quartet, led by Joseph Hellmesberger, and the Joachim Quartet, led by Joseph Joachim, debuted many of the new string quartets by Brahms and other composers. Another famous quartet player was Vilemina Norman Neruda, also known as Lady Hallé. Indeed, during the last third of the century, women performers began taking their place on the concert stage: an all-women string quartet led by Emily Shinner, and the Lucas quartet, also all women, were two notable examples. ### Toward the 20th century It was Johannes Brahms who carried the torch of Romantic music toward the 20th century. Heralded by Robert Schumann as the forger of "new paths" in music, Brahms's music is a bridge from the classical to the modern. On the one hand, Brahms was a traditionalist, conserving the musical traditions of Bach and Mozart. Throughout his chamber music, he uses traditional techniques of counterpoint, incorporating fugues and canons into rich conversational and harmonic textures. On the other hand, Brahms expanded the structure and the harmonic vocabulary of chamber music, challenging traditional notions of tonality. An example of this is in the Brahms second string sextet, Op. 36. Traditionally, composers wrote the first theme of a piece in the key of the piece, firmly establishing that key as the tonic, or home, key of the piece. The opening theme of Op. 36 starts in the tonic (G major), but already by the third measure has modulated to the unrelated key of E-flat major. As the theme develops, it ranges through various keys before coming back to the tonic G major. This "harmonic audacity", as Swafford describes it, opened the way for bolder experiments to come. > > Brahms sextet Op. 36, played by the Borromeo Quartet, and Liz Freivogel and Daniel McDonough of the Jupiter String Quartet > > > Brahms: Clarinet Quintet, Op. 115 First movement, performed by William McColl and the Orford String Quartet --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Not only in harmony, but also in overall musical structure, Brahms was an innovator. He developed a technique that Arnold Schoenberg described as "developing variation". Rather than discretely defined phrases, Brahms often runs phrase into phrase, and mixes melodic motives to create a fabric of continuous melody. Schoenberg, the creator of the 12-tone system of composition, traced the roots of his modernism to Brahms, in his essay "Brahms the Progressive". All told, Brahms published 24 works of chamber music, including three string quartets, five piano trios, the quintet for piano and strings, Op. 34, and other works. Among his last works were the clarinet quintet, Op. 115, and a trio for clarinet, cello and piano. He wrote a trio for the unusual combination of piano, violin and horn, Op. 40. He also wrote two songs for alto singer, viola and piano, Op. 91, reviving the form of voice with string obbligato that had been virtually abandoned since the Baroque. The exploration of tonality and of structure begun by Brahms was continued by composers of the French school. César Franck's piano quintet in F minor, composed in 1879, further established the cyclic form first explored by Schumann and Mendelssohn, reusing the same thematic material in each of the three movements. Claude Debussy's string quartet, Op. 10, is considered a watershed in the history of chamber music. The quartet uses the cyclic structure, and constitutes a final divorce from the rules of classical harmony. "Any sounds in any combination and in any succession are henceforth free to be used in a musical continuity", Debussy wrote. Pierre Boulez said that Debussy freed chamber music from "rigid structure, frozen rhetoric and rigid aesthetics". > > Debussy: String Quartet on YouTube, first movement, played by the Cypress String Quartet > > > Debussy's quartet, like the string quartets of Maurice Ravel and of Gabriel Fauré, created a new tone color for chamber music, a color and texture associated with the Impressionist movement. Violist James Dunham, of the Cleveland and Sequoia Quartets, writes of the Ravel quartet, "I was simply overwhelmed by the sweep of sonority, the sensation of colors constantly changing ..." For these composers, chamber ensembles were the ideal vehicle for transmitting this atmospheric sense, and chamber works constituted much of their oeuvre. ### Nationalism in chamber music Parallel with the trend to seek new modes of tonality and texture was another new development in chamber music: the rise of nationalism. Composers turned more and more to the rhythms and tonalities of their native lands for inspiration and material. "Europe was impelled by the Romantic tendency to establish in musical matters the national boundaries more and more sharply", wrote Alfred Einstein. "The collecting and sifting of old traditional melodic treasures ... formed the basis for a creative art-music." For many of these composers, chamber music was the natural vehicle for expressing their national characters. > > Dvořák: piano quintet, Op. 81, played by the Lincoln Center Chamber Players > > > Czech composer Antonín Dvořák created in his chamber music a new voice for the music of his native Bohemia. In 14 string quartets, three string quintets, two piano quartets, a string sextet, four piano trios, and numerous other chamber compositions, Dvořák incorporates folk music and modes as an integral part of his compositions. For example, in the piano quintet in A major, Op. 81, the slow movement is a Dumka, a Slavic folk ballad that alternates between a slow expressive song and a fast dance. Dvořák's fame in establishing a national art music was so great that the New York philanthropist and music connoisseur Jeannette Thurber invited him to America, to head a conservatory that would establish an American style of music. There, Dvořák wrote his string quartet in F major, Op. 96, nicknamed "The American". While composing the work, Dvořák was entertained by a group of Kickapoo Indians who performed native dances and songs, and these songs may have been incorporated in the quartet. Bedřich Smetana, another Czech, wrote a piano trio and string quartet, both of which incorporate native Czech rhythms and melodies. In Russia, Russian folk music permeated the works of the late 19th-century composers. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky uses a typical Russian folk dance in the final movement of his string sextet, *Souvenir de Florence*, Op. 70. Alexander Borodin's second string quartet contains references to folk music, and the slow Nocturne movement of that quartet recalls Middle Eastern modes that were current in the Muslim sections of southern Russia. Edvard Grieg used the musical style of his native Norway in his string quartet in G minor, Op. 27 and his violin sonatas. In Hungary, composers Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók pioneered the science of ethnomusicology by performing one of the first comprehensive studies of folk music. Ranging across the Magyar provinces, they transcribed, recorded, and classified tens of thousands of folk melodies. They used these tunes in their compositions, which are characterized by the asymmetrical rhythms and modal harmonies of that music. Their chamber music compositions, and those of the Czech composer Leoš Janáček, combined the nationalist trend with the 20th century search for new tonalities. Janáček's string quartets not only incorporate the tonalities of Czech folk music, they also reflect the rhythms of speech in Czech. ### New sounds for a new world The end of western tonality, begun subtly by Brahms and made explicit by Debussy, posed a crisis for composers of the 20th century. It was not merely an issue of finding new types of harmonies and melodic systems to replace the diatonic scale that was the basis of western harmony; the whole structure of western music – the relationships between movements and between structural elements within movements – was based on the relationships between different keys. So composers were challenged with building a whole new structure for music. This was coupled with the feeling that the era that saw the invention of automobiles, the telephone, electric lighting, and world war needed new modes of expression. "The century of the aeroplane deserves its music", wrote Debussy. #### Inspiration from folk music The search for a new music took several directions. The first, led by Bartók, was toward the tonal and rhythmic constructs of folk music. Bartók's research into Hungarian and other eastern European and Middle Eastern folk music revealed to him a musical world built of musical scales that were neither major nor minor, and complex rhythms that were alien to the concert hall. In his fifth quartet, for example, Bartók uses a time signature of **3+2+2+3** **8**, "startling to the classically-trained musician, but second-nature to the folk musician." Structurally, also, Bartók often invents or borrows from folk modes. In the sixth string quartet, for example, Bartók begins each movement with a slow, elegiac melody, followed by the main melodic material of the movement, and concludes the quartet with a slow movement that is built entirely on this elegy. This is a form common in many folk music cultures. Bartók string quartet number 2, second movement Played by the Carmel Quartet --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Bartók's six string quartets are often compared with Beethoven's late quartets. In them, Bartók builds new musical structures, explores sonorities never previously produced in classical music (for example, the snap pizzicato, where the player lifts the string and lets it snap back on the fingerboard with an audible buzz), and creates modes of expression that set these works apart from all others. "Bartók's last two quartets proclaim the sanctity of life, progress and the victory of humanity despite the anti-humanistic dangers of the time", writes analyst John Herschel Baron. The last quartet, written when Bartók was preparing to flee the Nazi invasion of Hungary for a new and uncertain life in the U.S., is often seen as an autobiographical statement of the tragedy of his times. Bartók was not alone in his explorations of folk music. Igor Stravinsky's *Three Pieces for String Quartet* is structured as three Russian folksongs, rather than as a classical string quartet. Stravinsky, like Bartók, used asymmetrical rhythms throughout his chamber music; the Histoire du soldat, in Stravinsky's own arrangement for clarinet, violin and piano, constantly shifts time signatures between two, three, four and five beats to the bar. In Britain, composers Ralph Vaughan Williams, William Walton and Benjamin Britten drew on English folk music for much of their chamber music: Vaughan Williams incorporates folksongs and country fiddling in his first string quartet. American composer Charles Ives wrote music that was distinctly American. Ives gave programmatic titles to much of his chamber music; his first string quartet, for example, is called "From the Salvation Army", and quotes American Protestant hymns in several places. #### Serialism, polytonality and polyrhythms A second direction in the search for a new tonality was twelve-tone serialism. Arnold Schoenberg developed the twelve-tone method of composition as an alternative to the structure provided by the diatonic system. His method entails building a piece using a series of the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, permuting it and superimposing it on itself to create the composition. Arnold Schoenberg: Second string quartet, fourth movement Played by the Carmel Quartet with soprano Rona Israel-Kolatt. This is the first explicitly atonal piece. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* Schoenberg did not arrive immediately at the serial method. His first chamber work, the string sextet Verklärte Nacht, was mostly a late German romantic work, though it was bold in its use of modulations. The first work that was frankly atonal was the second string quartet; the last movement of this quartet, which includes a soprano, has no key signature. Schoenberg further explored atonality with *Pierrot Lunaire*, for singer, flute or piccolo, clarinet, violin, cello and piano. The singer uses a technique called Sprechstimme, halfway between speech and song. After developing the twelve-tone technique, Schoenberg wrote a number of chamber works, including two more string quartets, a string trio, and a wind quintet. He was followed by a number of other twelve-tone composers, the most prominent of whom were his students Alban Berg, who wrote the *Lyric Suite* for string quartet, and Anton Webern, who wrote *Five Movements for String Quartet*, op. 5. Twelve-tone technique was not the only new experiment in tonality. Darius Milhaud developed the use of polytonality, that is, music where different instruments play in different keys at the same time. Milhaud wrote 18 string quartets; quartets number 14 and 15 are written so that each can be played by itself, or the two can be played at the same time as an octet. Milhaud also used jazz idioms, as in his *Suite* for clarinet, violin and piano. The American composer Charles Ives used not only polytonality in his chamber works, but also polymeter. In his first string quartet he writes a section where the first violin and viola play in 3 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {3}{4}}} {\tfrac {3}{4}} time while the second violin and cello play in 4 4 {\displaystyle {\tfrac {4}{4}}} \tfrac{4}{4}. #### Neoclassicism The plethora of directions that music took in the first quarter of the 20th century led to a reaction by many composers. Led by Stravinsky, these composers looked to the music of preclassical Europe for inspiration and stability. While Stravinsky's neoclassical works – such as the *Double Canon for String Quartet* – sound contemporary, they are modeled on Baroque and early classical forms – the canon, the fugue, and the Baroque sonata form. > > Hindemith: String Quartet 3 in C, Op. 22 on YouTube, second movement, "Schnelle Achtel", played by Ana Farmer, David Boyden, Austin Han, and Dylan Mattingly > > > Paul Hindemith was another neoclassicist. His many chamber works are essentially tonal, though they use many dissonant harmonies. Hindemith wrote seven string quartets and two string trios, among other chamber works. At a time when composers were writing works of increasing complexity, beyond the reach of amateur musicians, Hindemith explicitly recognized the importance of amateur music-making, and intentionally wrote pieces that were within the abilities of nonprofessional players. The works that the composer summarised as *Kammermusik*, a collection of eight extended compositions, consists mostly of concertante works, comparable to Bach's *Brandenburg Concertos*. > > Dmitri Shostakovitch: String quartet no 8 on YouTube, Largo; Allegro molto; played by the Seraphina String Quartet (Sabrina Tabby and Caeli Smith, violins; Madeline Smith, viola; Genevieve Tabby, cello) > > > Dmitri Shostakovich was one of the most prolific of chamber music composers of the 20th century, writing 15 string quartets, two piano trios, the piano quintet, and numerous other chamber works. Shostakovich's music was for a long time banned in the Soviet Union and Shostakovich himself was in personal danger of deportation to Siberia. His eighth quartet is an autobiographical work, that expresses his deep depression from his ostracization, bordering on suicide: it quotes from previous compositions, and uses the four-note motif DSCH, the composer's initials. ### Stretching the limits As the century progressed, many composers created works for small ensembles that, while they formally might be considered chamber music, challenged many of the fundamental characteristics that had defined the genre over the last 150 years. #### Music of friends The idea of composing music that could be played at home has been largely abandoned. Bartók was among the first to part with this idea. "Bartók never conceived these quartets for private performance but rather for large, public concerts." Aside from the many almost insurmountable technical difficulties of many modern pieces, some of them are hardly suitable for performance in a small room. For example, *Different Trains* by Steve Reich is scored for live string quartet and recorded tape, which layers together a carefully orchestrated sound collage of speech, recorded train sounds, and three string quartets. #### Relation of composer and performer Traditionally, the composer wrote the notes, and the performer interpreted them. But this is no longer the case in much modern music. In *Für kommende Zeiten* (For Times to Come), Stockhausen writes verbal instructions describing what the performers are to play. "Star constellations/with common points/and falling stars ... Abrupt end" is a sample. Composer Terry Riley describes how he works with the Kronos Quartet, an ensemble devoted to contemporary music: "When I write a score for them, it's an unedited score. I put in just a minimal amount of dynamics and phrasing marks ...we spend a lot of time trying out different ideas in order to shape the music, to form it. At the end of the process, it makes the performers actually *own* the music. That to me is the best way for composers and musicians to interact." #### New sounds Composers seek new timbres, remote from the traditional blend of strings, piano and woodwinds that characterized chamber music in the 19th century. This search led to the incorporation of new instruments in the 20th century, such as the theremin and the synthesizer in chamber music compositions. Many composers sought new timbres within the framework of traditional instruments. "Composers begin to hear new timbres and new timbral combinations, which are as important to the new music of the twentieth century as the so-called breakdown of functional tonality," writes music historian James McCalla. Examples are numerous: Bartók's Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion (1937), Schoenberg's *Pierrot lunaire*, Charles Ives's *Quartertone Pieces* for two pianos tuned a quartertone apart. Other composers used electronics and extended techniques to create new sonorities. An example is George Crumb's *Black Angels*, for electric string quartet (1970). The players not only bow their amplified instruments, they also beat on them with thimbles, pluck them with paper clips and play on the wrong side of the bridge or between the fingers and the nut. Still other composers have sought to explore the timbres created by including instruments which are not often associated with a typical orchestral ensemble. For example, Robert Davine explores the orchestral timbres of the accordion when it is included in a traditional wind trio in his Divertimento for accordion, flute, clarinet and bassoon. and Karlheinz Stockhausen wrote a *Helicopter String Quartet*. Excerpt from Bartók's Sonata for two pianos and percussion --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* What do these changes mean for the future of chamber music? "With the technological advances have come questions of aesthetics and sociological changes in music", writes analyst Baron. "These changes have often resulted in accusations that technology has destroyed chamber music and that technological advance is in inverse proportion to musical worth. The ferocity of these attacks only underscores how fundamental these changes are, and only time will tell if humankind will benefit from them." ### In contemporary society Analysts agree that the role of chamber music in society has changed profoundly in the last 50 years; yet there is little agreement as to what that change is. On the one hand, Baron contends that "chamber music in the home ... remained very important in Europe and America until the Second World War, after which the increasing invasion of radio and recording reduced its scope considerably." This view is supported by subjective impressions. "Today there are so many more millions of people listening to music, but far fewer playing chamber music just for the pleasure of it", says conductor and pianist Daniel Barenboim. However, recent surveys suggest there is, on the contrary, a resurgence of home music making. In the radio program "Amateurs Help Keep Chamber Music Alive" from 2005, reporter Theresa Schiavone cites a Gallup poll showing an increase in the sale of stringed instruments in America. Joe Lamond, president of the National Association of Music Manufacturers (NAMM) attributes the increase to a growth of home music-making by adults approaching retirement. "I would really look to the demographics of the [baby] boomers", he said in an interview. These people "are starting to look for something that matters to them ... nothing makes them feel good more than playing music." A study by the European Music Office in 1996 suggests that not only older people are playing music. "The number of adolescents today to have done music has almost doubled by comparison with those born before 1960", the study shows. While most of this growth is in popular music, some is in chamber music and art music, according to the study. While there is no agreement about the number of chamber music players, the opportunities for amateurs to play have certainly grown. The number of chamber music camps and retreats, where amateurs can meet for a weekend or a month to play together, has burgeoned. *Music for the Love of It*, an organization to promote amateur playing, publishes a directory of music workshops that lists more than 500 workshops in 24 countries for amateurs in 2008 The Associated Chamber Music Players (ACMP) offers a directory of over 5,000 amateur players worldwide who welcome partners for chamber music sessions. Regardless of whether the number of amateur players has grown or shrunk, the number of chamber music concerts in the west has increased greatly in the last 20 years. Concert halls have largely replaced the home as the venue for concerts. Baron suggests that one of the reasons for this surge is "the spiraling costs of orchestral concerts and the astronomical fees demanded by famous soloists, which have priced both out of the range of most audiences." The repertoire at these concerts is almost universally the classics of the 19th century. However, modern works are increasingly included in programs, and some groups, like the Kronos Quartet, devote themselves almost exclusively to contemporary music and new compositions; and ensembles like the Turtle Island String Quartet, that combine classical, jazz, rock and other styles to create crossover music. Cello Fury and Project Trio offer a new spin to the standard chamber ensemble. Cello Fury consists of three cellists and a drummer and Project Trio includes a flutist, bassist, and cellist. > > The Simple Measures ensemble on YouTube plays chamber music in a Seattle streetcar > > > Several groups such as Classical Revolution and Simple Measures have taken classical chamber music out of the concert hall and into the streets. Simple Measures, a group of chamber musicians in Seattle (Washington, US), gives concerts in shopping centers, coffee shops, and streetcars. The Providence (Rhode Island, US) String Quartet has started the "Storefront Strings" program, offering impromptu concerts and lessons out of a storefront in one of Providence's poorer neighborhoods. "What really makes this for me", said Rajan Krishnaswami, cellist and founder of Simple Measures, "is the audience reaction ... you really get that audience feedback." Performance ----------- Chamber music performance is a specialized field, and requires a number of skills not normally required for the performance of symphonic or solo music. Many performers and authors have written about the specialized techniques required for a successful chamber musician. Chamber music playing, writes M. D. Herter Norton, requires that "individuals ... make a unified whole yet remain individuals. The soloist is a whole unto himself, and in the orchestra individuality is lost in numbers ...". ### "Music of friends" Many performers contend that the intimate nature of chamber music playing requires certain personality traits. David Waterman, cellist of the Endellion Quartet, writes that the chamber musician "needs to balance assertiveness and flexibility." Good rapport is essential. Arnold Steinhardt, first violinist of the Guarneri Quartet, notes that many professional quartets suffer from frequent turnover of players. "Many musicians cannot take the strain of going *mano a mano* with the same three people year after year." Mary Norton, a violinist who studied quartet playing with the Kneisel Quartet at the beginning of the last century, goes so far that players of different parts in a quartet have different personality traits. "By tradition the first violin is the leader" but "this does not mean a relentless predominance." The second violinist "is a little everybody's servant." "The artistic contribution of each member will be measured by his skill in asserting or subduing that individuality which he must possess to be at all interesting." ### Interpretation "For an individual, the problems of interpretation are challenging enough", writes Waterman, "but for a quartet grappling with some of the most profound, intimate and heartfelt compositions in the music literature, the communal nature of decision-making is often more testing than the decisions themselves." > > Quartet lesson on YouTube – Daniel Epstein teaching the Schumann piano quartet at Manhattan School of Music > (Picture: *The Music Lesson* by Jan Vermeer) > > > The problem of finding agreement on musical issues is complicated by the fact that each player is playing a different part, that may appear to demand dynamics or gestures contrary to those of other parts in the same passage. Sometimes these differences are even specified in the score – for example, where cross-dynamics are indicated, with one instrument crescendoing while another is getting softer. One of the issues that must be settled in rehearsal is who leads the ensemble at each point of the piece. Normally, the first violin leads the ensemble. By leading, this means that the violinist indicates the start of each movement and their tempos by a gesture with her head or bowing hand. However, there are passages that require other instruments to lead. For example, John Dalley, second violinist of the Guarneri Quartet, says, "We'll often ask [the cellist] to lead in pizzicato passages. A cellist's preparatory motion for pizzicato is larger and slower than that of a violinist." Players discuss issues of interpretation in rehearsal; but often, in mid-performance, players do things spontaneously, requiring the other players to respond in real time. "After twenty years in the [Guarneri] Quartet, I'm happily surprised on occasion to find myself totally wrong about what I think a player will do, or how he'll react in a particular passage", says violist Michael Tree. ### Ensemble, blend, and balance Playing together constitutes a major challenge to chamber music players. Many compositions pose difficulties in coordination, with figures such as hemiolas, syncopation, fast unison passages and simultaneously sounded notes that form chords that are challenging to play in tune. But beyond the challenge of merely playing together from a rhythmic or intonation perspective is the greater challenge of sounding good together. To create a unified chamber music sound – to blend – the players must coordinate the details of their technique. They must decide when to use vibrato and how much. They often need to coordinate their bowing and "breathing" between phrases, to ensure a unified sound. They need to agree on special techniques, such as spiccato, sul tasto, sul ponticello, and so on. Balance refers to the relative volume of each of the instruments. Because chamber music is a conversation, sometimes one instrument must stand out, sometimes another. It is not always a simple matter for members of an ensemble to determine the proper balance while playing; frequently, they require an outside listener, or a recording of their rehearsal, to tell them that the relations between the instruments are correct. ### Intonation Chamber music playing presents special problems of intonation. The piano is tuned using equal temperament, that is, the 12 notes of the scale are spaced exactly equally. This method makes it possible for the piano to play in any key; however, all the intervals except the octave sound very slightly out of tune. String players can play with just intonation, that is, they can play specific intervals (such as fifths) exactly in tune. Moreover, string and wind players can use *expressive intonation*, changing the pitch of a note to create a musical or dramatic effect. "String intonation is more expressive and sensitive than equal-tempered piano intonation." However, using true and expressive intonation requires careful coordination with the other players, especially when a piece is going through harmonic modulations. "The difficulty in string quartet intonation is to determine the degree of freedom you have at any given moment", says Steinhardt. The chamber music experience ---------------------------- Players of chamber music, both amateur and professional, attest to a unique enchantment with playing in ensemble. "It is not an exaggeration to say that there opened out before me an enchanted world", writes Walter Willson Cobbett, devoted amateur musician and editor of *Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music*. Ensembles develop a close intimacy of shared musical experience. "It is on the concert stage where the moments of true intimacy occur", writes Steinhardt. "When a performance is in progress, all four of us together enter a zone of magic somewhere between our music stands and become a conduit, messenger, and missionary ... It is an experience too personal to talk about and yet it colors every aspect of our relationship, every good-natured musical confrontation, all the professional gossip, the latest viola joke." The playing of chamber music has been the inspiration for numerous books, both fiction and nonfiction. *An Equal Music* by Vikram Seth, explores the life and love of the second violinist of a fictional quartet, the Maggiore. Central to the story is the tensions and the intimacy developed between the four members of the quartet. "A strange composite being we are [in performance], not ourselves any more, but the Maggiore, composed of so many disjunct parts: chairs, stands, music, bows, instruments, musicians ..." *The Rosendorf Quartet*, by Nathan Shaham, describes the trials of a string quartet in Palestine, before the establishment of the state of Israel. *For the Love of It* by Wayne Booth is a nonfictional account of the author's romance with cello playing and chamber music. Chamber music societies ----------------------- Numerous societies are dedicated to the encouragement and performance of chamber music. Some of these are: * the Associated Chamber Music Players, or ACMP – The Chamber Music Network, an international organization that encourages amateur and professional chamber music playing. ACMP has a fund to support chamber music projects, and publishes a directory of chamber musicians worldwide. * Chamber Music America supports professional chamber music groups through grants for residencies and commissions, through award programs, and through professional development programs. * the Cobbett Association for Chamber Music Research is an organization dedicated to the rediscovery of works of forgotten chamber music. * Music for the Love of It publishes a newsletter on amateur chamber music activities worldwide, as well as a guide to music workshops for amateurs. * the Ottawa Chamber Music Society, a non-profit organization that encourages public involvement and appreciation of chamber music. The OCMS has organized Ottawa Chamber Music Festival, the largest chamber music festival in the world, since 1994. * Musica Viva Australia, a large non-profit chamber music promoter working across Australia that tours local and international chamber music artists, as well as managing chamber music festivals and young artist development programs. In addition to these national and international organizations, there are also numerous regional and local organizations that support chamber music. Some of the most prominent professional American chamber music ensembles and organizations are: * Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center based in New York City * Southwest Chamber Music based in Los Angeles * Chicago Chamber Music based in Chicago * Canadian Brass based in New York and Toronto * Juilliard String Quartet in New York * Kronos String Quartet in San Francisco * Emerson String Quartet in New York Festivals --------- Ensembles --------- This is a partial list of the types of ensembles found in chamber music. The standard repertoire for chamber ensembles is rich, and the totality of chamber music in print in sheet music form is nearly boundless. See the articles on each instrument combination for examples of repertoire. | Number of musicians | Name | Common ensembles | Instrumentation | Comments | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 | Duo | Piano duo | 2 pianos | | Instrumental duo | any instrument and piano | Found especially as instrumental sonatas; i.e., violin, cello, viola, horn, oboe, bassoon, clarinet, flute sonatas. | | any instrument and basso continuo | Common in baroque music predating the piano. The basso continuo part is always present to provide rhythm and accompaniment, and is often played by a harpsichord but other instruments can also be used. Contemporaneously, however, such a work was not called a "duo" but a "solo". | | Duet | Piano duet | 1 piano, 4 hands | Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Brahms (original pieces and many transcriptions of his own works); a favorite domestic musical form, with many transcriptions of other genres (operas, symphonies, concertos and so on). | | Vocal duet | voice, piano | Commonly used in the art song, or Lied. | | Instrumental duet | 2 of any instrument, either equal or not | Mozart's Duets KV 423 and 424 for vn and va and Sonata KV 292 for bsn and vc; Beethoven's Duet for va and vc; Bartók's Duets for 2 vn. | | 3 | Trio | String trio | vln, vla, vc | Mozart's Divertimento K. 563 is an important example; Beethoven composed 5 trios near the beginning of his career. 2 Vln and vla trios have been written by Dvořák, Bridge and Kodály. | | Piano trio | vln, vc, pno | Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Brahms, Dvořák and many others. | | Voice, viola and piano | Voice, vla, pno | William Bolcom's trio "Let Evening Come" for Soprano, Viola and Piano, and Brahms' Zwei Gesänge, Op. 91, for Contralto, Viola and Piano | | Clarinet–viola–piano trio | cl, vla, pno | Mozart's trio K. 498, other works by Schumann and Bruch | | Clarinet–cello–piano trio | cl, vc, pno | Beethoven's Trio Op. 11, as well as his own transcription, Op. 38, of the Septet, Op. 20; trios by Louise Farrenc and Ferdinand Ries, Brahms's trio Op. 114, Alexander von Zemlinsky's Op. 3, Robert Muczynski's Fantasy-Trio | | Voice, clarinet and piano | voice, cl, pno | Schubert's "The Shepherd on the Rock", D965; Spohr's Lieder | | Flute, viola and harp | fl, vla, hrp | Famous works by Debussy and Bax. A 20th-century invention now with a surprisingly large repertoire. A variant is Flute, Cello and Harp. | | Flute, oboe, English horn | fl, ob, E hrn | Nicholas Laucella's Divertimento for flute, oboe and English horn | | Clarinet, violin, piano | cl, vln, pno | Famous compositions by Bartók, Ives, Berg, Donald Martino, Milhaud and Khachaturian (all 20th-century) | | Horn trio | hrn, vln, pno | Two masterpieces by Brahms and Ligeti | | Voice, horn and piano | voice, hrn, pno | Schubert's "Auf Dem Strom" | | Reed trio | ob, cl, bsn | 20th-century composers such as Villa-Lobos have established this typical combination, also well suited to transcriptions of Mozart's Basset horn trios (if not to Beethoven's 2 ob. + English horn trio) | | 4 | Quartet | String quartet | 2 vln, vla, vc | Very popular form. Numerous major examples by Haydn (its creator), Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and many other leading composers (see article). | | Piano quartet | vln, vla, vc, pno | Mozart's KV 478 and 493; Beethoven youth compositions; Schumann, Brahms, Fauré | | Violin, clarinet, cello, piano | vln, cl, vc, pno | Rare; famous example: Messiaen's Quatuor pour la fin du temps; less famous: Hindemith (1938), Walter Rabl (Op. 1; 1896). | | Clarinet quartet | 3 B♭ Clarinets and Bass Clarinet | Twentieth-century composers | | Saxophone quartet | s. sax, a. sax, t. sax, b. sax or a. sax, a. sax, t. sax, b. sax | Examples: Eugène Bozza, Paul Creston, Alfred Desenclos, Pierre Max Dubois, Philip Glass, Alexander Glazunov, David Maslanka, Florent Schmitt, Jean-Baptiste Singelée, Iannis Xenakis | | Flute quartet | 4 fls or fl, vln, vla, and vlc | Examples include those by Friedrich Kuhlau, Anton Reicha, Eugène Bozza, Florent Schmitt and Joseph Jongen. 20th Century: Shigeru Kan-no | | Percussion quartet | 4 Percussion | Twentieth-century. Composers include: John Cage, David Lang, and Paul Lansky. See So Percussion | | Wind instrument and String trio | vn, va, vc and fl, ob, cl, bsn | Mozart's four Flute Quartets and one Oboe Quartet; Krommer's Flute Quartets (e.g. Op. 75), Clarinet Quartets, and Bassoon Quartets (e.g. his Op. 46 set); Devienne's Bassoon Quartet, Jörg Duda's *Finnish Quartets* | | Accordion and wind trio | acc, fl, cl, bsn | Robert Davine's Divertimento for flute, clarinet, bassoon, and accordion | | Piano and wind trio | pno, cl, hrn, bsn | Franz Berwald's Op. 1 (1819) | | Voice and piano trio | voice, pno, vn, vc | Used by Beethoven and Joseph Haydn for settings of Lieder based on folk melodies | | 5 | Quintet | Piano quintet | 2 vln, vla, vc, pno | Schumann's Op. 44, Brahms, Bartók, Dvořák, Shostakovich and others | | vln, vla, vc, cb, pno | An uncommon instrumentation used by Franz Schubert in his Trout Quintet as well as by Johann Nepomuk Hummel and Louise Farrenc. | | Wind quintet | fl, cl, ob, bsn, hrn | 19th-century (Reicha, Danzi and others) and 20th-century composers (Carl Nielsen's Op. 43). | | String quintet | 2 vln, vla, vc with additional vla, vc, or cb | with 2nd vla: Michael Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Brahms, Bruckner; with 2nd vc: Boccherini, Schubert; with cb: Vagn Holmboe, Dvořák. | | Wind & strings quintet | ob, cl, vln, vla, cb | Prokofiev, Quintet in G minor Op. 39. In six movements. (1925) | | Brass quintet | 2 tr, 1 hrn, 1 trm, 1 tuba | Mostly after 1950. | | Clarinet quintet | cl, 2 vn, 1 va, 1 vc | Mozart's KV 581, Brahms's Op. 115, Weber's Op. 34, Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's Op. 10, Hindemith's Quintet (in which the clarinet player must alternate between a B♭ and an E♭ instrument), Milton Babbitt's Clarinet Quintet, and many others. | | cl, pno left hand, vn, va, vc | Schmidt's chamber pieces dedicated to the pianist Paul Wittgenstein (who played with the left hand only), although they are almost always performed nowadays in a two-hands version arranged by Friedrich Wührer. | | Piano and wind quartet | pno, ob, cl, bsn, hrn | Mozart's KV 452, Beethoven's Op. 16, and many others, including two by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov and Anton Rubinstein. (The four wind instruments may vary) | | Pierrot ensemble | fl, cl, vln, vc, pno | Named after Arnold Schoenberg's *Pierrot Lunaire*, which was the first piece to demand this instrumentation. Other works include Joan Tower's *Petroushkates*, Sebastian Currier's *Static*, and Elliott Carter's Triple Duo. Some works, such as *Pierrot Lunaire* itself, augment the ensemble with voice or percussion. | | Reed quintet | ob, cl, a. sax, bs cl, bsn | 20th and 21st centuries. | | Wind instrument and string quartet | wind instrument, 2 vn, va, vc | Mozart's Quintet for Clarinet and Strings, Franz Krommer's Quintet for Flute and Strings, Op. 66, Bax's Quintet for Oboe and Strings | | 6 | Sextet | String sextet | 2 vln, 2 vla, 2 vc | Important among these are Brahms's Op. 18 and Op. 36 Sextets, and Schoenberg's *Verklärte Nacht*, Op. 4 (original version). | | Wind sextet | 2 ob, 2 bsn, 2 hrn or 2 cl, 2 hrn, 2 bsn | By Mozart there are the two types; Beethoven used the one with cl | | Piano and wind quintet | fl, ob, cl, bsn, hrn, pno | Such as the Poulenc Sextet, and another by Ludwig Thuille. | | Piano sextet | vln, 2 vla, vc, cb, pno | e.g. Mendelssohn's Op. 110, also one by Leslie Bassett. () | | cl, 2 vln, vla, vc, pno | Prokofiev's Overture on Hebrew Themes Op. 34, Copland's Sextet. | | 7 | Septet | Wind and string septet | cl, hrn, bsn, vln, vla, vc, cb | Popularized by Beethoven's Septet Op. 20, Berwald's, and many others. | | 8 | Octet | Wind and string octet | cl, hrn, bsn, 2 vln, vla, vc, cb or cl, 2 hrn, vln, 2 vla, vc, cb | Schubert's Octet D. 803 (inspired by Beethoven's Septet) and Spohr's Octet, Op. 32. | | String octet | 4 vln, 2 vla, 2 vc (less commonly 4 vln, 2 vla, vc, cb) | Popularized by Mendelssohn's String Octet Op. 20. Others (among them works by Bruch, Woldemar Bargiel, George Enescu's String Octet, Op. 7, and a pair of pieces by Shostakovich) have followed. | | Double quartet | 4 vln, 2 vla, 2 vc | Two string quartets arranged antiphonically. A genre preferred by Spohr. Milhaud's Op. 291 Octet is, rather, a couple of String Quartets (his 14th and 15th) performed simultaneously | | Wind octet | 2 ob, 2 cl, 2 hrn, 2 bsn | Mozart's KV 375 and 388, Beethoven's Op. 103, Franz Lachner's Op. 156, Reinecke's Op. 216 many written by Franz Krommer. Including one written by Stravinsky and the delightful Petite Symphonie by Gounod. | | Vocal octet | 2 sop, 2 alto, 2 ten, 2 bass | Robert Lucas de Pearsall's *Lay a garland* and Purcell's *Hear My Prayer*. | | 9 | Nonet | Wind and string nonet | fl, ob, cl, hrn, bsn, vln, vla, vc, cb | Grand Nonetto (1813) by Spohr; Nonet (1849) by Louise Farrenc; Nonet (1875) by Franz Lachner; *Petite Symphonie* (1885) by Charles Gounod; Stanford's Serenade (1905); Parry's Wind Nonet (1877); Nonet (1923) by Heitor Villa-Lobos; *Planos* (1934) by Silvestre Revueltas; three by Bohuslav Martinů; four by Alois Hába. | | 10 | Decet | Double wind quintet | 2 ob, 2 English hrn, 2 cl, 2 hrn, 2 bsn (Mozart's set) or 2 fl, ob, Eng hrn, 2 cl, 2 hrn and 2 bsn (Enescu's set) | There are few double wind quintets written in the 18th century (notable exceptions being partitas by Josef Reicha and Antonio Rosetti), but in the 19th and 20th centuries they are plentiful. The most common instrumentation is 2 flutes (piccolo), 2 oboes (or English horn), two clarinets, two horns and two bassoons. Some of the best 19th-century compositions are the Émile Bernard Divertissement, Arthur Bird's Suite and the Salomon Jadassohn Serenade, to name a few. In the 20th century the Decet/dixtuor in D, Op. 14 by Enescu written in 1906, is a well-known example. Frequently an additional bass instrument is added to the standard double wind quintet. Over 500 works have been written for these instruments and related ones. | | 1. ↑ Key: vln – violin; vla – viola; vc – cello; cb – double bass; pno – piano; fl – flute; ob – oboe; Eng hrn – English horn; cl – clarinet; s. sax – soprano saxophone; a. sax – alto saxophone; t. sax – tenor saxophone; b. sax – baritone saxophone; bsn – bassoon; hrn – horn; tr – trumpet; trm – trombone | ### Bibliography * Baron, John Herschel (1998). *Intimate Music: A History of the Idea of Chamber Music*. Pendragon Press. ISBN 1-57647-018-0. * Blum, David (1986). *The Art of Quartet Playing: The Guarneri Quartet in conversation with David Blum*. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-8014-9456-7. * Booth, Wayne (1999). *For the Love of It*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-06585-5. * Boyden, David (1965). *The History of Violin Playing*. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. * Butterworth, Neil (1980). *Dvorak, His Life and Times*. Midas Books. ISBN 0-85936-142-X. * Cobbett, Walter Willson, ed. (1929). *Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music*. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9781906857820 and ISBN 978-1906857844. * Crumb, George (1971). *Black Angels*. Edition Peters. * Donington, Robert (1982). *Baroque Music: Style and Performance*. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-30052-8. * Einstein, Alfred (1947). *Music in the Romantic Era*. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 9780393097337. * Eosze, Laszlo (1962). *Zoltan Kodaly, his life and work*. Istvans Farkas and Gyula Gulyas (translators). Collet's. * Geiringer, Karl (1982). *Haydn: a Creative Life in Music*. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-04317-0. * Gjerdingen, Robert (2007). *Music in the Galant Style*. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-531371-0. * Griffiths, Paul (1978). *A Concise History of Modern Music*. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-20164-1. * Griffiths, Paul (1985). *The String Quartet: a History*. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27383-9. * Kerman, Joseph (1979). *The Beethoven Quartets*. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00909-2. * McCalla, James (2003). *Twentieth-Century Chamber Music*. Routledge. ISBN 0-4159-6695-7. * Miller, Lucy (2006). *Adams to Zemlinsky*. Concert Artists Guild. ISBN 1-892862-09-3. * Norton, M. D. Herter (1925). *The Art of String Quartet Playing*. New York: Simon and Schuster (1962). * Raynor, Henry (1978). *Social History of Music*. Boston: Taplinger Publishing. ISBN 9780800872380. * Schoenberg, Arnold (1984). Leonard Stein (ed.). *Style and Ideal: Selected Writings of Arnold Schoenberg*. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Seth, Vikram (1999). *An Equal Music*. Vintage. ISBN 0-375-70924-X. * Shaham, Natan (1994). *The Rosendorf Quartet*. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3316-9. * Solomon, Maynard (1980). *Beethoven*. Granada Publishing, Limited. ISBN 0-586-05189-9. * Steinhardt, Arnold (1998). *Indivisible by Four*. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-374-52700-8. * Stowell, Robert, ed. (2003). *The Cambridge Companion to the String Quartet*. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80194-X. * Swafford, Jan (1997). *Johannes Brahms*. Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74582-3. * Ulrich, Homer (1966). *Chamber Music*. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08617-2. * Winter, Robert; Martin, Robert, eds. (1994). *The Beethoven Quartet Companion*. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20420-4. Further reading --------------- * Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1984). *The New Grove Violin Family*. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-02556-X. * *The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians* (ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980) * Sicca, Luigi Maria (2000). "Chamber music and organization theory: some typical organizational phenomena seen under the microscope". *Studies in Cultures, Organizations and Societies*. Taylor & Francis. **6** (2): 145–168. doi:10.1080/10245280008523545. ISSN 1024-5286. S2CID 145538145. * Sumner Lott, Marie (2015). *The Social Worlds of Nineteenth-Century Chamber Music: Composers, Consumers, Communities*. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03922-5. Retrieved 12 February 2017. * Thompson, Oscar (1940). *Debussy: Man and Artist*. Tudor Publishing.

Chamber music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_music

**Scorpio** (**♏︎**) (Ancient Greek: Σκορπιός, romanized: *Skorpiós*, Latin for "scorpion") is the eighth astrological sign in the zodiac, originating from the constellation of Scorpius. It spans 210–240° ecliptic longitude. Under the tropical zodiac (most commonly used in Western astrology), the Sun transits this sign on average from October 23 to November 21. Depending on which zodiac system one uses, someone born under the influence of Scorpio may be called a *Scorpio* or a *Scorpionic*. Associations ------------ Scorpio is one of the water signs, the others being Cancer and Pisces. It is a fixed, negative sign. According to *The Astrology Bible*, Scorpio's colors are deep red, maroon, black, and brown. Gallery ------- * Mosaic in Maltezana near Analipsi, Astypalaia, 5th century CE.Mosaic in Maltezana near Analipsi, Astypalaia, 5th century CE. * Scorpio adorning a building in Hamburg, Germany, designed by sculptor Richard Kuöhl.Scorpio adorning a building in Hamburg, Germany, designed by sculptor Richard Kuöhl. * A mosaic in a residential complex in the Jedlesee district of Vienna.A mosaic in a residential complex in the Jedlesee district of Vienna. * See also -------- * Astronomical symbols * Chinese zodiac * Circle of stars * Cusp (astrology) * Elements of the zodiac

Scorpio (astrology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorpio_(astrology)

On 23 June 2023, the Wagner Group, a Russian paramilitary organization, rebelled against the government of Russia. The revolt arose amidst escalating tensions between the Russian Ministry of Defence and Yevgeny Prigozhin, the leader of Wagner. Prigozhin portrayed the rebellion as a response to an alleged attack on his forces by the ministry. He dismissed the government's justification for invading Ukraine, blamed Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu for the country's military shortcomings, and accused him of waging the war for the benefit of Russian oligarchs. In a televised address on 24 June, Russian president Vladimir Putin denounced Wagner's actions as treason and pledged to quell the rebellion. Prigozhin's forces seized control of Rostov-on-Don and the Southern Military District headquarters and advanced towards Moscow in an armored column. Following negotiations with Belarusian president Alexander Lukashenko, Prigozhin agreed to stand down and, late on 24 June, began withdrawing from Rostov-on-Don. At least thirteen servicemen of the Russian military were killed during the rebellion, while two Russian military defectors were killed fighting on Wagner's side. Background ---------- ### Yevgeny Prigozhin and the Wagner Group Yevgeny Prigozhin initially gained fame as a prominent business magnate in Saint Petersburg, renowned for a series of popular restaurants. This association eventually fostered a financial relationship with Putin, who was involved in city politics at the time. Prigozhin became a close personal confidant of Putin. In 2014, Prigozhin established the Wagner Group, a Russian private military company. Despite the legal prohibition of private military companies in Russia, Wagner operated unhindered under the tacit approval of the government. Many analysts have said that the Wagner Group was used by the government to allow for plausible deniability and to obscure the true casualties and financial costs of Russia's foreign interventions. Functioning as an instrument of Russian foreign and military policy, the Wagner Group emerged as a formidable combat force in various regions, including the Donbas conflict. It played a significant role during Russia's military intervention in the Syrian civil war, supporting Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, and fought in the Mali War, in Libya, and in the Central African Republic. Wagner gained notoriety for its brutal tactics and involvement in war crimes across Africa, the Middle East, and Ukraine, committing atrocities without facing consequences. The group maintains close ties with several African governments, and is often given free rein to exploit the natural resources of the countries in exchange for fighting alongside local forces against anti-government rebels. Wagner economic activities in Africa only appeared to continue to grow during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, with the money used to fund the fighting in Ukraine and elsewhere. ### Invasion of Ukraine and Wagner–Ministry of Defense feud #### Attempts to limit Prigozhin's influence According to United States officials, Yevgeny Prigozhin had feuded with the Russian Ministry of Defense (MoD) "for years" before the full-scale invasion of Ukraine, but relations deteriorated further and more publicly during the war. In the initial months of the invasion, the Russian Ground Forces suffered significant losses, but the announcement of mobilization for reservists was delayed by Putin. In response, the authorities actively recruited mercenaries to participate in the invasion, leading to the increased influence and power of Prigozhin and the Wagner Group. Prigozhin received substantial resources, including his own aviation, and starting in the summer of 2022, he gained the right to recruit inmates from Russian prisons into Wagner in exchange for liberty. Western intelligence estimated that the number of Wagner members grew from "several thousand" fighters around 2017–2018 to about 50,000 fighters in December 2022, with the majority being criminal convicts recruited from prisons. Although the government provided them with increasingly large resources, Wagner had no legal authority. Prigozhin held no official position and was neither appointed nor elected, meaning that he technically had no authority to answer to. Additionally, Prigozhin became internationally famous, abandoning his previously secluded personal life. He frequently reported news from the frontline while wearing military fatigues. Wagner started to be perceived as Prigozhin's private army, operating outside Russian legislation and the country's military hierarchy. The MoD and the General Staff were dissatisfied with this situation and began attempting to limit Prigozhin's growing influence. In early February 2023, Prigozhin announced that Wagner had ceased recruiting prisoners, which the British Defense Ministry interpreted as a government ban on such recruitment. This change was expected to diminish the group's fighting capacity. Conversely, Prigozhin positioned himself as a populist figure who confronts the military establishment, repeatedly accusing it of failing to protect national interests. On 1 October 2022, during Ukraine's Kharkiv counteroffensive, which pushed Russia out of most of the region, Prigozhin criticized the Russian command, stating that "All these bastards ought to be sent to the front barefoot with just a submachine gun." Due to his increased influence, Prigozhin was among the few who dared to complain about the military commanders to Putin. Prigozhin primarily targeted the MoD, characterizing its officials as corrupt. However, he also criticized other segments of the Russian elite, including the members of Russian parliament and Russian oligarchs, whom he accused of attempting to "steal everything that belongs to the people" during the war. In one of his statements, Prigozhin criticized Russian elite and their children for enjoying a luxurious and carefree life while ordinary people die in the war. Prigozhin drew parallels between this "division in society" and the one preceding the 1917 Russian Revolution, warning of potential uprisings by "soldiers and their loved ones" against such injustice. The Institute for the Study of War noted that Prigozhin's statements increased his influence in the ultranationalist Russian milblogger community. #### Tensions escalate during and after the battle of Bakhmut During the arduous battle of Bakhmut, tensions between the Wagner Group and the MoD escalated to a critical point. Prigozhin repeatedly voiced his dissatisfaction with the Kremlin's inadequate ammunition supply. He issued threats of withdrawing his forces unless his demands were met, specifically blaming Defense Minister Sergei Shoigu and Chief of the General Staff Valery Gerasimov for the substantial loss of life among Wagner fighters, which he claimed amounted to "tens of thousands" of casualties. The United States estimated that nearly half of the 20,000 Russian troops killed in Ukraine between December 2022 and June 2023 were Wagner fighters who perished in Bakhmut. Following the Russian declaration of victory in Bakhmut in late May 2023, Wagner began withdrawing from the city, and was being replaced by regular troops. Around this time, Prigozhin experienced a spike in popularity with the Russian public, particularly among the nationalists: When respondents were asked to name politicians whom they trust the most, by the Levada Center for their May opinion poll, Prigozhin—for the first time—appeared on the top ten list; prior to that, he was not seen as a political figure. Nevertheless, internal conflicts persisted between Wagner and the military during this transition. Prigozhin alleged that the military attempted to attack his withdrawing forces on both 3 June and 5 June, and claimed that the Russian military mined the road by which Wagner withdrew from Bakhmut. On 5 June 2023, Prigozhin released a video on his social media channels alleging to show the captured Lt. Colonel Roman Venevitin of Russia's 72nd Brigade, admitting to have ordered his troops to fire on withdrawing Wagner troops, allegedly while drunk. The end of the battle of Bakhmut in which Wagner had played a key role signaled a period of increasing isolation from the establishment. On 27 May 2023, milblogger and former Donetsk People's Republic Defense Minister Igor "Strelkov" Girkin accused Prigozhin of conspiring to employ the Wagner Group to orchestrate a coup within Russia. Girkin further asserted that Prigozhin was actively violating the Russian 2022 war censorship laws by openly criticizing the Russian high command and that his forces were effectively in a state of mutiny. Prigozhin, however, refuted these allegations, asserting that the Wagner Group did not possess a sufficiently large army to execute a coup. On 6 June 2023, Prigozhin publicly alleged that influential people were trying to undermine his lucrative catering business with the Russian military. The catering contracts had been a source of his wealth and influence for over a decade. #### Order to integrate Wagner In mid-June 2023, the MoD ordered the Wagner Group to sign contracts with the military before 1 July, effectively incorporating Wagner as a subordinate into the regular command structure and reducing Prigozhin's influence. Prigozhin refused to sign the deal, citing alleged incompetence on Shoigu's part. Sources from *Meduza* reported this change would undermine Prigozhin's influence over Wagner and endanger Wagner's lucrative business operations in Africa. Prigozhin unsuccessfully attempted to circumvent the order for Wagner's subordination while intensifying his criticism of the MoD, saying Shoigu should be executed and alluding to a popular uprising against incompetent officials. Prigozhin believed that Putin would ultimately side with him in his struggle against the MoD if he lauched a mutiny. Kremlin officials were reportedly caught off-guard by the rebellion, initially believing Prigozhin's actions to be a bluff aimed at extracting concessions. They only realized the severity of the situation once Wagner forces captured Rostov-on-Don. #### Planning the rebellion U.S. intelligence agencies noted a gradual build-up of Wagner forces near the Russian border and that Wagner was stockpiling materiel in the lead up to the rebellion, and obtained information about where and how but not when the planned rebellion was to take place. U.S. intelligence began to anticipate a major Wagner uprising weeks before it occurred, and had obtained solid evidence of the imminent rebellion before June 21. Prigozhin appeared to have put the plan in motion after the June 10 MoD decision that would effectively absorb Wagner forces into the regular military. The foreign intelligence findings indicate that the revolt was planned in advance, contradicting Prigozhin's claim that the decision to rebel was made on June 23. According to U.S. intelligence findings revealed by anonymous U.S. officials, General Sergey Surovikin who is seen as close to Prigozhin had advanced knowledge of planned rebellion, and there were signs that other Russian generals may have supported the rebellion as well. U.S. officials said that Prigozhin would not have launched the rebellion unless he believed he enjoyed support from certain elements of the Russian power structure. U.S. officials however had a vested interest in selectively disseminating information damaging to Gen. Surovikin whom they believe to be more effective than other members of the Russian military command. Rebellion --------- ### Prigozhin's announcement In a video released on 23 June 2023, Prigozhin claimed that the government's justifications for invading Ukraine were based on falsehoods, and that the invasion was designed to further the interests of Russian elites. He accused the MoD of attempting to deceive the public and the president by portraying Ukraine as an aggressive and hostile adversary which, in collaboration with NATO, was plotting an attack on Russian interests. Prigozhin alleged that Shoigu and the "oligarchic clan" had personal motives for initiating the war. Furthermore, he asserted that the Russian military command intentionally concealed the true number of soldiers killed in Ukraine, with casualties reaching up to 1,000 on certain days. Later on 23 June, Prigozhin amplified a video that had already been circulating in Wagner-associated Telegram channels that reportedly showed the aftermath of a missile strike on a Wagner rear camp. Prigozhin accused the Russian MoD of conducting the strike, which he claimed killed 2,000 of his fighters. The MoD denied the allegations of attacking Wagner's rear camps, and the Institute for the Study of War was unable to confirm the veracity of the video, noting that it "may have been manufactured for informational purposes". Prigozhin declared the start of an armed conflict against the Ministry of Defense in a message posted on his press service's Telegram channel. Encouraging individuals interested in joining the conflict against the Ministry, he accused Shoigu of using artillery and helicopters to attack Wagner. Prigozhin also alleged that Shoigu had fled from Rostov-on-Don in a cowardly manner at nine o'clock in the evening. Subsequently, the Prosecutor General's Office of the Russian Federation announced the initiation of a case against Prigozhin under Article 279 of the Criminal Code, which pertains to armed rebellion. Russian generals Sergey Surovikin and Vladimir Alekseyev appealed to the Wagner fighters, urging them to cease hostilities. State-run Channel One Russia broadcast an "emergency newscast," during which host Ekaterina Andreeva declared that Prigozhin's statements regarding alleged attacks by regular military forces on Wagner positions were false. Andreeva also mentioned that Putin had been briefed on the ongoing situation. Responding to Prigozhin's statements, the country's military and National Guard deployed armored vehicles in both Moscow and Rostov-on-Don. Many members of Wagner were not informed about the planned rebellion beforehand. Consequently, they were perplexed by Prigozhin's call to arms and unsure which side to join. Demobilized Wagner veterans were instructed to remain on standby and await orders from Prigozhin. Individuals in Moscow without any affiliation with Wagner reported receiving calls, seemingly from the Wagner Group, urging them to join a rally in support of the rebellion. Similar calls were made to residents of Rostov, soliciting support for the uprising. ### Seizure of Rostov-on-Don During the early morning of June 24, Wagner forces crossed into Russia's Rostov Oblast from Luhansk and occupied Rostov-on-Don in the morning apparently without facing resistance. Wagner forces occupied the Southern Military District headquarters and created a perimeter in the surrounding streets. Prigozhin was filmed in the courtyard of the Southern Military District headquarters building. Wagner dug in by placing landmines and setting up security checkpoints in Rostov's city center. Prigozhin held a meeting with Deputy Defense Minister Yunus-bek Yevkurov and Deputy Chief of Staff Vladimir Alekseyev at the headquarters, during which Yevkurov unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Prigozhin to withdraw his troops. Shooting and explosions were later heard. The Rostelecom building was fired at for unclear reasons. Unverified footage suggested clashes between Wagner and the military in the city. Many of Rostov's business and facilities remained closed. The municipal administration advised residents to stay at home (seemingly to little effect) but never instituted counter-terrorism measures. Local shops reduced their operating hours, and long queues formed at gas stations. Some residents attempted to stock up on essentials and some attempted to leave the city, causing traffic jams and lines at the train station, but there was no widespread panic. Some residents headed to the city center to meet Wagner fighters; the majority was supportive, but some residents did argue with the fighters. The Wagner fighters were pointedly amicable with the residents. Wagner forces subsequently urged civilians to stay off the streets for their own safety after which shooting and explosions broke out. Eyewitness footage depicted a long convoy of military and civilian vehicles heading towards the city, allegedly consisting of Chechen paramilitaries (Kadyrovites) who intended to confront the Wagner forces. According to Chechen state media and other reports, they did not reach the urban center and did not enter into any hostilities. A commander of the Chechen forces later said that some of their teams had been as close as "500-700 meters from Wagner fighters". ### Advance towards Moscow As Wagner secured control over Rostov-on-Don, armored Wagner columns composed of tanks, armored vehicles, anti-aircraft equipment, and civilian trucks began to advance rapidly toward Moscow (a distance of 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) from Rostov-on-Don) in the morning of June 24. One column coming from Rostov and another crossing from occupied Ukraine advanced across Voronezh Oblast, meeting little resistance. According to a source close to the leadership of the Donetsk People's Republic, the convoy towards Moscow contained about 5,000 fighters, and was led by senior Wagner commander Dmitry Utkin. The column did not attempt to occupy any cities it passed through, but may have seized several air bases. Outside the regional capital of Voronezh, Wagner troops were attacked by a helicopter. The Air Force suffered significant losses while confronting Wagner troops, with six helicopters and an airborne command-center plane shot down. At least thirteen Russian military personnel were killed. Two missiles - likely fired by Wagner's air defense systems - struck an oil depot and a courtyard of a housing complex in Voronezh. Ironically, "bombing Voronezh" had already been a widely-used phrase used as shorthand to describe Russia's self-destructive blunders. Wagner fighters drove past Voronezh, more than halfway to Moscow, and continued to push through Voronezh Oblast throughout the early afternoon without entering important cities. Social media posts also showed footage of fighting between Wagner troops and the military in Voronezh proper, with Reuters citing military reports. According to media reports, Wagner group took control of all military facilities in the city. Wagner proceeded into Lipetsk Oblast, approximately 400 kilometres (250 mi) from Moscow. They passed through the town of Yelets, and continued north along the M4 highway. In Lipetsk Oblast, authorities destroyed highways with excavators in an attempt to slow the convoy's advance. Some roadways were blocked with trucks and school buses. The military set up defensive lines along the Oka river (which flows just south of Moscow) and barricaded bridge crossings. The governors of Lipetsk Oblast and Voronezh Oblast urged all civilians to stay indoors, following reports of military columns and clashes along the M4 highway. Sergei Sobyanin, the mayor of Moscow, announced that the counter-terrorism regime [ru] was being implemented in the capital. Armoured vehicles and an increased presence of security forces was observed in Moscow. Municipal authorities contemplated a curfew, and Wagner recruitment billboards were seen being hastily dismantled. *Der Spiegel* reported that all flights out of Moscow were sold out as people attempted to flee the oncoming column. According to the airplane-tracking website Flightradar24, an airplane used by Putin departed Moscow and flew towards St. Petersburg. According to Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov, Putin was not on board, and remained in the Kremlin. Authorities also announced travel restrictions in Kaluga Oblast, which neighbors Moscow, with Governor Vladislav Shapsha telling residents to "refrain from travelling by private vehicle on these roads unless absolutely necessary". Meanwhile, the Federal Security Service (FSB) raided Wagner headquarters in Saint Petersburg. Unconfirmed reports in Russian media said cardboard boxes containing 4 billion rubles ($47 million) were recovered from vehicles near the office, and that cash in U.S. dollars, handguns, gold bars and packs of an unknown white powder were also seized. Prigozhin said that the money was intended for employee salaries, compensations to relatives of fallen Wagner fighters and other company expenses, and alluded to Wagner's global covert influence operations—including in Africa and the United States—that needed to be conducted with cash. Olga Romanova, journalist and leader of the Russian civil rights organization Russia Behind Bars, accused the FSB of threatening relatives of convicts recruited by Wagner since early morning on 24 June. Resolution ---------- Prigozhin was reportedly personally attempting to establish contact with the presidential administration by mid-day 24 June, including with Putin himself, who refused to speak with Prigozhin. Final negotiations were reportedly conducted by the chief of staff Anton Vaino, secretary of the Security Council Nikolai Patrushev, and the Russian ambassador to Belarus Boris Gryzlov. Prigozhin reportedly insisted that the negotiations include top officials, with Putin's refusal to engage paving the way for Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko's intervention. Lukashenko reportedly spoke to Prigozhin at Putin's request, brokering a settlement in which Wagner fighters agreed to halt their advance and return to their base in exchange for a guarantee of their safety. In an audio statement, Prigozhin stated that he had accepted the deal to prevent bloodshed, and reiterated his motivations for the rebellion: > They wanted to disband the Wagner military company. We embarked on a march of justice on June 23. In 24 hours, we got to within 200 kilometers of Moscow. In this time, we did not spill a single drop of our fighters' blood. Now the moment has come when blood could be spilled. Understanding responsibility [for the chance] that Russian blood will be spilled on one side, we are turning our columns around and going back to field camps as planned. > > — Yevgeny Prigozhin, official statement, *Voice of America* At around 11:00 p.m. (GMT+3) on 24 June, the Wagner Group began withdrawing their forces from Rostov-on-Don. Videos circulated on Russian social media showing residents of Rostov-on-Don cheering as Wagner troops left the city, with some even approaching Prigozhin to shake hands. Asked to comment on the outcome of the revolt in the last known video of him during the rebellion, Prigozhin responded with levity: "It's normal, we have cheered everyone up". On 25 June, Wagner forces started to withdraw from Voronezh. Wagner forces reportedly returned to their positions in occupied eastern Ukraine. Kremlin spokesperson Dmitry Peskov announced that the charges against Prigozhin would be dropped and that Prigozhin would be sent to Belarus. According to Peskov, Wagner fighters would not face prosecution, and those who did not participate in the rebellion would have the option to sign contracts with the Ministry of Defense. He said that the Wagner organization as a whole would return to its previous wartime deployment locations. Putin's office reportedly expressed gratitude to Lukashenko for his efforts in ending the rebellion. Reactions --------- ### Domestic #### Putin's address Vladimir Putin addressed the nation on 24 June, calling Wagner's actions "treason" and promising to take "harsh steps" to suppress the rebellion. He stated the situation threatened the existence of Russia itself, drawing parallels to the Russian Revolution, which happened as the Russian Empire fought in the Eastern Front of World War I and led to the loss of territories in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Putin also appealed to Wagner forces who "by deceit or threats" had been "dragged" into participating in the rebellion. In response, Prigozhin stated that his main goal was to remove Shoigu and Gerasimov from office and reiterated his accusations of corruption against the MoD. After airing Putin's address, TV stations returned to their scheduled programming. #### Government figures Russian establishment politicians called on Prigozhin to stop his rebellion and expressed support for Putin. Dmitry Medvedev, leader of United Russia, deputy chairman of the Security Council of Russia, and former president of Russia, stated that "the world will be put on the brink of destruction" if Wagner would be able to take control of the government and gain access to nuclear weapons. The head of the Chechen Republic, Ramzan Kadyrov, called the situation "treason", and stated that his troops were en route to "zones of tension" to "preserve Russia's units and defend its statehood". Patriarch Kirill of Moscow, of the Russian Orthodox Church, called on Russians to pray for Putin. #### Anti-war Russian opposition Russian opposition groups responded in a variety of ways. Exiled former oil magnate and opposition figure Mikhail Khodorkovsky urged Russians to support Prigozhin, saying that it was important to back "even the devil" if he decided to take on the Kremlin, but later called on Russians to arm themselves, while stating that "Prigozhin is not our friend and not even our ally". The Combat Organization of Anarcho-Communists issued a communiqué, stating that "neither the Putin regime nor Prigozhin are our friends. In this fight between two cannibals, anarchists should stay away—let them bleed each other as much as possible. That way, they won't be able to disturb people in the future." Russian Volunteer Corps leader Denis Kapustin praised Prigozhin, stating that although he and Prigozhin had stark ideological differences, he considered Prigozhin "a patriot of Russia." He later called to join the rebellion. The Freedom of Russia Legion compared the events to those during the Russian Revolution, but advised readers to remember Wagner's numerous war crimes, and urged people not to "attribute military honor and valor to [Prigozhin] which does not exist." #### Russian ultranationalists and milbloggers According to the ISW, Russian pro-war ultranationalists were split between "those who want to move past the rebellion" and others who demanded solutions to the flaws in Russia's security exposed by the rebellion. Igor "Strelkov" Girkin called for the execution of Prigozhin for the rebellion and the "murder" of Russian officers, demanding it as "necessary for the preservation of Russia as a state." ### International Western leaders largely avoided directly commenting on the rebellion while it was unfolding and in its immediate aftermath, fearing that Putin would otherwise claim it was a foreign plot, while concerns were raised over control of the Russian nuclear arsenal. U.S. president Joe Biden discussed the situation with French president Emmanuel Macron, German chancellor Olaf Scholz, and British prime minister Rishi Sunak. In a phone conversation on 24 June, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdoğan informed Putin that Turkey is prepared to help find a "peaceful resolution", while calling on him to act with common sense. In Georgia, there were also calls for closing its border with Russia, but the Georgian Ministry of Internal Affairs stated that it was not currently necessary. Ukrainian officials, including President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and his advisor Mykhailo Podolyak, stated that the insurrection was evidence of Russia's political instability, "weakness", and infighting among the elite. Foreign Minister Dmytro Kuleba called the rebellion an opportunity for the international community to "abandon false neutrality" on Russia and to provide Kyiv with all the weapons it needs to push Russian forces out of Ukraine. Moldovan foreign minister Nicu Popescu said that the events in Russia were proof that Moldova ought to continue on its path of moving away from the "Eurasian space of destruction and war" and towards the European Union to ensure peace, stability and democracy in the country. Belarusian opposition leader Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya stated on Twitter that the rebellion exposed the "weakness" of Putin and other dictatorial regimes, and stated that "We must seize this moment now." Kastuś Kalinoŭski Regiment commander Dzianis Prokharaŭ [be] expressed a similar sentiment in a video address on social media, calling on Belarusian military personnel not to interfere in the events. Valery Sakhashchyk, the Representative for Defence and National Security in the Belarusian United Transitional Cabinet in exile, called for a quick decision to either "use [the] historical chance and become a prosperous European country" or "lose everything". He called for the Belarusian military to assert Belarusian independence from Russia, to "unite the nation", and to "tune in to our wave and stay in touch". A Belrusian foreign ministry official described the rebellion as a "gift to the collective West". Milorad Dodik, the president of Republika Srpska and former member of the presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, voiced support for Putin in "his efforts to preserve peace and internal stability in Russia and restore order in the military and other forces", as did North Korea and China. Muhoozi Kainerugaba, son of the Ugandan President and commander of the Special Forces Command, stated that Uganda could send soldiers to Russia to help Putin against the rebellion if necessary. Aftermath --------- A sense of normalcy swiftly returned to Moscow. On 25 June, workers initiated the repairs of roads that had been destroyed to impede Wagner's advancement. Emergency counter-terrorism measures were lifted in Moscow on 26 June. Following the uprising, the Russian ruble exchange rate plummeted to its lowest level since March 2022. On 26 June, the MoD announced that Shoigu had visited Russian troops stationed in Ukraine. On 26 June, Prigozhin released a recorded statement defending the insurrection. He claimed that the objective was to save the Wagner Group and hold accountable inept government officials. Prigozhin emphasized that the uprising aimed not to overthrow the government and reiterated his accusation that the shelling of Wagner troops by the regular military was the immediate trigger for the rebellion. He asserted that the rebellion was halted to prevent a massacre and alleged that regular military forces were the first to open fire during the uprising, resulting in the deaths of around 30 Wagner members. Prigozhin also favorably compared Wagner's ability to credibly threaten to capture Moscow with the military's failed attempt to capture Kyiv. Hours after Prigozhin's audio message, Putin addressed the nation once again. He rebuked the unnamed individuals who led the rebellion and reiterated his belief that it constituted an act of betrayal. However, Putin characterized Wagner commanders and fighters as predominantly patriots who were "covertly used against their comrades-in-arms." He confirmed that Russian servicemen were killed by Wagner, referring to them as heroes. Putin also stated that members of the group who do not wish to become regular contractors were allowed to transfer to Belarus. On 27 June, Russian authorities said they had closed the criminal investigation and dropped the charges against Prigozhin or any other participants in the rebellion, and that heavy military equipment held by Wagner was to be transferred to the Russian armed forces. In Belarus, construction of camps for the Wagner Group was reported to have begun in Mogilev Region. The State Border Guard Service of Ukraine stated there was no evidence that such camps were being built. On the same day, Lukashenko confirmed the arrival of Prigozhin in Belarus, saying that he was welcome to stay "for some time". In response to events, Estonia strengthened its border security, while Latvia closed its border with Russia and suspended the entry of Russian citizens. Latvia and Lithuania requested from NATO that more troops be sent to their countries—at the eastern border of the alliance—worrying that the possible Wagner concentration in neighboring Belarus could pose a threat. Following up on earlier indeterminate plans to send additional troops to Lithuania, on 26 June, German Minister of Defence Boris Pistorius declared that Germany (which leads the existing NATO battle group in Lithuania) will send a full, 4,000-strong, brigade to Lithuania, which would construct the infrastructure needed for permanent stationing by 2026. Analysis -------- The rebellion—the first event of its sort in Russia since the 1993 constitutional crisis—was described in the following days as the biggest challenge to Putin's 23-year long rule. Multiple publications have described Putin's public image as being weakened by the rebellion Andrey Kolesnikov expressed a view that while Putin's image was eroded by the rebellion, the Russian population did not percieve Prigozhin's challenge to the establishment as a credible alternative, and would therefore continue to provide support (real or feigned) to Putin's administration. Prigozhin's rebellion has been described as an ultimately unsuccessful last-ditch attempt in a losing power struggle with parts of the Russian establishment he despised. According to some commentators, the rebellion ended with relatively few immediate repercussions for the perpetrators that had been labelled as traitors by Putin, suggesting that Putin's rule was weak enough to challenge. According to some analysts, the rebellion laid bare an inherent weakness of Putin's system of power built upon a ruling coalition of competing power centers and a structure of subordinate "nominal" institutions that was strained by the descent into a militarised state and society. According to Meduza, the rebellion did not last long enough to show whether Prigozhin's radical populist rhetoric enjoyed a genuine base of support among Russia's security services. The head of the Russian National Guard, Viktor Zolotov, was described as emerging victorious from the rebellion. Zolotov claimed credit and was praised by Putin for defending the capital Moscow against the Wagner Group. On 27 June, Putin announced that Russian National Guard would be receiving heavy weapons, including tanks to quell any potential future uprisings. According to *TIME* magazine, Zolotov's increased authority may signify the initiation of a purge of Putin's opponents. According to a senior U.S. Department of Defense official, U.S. intelligence agencies had monitored the defection of large numbers of Russian soldiers from their military leaders and their joining the Wagner movement. The official added that the operations carried out by Wagner were widely supported by soldiers and officers deployed inside Ukraine as well as in Russian territory and bases near the Ukrainian border. U.S. and allied officials and independent experts consulted by *The New York Times* said that Prigozhin appeared to believe that a significant part of the Russian military would take his side during the rebellion. According to Prigozhin, two Russian military defectors were killed while fighting on Wagner's side during the rebellion. Western officials believed that Prigozhin would have been decisively defeated had he tried to capture Moscow and that this was likely the reason why Prigozhin ultimately agreed to a negotiated resolution. U.S. officials were concerned about the safety of Russia's nuclear stockpile. The Institute for the Study of War commented that "the rebellion exposed the weakness of the Russian security forces and demonstrated Putin's inability to use his forces in a timely manner to repel an internal threat and further eroded his monopoly on force"; and that the Russian military's combat capabilities did not seem to be "substantially impacted" by the rebellion. According to CNN, allies cautioned Ukraine to avoid taking advantage of the rebellion to conduct strikes inside Russian territory. See also -------- * Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (8 June 2023 – present) * Kornilov affair, a coup d'état attempt by General Lavr Kornilov against the Russian Provisional Government in September 1917 * 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, an attempted coup by the State Committee on the State of Emergency against President Mikhail Gorbachev in August * 1993 Russian constitutional crisis, a military and political conflict between President Boris Yeltsin, the Supreme Soviet of Russia and the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia in October

Wagner Group rebellion

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner_Group_rebellion

**Direct democracy** or **pure democracy** is a form of democracy in which the electorate decides on policy initiatives without elected representatives as proxies. This differs from the majority of currently established democracies, which are representative democracies. The theory and practice of direct democracy and participation as its common characteristic was the core of work of many theorists, philosophers, politicians, and social critics, among whom the most important are Jean Jacques Rousseau, John Stuart Mill, and G.D.H. Cole. Overview -------- In direct democracy, the people decide on policies without any intermediary or representative, whereas in a representative democracy people vote for representatives who then enact policy initiatives. Depending on the particular system in use, direct democracy might entail passing executive decisions, the use of sortition, making laws, directly electing or dismissing officials, and conducting trials. Two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Semi-direct democracies, in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, allow for three forms of popular action: referendum (plebiscite), initiative, and recall. The first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation. As of 2019[update], thirty countries allowed for referendums initiated by the population on the national level. A **compulsory referendum** subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a binding popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation. A **popular referendum** empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a vote by the citizens. Institutions specify the timeframe for a valid petition and the number of signatures required, and may require signatures from diverse communities to protect minority interests. This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, as in Switzerland. A **citizen-initiated referendum** (also called an initiative) empowers members of the general public to propose, by petition, specific statutory measures or constitutional reforms to the government and, as with other referendums, the vote may be binding or simply advisory. Initiatives may be direct or indirect: with the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote (as exemplified by California's system). With an indirect initiative, a successful proposition is first presented to the legislature for their consideration; however, if no acceptable action is taken after a designated period of time, the proposition moves to direct popular vote. Constitutional amendments in Switzerland, Liechtenstein or Uruguay go through such a form of indirect initiative. A **deliberative referendum** is a referendum that increases public deliberation through purposeful institutional design. Power of recall gives the public the power to remove elected officials from office before the end of their designated standard term of office. History ------- ### Antiquity One strand of thought sees direct democracy as common and widespread in pre-state societies. The earliest well-documented direct democracy is said[*by whom?*] to be the Athenian democracy of the 5th century BC. The main bodies in the Athenian democracy were the assembly, composed of male citizens; the boulê, composed of 500 citizens; and the law courts, composed of a massive number of jurors chosen by lot, with no judges. Ancient Attica had only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were politically active in each year and many of them quite regularly for years on end. The Athenian democracy was *direct* not only in the sense that the assembled people made decisions, but also in the sense that the people – through the assembly, boulê, and law courts – controlled the entire political process, and a large proportion of citizens were involved constantly in public affairs. Most modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system. Also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically during the Roman Republic, traditionally founded around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. While the Roman senate was the main body with historical longevity, lasting from the Roman kingdom until after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, it did not embody a purely democratic approach, being made up – during the late republic – of former elected officials, providing advice rather than creating law. The democratic aspect of the constitution resided in the Roman popular assemblies, where the people organised into *centuriae* or into tribes – depending on the assembly – and cast votes on various matters, including elections and laws, proposed before them by their elected magistrates. Some classicists have argued that the Roman republic deserves the label of "democracy", with universal suffrage for adult male citizens, popular sovereignty, and transparent deliberation of public affairs. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the *lex Titia*, passed on 27 November 43 BC, which eliminated many oversight provisions. ### Modern era Modern-era citizen-lawmaking occurs in the cantons of Switzerland from the 13th century. In 1847 the Swiss added the "statute referendum" to their national constitution. They soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliament's laws was not enough. In 1891 they added the "constitutional amendment initiative". Swiss politics since 1891 have given the world a valuable experience-base with the national-level constitutional amendment initiative. In the past 120 years, more than 240 initiatives have been put to referendums. Most popular initiatives are discussed and approved by the Parliament before the referendum. Out of the remaining initiatives that go to the referendum, only about 10% are approved by voters; in addition, voters often opt for a version of the initiative rewritten by the government. (See "Direct democracy in Switzerland" below.) Some of the issues surrounding the related notion of a direct democracy using the Internet and other communications technologies are dealt with in the article on e-democracy and below under the heading *Electronic direct democracy*. More concisely, the concept of open-source governance applies principles of the free software movement to the governance of people, allowing the entire populace to participate in government directly, as much or as little as they please. Examples -------- ### Early Athens Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, around 600 BC. Athens was one of the first known democracies. Other Greek cities set up democracies, and even though most followed an Athenian model, none were as powerful, stable, or well-documented as that of Athens. In the direct democracy of Athens, the citizens did not nominate representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf (as in the United States) but instead voted as individuals. The public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire of the comic poets in the theatres. Solon (594 BC), Cleisthenes (508–507 BCE), and Ephialtes (462 BC) all contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Historians differ on which of them was responsible for which institution, and which of them most represented a truly democratic movement. It is most usual to date Athenian democracy from Cleisthenes since Solon's constitution fell and was replaced by the tyranny of Peisistratus, whereas Ephialtes revised Cleisthenes' constitution relatively peacefully. Hipparchus, the brother of the tyrant Hippias, was killed by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, who were subsequently honored by the Athenians for their alleged restoration of Athenian freedom. The greatest and longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles; after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by an oligarchic revolution towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; the most detailed accounts are of this 4th-century modification rather than of the Periclean system. It was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but the extent to which they were a real democracy is debatable. Sociologist Max Weber believed that every mass democracy went in a Caesarist direction. Professor of law Gerhard Casper writes, "Weber employed the term to stress, inter alia, the plebiscitary character of elections, disdain for parliament, the non-toleration of autonomous powers within the government and a failure to attract or suffer independent political minds." ### Liechtenstein Despite being a monarchy, direct democracy is considered to be an engrained element on Liechtensteiner politics. ### Switzerland The pure form of direct democracy exists only in the Swiss cantons of Appenzell Innerrhoden and Glarus. The Swiss Confederation is a semi-direct democracy (representative democracy with strong instruments of direct democracy). The nature of direct democracy in Switzerland is fundamentally complemented by its federal governmental structures (in German also called the Subsidiaritätsprinzip). Most western countries have representative systems. Switzerland is a rare example of a country with instruments of direct democracy (at the levels of the municipalities, cantons, and federal state). Citizens have more power than in a representative democracy. On any political level citizens can propose changes to the constitution (popular initiative), or ask for an optional referendum to be held on any law voted by the federal, cantonal parliament and/or municipal legislative body. The list for mandatory or optional referendums on each political level are generally much longer in Switzerland than in any other country; for example, any amendment to the constitution must automatically be voted on by the Swiss electorate and cantons, on cantonal/communal levels often any financial decision of a certain substantial amount decreed by legislative and/or executive bodies as well. Swiss citizens vote regularly on any kind of issue on every political level, such as financial approvals of a schoolhouse or the building of a new street, or the change of the policy regarding sexual work, or on constitutional changes, or on the foreign policy of Switzerland, four times a year. Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, on 103 federal questions besides many more cantonal and municipal questions. During the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums. In Switzerland, simple majorities are sufficient at the municipal and cantonal level, at the federal level double majorities are required on constitutional issues. A double majority requires approval by a majority of individuals voting, and also by a majority of cantons. Thus, in Switzerland, a citizen-proposed amendment to the federal constitution (i.e. popular initiative) cannot be passed at the federal level if a majority of the people approve but a majority of the cantons disapprove. For referendums or propositions in general terms (like the principle of a general revision of the Constitution), a majority of those voting is sufficient (Swiss Constitution, 2005). In 1890, when the provisions for Swiss national citizen lawmaking were being debated by civil society and government, the Swiss adopted the idea of double majorities from the United States Congress, in which House votes were to represent the people and Senate votes were to represent the states. According to its supporters, this "legitimacy-rich" approach to national citizen lawmaking has been very successful. Kris Kobach, former Kansas elected official, claims that Switzerland has had tandem successes both socially and economically which are matched by only a few other nations. Kobach states at the end of his book, "Too often, observers deem Switzerland an oddity among political systems. It is more appropriate to regard it as a pioneer." Finally, the Swiss political system, including its direct democratic devices in a multi-level governance context, becomes increasingly interesting for scholars of European Union integration. ### United States In the New England region of the United States, towns in states such as Vermont decide local affairs through the direct democratic process of the town meeting. This is the oldest form of direct democracy in the United States, and predates the founding of the country by at least a century. Direct democracy was not what the framers of the United States Constitution envisioned for the nation. They saw a danger in tyranny of the majority. As a result, they advocated a representative democracy in the form of a constitutional republic over a direct democracy. For example, James Madison, in Federalist No. 10, advocates a constitutional republic over direct democracy precisely to protect the individual from the will of the majority. He says, > Those who hold and those who are without property have ever formed distinct interests in society. Those who are creditors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimination. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the principal task of modern legislation and involves the spirit of party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of the government. > > > [...] > > > > [A] pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the government in person, can admit no cure for the mischiefs of faction. A common passion or interest will be felt by a majority, and there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the weaker party. Hence it is, that democracies have ever been found incompatible with personal security or the rights of property; and have, in general, been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths. > > John Witherspoon, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, said: "Pure democracy cannot subsist long nor be carried far into the departments of state – it is very subject to caprice and the madness of popular rage." Alexander Hamilton said, "That a pure democracy, if it were practicable, would be the most perfect government. Experience has proved that no position is more false than this. The ancient democracies in which the people themselves deliberated never possessed one good feature of government. Their very character was tyranny; their figure, deformity." Despite the framers' intentions at the beginning of the republic, ballot measures and their corresponding referendums have been widely used at the state and sub-state level. There is much state and federal case law, from the early 1900s to the 1990s, that protects the people's right to each of these direct democracy governance components (Magleby, 1984, and Zimmerman, 1999). The first United States Supreme Court ruling in favor of the citizen lawmaking was in *Pacific States Telephone and Telegraph Company v. Oregon*, 223 U.S. 118 in 1912 (Zimmerman, December 1999). President Theodore Roosevelt, in his "Charter of Democracy" speech to the 1912 Ohio constitutional convention, stated: "I believe in the Initiative and Referendum, which should be used not to destroy representative government, but to correct it whenever it becomes misrepresentative." In various states, referendums through which the people rule include: * *Referrals* by the legislature to the people of "proposed constitutional amendments" (constitutionally used in 49 states, excepting only Delaware – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004). * *Referrals* by the legislature to the people of "proposed statute laws" (constitutionally used in all 50 states – Initiative & Referendum Institute, 2004). * *Constitutional amendment initiative* is a constitutionally-defined petition process of "proposed constitutional law", which, if successful, results in its provisions being written directly into the state's constitution. Since constitutional law cannot be altered by state legislatures, this direct democracy component gives the people an automatic superiority and sovereignty, over representative government (Magelby, 1984). It is utilized at the state level in nineteen states: Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon and South Dakota (Cronin, 1989). Among these states, there are three main types of the constitutional amendment initiative, with different degrees of involvement of the state legislature distinguishing between the types (Zimmerman, December 1999). * *Statute law initiative* is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of "proposed statute law", which, if successful, results in law being written directly into the state's statutes. The statute initiative is used at the state level in twenty-one states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989). In Utah, there is no constitutional provision for citizen lawmaking. All of Utah's I&R law is in the state statutes (Zimmerman, December 1999). In most states, there is no special protection for citizen-made statutes; the legislature can begin to amend them immediately. * *Statute law referendum* is a constitutionally-defined, citizen-initiated petition process of the "proposed veto of all or part of a legislature-made law", which, if successful, repeals the standing law. It is used at the state level in twenty-four states: Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington and Wyoming (Cronin, 1989). * The *recall election* is a citizen-initiated process which, if successful, removes an elected official from office and replaces him or her. The first recall device in the United States was adopted in Los Angeles in 1903. Typically, the process involves the collection of citizen petitions for the recall of an elected official; if a sufficient number of valid signatures are collected and verified, a recall election is triggered. There have been four gubernatorial recall elections in U.S. history (two of which resulted in the recall of the governor) and 38 recall elections for state legislators (55% of which succeeded). Nineteen states and the District of Columbia have a recall function for state officials. Additional states have recall functions for local jurisdictions. Some states require specific grounds for a recall petition campaign. * *Statute law affirmation* is available in Nevada. It allows the voters to collect signatures to place on the ballot a question asking the state citizens to affirm a standing state law. Should the law get affirmed by a majority of state citizens, the state legislature will be barred from ever amending the law, and it can be amended or repealed only if approved by a majority of state citizens in a direct vote. ### Direct democracy by country The strength of direct democracy in individual countries can be quantitatively compared by the Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index in V-Dem Democracy indices. A higher index indicates more direct democracy popular initiatives and referendums, shown below for individual countries. Only countries with index above 0 are shown. | Country | Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index for 2021 | | --- | --- | |  Albania | 0.077 | |  Bolivia | 0.078 | |  Bulgaria | 0.292 | |  Cape Verde | 0.072 | |  Colombia | 0.041 | |  Costa Rica | 0.087 | |  Croatia | 0.262 | |  Ecuador | 0.073 | |  Georgia | 0.054 | |  Hungary | 0.242 | |  Italy | 0.409 | |  Kazakhstan | 0.032 | |  Kenya | 0.042 | |  Kyrgyzstan | 0.033 | |  Latvia | 0.155 | |  Lithuania | 0.191 | |  Luxembourg | 0.038 | |  Malta | 0.374 | |  Mexico | 0.091 | |  Moldova | 0.033 | |  Montenegro | 0.048 | |  New Zealand | 0.178 | |  North Macedonia | 0.133 | |  Peru | 0.249 | |  Philippines | 0.094 | |  Romania | 0.416 | |  Serbia | 0.099 | |  Slovakia | 0.334 | |  Slovenia | 0.444 | |  Switzerland | 0.841 | |  Taiwan | 0.445 | |  Togo | 0.037 | |  Uganda | 0.048 | |  Ukraine | 0.048 | |  Uruguay | 0.766 | Democratic reform trilemma -------------------------- Democratic theorists have identified a trilemma due to the presence of three desirable characteristics of an ideal system of direct democracy, which are challenging to deliver all at once. These three characteristics are *participation* – widespread participation in the decision making process by the people affected; *deliberation* – a rational discussion where all major points of view are weighted according to evidence; and *equality* – all members of the population on whose behalf decisions are taken have an equal chance of having their views taken into account. Empirical evidence from dozens of studies suggests deliberation leads to better decision making. The most popularly disputed form of direct popular participation is the referendum on constitutional matters. For the system to respect the principle of political equality, either *everyone* needs to be involved or there needs to be a representative random sample of people chosen to take part in the discussion. In the definition used by scholars such as James Fishkin, deliberative democracy is a form of direct democracy which satisfies the requirement for deliberation and equality but does not make provision to involve everyone who wants to be included in the discussion. Participatory democracy, by Fishkin's definition, allows inclusive participation and deliberation, but at a cost of sacrificing equality, because if widespread participation is allowed, sufficient resources rarely will be available to compensate people who sacrifice their time to participate in the deliberation. Therefore, participants tend to be those with a strong interest in the issue to be decided and often will not therefore be representative of the overall population. Fishkin instead argues that random sampling should be used to select a small, but still representative, number of people from the general public. Fishkin concedes it is possible to imagine a system that transcends the trilemma, but it would require very radical reforms if such a system were to be integrated into mainstream politics. Relation to other movements --------------------------- ### In schools Democratic schools modeled on Summerhill School resolve conflicts and make school policy decisions through full school meetings in which the votes of students and staff are weighted equally. See also -------- * Anarcho-communism * Citizens' assembly * Deliberative democracy * Libertarian socialism * Liquid democracy * Participatory democracy * Participatory economics * Populism * Semi-direct democracy * Sociocracy * Sortition * Workers' councils Bibliography ------------ * Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H. (1967). *A History Of Rome: Down To The Reign Of Constantine* (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. * Benedikter, Thomas E. (2021). *When Citizens Decide by Themselves: An Introduction to Direct Democracy*. Bozen: POLITiS. www.politis.it * Cronin, Thomas E. (1989). *Direct Democracy: The Politics of Initiative, Referendum and Recall*. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. * Elster, Jon (1998). "Introduction". In Elster, Jon (ed.). *Deliberative Democracy*. Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139175005. ISBN 9780521592963. Archived from the original on 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2014-04-09. * Fishkin, James S. (2011). *When the People Speak*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199604432. * Golay, Vincent (2008). *Swiss Political Institutions*. Illustrated by Mix & Remix. Le Mont-sur-Lausanne: Éditions loisirs et pédagogie. ISBN 9782606012953. * Gutmann, Amy; Thompson, Dennis F. (2004). *Why Deliberative Democracy?*. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691120188. Retrieved 8 April 2014. * Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011a), *The Swiss Government Report 1*, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube * Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011b), *The Swiss Government Report 2*, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube * Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011c), *How Direct Democracy Works In Switzerland – Report 3*, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube * Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011d), *How People in Switzerland Vote – Report 4*, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube * Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Hirschbühl, Tina (2011e), *Switzerland & the EU: The Bilateral Agreements – Report 5*, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs FDFA, Presence Switzerland – via YouTube * Kobach, Kris W. (1993). *The Referendum: Direct Democracy In Switzerland*. Dartmouth Publishing Company. ISBN 9781855213975. * Raaflaub, Kurt A.; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W. (2007). *Origins of Democracy in Ancient Greece*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520932173. * Razsa, Maple. (2015) *Bastards of Utopia: Living Radical Politics After Socialism*. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. * Ross, Carne (2011). *The Leaderless Revolution: How Ordinary People Can Take Power and Change Politics in the 21st Century*. London: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 9781847375346. * Stokes, Susan C. (1998). "Pathologies of Deliberation". In Elster, Jon (ed.). *Deliberative Democracy*. Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139175005. ISBN 9780521592963. Archived from the original on 2016-03-28. Retrieved 2014-04-09. * Watts, Duncan (2010). *Dictionary of American Government and Politics*. Edinburgh University. p. 75. ISBN 9780748635016. * Zagarri, Rosemarie (2010). *The Politics of Size: Representation in the United States, 1776–1850*. Cornell University. ISBN 9780801476396. Further reading --------------- * Arnon, Harel (January 2008). "A Theory of Direct Legislation" (LFB Scholarly) * Benedikter, Thomas (2021),*When Citizens Decide By Themselves. An Introduction to Direct Democracy.* POLITiS. www.politis.it * Cronin, Thomas E. (1989). *Direct Democracy: The Politics Of Initiative, Referendum, And Recall.* Harvard University Press. * De Vos et al (2014) South African Constitutional Law – In Context: Oxford University Press * Finley, M.I. (1973). *Democracy Ancient And Modern*. Rutgers University Press. * Fotopoulos, Takis, *Towards an Inclusive Democracy: The Crisis of the Growth Economy and the Need for a New Liberatory Project* (London & NY: Cassell, 1997). * Fotopoulos, Takis, *The Multidimensional Crisis and Inclusive Democracy*. (Athens: Gordios, 2005). (English translation of the book with the same title published in Greek). * Fotopoulos, Takis, "Liberal and Socialist 'Democracies' versus Inclusive Democracy", *The International Journal of INCLUSIVE DEMOCRACY*, vol.2, no.2, (January 2006). * Fuller, Roslyn, 2015, "Beasts and Gods: How Democracy Changed Its Meaning and Lost its Purpose." Zed Books. * Gerber, Elisabeth R. (1999). *The Populist Paradox: Interest Group Influence And The Promise Of Direct Legislation*. Princeton University Press. * Hansen, Mogens Herman (1999). *The Athenian Democracy in the Age of Demosthenes: Structure, Principles and Ideology*. University of Oklahoma, Norman (orig. 1991). * Köchler, Hans (1995). *A Theoretical Examination of the Dichotomy between Democratic Constitutions and Political Reality*. University Center Luxemburg. * Magleby, David B. (1984). *Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in The United States*. Johns Hopkins University Press. * Matsusaka, John G. (2004). For the Many or the Few: The Initiative, Public Policy, and American Democracy, Chicago Press. * Matsusaka, John G. (2020). Let The People Rule: How Direct Democracy Can Meet the Populist Challege, Princeton University Press. * National Conference of State Legislatures, (2004). Recall of State Officials * Nissani, M., (2023), "Eight Billion Cheers for Direct Democracy: Direct Democracy is Humankind’s Last, Best, and Only Hope." Dying of the Light Press. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367379858\_Eight\_Billion\_Cheers\_for\_Direct\_Democracy\_Direct\_Democracy\_is\_Humanity's\_Last\_Best\_and\_Only\_Hope/references. E-book free download. * Orr Akiva e-books, Free download: Politics without politicians – Big Business, Big Government or Direct Democracy. * Pimbert, Michel (2010). Reclaiming citizenship: empowering civil society in policy-making. In: Towards Food Sovereignty. http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G02612.pdf? e-book. Free download. * Polybius (c.150 BC). *The Histories*. Oxford University, The Great Histories Series, Ed., Hugh R. Trevor-Roper, and E. Badian. Translated by Mortimer Chambers. Washington Square Press, Inc (1966). * Reich, Johannes (5 June 2008). "An Interactional Model of Direct Democracy - Lessons from the Swiss Experience" (PDF). doi:10.2139/ssrn.1154019. SSRN 1154019. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help) * Serdült, Uwe (2014) Referendums in Switzerland, in Qvortrup, Matt (Ed.) Referendums Around the World: The Continued Growth of Direct Democracy. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 65–121. * Verhulst Jos en Nijeboer Arjen Direct Democracy e-book in 8 languages. Free download. * Zimmerman, Joseph F. (March 1999). *The New England Town Meeting: Democracy In Action*. Praeger Publishers. * Zimmerman, Joseph F. (December 1999). *The Initiative: Citizen Law-Making*. Praeger Publishers.

Direct democracy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_democracy

In Greek mythology, the **Minotaur** (/ˈmaɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnətɔːr/ *MY-nə-tor, MIN-ə-tor*, US: /ˈmɪnətɑːr, -oʊ-/ *MIN-ə-tar, -⁠oh-*; Ancient Greek: Μινώταυρος [miːnɔ̌ːtau̯ros]; in Latin as *Minotaurus* [miːnoːˈtau̯rʊs]) is a mythical creature portrayed during classical antiquity with the head and tail of a bull and the body of a man or, as described by Roman poet Ovid, a being "part man and part bull". He dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus, on the command of King Minos of Crete. The Minotaur was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. Etymology --------- The word "Minotaur" derives from the Ancient Greek Μῑνώταυρος, a compound of the name Μίνως (Minos) and the noun ταῦρος 'bull', translated as '(the) Bull of Minos'. In Crete, the Minotaur was known by the name Asterion, a name shared with Minos' foster-father. "Minotaur" was originally a proper noun in reference to this mythical figure. That is, there was only the one Minotaur. In contrast, the use of "minotaur" as a common noun to refer to members of a generic "species" of bull-headed creatures developed much later, in 20th century fantasy genre fiction. The Minotaur was called *Θevrumineš* in Etruscan. English pronunciation of the word "Minotaur" is varied. The following can be found in dictionaries: /ˈmaɪnətɔːr, -noʊ-/ *MY-nə-tor, -⁠noh-*, /ˈmɪnətɑːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ *MIN-ə-tar, MIN-oh-*, /ˈmɪnətɔːr, ˈmɪnoʊ-/ *MIN-ə-tor, MIN-oh-*. Creation and appearance ----------------------- After ascending the throne of the island of Crete, Minos competed with his brothers as ruler. Minos prayed to the sea god Poseidon to send him a snow-white bull as a sign of the god's favour. Minos was to sacrifice the bull to honor Poseidon, but owing to the bull's beauty he decided instead to keep him. Minos believed that the god would accept a substitute sacrifice. To punish Minos, Poseidon made Minos' wife Pasiphaë fall in love with the bull. Pasiphaë had the craftsman Daedalus fashion a hollow wooden cow, which she climbed into to mate with the bull. She then bore Asterius, the Minotaur. Pasiphaë nursed the Minotaur but he grew in size and became ferocious. As the unnatural offspring of a woman and a beast, the Minotaur had no natural source of nourishment and thus devoured humans for sustenance. Minos, following advice from the oracle at Delphi, had Daedalus construct a gigantic Labyrinth to hold the Minotaur. Its location was near Minos's palace in Knossos. The Minotaur is commonly represented in Classical art with the body of a man and the head and tail of a bull. According to Sophocles's *Trachiniai*, when the river spirit Achelous seduced Deianira, one of the guises he assumed was a man with the head of a bull. From classical antiquity through the Renaissance, the Minotaur appears at the center of many depictions of the Labyrinth. Ovid's Latin account of the Minotaur, which did not describe which half was bull and which half-man, was the most widely available during the Middle Ages, and several later versions show a man's head and torso on a bull's body – the reverse of the Classical configuration, reminiscent of a centaur. This alternative tradition survived into the Renaissance, and is reflected in Dryden's elaborated translation of Virgil's description of the Minotaur in Book VI of the *Aeneid*: "The lower part a beast, a man above / The monument of their polluted love." It still figures in some modern depictions, such as Steele Savage's illustrations for Edith Hamilton's *Mythology* (1942). Theseus myth ------------ All the stories agree that prince Androgeus, son of King Minos, died and that the fault lay with the Athenians. The sacrifice of young Athenian men and women was a penalty for his death. In some versions he was killed by the Athenians because of their jealousy of the victories he had won at the Panathenaic Games; in others he was killed at Marathon by the Cretan Bull, his mother's former taurine lover, because Aegeus, king of Athens, had commanded Androgeus to slay it. The common tradition holds that Minos waged a war of revenge for the death of his son, and won. The consequence of Athens losing the war was the regular sacrifice of several of their youths and maidens. Pausanias' account of the myth said that Minos had led a fleet against Athens and simply harassed the Athenians until they had agreed to send children as sacrifices. In his account of the Minotaur's birth, Catullus refers to yet another version in which Athens was "compelled by the cruel plague to pay penalties for the killing of Androgeon". To avert a plague caused by divine retribution for the Cretan prince's death, Aegeus had to send into the Labyrinth "young men at the same time as the best of unwed girls as a feast" for the Minotaur. Some accounts declare that Minos required seven Athenian youths and seven maidens, chosen by lots, to be sent every seventh year (or ninth); some versions say every year. When the time for the third sacrifice approached, the Athenian prince Theseus volunteered to slay the Minotaur. Isocrates orates that Theseus thought that he would rather die than rule a city that paid a tribute of children's lives to their enemy. He promised his father Aegeus that he would change the somber black sail of the boat carrying the victims from Athens to Crete, and put up a white sail for his return journey if he was successful; the crew would leave up the black sail if he was killed. In Crete, Minos's daughter Ariadne fell madly in love with Theseus and helped him navigate the Labyrinth. In most accounts she gave him a ball of thread, allowing him to retrace his path. According to various classical sources and representations, Theseus killed the Minotaur with his bare hands, sometimes with a club or a sword. He then led the Athenians out of the Labyrinth, and they sailed with Ariadne away from Crete. On the way home, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos and continued to Athens. The returning group neglected to replace the black sail with the promised white sail, and from his lookout on Cape Sounion, King Aegeus saw the black-sailed ship approach. Presuming his son dead, he killed himself by leaping into the sea that is since named after him. His death secured the throne for Theseus. Interpretations --------------- The contest between Theseus and the Minotaur was frequently represented in Greek art. A Knossian didrachm exhibits on one side the Labyrinth, on the other the Minotaur surrounded by a semicircle of small balls, probably intended for stars; one of the monster's names was Asterion or Asterius ("star"). > Pasiphaë gave birth to Asterius, who was called the Minotaur. He had the face of a bull, but the rest of him was human; and Minos, in compliance with certain oracles, shut him up and guarded him in the Labyrinth. > > While the ruins of Minos' palace at Knossos were discovered, the Labyrinth never was. The multiplicity of rooms, staircases and corridors in the palace has led some archaeologists to suggest that the palace itself was the source of the Labyrinth myth, with over 1300 maze-like compartments, an idea that is now generally discredited. Homer, describing the shield of Achilles, remarked that Daedalus had constructed a ceremonial dancing ground for Ariadne, but does not associate this with the term *labyrinth*. Some 19th century mythologists proposed that the Minotaur was a personification of the sun and a Minoan adaptation of the Baal-Moloch of the Phoenicians. The slaying of the Minotaur by Theseus in that case could be interpreted as a memory of Athens breaking tributary relations with Minoan Crete. According to A.B. Cook, *Minos* and *Minotaur* were different forms of the same personage, representing the sun-god of the Cretans, who depicted the sun as a bull. He and J. G. Frazer both explain Pasiphaë's union with the bull as a sacred ceremony, at which the queen of Knossos was wedded to a bull-formed god, just as the wife of the Tyrant in Athens was wedded to Dionysus. E. Pottier, who does not dispute the historical personality of Minos, in view of the story of Phalaris, considers it probable that in Crete (where a bull cult may have existed by the side of that of the labrys) victims were tortured by being shut up in the belly of a red-hot brazen bull. The story of Talos, the Cretan man of brass, who heated himself red-hot and clasped strangers in his embrace as soon as they landed on the island, is probably of similar origin. Karl Kerenyi viewed the Minotaur, or Asterios, as a god associated with stars, comparable to Dionysus. Coins minted at Cnossus from the fifth century showed labyrinth patterns encircling a goddess' head crowned with a wreath of grain, a bull's head, or a star. Kerenyi argued that the star in the Labyrinth was in fact Asterios, making the Minotaur a "luminous" deity in Crete, associated with a goddess known as the Mistress of the Labyrinth. A geological interpretation also exists. Citing early descriptions of the minotaur by Callimachus as being entirely focused on the "cruel bellowing" it made from its underground labyrinth, and the extensive tectonic activity in the region, science journalist Matt Kaplan has theorised that the myth may well stem from geology. ### Image gallery * The Minotaur, tondo of an Attic bilingual kylix.The Minotaur, tondo of an Attic bilingual kylix. * Theseus and the Minotaur, Attic black-figure kylix tondo, c. 450–440 BC.Theseus and the Minotaur, Attic black-figure kylix tondo, c. 450–440 BC. * Theseus and the Minotaur. Detail from an Attic black-figure amphora, c. 575 BC–550 BC.Theseus and the Minotaur. Detail from an Attic black-figure amphora, c. 575 BC–550 BC. * Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from an Attic red-figure stamnos, c. 460 BC.Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from an Attic red-figure stamnos, c. 460 BC. * Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from a black-figure Attic amphora, c. 540 BC.Theseus and the Minotaur. Side A from a black-figure Attic amphora, c. 540 BC. * Tondo of the Aison Cup, showing the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur in the presence of Athena.Tondo of the Aison Cup, showing the victory of Theseus over the Minotaur in the presence of Athena. * Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic black-figure lekythos, 500–475 BC. From Crimea.Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic black-figure lekythos, 500–475 BC. From Crimea. * Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic red-figured plate, 520–510 BC.Theseus and the Minotaur. Attic red-figured plate, 520–510 BC. * Theseus and the MinotaurTheseus and the Minotaur * Theseus and the MinotaurTheseus and the Minotaur * Theseus and the MinotaurTheseus and the Minotaur References in media ------------------- ### Dante's *Inferno* The Minotaur (*infamia di Creti*, Italian for 'infamy of Crete'), appears briefly in Dante's *Inferno*, in Canto 12 (l. 12–13, 16–21), where Dante and his guide Virgil find themselves picking their way among boulders dislodged on the slope and preparing to enter into the seventh circle of hell. Dante and Virgil encounter the beast first among the "men of blood": those damned for their violent natures. Some commentators believe that Dante, in a reversal of classical tradition, bestowed the beast with a man's head upon a bull's body, though this representation had already appeared in the Middle Ages. | | | | --- | --- | | Lo savio mio inver' lui gridò: "Forse tu credi che qui sia 'l duca d'Atene, che sú nel mondo la morte ti porse? Pártiti, bestia, ché questi non-vene ammaestrato da la tua sorella, ma vassi per veder la vostre pene." | My sage cried out to him: "You think, perhaps, this is the Duke of Athens, who in the world put you to death. Get away, you beast, for this man does not come tutored by your sister; he comes to view your punishments." | | —*Inferno*, Canto XII, lines 16–20 | | In these lines, Virgil taunts the Minotaur to distract him, and reminds the Minotaur that he was killed by Theseus the Duke of Athens with the help of the monster's half-sister Ariadne. The Minotaur is the first infernal guardian whom Virgil and Dante encounter within the walls of Dis. The Minotaur seems to represent the entire zone of Violence, much as Geryon represents Fraud in Canto XVI, and serves a similar role as gatekeeper for the entire seventh Circle. Giovanni Boccaccio writes of the Minotaur in his literary commentary of the Commedia: "When he had grown up and become a most ferocious animal, and of incredible strength, they tell that Minos had him shut up in a prison called the labyrinth, and that he had sent to him there all those whom he wanted to die a cruel death". Dante Gabriel Rossetti, in his own commentary, compares the Minotaur with all three sins of violence within the seventh circle: "The Minotaur, who is situated at the rim of the tripartite circle, fed, according to the poem was biting himself (violence against oneself) and was conceived in the 'false cow' (violence against nature, daughter of God)." Virgil and Dante then pass quickly by to the centaurs (Nessus, Chiron and Pholus) who guard the Flegetonte ("river of blood"), to continue through the seventh Circle. ### Surrealist art * From 1933 to 1939, Albert Skira published an avant-garde literary magazine *Minotaure*, with covers featuring a Minotaur theme. The first issue had cover art by Pablo Picasso. Later covers included work by Salvador Dalí, René Magritte, Max Ernst, and Diego Rivera. * Pablo Picasso made a series of etchings in the *Vollard Suite* showing the Minotaur being tormented, possibly inspired also by Spanish bullfighting. He also depicted a Minotaur in his 1933 etching *Minotaur Kneeling over Sleeping Girl* and in his 1935 etching *Minotauromachy*. ### Television, literature and plays * Argentine author Julio Cortázar published the play *Los reyes* (*The Kings*) in 1949, which reinterprets the Minotaur's story. In the book, Ariadne is not in love with Theseus, but with her brother the Minotaur. * Mika Waltari's 1945 historical novel *The Egyptian*, set in the 14th century BC, sees the protagonist and his slave venture into the Cretan labyrinth in search of the protagonist's love interest, sacrificed to a Cretan god beforehand. Minotaur, in turn, is the name of the chief Cretan priest who wears a bull mask, which makes people confuse him for an actual human/bull hybrid upon first encounter in a dim light. * The short story *The House of Asterion* by the Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges gives the Minotaur's story from the monster's perspective. * Asterion, depicted as a human prince who wears a bull mask, is the chief antagonist of *The King Must Die*, Mary Renault's 1958 reinterpretation of the Theseus myth in the light of the excavation of Knossos. * Mark Z. Danielewski's novel *House of Leaves* features both the labyrinth and the Minotaur as prominent themes. * Aleksey Ryabinin's book *Theseus* (2018). provides a retelling of the myths of Theseus, Minotaur, Ariadne and other personages of Greek mythology. * *The Minotaur*, an opera by Harrison Birtwistle. * In *The Physics of Sorrow* (2011), by Georgi Gospodinov, the myth of the Minotaur is used as a framework to help navigate both Bulgaria’s and the narrator’s disorienting history. * In *Jumanji: The Animated Series*, only one Minotaur appears in "The Price", being the very first creature that Judy Shepherd and Peter Shepherd encountered on their first visit to Jumanji's realm. ### Board and video games * In the video game *Hades* (2020) by Supergiant Games, the protagonist defeats the Minotaur (named Asterius) in Elysium, where he fights beside Theseus. ### Film * *Minotaur, the Wild Beast of Crete*, a 1960 Italian film directed by Silvio Amadio and starring Bob Mathias * A monster resembling the Minotaur (and named as such) appears in the 1981 film *Time Bandits*. * *Minotaur*, a horror adaptation of the legend starring actor Tom Hardy as Theo (Theseus), was released on DVD by Lions Gate in 2006. * Natalie Portman and Danny McBride team up to fight a minotaur while reclaiming a magical sword from a labyrinth in *Your Highness*, released in 2008 by Universal Pictures. See also -------- * Theseus and the Minotaur - a logic game that is inspired by the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur in the Labyrinth. * Kao (bull) – a legendary chaotic bull in Meitei mythology, similar to Minotaur in character * Ox-Head and Horse-Face – two guardians or types of guardians of the underworld in Chinese mythology * Satyr – a legendary human-horse (later human-goat) hybrid(s) * Shedu – a figure in Mesopotamian mythology with the body of a bull and a human head * Tikbalang – a creature of Philippine folklore with the head and hooves of a horse, usually depicted standing on its hind legs * *Minotauria* – a genus of woodlouse hunting spiders endemic to the Balkans * The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (images of the Minotaur)

Minotaur

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minotaur

**Munich Airport** (German: *Flughafen München*), also named Munich Franz Josef Strauss Airport, (IATA: **MUC**, ICAO: **EDDM**) is an international airport serving Munich and Upper Bavaria. It is the second-busiest airport in Germany in terms of passenger traffic after Frankfurt Airport, and the ninth-busiest airport in Europe, handling 47.9 million passengers in 2019. It is the world's 15th-busiest airport in terms of international passenger traffic, and was the 38th-busiest airport worldwide in 2018.[*needs update*] It serves as hub for Lufthansa including its subsidiaries Lufthansa CityLine, Air Dolomiti and Eurowings as well as a base for Condor and TUI fly Deutschland. The airport is located 28.5 km (17.7 mi) northeast of Munich near the town of Freising. It is named after former Bavarian minister-president Franz Josef Strauss. It has two passenger terminals with an additional midfield terminal, two runways as well as extensive cargo and maintenance facilities and is fully equipped to handle wide-body aircraft including the Airbus A380. History ------- ### Development Munich's previous airport, Munich-Riem Airport, was operational from 1939 to 1992. Initial plans for an expansion of the airport date back to the year 1954. With rising passenger numbers and a growing number of inhabitants in its proximity, plans were made to completely move the airport to another site. The Bavarian government took the decision to build a new airport in the area called "Erdinger Moos" on 5 August 1969. When construction started on 3 November 1980, the small village of Franzheim disappeared and its approximately 400 inhabitants were resettled. The airport is located on the territory of four different municipalities: Oberding (location of the terminals; district of Erding), Hallbergmoos, Freising, and Marzling in the district of Freising. The new Munich airport commenced operations on 17 May 1992, and all flights to and from Munich were moved to the new site overnight. Munich-Riem closed on 16 May 1992 shortly before midnight. The airport is named after Franz Josef Strauss, who played a prominent, albeit sometimes controversial, role in West German politics from the 1950s until his death in 1988. Amongst other positions, Strauss was a long-time Minister-President (Governor) of the state of Bavaria. Strauss, a private pilot himself, initiated the new airport project and was particularly interested in attracting the aviation industry to Bavaria. He is regarded as one of the fathers of the Airbus project and served as initial chairman of the Airbus supervisory board. Flughafen München GmbH, which owns and operates Munich Airport, is a limited liability company consisting of three shareholders: the State of Bavaria (51%), the Federal Republic of Germany (26%) and the City of Munich (23%). The logo of Munich Airport consists of the letter "M" with the slogan "Living ideas – Connecting lives". Munich Airport is usually referred to as "Flughafen München" or simply "MUC", its IATA code. During construction, the airport was referred to as "Flughafen München II". ### Operations As their home base at Frankfurt Airport suffered from capacity limits back then, Lufthansa established a second hub offering several short- and long-haul connections through Munich in addition to Frankfurt. While Lufthansa serves more European destinations from Munich Airport than from Frankfurt Airport, Frankfurt has many more intercontinental routes. Between 1995 and 2006, passenger numbers doubled from under 15 million per annum to over 30 million, despite the impact of the 11 September attacks in 2001 and 2002. In 1996 the airport overtook Düsseldorf as Germany's second-busiest airport and currently handles almost twice as many passengers as the country's third-busiest airport. In June 2003, construction of Terminal 2 was completed and it was inaugurated as an exclusive facility for Lufthansa and its Star Alliance partners. In November 2013, the airport introduced its first new corporate design since its inauguration. The large letter 'M' remains in a new font type, and a dash has been added which changes between several colors. There are also animated color-changing versions of the 'M'-sign placed throughout the airport area, for example on the main entrance road and on the new Terminal 2 satellite. In June 2015, Condor announced it intends to establish a long-haul base at Munich Airport from the 2016 summer season. Condor has already based short- and mid-haul operations at the airport and resumed long-haul flights in winter 2013 after a six-year absence. In November 2015, Transavia announced their intention to establish their first German base at Munich Airport which will consist of four aircraft serving 18 new routes by spring 2016. As of June 2015, the biggest foreign carrier in Munich in terms of passenger numbers is Air Dolomiti. More than 40 million passengers passed through the airport in 2015, a record at the time. In December 2016, Lufthansa's low-cost subsidiary Eurowings announced that it would establish a major base at Munich Airport from March 2017, with 32 new routes. These new base operations was carried out by Air Berlin on a new wet-lease contract with Eurowings. In February 2017, Transavia announced the closure of their entire base at Munich Airport by October 2017 after only a year of service due to a change in their business strategy and negative economic outlook. Munich Airport's dynamic growth continued in 2018 with new traffic records and an all-time high of 46.2 million passengers. The airport also saw a strong surge in take-offs and landings, with 413,000 movements, an increase of 2.2% in 2018. With 266 destinations Munich Airport increased its global network and is among the leading air transportation hubs in Europe. In February 2021, Lufthansa announced it would take over most of Eurowings's routes in Munich with the exception of few domestic services and flights to Palma de Mallorca and Pristina. Terminals and facilities ------------------------ The airport covers 3,892 acres (1,575 ha) of land area. Most of the airport's facilities are located in the area between the two runways. The approach road and railway divide the west part into a southern half, which contains cargo and maintenance facilities, and a northern half, which contains mostly administrative buildings and service facilities, a holiday long-term parking lot and the visitors' centre. It is followed by the west apron and Terminal 1, then the Munich Airport Center (MAC), Terminal 2 and the east apron. Munich Airport has two passenger terminals, and shuffled 20–25 million people through each terminal in 2014. Map of Munich Airport (including planned expansion) ### Terminal 1 View of the main apron in front of Terminal 1 prior to the start of the construction of its new pier expansion Terminal 1 is the older terminal and commenced operation when the airport was opened on 17 May 1992. It has a total capacity of 25 million passengers per year and is subdivided into five *modules* designated **A**, **B**, **C**, **D** and **E**. Modules A through D provide all facilities necessary to handle departures and arrivals, including individual landside driveways and parking, whereas module E is equipped to handle arrivals only. This design essentially makes each module a self-contained sub-terminal of its own. Modules A and D are used for flights within the Schengen-area, while modules B and C handle those to destinations outside it. **Hall F** is separate, located near Terminal 2, and handles flights with increased security requirements, i.e. those to Israel. Furthermore, the check-in counters for some flights departing from Terminal 1 are located in the central area **Z** (German: *Zentralbereich*) where most of the shopping and restaurant facilities of this Terminal as well as the airport's suburban railway station are also located. The 1,081-metre (3,547-foot) pier features 21 jet bridges, two of which have been rebuilt into waiting halls for bus transfers. One gate position has been equipped with three jet bridges to handle the Airbus A380 which is regularly used by Emirates. There are further 60 aircraft stands on the apron, some of which are equipped with specially designed apron jet bridges (German: *Vorfeldfluggastbrücken*), to which passengers are brought by bus. This unique concept allows passengers to board with full protection from the weather but without the high investment required for full satellite terminals connected through a passenger transport system. Terminal 1 currently handles all airlines that are not members or partners of the Star Alliance with the exception of Turkish Airlines. However, owing to lack of capacity at Terminal 2, Lufthansa's subsidiary Germanwings and former affiliate Condor both moved back to Terminal 1 in 2007. Germanwings however moved back to Terminal 2 in late 2015. Some of the major users at Terminal 1 are Condor, Eurowings, Emirates, Qatar Airways, American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, easyJet and TUI fly Deutschland amongst several others. #### Terminal 1 extension As of December 2015, a major redesign of Terminal 1 including a capacity increase and an extension of the central terminal building to the west for centralised security and shopping facilities was under preparation. In November 2016, a major €400m extension and refurbishment for Terminal 1 was announced. Terminal areas A and B will be entirely redesigned with the addition of a 320-metre-long (1,050 ft) pier stretching out on the apron. The new facilities will provide capacity for 6 million additional passengers, will be able to handle 12 aircraft including two Airbus A380s at once, and were originally due to open by 2022. However, due to the sharp decrease in passenger traffic in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and a simultaneous sharp cost increase for the new terminal annex, the building's shell will be finished by 2022 with a new estimated opening of 2025. ### Terminal 2 Terminal 2 commenced operation on 29 June 2003. It has a design capacity of 25 million passengers per year and is exclusively used by Lufthansa and all other Star Alliance members serving Munich except Turkish Airlines. Star Alliance partners Air Malta and Luxair also use Terminal 2. Etihad Airways relocated to this terminal as well after commencing a partnership with Lufthansa. Having been designed as a hub terminal, it is not divided into modules like Terminal 1. Instead, all facilities are arranged around a central *Plaza*. Owing to security regulations imposed by the European Union, the terminal has been equipped with facilities to handle passengers from countries considered insecure, i.e. not implementing the same regulations. This required the construction of a new level as, unlike other airports, the terminal does not have separate areas for arriving and departing passengers. The new level 06 opened on 15 January 2009. The pier, which is 980 m (3,220 ft) long, is equipped with 24 jet bridges. As the total number of 75 aircraft stands on the east apron is not always sufficient, Terminal 2 sometimes also uses parking positions on the west apron, to which passengers are carried by airside buses. Terminal 2 is able to handle the Airbus A380 as well, however, prior to the opening of the Terminal 2 satellite building, there were no designated stands or additional jet bridges for it. Lufthansa flies the A380 into the satellite building. Terminal 2 has two main departure levels, 04 and 05 and additional bus gates on the lower level 03. Gates on level 05 (**H**) are designated non-Schengen gates. Until the new transfer level 06 opened, the northernmost gates were behind an additional security checkpoint for departures to the USA most of the day. The lower level 04 (**G**) contains Schengen gates. The bus gates on level 03 are also designated **G** and are also used for Schengen flights. Level 03 is smaller than the main levels and consists of two separate parts which can be reached from two points on level 04. One area of these gates is designated to Air Dolomiti. The terminal is operated by *Terminal-2-Betriebsgesellschaft* (German for *Terminal 2 Operating Company*), which is owned by Flughafen München GmbH (60%) and Lufthansa (40%). This makes Terminal 2 the first terminal in Germany which is co-operated by an airline. ### Terminal 2 Satellite Terminal 2 was projected to reach its full capacity of handling 27.5 million passengers a year by 2013. Lufthansa and Star Alliance partners stipulated the expansion of Terminal 2 without constructing the separate facilities for luggage claim, arrival and departure levels, etc. This was to ensure the easy access for the passengers who appreciate the convenience of central plaza for checking in their luggage, going through the security screening, and such as well as transferring from one plane to other within Lufthansa and Star Alliance partner networks inside Terminal 2. After the completion of Terminal 2 in 2003, the preparations for a new satellite terminal already had been made. The project cost is 650 million Euro with Munich Airport contributing 60% and Lufthansa 40% toward the project. The expansion would handle additional 11 million passengers per year. The construction was approved in 2010 and started in 2012. At end of 2015, the construction was completed, and the teams of volunteers performed the trial runs in January 2016 as to identify any potential issues and to streamline the movements between Terminal 2 and Terminal 2 Satellite. The satellite terminal was inaugurated on 22 April 2016 and commenced its operations on 26 April 2016. The new satellite building is 609 metres (1,998 ft) long with 125,000 square metres (1,345,500 sq ft) of floor space with 52 additional gates and 27 parking positions, 11 of which are able to handle wide-body aircraft, including Airbus A380. The building has separate access facilities for Schengen and Non-Schengen passengers on two main levels (**K** Level for Schengen and **L** for Non-Schengen destinations). The **J** section is for bus transportation between the terminal and aircraft parked at aprons. 44 new passport control stations and 24 security lanes for transfer passengers are installed in the terminal. Five new Lufthansa lounges along with new restaurants and shops are set up throughout the terminal. However, the satellite terminal is airside-only facility: the check-in, luggage claim, departure and arrival passenger meet points are still done at Terminal 2. The passenger transportation between Terminal 2 and Terminal 2 Satellite is served by fully automated people mover by Bombardier Transportation that operates in the tunnels. The satellite terminal celebrated its one millionth passenger in July 2016, less than three months after its opening. A future expansion of the satellite building into a 'T' shape has been planned along with a possible third terminal to the east. Lufthansa and Flughafen München GmbH (Munich Airport operator) signed a Letter of Intent on 16 December 2019 to expand Terminal 2 Satellite. The expansion will build a new terminal extending from the centre of Terminal 2 Satellite building at right angle toward the east. The Memorandum of Understanding from Flughafen München GmbH stipulates that both parties reach the goal of becoming a CO2-neutral by 2030, utilising highly fuel-efficient aircraft. No further detail about number of gates along with construction and completion dates is given yet. ### Munich Airport Center The Munich Airport Center (*MAC*) is a shopping, business, and recreation area that connects the terminals. The older *Central Area* (German: *Zentralbereich*), which was originally built as part of Terminal 1, hosts a shopping mall and the S-Bahn station. The newer *MAC Forum* built with Terminal 2 is a large outdoor area with a partly transparent tent-like roof. Next to it is the airport hotel managed by Hilton Hotels & Resorts which was designed by the world-famous architect Helmut Jahn and landscape architecture firm PWP Landscape Architecture in 1994. The Munich Airport Center has a supermarket where one can shop from 5:30 a.m. to midnight every day, including Sundays, as it is exempt from the Bavarian law governing retail hours of operation (German: *Ladenschlussgesetz*). ### Runways The airport has two parallel runways and one concrete helipad. The two concrete runways (08R/26L and 26R/08L) are each 4,000 metres (13,120 ft) long and 60 metres (200 ft) wide. ### Parking areas Currently, there are five parking garages and six underground parking areas, amounting together to a total of 30,000 parking spaces of which approximately 16,500 are under a roof. The parking garage P20 at Terminal 2, with 6,400 parking spaces on eleven levels (including four that are underground) since its commissioning in 2003 was the largest parking garage in Germany until the car park at the new Allianz Arena was opened in 2005. A parking guidance system was installed in the parking garages, which detects whether a parking space is occupied and newly arriving vehicles are shown where the empty parking spaces are located. Apart from the usual parking facilities, the Munich Airport offers, at additional cost, special parking spaces with additional benefits. This includes valet parking, in which the vehicle is picked up by an airport employee upon flight departure and parked, and the Park, Sleep & Fly option, in which a night at the Hilton hotel is included. Also there is an option for oversized parking spaces, the so-called XXL parking, and secure parking. Lastly, there is a special separate parking level in the P20 parking garage, where the parked cars are guarded. In addition, special services can be booked, such as interior/exterior cleaning and fuelling. To make shopping in the public areas more attractive for local residents of the airport area, there are special offers where visitors can park up to three hours for free in the P20 parking garage. Short-term parking can be found east of the central area, where visitors can park for free for a maximum of thirty minutes. During the holiday periods other cheaper options are provided in the P8 parking garage. ### Visitor viewing facilities The airport authorities have set out to cater for visitors and sightseers by creating a 'Visitors Park' which includes a 'Visitors Hill', from which a good view of the westerly aircraft apron and Terminal 1 can be obtained, as well as a restaurant and a shop for aircraft models and other collectors' items. This location is served by a railway station named 'Besucherpark'. The view from the hill is shown in the above widescreen image of the Terminal 1 apron. Three historic aircraft are on display in the park, a Super Constellation, a Douglas DC-3, and a Junkers Ju 52/3m. There is also a visitors' viewing terrace on the roof of Terminal 2 that features a wide, glassed balcony with seating areas and gives a view of the easterly aircraft apron. All visitors can access the terrace from the landside. The entrance fee was abolished in September 2013. There are two additional smaller *Visitor Hills* on the north end of the north runway and at the center of the south runway. Airlines and destinations ------------------------- ### Passenger The following airlines offer regular scheduled and charter flights at Munich Airport: | Airlines | Destinations | | --- | --- | | Aegean Airlines | Athens, Thessaloniki **Seasonal:** Heraklion, Kalamata | | Aer Lingus | Dublin **Seasonal:** Cork | | airBaltic | Riga, Tallinn, Tampere, Vilnius | | Air Cairo | Hurghada **Seasonal:** Marsa Alam, Sharm El Sheikh (begins 1 November 2023) | | Air Canada | Toronto–Pearson | | Air China | Beijing–Capital (resumes 1 August 2023) | | Air Dolomiti | Bari, Bologna, Cluj-Napoca, Cuneo, Florence, Genoa, Kraków, Milan–Linate, Milan–Malpensa, Olbia, Turin, Venice, Verona **Seasonal:** Brindisi | | Air Europa | Madrid | | Air France | Paris–Charles de Gaulle | | Air Malta | Malta | | All Nippon Airways | Tokyo–Haneda | | American Airlines | Charlotte | | AnadoluJet | Ankara, Antalya, Istanbul–Sabiha Gökçen | | Austrian Airlines | Vienna | | British Airways | London–Heathrow | | Brussels Airlines | Brussels | | Condor | Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Hurghada, Lanzarote, La Palma, Palma de Mallorca, Tenerife–South **Seasonal:** Agadir (resumes 2 November 2023), Alicante, Antalya, Chania, Corfu, Faro, Funchal, Heraklion, Ibiza, Jerez de la Frontera, Kalamata, Karpathos, Kavala, Kefalonia, Kos, Lamezia Terme, Málaga, Mykonos, Olbia, Preveza/Lefkada, Rhodes, Samos, Santorini, Skiathos, Split, Sulaimaniyah, Volos, Zakynthos | | Corendon Airlines | **Seasonal:** Antalya, İzmir | | Croatia Airlines | Osijek, Split, Zagreb **Seasonal:** Brač, Dubrovnik, Rijeka | | Dan Air | Brașov | | Delta Air Lines | Atlanta **Seasonal:** Detroit | | easyJet | Edinburgh, London–Gatwick, Manchester **Seasonal:** Milan–Malpensa (resumes 8 September 2023), Naples | | Egyptair | Cairo | | El Al | Tel Aviv | | Emirates | Dubai–International | | Etihad Airways | Abu Dhabi | | European Air Charter | **Seasonal charter:** Burgas | | EVA Air | Taipei–Taoyuan | | Eurowings | Cologne/Bonn, Dortmund, Düsseldorf, Hamburg, Palma de Mallorca, Pristina | | Eurowings Discover | Fuerteventura, Funchal, Gran Canaria, Hurghada, Marrakesh, Tenerife–South **Seasonal:** Agadir, Antalya, Bodrum, Chania, Corfu, Heraklion, Ibiza, Jerez de la Frontera, Kavala, Kos, Lamezia Terme, Lanzarote, Marsa Alam, Mykonos, Palma de Mallorca, Preveza/Lefkada, Rhodes, Samos, Santorini, Skiathos, Zakynthos | | Finnair | Helsinki | | FlyErbil | Erbil | | FlyOne | Chișinău | | Freebird Airlines | **Seasonal:** Antalya | | Iberia | Madrid | | Icelandair | Reykjavik–Keflavík | | Iraqi Airways | Baghdad, Erbil | | Israir | **Seasonal:** Tel Aviv | | ITA Airways | Rome–Fiumicino | | Jazeera Airways | **Seasonal:** Kuwait | | KLM | Amsterdam | | Kuwait Airways | Kuwait | | LOT Polish Airlines | Warsaw–Chopin | | Lübeck Air | Lübeck | | Lufthansa | Alicante, Amsterdam, Ancona, Athens, Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi, Bangalore (begins 3 November 2023), Barcelona, Basel/Mulhouse (resumes 14 August 2023), Beijing–Capital (resumes 3 July 2023), Belgrade, Berlin, Bilbao, Birmingham, Billund, Bordeaux, Boston, Bremen, Brussels, Bucharest–Otopeni, Budapest, Cairo, Catania, Charlotte, Chicago–O'Hare, Cologne/Bonn, Copenhagen, Debrecen, Delhi, Denver, Dresden, Dublin, Düsseldorf, Edinburgh, Faro, Frankfurt, Funchal, Gdańsk, Gothenburg, Graz, Hamburg, Hanover, Helsinki, Hong Kong, Katowice, Kraków, Kyiv–Boryspil (suspended), Larnaca, Leipzig/Halle, Lisbon, Ljubljana, London–Heathrow, Los Angeles, Luxembourg, Lviv (suspended), Lyon, Madrid, Málaga, Manchester, Marrakesh (resumes 2 November 2023), Marseille, Mexico City, Milan–Malpensa, Montreal–Trudeau, Moscow–Domodedovo (suspended), Mumbai, Münster/Osnabrück, Nantes, Naples, Newark, New York–JFK, Nice, Osaka–Kansai, Oslo, Paderborn/Lippstadt, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Paris–Charles de Gaulle, Paris–Orly, Porto, Poznań, Prague, Rio de Janeiro–Galeão, Rome–Fiumicino, Rzeszów, Saint Petersburg (suspended), San Diego, San Francisco, Seoul–Incheon, Shanghai–Pudong, Sibiu, Singapore, Sofia, Stockholm–Arlanda, Stuttgart, Sylt, Tallinn, Tbilisi, Tel Aviv, Thessaloniki, Timișoara, Tirana, Tokyo–Haneda, Toulouse, Tunis, Turin, Valencia, Vienna, Warsaw–Chopin, Washington–Dulles, Wrocław, Zagreb, Zürich **Seasonal:** Asturias, Bastia, Bergen, Biarritz, Bodrum, Cape Town, Cagliari, Corfu, Dubai–International, Dubrovnik, Fuerteventura, Glasgow (resumes 2 December 2023), Gran Canaria, Heraklion, Hurghada, Ibiza, Jerez de la Frontera, Jersey, Kalamata, Kittilä, Lanzarote, Malta, Marsa Alam, Menorca, Miami, Mykonos, Olbia, Pisa, Preveza/Lefkada, Pula, Reykjavik–Keflavík, Rhodes, Rijeka, Rimini, Santorini, Seville, Split, Tenerife–South, Tivat, Toronto–Pearson, Tromsø, Vancouver, Varna, Zadar, Zakynthos | | Luxair | Luxembourg | | Marabu | Gran Canaria, Hurghada, Lanzarote, La Palma, Palma de Mallorca, Tallinn, Tenerife–South **Seasonal:** Chania, Corfu, Faro, Fuerteventura, Heraklion, Karpathos, Kefalonia, Kos, Lamezia Terme, Málaga, Olbia, Preveza/Lefkada, Rhodes, Split, Volos, Zakynthos | | Nesma Airlines | **Charter:** Hurghada | | Norwegian Air Shuttle | Copenhagen, Oslo, Stockholm–Arlanda | | Nouvelair | Djerba, Monastir **Seasonal:** Tunis | | Oman Air | Muscat | | Pegasus Airlines | Istanbul–Sabiha Gökçen **Seasonal:** Antalya, İzmir | | Qatar Airways | Doha | | Royal Jordanian | Amman–Queen Alia | | Saudia | Jeddah, Riyadh | | Scandinavian Airlines | Copenhagen, Oslo, Stockholm–Arlanda | | Singapore Airlines | Singapore | | Sky Express | Athens | | SmartLynx Airlines | **Seasonal charter:** Ras Al Khaimah (begins 11 October 2023) | | Somon Air | Dushanbe | | Southwind Airlines | **Seasonal charter:** Antalya | | SunExpress | Ankara, Antalya, İzmir **Seasonal:** Adana, Bodrum, Dalaman, Gaziantep, Kayseri, Samsun | | Swiss International Air Lines | Zürich | | TAP Air Portugal | Lisbon | | Thai Airways International | Bangkok–Suvarnabhumi | | Travelcoup | **Seasonal:** Ibiza (begins 17 August 2023), Palma de Mallorca (begins 14 July 2023), Zürich (begins 30 July 2023) | | TUI fly Deutschland | Boa Vista, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Hurghada, Lanzarote, Palma de Mallorca, Sal, Tenerife–South **Seasonal:** Corfu, Dalaman, Djerba, Heraklion, Jerez de la Frontera, Kos, Marsa Alam, Menorca, Patras, Rhodes | | Tunisair | Djerba, Monastir, Tunis | | Turkish Airlines | Istanbul **Seasonal:** Adana, Ankara, Antalya, Bodrum, Dalaman, Gaziantep, İzmir, Kayseri, Ordu/Giresun, Samsun, Trabzon | | United Airlines | Chicago–O'Hare, Denver, Houston–Intercontinental, Newark, San Francisco, Washington–Dulles | | Vueling | Barcelona, Palma de Mallorca **Seasonal:** Alicante, Málaga | | Widerøe | Bergen | ### Cargo | Airlines | Destinations | | --- | --- | | Air Atlanta Icelandic | Greenville/Spartanburg | | Air China Cargo | Beijing–Capital | | ATRAN | Frankfurt, Moscow–Sheremetyevo | | Cargolux | Luxembourg | | DHL Aviation | Leipzig/Halle | | FedEx Express | Cologne/Bonn, Milan–Malpensa, Paris–Charles de Gaulle, Tel Aviv | | Qatar Airways Cargo | Bangalore, Chicago–Rockford, Doha, London–Heathrow, Milan–Malpensa | | Turkish Cargo | Istanbul | | UPS Airlines | Cologne/Bonn | Statistics ---------- ### Annual traffic Annual passenger traffic at MUC airport. See Wikidata query. **Annual Passenger Traffic**| Year | Passengers |  % Change | | --- | --- | --- | | 2000 | 23,125,872 | Steady | | 2001 | 23,646,900 | Increase 2% | | 2002 | 23,163,720 | Decrease -2% | | 2003 | 24,193,304 | Increase 4.4% | | 2004 | 26,814,505 | Increase 11% | | 2005 | 28,619,427 | Increase 6.7% | | 2006 | 30,757,978 | Increase 7.4% | | 2007 | 33,959,422 | Increase 10.4% | | 2008 | 34,530,593 | Increase 1.6% | | 2009 | 32,681,067 | Decrease -5.3% | | 2010 | 34,721,605 | Increase 6% | | 2011 | 37,763,701 | Increase 8.7% | | 2012 | 38,360,604 | Increase 1.5% | | 2013 | 38,672,644 | Increase 1% | | 2014 | 39,700,515 | Increase 2.6% | | 2015 | 40,998,553 | Increase 3.2% | | 2016 | 42,277,920 | Increase 3.1% | | 2017 | 44,546,263 | Increase 5.3% | | 2018 | 46,253,623 | Increase 3.8% | | 2019 | 47,959,885 | Increase 3.6% | | 2020 | 11,120,224 | Decrease 76.8% | | 2021 | 12,496,432 | Increase 12.4% | | *Source: Munich Airport* | ### Busiest routes Busiest domestic routes from MUC (2020)| Rank | Airport | Departing passengers | Operating airlines | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Hamburg | 271,704 | Eurowings, Lufthansa | | 2 | Berlin–Tegel | 219,586 | Lufthansa | | 3 | Düsseldorf | 215,028 | Eurowings, Lufthansa | | 4 | Frankfurt | 170,653 | Lufthansa | | 5 | Cologne/Bonn | 117,261 | Eurowings, Lufthansa | Busiest international European routes from MUC (2020)| Rank | Airport | All passengers | Operating airlines | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | London–Heathrow | 156,903 | British Airways, Lufthansa | | 2 | Amsterdam | 129,741 | Eurowings, KLM, Lufthansa, Transavia | | 3 | Paris–Charles de Gaulle | 119,506 | Air France, Lufthansa | | 4 | Madrid | 102,736 | Air Europa, Iberia, Lufthansa | | 5 | Athens | 97,928 | Aegean, Lufthansa | | 6 | Rome–Fiumicino | 93,632 | Alitalia, Lufthansa | | 7 | Barcelona | 88,487 | Lufthansa, Vueling | | 8 | Stockholm–Arlanda | 76,405 | Lufthansa, Norwegian, Scandinavian Airlines | | 9 | Copenhagen | 72,981 | Lufthansa, Norwegian, Scandinavian Airlines | | 10 | Lisbon | 72,946 | Lufthansa, TAP | Busiest intercontinental routes from MUC (2020)| Rank | Airport | Departing passengers | Operating airlines | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Dubai–International | 76,353 | Emirates, Lufthansa | | 2 | Doha | 48,104 | Qatar Airways | | 3 | Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi | 39,402 | Lufthansa, Thai Airways | | 4 | Abu Dhabi | 37,895 | Etihad | | 5 | Newark | 37,813 | Lufthansa, United Airlines | Other facilities ---------------- * Lufthansa maintains a *Flight Operations Center* at the airport for crews based here at its secondary hub. In 2014, its subsidiary Lufthansa CityLine relocated their administration offices from Cologne to the grounds of Munich Airport. Additionally, there is a large Lufthansa Technik maintenance facility which can handle up to six Boeing 747s at once. * There are two hotels directly on the airports grounds, the Hilton Munich Airport (which was the *Kempinski Hotel Airport Munich* until 31 December 2014) near Terminal 2 and a Novotel at the long-term parking area with several more in the nearby villages. * German car manufacturer Audi established a large training facility for its retailers on the grounds of the airport in 2010. Designated areas near the apron are used for drive training. * The defunct German airline DBA, originally Deutsche BA, had its head office on the grounds of the airport and in Hallbergmoos. * The helicopter operations division of the Bavarian State police is based here. Environment ----------- Munich Airport from the International Space Station, circa 2010 Since November 2005, the Munich Airport has a certified environmental management system according to DIN ISO 14001 and EMAS. Munich Airport was involved in the Air Transport Initiative for Germany, which was also attended by Fraport, Deutsche Flugsicherung and Lufthansa. It developed a so-called "four-pillar strategy" with an overall concept designed to improve environmental protection; these four pillars include: "Reduction of CO2 emissions through technological progress and innovation, particularly in the field of engine development; a more efficient infrastructure with a needs-based adaptation of airport capacity with concentration on the avoidance of, for example, polluting queues; operational measures such as the optimization of soil processes; economic incentives" —Perspectives. Environmental Statement 2008 Munich Airport GmbH ### Landscape From the beginning, the state-administered parts of nature conservation aspects were considered in the planning of the airport. At the opening of the airport, 70% of the grounds were planted; today there are 925 of the 1,575 hectares which remained planted, only 60%. The prevalent Erdinger Moos area with its many intersecting small streams, and woodland series was taking into consideration in the planning by the landscape architect. At the same time, consideration was taken in making the airport unattractive to birds, in order to prevent bird strikes. An additional 230-acre green belt was placed around the airport as a compensation area, in which the overall compensation areas extend over 600 acres. Even with the focus on the environment, environmental groups criticize the enormous land consumption of the airport and each additional expansion project. Also, they believe that the compensation areas are not sufficient enough in order to compensate for the damage caused by the airport (see below). ### Water The construction in the Erdinger Moos area had a large impact on the water budget of the region, since the groundwater levels in the marshy landscape had to be greatly reduced by creating drainage ditches. Existing watercourses, such as small streams, were not interrupted, but redirected so that they now run either around or underneath the property, limiting the effects of groundwater reduction to only the areas in which the airport is located. The wastewater from the airport and the collected rain water are both returned to the natural water cycle. In order to accomplish this, 100 km of sewer lines were laid, and seven pumping stations, a water treatment plant and four rainwater sedimentation tanks were built and put into operation. The already rough cleansed water is then sent to a purification plant. For the necessary winter de-icing of the airport, used deicing chemicals such as glycol are collected together with the contaminated melted water, and then either purified or reused. The cleaning is done in the degradation system area, where soil bacteria decompose the glycol into harmless components of water and carbon dioxide. ### Noise General To reduce noise from thrust reversal during aircraft landings, the runways were built to a length of 4,000 meters, however the noise reduction is offset by increased taxiing times. To reduce noise pollution, a hall for engine testing was built. After 11 p.m. engine tests may be carried out only with the approval of air traffic control. To motivate airlines to use low-noise aircraft, the airport charges are calculated according to the level of noise pollution. There are 16 stationary noise measuring points at the airport. Night flight regulations At Munich airport there is no strict ban on night flights, but a ban on flights arriving and departing between 10 p.m. and 6 a.m.. The only exemptions are flights from mail services and DFS survey flights. From midnight until 5am only those flights that operate in the interest of the public are generally possible, this includes so-called emergency flights: police and rescue helicopter missions or medical emergencies. Also, aircraft movements for security reasons such as for precautionary landings are allowed at all times. Flights with special permission from the Bavarian Ministry for Economic Affairs, Infrastructure, Transport and Technology are also feasible at this time. From 10 p.m. to midnight and 5 a.m. to 6 a.m. flights are possible through the so-called bonus list. Exceptions are delayed flights or premature landings if these aircraft are at least noise-admitted according to ICAO Chapter 3. In addition to both the bonus list and noise requirements they must fulfill further conditions, this includes that the airline must have a maintenance base at the airport, the maximum number of 28 scheduled flights per night (charter and scheduled services) must not be exceeded, the aircraft is not louder than 75 db (A) or it is an education or training flight. This rule applies until the total annual volume is exhausted in air traffic movements by these regulations. More flights of this type are then no longer allowed. The number of night flights increased from 1999 to 2007 from 42 to 60 flights average per night. Residents have been protesting for years against aircraft noise, in particular against the noise pollution at night. The Government of Upper Bavaria approved the night flight regulations currently in force in 2001. ### Energy Cogeneration plant Most of Munich airport's electricity and heat is generated by its own cogeneration plant (CHP), which is located south of the northern runway to the west of the airport. CHP has nine so-called cogeneration modules, seven run on diesel fuel, the other two on gasoline. The electrical generating capacity is 18.5 megawatts. The cogeneration modules run smoothly all year long; this creates surplus heat at certain times which is stored in heat storage to be used later. In summer, the heat generated is used for the operation of the absorption refrigerating machine. The total gross utilization rate is 78 percent (diesel) and 83 percent (gasoline). The cogeneration modules are an obligation, from the Renewable Energy Sources Act, so that Munich Airport can generate electricity from renewable energy sources, using biogas. The airport also has a connection to the district heating network of the Zolling power plant. Photovoltaic system There is a photovoltaic system on the roof of the central hall of terminal 2. It is a joint project of BP Solar, German BP, *Bundesdeutscher Arbeitskreis für Umweltbewusstes Management*, Lufthansa, Munich Airport and others. In operation since 10 July 2003, it generates an average of 445,000 kilowatt hours per year, equivalent to the consumption of 155 households. The power comes from 2,856 modules of silicon cells, covering a total area of 3,594 square metres. It is expected to save 12,000 tons of carbon dioxide emissions over its 30-year lifetime. €2.65 million EUR were invested in the plant. The plant produces direct current, which after conversion to alternating current is initiated immediately in the power system. In Terminal 2, the energy currently generated is displayed on an overhead screen, which also displays other information. Biofuel gas station A biofuel gas station supplying rapeseed oil fuels, ethanol fuel and biomethane has been established, making it possible for the operating companies to convert their vehicle fleets to biofuels; the station can also be used by external companies operating at the airport. ### Bird sanctuary Despite measures to prevent bird strikes, the northern part of Erdinger Moos is still an important habitat for birds, especially for grassland birds such as northern lapwing, Eurasian curlew or rare winter visitors such as the hen harrier. This led automatically to the area being reported under the European Birds Directive as a bird sanctuary. The fencing of the airport and the large meadows inside the fence attract open meadow birds. This leads to constant conflicts and the deaths, even of rare birds as a result of airplane accidents (vortices) and safety measures to avoid bird strikes. The planned third runway 3,440,000 square metres in the bird sanctuary will be laid with concrete, eliminating 8,000,000 square metres of living space. This would represent substantial interference with the bird sanctuary. Safety ------ ### Police For the safety of passengers and flight operations, four inspections by the Federal Police, departments of the Bavarian State Police (Police Inspection Munich Airport, PP Oberbayern Nord) and the security department of Flughafen München GmbH are responsible. The airport police station is located in Nordallee 6, and the police officers working there have an adapted qualification to the specific field of application, for example, they are also trained in the case of an aircraft hijacking. Bavaria's police helicopter squad is also based at the Munich Airport, where five of the Eurocopter EC135 helicopters are stationed. A move of the unit to Schleißheim Airport is planned for 2020. In addition, one of the world's two chambers for explosive goods (the second one is located at Kuala Lumpur International Airport) is located on the airport grounds. In this chamber explosive substances can be defused. ### Fire department The airport has its own fire department with 32 fire engines distributed over two fire stations, which are located near the runways. They are positioned in a way that the emergency vehicles can reach every point of the apron, taxiway and runway in a maximum of three minutes, as long as no adverse weather conditions prevail. Should larger missions occur, the fire departments of the surrounding municipalities can be called in, which can provide up to 36 vehicles and about 216 men; in exchange, the airport fire department helps in large fires in the region. Most recently, this happened when a BMW plant in Eching went up in flames. Statistics of the Fire Department| Year | Missions\* | Fires | Technical assistance | False alarms | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2013 | 3997 | 104 | 1754 | 2139 | | 2012 | 3613 | 107 | 1717 | 1789 | | 2011 | 3582 | 118 | 1831 | 1633 | | 2010 | 3946 | 128 | 2070 | 1748 | | 2009 | 3254 | 118 | 1599 | 1537 | | 2008 | 2999 | 107 | 1389 | 1503 | | 2007 | 2651 | 116 | 1328 | 1207 | | 2006 | 3011 | 123 | 1052 | 1209 | | 2005 | 2095 | 127 | 1103 | 1116 | | 2004 | 2704 | 119 | 950 | 1103 | \* The sum of the missions also includes other missions such as guided tours. ### Ambulance service Emergency medical care is provided by a rescue guard on Nordallee operated by the Malteser Hilfsdienst under a public service contract. A rescue vehicle is ready for use around the clock, which is also used outside the airport area for normal emergencies. If necessary, other rescue workers from the region or supraregional are used, the deployment coordination is carried out by the integrated control center which is also responsible for the area of the airport. On the premises of the airport is an emergency physician from the medical center that arrives on the emergency site, when required, in a separate vehicle according to the rendezvous procedure. Ground transportation --------------------- ### Road Munich Airport is accessible via nearby Motorway A 92, which connects to motorway A9 (towards Nuremberg) and Munich's ring motorway A99. Bavarian State Road St. 2584 connects A 92's exit 6 (*Flughafen München*)—an incomplete interchange that can only be used by traffic to and from the west—to the terminals. Access from the east is possible via exit 8 (*Freising Ost*) and Bavarian State Road St. 2580, which connects to St. 2584 in the east of the airport. The north-southbound so-called "Flughafentangente Ost" ( literally: airport tangential road east) between A92 and A94 was finally opened in 2010 with a single lane in each direction. Originally, it was planned to be opened as expressway quiet simultaneously with the new Airport. Gradually, the accident prone road shall be selectively upgraded from 2021 on to two alternating lanes per direction. It can be reached by bicycle on national highway 301 ("B301") and an airport road branching from this highway into the airport area. ### Suburban railway There are two railway stations on the grounds of Munich Airport: Munich Airport Terminal station is located in a tunnel directly beneath the central area between both passenger terminals. A second station called *Besucherpark* (German for *Visitors' Park*) is located in the area that contains the cargo and maintenance areas, long-term parking, administrative buildings and the Visitors' Park from which the station gets its name. The airport is connected to the city by Munich suburban railway (*S-Bahn*) lines S1 and S8. The ride takes approximately 45 minutes to the Marienplatz station in the city centre. S1 runs from the airport through the northwestern suburbs and reaches the city centre from the west (Hauptbahnhof – Marienplatz – München Ost), while S8 comes in from the eastern suburbs passing the stations from the opposite direction. The S-Bahn from the airport to the city runs approximately 20 hours a day with a short break between 1:30 a.m. and 4 a.m. Furthermore, a scheduled regional bus service Bus635 connects the airport within 20 minutes to the Freising railway station, providing access to regional trains towards Munich as well as to Nuremberg, Regensburg and Prague. A second tunnel beneath the terminals is currently unused. Originally, there were plans to use it for intercity railway, then for a Transrapid maglev train making the trip to München Hauptbahnhof in 10 minutes. However, this project was cancelled in March 2008 due to cost escalation. Discussions regarding a faster connection between Munich city centre and the airport have fruitlessly taken place for several years, as the journey time of 40–60 minutes faces ongoing criticism. Even a rudimentary express suburban railway service is not in sight. #### Regional railway services As of September 2015, construction works to connect the airport with regional railway services of Deutsche Bahn to and from the north-east had started. This project, called *Neufahrner Kurve* (*Neufahrn curve* after the nearby town of Neufahrn bei Freising), saw the existing southwest-bound S-Bahn tracks being expanded with a curve leading to the north, connecting them with the already existing tracks of the Munich-Regensburg line. This new connection enabled hourly regional express train services from Regensburg via Landshut directly to the airport without the need to use a connecting bus coming from the north or to go to Munich city center at first and then backtracking to the airport. The entire project was completed in November 2018. On 9 December 2018, the new hourly service, *Flughafenexpress* (*airport express*) between Regensburg and Munich Airport commenced. ### Bus MVV regional bus lines connect the airport to the nearby city of Freising as well as Erding and Markt Schwaben. Lufthansa Airport Bus provides an alternative to the S-Bahn, stopping at *Nordfriedhof* U-Bahn station and Munich Central Station. Future ------ ### Improvements in public transport At the beginning of the 1990s, the Deutsche Bundesbahn considered four options for a better railway connection to the airport. At an estimated cost of between 500 million and 2 billion Deutsche Mark, each option would have allowed the airport to be integrated into the ICE network. However, the idea was rejected and instead emphasis was put on a better connection of the airport to regional transportation as well as to Munich main station. #### Airport Express (S-Bahn) After the cancellation of Transrapid proposal, several alternative proposals had been put forward that would utilise the current railway system with minor technical upgrades. One proposal called "Humpel-Express" would utilise the most of current Munich-Regensburg railway and S1 lines with very limited stops along the route. The "Humpel-Express" would travel at 200 kilometres per hour (120 mph) and depart the Central Station and Munich Airport at 15-minute interval. The biggest issue was frequent level crossing closures at Fasanerie and Feldmoching (total of 39 minutes for every hour), causing the severe traffic congestions. Additionally, the construction of new line between Moosach and Munich Airport would cut through several towns and neighbourhoods, which the residents vehemently opposed. The new line also required the construction of new viaduct over the federal highway B471, increasing the cost further. The opposition from the resident and unwillingness to allot additional funding killed the proposal. With the Second S-Bahn Tunnel under construction, the proposed Airport Express service will peruse second S-Bahn tunnel upon completion with one stop, instead of four, at Marienhof between Hauptbahnhof and Ostbahnhof. This would reduce the travel time between Hauptbahnhof and Munich Airport to 30 minutes. Additionally, Deutsche Bahn has proposed the underground four-track S-Bahn tunnel from Leuchtenbergring to Halbergmoos S-Bahn stations. This would eliminate the need to slow down before passing through the intervening stations and the need to close the level crossings frequently. If the four-track extension is approved and constructed, the travel time would be reduced further to 15–18 minutes. #### Subway Through the extension of different subway lines to the intersection with one of the two airport suburban railways, the travel time to the airport from different parts of the north of Munich can be considerably reduced. This was realized for the suburbs of Milbertshofen-Am Hart and Feldmoching-Hasenbergl with the subway line U2 to the S1 station Feldmoching in 1996 and the construction of the airport connector near Neufahrn in 1998. In 2010, the travel time to the airport from Moosach, Schwabing West and Neuhausen-Nymphenburg districts was shortened by connecting the subway line U3 to the S1 station Moosach. The extension of the U6 from Garching to Neufahrn is currently being examined. #### Erdinger ring connections The Erdinger Ring connection is to extend the S-Bahn (S2) from Erding in the direction of the airport and connect to neighboring Freising through a connecting curve, the Neufahrn Link. It will fulfill the demand of a rail connection between Eastern Bavaria, including the neighboring airport commuter cities Moosburg and Landshut, to the airport, realized with its own regional railway line. A faster connection from the airport to the inner city is not achieved by the Erdinger ring connection, however a direct connection between the airport and the Munich Messe would be. For this, the S2 would also make a short route north of Messe München and have a stop north of the exhibition center. Already before the opening of the airport there were plans for a regional station at the airport. To this, a railway connection from Mühldorf am Inn is to be made between Erding and Dorfen with the help of the Erdinger ring connection as well as a short new construction single-track called Walpertskirchner Spange. The actual planning phase for this also began, as in the case of the Erdinger ring connection, in August 2006. On 29 August 2013, the Bavarian Administrative Court rejected the complaints against the plan approval decision of the Neufahrn Link of October 2012 and therefore freed the way for a direct rail connection of the Munich airport from Regensburg, Landshut, Moosburg and Freising. The Neufahrner Kurve is to connect the railway line Landshut-Munich from Neufahr with the railway connection line Neufahr-Flughafen Munich, approximately 2.5 kilometres long, two-track and electrified section of the line. In the construction and financing agreement, signed by rail and free-trade in April 2013, it was agreed that the Neufahrn Link will be built and put into operation by the end of 2018. On 9 December 2018, the new train service to Regensburg and Landshut has commenced. ### Third runway It has been proposed to build a third runway in the airport. It would likely run in parallel to the existing runways and be located to the north-east of the current north runway, significantly extending the total area occupied by the airport. #### Justification According to the airport, the growth of air traffic in Munich from 1997 to 2006 was an average of 7% per year, and the airport's capacity was already exhausted. Since new airlines in Munich no longer received the desired slots, a traffic-spoiling effect occurred. An air traffic forecast of Intraplan Consult GmbH estimated 58.2 million passengers for 2025, provided the airport has a tight-fitting growth. According to *Flughafen München GmbH* (*FMG*), the airport's operator, the current two-runway system is already operating at full capacity during peak hours, and requests for additional slots from airlines have been denied. Further increase in air traffic is expected as Munich is to become a second major hub in Germany after Frankfurt. In order to cope with the potential traffic in Munich, the operator plans to expand today's capacity from 90 movements per hour to 120 movements per hour by constructing a third runway. The shareholders of Flughafen München GmbH (FMG) stated that the construction of a third runway was necessary for the Munich region and for Bavaria as a whole, for reasons of transport and economic policy. Various associations and institutions from economics and politics reacted in favor of the plan approval decision issued by the government of Oberbayern for the construction of a third runway at Munich Airport. #### Counterarguments The project for the construction of a third runway is particularly contentious in the directly affected airport region of the districts of Freising and Erding, but also in other nearby counties.Above all, they question the growth projections presented by FMG, and one district calls for the use of larger aircraft in order to meet demand. The opponents of the expansion project joined forces to form the action alliance *aufgeMUCkt* (over 80 groups, including citizens' initiatives, ecclesiastical groups and environmental organizations), supported by, among others, the BUND in Bavaria, that organized many demonstrations. The Catholic Church, which is the owner of some of the affected sites, also announced resistance to the construction. Since the plan approval decision of 26 July 2011, more protests have taken place. On 29 October 2011, a large demonstration with around 7,000 participants took place in Munich in Marienplatz directly in front of the Old Town Hall. #### Progress In August 2007, the airport operator applied for planning permission from the government of Upper Bavaria. More than 60,000 objections have been filed during public display of the plans. The objections and lawsuits against the third runway were later overturned by the Bavarian Administrative Court, allowing for construction plans to proceed. On 26 July 2011, the government of Upper Bavaria issued the zoning approval for the construction of a third runway. With this decision, the zoning authority, after the intensive examination and consideration of all ramifications, expressly approved the need presented by Flughafen München GmbH and the plans submitted for the third runway. Also tied to the approval by the government of Upper Bavaria is the prompt completion of the construction project. However, the airport operator has chosen to follow the advice of Bavaria's Higher Administrative Court and not to proceed until the principal proceedings concerning the project have reached a conclusion. The decision is currently being reviewed by the court. The building permit associated with the zoning will continue to be valid for up to 15 years. While according to ICAO Regulations (Annex XIV) the new runway would have to be named 08L/26R (renaming the existing north runway to 08C/26C), it is currently assigned the working title 09/27 in all plans. In 2015, the airport received approval from Germany's Federal Administrative Court to build a third runway, dismissing all complaints and appeals, and confirming the 2014 decision of Bavaria's Higher Administrative Court to grant approval. The plans include a new 4,000-metre (13,000 ft) runway northeast of the existing airport and a new satellite building at Terminal 2, the latter of which did open in April 2016. However, construction of the new runway may yet be delayed as the project has to have unanimous approval by the airport's three shareholders: Bavaria, Federal Republic of Germany and the City of Munich. The latter has opposed the plan since a 2012 referendum. In September 2020, the Bavarian government stopped all progression regarding the third runway until at least 2028 due to the massive decrease of traffic in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. See also -------- * Memmingen Airport, an airport 110km (68mi) from Munich that serves the city with low-cost flights. * List of airports in Germany * Transport in Germany

Munich Airport

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Airport

A **fungus** (PL: **fungi** or **funguses**) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from the other eukaryotic kingdoms, which, by one traditional classification, includes Plantae, Animalia, Protozoa, and Chromista. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protists is chitin in their cell walls. Fungi, like animals, are heterotrophs; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the *Eumycota* (*true fungi* or *Eumycetes*), that share a common ancestor (i.e. they form a *monophyletic group*), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology (from the Greek μύκης **mykes**, mushroom). In the past mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although it is now known that fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants. Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous because of the small size of their structures, and their cryptic lifestyles in soil or on dead matter. Fungi include symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi and also parasites. They may become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or as molds. Fungi perform an essential role in the decomposition of organic matter and have fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and exchange in the environment. They have long been used as a direct source of human food, in the form of mushrooms and truffles; as a leavening agent for bread; and in the fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. Since the 1940s, fungi have been used for the production of antibiotics, and, more recently, various enzymes produced by fungi are used industrially and in detergents. Fungi are also used as biological pesticides to control weeds, plant diseases, and insect pests. Many species produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides, that are toxic to animals, including humans. The fruiting structures of a few species contain psychotropic compounds and are consumed recreationally or in traditional spiritual ceremonies. Fungi can break down manufactured materials and buildings, and become significant pathogens of humans and other animals. Losses of crops due to fungal diseases (e.g., rice blast disease) or food spoilage can have a large impact on human food supplies and local economies. The fungus kingdom encompasses an enormous diversity of taxa with varied ecologies, life cycle strategies, and morphologies ranging from unicellular aquatic chytrids to large mushrooms. However, little is known of the true biodiversity of the fungus kingdom, which has been estimated at 2.2 million to 3.8 million species. Of these, only about 148,000 have been described, with over 8,000 species known to be detrimental to plants and at least 300 that can be pathogenic to humans. Ever since the pioneering 18th and 19th century taxonomical works of Carl Linnaeus, Christiaan Hendrik Persoon, and Elias Magnus Fries, fungi have been classified according to their morphology (e.g., characteristics such as spore color or microscopic features) or physiology. Advances in molecular genetics have opened the way for DNA analysis to be incorporated into taxonomy, which has sometimes challenged the historical groupings based on morphology and other traits. Phylogenetic studies published in the first decade of the 21st century have helped reshape the classification within the fungi kingdom, which is divided into one subkingdom, seven phyla, and ten subphyla. Etymology --------- The English word *fungus* is directly adopted from the Latin *fungus* (mushroom), used in the writings of Horace and Pliny. This in turn is derived from the Greek word *sphongos* (σφόγγος 'sponge'), which refers to the macroscopic structures and morphology of mushrooms and molds; the root is also used in other languages, such as the German *Schwamm* ('sponge') and *Schimmel* ('mold'). The word *mycology* is derived from the Greek *mykes* (μύκης 'mushroom') and *logos* (λόγος 'discourse'). It denotes the scientific study of fungi. The Latin adjectival form of "mycology" (*mycologicæ*) appeared as early as 1796 in a book on the subject by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. The word appeared in English as early as 1824 in a book by Robert Kaye Greville. In 1836 the English naturalist Miles Joseph Berkeley's publication *The English Flora of Sir James Edward Smith, Vol. 5.* also refers to mycology as the study of fungi. A group of all the fungi present in a particular region is known as *mycobiota* (plural noun, no singular). The term *mycota* is often used for this purpose, but many authors use it as a synonym of Fungi. The word *funga* has been proposed as a less ambiguous term morphologically similar to fauna and flora. The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 asked that the phrase *fauna and flora* be replaced by *fauna, flora, and funga*. Characteristics --------------- Before the introduction of molecular methods for phylogenetic analysis, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the plant kingdom because of similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plants are mainly immobile, and have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat. Although inaccurate, the common misconception that fungi are plants persists among the general public due to their historical classification, as well as several similarities. Like plants, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms, form conspicuous fruit bodies, which sometimes resemble plants such as mosses. The fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged around one billion years ago (around the start of the Neoproterozoic Era). Some morphological, biochemical, and genetic features are shared with other organisms, while others are unique to the fungi, clearly separating them from the other kingdoms: Shared features: * With other eukaryotes: Fungal cells contain membrane-bound nuclei with chromosomes that contain DNA with noncoding regions called introns and coding regions called exons. Fungi have membrane-bound cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria, sterol-containing membranes, and ribosomes of the 80S type. They have a characteristic range of soluble carbohydrates and storage compounds, including sugar alcohols (e.g., mannitol), disaccharides, (e.g., trehalose), and polysaccharides (e.g., glycogen, which is also found in animals). * With animals: Fungi lack chloroplasts and are heterotrophic organisms and so require preformed organic compounds as energy sources. * With plants: Fungi have a cell wall and vacuoles. They reproduce by both sexual and asexual means, and like basal plant groups (such as ferns and mosses) produce spores. Similar to mosses and algae, fungi typically have haploid nuclei. * With euglenoids and bacteria: Higher fungi, euglenoids, and some bacteria produce the amino acid L-lysine in specific biosynthesis steps, called the α-aminoadipate pathway. * The cells of most fungi grow as tubular, elongated, and thread-like (filamentous) structures called hyphae, which may contain multiple nuclei and extend by growing at their tips. Each tip contains a set of aggregated vesicles—cellular structures consisting of proteins, lipids, and other organic molecules—called the Spitzenkörper. Both fungi and oomycetes grow as filamentous hyphal cells. In contrast, similar-looking organisms, such as filamentous green algae, grow by repeated cell division within a chain of cells. There are also single-celled fungi (yeasts) that do not form hyphae, and some fungi have both hyphal and yeast forms. * In common with some plant and animal species, more than one hundred fungal species display bioluminescence. Unique features: * Some species grow as unicellular yeasts that reproduce by budding or fission. Dimorphic fungi can switch between a yeast phase and a hyphal phase in response to environmental conditions. * The fungal cell wall is made of a chitin-glucan complex; while glucans are also found in plants and chitin in the exoskeleton of arthropods, fungi are the only organisms that combine these two structural molecules in their cell wall. Unlike those of plants and oomycetes, fungal cell walls do not contain cellulose. Most fungi lack an efficient system for the long-distance transport of water and nutrients, such as the xylem and phloem in many plants. To overcome this limitation, some fungi, such as *Armillaria*, form rhizomorphs, which resemble and perform functions similar to the roots of plants. As eukaryotes, fungi possess a biosynthetic pathway for producing terpenes that uses mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as chemical building blocks. Plants and some other organisms have an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in their chloroplasts, a structure that fungi and animals do not have. Fungi produce several secondary metabolites that are similar or identical in structure to those made by plants. Many of the plant and fungal enzymes that make these compounds differ from each other in sequence and other characteristics, which indicates separate origins and convergent evolution of these enzymes in the fungi and plants. Diversity --------- Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including extreme environments such as deserts or areas with high salt concentrations or ionizing radiation, as well as in deep sea sediments. Some can survive the intense UV and cosmic radiation encountered during space travel. Most grow in terrestrial environments, though several species live partly or solely in aquatic habitats, such as the chytrid fungi *Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis* and *B. salamandrivorans*, parasites that have been responsible for a worldwide decline in amphibian populations. These organisms spend part of their life cycle as a motile zoospore, enabling them to propel itself through water and enter their amphibian host. Other examples of aquatic fungi include those living in hydrothermal areas of the ocean. As of 2020,[update] around 148,000 species of fungi have been described by taxonomists, but the global biodiversity of the fungus kingdom is not fully understood. A 2017 estimate suggests there may be between 2.2 and 3.8 million species. The number of new fungi species discovered yearly has increased from 1,000 to 1,500 per year about 10 years ago, to about 2000 with a peak of more than 2,500 species in 2016. In the year 2019, 1882 new species of fungi were described, and it was estimated that more than 90% of fungi remain unknown. The following year, 2905 new species were described—the highest annual record of new fungus names. In mycology, species have historically been distinguished by a variety of methods and concepts. Classification based on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, has traditionally dominated fungal taxonomy. Species may also be distinguished by their biochemical and physiological characteristics, such as their ability to metabolize certain biochemicals, or their reaction to chemical tests. The biological species concept discriminates species based on their ability to mate. The application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis, to study diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of genetic diversity within various taxonomic groups. Mycology -------- Mycology is the branch of biology concerned with the systematic study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy, and their use to humans as a source of medicine, food, and psychotropic substances consumed for religious purposes, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. The field of phytopathology, the study of plant diseases, is closely related because many plant pathogens are fungi. The use of fungi by humans dates back to prehistory; Ötzi the Iceman, a well-preserved mummy of a 5,300-year-old Neolithic man found frozen in the Austrian Alps, carried two species of polypore mushrooms that may have been used as tinder (*Fomes fomentarius*), or for medicinal purposes (*Piptoporus betulinus*). Ancient peoples have used fungi as food sources—often unknowingly—for millennia, in the preparation of leavened bread and fermented juices. Some of the oldest written records contain references to the destruction of crops that were probably caused by pathogenic fungi. ### History Mycology became a systematic science after the development of the microscope in the 17th century. Although fungal spores were first observed by Giambattista della Porta in 1588, the seminal work in the development of mycology is considered to be the publication of Pier Antonio Micheli's 1729 work *Nova plantarum genera*. Micheli not only observed spores but also showed that, under the proper conditions, they could be induced into growing into the same species of fungi from which they originated. Extending the use of the binomial system of nomenclature introduced by Carl Linnaeus in his *Species plantarum* (1753), the Dutch Christiaan Hendrik Persoon (1761–1836) established the first classification of mushrooms with such skill as to be considered a founder of modern mycology. Later, Elias Magnus Fries (1794–1878) further elaborated the classification of fungi, using spore color and microscopic characteristics, methods still used by taxonomists today. Other notable early contributors to mycology in the 17th–19th and early 20th centuries include Miles Joseph Berkeley, August Carl Joseph Corda, Anton de Bary, the brothers Louis René and Charles Tulasne, Arthur H. R. Buller, Curtis G. Lloyd, and Pier Andrea Saccardo. In the 20th and 21st centuries, advances in biochemistry, genetics, molecular biology, biotechnology, DNA sequencing and phylogenetic analysis has provided new insights into fungal relationships and biodiversity, and has challenged traditional morphology-based groupings in fungal taxonomy. Morphology ---------- ### Microscopic structures Most fungi grow as hyphae, which are cylindrical, thread-like structures 2–10 µm in diameter and up to several centimeters in length. Hyphae grow at their tips (apices); new hyphae are typically formed by emergence of new tips along existing hyphae by a process called *branching*, or occasionally growing hyphal tips fork, giving rise to two parallel-growing hyphae. Hyphae also sometimes fuse when they come into contact, a process called hyphal fusion (or anastomosis). These growth processes lead to the development of a mycelium, an interconnected network of hyphae. Hyphae can be either septate or coenocytic. Septate hyphae are divided into compartments separated by cross walls (internal cell walls, called septa, that are formed at right angles to the cell wall giving the hypha its shape), with each compartment containing one or more nuclei; coenocytic hyphae are not compartmentalized. Septa have pores that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through; an example is the dolipore septum in fungi of the phylum Basidiomycota. Coenocytic hyphae are in essence multinucleate supercells. Many species have developed specialized hyphal structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic species of most fungal phyla, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi, which penetrate into the host cells to consume nutrients. Although fungi are opisthokonts—a grouping of evolutionarily related organisms broadly characterized by a single posterior flagellum—all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, in addition to glucans (e.g., β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, also contains the biopolymer chitin. ### Macroscopic structures Fungal mycelia can become visible to the naked eye, for example, on various surfaces and substrates, such as damp walls and spoiled food, where they are commonly called molds. Mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies. These colonies can exhibit growth shapes and colors (due to spores or pigmentation) that can be used as diagnostic features in the identification of species or groups. Some individual fungal colonies can reach extraordinary dimensions and ages as in the case of a clonal colony of *Armillaria solidipes*, which extends over an area of more than 900 ha (3.5 square miles), with an estimated age of nearly 9,000 years. The apothecium—a specialized structure important in sexual reproduction in the ascomycetes—is a cup-shaped fruit body that is often macroscopic and holds the hymenium, a layer of tissue containing the spore-bearing cells. The fruit bodies of the basidiomycetes (basidiocarps) and some ascomycetes can sometimes grow very large, and many are well known as mushrooms. Growth and physiology --------------------- Time-lapse photography sequence of a peach becoming progressively discolored and disfiguredMold growth covering a decaying peach. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart over a period of six days. The growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or as single cells in aquatic environments is adapted for the efficient extraction of nutrients, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. Hyphae are specifically adapted for growth on solid surfaces, and to invade substrates and tissues. They can exert large penetrative mechanical forces; for example, many plant pathogens, including *Magnaporthe grisea*, form a structure called an appressorium that evolved to puncture plant tissues. The pressure generated by the appressorium, directed against the plant epidermis, can exceed 8 megapascals (1,200 psi). The filamentous fungus *Paecilomyces lilacinus* uses a similar structure to penetrate the eggs of nematodes. The mechanical pressure exerted by the appressorium is generated from physiological processes that increase intracellular turgor by producing osmolytes such as glycerol. Adaptations such as these are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment to digest large organic molecules—such as polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids—into smaller molecules that may then be absorbed as nutrients. The vast majority of filamentous fungi grow in a polar fashion (extending in one direction) by elongation at the tip (apex) of the hypha. Other forms of fungal growth include intercalary extension (longitudinal expansion of hyphal compartments that are below the apex) as in the case of some endophytic fungi, or growth by volume expansion during the development of mushroom stipes and other large organs. Growth of fungi as multicellular structures consisting of somatic and reproductive cells—a feature independently evolved in animals and plants—has several functions, including the development of fruit bodies for dissemination of sexual spores (see above) and biofilms for substrate colonization and intercellular communication. The fungi are traditionally considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. Fungi have evolved a high degree of metabolic versatility that allows them to use a diverse range of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds such as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. In some species the pigment melanin may play a role in extracting energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation. This form of "radiotrophic" growth has been described for only a few species, the effects on growth rates are small, and the underlying biophysical and biochemical processes are not well known. This process might bear similarity to CO2 fixation via visible light, but instead uses ionizing radiation as a source of energy. Reproduction ------------ Fungal reproduction is complex, reflecting the differences in lifestyles and genetic makeup within this diverse kingdom of organisms. It is estimated that a third of all fungi reproduce using more than one method of propagation; for example, reproduction may occur in two well-differentiated stages within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph (sexual reproduction) and the anamorph (asexual reproduction). Environmental conditions trigger genetically determined developmental states that lead to the creation of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid reproduction by efficiently dispersing spores or spore-containing propagules. ### Asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction occurs via vegetative spores (conidia) or through mycelial fragmentation. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into pieces, and each component grows into a separate mycelium. Mycelial fragmentation and vegetative spores maintain clonal populations adapted to a specific niche, and allow more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. The "Fungi imperfecti" (fungi lacking the perfect or sexual stage) or Deuteromycota comprise all the species that lack an observable sexual cycle. Deuteromycota (alternatively known as Deuteromycetes, conidial fungi, or mitosporic fungi) is not an accepted taxonomic clade and is now taken to mean simply fungi that lack a known sexual stage. ### Sexual reproduction Sexual reproduction with meiosis has been directly observed in all fungal phyla except Glomeromycota (genetic analysis suggests meiosis in Glomeromycota as well). It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Differences also exist between fungal groups and can be used to discriminate species by morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Mating experiments between fungal isolates may identify species on the basis of biological species concepts. The major fungal groupings have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. Fungi employ two mating systems: heterothallic species allow mating only between individuals of the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with any other individual or itself. Most fungi have both a haploid and a diploid stage in their life cycles. In sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals may combine by fusing their hyphae together into an interconnected network; this process, anastomosis, is required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. Many ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not combine immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis). In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium (the spore-bearing tissue layer) form a characteristic *hook* (crozier) at the hyphal septum. During cell division, the formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. An ascus (plural *asci*) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. Asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. After dispersal, the ascospores may germinate and form a new haploid mycelium. Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, often also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take other forms (see Morphology section). In fungi formerly classified as Zygomycota, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a gametangium, a specialized cell structure that becomes a fertile gamete-producing cell. The gametangium develops into a zygospore, a thick-walled spore formed by the union of gametes. When the zygospore germinates, it undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which may then form asexual sporangiospores. These sporangiospores allow the fungus to rapidly disperse and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal mycelia. ### Spore dispersal The spores of most of the researched species of fungi are transported by wind. Such species often produce dry or hydrophobic spores that do not absorb water and are readily scattered by raindrops, for example. In other species, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores are often actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as traveling through the air over long distances. Specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms, as well as spore surface structures (such as hydrophobins), enable efficient spore ejection. For example, the structure of the spore-bearing cells in some ascomycete species is such that the buildup of substances affecting cell volume and fluid balance enables the explosive discharge of spores into the air. The forcible discharge of single spores termed *ballistospores* involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g; the net result is that the spore is ejected 0.01–0.02 cm, sufficient distance for it to fall through the gills or pores into the air below. Other fungi, like the puffballs, rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces. The hydnoid fungi (tooth fungi) produce spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. The bird's nest fungi use the force of falling water drops to liberate the spores from cup-shaped fruiting bodies. Another strategy is seen in the stinkhorns, a group of fungi with lively colors and putrid odor that attract insects to disperse their spores. ### Homothallism In homothallic sexual reproduction, two haploid nuclei derived from the same individual fuse to form a zygote that can then undergo meiosis. Homothallic fungi include species with an *Aspergillus*-like asexual stage (anamorphs) occurring in numerous different genera, several species of the ascomycete genus *Cochliobolus*, and the ascomycete *Pneumocystis jirovecii*. The earliest mode of sexual reproduction among eukaryotes was likely homothallism, that is, self-fertile unisexual reproduction. ### Other sexual processes Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, certain fungi, such as those in the genera *Penicillium* and *Aspergillus*, may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. It is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization and is likely required for hybridization between species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution. Evolution --------- In contrast to plants and animals, the early fossil record of the fungi is meager. Factors that likely contribute to the under-representation of fungal species among fossils include the nature of fungal fruiting bodies, which are soft, fleshy, and easily degradable tissues and the microscopic dimensions of most fungal structures, which therefore are not readily evident. Fungal fossils are difficult to distinguish from those of other microbes, and are most easily identified when they resemble extant fungi. Often recovered from a permineralized plant or animal host, these samples are typically studied by making thin-section preparations that can be examined with light microscopy or transmission electron microscopy. Researchers study compression fossils by dissolving the surrounding matrix with acid and then using light or scanning electron microscopy to examine surface details. The earliest fossils possessing features typical of fungi date to the Paleoproterozoic era, some 2,400 million years ago (Ma); these multicellular benthic organisms had filamentous structures capable of anastomosis. Other studies (2009) estimate the arrival of fungal organisms at about 760–1060 Ma on the basis of comparisons of the rate of evolution in closely related groups. For much of the Paleozoic Era (542–251 Ma), the fungi appear to have been aquatic and consisted of organisms similar to the extant chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The evolutionary adaptation from an aquatic to a terrestrial lifestyle necessitated a diversification of ecological strategies for obtaining nutrients, including parasitism, saprobism, and the development of mutualistic relationships such as mycorrhiza and lichenization. Studies suggest that the ancestral ecological state of the Ascomycota was saprobism, and that independent lichenization events have occurred multiple times. In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a fossilized fungus, named *Ourasphaira giraldae*, in the Canadian Arctic, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before plants were living on land. Pyritized fungus-like microfossils preserved in the basal Ediacaran Doushantuo Formation (~635 Ma) have been reported in South China. Earlier, it had been presumed that the fungi colonized the land during the Cambrian (542–488.3 Ma), also long before land plants. Fossilized hyphae and spores recovered from the Ordovician of Wisconsin (460 Ma) resemble modern-day Glomerales, and existed at a time when the land flora likely consisted of only non-vascular bryophyte-like plants. Prototaxites, which was probably a fungus or lichen, would have been the tallest organism of the late Silurian and early Devonian. Fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian (416–359.2 Ma), when they occur abundantly in the Rhynie chert, mostly as Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. At about this same time, approximately 400 Ma, the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota diverged, and all modern classes of fungi were present by the Late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian, 318.1–299 Ma). Lichens formed a component of the early terrestrial ecosystems, and the estimated age of the oldest terrestrial lichen fossil is 415 Ma; this date roughly corresponds to the age of the oldest known sporocarp fossil, a *Paleopyrenomycites* species found in the Rhynie Chert. The oldest fossil with microscopic features resembling modern-day basidiomycetes is *Palaeoancistrus*, found permineralized with a fern from the Pennsylvanian. Rare in the fossil record are the Homobasidiomycetes (a taxon roughly equivalent to the mushroom-producing species of the Agaricomycetes). Two amber-preserved specimens provide evidence that the earliest known mushroom-forming fungi (the extinct species *Archaeomarasmius leggetti*) appeared during the late Cretaceous, 90 Ma. Some time after the Permian–Triassic extinction event (251.4 Ma), a fungal spike (originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments) formed, suggesting that fungi were the dominant life form at this time, representing nearly 100% of the available fossil record for this period. However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, the spike did not appear worldwide, and in many places it did not fall on the Permian–Triassic boundary. Sixty-five million years ago, immediately after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that famously killed off most dinosaurs, there was a dramatic increase in evidence of fungi; apparently the death of most plant and animal species led to a huge fungal bloom like "a massive compost heap". Taxonomy -------- Although commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of fungi. The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to research based on DNA comparisons. These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings. There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are frequent name changes at every level, from species upwards. Efforts among researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Until relatively recent (2012) changes to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi and plants, fungal species could also have multiple scientific names depending on their life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and MycoBank are officially recognized nomenclatural repositories and list current names of fungal species (with cross-references to older synonyms). The 2007 classification of Kingdom Fungi is the result of a large-scale collaborative research effort involving dozens of mycologists and other scientists working on fungal taxonomy. It recognizes seven phyla, two of which—the Ascomycota and the Basidiomycota—are contained within a branch representing subkingdom Dikarya, the most species rich and familiar group, including all the mushrooms, most food-spoilage molds, most plant pathogenic fungi, and the beer, wine, and bread yeasts. The accompanying cladogram depicts the major fungal taxa and their relationship to opisthokont and unikont organisms, based on the work of Philippe Silar, "The Mycota: A Comprehensive Treatise on Fungi as Experimental Systems for Basic and Applied Research" and Tedersoo et al. 2018. The lengths of the branches are not proportional to evolutionary distances. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Zoosporia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Rozellomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | Rozellomycota | Rozellomycetes | | | | Microsporidiomycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Mitosporidium* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Paramicrosporidium* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | *Nucleophaga* | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Metchnikovellea | | | | | Microsporea | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aphelidiomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | Aphelidiomycota | Aphelidiomycetes | | | | | | | Eumycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Chytridiomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | Neocallimastigomycota | Neocallimastigomycetes | | | | Chytridiomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Monoblepharomycotina | | | | | --- | --- | | | Hyaloraphidiomycetes | | | | | Monoblepharidomycetes | | | | | Sanchytriomycetes | | | | | | | Chytridiomycotina | | | | | --- | --- | | | Mesochytriomycetes | | | | | Chytridiomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Blastocladiomyceta | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Blastocladiomycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | Blastocladiomycetes | | | | | Physodermatomycetes | | | | | | | | | | Amastigomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Zoopagomyceta | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Basidiobolomycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | Basidiobolomycetes | | | | | Olpidiomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Entomophthoromycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | Neozygitomycetes | | | | | Entomophthoromycetes | | | | | | | Kickxellomycota | | | | | --- | --- | | Zoopagomycotina | Zoopagomycetes | | | | Kickxellomycotina | | | | | --- | --- | | | Dimargaritomycetes | | | | | Kickxellomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | Mortierellomycota | Mortierellomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mucoromyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | Calcarisporiellomycota | Calcarisporiellomycetes | | | | Mucoromycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | Umbelopsidomycetes | | | | | Mucoromycetes | | | | | | | | | | Symbiomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Glomeromycota | | | | | --- | --- | | | Paraglomeromycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Archaeosporomycetes | | | | | Glomeromycetes | | | | | | | | | | Dikarya | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | Entorrhizomycota | Entorrhizomycetes | | | | | Basidiomycota | | | | | | | | Ascomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Basidiomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Pucciniomycotina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Tritirachiomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Mixiomycetes | | | | | Agaricostilbomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cystobasidiomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Classiculaceae | | | | | Microbotryomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Cryptomycocolacomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Atractiellomycetes | | | | | Pucciniomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Orthomycotina | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ustilaginomycotina | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Monilielliomycetes | | | | | Malasseziomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Ustilaginomycetes | | | | | Exobasidiomycetes | | | | | | | | | | Agaricomycotina | | | | | --- | --- | | | ?Geminibasidiomycetes | | | | | ?Wallemiomycetes | | | | | Bartheletiomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Tremellomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Dacrymycetes | | | | | Agaricomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ascomycota | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Taphrinomycotina | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Neolectomycetes | | | | | Taphrinomycetes | | | | | | | Schizosaccharomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | | Archaeorhizomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Pneumocystidomycetes | | | | | Schizosaccharomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | Saccharomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | Saccharomycotina | Saccharomycetes | | | | Pezizomycotina | | | | | --- | --- | | | ?Thelocarpales | | | | | ?Vezdaeales | | | | | ?Lahmiales | | | | | ?Triblidiales | | | | | Orbiliomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Pezizomycetes | | | | Leotiomyceta | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sordariomyceta | | | | | --- | --- | | | Xylonomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Geoglossomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Leotiomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Laboulbeniomycetes | | | | | Sordariomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dothideomyceta | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Coniocybomycetes | | | | | Lichinomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Eurotiomycetes | | | | | Lecanoromycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Collemopsidiomycetes | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Arthoniomycetes | | | | | Dothideomycetes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ### Taxonomic groups The major phyla (sometimes called divisions) of fungi have been classified mainly on the basis of characteristics of their sexual reproductive structures. As of 2019[update], nine major lineages have been identified: Opisthosporidia, Chytridiomycota, Neocallimastigomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Zoopagomycota, Mucoromycota, Glomeromycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Phylogenetic analysis has demonstrated that the Microsporidia, unicellular parasites of animals and protists, are fairly recent and highly derived endobiotic fungi (living within the tissue of another species). Previously considered to be "primitive" protozoa, they are now thought to be either a basal branch of the Fungi, or a sister group–each other's closest evolutionary relative. The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are distributed worldwide. Chytrids and their close relatives Neocallimastigomycota and Blastocladiomycota (below) are the only fungi with active motility, producing zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum, leading early taxonomists to classify them as protists. Molecular phylogenies, inferred from rRNA sequences in ribosomes, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal group divergent from the other fungal phyla, consisting of four major clades with suggestive evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly. The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are saprotrophs, feeding on decomposing organic matter, and they are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. Unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, most of which exhibit zygotic meiosis, the blastocladiomycetes undergo sporic meiosis. The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridiomycota. Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and in other terrestrial and aquatic environments enriched in cellulose (e.g., domestic waste landfill sites). They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. As in the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate. Members of the Glomeromycota form arbuscular mycorrhizae, a form of mutualist symbiosis wherein fungal hyphae invade plant root cells and both species benefit from the resulting increased supply of nutrients. All known Glomeromycota species reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. Formerly part of the Zygomycota (commonly known as 'sugar' and 'pin' molds), the Glomeromycota were elevated to phylum status in 2001 and now replace the older phylum Zygomycota. Fungi that were placed in the Zygomycota are now being reassigned to the Glomeromycota, or the subphyla incertae sedis Mucoromycotina, Kickxellomycotina, the Zoopagomycotina and the Entomophthoromycotina. Some well-known examples of fungi formerly in the Zygomycota include black bread mold (*Rhizopus stolonifer*), and *Pilobolus* species, capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Medically relevant genera include *Mucor*, *Rhizomucor*, and *Rhizopus*. The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This phylum includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, unicellular yeasts (e.g., of the genera *Saccharomyces*, *Kluyveromyces*, *Pichia*, and *Candida*), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts (e.g. lichens). Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include *Aspergillus*, *Penicillium*, *Fusarium*, and *Claviceps*. Many ascomycete species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but analysis of molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, ascomycetes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g., *Neurospora crassa*). Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. Other important basidiomycetes include the maize pathogen *Ustilago maydis*, human commensal species of the genus *Malassezia*, and the opportunistic human pathogen, *Cryptococcus neoformans*. ### Fungus-like organisms Because of similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (mycetozoans, plasmodiophorids, acrasids, *Fonticula* and labyrinthulids, now in Amoebozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Opisthokonta and Stramenopiles, respectively), water molds (oomycetes) and hyphochytrids (both Stramenopiles) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi, in groups like Mastigomycotina, Gymnomycota and Phycomycetes. The slime molds were studied also as protozoans, leading to an ambiregnal, duplicated taxonomy. Unlike true fungi, the cell walls of oomycetes contain cellulose and lack chitin. Hyphochytrids have both chitin and cellulose. Slime molds lack a cell wall during the assimilative phase (except labyrinthulids, which have a wall of scales), and take in nutrients by ingestion (phagocytosis, except labyrinthulids) rather than absorption (osmotrophy, as fungi, labyrinthulids, oomycetes and hyphochytrids). Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature. The Eccrinales and Amoebidiales are opisthokont protists, previously thought to be zygomycete fungi. Other groups now in Opisthokonta (e.g., *Corallochytrium*, Ichthyosporea) were also at given time classified as fungi. The genus *Blastocystis*, now in Stramenopiles, was originally classified as a yeast. *Ellobiopsis*, now in Alveolata, was considered a chytrid. The bacteria were also included in fungi in some classifications, as the group Schizomycetes. The Rozellida clade, including the "ex-chytrid" *Rozella*, is a genetically disparate group known mostly from environmental DNA sequences that is a sister group to fungi. Members of the group that have been isolated lack the chitinous cell wall that is characteristic of fungi. Alternatively, Rozella can be classified as a basal fungal group. The nucleariids may be the next sister group to the eumycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. Many Actinomycetales (Actinomycetota), a group with many filamentous bacteria, were also long believed to be fungi. Ecology ------- Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. As decomposers, they play an essential role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms. ### Symbiosis Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all kingdoms. These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in the case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host. #### With plants Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant–fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in mycorrhizal relationships with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival. The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating back to at least 400 million years. It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. The fungal partners may also mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". A special case of mycorrhiza is myco-heterotrophy, whereby the plant parasitizes the fungus, obtaining all of its nutrients from its fungal symbiont. Some fungal species inhabit the tissues inside roots, stems, and leaves, in which case they are called endophytes. Similar to mycorrhiza, endophytic colonization by fungi may benefit both symbionts; for example, endophytes of grasses impart to their host increased resistance to herbivores and other environmental stresses and receive food and shelter from the plant in return. #### With algae and cyanobacteria Lichens are a symbiotic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic algae or cyanobacteria. The photosynthetic partner in the relationship is referred to in lichen terminology as a "photobiont". The fungal part of the relationship is composed mostly of various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes. Lichens occur in every ecosystem on all continents, play a key role in soil formation and the initiation of biological succession, and are prominent in some extreme environments, including polar, alpine, and semiarid desert regions. They are able to grow on inhospitable surfaces, including bare soil, rocks, tree bark, wood, shells, barnacles and leaves. As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates via photosynthesis to the fungus, while the fungus provides minerals and water to the photobiont. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism; in most cases the resulting organism differs greatly from the individual components. Lichenization is a common mode of nutrition for fungi; around 27% of known fungi—more than 19,400 species—are lichenized. Characteristics common to most lichens include obtaining organic carbon by photosynthesis, slow growth, small size, long life, long-lasting (seasonal) vegetative reproductive structures, mineral nutrition obtained largely from airborne sources, and greater tolerance of desiccation than most other photosynthetic organisms in the same habitat. #### With insects Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Chaetothyriales for several purposes: as a food source, as a structural component of their nests, and as a part of an ant/plant symbiosis in the domatia (tiny chambers in plants that house arthropods). Ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. Likewise, females of several wood wasp species (genus *Sirex*) inject their eggs together with spores of the wood-rotting fungus *Amylostereum areolatum* into the sapwood of pine trees; the growth of the fungus provides ideal nutritional conditions for the development of the wasp larvae. At least one species of stingless bee has a relationship with a fungus in the genus *Monascus*, where the larvae consume and depend on fungus transferred from old to new nests. Termites on the African savannah are also known to cultivate fungi, and yeasts of the genera *Candida* and *Lachancea* inhabit the gut of a wide range of insects, including neuropterans, beetles, and cockroaches; it is not known whether these fungi benefit their hosts. Fungi growing in dead wood are essential for xylophagous insects (e.g. woodboring beetles). They deliver nutrients needed by xylophages to nutritionally scarce dead wood. Thanks to this nutritional enrichment the larvae of the woodboring insect is able to grow and develop to adulthood. The larvae of many families of fungicolous flies, particularly those within the superfamily Sciaroidea such as the Mycetophilidae and some Keroplatidae feed on fungal fruiting bodies and sterile mycorrhizae. #### As pathogens and parasites Many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Serious pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus *Magnaporthe oryzae*, tree pathogens such as *Ophiostoma ulmi* and *Ophiostoma novo-ulmi* causing Dutch elm disease, *Cryphonectria parasitica* responsible for chestnut blight, and *Phymatotrichopsis omnivora* causing Texas Root Rot, and plant pathogens in the genera *Fusarium*, *Ustilago*, *Alternaria*, and *Cochliobolus*. Some carnivorous fungi, like *Paecilomyces lilacinus*, are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. Many fungi that are plant pathogens, such as *Magnaporthe oryzae*, can switch from being biotrophic (parasitic on living plants) to being necrotrophic (feeding on the dead tissues of plants they have killed). This same principle is applied to fungi-feeding parasites, including *Asterotremella albida*, which feeds on the fruit bodies of other fungi both while they are living and after they are dead. Some fungi can cause serious diseases in humans, several of which may be fatal if untreated. These include aspergillosis, candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, mycetomas, and paracoccidioidomycosis. Furthermore, persons with immuno-deficiencies are particularly susceptible to disease by genera such as *Aspergillus*, *Candida*, *Cryptoccocus*, *Histoplasma*, and *Pneumocystis*. Other fungi can attack eyes, nails, hair, and especially skin, the so-called dermatophytic and keratinophilic fungi, and cause local infections such as ringworm and athlete's foot. Fungal spores are also a cause of allergies, and fungi from different taxonomic groups can evoke allergic reactions. #### As targets of mycoparasites Organisms that parasitize fungi are known as mycoparasitic organisms. About 300 species of fungi and fungus-like organisms, belonging to 13 classes and 113 genera, are used as biocontrol agents against plant fungal diseases. Fungi can also act as mycoparasites or antagonists of other fungi, such as *Hypomyces chrysospermus*, which grows on bolete mushrooms. Fungi can also become the target of infection by mycoviruses. ### Communication There appears to be electrical communication between fungi in word-like components according to spiking characteristics. ### Possible impact on climate According to a study published in the academic journal Current Biology, fungi can soak from the atmosphere around 36% of global fossil fuel Greenhouse gas emissions. Mycotoxins ---------- Many fungi produce biologically active compounds, several of which are toxic to animals or plants and are therefore called mycotoxins. Of particular relevance to humans are mycotoxins produced by molds causing food spoilage, and poisonous mushrooms (see above). Particularly infamous are the lethal amatoxins in some *Amanita* mushrooms, and ergot alkaloids, which have a long history of causing serious epidemics of ergotism (St Anthony's Fire) in people consuming rye or related cereals contaminated with sclerotia of the ergot fungus, *Claviceps purpurea*. Other notable mycotoxins include the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by certain *Aspergillus* species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, ochratoxins, patulin, and trichothecenes (e.g., T-2 mycotoxin) and fumonisins, which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites (or natural products), and research has established the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. Mycotoxins may provide fitness benefits in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from consumption (fungivory). Many fungal secondary metabolites (or derivatives) are used medically, as described under Human use below. Pathogenic mechanisms --------------------- *Ustilago maydis* is a pathogenic plant fungus that causes smut disease in maize and teosinte. Plants have evolved efficient defense systems against pathogenic microbes such as *U. maydis*. A rapid defense reaction after pathogen attack is the oxidative burst where the plant produces reactive oxygen species at the site of the attempted invasion. *U. maydis* can respond to the oxidative burst with an oxidative stress response, regulated by the gene *YAP1*. The response protects *U. maydis* from the host defense, and is necessary for the pathogen's virulence. Furthermore, *U. maydis* has a well-established recombinational DNA repair system which acts during mitosis and meiosis. The system may assist the pathogen in surviving DNA damage arising from the host plant's oxidative defensive response to infection. *Cryptococcus neoformans* is an encapsulated yeast that can live in both plants and animals. *C. neoformans* usually infects the lungs, where it is phagocytosed by alveolar macrophages. Some *C. neoformans* can survive inside macrophages, which appears to be the basis for latency, disseminated disease, and resistance to antifungal agents. One mechanism by which *C. neoformans* survives the hostile macrophage environment is by up-regulating the expression of genes involved in the oxidative stress response. Another mechanism involves meiosis. The majority of *C. neoformans* are mating "type a". Filaments of mating "type a" ordinarily have haploid nuclei, but they can become diploid (perhaps by endoduplication or by stimulated nuclear fusion) to form blastospores. The diploid nuclei of blastospores can undergo meiosis, including recombination, to form haploid basidiospores that can be dispersed. This process is referred to as monokaryotic fruiting. This process requires a gene called *DMC1*, which is a conserved homologue of genes *recA* in bacteria and *RAD51* in eukaryotes, that mediates homologous chromosome pairing during meiosis and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. Thus, *C. neoformans* can undergo a meiosis, monokaryotic fruiting, that promotes recombinational repair in the oxidative, DNA damaging environment of the host macrophage, and the repair capability may contribute to its virulence. Human use --------- The human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history. Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Because of the capacity of this group to produce an enormous range of natural products with antimicrobial or other biological activities, many species have long been used or are being developed for industrial production of antibiotics, vitamins, and anti-cancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs. Methods have been developed for genetic engineering of fungi, enabling metabolic engineering of fungal species. For example, genetic modification of yeast species—which are easy to grow at fast rates in large fermentation vessels—has opened up ways of pharmaceutical production that are potentially more efficient than production by the original source organisms. Fungi-based industries are sometimes considered to be a major part of a growing bioeconomy, with applications under research and development including use for textiles, meat substitution and general fungal biotechnology. ### Therapeutic uses #### Modern chemotherapeutics Many species produce metabolites that are major sources of pharmacologically active drugs. ##### Antibiotics Particularly important are the antibiotics, including the penicillins, a structurally related group of β-lactam antibiotics that are synthesized from small peptides. Although naturally occurring penicillins such as penicillin G (produced by *Penicillium chrysogenum*) have a relatively narrow spectrum of biological activity, a wide range of other penicillins can be produced by chemical modification of the natural penicillins. Modern penicillins are semisynthetic compounds, obtained initially from fermentation cultures, but then structurally altered for specific desirable properties. Other antibiotics produced by fungi include: ciclosporin, commonly used as an immunosuppressant during transplant surgery; and fusidic acid, used to help control infection from methicillin-resistant *Staphylococcus aureus* bacteria. Widespread use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and others began in the early 20th century and continues to date. In nature, antibiotics of fungal or bacterial origin appear to play a dual role: at high concentrations they act as chemical defense against competition with other microorganisms in species-rich environments, such as the rhizosphere, and at low concentrations as quorum-sensing molecules for intra- or interspecies signaling. ##### Other Other drugs produced by fungi include griseofulvin isolated from *Penicillium griseofulvum*, used to treat fungal infections, and statins (HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors), used to inhibit cholesterol synthesis. Examples of statins found in fungi include mevastatin from *Penicillium citrinum* and lovastatin from *Aspergillus terreus* and the oyster mushroom. Psilocybin from fungi is investigated for therapeutic use and appears to cause global increases in brain network integration. Fungi produce compounds that inhibit viruses and cancer cells. Specific metabolites, such as polysaccharide-K, ergotamine, and β-lactam antibiotics, are routinely used in clinical medicine. The shiitake mushroom is a source of lentinan, a clinical drug approved for use in cancer treatments in several countries, including Japan. In Europe and Japan, polysaccharide-K (brand name Krestin), a chemical derived from *Trametes versicolor*, is an approved adjuvant for cancer therapy. ### Traditional medicine Upper surface view of a kidney-shaped fungus, brownish-red with a lighter yellow-brown margin, and a somewhat varnished or shiny appearanceTwo dried yellow-orange caterpillars, one with a curly grayish fungus growing out of one of its ends. The grayish fungus is roughly equal to or slightly greater in length than the caterpillar, and tapers in thickness to a narrow end.The fungi *Ganoderma lucidum* (left) and *Ophiocordyceps sinensis* (right) are used in traditional medicine practices Certain mushrooms are used as supposed therapeutics in folk medicine practices, such as traditional Chinese medicine. Mushrooms with a history of such use include *Agaricus subrufescens*, *Ganoderma lucidum*, and *Ophiocordyceps sinensis*. ### Cultured foods Baker's yeast or *Saccharomyces cerevisiae*, a unicellular fungus, is used to make bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza dough and dumplings. Yeast species of the genus *Saccharomyces* are also used to produce alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Shoyu koji mold (*Aspergillus oryzae*) is an essential ingredient in brewing Shoyu (soy sauce) and sake, and the preparation of miso, while *Rhizopus* species are used for making tempeh. Several of these fungi are domesticated species that were bred or selected according to their capacity to ferment food without producing harmful mycotoxins (see below), which are produced by very closely related *Aspergilli*. Quorn, a meat substitute, is made from *Fusarium venenatum*. ### In food Edible mushrooms include commercially raised and wild-harvested fungi. *Agaricus bisporus*, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, is the most widely cultivated species in the West, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have increased in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (*Volvariella volvacea*), oyster mushrooms (*Pleurotus ostreatus*), shiitakes (*Lentinula edodes*), and enokitake (*Flammulina* spp.). Many other mushroom species are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and *porcini* mushrooms (*Boletus edulis*) (also known as king boletes) demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes. Certain types of cheeses require inoculation of milk curds with fungal species that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Examples include the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort, which are made by inoculation with *Penicillium roqueforti*. Molds used in cheese production are non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate because of growth of other fungi during cheese ripening or storage. ### Poisonous fungi Many mushroom species are poisonous to humans and cause a range of reactions including slight digestive problems, allergic reactions, hallucinations, severe organ failure, and death. Genera with mushrooms containing deadly toxins include *Conocybe*, *Galerina*, *Lepiota* and the most infamous, *Amanita*. The latter genus includes the destroying angel *(A. virosa)* and the death cap *(A. phalloides)*, the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel (*Gyromitra esculenta*) is occasionally considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. *Tricholoma equestre* was considered edible until it was implicated in serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Fly agaric mushrooms (*Amanita muscaria*) also cause occasional non-fatal poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for its hallucinogenic properties. Historically, fly agaric was used by different peoples in Europe and Asia and its present usage for religious or shamanic purposes is reported from some ethnic groups such as the Koryak people of northeastern Siberia. As it is difficult to accurately identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, it is often advised to assume that a wild mushroom is poisonous and not to consume it. ### Pest control In agriculture, fungi may be useful if they actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms such as bacteria or other fungi via the competitive exclusion principle, or if they are parasites of these pathogens. For example, certain species eliminate or suppress the growth of harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes, and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. This has generated strong interest in practical applications that use these fungi in the biological control of these agricultural pests. Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Examples that have been used as biological insecticides are *Beauveria bassiana*, *Metarhizium* spp., *Hirsutella* spp., *Paecilomyces* (*Isaria*) spp., and *Lecanicillium lecanii*. Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus *Epichloë*, such as *E. coenophiala*, produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. These alkaloids protect grass plants from herbivory, but several endophyte alkaloids can poison grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. Infecting cultivars of pasture or forage grasses with *Epichloë* endophytes is one approach being used in grass breeding programs; the fungal strains are selected for producing only alkaloids that increase resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock. ### Bioremediation Certain fungi, in particular white-rot fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Fungi have been shown to biomineralize uranium oxides, suggesting they may have application in the bioremediation of radioactively polluted sites. ### Model organisms Several pivotal discoveries in biology were made by researchers using fungi as model organisms, that is, fungi that grow and sexually reproduce rapidly in the laboratory. For example, the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis was formulated by scientists using the bread mold *Neurospora crassa* to test their biochemical theories. Other important model fungi are *Aspergillus nidulans* and the yeasts *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* and *Schizosaccharomyces pombe*, each of which with a long history of use to investigate issues in eukaryotic cell biology and genetics, such as cell cycle regulation, chromatin structure, and gene regulation. Other fungal models have emerged that address specific biological questions relevant to medicine, plant pathology, and industrial uses; examples include *Candida albicans*, a dimorphic, opportunistic human pathogen, *Magnaporthe grisea*, a plant pathogen, and *Pichia pastoris*, a yeast widely used for eukaryotic protein production. ### Others Fungi are used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like citric, gluconic, lactic, and malic acids, and industrial enzymes, such as lipases used in biological detergents, cellulases used in making cellulosic ethanol and stonewashed jeans, and amylases, invertases, proteases and xylanases. See also -------- * Conservation of fungi * Fantastic Fungi * Glossary of mycology * Marine fungi * Fungal infection * Outline of fungi * Fungi in art References ---------- ### Cited literature * Ainsworth GC (1976). *Introduction to the History of Mycology*. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-11295-6. * Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996). *Introductory Mycology*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-52229-4. * Deacon J (2005). *Fungal Biology*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4051-3066-0. * Hall IR (2003). *Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World*. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 978-0-88192-586-9. * Hanson JR (2008). *The Chemistry of Fungi*. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN 978-0-85404-136-7. * Jennings DH, Lysek G (1996). *Fungal Biology: Understanding the Fungal Lifestyle*. Guildford, UK: Bios Scientific Publishers Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85996-150-6. * Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). *Dictionary of the Fungi* (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. ISBN 978-0-85199-826-8. * Taylor EL, Taylor TN (1993). *The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants*. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-651589-0.

Fungus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus

**Cantonese** (traditional Chinese: 廣東話; simplified Chinese: 广东话; Jyutping: *Gwong2 dung1 waa2*; Cantonese Yale: *Gwóngdūng wá*) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding Pearl River Delta. It is the traditional prestige variety of the Yue Chinese group, which has over 82.4 million native speakers. While the term *Cantonese* specifically refers to the prestige variety, it is often used to refer to the entire Yue subgroup of Chinese, including related but partially mutually intelligible varieties like Taishanese. Cantonese is viewed as a vital and inseparable part of the cultural identity for its native speakers across large swaths of Southeastern China, Hong Kong and Macau, as well as in overseas communities. In mainland China, it is the *lingua franca* of the province of Guangdong (being the majority language of the Pearl River Delta) and neighbouring areas such as Guangxi. It is also the dominant and co-official language of Hong Kong and Macau. Cantonese is also widely spoken amongst Overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia (most notably in Vietnam and Malaysia, as well as in Singapore and Cambodia to a lesser extent) and throughout the Western world. Although Cantonese shares much vocabulary with Mandarin and other varieties of Chinese, these Sinitic languages are mutually unintelligible, largely because of phonological differences, but also due to the differences in grammar and vocabulary. Sentence structure, in particular the verb placement, sometimes differs between the two varieties. A notable difference between Cantonese and Mandarin is how the spoken word is written; both can be recorded verbatim, but very few Cantonese speakers are knowledgeable in the full Cantonese written vocabulary, so a non-verbatim formalized written form is adopted, which is more akin to the written Standard Mandarin. However, it is only non-verbatim with respect to vernacular Cantonese as it is possible to read Standard Chinese text verbatim in formal Cantonese with only slight changes in lexicon. This results in the situation in which a Cantonese and a Mandarin text may look similar but are pronounced differently. Conversely, written (vernacular) Cantonese is mostly used in informal settings like social media and comic books. Names of Cantonese ------------------ In English, the term "Cantonese" can be ambiguous. "Cantonese" as used to refer to the language native to the city of Canton, which is the traditional English name of Guangzhou, was popularized by *An English and Cantonese Pocket Dictionary* (1859), a bestseller by the missionary John Chalmers. Before 1859, this variant was often referred to in English as "the Canton dialect". However, "Cantonese" may also refer to the primary branch of Chinese that contains Cantonese proper as well as Taishanese and Gaoyang; this broader usage may be specified as "Yue speech" (粵語; 粤语; *Yuhtyúh*). In this article, "Cantonese" is used for Cantonese proper. Historically, speakers called this variety "Canton speech" (廣州話; 广州话; *Gwóngjāu wá*), although this term is now seldom used outside mainland China. In Guangdong and Guangxi, people also call it "provincial capital speech" (省城話; 省城话; *Sáangsìng wá*) or "plain speech" (白話; 白话; *Baahkwá*). In academic linguistic circles, it is also referred to as "Canton prefecture speech" (廣府話; 广府话; *Gwóngfú wá*). In Hong Kong and Macau, as well as among overseas Chinese communities, the language is referred to as "Guangdong speech" or "Canton Province Speech" (廣東話; 广东话; *Gwóngdūng wá*) or simply as "Chinese" (中文; *Jūngmán*). History ------- During the Southern Song period, Guangzhou became the cultural center of the region. Cantonese emerged as the prestige variety of Yue Chinese when the port city of Guangzhou on the Pearl River Delta became the largest port in China, with a trade network stretching as far as Arabia. Cantonese was also used in the popular *Yuè'ōu*, *Mùyú* and *Nányīn* folksong genres, as well as Cantonese opera. Additionally, a distinct classical literature was developed in Cantonese, with Middle Chinese texts sounding more similar to modern Cantonese than other present-day Chinese varieties, including Mandarin. As Guangzhou became China's key commercial center for foreign trade and exchange in the 1700s, Cantonese became the variety of Chinese interacting most with the Western World. Around this period and continuing into the 1900s, the ancestors of most of the population of Hong Kong and Macau arrived from Guangzhou and surrounding areas after they were ceded to Britain and Portugal, respectively. In Mainland China, Standard Mandarin has been heavily promoted as the medium of instruction in schools and as the official language, especially after the communist takeover in 1949. Meanwhile, Cantonese has remained the official variety of Chinese in Hong Kong and Macau, both during and after the colonial period. Geographic distribution ----------------------- ### Hong Kong and Macau The official languages of Hong Kong are Chinese and English, as defined in the Hong Kong Basic Law. The Chinese language has many different varieties, of which Cantonese is one. Given the traditional predominance of Cantonese within Hong Kong, it is the *de facto* official spoken form of the Chinese language used in the Hong Kong Government and all courts and tribunals. It is also used as the medium of instruction in schools, alongside English. A similar situation also exists in neighboring Macau, where Chinese is an official language alongside Portuguese. As in Hong Kong, Cantonese is the predominant spoken variety of Chinese used in everyday life and is thus the official form of Chinese used in the government. The Cantonese spoken in Hong Kong and Macau is mutually intelligible with the Cantonese spoken in the mainland city of Guangzhou, although there exist some minor differences in accent, pronunciation, and vocabulary. ### China Cantonese first developed around the port city of Guangzhou in the Pearl River Delta region of southeastern China. Due to the city's long standing role as an important cultural center, Cantonese emerged as the prestige dialect of the Yue varieties of Chinese in the Southern Song dynasty and its usage spread around most of what is now the provinces of Guangdong and Guangxi. Despite the cession of Macau to Portugal in 1557 and Hong Kong to Britain in 1842, the ethnic Chinese population of the two territories largely originated from the 19th and 20th century immigration from Guangzhou and surrounding areas, making Cantonese the predominant Chinese language in the territories. On the mainland, Cantonese continued to serve as the *lingua franca* of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces even after Mandarin was made the official language of the government by the Qing dynasty in the early 1900s. Cantonese remained a dominant and influential language in southeastern China until the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and its promotion of Standard Mandarin Chinese as the sole official language of the nation throughout the last half of the 20th century, although its influence still remains strong within the region. While the Chinese government encourages the use of Standard Mandarin rather than local varieties of Chinese in broadcasts, Cantonese enjoys a relatively higher standing than other Chinese languages, with its own media and usage in public transportation in Guangdong province. Furthermore, it is also a medium of instruction in select academic curricula, including some university elective courses and Chinese as a foreign language programs. The permitted usage of Cantonese in mainland China is largely a countermeasure against Hong Kong's influence, as the autonomous territory has the right to freedom of the press and speech and its Cantonese-language media have a substantial exposure and following in Guangdong. Nevertheless, the place of local Cantonese language and culture remains contentious, as with other non-Mandarin Chinese languages. A 2010 proposal to switch some programming on Guangzhou television from Cantonese to Mandarin was abandoned following massive public protests, the largest since the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. As a major economic center of China, there have been concerns that the use of Cantonese in Guangzhou is diminishing in favour of Mandarin, both through the continual influx of Mandarin-speaking migrants from impoverished areas and strict government policies. As a result, Cantonese is being given a more important status by the natives than ever before as a common identity of the local people. This has lead to initiatives to revive the language such as its introduction into school curricula and locally produced programs on broadcast media. ### Southeast Asia Cantonese has historically served as a *lingua franca* among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia, who speak a variety of other forms of Chinese including Hokkien, Teochew, and Hakka. Additionally, Cantonese media and popular culture from Hong Kong is popular throughout the region. #### Vietnam In Vietnam, Cantonese is the dominant language of the main ethnic Chinese community, usually referred to as *Hoa*, which numbers about one million people and constitutes one of the largest minority groups in the country. Over half of the ethnic Chinese population in Vietnam speaks Cantonese as a native language and the variety also serves as a lingua franca between the different Chinese dialect groups. Many speakers reflect their exposure to Vietnamese with a Vietnamese accent or a tendency to code-switch between Cantonese and Vietnamese. #### Malaysia In Malaysia, Cantonese is widely spoken amongst the Malaysian Chinese community in the capital city of Kuala Lumpur and the surrounding areas in the Klang Valley (Petaling Jaya, Ampang, Cheras, Selayang, Sungai Buloh, Puchong, Shah Alam, Kajang, Bangi, and Subang Jaya). The language is also widely spoken as well in the town of Sekinchan in the district of Sabak Bernam located in the northern part of Selangor state and also in the state of Perak, especially in the state capital city of Ipoh and its surrounding towns of Gopeng, Batu Gajah, and Kampar of the Kinta Valley region plus the towns of Tapah and Bidor in the southern part of the Perak state, and also widely spoken in the eastern Sabahan town of Sandakan as well as the towns of Kuantan, Raub, Bentong, and Mentakab in Pahang state, and they are also found in other areas like Sarikei, Sarawak, and Mersing, Johor. Although Hokkien is the most natively spoken variety of Chinese and Mandarin is the medium of education at Chinese-language schools, Cantonese is largely influential in the local Chinese media and is used in commerce by Chinese Malaysians. Due to the popularity of Hong Kong popular culture, especially through drama series and popular music, Cantonese is widely understood by the Chinese in all parts of Malaysia, even though a large proportion of the Chinese Malaysian population is non-Cantonese. Television networks in Malaysia regularly broadcast Hong Kong television programmes in their original Cantonese audio and soundtrack. Cantonese radio is also available in the nation and Cantonese is prevalent in locally produced Chinese television. Cantonese spoken in Malaysia and Singapore often exhibits influences from Malay and other Chinese varieties spoken in the country, like Hokkien and Teochew. #### Singapore Singapore government use Mandarin as the official Chinese variety and has a Speak Mandarin Campaign (SMC) seeking to actively promote using Mandarin at the expense of other Chinese varieties. A little over 15% of Chinese households in Singapore speak Cantonese. Despite the government actively promotes SMC, the Cantonese-speaking Chinese community has been relatively successful in preserving its language from Mandarin compared to other dialect groups. Notably, all nationally produced non-Mandarin Chinese TV and radio programs were stopped after 1979. The prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew, then, also stopped giving speeches in Hokkien to prevent giving conflicting signals to the people. Hong Kong (Cantonese) and Taiwanese dramas are unavailable in their untranslated form on free-to-air television, though drama series in non-Chinese languages are available in their original languages. Cantonese drama series on terrestrial TV channels are instead dubbed in Mandarin and broadcast without the original Cantonese audio and soundtrack. However, originals may be available through other sources like cable television and online videos. Furthermore, an offshoot of SMC is the translation to Hanyu Pinyin of certain terms which originated from southern Chinese varieties. For instance, dim sum is often known as *diǎn xīn* in Singapore's English-language media, though this is largely a matter of style, and most Singaporeans will still refer to it as *dim sum* when speaking English. Nevertheless, since the government restriction on media in non-Mandarin varieties was relaxed in the mid-1990s and 2000s, presence of Cantonese in Singapore has grown substantially. Forms of popular culture from Hong Kong, like television series, cinema and pop music have become popular in Singaporean society, and non-dubbed original versions of the media became widely available. Consequently, number of non-Cantonese Chinese Singaporeans being able to understand or speak Cantonese to some varying extent is growing, with a number of educational institutes offering Cantonese as an elective language course. #### Cambodia Cantonese is widely used as the inter-communal language among Chinese Cambodians, especially in Phnom Penh and other urban areas. While Teochew speakers form the majority of the Chinese population in Cambodia, Cantonese is often used as a vernacular in commerce and with other Chinese variant groups in the nation. Chinese-language schools in Cambodia are conducted in both Cantonese and Mandarin, but schools may be conducted exclusively in one Chinese variant or the other. #### Thailand While Thailand is home to the largest overseas Chinese community in the world, the vast majority of ethnic Chinese in the country speak Thai exclusively. Among Chinese-speaking Thai households, Cantonese is the fourth most-spoken Chinese variety after Teochew, Hakka and Hainanese. Nevertheless, within the Thai Chinese commercial sector, it serves as a common language alongside Teochew or Thai. Chinese-language schools in Thailand have also traditionally been conducted in Cantonese. Furthermore, Cantonese serves as the lingua franca with other Chinese communities in the region. #### Indonesia In Indonesia, Cantonese is locally known as *Konghu* and is one of the variants spoken by the Chinese Indonesian community, with speakers largely concentrated in major cities like Jakarta, Surabaya and Batam. However, it has a relatively minor presence compared to other Southeast Asian nations, being the fourth most spoken Chinese variety after Hokkien, Hakka and Teochew. ### North America #### United States 458,840 Americans spoke Cantonese at home according to a 2005–2009 American Community Survey. Over a period of 150 years,[*specify*] Guangdong has been the place-of-origin for most Chinese emigrants to Western nations; one coastal county, Taishan (or Tóisàn, where the Sìyì or *sei yap* variety of Yue is spoken), alone may be the origin of the vast majority of Chinese immigrants to the U.S. before 1965. As a result, Yue languages such as Cantonese and the closely related variety of Taishanese have been the major Chinese varieties traditionally spoken in the United States. The Zhongshan variant of Cantonese, which originated from the western Pearl River Delta, is spoken by many Chinese immigrants in Hawaii, and some in San Francisco and the Sacramento River Delta (see Locke, California). It is a Yuehai variety much like Guangzhou Cantonese but has "flatter" tones. Chinese is the second most widely spoken non-English language in the United States when both Cantonese and Mandarin are combined, behind Spanish. Many institutes of higher education have traditionally had Chinese programs based on Cantonese, with some continuing to offer these programs despite the rise of Mandarin. The most popular romanization for learning Cantonese in the United States is Yale Romanization. The majority of Chinese emigrants have traditionally originated from Guangdong and Guangxi, as well as Hong Kong and Macau (beginning in the latter half of the 20th century and before the Handover) and Southeast Asia, with Cantonese as their native language. However, more recent immigrants are arriving from the rest of mainland China and Taiwan and most often speak Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) as their native language, although some may also speak their native local variety, such as Shanghainese, Hokkien, Fuzhounese, Hakka, etc. As a result, Mandarin is becoming more common among the Chinese American community. The increase of Mandarin-speaking communities has resulted in the rise of separate neighborhoods or enclaves segregated by the primary Chinese variety spoken. Socioeconomic statuses are also a factor. For example, in New York City, Cantonese still predominates in the city's older, traditional western portion of Chinatown in Manhattan and in Brooklyn's small new Chinatowns in Bensonhurst and Homecrest. The newly emerged Little Fuzhou eastern portion of Manhattan's Chinatown and Brooklyn's main large Chinatown in and around Sunset Park are mostly populated by Fuzhounese speakers, who often speak Mandarin as well. The Cantonese and Fuzhounese enclaves in New York City are more working class. However, due to the rapid gentrification of Manhattan's Chinatown and with NYC's Cantonese and Fuzhou populations now increasingly shifting to other Chinese enclaves in the Outer Boroughs of NYC, such as Brooklyn and Queens, but mainly in Brooklyn's newer Chinatowns, the Cantonese speaking population in NYC is now increasingly concentrated in Bensonhurst's Little Hong Kong/Guangdong and Homecrest's Little Hong Kong/Guangdong. The Fuzhou population of NYC is becoming increasingly concentrated in Brooklyn's Sunset Park, also known as Little Fuzhou, which is causing the city's growing Cantonese and Fuzhou enclaves to become increasingly distanced and isolated from both each other and other Chinese enclaves in Queens. Flushing's Chinatown, which is now the largest Chinatown in the city, and Elmhurst's smaller Chinatown in Queens are very diverse, with large numbers of Mandarin speakers from different regions of China and Taiwan. The Chinatowns of Queens comprise the primary cultural center for New York City's Chinese population and are more middle class. In Northern California, especially the San Francisco Bay Area, Cantonese has historically and continues to dominate in the Chinatowns of San Francisco and Oakland, as well as the surrounding suburbs and metropolitan area, although since the late 2000s a concentration of Mandarin speakers has formed in Silicon Valley. In contrast, Southern California hosts a much larger Mandarin-speaking population, with Cantonese found in more historical Chinese communities such as that of Chinatown, Los Angeles, and older Chinese ethnoburbs such as San Gabriel, Rosemead, and Temple City. Mandarin predominates in much of the emergent Chinese American enclaves in eastern Los Angeles County and other areas of the metropolitan region. While a number of more-established Taiwanese immigrants have learned Cantonese to foster relations with the traditional Cantonese-speaking Chinese American population, more recent arrivals and the larger number of mainland Chinese immigrants have largely continued to use Mandarin as the exclusive variety of Chinese. This has led to a linguistic discrimination that has also contributed to social conflicts between the two sides, with a growing number of Chinese Americans (including American-born Chinese) of Cantonese background defending the historic Chinese-American culture against the impacts of increasing Mandarin-speaking new arrivals. #### Canada Cantonese is the most common Chinese variety spoken among Chinese Canadians. According to the Canada 2016 Census, there were 565,275 Canadian residents who reported Cantonese as their native language. Among the self-reported Cantonese speakers, 44% were born in Hong Kong, 27% were born in Guangdong Province in China, and 18% were Canadian-born. Cantonese-speakers can be found in every city with a Chinese community. The majority of Cantonese-speakers in Canada live in the Greater Toronto Area and Metro Vancouver. There are sufficient Cantonese-speakers in Canada that there exist locally-produced Cantonese TV and radio programming, such as Fairchild TV. As in the United States, the Chinese Canadian community traces its roots to early immigrants from Guangdong during the latter half of the 19th century. Later Chinese immigrants came from Hong Kong in two waves, first in the late 1960s to mid 1970s, and again in the 1980s to late 1990s on fears arising from the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests and impending handover to the People's Republic of China. Chinese-speaking immigrants from conflict zones in Southeast Asia, especially Vietnam, arrived as well, beginning in the mid-1970s and were also largely Cantonese-speaking. ### Western Europe #### United Kingdom The overwhelming majority of Chinese speakers in the United Kingdom use Cantonese, with about 300,000 British people claiming it as their first language. This is largely due to the presence of British Hong Kongers and the fact that many British Chinese also have origins in the former British colonies in Southeast Asia of Singapore and Malaysia. #### France Among the Chinese community in France, Cantonese is spoken by immigrants who fled the former French Indochina (Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) following the conflicts and communist takeovers in the region during the 1970s. While a slight majority of ethnic Chinese from Indochina speak Teochew at home, knowledge of Cantonese is prevalent due to its historic prestige status in the region and is used for commercial and community purposes between the different Chinese variety groups. As in the United States, there is a divide between Cantonese-speakers and those speaking other mainland Chinese varieties. #### Portugal Cantonese is spoken by ethnic Chinese in Portugal who originate from Macau, the most established Chinese community in the nation with a presence dating back to the 16th century and Portuguese colonialism. Since the late-20th century, however, Mandarin- and Wu-speaking migrants from mainland China have outnumbered those from Macau, although Cantonese is still retained among mainstream Chinese community associations. ### Australia Cantonese has been the dominant Chinese language of the Chinese Australian community since the first ethnic Chinese settlers arrived in the 1850s. It maintained this status until the mid-2000s, when a heavy increase in immigration from Mandarin-speakers largely from Mainland China led to Mandarin surpassing Cantonese as the dominant Chinese dialect spoken. Cantonese is the third most-spoken language in Australia. In the 2011 census, the Australian Bureau of Statistics listed 336,410 and 263,673 speakers of Mandarin and Cantonese, respectively. By 2016, those numbers became 596,711 and 280,943. Cultural role ------------- Spoken Chinese has numerous regional and local varieties, many of which are mutually unintelligible. Most of these are rare outside their native areas, though they may be spoken outside of China. Many varieties also have Literary and colloquial readings of Chinese characters for newer standard reading sounds. Since a 1909 Qing dynasty decree, China has promoted Mandarin for use in education, the media, and official communications. The proclamation of Mandarin as the official national language, however, was not fully accepted by the Cantonese authorities in the early 20th century, who argued for the "regional uniqueness" of their own local language and commercial importance of the region. Unlike other non-Mandarin Chinese varieties, Cantonese persists in a few state television and radio broadcasts today. Nevertheless, there have been recent attempts to minimize the use of Cantonese in China. The most notable has been the 2010 proposal that Guangzhou Television increase its broadcast in Mandarin at the expense of Cantonese programs. This however led to protests in Guangzhou, which eventually dissuaded authorities from going forward with the proposal. Additionally, there are reports of students being punished for speaking other Chinese languages at school, resulting in a reluctance of younger children to communicate in their native languages, including Cantonese. Such actions have further provoked Cantonese speakers to cherish their linguistic identity in contrast to migrants who have generally arrived from poorer areas of China and largely speak Mandarin or other Chinese languages. Due to the linguistic history of Hong Kong and Macau, and the use of Cantonese in many established overseas Chinese communities, the use of Cantonese is quite widespread compared to the presence of its speakers residing in China. Cantonese is the predominant Chinese variety spoken in Hong Kong and Macau. In these areas, public discourse takes place almost exclusively in Cantonese, making it the only variety of Chinese other than Mandarin to be used as an official language in the world. Because of their dominance in Chinese diaspora overseas, standard Cantonese and its dialect Taishanese are among the most common Chinese languages that one may encounter in the West. Increasingly since the 1997 Handover, Cantonese has been used as a symbol of local identity in Hong Kong, largely through the development of democracy in the territory and desinicization practices to emphasise a separate Hong Kong identity. A similar identity issue exists in the United States, where conflicts have arisen among Chinese-speakers due to a large recent influx of Mandarin-speakers. While older Taiwanese immigrants have learned Cantonese to foster integration within the traditional Chinese American populations, more recent arrivals from the Mainland continue to use Mandarin exclusively. This has contributed to a segregation of communities based on linguistic cleavage. In particular, some Chinese Americans (including American-born Chinese) of Cantonese background emphasise their non-Mainland origins (e.g. Hong Kong, Macau, Vietnam, etc.) to assert their identity in the face of new waves of immigration. Along with Mandarin and Hokkien, Cantonese has its own popular music, Cantopop, which is the predominant genre in Hong Kong. Many artists from the Mainland and Taiwan have learned Cantonese to break into the market. Popular native Mandarin-speaking singers, including Faye Wong, Eric Moo, and singers from Taiwan, have been trained in Cantonese to add "Hong Kong-ness" to their performances. Cantonese films date to the early days of Chinese cinema, and the first Cantonese talkie, *White Gold Dragon* (白金龍), was made in 1932 by the Tianyi Film Company. Despite a ban on Cantonese films by the Nanjing authority in the 1930s, Cantonese film production continued in Hong Kong which was then under British colonial rule. From the mid-1970s to the 1990s, Cantonese films made in Hong Kong were very popular in the Chinese speaking world. Phonology --------- ### Initials and finals The *de facto* standard Cantonese pronunciation is that of Canton (Guangzhou). Hong Kong Cantonese has some minor phonology variations but is almost identical to standard Guangzhou Cantonese. Hong Kong and Macau merge certain phoneme pairs. Although termed as "lazy sound/pronunciation" (懶音) and considered substandard to Guangzhou pronunciation, the phenomenon has been widespread in the territories since the early 20th century. The most notable difference between Hong Kong and Guangzhou pronunciation is substituting liquid nasal /l/ for nasal initial /n/ in many words. An example is manifested in the word for you (你), pronounced as [nei˩˧] in Guangzhou and as [lei˩˧] in Hong Kong. Another key feature of Hong Kong Cantonese is the two syllabic nasals /ŋ̩/ and /m̩/ merging. This can be exemplified in the elimination of the contrast of sounds between 吳 (Ng, a surname) ([ŋ̩˩] in Guangzhou pronunciation) and 唔 (not) ([m̩˩] in Guangzhou pronunciation). Hong Kong Cantonese pronounce both words as the latter. Lastly, the initials /kʷ/ and /kʷʰ/ are merging into /k/ and /kʰ/ when followed by /ɔː/. An example is in the word for country (國), pronounced in standard Guangzhou as *[kʷɔk]* but as *[kɔk]* with the merge. Unlike the above two differences, this merge is alongside the standard pronunciation in Hong Kong rather than being replaced. Educated speakers often stick to the standard pronunciation but can exemplify the merged pronunciation in casual speech. In contrast, less educated speakers pronounce the merge more frequently. Less prevalent, but still notable differences found among a number of Hong Kong speakers include: * Merging /ŋ/ initial into null initial * Merging /ŋ/ and /k/ codas into /n/ and /t/ codas respectively, eliminating contrast between these pairs of finals (except after /e/ and /o/[*clarification needed*]): /aːn/-/aːŋ/, /aːt/-/aːk/, /ɐn/-/ɐŋ/, /ɐt/-/ɐk/, /ɔːn/-/ɔːŋ/ and /ɔːt/-/ɔːk/. * Merging the rising tones (陰上 2nd and 陽上 5th). Cantonese vowels tend to be traced further back to Middle Chinese than their Mandarin analogues, such as M. /aɪ/ vs. C. /ɔːi/; M. /i/ vs. C. /ɐi/; M. /ɤ/ vs. C. /ɔː/; M. /ɑʊ/ vs. C. /ou/ etc. For consonants, some differences include M. /ɕ, tɕ, tɕʰ/ vs. C. /h, k, kʰ/; M. /ʐ/ vs. C. /j/; and a greater syllable coda diversity in Cantonese (like syllables ending in *-p*, *-t* or *-k*). ### Tones Generally speaking, Cantonese is a tonal language with six phonetic tones, two more than the four in Standard Chinese Mandarin. This makes Cantonese in general harder to master due to required ability of users to readily be able to process two additional phonetic tones. People who grew up using Cantonese tones can usually hear the tonal differences with no problem, but adults who were brought up speaking non-tonal languages like English and most Western European languages may not be able to distinguish the tonal differences quick enough to optimally utilise the language. This difficulty also applies to tonal language speakers with fewer tones attempting to master languages with more tones such as Mandarin natives trying to learn spoken Cantonese as adults. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered as "checked tones" and treated separately by diachronic convention, identifying Cantonese with nine tones (九声六调). However, these are seldom counted as phonemic tones in modern linguistics, which prefer to analyse them as conditioned by the following consonant. | Syllable type | | | --- | --- | | Tone name | dark flat(陰平) | dark rising(陰上) | dark departing(陰去) | light flat(陽平) | light rising(陽上) | light departing(陽去) | | Description | high level,high falling | medium rising | medium level | low falling,very low level | low rising | low level | | Yale or Jyutpingtone number | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | | Example | 詩 | 史 | 試 | 時 | 市 | 是 | | Tone letter | siː˥, siː˥˧ | siː˧˥ | siː˧ | siː˨˩, siː˩ | siː˩˧ | siː˨ | | IPA diacritic | síː, sîː | sǐː | sīː | si̖ː, sı̏ː | si̗ː | sìː | | Yale diacritic | sī, sì | sí | si | sìh | síh | sih | Written Cantonese ----------------- As Cantonese is used primarily in Hong Kong, Macau, and other overseas Chinese communities, it is usually written with traditional Chinese characters. However, it has extra characters as well as characters with different meanings from written vernacular Chinese due to the presence of words that either are not in standard Chinese or correspond with spoken Cantonese. This written Cantonese system often appear in colloquial contexts like entertainment magazines, social media and advertisements. In contrast, formal literature, professional and government documents, television and movie subtitles, and news media continues to be use standard written Chinese. Nevertheless, colloquial characters may be present in formal written communications such as legal testimonies and newspapers when an individual is being quoted, rather than paraphrasing spoken Cantonese into standard written Chinese. Romanization ------------ Cantonese romanization systems are based on the accents of Canton and Hong Kong, and have helped define the concept of Standard Cantonese. The major systems are: Jyutping, Yale, the Chinese government's Guangdong Romanization, and Meyer–Wempe. While they do not differ greatly, Jyutping and Yale are the two most used and taught systems today in the West. Additionally, Hong Kong linguist Sidney Lau modified the Yale system for his popular Cantonese-as-a-second-language course and is still in use today. While Hong Kong and Macau governments utilize a romanization system for proper names and geographic locations, they transcript some sounds inconsistently and the systems are not taught in schools. Macau system differs slightly from Hong Kong's in that the spellings are influenced by Portuguese language due to colonial history. For example, while some words in Macau's romanization system are the same as Hong Kong's (e.g. surnames *Lam* 林, *Chan* 陳), instances of the letter ⟨u⟩ under Hong Kong's romanization system are often replaced by ⟨o⟩ in Macau romanization system (e.g. *Chau* vs *Chao* 周, *Leung* vs *Leong* 梁). Both the spellings of Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese romanization systems do not look similar to mainland China's pinyin system. Generally, plain stops are written with voiced consonants (/p/, /t/, /ts/, and /k/ as *b*, *d*, *z/j*, and *g* respectively), and aspirated stops with unvoiced ones, as in pinyin. ### Early Western efforts Systematic efforts to develop an alphabetic representation of Cantonese began with Protestant missionaries arriving in China early in the nineteenth century. Romanization was considered both a tool to help new missionaries learn the variety more easily and a quick route for the unlettered to achieve gospel literacy. Earlier Catholic missionaries, mostly Portuguese, had developed romanization schemes for the pronunciation current in the court and capital city of China but made few efforts to romanize other varieties. Robert Morrison, the first Protestant missionary in China published a "Vocabulary of the Canton Dialect" (1828) with a rather unsystematic romanized pronunciation. Elijah Coleman Bridgman and Samuel Wells Williams in their "Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect" (1841) were the progenitors of a long-lived lineage of related romanizations with minor variations embodied in the works of James Dyer Ball, Ernst Johann Eitel, and Immanuel Gottlieb Genähr (1910). Bridgman and Williams based their system on the phonetic alphabet and diacritics proposed by Sir William Jones for South Asian languages. Their romanization system embodied the phonological system in a local dialect rhyme dictionary, *Fenyun cuoyao*, which was widely used and easily available at the time and is still available today. Samuel Wells Willams' *Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in the Canton Dialect* (*Yinghua fenyun cuoyao* 1856), is an alphabetic rearrangement, translation and annotation of the *Fenyun*. To adapt the system to the needs of users at a time when there were only local variants and no standard—although the speech of the western suburbs, *Xiguan*, of Guangzhou was the prestige variety at the time—Williams suggested that users learn and follow their teacher's pronunciation of his chart of Cantonese syllables. It was apparently Bridgman's innovation to mark the tones with an open circle (upper register tones) or an underlined open circle (lower register tones) at the four corners of the romanized word in analogy with the traditional Chinese system of marking the tone of a character with a circle (lower left for "even", upper left for "rising", upper right for "going", and lower right for "entering" tones). John Chalmers, in his "English and Cantonese pocket-dictionary" (1859) simplified the tone markings using the acute accent to mark "rising" tones and the grave to mark "going" tones and no diacritic for "even" tones and marking upper register tones by italics (or underlining in handwritten work). "Entering" tones could be distinguished by their consonant ending. Nicholas Belfeld Dennys used Chalmers romanization in his primer. This method of marking tones was adopted in the Yale romanization (with low register tones marked with an 'h'). A new romanization was developed in the first decade of the twentieth century which eliminated the diacritics on vowels by distinguishing vowel quality by spelling differences (e.g. a/aa, o/oh). Diacritics were used only for marking tones. The name of Tipson is associated with this new romanization which still embodied the phonology of the Fenyun to some extent. It is the system used in Meyer-Wempe and Cowles' dictionaries and O'Melia's textbook and many other works in the first half of the twentieth century. It was the standard romanization until the Yale system supplanted it. The distinguished linguist Y. R. Chao developed a Cantonese adaptation of his Gwoyeu Romatzyh system. The Barnett-Chao romanization system was first used in Chao's *Cantonese Primer*, published in 1947 by Harvard University Press (The *Cantonese Primer* was adapted for Mandarin teaching and published by Harvard University Press in 1948 as *Mandarin Primer*). The BC system was also used in textbooks published by the Hong Kong government. ### Cantonese romanization in Hong Kong An influential work on Cantonese, *A Chinese Syllabary Pronounced According to the Dialect of Canton,* written by Wong Shik Ling, was published in 1941. He derived an IPA-based transcription system, the S. L. Wong system, used by many Chinese dictionaries later published in Hong Kong. Although Wong also derived a romanization scheme, also known as the S. L. Wong system, it is not widely used as his transcription scheme. This system was preceded by the Barnett–Chao system used by the Hong Government Language School. Linguistic Society of Hong Kong (LSHK) advocated Jyutping romanization. The phonetic values of some consonants are closer to the approximate equivalents in IPA than in other systems. Some effort has been undertaken to promote Jyutping, but the success of its proliferation within the region has yet to be examined. Another popular scheme is Cantonese Pinyin, the only romanization system accepted by Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau and Hong Kong Examinations and Assessment Authority. Books and studies for teachers and students in primary and secondary schools usually use this scheme, but some teachers and students use S.L. Wong's transcription system. Despite the efforts to standardize Cantonese romanization, those learning the language may feel frustrated that most native Cantonese speakers, regardless of their level of education, are unfamiliar with any romanization system. Because Cantonese is primarily a spoken language and does not carry its own writing system (written Cantonese, despite having some Chinese characters unique to it, primarily follows modern standard Chinese, which is closely tied to Mandarin), it is not taught in schools. As a result, locals do not learn any of these systems. In contrast with Mandarin-speaking areas of China, Cantonese romanization systems are excluded in the education systems of both Hong Kong and the Guangdong province. In practice, Hong Kong follows a loose, unnamed romanization scheme used by the Government of Hong Kong. Google Cantonese input uses Yale, Jyutping or Cantonese Pinyin, Yale being the first standard. ### Comparison Differences between the three main standards are **highlighted in bold**. Jyutping and Cantonese Pinyin recognize certain sounds used in a few colloquial words (like /tɛːu˨/ 掉, /lɛːm˧˥/ 舔, and /kɛːp˨/ 夾) but have not been officially recognized in other systems like Yale. #### Initials | Romanization system | Initial consonant | | --- | --- | | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Sibilant | Velar | Labial–velar | Glottal | Approximant | | IPA | 幫 p | 滂 pʰ | 明 m | 非 f | 端 t | 透 tʰ | 泥 n | 來 l | 精 **ts** | 清 **tsʰ** | 心 s | 見 k | 溪kʰ | 我 ŋ | 古 kʷ | 困 kʷʰ | 曉 h | 以 **j** | 云 w | | Yale | b | p | m | f | d | t | n | l | **j** | **ch** | s | g | k | ng | gw | kw | h | **y** | w | | Cantonese Pinyin | b | p | m | f | d | t | n | l | **dz** | **ts** | s | g | k | ng | gw | kw | h | **j** | w | | Jyutping | b | p | m | f | d | t | n | l | **z** | **c** | s | g | k | ng | gw | kw | h | **j** | w | #### Finals | Romanization system | Main vowel | | --- | --- | | /aː/ | /ɐ/ | /ɛː/, /e/ | /iː/, /ɪ/ | | **IPA** | **aː** | aːi | aːu | aːm | aːn | aːŋ | aːp | aːt | aːk | **ɐ** | ɐi | ɐu | ɐm | ɐn | ɐŋ | ɐp | ɐt | ɐk | ɛː | ei | **ɛːu** | **ɛːm** | ɛːŋ | **ɛːp** | ɛːk | iː | iːu | iːm | iːn | ɪŋ | iːp | iːt | ɪk | | **Yale** | **a** | aai | aau | aam | aan | aang | aap | aat | aak | **a** | ai | au | am | an | ang | ap | at | ak | e | ei | | | eng | | ek | i | iu | im | in | ing | ip | it | ik | | **Cantonese Pinyin** | **aa** | aai | aau | aam | aan | aang | aap | aat | aak | **aa** | ai | au | am | an | ang | ap | at | ak | e | ei | **eu** | **em** | eng | **ep** | ek | i | iu | im | in | ing | ip | it | ik | | **Jyutping** | **aa** | aai | aau | aam | aan | aang | aap | aat | aak | **a** | ai | au | am | an | ang | ap | at | ak | e | ei | **eu** | **em** | eng | **ep** | ek | i | iu | im | in | ing | ip | it | ik | | Romanization system | Main vowel | Syllabic consonant | | --- | --- | --- | | /ɔː/, /o/ | /uː/, /ʊ/ | /œː/ | /ɵ/ | /yː/ | | IPA | ɔː | ɔːi | ou | ɔːn | ɔːŋ | ɔːt | ɔːk | uː | uːi | uːn | ʊŋ | uːt | ʊk | **œː** | **œːŋ** | **œːt** | **œːk** | **ɵy** | **ɵn** | **ɵt** | **yː** | **yːn** | **yːt** | m̩ | ŋ̩ | | Yale | o | oi | ou | on | ong | ot | ok | u | ui | un | ung | ut | uk | **eu** | **eung** | | **euk** | **eui** | **eun** | **eut** | **yu** | **yun** | **yut** | m | ng | | Cantonese Pinyin | o | oi | ou | on | ong | ot | ok | u | ui | un | ung | ut | uk | **oe** | **oeng** | | **oek** | **oey** | **oen** | **oet** | **y** | **yn** | **yt** | m | ng | | Jyutping | o | oi | ou | on | ong | ot | ok | u | ui | un | ung | ut | uk | **oe** | **oeng** | **oet** | **oek** | **eoi** | **eon** | **eot** | **yu** | **yun** | **yut** | m | ng | 1. 1 2 3 4 Jyutping recognizes the distinction between final "short a" /ɐ/ and "long a" /aː/. The "short a" can occur in elided syllables such as the 十 in 四十四 (sei3-a6-sei3), which the other systems would transcribe with same spelling as the "long a". #### Tones | Romanization system | Tone | | --- | --- | | Dark (陰) | Light (陽) | Checked (入聲) | | Chao Tone Contour | 55, 53 | 35 | 33 | 21, 11 | 24, 13 | 22 | 5 | 3 | 2 | | IPA Tone Letters | ˥, ˥˧ | ˧˥ | ˧ | ˨˩, ˩ | ˨˦, ˩˧ | ˨ | ˥ | ˧ | ˨ | | Yale | ā,à | á | a | àh | áh | ah | āk | ak | ahk | | Cantonese Pinyin | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | | Jyutping | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 1 | 3 | 6 | See also -------- * Cantonese grammar * Cantonese profanity * Cantonese slang * Languages of China * List of English words of Cantonese origin * List of varieties of Chinese * Protection of the Varieties of Chinese References ---------- ### Works cited * Bauer, Robert S.; Benedict, Paul K. (1997). *Modern Cantonese Phonology*. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014893-0. * Coblin, W. South (2000). "A Brief History of Mandarin". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **120** (4): 537–552. doi:10.2307/606615. JSTOR 606615. * Khanh, Tran (1993). *The Ethnic Chinese and Economic Development in Vietnam*. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-3016-66-8. * Lewis, M. Paul, ed. (2005), "Indonesia", *Ethnologue: Languages of the World* (15th ed.), Dallas, T.X.: SIL International, ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6, retrieved 26 January 2010. * Li, Qingxin (2006). *Maritime Silk Road*. trans. William W. Wang. China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 978-7-5085-0932-7. * Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (1994). *Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar*. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780203420843. * Matthews, Stephen; Yip, Virginia (2011). *Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar* (2nd ed.). * Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). *The Languages of China*. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01468-5. * Yue-Hashimoto, Anne Oi-Kan (1972). *Studies in Yue Dialects 1: Phonology of Cantonese*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08442-0. * Zhang, Bennan; Yang, Robin R. (2004). "Putonghua Education and Language Policy in Postcolonial Hong Kong". In Zhou, Minglang (ed.). *Language Policy in the People's Republic of China: Theory and Practice Since 1949*. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 143–161. ISBN 978-1-4020-8038-8. Further reading --------------- * Benoni, Lanctot (1867). *Chinese and English Phrase Book: With the Chinese Pronunciation Indicated in English*. San Francisco: A. Roman & Company. OCLC 41220764. OL 13999723M. * Bridgman, Elijah Coleman (1841). *A Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect*. Macao: S. Wells Williams. OCLC 4614795. OL 6542029M. * Matthew, W. (1880). *The Book of a Thousand Words: Translated, Annotated and Arranged So As to Indicate the Radical Number and Pronunciation (in Mandarin and Cantonese) of Each Character in the Text*. Stawell: Thomas Stubbs. OL 13996959M. * Morrison, Robert (1828). *Vocabulary of the Canton Dialect: Chinese Words and Phrases*. Macao: Steyn. hdl:2027/uc1.b4496041. OCLC 17203540. * Williams, Samuel Wells (1856). *Tonic Dictionary of the Chinese Language in The Canton Dialect*. Canton: Chinese Repository. OCLC 6512080. OL 14002589M. * Zee, Eric (1991). "Chinese (Hong Kong Cantonese)". Illustrations of the IPA. *Journal of the International Phonetic Association*. **21** (1): 46–48. doi:10.1017/S0025100300006058.

Cantonese

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantonese

A **paramilitary** is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but which is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carry out duties that a country's military or police forces are unable or unwilling to handle. Other organizations may be considered paramilitaries by structure alone, despite being unarmed or lacking a combat role. Overview -------- Though a paramilitary is, by definition, not a military, it is usually equivalent to a light infantry or special operations forces in terms of strength, firepower, and organizational structure. Paramilitaries use "military" equipment (such as long guns and armored personnel carriers; usually military surplus resources), skills (such as battlefield medicine and bomb disposal), and tactics (such as urban warfare and close-quarters combat) that are compatible with their purpose, often combining them with skills from other relevant fields such as law enforcement or search and rescue. They rarely use extensive military equipment such as artillery and armed military aircraft. In peacetime, paramilitaries are often assigned to protect high-profile sites, such as government facilities, infrastructure, airports, seaports, or borders. They may also be tasked with roles of VIP protection or counterterrorism. Depending on the organization the paramilitary operates under, they may also be reassigned until they are needed again; for example, members of a police tactical unit may be assigned to standard patrol duties until requested. A paramilitary may fall under the command of a military, train alongside them, or have permission to use their resources, despite not actually being part of them. In some instances, paramilitaries may train members of an actual military in tactics they specialize in, such as arrest procedures. Legality -------- Under the law of war, a state may incorporate a paramilitary organization or armed agency (such as a law enforcement agency or a private volunteer militia) into its combatant armed forces. The other parties to a conflict have to be notified thereof. Some countries' constitutions limit freedom of association by prohibiting paramilitary organizations outside government use. In most cases, there is no definition of paramilitary, and court decisions are responsible for defining that concept. Types ----- Depending on the definition adopted, "paramilitaries" may include: ### Military organizations * The auxiliary forces of a state's military or government, military reserve forces, such as national guard, presidential guard, republican guard, state defense force, home guard, civil guard, and royal guard forces * Colonial troops and opposing force * Private military company and mercenary forces * Irregular military forces, such as militias, militants, partisans, resistance movements, freedom fighters, rebel groups, guerrillas, insurgents, and terrorists ### Law enforcement * Semi-militarized law enforcement units within civilian paramilitary police, such as police tactical units, SWAT, Emergency Service Units, and incident response teams * Municipal, county, state, and federal law enforcement agencies, such as local police, sheriffs, state police, and federal law enforcement agency * Military police, such as Shore patrol, and Regimental police * Gendarmeries, such as the Dutch Royal Marechaussee, Egyptian Central Security Forces, European EUROGENDFOR, Turkic TAKM, and Chilean Carabineros de Chile * Border guards, such as the Australian Border Force, Indian Border Security Force, Bangladeshi Border Guards Bangladesh, and Turkish village guards * Customs * Coast guards such as Water police, and Maritime police * Security forces of ambiguous military status, such as internal troops, railroad guard corps, or railway troops * Branches of intelligence agency tasked with law enforcement or security operations: + CIA Special Activities Center Special Operations Group and Global Response Staff + Tactical federal agency branches of the American FBI, DEA, ATF, and ICE, among other federal agencies and Federales + Federal Protective Forces + NASA Emergency Response Teams ### Civil defense * Fire departments in many countries are often organized like paramilitaries despite being unarmed * Belgian Civil Protection * Singapore Civil Defence Force * Australian State Emergency Service * Ukrainian State Emergency Service and Territorial Defense Forces * Lithuanian Riflemen's Union ### Political * Armed, semi-militarized wings of existing political parties: + the Italian Fascist Party's Voluntary Militia for National Security + Weimar paramilitary groups, belonging to political parties in the Weimar Republic: - the Nazi Party's paramilitary groups: *NSFK*, *NSKK*, *SA*, and *SS* - the Monarchist German National People's Party's *Der Stahlhelm* - the Communist Party of Germany's *Parteiselbstschutz* + Northern Irish paramilitary groups during the Troubles - Sinn Féin's Irish Republican Army - DUP's Ulster Volunteer Force + Hamas' Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades + African National Congress' UMkhonto we Sizwe Examples of paramilitary units ------------------------------ See also -------- * Category:Rebel militia groups * International Association of Gendarmeries and Police Forces with Military Status * List of Serbian paramilitary formations * Militarization of police * Fourth-generation warfare * Violent non-state actor * Military urbanism * Private army * Guerrilla warfare * List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel * List of paramilitary organizations Further reading --------------- * Golkar, Saeid. (2012) Paramilitarization of the Economy: the Case of Iran's Basij Militia, Armed Forces & Society, Vol. 38, No. 4 * Golkar, Saeid. (2012). Organization of the Oppressed or Organization for Oppressing: Analysing the Role of the Basij Militia of Iran. Politics, Religion & Ideology, Dec., 37–41. doi:10.1080/21567689.2012.725661 * Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2020). *Paramilitarism: Mass Violence in the Shadow of the State*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882524-1. External links --------------

Paramilitary

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramilitary

**Volodymyr** (Ukrainian: Володи́мир), previously known as **Volodymyr-Volynskyi** (Володи́мир-Воли́нський) from 1944 to 2021, is a small city in Volyn Oblast, north-western Ukraine. It serves as the administrative centre of Volodymyr Raion and the center of Volodymyr hromada. It is one of the oldest cities in Ukraine and the historic centre of the region of Volhynia; it served as the capital of the Principality of Volhynia and later as one of the capital cities of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia. Population: 37,910 (2022 est.). The medieval Latin name of the town "Lodomeria" became the namesake of the 19th century Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, of which the town itself was not a part. Five kilometres (three miles) south from Volodymyr is Zymne, where the oldest Orthodox monastery in Volynia is located. Name ---- The city was named after Vladimir the Great (Volodymyr the Great), who was born in the village of Budiatychi, about 20 km from Volodymyr, and later also abbreviated *Lodomeria*, *Ladimiri*. Following the partitions of Poland and the annexation of Volhynia by the Russian Empire in 1795, it was called *Volodymyr-Volynskyi* (Vladimir-Volynsky) to distinguish it from Vladimir-on-Klyazma. The name was not in use between 1919 and 1939 when the city was part of Poland. In 1944, the name Volodymyr-Volynskyi was restored. On 1 October 2021, the city council voted to drop the regional qualifier and change the name of the city to just *Volodymyr*. The decision had to be ratified by Ukraine's national parliament (Verkhovna Rada) to take effect. On 14 December 2021 parliament approved the name change (it was supported by 348 people's deputies). The city of Vladimir in Russia opposed the name change, claiming that there can be only one city called Vladimir. Over the centuries its residents and rulers have used various names: * German: *Wolodymyr* * Latin: *Lodomeria* * Old Church Slavonic: Владимирь, romanized: *Vladimirĭ* * Old East Slavic: Володимѣрь, romanized: *Volodiměrĭ* * Ruthenian: Володимєръ, romanized: *Volodimer* * Polish: *Włodzimierz* * Russian: Влади́міръ/Влади́міръ-Волы́нскъ/Влади́мир-Волы́нск/Влади́мир-Волы́нский, romanized: *Vladimir/Vladimir-Volynsk/Vladimir-Volynsky* * Ukrainian: Володимир/Володимир-Волинськ/Володимир-Волинський, romanized: *Volodymyr/Volodymyr-Volynśk/Volodymyr-Volynśký* * Belarusian: Уладзімер/Уладзімер-Валынск/Уладзімер-Валынскі, romanized: *Uładzimier/Uładzimier-Vałynsk/Uładzimier-Vałynski* * Yiddish: לודמיר‎, romanized: *Ludmir* History ------- The city is one of the oldest towns in Ukraine. It was originally a stronghold founded by Vladimir the Great (Volodymyr the Great). In 988, the city became the capital of Volodymyr Principality and the seat of an Orthodox bishopric, as mentioned in the *Primary Chronicle*. In 1160, the building of the *Sobor of Dormition of the Holy Mother of God* was completed. By the 13th century, the city became part of Galicia–Volhynia as one of the most important trading towns in the region. After being conquered by Batu Khan in 1240, the city was under the rule of the Mongol Empire, together with other principalities in Rus'. In 1241, the Mongol army gathered near the town before the First Mongol invasion of Poland. In the early 14th century, the Metropolitan of Kiev and all Rus', Theognostus, resided in the city for several years before moving to Moscow. In 1349, the Polish king, Casimir the Great, captured the city, and subsequently it became part of the Kingdom of Poland. The Polish king began building a castle, destroyed by Lithuanians after 1370, and established a Catholic bishopric in the city (known as Włodzimierz), later transferred to nearby Lutsk, which in the 15th century instead of Volodymyr became the leading city and capital of Volhynia. In 1370, it was taken by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (after 1386, part of the Polish–Lithuanian Union) and it was not until the Union of Lublin of 1569 that it returned to the Crown of Poland. In the meantime, the city was given Magdeburg town rights in 1431. In 1491 and 1500, it was invaded by Tatars. From 1566 to 1795 it was part of the Volhynian Voivodeship. It was a royal city of Poland. Most of the city's landmarks were built at that time, including the Baroque church of St. Joachim and St. Anne, the Jesuit church, the Dominican monastery and the chapel of St. Josaphat. On July 17, 1792, the Battle of Włodzimierz took place in the vicinity of the town: a numerically inferior Polish force led by Tadeusz Kościuszko defeated the Russian army. The city remained a part of Poland until the Third Partition of Poland of 1795 when the Russian Empire annexed it. That year the Russian authorities changed the name of several cities in Volhynia including Novohrad-Volynskyi (former *Zwiahel*). Volodymyr-Volynsky stayed within the Russian Partition until 1917. In the 19th century, as part of anti-Polish repressions, the Russians demolished the Dominican church and Capuchin monastery, and the former Jesuit and then Basilian church was converted into an Orthodox church. In the 18th and 19th centuries the town started to grow rapidly, mostly thanks to large numbers of Jews settling there as part of the Pale of Settlement. By the second half of the 19th century, they made up the majority of the population. According to the Geographical Dictionary of the Kingdom of Poland, in the late 19th century, the city had 8,336 inhabitants, 6,122 of them Jews. In 1908, the railway station was opened. Immediately after World War I, the area became disputed by the newly formed Second Polish Republic, Bolshevist Russia, and the Ukrainian People's Republic, with the Polish 17th Infantry Regiment capturing it overnight on 23 January 1919. In the interbellum, the city was a seat of a powiat within the Volhynian Voivodeship of Poland and an important garrison was located there. In 1926, the Volyn Artillery Reserve Cadet School (Wołyńska Szkoła Podchorążych Rezerwy Artylerii) was established in Włodzimierz. Before the outbreak of World War II, the city's population was predominantly Polish and Jewish, with a Ukrainian minority. ### World War II Following the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, and the start of World War II, the city was occupied by Soviet forces on 19 September 1939. On 23 June 1941, at the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union, the city was occupied by Germany and attached to the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and immediately the Jewish community of 11,554 began to be persecuted. Between 1–3 September 1942, 25,000 Jews from the local area were shot at Piatydni. On November 13, 1942, the Germans killed another 3,000 Jews from the town near Piatydni. During World War II, a German concentration camp was located near the city. About 140 Jews returned to the city after the war but most later emigrated. By 1999, only 30 remained. In 1943, the city became a shelter for Poles escaping massacres carried out by Ukrainian nationalists of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA). Attacks by the UPA took place mainly in the suburbs. Poles were defended both by the Polish police established with the consent of the Germans and an illegal self-defense unit. In the city, Poles suffered from overpopulation, hunger and diseases. According to later research by Władysław Siemaszko and Ewa Siemaszko, a total of 111 Poles were killed in a dozen UPA attacks. The city was liberated by the Red Army on 20 July 1944 and annexed to the Ukrainian SSR. After the war, the vast majority of Polish residents was displaced to the post-war Polish territories, as the city was annexed from Poland by the Soviets. ### Post-war A Cold War air base was located north-east of the town at Zhovtnevy. Since 1991, the city has been part of Ukraine. ### Discovery of mass graves from World War II A series of mass graves were discovered in 1997, with exhumations completed by 2013. Originally thought to be an example of NKVD mass murder, similar to the Katyn massacre and the Vinnytsia massacre, the Volodymyr-Volynskyi murders were shown in 2012 to have been carried out by German forces, most likely the *Einsatzgruppen* C. The primary archeological evidence for German culpability was that most of the bullet shell casings were dated 1941 and were from a German factory. Testimony by a Jewish survivor of the city, Ann Kazimirski (née Ressels), who lived on Kovelska Street, recorded by the USC Shoah Foundation corroborated the view that the perpetrators were German and that the victims were primarily Jewish. Anthropological analysis of the remains led to the conclusion that three quarters of the victims were women and children. The 747 victims were reinterred in local city cemeteries. Climate ------- | Climate data for Volodymyr-Volynskyi (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 0.0(32.0) | 1.2(34.2) | 6.3(43.3) | 14.0(57.2) | 20.1(68.2) | 22.5(72.5) | 24.6(76.3) | 24.1(75.4) | 18.7(65.7) | 13.0(55.4) | 5.9(42.6) | 1.1(34.0) | 12.6(54.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.9(26.8) | −2.1(28.2) | 2.0(35.6) | 8.4(47.1) | 14.1(57.4) | 16.9(62.4) | 18.8(65.8) | 18.0(64.4) | 13.2(55.8) | 8.2(46.8) | 2.7(36.9) | −1.5(29.3) | 8.0(46.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | −5.7(21.7) | −5.4(22.3) | −1.7(28.9) | 3.1(37.6) | 8.1(46.6) | 11.1(52.0) | 13.1(55.6) | 12.1(53.8) | 8.2(46.8) | 4.1(39.4) | −0.2(31.6) | −4.2(24.4) | 3.6(38.5) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 33.8(1.33) | 35.3(1.39) | 36.5(1.44) | 42.9(1.69) | 66.8(2.63) | 81.4(3.20) | 92.9(3.66) | 66.8(2.63) | 61.2(2.41) | 42.7(1.68) | 43.5(1.71) | 39.2(1.54) | 643.0(25.31) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.2 | 9.8 | 9.2 | 8.1 | 9.0 | 9.8 | 10.1 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 7.4 | 9.6 | 10.1 | 109.3 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 85.5 | 83.9 | 79.0 | 70.6 | 70.4 | 73.5 | 74.3 | 75.1 | 80.0 | 81.6 | 85.9 | 87.2 | 78.9 | | Source: World Meteorological Organization | Churches in Volodymyr --------------------- The oldest place of worship in the town is the Temple of Volodymyr, erected several kilometres from the modern town's centre and first mentioned in a chronicle (*letopis*) of 1044. The oldest existing church is the Dormition of the Mother of God built by Mstyslav Izyaslavovych in 1160. By the late 18th century it fell into disuse and finally collapsed in 1829, but was restored between 1896 and 1900. The third of the old Orthodox churches is the Eastern Orthodox Basil the Great's cathedral, which was erected in the 14th or 15th century, though local legends attribute its construction to Volodymyr the Great, who supposedly built it some time after 992. In 1497, Duke Alexander Jagiellon erected a Catholic church of Holy Trinity and a Dominican monastery. In 1554, another wooden Catholic church was founded by Princess Anna Zbaraska, which was later replaced by a new St. Joachim and Anna's church in 1836. In 1755, a Jesuit church was erected there by the starost of Słonim Ignacy Sadowski and, in 1780, the Greek Catholic Josaphat's church was added to the list. Following the Russian Empire's takeover of the town, in the effect of the Partitions of Poland, both shrines were confiscated and donated to the authorities of the Orthodox Church, which converted them to an Orthodox monastery and church, respectively, while the Dominican monastery was converted to an administrative building. Museum ------ There also exists Volodymyr-Volynsky Historical Museum, an architectural monument of the 19th century. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns - Sister cities Volodymyr is twinned with: * Ukraine Dubno, Ukraine * Ukraine Korosten, Ukraine * Poland Hrubieszów, Poland * Poland Kętrzyn, Poland * Poland Łęczyca, Poland * Germany Zwickau, Germany * Lithuania Raseiniai, Lithuania Gallery ------- * Greek-Catholic Saint Josaphat's Church (formerly Lutheran)Greek-Catholic Saint Josaphat's Church (formerly Lutheran) * Saint Nicolas СhurchSaint Nicolas Сhurch * Soborna streetSoborna street * Former Border Guard headquartersFormer Border Guard headquarters * A building on Kovelska streetA building on Kovelska street * Saint Basil's RotundaSaint Basil's Rotunda Famous People ------------- * Josaphat Kuntsevych – archeparch (archbishop) of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, also a martyr and saint of the Catholic Church * Amtylochius – bishop and saint of Eastern Orthodox Church * Ipatii Potii – bishop, writer, and humanist, also co-founder and supporter of the Union of Brest * Wacław Hipsz – protonotary apostolic of the Catholic Church and the Prefect of Secondary Education in Volodymyr-Volynsky until 1939 * Janusz Bardach – surgeon, Kolyma survivor, and memoirist * Juliusz Bardach – legal historian and professor of the University of Warsaw. * Teresa Lewtak-Stattler – social activist, stalag prisoner, Councillor of the Warsaw Capital, and meritorious member of Polish Home Army who took part in special operations against German Nazi high-ranking officials in German-occupied Poland during World War II and was involved in underground humanitary aid to Jews from Warsaw Ghetto * Józef Han – chairman of society of veterans of 27th Home Army Infantry Division (Poland) in Hrubieszów * Ann Kazimirski (née Ressels) – Holocaust survivor, teacher, lecturer, and author of the autobiographical book *Witness to Horror*, in which she describes growing up in Volodymyr (Ludmir), surviving the Holocaust, and making a new life in Canada for her and her family * Jerzy Strojnowski – psychiatrist, philosopher and writer, also professor and co-founder of Psychology Institute at John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin * Jerzy Antczak – film director. * Jan Tadeusz Stanisławski – writer, satirist, and actor * Ahatanhel Krymsky – orientalist and polyglot * Hannah Rachel Verbermacher (1805–1888), also known as the Maiden of Ludmir or the Ludmirer Moyd, the only independent female Rebbe in the history of the Hasidic movement * «Jewish Volodymyr. The History and Tragedy of Jewish Community of Volodymyr-Volyns’kyi» by Volodymyr Muzychenko, Lutsk, 2011. 256 p. (in Ukrainian) Володимир Музиченко. “Володимир єврейський. Історія і трагедія єврейської громади м. Володимира-Волинського” ISBN 978-966-361-664-3. Link ---- Official Web site of the Volodymyr-Vohlynsky historical museum

Volodymyr (city)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volodymyr_(city)

**Plastics** are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to its widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives. 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017. More than half this plastic has been produced since 2004. In 2020, 400 million tonnes of plastic were produced. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will reach over 1,100 million tonnes. The success and dominance of plastics starting in the early 20th century has caused widespread environmental problems, due to their slow decomposition rate in natural ecosystems. Most plastic produced has not been reused, or is incapable of reuse, either being captured in landfills or persisting in the environment as plastic pollution. Plastic pollution can be found in all the world's major water bodies, for example, creating garbage patches in all of the world's oceans and contaminating terrestrial ecosystems. Of all the plastic discarded so far, some 14% has been incinerated and less than 10% has been recycled. In developed economies, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and roughly the same in buildings in applications such as piping, plumbing or vinyl siding. Other uses include automobiles (up to 20% plastic), furniture, and toys. In the developing world, the applications of plastic may differ; 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging. In the medical field, polymer implants and other medical devices are derived at least partially from plastic. Worldwide, about 50 kg of plastic is produced annually per person, with production doubling every ten years. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907, by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term "plastics". Dozens of different types of plastics are produced today, such as polyethylene, which is widely used in product packaging, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC), used in construction and pipes because of its strength and durability. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics". Etymology --------- The word *plastic* derives from the Greek πλαστικός (*plastikos*) meaning "capable of being shaped or molded," and in turn from πλαστός (*plastos*) meaning "molded." As a noun the word most commonly refers to the solid products of petrochemical-derived manufacturing. The noun *plasticity* refers specifically here to the deformability of the materials used in the manufacture of plastics. Plasticity allows molding, extrusion or compression into a variety of shapes: films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles and boxes, among many others. Plasticity also has a technical definition in materials science outside the scope of this article referring to the non-reversible change in form of solid substances. Structure --------- Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are formed from chains of carbon atoms, with or without the attachment of oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atoms. These chains comprise many repeating units formed from monomers. Each polymer chain consists of several thousand repeating units. The backbone is the part of the chain that is on the *main path*, linking together a large number of repeat units. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups called side chains hang from this backbone; they are usually hung from the monomers before the monomers themselves are linked together to form the polymer chain. The structure of these side chains influences the properties of the polymer. Properties and classifications ------------------------------ Plastics are usually classified by the chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Important groups classified in this way include the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking. They can also be classified by their physical properties, including hardness, density, tensile strength, thermal resistance, and glass transition temperature. Plastics can additionally be classified by their resistance and reactions to various substances and processes, such as exposure to organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. Other classifications of plastics are based on qualities relevant to manufacturing or product design for a particular purpose. Examples include thermoplastics, thermosets, conductive polymers, biodegradable plastics, engineering plastics and elastomers. ### Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers One important classification of plastics is the degree to which the chemical processes used to make them are reversible or not. Thermoplastics do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and thus can be molded repeatedly. Examples include polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Thermosets, or thermosetting polymers, can melt and take shape only once: after they have solidified, they stay solid. If reheated, thermosets decompose rather than melt. In the thermosetting process, an irreversible chemical reaction occurs. The vulcanization of rubber is an example of this process. Before heating in the presence of sulfur, natural rubber (polyisoprene) is a sticky, slightly runny material; after vulcanization, the product is dry and rigid. ### Amorphous plastics and crystalline plastics Many plastics are completely amorphous (without a highly ordered molecular structure), including thermosets, polystyrene, and methyl methacrylate (PMMA). Crystalline plastics exhibit a pattern of more regularly spaced atoms, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), and polyether ether ketone (PEEK). However, some plastics are partially amorphous and partially crystalline in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point and one or more glass transitions (the temperature above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). These so-called semi-crystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. ### Conductive polymers Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) are organic polymers that conduct electricity. While a conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-oriented polyacetylene, has been achieved, it does not approach that of most metals. For example, copper has a conductivity of several hundred kS/cm. ### Biodegradable plastics and bioplastics #### Biodegradable plastics Biodegradable plastics are plastics that degrade (break down) upon exposure to sunlight or ultra-violet radiation; water or dampness; bacteria; enzymes; or wind abrasion. Attack by insects, such as waxworms and mealworms, can also be considered as forms of biodegradation. Aerobic degradation requires that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas anaerobic degradation would be effective in landfill or composting systems. Some companies produce biodegradable additives to enhance biodegradation. Although starch powder can be added as a filler to allow some plastics to degrade more easily, such treatment does not lead to complete breakdown. Some researchers have genetically engineered bacteria to synthesize completely biodegradable plastics, such as polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB); however, these are relatively costly as of 2021. #### Bioplastics While most plastics are produced from petrochemicals, bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials like cellulose and starch. Due both to the finite limits of fossil fuel reserves and to rising levels of greenhouse gases caused primarily by the burning of those fuels, the development of bioplastics is a growing field. Global production capacity for bio-based plastics is estimated at 327,000 tonnes per year. In contrast, global production of polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), the world's leading petrochemical-derived polyolefins, was estimated at over 150 million tonnes in 2015. Plastic industry ---------------- The plastic industry includes the global production, compounding, conversion and sale of plastic products. Although the Middle East and Russia produce most of the required petrochemical raw materials; the production of plastic is concentrated in the global East and West. The plastic industry comprises a huge number of companies and can be divided into several sectors: ### Production 9.2 billion tonnes of plastic are estimated to have been made between 1950 and 2017, with more than half this having been produced since 2004. Since the birth of the plastic industry in the 1950s, global production has increased enormously, reaching 400 million tonnes a year in 2021 up from 381 million metric tonnes in 2015 (excluding additives). From the 1950s rapid growth occurred in the use of plastics for packaging, in building and construction, and in other sectors. If global trends on plastic demand continue, it is estimated that by 2050 annual global plastic production will exceed 1.1 billion tonnes annually. Polypropylene plantsA Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, SlovakiaA Slovnaft facility in Bratislava, SlovakiaA SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, AzerbaijanA SOCAR Polymer polypropylene plant in Sumgayit, Azerbaijan Annual global plastic production 1950–2015. Vertical lines denote the 1973–1975 recession and the financial crisis of 2007–2008 which caused brief lowering of plastic production. Plastics are produced in chemical plants by the polymerization of their starting materials (monomers); which are almost always petrochemical in nature. Such facilities are normally large and are visually similar to oil refineries, with sprawling pipework running throughout. The large size of these plants allows them to exploit economies of scale. Despite this, plastic production is not particularly monopolized, with about 100 companies accounting for 90% of global production. This includes a mixture of private and state-owned enterprises. Roughly half of all production takes place in East Asia, with China being the largest single producer. Major international producers include: * Dow Chemical * LyondellBasell * Exxonmobil * SABIC * BASF * Sibur * Shin-Etsu Chemical * Indorama Ventures * Sinopec * Braskem Global plastic production (2020)| Region | Global production | | --- | --- | | China | 31% | | Japan | 3% | | Rest of Asia | 17% | | NAFTA | 19% | | Latin America | 4% | | Europe | 16% | | CIS | 3% | | Middle East & Africa | 7% | Historically, Europe and North America have dominated global plastics production. However, since 2010 Asia has emerged as a significant producer, with China accounting for 31% of total plastic resin production in 2020. Regional differences in the volume of plastics production are driven by user demand, the price of fossil fuel feedstocks, and investments made in the petrochemical industry. For example, since 2010 over US$200 billion has been invested in the United States in new plastic and chemical plants, stimulated by the low cost of raw materials. In the European Union (EU), too, heavy investments have been made in the plastics industry, which employs over 1.6 million people with a turnover of more than 360 billion euros per year. In China in 2016 there were over 15,000 plastic manufacturing companies, generating more than US$366 billion in revenue. In 2017 the global plastics market was dominated by thermoplastics– polymers that can be melted and recast. Thermoplastics include polyethylene (PE), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS) and synthetic fibres, which together represent 86% of all plastics. ### Compounding Plastic is not sold as a pure unadulterated substance, but is instead mixed with various chemicals and other materials, which are collectively known as additives. These are added during the compounding stage and include substances such as stabilizers, plasticizers and dyes, which are intended to improve the lifespan, workability or appearance of the final item. In some cases, this can involve mixing different types of plastic together to form a polymer blend, such as high impact polystyrene. Large companies may do their own compounding prior to production, but some producers have it done by a third party. Companies that specialize in this work are known as Compounders. The compounding of thermosetting plastic is relatively straightforward; as it remains liquid until it is cured into its final form. For thermosoftening materials, which are used to make the majority of products, it is necessary to melt the plastic in order to mix-in the additives. This involves heating it to anywhere between 150–320 °C (300–610 °F). Molten plastic is viscous and exhibits laminar flow, leading to poor mixing. Compounding is therefore done using extrusion equipment, which is able to supply the necessary heat and mixing to give a properly dispersed product. The concentrations of most additives are usually quite low, however high levels can be added to create Masterbatch products. The additives in these are concentrated but still properly dispersed in the host resin. Masterbatch granules can be mixed with cheaper bulk polymer and will release their additives during processing to give a homogeneous final product. This can be cheaper than working with a fully compounded material and is particularly common for the introduction of colour. ### Converting Short video on injection molding (9 min 37 s)See captionBlow molding a plastic drinks bottle Companies that produce finished goods are known as converters (sometimes processors). The vast majority of plastics produced worldwide are thermosoftening and must be heated until molten in order to be molded. Various sorts of extrusion equipment exist which can then form the plastic into almost any shape. * Film blowing - Plastic films (carrier bags, sheeting) * Blow molding - Small thin-walled hollow objects in large quantities (drinks bottles, toys) * Rotational molding - Large thick-walled hollow objects (IBC tanks) * Injection molding - Solid objects (phone cases, keyboards) * Spinning - Produces fibers (nylon, spandex etc.) For thermosetting materials the process is slightly different, as the plastics are liquid to begin with and but must be cured to give solid products, but much of the equipment is broadly similar. The most commonly produced plastic consumer products include packaging made from LDPE (e.g. bags, containers, food packaging film), containers made from HDPE (e.g. milk bottles, shampoo bottles, ice cream tubs), and PET (e.g. bottles for water and other drinks). Together these products account for around 36% of plastics use in the world. Most of them (e.g. disposable cups, plates, cutlery, takeaway containers, carrier bags) are used for only a short period, many for less than a day. The use of plastics in building and construction, textiles, transportation and electrical equipment also accounts for a substantial share of the plastics market. Plastic items used for such purposes generally have longer life spans. They may be in use for periods ranging from around five years (e.g. textiles and electrical equipment) to more than 20 years (e.g. construction materials, industrial machinery). Plastic consumption differs among countries and communities, with some form of plastic having made its way into most people's lives. North America (i.e. the North American Free Trade Agreement or NAFTA region) accounts for 21% of global plastic consumption, closely followed by China (20%) and Western Europe (18%). In North America and Europe there is high per capita plastic consumption (94 kg and 85 kg/capita/year, respectively). In China there is lower per capita consumption (58 kg/capita/year), but high consumption nationally because of its large population. Types of plastics ----------------- ### Commodity plastics Around 70% of global production is concentrated in six major polymer types, the so-called commodity plastics. Unlike most other plastics these can often be identified by their resin identification code (RIC): Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE) High-density polyethylene (HDPE or PE-HD) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V) Low-density polyethylene (LDPE or PE-LD), Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS) Polyurethanes (PUR) and PP&A fibres are often also included as major commodity classes, although they usually lack RICs, as they are chemically quite diverse groups. These materials are inexpensive, versatile and easy to work with, making them the preferred choice for the mass production everyday objects. Their biggest single application is in packaging, with some 146 million tonnes being used this way in 2015, equivalent to 36% of global production. Due to their dominance; many of the properties and problems commonly associated with plastics, such as pollution stemming from their poor biodegradability, are ultimately attributable to commodity plastics. A huge number of plastics exist beyond the commodity plastics, with many having exceptional properties. Global plastic production by polymer type (2015)| Polymer | Production (Mt) | Percentage of all plastics | Polymer type | Thermal character | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) | 64 | 15.7% | Polyolefin | Thermoplastic | | High-density polyethylene (HDPE) | 52 | 12.8% | Polyolefin | Thermoplastic | | polypropylene (PP) | 68 | 16.7% | Polyolefin | Thermoplastic | | Polystyrene (PS) | 25 | 6.1% | Unsaturated polyolefin | Thermoplastic | | Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) | 38 | 9.3% | Halogenated | Thermoplastic | | Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) | 33 | 8.1% | Condensation | Thermoplastic | | Polyurethane (PUR) | 27 | 6.6% | Condensation | Thermoset | | PP&A Fibers | 59 | 14.5% | Condensation | Thermoplastic | | All Others | 16 | 3.9% | Various | Varies | | Additives | 25 | 6.1% | - | - | | **Total** | **407** | **100%** | - | - | ### Engineering plastics Engineering plastics are more robust and are used to make products such as vehicle parts, building and construction materials, and some machine parts. In some cases they are polymer blends formed by mixing different plastics together (ABS, HIPS etc.). Engineering plastics can replace metals in vehicles, lowering their weight and improving fuel efficiency by 6–8%. Roughly 50% of the volume of modern cars is made of plastic, but this only accounts for 12–17% of the vehicle weight. * Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS): electronic equipment cases (e.g. computer monitors, printers, keyboards) and drainage pipe * High impact polystyrene (HIPS): refrigerator liners, food packaging and vending cups * Polycarbonate (PC): compact discs, eyeglasses, riot shields, security windows, traffic lights, and lenses * Polycarbonate + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PC + ABS): a blend of PC and ABS that creates a stronger plastic used in car interior and exterior parts, and in mobile phone bodies * Polyethylene + acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (PE + ABS): a slippery blend of PE and ABS used in low-duty dry bearings * Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) (acrylic): contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g. Perspex, Plexiglas, and Oroglas), fluorescent-light diffusers, and rear light covers for vehicles. It also forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints, when suspended in water with the use of other agents. * Silicones (polysiloxanes): heat-resistant resins used mainly as sealants but also used for high-temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints * Urea-formaldehyde (UF): one of the aminoplasts used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics: used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings ### High-performance plastics High-performance plastics are usually expensive, with their use limited to specialised applications which make use of their superior properties. * Aramids: best known for their use in making body armor, this class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers are also used in aerospace and military applications, includes Kevlar and Nomex, and Twaron. * Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylenes * Polyetheretherketone (PEEK): strong, chemical- and heat-resistant thermoplastic; its biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications and aerospace moldings. It is one of the most expensive commercial polymers. * Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem): a high-temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize * Polyimide: a high-temperature plastic used in materials such as Kapton tape * Polysulfone: high-temperature melt-processable resin used in membranes, filtration media, water heater dip tubes and other high-temperature applications * Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), or Teflon: heat-resistant, low-friction coatings used in non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides * Polyamide-imide (PAI): High-performance engineering plastic extensively used in high performance gears, switches, transmission and other automotive components, and aerospace parts. Gallery ------- * PET water bottlePET water bottle * High density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; Transparent ones may be made of PETHigh density polythene (HDPE) is used for making sturdy containers; Transparent ones may be made of PET * Disposable suits; nonwoven HDPE fabricDisposable suits; nonwoven HDPE fabric * Plastic mailing envelopes (hdpe)Plastic mailing envelopes (hdpe) * Clear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPEClear plastic bags (shown) are made of low density polythene (LDPE); blown-film shopping bags with handles are now made of HDPE * A Ziploc bag made from LDPEA Ziploc bag made from LDPE * Food wrap (ldpe)Food wrap (ldpe) * Metalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack materialMetalised polypropylene film is a commonly used snack pack material * Kinder Joy shell made of polypropyleneKinder Joy shell made of polypropylene * A polypropylene chairA polypropylene chair * Stools of hdpeStools of hdpe * Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol")Expanded polystyrene foam ("Thermocol") * Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam")Extruded polystyrene foam ("Styrofoam") * Thermocol take-away food containerThermocol take-away food container * Egg tray (PETE)Egg tray (PETE) * A piece of packaging foam made from LDPEA piece of packaging foam made from LDPE * A kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foamA kitchen sponge made of polyurethane foam * Non-stick cookware with Teflon coatingNon-stick cookware with Teflon coating * iPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate unibody shelliPhone 5c, a smartphone with a polycarbonate unibody shell * 10m deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the water pressure10m deep Monterey Bay Aquarium tank has acrylic windows up to 33 cm thick to withstand the water pressure * PVC pipes * PVC blister packPVC blister pack Applications ------------ The largest application for plastics is as packaging materials, but they are used in a wide range of other sectors, including: construction (pipes, gutters, door and windows), textiles (stretchable fabrics, fleece), consumer goods (toys, tableware, toothbrushes), transportation (headlights, bumpers, body panels, wing mirrors), electronics (phones, computers, televisions) and as machine parts. Additives --------- Additives are chemicals blended into plastics to change their performance or appearance, making it possible to alter the properties of plastics to better suit their intended applications. Additives are therefore one of the reasons why plastic is used so widely. Plastics are composed of chains of polymers. Many different chemicals are used as plastic additives. A randomly chosen plastic product generally contains around 20 additives. The identities and concentrations of additives are generally not listed on products. In the EU, over 400 additives are used in high volumes. 5500 additives were found in a global market analysis. At a minimum all plastic contains some polymer stabilisers which permit them to be melt-processed (moulded) without suffering polymer degradation. Other additives are optional and can be added as required, with loadings varying significantly between applications. The amount of additives contained in plastics varies depending on the additives’ function. For example, additives in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can constitute up to 80% of the total volume. Pure unadulterated plastic (barefoot resin) is never sold, even by the primary producers. ### Leaching Additives may be weakly bound to the polymers or react in the polymer matrix. Although additives are blended into plastic they remain chemically distinct from it, and can gradually leach back out during normal use, when in landfills, or following improper disposal in the environment. Additives may also degrade to form other toxic molecules. Plastic fragmentation into microplastics and nanoplastics can allow chemical additives to move in the environment far from the point of use. Once released, some additives and derivatives may persist in the environment and bioaccumulate in organisms. They can have adverse effects on human health and biota. A recent review by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) revealed that out of 3,377 chemicals potentially associated with plastic packaging and 906 likely associated with it, 68 were ranked by ECHA as "highest for human health hazards" and 68 as "highest for environmental hazards". ### Recycling As additives change the properties of plastics they have to be considered during recycling. Presently, almost all recycling is performed by simply remelting and reforming used plastic into new items. Additives present risks in recycled products, as they are difficult to remove. When plastic products are recycled, it is highly likely that the additives will be integrated into the new products. Waste plastic, even if it is all of the same polymer type, will contain varying types and amounts of additives. Mixing these together can give a material with inconsistent properties, which can be unappealing to industry. For example, mixing different coloured plastics with different plastic colorants together can produce a discoloured or brown material and for this reason plastic is usually sorted by both polymer type and color before recycling. Absence of transparency and reporting across the value chain often results in lack of knowledge concerning the chemical profile of the final products. For example, products containing brominated flame retardants have been incorporated into new plastic products. Flame retardants are a group of chemicals used in electronic and electrical equipment, textiles, furniture and construction materials which should not be present in food packaging or child care products. A recent study found brominated dioxins as unintentional contaminants in toys made from recycled plastic electronic waste that contained brominated flame retardants. Brominated dioxins have been found to exhibit toxicity similar to that of chlorinated dioxins. They can have negative developmental effects and negative effects on the nervous system and interfere with mechanisms of the endocrine system. ### Health effects Many of the controversies associated with plastics actually relate to their additives, as some compounds can be persistent, bioaccumulating and potentially harmful. The now banned flame retardants OctaBDE and PentaBDE are an example of this, while the health effects of phthalates are an ongoing area of public concern. Additives can also be problematic if waste is burned, especially when burning is uncontrolled or takes place in low- technology incinerators, as is common in many developing countries. Incomplete combustion can cause emissions of hazardous substances such as acid gases and ash which can contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as dioxins. A number of additives identified as hazardous to humans and/or the environment are regulated internationally. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain intact in the environment for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on human health or on the environment. Other additives proven to be harmful such as cadmium, chromium, lead and mercury (regulated under the Minamata Convention on Mercury), which have previously been used in plastic production, are banned in many jurisdictions. However they are still routinely found in some plastic packaging including food packaging. The use of the additive bisphenol A (BPA) in plastic baby bottles is banned in many parts of the world, but is not restricted in some low-income countries. In 2023, plasticosis, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting plastic waste. ”When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival.” ### Types of additive | Additive type | Typical concentration when present (%) | Description | Example compounds | Comment | Share of global additive production (by weight) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Plasticizers | 10–70 | Plastics can be brittle, adding some plasticizer makes them more durable, adding lots makes them flexible | Phthalates are the dominant class, safer alternatives include adipate esters (DEHA, DOA) and citrate esters (ATBC and TEC) | 80–90% of world production is used in PVC, much of the rest is used in cellulose acetate. For most products loadings are between 10 and 35%, high loadings are used for plastisols | 34% | | Flame retardants | 1–30 | Being petrochemicals, most plastics burn readily, flame retardants can prevent this | Brominated flame retardants, chlorinated paraffins | Non-chlorinated organophosphates are ecologically safer, though often less efficient | 13% | | Heat stabilizers | 0.3-5 | Prevents heat related degradation | Traditionally derivatives of lead, cadmium & tin. Safer modern alternatives include barium/zinc mixtures and calcium stearate, along with various synergists | Almost exclusively used in PVC. | 5% | | Fillers | 0–50 | Bulking agents. Can change appearance and mechanical properties, can lower price | Calcium carbonate "chalk", talc, glass beads, carbon black. Also reinforcing fillers like carbon-fiber | Most opaque plastic contains fillers. High levels can also protect against UV rays. | 28% | | Impact modifiers | 10–40 | Improved toughness and resistance to damage | Typically some other elastomeric polymer, e.g. rubbers, styrene copolymers | Chlorinated polyethylene is used for PVC | 5% | | Antioxidants | 0.05–3 | Protects against degradation during processing | Phenols, phosphite esters, certain thioethers | The most widely used type of additives, all plastics will contain polymer stabilisers of some sort | 6% | | Colorants | 0.001-10 | Imparts colour | Numerous dyes or pigments | | 2% | | Lubricants | 0.1-3 | Assist in forming/molding the plastic, includes processing aids (or flow aids), release agents, slip additives | Hazardous PFASs. Paraffin wax, wax esters, metal stearates (i.e. zinc stearate), long-chain fatty acid amides (oleamide, erucamide) | | 2% | | Light stabilizers | 0.05–3 | Protects against UV damage | HALS, UV blockers and quenchers | Normally only used for items intended for outdoor use | 1% | | Other | | Various | Antimicrobials, antistatics, blowing agents, nucleating agents, clarifying agents | | 4% | Toxicity -------- Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water, and because they have a large molecular weight, they are biochemically inert. Plastic products contain a variety of additives, however, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like PVC to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the EU has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications, and the US has limited the use of DEHP, DPB, BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child-care articles through the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens (cancer-causing substances). Other chemicals of potential concern include alkylphenols. While a finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of its parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen. ### Bisphenol A (BPA) Some plastic products degrade to chemicals with estrogenic activity. The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogen-like endocrine disruptor that may leach into food. Research in Environmental Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase the body weight of lab animals' offspring. A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart disease. As of January 2010, the *Los Angeles Times* reported that the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA's link to cancer. Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell. The EU has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In 2009, the US government banned certain types of phthalates commonly used in plastic. Environmental effects --------------------- Because the chemical structure of most plastics renders them durable, they are resistant to many natural degradation processes. Much of this material may persist for centuries or longer, given the demonstrated persistence of structurally similar natural materials such as amber. There are differing estimates of how much plastic waste has been produced in the last century. By one estimate, one billion tons of plastic waste have been discarded since the 1950s. Others estimate a cumulative human production of 8.3 billion tons of plastic, of which 6.3 billion tons is waste, with only 9% getting recycled. It is estimated that this waste is made up of 81% polymer resin, 13% polymer fibres and 32% additives. In 2018 more than 343 million tonnes of plastic waste were generated, 90% of which was composed of post-consumer plastic waste (industrial, agricultural, commercial and municipal plastic waste). The rest was pre-consumer waste from resin production and manufacturing of plastic products (e.g. materials rejected due to unsuitable colour, hardness, or processing characteristics). The Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic into the sea than all other countries combined. The rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and Mekong "transport 88% to 95% of the global [plastics] load into the sea."[*verify quote punctuation*] The presence of plastics, particularly microplastics, within the food chain is increasing. In the 1960s microplastics were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found in increasing concentrations. The long-term effects of plastics in the food chain are poorly understood. In 2009 it was estimated that 10% of modern waste was plastic, although estimates vary according to region. Meanwhile, 50% to 80% of debris in marine areas is plastic. Plastic is often used in agriculture. There is more plastic in the soil than in the oceans. The presence of plastic in the environment hurt ecosystems and human health. Research on the environmental impacts has typically focused on the disposal phase. However, the production of plastics is also responsible for substantial environmental, health and socioeconomic impacts. Prior to the Montreal Protocol, CFCs had been commonly used in the manufacture of the plastic polystyrene, the production of which had contributed to depletion of the ozone layer. Efforts to minimize environmental impact of plastics may include lowering of plastics production and use, waste- and recycling-policies, and the proactive development and deployment of alternatives to plastics such as for sustainable packaging. ### Microplastics Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European Chemicals Agency. They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial processes. The term *macroplastics* is used to differentiate microplastics from larger plastic waste, such as plastic bottles. Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment. These include microfibers from clothing, microbeads, and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles). Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment. Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave containers, tea bags and tire wear. Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing. primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process. However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems. Because plastics degrade slowly (often over hundreds to thousands of years), microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain. In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems and reduce weight of earthworms. The cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment are not fully known, but research is currently underway to investigate the phenomenon. Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys. Microplastics have also been found in the high mountains, at great distances from their source. Microplastics have also been found in human blood, though their effects are largely unknown. ### Decomposition of plastics Plastics degrade by a variety of processes, the most significant of which is usually photo-oxidation. Their chemical structure determines their fate. Polymers' marine degradation takes much longer as a result of the saline environment and cooling effect of the sea, contributing to the persistence of plastic debris in certain environments. Recent studies have shown, however, that plastics in the ocean decompose faster than had been previously thought, due to exposure to the sun, rain, and other environmental conditions, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals such as bisphenol A. However, due to the increased volume of plastics in the ocean, decomposition has slowed down. The Marine Conservancy has predicted the decomposition rates of several plastic products: It is estimated that a foam plastic cup will take 50 years, a plastic beverage holder will take 400 years, a disposable diaper will take 450 years, and fishing line will take 600 years to degrade. Microbial species capable of degrading plastics are known to science, some of which are potentially useful for disposal of certain classes of plastic waste. * In 1975, a team of Japanese scientists studying ponds containing waste water from a nylon factory discovered a strain of *Flavobacterium* that digests certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacture, such as the linear dimer of 6-aminohexanoate. Nylon 4 (polybutyrolactam) can be degraded by the ND-10 and ND-11 strands of *Pseudomonas sp.* found in sludge, resulting in GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) as a byproduct. * Several species of soil fungi can consume polyurethane, including two species of the Ecuadorian fungus *Pestalotiopsis*. They can consume polyurethane both aerobically and anaerobically (such as at the bottom of landfills). * Methanogenic microbial consortia degrade styrene, using it as a carbon source. *Pseudomonas putida* can convert styrene oil into various biodegradable plastic|biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates. * Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have been shown to be capable of degrading polypropylene. * The fungus *Aspergillus fumigatus* effectively degrades plasticized PVC. *Phanerochaete chrysosporium* has been grown on PVC in a mineral salt agar.</ref> *P. chrysosporium*, *Lentinus tigrinus*, *A. niger*, and *A. sydowii* can also effectively degrade PVC. * Phenol-formaldehyde, commonly known as Bakelite, is degraded by the white rot fungus *P. chrysosporium*. * *Acinetobacter* has been found to partially degrade low-molecular-weight polyethylene oligomers. When used in combination, *Pseudomonas fluorescens* and *Sphingomonas* can degrade over 40% of the weight of plastic bags in less than three months. The thermophilic bacterium *Brevibacillus borstelensis* (strain 707) was isolated from a soil sample and found capable of using low-density polyethylene as a sole carbon source when incubated at 50 °C. Pre-exposure of the plastic to ultraviolet radiation broke chemical bonds and aided biodegradation; the longer the period of UV exposure, the greater the promotion of the degradation. * Hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations that degrade rubber into a digestible form. * Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological sites. * In the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea, bacteria have been found that consume various types of plastic; however, it is unknown to what extent these bacteria effectively clean up poisons rather than simply release them into the marine microbial ecosystem. * Plastic-eating microbes also have been found in landfills. * *Nocardia* can degrade PET with an esterase enzyme. * The fungus *Geotrichum candidum*, found in Belize, has been found to consume the polycarbonate plastic found in CDs. * Futuro houses are made of fiberglass-reinforced polyesters, polyester-polyurethane, and PMMA. One such house was found to be harmfully degraded by *Cyanobacteria* and *Archaea*. ### Recycling Plastic recyclingClockwise from top left: * Sorting plastic waste at a single-stream recycling centre * Baled colour-sorted used bottles * Recovered HDPE ready for recycling * A watering can made from recycled bottles Plastic recycling is the processing of plastic waste into other products. Recycling can reduce dependence on landfill, conserve resources and protect the environment from plastic pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. Recycling rates lag those of other recoverable materials, such as aluminium, glass and paper. Through 2015, the world produced some 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic waste, only 9% of which has been recycled, and only ~1% has been recycled more than once. Additionally, 12% was incinerated and the remaining 79% sent to landfill or to the environment including the ocean. Almost all plastic is not biodegradable and absent recyling, spreads across the environment where it can cause harm. For example, as of 2015 approximately 8 million tons of waste plastic enter the oceans annually, damaging the ecosystem and forming ocean garbage patches.Even the highest quality recycling processes lead to substantial plastic waste during the sorting and cleaning process, releasing large amounts of microplastics in waste water, and dust from the process. Almost all recycling is mechanical: melting and reforming plastic into other items. This can cause polymer degradation at a molecular level, and requires that waste be sorted by colour and polymer type before processing, which is complicated and expensive. Errors can lead to material with inconsistent properties, rendering it unappealing to industry. In feedstock recycling, waste plastic is converted into its starting chemicals, which can then become fresh plastic. This involves higher energy and capital costs. Alternatively, plastic can be burned in place of fossil fuels, in energy recovery facilities or biochemically converted into other useful chemicals for industry. In some countries, burning is the dominant form of plastic waste disposal, particularly where landfill diversion policies are in place. Plastic recycling is low in the waste hierarchy. It has been advocated since the early 1970s, but due to economic and technical challenges, did not impact plastic waste to any significant extent until the late 1980s. The plastics industry has been criticised for lobbying for expansion of recycling programs, even while research showed that most plastic could not be economically recycled. #### Pyrolysis By heating to above 500 °C in the absence of oxygen (pyrolysis), plastics can be broken down into simpler hydrocarbons. These can be reused as starting materials for new plastics. They can also be used as fuels. ### Climate change According to the OECD, plastic contributed greenhouse gases in the equivalent of 1.8 billion tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere in 2019, 3.4% of global emissions. They say that by 2060, plastic could emit 4.3 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions a year. The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made from petroleum, thus the production of plastics creates further emissions. However, due to the lightness and durability of plastic versus glass or metal, plastic may lower energy consumption. For example, packaging beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in transportation energy. ### Production of plastics Production of plastics from crude oil requires 7.9 to 13.7 kWh/lb (taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%). Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even more energy consuming: 29.2 to 29.8 kWh/lb for silicon, and about 381 kWh/lb for semiconductors. This is much higher than the energy needed to produce many other materials. For example, to produce iron (from iron ore) requires 2.5-3.2 kWh/lb of energy; glass (from sand, etc.) 2.3–4.4 kWh/lb; steel (from iron) 2.5–6.4 kWh/lb; and paper (from timber) 3.2–6.4 kWh/lb. ### Incineration of plastics Quickly burning plastics at very high temperatures breaks down many toxic components, such as dioxins and furans. This approach is widely used in municipal solid waste incineration. Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally treat the flue gas to decrease pollutants further, which is needed because uncontrolled incineration of plastic produces carcinogenic polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins. Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures and normally releases such toxic fumes. In the European Union, municipal waste incineration is regulated by the Industrial Emissions Directive, which stipulates a minimum temperature of 850 °C for at least two seconds. History ------- The development of plastics has evolved from the use of naturally plastic materials (e.g., gums and shellac) to the use of the chemical modification of those materials (e.g., natural rubber, cellulose, collagen, and milk proteins), and finally to completely synthetic plastics (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, and PVC). Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. In around 1600 BC, Mesoamericans used natural rubber for balls, bands, and figurines. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milk proteins with lye. In the nineteenth century, as chemistry developed during the Industrial Revolution, many materials were reported. The development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's 1839 discovery of vulcanization to harden natural rubber. Parkesine, invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855 and patented the following year, is considered the first man-made plastic. It was manufactured from cellulose (the major component of plant cell walls) treated with nitric acid as a solvent. The output of the process (commonly known as cellulose nitrate or pyroxilin) could be dissolved in alcohol and hardened into a transparent and elastic material that could be molded when heated. By incorporating pigments into the product, it could be made to resemble ivory. Parkesine was unveiled at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and garnered for Parkes the bronze medal. In 1893, French chemist Auguste Trillat discovered the means to insolubilize casein (milk proteins) by immersion in formaldehyde, producing material marketed as galalith. In 1897, mass-printing press owner Wilhelm Krische of Hanover, Germany, was commissioned to develop an alternative to blackboards. The resultant horn-like plastic made from casein was developed in cooperation with the Austrian chemist (Friedrich) Adolph Spitteler (1846–1940). Although unsuitable for the intended purpose, other uses would be discovered. The world's first fully synthetic plastic was Bakelite, invented in New York in 1907 by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term *plastics*. Many chemists have contributed to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger, who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry," and Herman Mark, known as "the father of polymer physics." After World War I, improvements in chemistry led to an explosion of new forms of plastics, with mass production beginning in the 1940s and 1950s. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (first produced by BASF in the 1930s) and polyvinyl chloride (first created in 1872 but commercially produced in the late 1920s). In 1923, Durite Plastics, Inc., was the first manufacturer of phenol-furfural resins. In 1933, polyethylene was discovered by Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) researchers Reginald Gibson and Eric Fawcett. The discovery of polyethylene terephthalate is credited to employees of the Calico Printers' Association in the UK in 1941; it was licensed to DuPont for the US and ICI otherwise, and as one of the few plastics appropriate as a replacement for glass in many circumstances, resulting in widespread use for bottles in Europe. In 1954 polypropylene was discovered by Giulio Natta and began to be manufactured in 1957. Also in 1954 expanded polystyrene (used for building insulation, packaging, and cups) was invented by Dow Chemical. Policy ------ Work is currently underway to develop a global treaty on plastic pollution. On March 2, 2022 UN Member States voted at the resumed fifth UN Environment Assembly (UNEA-5.2) to establish an Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) with the mandate of advancing a legally-binding international agreement on plastics. The resolution is entitled “End plastic pollution: Towards an international legally binding instrument.” The mandate specifies that the INC must begin its work by the end of 2022 with the goal of "completing a draft global legally binding agreement by the end of 2024." See also -------- * Biodegradable plastic * Bioplastic * Corn construction * Films * Light activated resin * Microplastics (nurdles) * Molding (process) + Injection molding + Rotational molding * Organic light emitting diode * Organisms breaking down plastic * Plastic film * Plastic pollution * Plastic recycling * Plastics engineering * Plastics extrusion * Plasticulture * Progressive bag alliance * Refill (scheme) * Roll-to-roll processing * Self-healing plastic * Thermal cleaning * Thermoforming * Timeline of materials technology * Plastic pollution * *Substantial parts of this text originated from* An Introduction to Plastics v1.0 *by Greg Goebel (1 March 2001), which is in the public domain*. Sources -------  This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under Cc BY-SA 3.0 IGO (license statement/permission). Text taken from *Drowning in Plastics – Marine Litter and Plastic Waste Vital Graphics​*, United Nations Environment Programme.

Plastic

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic

**Coulomb's inverse-square law**, or simply **Coulomb's law**, is an experimental law of physics that calculates the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is conventionally called *electrostatic force* or **Coulomb force**. Although the law was known earlier, it was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, hence the name. Coulomb's law was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism and maybe even its starting point, as it allowed meaningful discussions of the amount of electric charge in a particle. The law states that the magnitude, or absolute value, of the attractive or repulsive electrostatic force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the squared distance between them. Coulomb discovered that bodies with like electrical charges repel: > It follows therefore from these three tests, that the repulsive force that the two balls – [that were] electrified with the same kind of electricity – exert on each other, follows the inverse proportion of the square of the distance. > > Coulomb also showed that oppositely charged bodies attract according to an inverse-square law: | F | = k e | q 1 | | q 2 | r 2 {\displaystyle |F|=k\_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q\_{1}||q\_{2}|}{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle |F|=k_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q_{1}||q_{2}|}{r^{2}}}} Here, *k*e is the Coulomb constant (*k*e ≈ 8.988×109 N⋅m2⋅C−2), *q*1 and *q*2 are the assigned magnitudes of the charges, and the scalar *r* is the distance between the charges. The force is along the straight line joining the two charges. If the charges have the same sign, the electrostatic force between them makes them repel; if they have different signs, the force between them is makes them attract. Being an inverse-square law, the law is similar to Isaac Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation, but gravitational forces always make things attract, while electrostatic forces make charges attract or repel. Also, gravitational forces are much weaker than electrostatic forces. Coulomb's law can be used to derive Gauss's law, and vice versa. In the case of a single point charge at rest, the two laws are equivalent, expressing the same physical law in different ways. The law has been tested extensively, and observations have upheld the law on the scale from 10−16 m to 108 m. History ------- Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects, such as rods of amber, could be rubbed with cat's fur to attract light objects like feathers and pieces of paper. Thales of Miletus made the first recorded description of static electricity around 600 BC, when he noticed that friction could render a piece of amber magnetic. In 1600, English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism, distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber. He coined the Neo-Latin word *electricus* ("of amber" or "like amber", from ἤλεκτρον [*elektron*], the Greek word for "amber") to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed. This association gave rise to the English words "electric" and "electricity", which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne's *Pseudodoxia Epidemica* of 1646. Early investigators of the 18th century who suspected that the electrical force diminished with distance as the force of gravity did (i.e., as the inverse square of the distance) included Daniel Bernoulli and Alessandro Volta, both of whom measured the force between plates of a capacitor, and Franz Aepinus who supposed the inverse-square law in 1758. Based on experiments with electrically charged spheres, Joseph Priestley of England was among the first to propose that electrical force followed an inverse-square law, similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation. However, he did not generalize or elaborate on this. In 1767, he conjectured that the force between charges varied as the inverse square of the distance. In 1769, Scottish physicist John Robison announced that, according to his measurements, the force of repulsion between two spheres with charges of the same sign varied as *x*−2.06. In the early 1770s, the dependence of the force between charged bodies upon both distance and charge had already been discovered, but not published, by Henry Cavendish of England. In his notes, Cavendish wrote, "We may therefore conclude that the electric attraction and repulsion must be inversely as some power of the distance between that of the 2 + 1⁄50 th and that of the 2 − 1⁄50 th, and there is no reason to think that it differs at all from the inverse duplicate ratio". Finally, in 1785, the French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb published his first three reports of electricity and magnetism where he stated his law. This publication was essential to the development of the theory of electromagnetism. He used a torsion balance to study the repulsion and attraction forces of charged particles, and determined that the magnitude of the electric force between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The torsion balance consists of a bar suspended from its middle by a thin fiber. The fiber acts as a very weak torsion spring. In Coulomb's experiment, the torsion balance was an insulating rod with a metal-coated ball attached to one end, suspended by a silk thread. The ball was charged with a known charge of static electricity, and a second charged ball of the same polarity was brought near it. The two charged balls repelled one another, twisting the fiber through a certain angle, which could be read from a scale on the instrument. By knowing how much force it took to twist the fiber through a given angle, Coulomb was able to calculate the force between the balls and derive his inverse-square proportionality law. Scalar form ----------- Coulomb's law can be stated as a simple mathematical expression. The scalar form gives the magnitude of the vector of the electrostatic force **F** between two point charges *q*1 and *q*2, but not its direction. If r is the distance between the charges, the magnitude of the force is | F | = k e | q 1 q 2 | r 2 {\displaystyle |\mathbf {F} |=k\_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q\_{1}q\_{2}|}{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {F} |=k_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q_{1}q_{2}|}{r^{2}}}} The constant *k*e is called the Coulomb constant and is equal to 1/4*πε*0, where *ε*0 is the electric constant; *k*e ≈ 8.988×109 N⋅m2⋅C−2. If the product *q*1*q*2 is positive, the force between the two charges is repulsive; if the product is negative, the force between them is attractive. Vector form ----------- Coulomb's law in vector form states that the electrostatic force F 1 {\textstyle \mathbf {F} \_{1}} {\textstyle \mathbf {F} _{1}} experienced by a charge, q 1 {\displaystyle q\_{1}} q_{1} at position r 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} \_{1}} \mathbf {r} _{1}, in the vicinity of another charge, q 2 {\displaystyle q\_{2}} q_{2} at position r 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} \_{2}} \mathbf {r} _{2}, in a vacuum is equal to F 1 = q 1 q 2 4 π ε 0 r 1 − r 2 | r 1 − r 2 | 3 = q 1 q 2 4 π ε 0 r ^ 12 | r 12 | 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} \_{1}={\frac {q\_{1}q\_{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {r} \_{1}-\mathbf {r} \_{2}}{|\mathbf {r} \_{1}-\mathbf {r} \_{2}|^{3}}}={\frac {q\_{1}q\_{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {\hat {r}} \_{12}}{|\mathbf {r} \_{12}|^{2}}}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{1}={\frac {q_{1}q_{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {r} _{1}-\mathbf {r} _{2}}{|\mathbf {r} _{1}-\mathbf {r} _{2}|^{3}}}={\frac {q_{1}q_{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {\hat {r}} _{12}}{|\mathbf {r} _{12}|^{2}}}} where r 12 = r 1 − r 2 {\textstyle {\boldsymbol {r}}\_{12}={\boldsymbol {r}}\_{1}-{\boldsymbol {r}}\_{2}} {\textstyle {\boldsymbol {r}}_{12}={\boldsymbol {r}}_{1}-{\boldsymbol {r}}_{2}} is the vectorial distance between the charges, r ^ 12 = r 12 | r 12 | {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}\_{12}={\frac {\mathbf {r} \_{12}}{|\mathbf {r} \_{12}|}}} {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}_{12}={\frac {\mathbf {r} _{12}}{|\mathbf {r} _{12}|}}} a unit vector pointing from q 2 {\textstyle q\_{2}} {\textstyle q_{2}} to q 1 {\textstyle q\_{1}} {\textstyle q_{1}}, and ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon \_{0}} \varepsilon _{0} the electric constant. Here, r ^ 12 {\textstyle \mathbf {\hat {r}} \_{12}} {\textstyle \mathbf {\hat {r}} _{12}} is used for the vector notation. The vector form of Coulomb's law is simply the scalar definition of the law with the direction given by the unit vector, r ^ 12 {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}\_{12}} {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}_{12}}, parallel with the line *from* charge q 2 {\displaystyle q\_{2}} q_{2} *to* charge q 1 {\displaystyle q\_{1}} q_{1}. If both charges have the same sign (like charges) then the product q 1 q 2 {\displaystyle q\_{1}q\_{2}} q_1q_2 is positive and the direction of the force on q 1 {\displaystyle q\_{1}} q_{1} is given by r ^ 12 {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}\_{12}} {\textstyle {\widehat {\mathbf {r} }}_{12}}; the charges repel each other. If the charges have opposite signs then the product q 1 q 2 {\displaystyle q\_{1}q\_{2}} q_1q_2 is negative and the direction of the force on q 1 {\displaystyle q\_{1}} q_{1} is − r ^ 12 {\textstyle -{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\_{12}} {\textstyle -{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}_{12}}; the charges attract each other. The electrostatic force F 2 {\textstyle \mathbf {F} \_{2}} {\textstyle \mathbf {F} _{2}} experienced by q 2 {\displaystyle q\_{2}} q_{2}, according to Newton's third law, is F 2 = − F 1 {\textstyle \mathbf {F} \_{2}=-\mathbf {F} \_{1}} {\textstyle \mathbf {F} _{2}=-\mathbf {F} _{1}}. ### System of discrete charges The law of superposition allows Coulomb's law to be extended to include any number of point charges. The force acting on a point charge due to a system of point charges is simply the vector addition of the individual forces acting alone on that point charge due to each one of the charges. The resulting force vector is parallel to the electric field vector at that point, with that point charge removed. Force F {\textstyle \mathbf {F} } {\textstyle \mathbf {F} } on a small charge q {\displaystyle q} q at position r {\textstyle \mathbf {r} } {\textstyle \mathbf {r} }, due to a system of N {\textstyle N} {\textstyle N} discrete charges in vacuum is F ( r ) = q 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 N q i r − r i | r − r i | 3 = q 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 N q i R ^ i | R i | 2 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}\sum \_{i=1}^{N}q\_{i}{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} \_{i}}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} \_{i}|^{3}}}={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}\sum \_{i=1}^{N}q\_{i}{{\hat {\mathbf {R} }}\_{i} \over |\mathbf {R} \_{i}|^{2}},} {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}|^{3}}}={q \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}{{\hat {\mathbf {R} }}_{i} \over |\mathbf {R} _{i}|^{2}},} where q i {\displaystyle q\_{i}} q_{i} and r i {\textstyle \mathbf {r} \_{i}} {\textstyle \mathbf {r} _{i}} are the magnitude and position respectively of the *i*th charge, R ^ i {\textstyle {\hat {\mathbf {R} }}\_{i}} {\textstyle {\hat {\mathbf {R} }}_{i}} is a unit vector in the direction of R i = r − r i {\textstyle \mathbf {R} \_{i}=\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} \_{i}} {\textstyle \mathbf {R} _{i}=\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}}, a vector pointing from charges q i {\displaystyle q\_{i}} q_{i} to q {\displaystyle q} q. ### Continuous charge distribution In this case, the principle of linear superposition is also used. For a continuous charge distribution, an integral over the region containing the charge is equivalent to an infinite summation, treating each infinitesimal element of space as a point charge d q {\displaystyle dq} dq. The distribution of charge is usually linear, surface or volumetric. For a linear charge distribution (a good approximation for charge in a wire) where λ ( r ′ ) {\displaystyle \lambda (\mathbf {r} ')} {\displaystyle \lambda (\mathbf {r} ')} gives the charge per unit length at position r ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} '} \mathbf {r} ', and d ℓ ′ {\displaystyle d\ell '} {\displaystyle d\ell '} is an infinitesimal element of length, d q ′ = λ ( r ′ ) d ℓ ′ . {\displaystyle dq'=\lambda (\mathbf {r'} )\,d\ell '.} {\displaystyle dq'=\lambda (\mathbf {r'} )\,d\ell '.} For a surface charge distribution (a good approximation for charge on a plate in a parallel plate capacitor) where σ ( r ′ ) {\displaystyle \sigma (\mathbf {r} ')} {\displaystyle \sigma (\mathbf {r} ')} gives the charge per unit area at position r ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} '} \mathbf {r} ', and d A ′ {\displaystyle dA'} dA' is an infinitesimal element of area, d q ′ = σ ( r ′ ) d A ′ . {\displaystyle dq'=\sigma (\mathbf {r'} )\,dA'.} {\displaystyle dq'=\sigma (\mathbf {r'} )\,dA'.} For a volume charge distribution (such as charge within a bulk metal) where ρ ( r ′ ) {\displaystyle \rho (\mathbf {r} ')} {\displaystyle \rho (\mathbf {r} ')} gives the charge per unit volume at position r ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} '} \mathbf {r} ', and d V ′ {\displaystyle dV'} dV' is an infinitesimal element of volume, d q ′ = ρ ( r ′ ) d V ′ . {\displaystyle dq'=\rho ({\boldsymbol {r'}})\,dV'.} {\displaystyle dq'=\rho ({\boldsymbol {r'}})\,dV'.} The force on a small test charge q {\displaystyle q} q at position r {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {r}}} {\boldsymbol {r}} in vacuum is given by the integral over the distribution of charge F ( r ) = q 4 π ε 0 ∫ d q ′ r − r ′ | r − r ′ | 3 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {q}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}\int dq'{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} }{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |^{3}}}.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {q}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\int dq'{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} }{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |^{3}}}.} where it the "continuous charge" version of Coulomb's law is never supposed to be applied to locations for which | r − r ′ | = 0 {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |=0} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |=0} because that location would directly overlap with the location of a charged particle (e.g. electron or proton) which is not a valid location to analyze the electric field or potential classically. Charge is always discrete in reality, and the "continuous charge" assumption is just an approximation that is not supposed to allow | r − r ′ | = 0 {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |=0} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r'} |=0} to be analyzed. Coulomb constant ---------------- The Coulomb constant is a proportionality factor that appears in Coulomb's law as well as in other electric-related formulas. Denoted k e {\displaystyle k\_{\text{e}}} k_{\text{e}}, it is also called the electric force constant or electrostatic constant hence the subscript e {\displaystyle e} e. When the electromagnetic theory is expressed in the International System of Units, force is measured in newtons, charge in coulombs and distance in meters. The Coulomb constant is given by k e = 1 4 π ε 0 {\textstyle k\_{\text{e}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}} {\textstyle k_{\text{e}}={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}}. The constant ε 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon \_{0}} \varepsilon _{0} is the vacuum electric permittivity (also known as *electric constant*). It should not be confused with ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon \_{r}} \varepsilon _{r}, which is the dimensionless relative permittivity of the material in which the charges are immersed, or with their product ε a = ε 0 ε r {\displaystyle \varepsilon \_{a}=\varepsilon \_{0}\varepsilon \_{r}} {\displaystyle \varepsilon _{a}=\varepsilon _{0}\varepsilon _{r}}, which is called "absolute permittivity of the material" and is still used in electrical engineering. Prior to the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, the Coulomb constant was considered to have an exact value: k e = 1 4 π ε 0 = c 0 2 μ 0 4 π = c 0 2 × 10 − 7   H ⋅ m − 1 = 8.987 551 787 368 176 4 × 10 9   N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ C − 2 . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}k\_{\text{e}}&={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}={\frac {c\_{0}^{2}\mu \_{0}}{4\pi }}=c\_{0}^{2}\times 10^{-7}\ \mathrm {H{\cdot }m^{-1}} \\&=8.987\,551\,787\,368\,176\,4\times 10^{9}\ \mathrm {N{\cdot }m^{2}{\cdot }C^{-2}} .\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}k_{\text{e}}&={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}={\frac {c_{0}^{2}\mu _{0}}{4\pi }}=c_{0}^{2}\times 10^{-7}\ \mathrm {H{\cdot }m^{-1}} \\&=8.987\,551\,787\,368\,176\,4\times 10^{9}\ \mathrm {N{\cdot }m^{2}{\cdot }C^{-2}} .\end{aligned}}} Since the 2019 redefinition, the Coulomb constant is no longer exactly defined and is subject to the measurement error in the fine structure constant. As calculated from CODATA 2018 recommended values, the Coulomb constant is k e = 8.987 551 792 3 ( 14 ) × 10 9   N ⋅ m 2 ⋅ C − 2 . {\displaystyle k\_{\text{e}}=8.987\,551\,792\,3\,(14)\times 10^{9}\ \mathrm {N{\cdot }m^{2}{\cdot }C^{-2}} .} {\displaystyle k_{\text{e}}=8.987\,551\,792\,3\,(14)\times 10^{9}\ \mathrm {N{\cdot }m^{2}{\cdot }C^{-2}} .} With electric charge defined as in the Gaussian and Heaviside–Lorentz systems, the corresponding constant has different, dimensionless values. In the Gaussian system (as for the electrostatic system), the unit charge (*esu* or statcoulomb) is defined in such a way that the Coulomb constant disappears, as it has the value of one and becomes dimensionless: k e (Gaussian) = 1 {\displaystyle k\_{\text{e (Gaussian)}}=1} {\displaystyle k_{\text{e (Gaussian)}}=1} In the Heaviside–Lorentz system, also called *rationalized* *units*, the Coulomb constant is dimensionless: k e (Heaviside–Lorentz) = 1 4 π {\displaystyle k\_{\text{e (Heaviside–Lorentz)}}={\frac {1}{4\pi }}} {\displaystyle k_{\text{e (Heaviside–Lorentz)}}={\frac {1}{4\pi }}} Limitations ----------- There are three conditions to be fulfilled for the validity of Coulomb's inverse square law: 1. The charges must have a spherically symmetric distribution (e.g. be point charges, or a charged metal sphere). 2. The charges must not overlap (e.g. they must be distinct point charges). 3. The charges must be stationary with respect to each other. The last of these is known as the electrostatic approximation. When movement takes place, Einstein's theory of relativity must be taken into consideration, and a result, an extra factor is introduced, which alters the force produced on the two objects. This extra part of the force is called the magnetic force, and is described by magnetic fields. For slow movement, the magnetic force is minimal and Coulomb's law can still be considered approximately correct, but when the charges are moving more quickly in relation to each other, the full electrodynamics rules (incorporating the magnetic force) must be considered. Electric field -------------- An electric field is a vector field that associates to each point in space the Coulomb force experienced by a unit test charge. The strength and direction of the Coulomb force F {\textstyle \mathbf {F} } {\textstyle \mathbf {F} } on a charge q t {\textstyle q\_{t}} {\textstyle q_{t}} depends on the electric field E {\textstyle \mathbf {E} } {\textstyle \mathbf {E} } established by other charges that it finds itself in, such that F = q t E {\textstyle \mathbf {F} =q\_{t}\mathbf {E} } {\textstyle \mathbf {F} =q_{t}\mathbf {E} }. In the simplest case, the field is considered to be generated solely by a single source point charge. More generally, the field can be generated by a distribution of charges who contribute to the overall by the principle of superposition. If the field is generated by a positive source point charge q {\textstyle q} {\textstyle q}, the direction of the electric field points along lines directed radially outwards from it, i.e. in the direction that a positive point test charge q t {\textstyle q\_{t}} {\textstyle q_{t}} would move if placed in the field. For a negative point source charge, the direction is radially inwards. The magnitude of the electric field **E** can be derived from Coulomb's law. By choosing one of the point charges to be the source, and the other to be the test charge, it follows from Coulomb's law that the magnitude of the electric field **E** created by a single source point charge *Q* at a certain distance from it *r* in vacuum is given by | E | = k e | q | r 2 {\displaystyle |\mathbf {E} |=k\_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q|}{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {E} |=k_{\text{e}}{\frac {|q|}{r^{2}}}} A system *N* of charges q i {\displaystyle q\_{i}} q_{i} stationed at r i {\textstyle \mathbf {r} \_{i}} {\textstyle \mathbf {r} _{i}} produces an electric field whose magnitude and direction is, by superposition E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∑ i = 1 N q i r − r i | r − r i | 3 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}\sum \_{i=1}^{N}q\_{i}{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} \_{i}}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} \_{i}|^{3}}}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={1 \over 4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}\sum _{i=1}^{N}q_{i}{\frac {\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {r} _{i}|^{3}}}} Atomic forces ------------- Coulomb's law holds even within atoms, correctly describing the force between the positively charged atomic nucleus and each of the negatively charged electrons. This simple law also correctly accounts for the forces that bind atoms together to form molecules and for the forces that bind atoms and molecules together to form solids and liquids. Generally, as the distance between ions increases, the force of attraction, and binding energy, approach zero and ionic bonding is less favorable. As the magnitude of opposing charges increases, energy increases and ionic bonding is more favorable. Relation to Gauss's law ----------------------- ### Deriving Gauss's law from Coulomb's law Gauss's law can be derived from Coulomb's law and the assumption that electric field obeys the superposition principle, which says that the resulting field is the vector sum of fields generated by each particle (or the integral, if the charges are distributed in a region of space). **Outline of proof** Coulomb's law states that the electric field due to a stationary point charge is: E ( r ) = q 4 π ε 0 e r r 2 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {q}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {e} \_{r}}{r^{2}}},} {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {q}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}{\frac {\mathbf {e} _{r}}{r^{2}}},} where * **e***r* is the radial unit vector, * r is the radius, |**r**|, * *ε*0 is the electric constant, * q is the charge of the particle, which is assumed to be located at the origin. Using the expression from Coulomb's law, we get the total field at **r** by using an integral to sum the field at **r** due to the infinitesimal charge at each other point **s** in space, to give E ( r ) = 1 4 π ε 0 ∫ ρ ( s ) ( r − s ) | r − s | 3 d 3 s {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}\int {\frac {\rho (\mathbf {s} )(\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} )}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} |^{3}}}\,d^{3}\mathbf {s} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}\int {\frac {\rho (\mathbf {s} )(\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} )}{|\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} |^{3}}}\,d^{3}\mathbf {s} } where ρ is the charge density. If we take the divergence of both sides of this equation with respect to **r**, and use the known theorem ∇ ⋅ r | r | 3 = − ∇ 2 1 | r | = 4 π δ ( r ) {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot {\frac {\mathbf {r} }{|\mathbf {r} |^{3}}}=-\nabla ^{2}{\frac {1}{|\mathbf {r} |}}=4\pi \delta (\mathbf {r} )} {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot {\frac {\mathbf {r} }{|\mathbf {r} |^{3}}}=-\nabla ^{2}{\frac {1}{|\mathbf {r} |}}=4\pi \delta (\mathbf {r} )} where *δ*(**r**) is the Dirac delta function, the result is ∇ ⋅ E ( r ) = 1 ε 0 ∫ ρ ( s ) δ ( r − s ) d 3 s {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{\varepsilon \_{0}}}\int \rho (\mathbf {s} )\,\delta (\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} )\,d^{3}\mathbf {s} } {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {1}{\varepsilon _{0}}}\int \rho (\mathbf {s} )\,\delta (\mathbf {r} -\mathbf {s} )\,d^{3}\mathbf {s} } Using the "sifting property" of the Dirac delta function, we arrive at ∇ ⋅ E ( r ) = ρ ( r ) ε 0 , {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {\rho (\mathbf {r} )}{\varepsilon \_{0}}},} {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {\rho (\mathbf {r} )}{\varepsilon _{0}}},} which is the differential form of Gauss' law, as desired. Note that since Coulomb's law only applies to stationary charges, there is no reason to expect Gauss's law to hold for moving charges based on this derivation alone. In fact, Gauss's law does hold for moving charges, and in this respect Gauss's law is more general than Coulomb's law. ### Deriving Coulomb's law from Gauss's law Strictly speaking, Coulomb's law cannot be derived from Gauss's law alone, since Gauss's law does not give any information regarding the curl of **E** (see Helmholtz decomposition and Faraday's law). However, Coulomb's law *can* be proven from Gauss's law if it is assumed, in addition, that the electric field from a point charge is spherically symmetric (this assumption, like Coulomb's law itself, is exactly true if the charge is stationary, and approximately true if the charge is in motion). **Outline of proof** Taking S in the integral form of Gauss' law to be a spherical surface of radius r, centered at the point charge Q, we have ∮ S E ⋅ d A = Q ε 0 {\displaystyle \oint \_{S}\mathbf {E} \cdot d\mathbf {A} ={\frac {Q}{\varepsilon \_{0}}}} {\displaystyle \oint _{S}\mathbf {E} \cdot d\mathbf {A} ={\frac {Q}{\varepsilon _{0}}}} By the assumption of spherical symmetry, the integrand is a constant which can be taken out of the integral. The result is 4 π r 2 r ^ ⋅ E ( r ) = Q ε 0 {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {Q}{\varepsilon \_{0}}}} {\displaystyle 4\pi r^{2}{\hat {\mathbf {r} }}\cdot \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {Q}{\varepsilon _{0}}}} where **r̂** is a unit vector pointing radially away from the charge. Again by spherical symmetry, **E** points in the radial direction, and so we get E ( r ) = Q 4 π ε 0 r ^ r 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {Q}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}}}{\frac {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}{r^{2}}}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (\mathbf {r} )={\frac {Q}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}}}{\frac {\hat {\mathbf {r} }}{r^{2}}}} which is essentially equivalent to Coulomb's law. Thus the inverse-square law dependence of the electric field in Coulomb's law follows from Gauss' law. In relativity ------------- Coulomb's law can be used to gain insight into the form of the magnetic field generated by moving charges since by special relativity, in certain cases the magnetic field can be shown to be a transformation of forces caused by the electric field. When no acceleration is involved in a particle's history, Coulomb's law can be assumed on any test particle in its own inertial frame, supported by symmetry arguments in solving Maxwell's equation, shown above. Coulomb's law can be expanded to moving test particles to be of the same form. This assumption can be justified by obtaining the correct form of field equations, that is with respect to agreement with Maxwell's equations. Considering the charge to be invariant of observer, the electric and magnetic fields of a uniformly moving point charge can hence be derived by the Lorentz transformation of the four force on the test charge in the charge's frame of reference, given by Coulomb's law and attributing magnetic and electric fields by their definitions given by the form of Lorentz force. The fields hence found for uniformly moving point charges are given by: E = q 4 π ϵ 0 r 3 1 − β 2 ( 1 − β 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ ) 3 / 2 r {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\frac {q}{4\pi \epsilon \_{0}r^{3}}}{\frac {1-\beta ^{2}}{(1-\beta ^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta )^{3/2}}}\mathbf {r} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} ={\frac {q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}r^{3}}}{\frac {1-\beta ^{2}}{(1-\beta ^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta )^{3/2}}}\mathbf {r} } B = q 4 π ϵ 0 r 3 1 − β 2 ( 1 − β 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ ) 3 / 2 v × r c 2 = v × E c 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\frac {q}{4\pi \epsilon \_{0}r^{3}}}{\frac {1-\beta ^{2}}{(1-\beta ^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta )^{3/2}}}{\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {r} }{c^{2}}}={\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {E} }{c^{2}}}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} ={\frac {q}{4\pi \epsilon _{0}r^{3}}}{\frac {1-\beta ^{2}}{(1-\beta ^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta )^{3/2}}}{\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {r} }{c^{2}}}={\frac {\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {E} }{c^{2}}}}where q {\displaystyle q} q is the charge of the point source, r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } \mathbf {r} is the position vector from the point source to the point in space, v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } \mathbf {v} is the velocity vector of the charged particle, β {\displaystyle \beta } \beta is the ratio of speed of the charged particle divided by the speed of light and θ {\displaystyle \theta } \theta is the angle between r {\displaystyle \mathbf {r} } \mathbf {r} and v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } \mathbf {v} . This form of solutions need not obey Newton's third law as is the case in the framework of special relativity (yet without violating relativistic-energy momentum conservation). Note that the expression for electric field reduces to Coulomb's law for non-relativistic speeds of the point charge and that the magnetic field in non-relativistic limit (approximating β ≪ 1 {\displaystyle \beta \ll 1} {\displaystyle \beta \ll 1}) can be applied to electric currents to get the Biot–Savart law. These solutions, when expressed in retarded time also correspond to the general solution of Maxwell's equations given by solutions of Liénard–Wiechert potential, due to the validity of Coulomb's law within its specific range of application. Also note that the spherical symmetry for gauss law on stationary charges is not valid for moving charges owing to the breaking of symmetry by the specification of direction of velocity in the problem. Agreement with Maxwell's equations can also be manually verified for the above two equations. Coulomb potential ----------------- ### Quantum field theory The **Coulomb potential** admits continuum states (with *E* > 0), describing electron-proton scattering, as well as discrete bound states, representing the hydrogen atom. It can also be derived within the non-relativistic limit between two charged particles, as follows: Under Born approximation, in non-relativistic quantum mechanics, the scattering amplitude A ( | p ⟩ → | p ′ ⟩ ) {\textstyle {\mathcal {A}}(|\mathbf {p} \rangle \to |\mathbf {p} '\rangle )} {\textstyle {\mathcal {A}}(|\mathbf {p} \rangle \to |\mathbf {p} '\rangle )} is: A ( | p ⟩ → | p ′ ⟩ ) − 1 = 2 π δ ( E p − E p ′ ) ( − i ) ∫ d 3 r V ( r ) e − i ( p − p ′ ) r {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}(|\mathbf {p} \rangle \to |\mathbf {p} '\rangle )-1=2\pi \delta (E\_{p}-E\_{p'})(-i)\int d^{3}\mathbf {r} \,V(\mathbf {r} )e^{-i(\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')\mathbf {r} }} {\displaystyle {\mathcal {A}}(|\mathbf {p} \rangle \to |\mathbf {p} '\rangle )-1=2\pi \delta (E_{p}-E_{p'})(-i)\int d^{3}\mathbf {r} \,V(\mathbf {r} )e^{-i(\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')\mathbf {r} }} This is to be compared to the: ∫ d 3 k ( 2 π ) 3 e i k r 0 ⟨ p ′ , k | S | p , k ⟩ {\displaystyle \int {\frac {d^{3}k}{(2\pi )^{3}}}e^{ikr\_{0}}\langle p',k|S|p,k\rangle } {\displaystyle \int {\frac {d^{3}k}{(2\pi )^{3}}}e^{ikr_{0}}\langle p',k|S|p,k\rangle } where we look at the (connected) S-matrix entry for two electrons scattering off each other, treating one with "fixed" momentum as the source of the potential, and the other scattering off that potential. Using the Feynman rules to compute the S-matrix element, we obtain in the non-relativistic limit with m 0 ≫ | p | {\displaystyle m\_{0}\gg |\mathbf {p} |} {\displaystyle m_{0}\gg |\mathbf {p} |} ⟨ p ′ , k | S | p , k ⟩ | c o n n = − i e 2 | p − p ′ | 2 − i ε ( 2 m ) 2 δ ( E p , k − E p ′ , k ) ( 2 π ) 4 δ ( p − p ′ ) {\displaystyle \langle p',k|S|p,k\rangle |\_{conn}=-i{\frac {e^{2}}{|\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} '|^{2}-i\varepsilon }}(2m)^{2}\delta (E\_{p,k}-E\_{p',k})(2\pi )^{4}\delta (\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')} {\displaystyle \langle p',k|S|p,k\rangle |_{conn}=-i{\frac {e^{2}}{|\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} '|^{2}-i\varepsilon }}(2m)^{2}\delta (E_{p,k}-E_{p',k})(2\pi )^{4}\delta (\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')} Comparing with the QM scattering, we have to discard the ( 2 m ) 2 {\displaystyle (2m)^{2}} {\displaystyle (2m)^{2}} as they arise due to differing normalizations of momentum eigenstate in QFT compared to QM and obtain: ∫ V ( r ) e − i ( p − p ′ ) r d 3 r = e 2 | p − p ′ | 2 − i ε {\displaystyle \int V(\mathbf {r} )e^{-i(\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')\mathbf {r} }d^{3}\mathbf {r} ={\frac {e^{2}}{|\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} '|^{2}-i\varepsilon }}} {\displaystyle \int V(\mathbf {r} )e^{-i(\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} ')\mathbf {r} }d^{3}\mathbf {r} ={\frac {e^{2}}{|\mathbf {p} -\mathbf {p} '|^{2}-i\varepsilon }}} where Fourier transforming both sides, solving the integral and taking ε → 0 {\displaystyle \varepsilon \to 0} \varepsilon \to 0 at the end will yield V ( r ) = e 2 4 π r {\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {e^{2}}{4\pi r}}} {\displaystyle V(r)={\frac {e^{2}}{4\pi r}}} as the Coulomb potential. However, the equivalent results of the classical Born derivations for the Coulomb problem are thought to be strictly accidental. The Coulomb potential, and its derivation, can be seen as a special case of the Yukawa potential, which is the case where the exchanged boson – the photon – has no rest mass. Simple experiment to verify Coulomb's law ----------------------------------------- It is possible to verify Coulomb's law with a simple experiment. Consider two small spheres of mass m {\displaystyle m} m and same-sign charge q {\displaystyle q} q, hanging from two ropes of negligible mass of length l {\displaystyle l} l. The forces acting on each sphere are three: the weight m g {\displaystyle mg} mg, the rope tension T {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} } and the electric force F {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} } \mathbf {F} . In the equilibrium state: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | T sin ⁡ θ 1 = F 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} \sin \theta \_{1}=\mathbf {F} \_{1}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} \sin \theta _{1}=\mathbf {F} _{1}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(1)** | and | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | T cos ⁡ θ 1 = m g {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} \cos \theta \_{1}=mg} {\displaystyle \mathbf {T} \cos \theta _{1}=mg} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(2)** | Dividing (**1**) by (**2**): | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | sin ⁡ θ 1 cos ⁡ θ 1 = F 1 m g ⇒ F 1 = m g tan ⁡ θ 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \theta \_{1}}{\cos \theta \_{1}}}={\frac {F\_{1}}{mg}}\Rightarrow F\_{1}=mg\tan \theta \_{1}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\sin \theta _{1}}{\cos \theta _{1}}}={\frac {F_{1}}{mg}}\Rightarrow F_{1}=mg\tan \theta _{1}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(3)** | Let L 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} \_{1}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} _{1}} be the distance between the charged spheres; the repulsion force between them F 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} \_{1}} \mathbf F_1, assuming Coulomb's law is correct, is equal to | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | F 1 = q 2 4 π ε 0 L 1 2 {\displaystyle F\_{1}={\frac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{1}^{2}}}} {\displaystyle F_{1}={\frac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{1}^{2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(Coulomb's law)** | so: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | q 2 4 π ε 0 L 1 2 = m g tan ⁡ θ 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{1}^{2}}}=mg\tan \theta \_{1}} {\displaystyle {\frac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{1}^{2}}}=mg\tan \theta _{1}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(4)** | If we now discharge one of the spheres, and we put it in contact with the charged sphere, each one of them acquires a charge q 2 {\textstyle {\frac {q}{2}}} {\textstyle {\frac {q}{2}}}. In the equilibrium state, the distance between the charges will be L 2 < L 1 {\textstyle \mathbf {L} \_{2}<\mathbf {L} \_{1}} {\textstyle \mathbf {L} _{2}<\mathbf {L} _{1}} and the repulsion force between them will be: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | F 2 = ( q 2 ) 2 4 π ε 0 L 2 2 = q 2 4 4 π ε 0 L 2 2 {\displaystyle F\_{2}={\frac {{({\frac {q}{2}})}^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{2}^{2}}}={\frac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{2}^{2}}}} {\displaystyle F_{2}={\frac {{({\frac {q}{2}})}^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{2}^{2}}}={\frac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{2}^{2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(5)** | We know that F 2 = m g tan ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} \_{2}=mg\tan \theta \_{2}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} _{2}=mg\tan \theta _{2}} and: q 2 4 4 π ε 0 L 2 2 = m g tan ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{2}^{2}}}=mg\tan \theta \_{2}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{2}^{2}}}=mg\tan \theta _{2}} Dividing (**4**) by (**5**), we get: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ( q 2 4 π ε 0 L 1 2 ) ( q 2 4 4 π ε 0 L 2 2 ) = m g tan ⁡ θ 1 m g tan ⁡ θ 2 ⇒ 4 ( L 2 L 1 ) 2 = tan ⁡ θ 1 tan ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {\left({\cfrac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{1}^{2}}}\right)}{\left({\cfrac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon \_{0}L\_{2}^{2}}}\right)}}={\frac {mg\tan \theta \_{1}}{mg\tan \theta \_{2}}}\Rightarrow 4{\left({\frac {L\_{2}}{L\_{1}}}\right)}^{2}={\frac {\tan \theta \_{1}}{\tan \theta \_{2}}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\left({\cfrac {q^{2}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{1}^{2}}}\right)}{\left({\cfrac {\frac {q^{2}}{4}}{4\pi \varepsilon _{0}L_{2}^{2}}}\right)}}={\frac {mg\tan \theta _{1}}{mg\tan \theta _{2}}}\Rightarrow 4{\left({\frac {L_{2}}{L_{1}}}\right)}^{2}={\frac {\tan \theta _{1}}{\tan \theta _{2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6)** | Measuring the angles θ 1 {\displaystyle \theta \_{1}} \theta _{1} and θ 2 {\displaystyle \theta \_{2}} \theta _{2} and the distance between the charges L 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} \_{1}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} _{1}} and L 2 {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} \_{2}} {\displaystyle \mathbf {L} _{2}} is sufficient to verify that the equality is true taking into account the experimental error. In practice, angles can be difficult to measure, so if the length of the ropes is sufficiently great, the angles will be small enough to make the following approximation: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | tan ⁡ θ ≈ sin ⁡ θ = L 2 ℓ = L 2 ℓ ⇒ tan ⁡ θ 1 tan ⁡ θ 2 ≈ L 1 2 ℓ L 2 2 ℓ {\displaystyle \tan \theta \approx \sin \theta ={\frac {\frac {L}{2}}{\ell }}={\frac {L}{2\ell }}\Rightarrow {\frac {\tan \theta \_{1}}{\tan \theta \_{2}}}\approx {\frac {\frac {L\_{1}}{2\ell }}{\frac {L\_{2}}{2\ell }}}} {\displaystyle \tan \theta \approx \sin \theta ={\frac {\frac {L}{2}}{\ell }}={\frac {L}{2\ell }}\Rightarrow {\frac {\tan \theta _{1}}{\tan \theta _{2}}}\approx {\frac {\frac {L_{1}}{2\ell }}{\frac {L_{2}}{2\ell }}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(7)** | Using this approximation, the relationship (**6**) becomes the much simpler expression: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | L 1 2 ℓ L 2 2 ℓ ≈ 4 ( L 2 L 1 ) 2 ⇒ L 1 L 2 ≈ 4 ( L 2 L 1 ) 2 ⇒ L 1 L 2 ≈ 4 3 {\displaystyle {\frac {\frac {L\_{1}}{2\ell }}{\frac {L\_{2}}{2\ell }}}\approx 4{\left({\frac {L\_{2}}{L\_{1}}}\right)}^{2}\Rightarrow {\frac {L\_{1}}{L\_{2}}}\approx 4{\left({\frac {L\_{2}}{L\_{1}}}\right)}^{2}\Rightarrow {\frac {L\_{1}}{L\_{2}}}\approx {\sqrt[{3}]{4}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {\frac {L_{1}}{2\ell }}{\frac {L_{2}}{2\ell }}}\approx 4{\left({\frac {L_{2}}{L_{1}}}\right)}^{2}\Rightarrow {\frac {L_{1}}{L_{2}}}\approx 4{\left({\frac {L_{2}}{L_{1}}}\right)}^{2}\Rightarrow {\frac {L_{1}}{L_{2}}}\approx {\sqrt[{3}]{4}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(8)** | In this way, the verification is limited to measuring the distance between the charges and checking that the division approximates the theoretical value. See also -------- * Biot–Savart law * Darwin Lagrangian * Electromagnetic force * Gauss's law * Method of image charges * Molecular modelling * Newton's law of universal gravitation, which uses a similar structure, but for mass instead of charge * Static forces and virtual-particle exchange Related reading --------------- * Coulomb, Charles Augustin (1788) [1785]. "Premier mémoire sur l'électricité et le magnétisme". *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*. Imprimerie Royale. pp. 569–577. * Coulomb, Charles Augustin (1788) [1785]. "Second mémoire sur l'électricité et le magnétisme". *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*. Imprimerie Royale. pp. 578–611. * Coulomb, Charles Augustin (1788) [1785]. "Troisième mémoire sur l'électricité et le magnétisme". *Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences*. Imprimerie Royale. pp. 612–638. * Griffiths, David J. (1999). *Introduction to Electrodynamics* (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-805326-0. * Tamm, Igor E. (1979) [1976]. *Fundamentals of the Theory of Electricity* (9th ed.). Moscow: Mir. pp. 23–27. * Tipler, Paul A.; Mosca, Gene (2008). *Physics for Scientists and Engineers* (6th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 978-0-7167-8964-2. LCCN 2007010418. * Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2010). *Sears and Zemansky's University Physics: With Modern Physics* (13th ed.). Addison-Wesley (Pearson). ISBN 978-0-321-69686-1.

Coulomb's law

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coulomb%27s_law

**Indigo** is a deep color close to the color wheel blue (a primary color in the RGB color space), as well as to some variants of ultramarine, based on the ancient dye of the same name. The word "indigo" comes from the Latin word *indicum*, meaning "Indian", as the dye was originally exported to Europe from India. It is traditionally regarded as a color in the visible spectrum, as well as one of the seven colors of the rainbow: the color between blue and violet; however, sources differ as to its actual position in the electromagnetic spectrum. The first known recorded use of indigo as a color name in English was in 1289. History ------- *Indigofera tinctoria* and related species were cultivated in East Asia, Egypt, India, Bangladesh and Peru in antiquity. The earliest direct evidence for the use of indigo dates to around 4000 BC and comes from Huaca Prieta, in contemporary Peru. Pliny the Elder mentions India as the source of the dye after which it was named. It was imported from there in small quantities via the Silk Road. The Ancient Greek term for the dye was Ἰνδικὸν φάρμακον ("Indian dye"), which, adopted to Latin (second declension case) as *indicum* or *indico* and via Portuguese, gave rise to the modern word indigo. Spanish explorers discovered an American species of indigo and began to cultivate the product in Guatemala. The English and French subsequently began to encourage indigo cultivation in their colonies in the West Indies. In North America, indigo was introduced by Eliza Lucas into colonial South Carolina, where it became the colony's second-most important cash crop (after rice). Before the Revolutionary War, indigo accounted for more than one-third of the value of exports from the American colonies. Blue dye can be made from two different types of plants: the indigo plant, which produces the best results, and from the woad plant *Isatis tinctoria*, also known as pastel. For a long time, woad was the main source of blue dye in Europe. Woad was replaced by true indigo as trade routes opened up, and both plant sources have now been largely replaced by synthetic dyes. Classification as a spectral color ---------------------------------- The Early Modern English word indigo referred to the dye, not to the color (hue) itself, and indigo is not traditionally part of the basic color-naming system. Modern sources place indigo in the electromagnetic spectrum between 420 and 450 nanometers, which lies on the short-wave side of color wheel (RGB) blue, towards (spectral) violet. The correspondence of this definition with colors of actual indigo dyes, though, is disputed. Optical scientists Hardy and Perrin list indigo as between 445 and 464 nm wavelength, which occupies a spectrum segment from roughly the color wheel (RGB) blue extending to the long-wave side, towards azure. Isaac Newton introduced indigo as one of the seven base colors of his work. In the mid-1660s, when Newton bought a pair of prisms at a fair near Cambridge, the East India Company had begun importing indigo dye into England, supplanting the homegrown woad as source of blue dye. In a pivotal experiment in the history of optics, the young Newton shone a narrow beam of sunlight through a prism to produce a rainbow-like band of colors on the wall. In describing this optical spectrum, Newton acknowledged that the spectrum had a continuum of colors, but named seven: "The originall or primary colours are Red, yellow, Green, Blew, & a violet purple; together with Orang, Indico, & an indefinite varietie of intermediate gradations." He linked the seven prismatic colors to the seven notes of a western major scale, as shown in his color wheel, with orange and indigo as the semitones. Having decided upon seven colors, he asked a friend to repeatedly divide up the spectrum that was projected from the prism onto the wall: > I desired a friend to draw with a pencil lines cross the image, or pillar of colours, where every one of the seven aforenamed colours was most full and brisk, and also where he judged the truest confines of them to be, whilst I held the paper so, that the said image might fall within a certain compass marked on it. And this I did, partly because my own eyes are not very critical in distinguishing colours, partly because another, to whom I had not communicated my thoughts about this matter, could have nothing but his eyes to determine his fancy in making those marks. > > Indigo is therefore counted as one of the traditional colors of the rainbow, the order of which is given by the mnemonics "Richard of York gave battle in vain" and *Roy G. Biv*. James Clerk Maxwell and Hermann von Helmholtz accepted indigo as an appropriate name for the color flanking violet in the spectrum. Later scientists concluded that Newton named the colors differently from current usage. According to Gary Waldman, "A careful reading of Newton's work indicates that the color he called indigo, we would normally call blue; his blue is then what we would name blue-green or cyan." If this is true, Newton's seven spectral colors would have been: Red:  Orange:  Yellow:  Green:  Blue:  Indigo:  Violet:  The human eye does not readily differentiate hues in the wavelengths between what are now called blue and violet. If this is where Newton meant indigo to lie, most individuals would have difficulty distinguishing indigo from its neighbors. According to Isaac Asimov, "It is customary to list indigo as a color lying between blue and violet, but it has never seemed to me that indigo is worth the dignity of being considered a separate color. To my eyes, it seems merely deep blue." Modern color scientists typically divide the spectrum between violet and blue at about 450 nm, with no indigo. Distinction among the four major tones of indigo ------------------------------------------------ Like many other colors (orange, rose, and violet are the best-known), indigo gets its name from an object in the natural world—the plant named indigo once used for dyeing cloth (see also Indigo dye). The color "electric indigo" is a bright and saturated color between the traditional indigo and violet. This is the brightest color indigo that can be approximated on a computer screen; it is a color located between the (primary) blue and the color violet of the RGB color wheel. The web color blue violet or deep indigo is a tone of indigo brighter than pigment indigo, but not as bright as electric indigo. The color pigment indigo is equivalent to the web color indigo and approximates the color indigo that is usually reproduced in pigments and colored pencils. The color of indigo dye is a different color from either spectrum indigo or pigment indigo. This is the actual color of the dye. A vat full of this dye is a darker color, approximating the web color midnight blue. Below are displayed these four major tones of indigo. ### Electric indigo "Electric indigo" is brighter than the pigment indigo reproduced below. When plotted on the CIE chromaticity diagram, this color is at 435 nanometers, in the middle of the portion of the spectrum traditionally considered indigo, i.e., between 450 and 420 nanometers. This color is only an approximation of spectral indigo, since actual spectral colors are outside the gamut of the sRGB color system. ### Deep indigo (web color blue-violet) At right is displayed the web color "blue-violet", a color intermediate in brightness between electric indigo and pigment indigo. It is also known as "deep indigo". ### Web color indigo The color box on the right displays the web color indigo, the color indigo as it would be reproduced by artists' paints as opposed to the brighter indigo above (electric indigo) that is possible to reproduce on a computer screen. Its hue is closer to violet than to indigo dye for which the color is named. Pigment indigo can be obtained by mixing 55% pigment cyan with about 45% pigment magenta. Compare the subtractive colors to the additive colors in the two primary color charts in the article on primary colors to see the distinction between electric colors as reproducible from light on a computer screen (additive colors) and the pigment colors reproducible with pigments (subtractive colors); the additive colors are significantly brighter because they are produced from light instead of pigment. Web color indigo represents the way the color indigo was always reproduced in pigments, paints, or colored pencils in the 1950s. By the 1970s, because of the advent of psychedelic art, artists became accustomed to brighter pigments. Pigments called "bright indigo" or "bright blue-violet" (the pigment equivalent of the electric indigo reproduced in the section above) became available in artists' pigments and colored pencils. ### Tropical indigo 'Tropical Indigo' is the color that is called *añil* in the *Guía de coloraciones* (Guide to colorations) by Rosa Gallego and Juan Carlos Sanz, a color dictionary published in 2005 that is widely popular in the Hispanophone realm. ### Indigo dye *Indigo dye* is a greenish dark blue color, obtained from either the leaves of the tropical Indigo plant (*Indigofera*), or from woad (*Isatis tinctoria*), or the Chinese indigo (*Persicaria tinctoria*). Many societies make use of the *Indigofera* plant for producing different shades of blue. Cloth that is repeatedly boiled in an indigo dye bath-solution (boiled and left to dry, boiled and left to dry, etc.), the blue pigment becomes darker on the cloth. After dyeing, the cloth is hung in the open air to dry. A Native American woman described the process used by the Cherokee Indians when extracting the dye: > We raised our indigo which we cut in the morning while the dew was still on it; then we put it in a tub and soaked it overnight, and the next day we foamed it up by beating it with a gourd. We let it stand overnight again, and the next day rubbed tallow on our hands to kill the foam. Afterwards, we poured the water off, and the sediment left in the bottom we would pour into a pitcher or crock to let it get dry, and then we would put it into a poke made of cloth (i.e. sack made of coarse cloth) and then when we wanted any of it to dye [there]with, we would take the dry indigo. > > In Sa Pa, Vietnam, the tropical Indigo (*Indigo tinctoria*) leaves are harvested and, while still fresh, placed inside a tub of room-temperature to lukewarm water where they are left to sit for 3 to 4 days and allowed to ferment, until the water turns green. Afterwards, crushed limestone (pickling lime) is added to the water, at which time the water with the leaves are vigorously agitated for 15 to 20 minutes, until the water turns blue. The blue pigment settles as sediment at the bottom of the tub. The sediment is scooped out and stored. When dyeing cloth, the pigment is then boiled in a vat of water; the cloth (usually made from yarns of hemp) is inserted into the vat for absorbing the dye. After hanging out to dry, the boiling process is repeated as often as needed to produce a darker color. ### Imperial blue In nature --------- ### Birds * Male indigobirds are a very dark, metallic blue. * The indigo bunting, native to North America, is mostly bright cerulean blue with an indigo head. * The related blue grosbeak is, ironically, more indigo than the indigo bunting. ### Fungi * *Lactarius indigo* is one of the very few species of mushrooms colored in tones of blue. ### Snakes * The eastern indigo snake, *Drymarchon couperi*, of the southeastern United States, is a dark blue/black. In culture ---------- ### Business * IndiGo is an Indian budget airline that uses an indigo logo and operates only Airbus A320s. * Indigo Books and Music uses an indigo logo and has sometimes referred to the color as "blue" in advertising. * The GameCube was initially released in 2 color variants, including one bearing the title of 'Indigo', with the main console and controllers in that color. ### Computer graphics * Electric indigo is sometimes used as a glow color for computer graphics lighting, possibly because it seems to change color from indigo to lavender when blended with white. ### Dyes * Indigo dye was used to dye denim, giving the original 'blue jeans' their distinctive colour. * The original Postal Worker uniform contained indigo dye, partly due to the dye not running when wet. * Guatemala, as of 1778, was considered one of the world's foremost providers of indigo. * In Mexico, indigo is known as *añil*. After silver, and cochineal to produce red, *añil* was the most important product exported by historical Mexico. * The use of *añil* is survived in the Philippines, particularly in the Visayas and Mindanao. The powder dye is mixed with vinegar to be applied to the cheek of a person suffering from mumps. ### Food * Scientists discovered in 2008 that when a banana becomes ripe, it glows bright indigo under a black light. Some insects, as well as birds, see into the ultraviolet, because they are tetrachromats and can use this information to tell when a banana is ready to eat. The glow is the result of a chemical created as the green chlorophyll in the peel breaks down. ### Literature Marina Warner's novel *Indigo* (1992) is a retelling of Shakespeare's *The Tempest* and features the production of indigo dye by Sycorax. ### Military The French Army adopted dark blue indigo at the time of the French Revolution, as a replacement for the white uniforms previously worn by the Royal infantry regiments. In 1806, Napoleon decided to restore the white coats because of shortages of indigo dye imposed by the British continental blockade. However, the greater practicability of the blue color led to its retention, and indigo remained the dominant color of French military coats until 1914. ### Popular culture In the *Better Call Saul* episode "Hero", Howard Hamlin mentions that his law firm Hamlin Hamlin & McGill trademarked a colour called "Hamlindigo" whilst confronting Jimmy McGill over trademark infringement in a billboard advertisement he produced for his own legal services. ### Spirituality The spiritualist applications use electric indigo, because the color is positioned between blue and violet on the spectrum. * The color electric indigo is used in New Age philosophy to symbolically represent the sixth *chakra* (called *Ajna*), which is said to include the third eye. This *chakra* is believed to be related to intuition and gnosis (spiritual knowledge). * Alice A. Bailey used indigo as the "second ray", representing "Love-Wisdom", in her Seven Rays system classifying people into seven metaphysical psychological types. * Psychics often associate indigo paranormal auras with an interest in religion or with intense spirituality and intuition. Indigo children are said to have predominantly indigo auras. People with indigo auras are said to favor occupations such as computer analyst, animal caretaker, and counselor. * In Wicca, it represents emotion, fluidity, insight, and expressiveness. It is used to spiritually heal. See also -------- * *Baptisia* (false indigo), a genus of flowering plants * Indigo dye, used in dyeing blue jeans their characteristic color * *Indigofera*, a genus of flowering plants * Lists of colors * *Persicaria tinctoria*, Japanese Indigo * *Red, White, and Black Make Blue: Indigo in the Fabric of Colonial South Carolina Life* by Andrea Feeser

Indigo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo

The history of China has taken place over several millennia across a wide geographical area. The notion of 'China' can be understood under many diverse historiographical, cultural, geographic, and political lenses, and has evolved tremendously over time. Each region now understood to be part of the Chinese world has alternated between many periods of unity, fracture, prosperity and hardship. Classical Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, and it with the Yangtze and Pearl valleys now constitute the geographic core of China and have for the majority of its imperial history. China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle: imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into the past, making it one of the cradles of civilization. At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan, the Tarim Basin, and the Himalayas, as far north as the Sayan Mountains, and as far south as the delta of the Red River. During the Neolithic period, increasingly non-parochial societies began to emerge along the Yellow and Yangtze rivers. In the north, varieties of millet constituted the primary agricultural staple of those inhabiting the Yellow River valley, while the cultivation of rice predominated on the Yangtze further to the south. It has been a major goal of contemperary Chinese archaeology to establish the nature of the relationship, if any, between the material cultures appearing in the archeological record and accounts from traditional Chinese historiography. For example, the Erlitou culture existed throughout the central plains of China during the era traditionally attributed to the Xia dynasty (c.  2070 BCE – 1600 BCE) by Chinese historiographers, as detailed in foundational works like the *Records of the Grand Historian*—a text written around 1700 years after the date it assigns to the fall of the Xia. The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BCE, from the time of Shang dynasty king Wu Ding. This religious writing records divinations inscribed on oracle bones. Chinese bronze inscriptions, ritual texts dedicated to deceased ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry, divination, and records of official speeches. China is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display a written language already mature. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is Zhou dynasty (c. 1046 BCE – 256 BCE), described as a confederation or a kin-based settlement state. During this axial age of early China, the aristocratic state gave way to bureaucratization, chariot-based warfare was superseded by infantry, the earliest classical texts took shape, the political theory of the Mandate of Heaven was introduced to legitimate monarchical rule, thinkers such as Confucius lived, and philosophies such as Taoism and Legalism were first articulated. China was first united as a single state under Qin Shi Huang in 221 BCE. Orthography, weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical age with the Han dynasty (206 BCE – CE 220). During this period, the Chinese empire saw some of its farthest geographical control. Confucianism was officially adopted and its core texts edited into their received forms. The father of Chinese historiography, Sima Qian, produced his seminal *Records of the Grand Historian*. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. The earliest extant dictionary of the Chinese language was produced, the *Shuowen Jiezi*. Chinese science and technology during the Han dynasty could be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire, and China became known internationally for its silks. Mass production of paper aided the proliferation of document making, and the written language of this period was used in most genera for millennia afterwards. The Han dynasty marks a critical period in Chinese self-conception: one term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group often call themselves "Han people". After a long stretch of political unity, notwithstanding a short usurpation around the turn of the millennium, the Chinese imperial order collapsed in the final decades of the 100s CE, and apart from a brief unification, China was divided for centuries. Buddhism entered from India, and had a significant impact on Chinese culture thereafter. Calligraphy, art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families gained even more power in comparison to the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. Few records survive from these turbulent times, sometimes understatedly called the Six Dynasties. The realm was united again in the late 500s CE, and as before the unifying dynasty soon gave way to a long-lived successor: the Tang dynasty (608–907). Regarded as another golden age of Chinese civilization, the Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's first officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian, reigned during the first century of the dynasty. Buddhism was officially adopted by the imperial rulers, while orthodox Confucianism was articulated by scholars such as Kong Yingda and Han Yu. "Tang people" is the other most common demonym for the dominant Chinese ethnic group. After another century or so of disunity – the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period – the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. Mechanical reproduction of text was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era. Scientific advancements led the world, on par with the contemporaneous Khwarazmian Empire. The imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism. The roots of modern capitalism could be detected. The Yuan dynasty began with Kublai Khan's conquest of China in the late 1200s. During this period, the first of the classical modern Chinese novels, *Romance of the Three Kingdoms*, was put to paper. Marco Polo, a European merchant who traveled along the Silk Road, reported about Yuan dynasty China. The next great dynasty was the Ming (1368–1644). Its achievements included global exploration, fine porcelain (sometimes still known in English as "China"), and many extant public works projects, such as the restorations of the Grand Canal and Great Wall. Two of the four Classic Chinese Novels, *Water Margin* and *Journey to the West*, were written during the Ming dynasty. The Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming. They placed ethnic Manchu officials in every important office while also adopting most features of elite Chinese culture. The most prolific poet and art collector of the period was the Qianlong emperor (r.  1735–1796), who commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of his imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. His grandfather commissioned the greatest premodern dictionary of the Chinese language, the *Kangxi Dictionary*, completed in 1716. The land area controlled by any Chinese dynasty reached its apex during the Qing. During this period, China came into increasing contact with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties. Empress Dowager Cixi was the final imperial ruler of China: the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created the modern Republic of China. From 1927 to 1949, China was embroiled in a civil war between the forces of the Republic of China and Mao Zedong's Chinese Red Army. Mao proclaimed victory in 1949, establishing the People's Republic of China. The Republic of China government under Chiang Kai-shek retreated to Taiwan. Each government continues to claim sovereignty over both mainland China and Taiwan, with the People's Republic of China enjoying greater recognition by foreign powers, and status of Taiwan still deeply complicated. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution helped consolidate Mao's power at the end of his life. The government began its economic reforms in 1978 under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping. As a result, China has the world's fastest-growing major economy, with growth rates averaging 10% over 30 years. China was the most populous nation in the world for parts of the 20th and 21st centuries. Earlier records lack sufficient data. Prehistory ---------- ### Paleolithic (1.7 Ma – 12 ka) The archaic human species of *Homo erectus* arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China. The oldest of these is the southwestern Yuanmou Man (元谋人; in Yunnan), dated to c. 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland-forest environment alongside chalicotheres, deer, the elephant *Stegodon*, rhinos, cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyaena. The better-known Peking Man (北京猿人; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP, was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers, choppers, and, dated slightly later, points, burins, and awls. Other *Homo erectus* fossils have been found widely throughout the region, including the northwestern Lantian Man (蓝田人; in Shaanxi) as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong. The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy: Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma. Evidence of fire use by *Homo erectus* occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at the archaeological site of Xihoudu, Shanxi Province. The circumstances surrounding the evolution of *Homo erectus* to contemporary *H. sapiens* is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis. Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County, Hunan. The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include the extinct *Ailuropoda baconi* panda, the *Crocuta ultima* hyena, the *Stegodon*, and the giant tapir. Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago. ### Neolithic Neolithic10,000-year-old pottery, Xianren Cave culture (18,000–7000 BC)Bone Arrowheads, Peiligang culture (7000–5000 BC)Butterfly-shaped ivory vessel with the pattern of two birds facing the sun, Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC)Pottery artifacts from Hemudu culture (5500–3300 BC) The Neolithic age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago. Because the Neolithic is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River, was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing, were found at the site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in the Yangtze delta. The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known respectively as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained a minor crop. Fruit such as peaches, cherries and oranges, as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China. ### Bronze Age Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC). The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan province is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the ancient kingdom of Shu, linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings. Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in the late 6th century in the Yangzi Valley. A bronze tomahawk with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei province) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Ancient China ------------- Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang. This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally. The earliest period once considered historical was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period, with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. ### Xia dynasty (2070–1600 BC) The Xia dynasty of China (from c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC) is the earliest of the Three Dynasties described in ancient historical records such as Sima Qian's *Records of the Grand Historian* and *Bamboo Annals*. The dynasty is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou that was excavated in Henan in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether the Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia Dynasty. In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts. More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by the Shang and Zhou. ### Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) Archaeological evidence, such as oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest to the historical existence of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang, in present-day Zhengzhou. Findings from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, were found in profusion at Anyang, in modern-day Henan, the last of the Shang's capitals. The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the "oracle bones", dating from around 1250 to 1046 BC. A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. Throughout their reigns, according to the *Shiji*, the capital city was moved six times. The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Pan Geng, around 1300 BC. The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty. Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of the Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by the same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper. ### Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to approximately 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in the Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang. A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu, defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye. They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region. Several of these states eventually became more powerful than the Zhou kings. The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven (*tian*) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically, the sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an) and Chengzhou (Luoyang), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into the Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley. #### Spring and Autumn period (722–476 BC) In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and Quanrong barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King Ping, in Luoyang, beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period is named after the famous *Spring and Autumn Annals*. The decline of central power left a vacuum. The Zhou empire now consisted of hundreds of tiny states, some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony. The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate the weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi, Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period. Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced the surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them. The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and the subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. #### Warring States period (476–221 BC) After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century BC. The years in which these states battled each other is known as the Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the *Zuo Zhuan* within the *Spring and Autumn Annals* (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and the bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305 BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period. As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures. This system had been in use elsewhere since the Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous *sheng* and *xian* ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in the Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse. Its final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng, ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor—known to history as Qin Shi Huang. Imperial China -------------- ### Early imperial China #### Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty (秦朝) in 221 BC effectively formalized the region as an empire, rather than state and its pivotal status probably lead to "Qin" (秦) later evolving into the Western term *China*. To emphasize his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself *Shi Huangdi* (始皇帝; "First August Emperor"); the *Huangdi* title, derived from Chinese mythology, become the standard for subsequent rulers. Based in Xianyang, the empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China. In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 commanderies (郡; *jun*), made up of counties (县; *xian*) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader. Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism, a state ideology promoted by the emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang Yang. In legal matters this philosophy emphasized mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade. Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles (seal script) and metal currency (Ban Liang), all of which were standardized. Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang is regarded as ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the historicity of this event. Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs and the five-element Wuxing (五行) theories for cosmological thought. The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence. Commoners, who made up over 90% of the population, "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey, as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects. This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether. Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian, who concurrently led a successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops. Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China. After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire. #### Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) ##### Western Han The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang, who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history, the Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape the subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters. After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing, the ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands. As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. Imperial Universities were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened the fiscal structure of the dynasty with government monopolies. **Left image**: Western-Han painted ceramic jar decorated with raised reliefs of dragons, phoenixes, and *taotie* **Right image**: Reverse side of a Western-Han bronze mirror with painted designs of a flower motif Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire, limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian, the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin, opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To the south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC, and Dian in 109 BC. Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade. After Emperor Wu, the empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang. ##### Xin dynasty In AD 9, the usurper Wang Mang claimed that the Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. ##### Eastern Han Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang, *east* of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era is termed the Eastern Han dynasty. With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang, former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated. The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea, thus reopening the Silk Road, and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with the arrival of Buddhism. With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun, and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by the famous polymath Zhang Heng. ### Six Dynasties #### Three Kingdoms (AD 220–280) By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs. The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords. In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel *Romance of the Three Kingdoms* dramatizes events of this period. The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han, thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in the power of great families. In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. #### Jin dynasty (AD 266–420) Jin dynasty (AD 266–420)Western Jin Dynasty, c. 280 ADView of Maijishan hill caves, grottoes and stairways. The Jin dynasty was severely weakened by War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an. In 317, the Jin prince Sima Rui, based in modern-day Nanjing, became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. #### Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439) Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms, most of which were founded by Xiongnu, Xianbei, Jie, Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of the Turks, Mongols, and Tibetans. Many had, to some extent, been "sinicized" long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. #### Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589) Northern and Southern dynasties (AD 420–589)Southern and Northern Dynasties, 440 ADHanging Monastery, a temple with the combination of Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. In the early 5th century, China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang and finally Chen. Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from the north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify. In the north, the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei, a kingdom founded by the Xianbei, a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei, which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou. These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into the Han. Despite the division of the country, Buddhism spread throughout the land. In southern China, fierce debates about whether Buddhism should be allowed were held frequently by the royal court and nobles. By the end of the era, Buddhists and Taoists had become much more tolerant of each other. ### Mid-imperial China #### Sui dynasty (581–618) Sui dynasty (AD 581–618)Sui dynasty c. 609Yang Guang depicted as Emperor Yang of Sui The short-lived Sui dynasty was a pivotal period in Chinese history. Founded by Emperor Wen in 581 in succession of the Northern Zhou, the Sui went on to conquer the Southern Chen in 589 to reunify China, ending three centuries of political division. The Sui pioneered many new institutions, including the government system of Three Departments and Six Ministries, imperial examinations for selecting officials from commoners, while improved on the systems of fubing system of the army conscription and the Equal-field system of land distributions. These policies, which were adopted by later dynasties, brought enormous population growth, and amassed excessive wealth to the state. Standardized coinage was enforced throughout the unified empire. Buddhism took root as a prominent religion and was supported officially. Sui China was known for its numerous mega-construction projects. Intended for grains shipment and transporting troops, the Grand Canal was constructed, linking the capitals Daxing (Chang'an) and Luoyang to the wealthy southeast region, and in another route, to the northeast border. The Great Wall was also expanded, while series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers further pacified its borders. However, the massive invasions of the Korean Peninsula during the Goguryeo–Sui War failed disastrously, triggering widespread revolts that led to the fall of the dynasty. #### Tang dynasty (618–907) Tang dynasty (AD 618–907)Tang Dynasty in 742 ADThe Fengxian cave (c. 675 AD) of the Longmen Grottoes, commissioned by Wu Zetian.Inside a cave of Longmen Grottoes, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.The Dunhuang map is to date the world's oldest complete preserved star atlas. The Tang dynasty was a golden age of Chinese civilization, a prosperous, stable, and creative period with significant developments in culture, art, literature, particularly poetry, and technology. Buddhism became the predominant religion for the common people. Chang'an (modern Xi'an), the national capital, was the largest city in the world during its time. The first emperor, Emperor Gaozu, came to the throne on 18 June 618, placed there by his son, Li Shimin, who became the second emperor, Taizong, one of the greatest emperors in Chinese history. Combined military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers reduced threats from Central Asian tribes, extended the border, and brought neighboring states into a tributary system. Military victories in the Tarim Basin kept the Silk Road open, connecting Chang'an to Central Asia and areas far to the west. In the south, lucrative maritime trade routes from port cities such as Guangzhou connected with distant countries, and foreign merchants settled in China, encouraging a cosmopolitan culture. The Tang culture and social systems were observed and adapted by neighboring countries, most notably Japan. Internally the Grand Canal linked the political heartland in Chang'an to the agricultural and economic centers in the eastern and southern parts of the empire. Xuanzang, a Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator travelled to India on his own and returned with "over six hundred Mahayana and Hinayana texts, seven statues of the Buddha and more than a hundred sarira relics." The prosperity of the early Tang dynasty was abetted by a centralized bureaucracy. The government was organized as "Three Departments and Six Ministries" to separately draft, review, and implement policies. These departments were run by royal family members and landed aristocrats, but as the dynasty wore on, were joined or replaced by scholar officials selected by imperial examinations, setting patterns for later dynasties. Under the Tang "equal-field system" all land was owned by the Emperor and granted to each family according to household size. Men granted land were conscripted for military service for a fixed period each year, a military policy known as the *fubing* system. These policies stimulated a rapid growth in productivity and a significant army without much burden on the state treasury. By the dynasty's midpoint, however, standing armies had replaced conscription, and land was continuously falling into the hands of private owners and religious institutions granted exemptions. A gilt Buddhist reliquary with decorations of armored guards, from Silla, 7th-centuryA Tang period gilt-silver jar, shaped in the style of northern nomad's leather bag decorated with a horse dancing with a cup of wine in its mouth, as the horses of Emperor Xuanzong were trained to do. The dynasty continued to flourish under the rule of Empress Wu Zetian, the only official empress regnant in Chinese history, and reached its zenith during the long reign of Emperor Xuanzong, who oversaw an empire that stretched from the Pacific to the Aral Sea with at least 50 million people. There were vibrant artistic and cultural creations, including works of the greatest Chinese poets, Li Bai and Du Fu. At the zenith of prosperity of the empire, the An Lushan Rebellion from 755 to 763 was a watershed event. War, disease, and economic disruption devastated the population and drastically weakened the central imperial government. Upon suppression of the rebellion, regional military governors, known as *jiedushi*, gained increasingly autonomous status. With loss of revenue from land tax, the central imperial government came to rely heavily on salt monopoly. Externally, former submissive states raided the empire and the vast border territories were lost for centuries. Nevertheless, civil society recovered and thrived amidst the weakened imperial bureaucracy. In late Tang period, the empire was worn out by recurring revolts of the regional military governors, while scholar-officials engaged in fierce factional strife and corrupted eunuchs amassed immense power. Catastrophically, the Huang Chao Rebellion, from 874 to 884, devastated the entire empire for a decade. The sack of the southern port Guangzhou in 879 was followed by the massacre of most of its inhabitants, especially the large foreign merchant enclaves. By 881, both capitals, Luoyang and Chang'an, fell successively. The reliance on ethnic Han and Turkic warlords in suppressing the rebellion increased their power and influence. Consequently, the fall of the dynasty following Zhu Wen's usurpation led to an era of division. #### Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960) Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (AD 907–960)Five Dynasties Ten Kingdoms Period 947 ADYunyan Pagoda in Jiangsu Province of Eastern China.Coins of the Five Dynasties and Ten KingdomsSection and detail of *Night Revels of Han Xizai*, by Gu Hongzhong The period of political disunity between the Tang and the Song, known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, lasted from 907 to 960. During this half-century, China was in all respects a multi-state system. Five regimes, namely, (Later) Liang, Tang, Jin, Han and Zhou, rapidly succeeded one another in control of the traditional Imperial heartland in northern China. Among the regimes, rulers of (Later) Tang, Jin and Han were sinicized Shatuo Turks, which ruled over the ethnic majority of Han Chinese. More stable and smaller regimes of mostly ethnic Han rulers coexisted in south and western China over the period, cumulatively constituted the "Ten Kingdoms". Amidst political chaos in the north, the strategic Sixteen Prefectures (region along today's Great Wall) were ceded to the emerging Khitan Liao dynasty, which drastically weakened the defense of China proper against northern nomadic empires. To the south, Vietnam gained lasting independence after being a Chinese prefecture for many centuries. With wars dominating in Northern China, there were mass southward migrations of population, which further enhanced the southward shift of cultural and economic centers in China. The era ended with the coup of Later Zhou general Zhao Kuangyin, and the establishment of the Song dynasty in 960, which eventually annihilated the remains of the "Ten Kingdoms" and reunified China. ### Late imperial China #### Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (960–1279) Song, Liao, Jin, and Western Xia dynasties (AD 960–1279)Jin, Southern Song, and Western Xia in China.A wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty.Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the *Wujing Zongyao* of 1044 AD. In 960, the Song dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu, with its capital established in Kaifeng (then known as Bianjing). In 979, the Song dynasty reunified most of China proper, while large swaths of the outer territories were occupied by sinicized nomadic empires. The Khitan Liao dynasty, which lasted from 907 to 1125, ruled over Manchuria, Mongolia, and parts of Northern China. Meanwhile, in what are now the north-western Chinese provinces of Gansu, Shaanxi, and Ningxia, the Tangut tribes founded the Western Xia dynasty from 1032 to 1227. Aiming to recover the strategic Sixteen Prefectures lost in the previous dynasty, campaigns were launched against the Liao dynasty in the early Song period, which all ended in failure. Then in 1004, the Liao cavalry swept over the exposed North China Plain and reached the outskirts of Kaifeng, forcing the Song's submission and then agreement to the Chanyuan Treaty, which imposed heavy annual tributes from the Song treasury. The treaty was a significant reversal of Chinese dominance of the traditional tributary system. Yet the annual outflow of Song's silver to the Liao was paid back through the purchase of Chinese goods and products, which expanded the Song economy, and replenished its treasury. This dampened the incentive for the Song to further campaign against the Liao. Meanwhile, this cross-border trade and contact induced further sinicization within the Liao Empire, at the expense of its military might which was derived from its nomadic lifestyle. Similar treaties and social-economical consequences occurred in Song's relations with the Jin dynasty. Within the Liao Empire, the Jurchen tribes revolted against their overlords to establish the Jin dynasty in 1115. In 1125, the devastating Jin cataphract annihilated the Liao dynasty, while remnants of Liao court members fled to Central Asia to found the Qara Khitai Empire (Western Liao dynasty). Jin's invasion of the Song dynasty followed swiftly. In 1127, Kaifeng was sacked, a massive catastrophe known as the Jingkang Incident, ending the Northern Song dynasty. Later the entire north of China was conquered. The survived members of Song court regrouped in the new capital city of Hangzhou, and initiated the Southern Song dynasty, which ruled territories south of the Huai River. In the ensuing years, the territory and population of China were divided between the Song dynasty, the Jin dynasty and the Western Xia dynasty. The era ended with the Mongol conquest, as Western Xia fell in 1227, the Jin dynasty in 1234, and finally the Southern Song dynasty in 1279. Liaodi Pagoda, Song dynastyThe Pagoda of Tianing Temple, Liao dynasty Despite its military weakness, the Song dynasty is widely considered to be the high point of classical Chinese civilization. The Song economy, facilitated by technology advancement, had reached a level of sophistication probably unseen in world history before its time. The population soared to over 100 million and the living standards of common people improved tremendously due to improvements in rice cultivation and the wide availability of coal for production. The capital cities of Kaifeng and subsequently Hangzhou were both the most populous cities in the world for their time, and encouraged vibrant civil societies unmatched by previous Chinese dynasties. Although land trading routes to the far west were blocked by nomadic empires, there were extensive maritime trade with neighboring states, which facilitated the use of Song coinage as the de facto currency of exchange. Giant wooden vessels equipped with compasses traveled throughout the China Seas and northern Indian Ocean. The concept of insurance was practised by merchants to hedge the risks of such long-haul maritime shipments. With prosperous economic activities, the historically first use of paper currency emerged in the western city of Chengdu, as a supplement to the existing copper coins. The Song dynasty was considered to be the golden age of great advancements in science and technology of China, thanks to innovative scholar-officials such as Su Song (1020–1101) and Shen Kuo (1031–1095). Inventions such as the hydro-mechanical astronomical clock, the first continuous and endless power-transmitting chain, woodblock printing and paper money were all invented during the Song dynasty. There was court intrigue between the political reformers and conservatives, led by the chancellors Wang Anshi and Sima Guang, respectively. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the Chinese had adopted the dogma of Neo-Confucian philosophy formulated by Zhu Xi. Enormous literary works were compiled during the Song dynasty, such as the innovative historical narrative *Zizhi Tongjian* ("Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government"). The invention of movable-type printing further facilitated the spread of knowledge. Culture and the arts flourished, with grandiose artworks such as *Along the River During the Qingming Festival* and *Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute*, along with great Buddhist painters such as the prolific Lin Tinggui. City views of Song dynasty from paintings. Clockwise from upper left: A Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127) era Chinese painting of a water-powered mill for grain, with surrounding river transport. The bridge scene from Zhang Zeduan's (1085–1145) painting *Along the River During Qingming Festival*. Chinese boats from *Along the River During Qingming Festival*. Leifeng Pagoda in the Southern Song Dynasty by Li Song. The Song dynasty was also a period of major innovation in the history of warfare. Gunpowder, while invented in the Tang dynasty, was first put into use in battlefields by the Song army, inspiring a succession of new firearms and siege engines designs. During the Southern Song dynasty, as its survival hinged decisively on guarding the Yangtze and Huai River against the cavalry forces from the north, the first standing navy in China was assembled in 1132, with its admiral's headquarters established at Dinghai. Paddle-wheel warships equipped with trebuchets could launch incendiary bombs made of gunpowder and lime, as recorded in Song's victory over the invading Jin forces at the Battle of Tangdao in the East China Sea, and the Battle of Caishi on the Yangtze River in 1161. The advances in civilization during the Song dynasty came to an abrupt end following the devastating Mongol conquest, during which the population sharply dwindled, with a marked contraction in economy. Despite viciously halting Mongol advance for more than three decades, the Southern Song capital Hangzhou fell in 1276, followed by the final annihilation of the Song standing navy at the Battle of Yamen in 1279. #### Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) Yuan dynasty (AD 1271–1368)The White Stupa of Miaoying Temple in Beijing.Deva King of the East on the east wall of the Cloud Platform at Juyong Pass.Yuan period firearm with inscription dated the 3rd year of the Zhiyuan era (1332). Yuan Dynasty (1206–1368). Discovered at the Yunju Temple, Fangshan, Beijing, 1935.Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing wood plate, 1287 AD. The Yuan dynasty was formally proclaimed in 1271, when the Great Khan of Mongol, Kublai Khan, one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, assumed the additional title of Emperor of China, and considered his inherited part of the Mongol Empire as a Chinese dynasty. In the preceding decades, the Mongols had conquered the Jin dynasty in Northern China, and the Southern Song dynasty fell in 1279 after a protracted and bloody war. The Mongol Yuan dynasty became the first conquest dynasty in Chinese history to rule the entire China proper and its population as an ethnic minority. The dynasty also directly controlled the Mongolian heartland and other regions, inheriting the largest share of territory of the divided Mongol Empire, which roughly coincided with the modern area of China and nearby regions in East Asia. Further expansion of the empire was halted after defeats in the invasions of Japan and Vietnam. Following the previous Jin dynasty, the capital of Yuan dynasty was established at Khanbaliq (also known as Dadu, modern-day Beijing). The Grand Canal was reconstructed to connect the remote capital city to economic hubs in southern part of China, setting the precedence and foundation where Beijing would largely remain as the capital of the successive regimes that unified China mainland. After the peace treaty in 1304 that ended a series of Mongol civil wars, the emperors of the Yuan dynasty were upheld as the nominal Khagan (Great Khan) of the greater Mongol Empire over other Mongol Khanates, which nonetheless remained de facto autonomous. The era was known as *Pax Mongolica*, when much of the Asian continent was ruled by the Mongols. For the first and only time in history, the silk road was controlled entirely by a single state, facilitating the flow of people, trade, and cultural exchange. Network of roads and a postal system were established to connect the vast empire. Lucrative maritime trade, developed from the previous Song dynasty, continued to flourish, with Quanzhou and Hangzhou emerging as the largest ports in the world. Adventurous travelers from the far west, most notably the Venetian, Marco Polo, would have settled in China for decades. Upon his return, his detail travel record inspired generations of medieval Europeans with the splendors of the far East. The Yuan dynasty was the first ancient economy, where paper currency, known at the time as *Jiaochao*, was used as the predominant medium of exchange. Its unrestricted issuance in the late Yuan dynasty inflicted hyperinflation, which eventually brought the downfall of the dynasty. Dengfeng Observatory, the first in a series of 27 astronomical observatories built in the early Yuan dynasty.The Pagoda of Bailin Temple, an octagonal-based brick pagoda built in 1330 during the reign of Emperor Wenzong, ruler of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368). While the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty adopted substantially to Chinese culture, their sinicization was of lesser extent compared to earlier conquest dynasties in Chinese history. For preserving racial superiority as the conqueror and ruling class, traditional nomadic customs and heritage from the Mongolian Steppe were held in high regard. On the other hand, the Mongol rulers also adopted flexibly to a variety of cultures from many advanced civilizations within the vast empire. Traditional social structure and culture in China underwent immense transform during the Mongol dominance. Large groups of foreign migrants settled in China, who enjoyed elevated social status over the majority Han Chinese, while enriching Chinese culture with foreign elements. The class of scholar officials and intellectuals, traditional bearers of elite Chinese culture, lost substantial social status. This stimulated the development of culture of the common folks. There were prolific works in *zaju* variety shows and literary songs (*sanqu*), which were written in a distinctive poetry style known as *qu*. Novels of vernacular style gained unprecedented status and popularity. The Ayuwang Stupa in northern Shanxi, China.A stupa on top of an arch (*crossing street tower*), is a common form of architecture during Yuan period. Before the Mongol invasion, Chinese dynasties reported approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest had been completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people. This major decline is not necessarily due only to Mongol killings. Scholars such as Frederick W. Mote argue that the wide drop in numbers reflects an administrative failure to record rather than an actual decrease; others such as Timothy Brook argue that the Mongols created a system of enserfment among a huge portion of the Chinese populace, causing many to disappear from the census altogether; other historians including William McNeill and David Morgan consider that plague was the main factor behind the demographic decline during this period. In the 14th century China suffered additional depredations from epidemics of plague, estimated to have killed around a quarter of the population of China. Throughout the Yuan dynasty, there was some general sentiment among the populace against the Mongol dominance. Yet rather than the nationalist cause, it was mainly strings of natural disasters and incompetent governance that triggered widespread peasant uprisings since the 1340s. After the massive naval engagement at Lake Poyang, Zhu Yuanzhang prevailed over other rebel forces in the south. He proclaimed himself emperor and founded the Ming dynasty in 1368. The same year his northern expedition army captured the capital Khanbaliq. The Yuan remnants fled back to Mongolia and sustained the regime. Other Mongol Khanates in Central Asia continued to exist after the fall of Yuan dynasty in China. #### Ming dynasty (1368–1644) Ming dynasty (AD 1368–1644)Haihui Temple Pagodas, built in the Ming period.Da Ming Baochao, a series of banknotes issued by the Ming government.Porcelain Tower, from *An embassy from the East-India Company* (1665) by Johan Nieuhof . It was first discovered by the Western world when travelers like Johan Nieuhof visited it, sometimes listing it as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.Pagoda of Chongjue Temple, dated to the Song dynasty. The onion-shaped Sōrin was a Ming dynasty addition. Dongyang LuzhaiResidence of the Lu Family in Dongyang, built in the Ming period.XiAn CityWall DiLouCity wall of Xi'an, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built during the early Ming dynastyFenghuang old townFenghuang County, an ancient town that harbors many architectural remains of Ming and Qing styles.Yixian HongcunHongcun, a village in Yi County in the historical Huizhou region of southern Anhui Province.XinyeXinye, a village noted for its well-preserved Ming and Qing era architecture and ancient residential buildings. The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, who proclaimed himself as the Hongwu Emperor. The capital was initially set at Nanjing, and was later moved to Beijing from Yongle Emperor's reign onward. Urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the voyages of Zheng He. The Hongwu Emperor, being the only founder of a Chinese dynasty who was also of peasant origin, had laid the foundation of a state that relied fundamentally in agriculture. Commerce and trade, which flourished in the previous Song and Yuan dynasties, were less emphasized. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Land estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out. Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of the Yongle Emperor, independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. Towards later era of the Ming dynasty, with declining government control, commerce, trade and private industries revived. The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Hongwu Emperor necessarily continued to use what he called the "Grand Secretariat" to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records. It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline. The Yongle Emperor strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops was created. The Chinese armies conquered and occupied Vietnam for around 20 years, while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence in eastern Moghulistan. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the Grand Canal was expanded and became a stimulus to domestic trade. Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished. In 1449 Esen Tayisi led an Oirat Mongol invasion of northern China which culminated in the capture of the Zhengtong Emperor at Tumu. Since then, the Ming became on the defensive on the northern frontier, which led to the Ming Great Wall being built. Most of what remains of the Great Wall of China today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watchtowers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length. A donkey*Eagles* by Lin Liang (c. 1424–1500). Located at the National Palace Museum.A trout*Snow Plums and Twin Cranes* by Bian Jingzhao (c. 1355 – c. 1428). Located at the Guangdong Museum. At sea, the Ming became increasingly isolationist after the death of the Yongle Emperor. The treasure voyages which sailed Indian Ocean were discontinued, and the maritime prohibition laws were set in place banning the Chinese from sailing abroad. European traders who reached China in the midst of the Age of Discovery were repeatedly rebuked in their requests for trade, with the Portuguese being repulsed by the Ming navy at Tuen Mun in 1521 and again in 1522. Domestic and foreign demands for overseas trade, deemed illegal by the state, led to widespread *wokou* piracy attacking the southeastern coastline during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor (1507–1567), which only subsided after the opening of ports in Guangdong and Fujian and much military suppression. In addition to raids from Japan by the wokou, raids from Taiwan and the Philippines by the Pisheye also ravaged the southern coasts. The Portuguese were allowed to settle in Macau in 1557 for trade, which remained in Portuguese hands until 1999. After the Spanish invasion of the Philippines, trade with the Spanish at Manila, imported large quantities of Mexican and Peruvian silver from the Spanish Americas to China. The Dutch entry into the Chinese seas was also met with fierce resistance, with the Dutch being chased off the Penghu islands in the Sino-Dutch conflicts of 1622–1624 and were forced to settle in Taiwan instead. The Dutch in Taiwan fought with the Ming in the Battle of Liaoluo Bay in 1633 and lost, and eventually surrendered to the Ming loyalist Koxinga in 1662, after the fall of the Ming dynasty. In 1556, during the rule of the Jiajing Emperor, the Shaanxi earthquake killed about 830,000 people, the deadliest earthquake of all time. The Ming dynasty intervened deeply in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98), which ended with the withdrawal of all invading Japanese forces in Korea, and the restoration of the Joseon dynasty, its traditional ally and tributary state. The regional hegemony of the Ming dynasty was preserved at a toll on its resources. Coincidentally, with Ming's control in Manchuria in decline, the Manchu (Jurchen) tribes, under their chieftain Nurhaci, broke away from Ming's rule, and emerged as a powerful, unified state, which was later proclaimed as the Qing dynasty. It went on to subdue the much weakened Korea as its tributary, conquered Mongolia, and expanded its territory to the outskirt of the Great Wall. The most elite army of the Ming dynasty was to station at the Shanhai Pass to guard the last stronghold against the Manchus, which weakened its suppression of internal peasants uprisings. #### Qing dynasty (1636–1912) Qing dynasty (AD 1644–1912)1836 map of China published by C. Picque.Pilgrim flask, porcelain with underglaze blue and iron-red decoration.A military attire of the Qianlong EmperorA Qing period geomantic compass (c. 1760) Dongyang LuzhaiSummer Palace, an imperial garden in Qing dynasty.XiAn CityWall DiLouPutuo Zongcheng Temple, a Buddhist temple complex built between 1767 and 1771. The temple was modeled after the Potala Palace of Tibet.The House of the Huangcheng Chancellor, a 10-hectare walled estate on Phoenix Hill in southeastern Shanxi, China.Flower Theatre, a Qing period guildhall.A residential building of Qiao Family Compound, built in the Qing period. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was the last imperial dynasty in China. Founded by the Manchus, it was the second conquest dynasty to rule the entirety of China proper, and roughly doubled the territory controlled by the Ming. The Manchus were formerly known as Jurchens, residing in the northeastern part of the Ming territory outside the Great Wall. They emerged as the major threat to the late Ming dynasty after Nurhaci united all Jurchen tribes and his son, Hong Taiji, declared the founding of the Qing dynasty in 1636. The Qing dynasty set up the Eight Banners system that provided the basic framework for the Qing military conquest. Li Zicheng's peasant rebellion captured Beijing in 1644 and the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus allied with the Ming general Wu Sangui to seize Beijing, which was made the capital of the Qing dynasty, and then proceeded to subdue the Ming remnants in the south. The decades of Manchu conquest caused enormous loss of lives and the economic scale of China shrank drastically. In total, the Qing conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost as many as 25 million lives. The early Manchu emperors combined traditions of Central Asian rule with Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government and were considered a Chinese dynasty. The Manchus enforced a 'queue order', forcing Han Chinese men to adopt the Manchu queue hairstyle. Officials were required to wear Manchu-style clothing *Changshan* (bannermen dress and *Tangzhuang*), but ordinary Han civilians were allowed to wear traditional Han clothing. Bannermen could not undertake trade or manual labor; they had to petition to be removed from banner status. They were considered aristocracy and were given annual pensions, land, and allotments of cloth. The Kangxi Emperor ordered the creation of the *Kangxi Dictionary*, the most complete dictionary of Chinese characters that had been compiled. Over the next half-century, all areas previously under the Ming dynasty were consolidated under the Qing. Conquests in Central Asia in the eighteenth century extended territorial control. Between 1673 and 1681, the Kangxi Emperor suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, an uprising of three generals in Southern China who had been denied hereditary rule of large fiefdoms granted by the previous emperor. In 1683, the Qing staged an amphibious assault on southern Taiwan, bringing down the rebel Kingdom of Tungning, which was founded by the Ming loyalist Koxinga (Zheng Chenggong) in 1662 after the fall of the Southern Ming, and had served as a base for continued Ming resistance in Southern China. The Qing defeated the Russians at Albazin, resulting in the Treaty of Nerchinsk. By the end of Qianlong Emperor's long reign in 1796, the Qing Empire was at its zenith. The Qing ruled more than one-third of the world's population, and had the largest economy in the world. By area it was one of the largest empires ever. In the 19th century the empire was internally restive and externally threatened by western powers. The defeat by the British Empire in the First Opium War (1840) led to the Treaty of Nanking (1842), under which Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and importation of opium (produced by British Empire territories) was allowed. Opium usage continued to grow in China, adversely affecting societal stability. Subsequent military defeats and unequal treaties with other western powers continued even after the fall of the Qing dynasty. Internally the Taiping Rebellion (1851–1864), a Christian religious movement led by the "Heavenly King" Hong Xiuquan swept from the south to establish the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and controlled roughly a third of China proper for over a decade. The court in desperation empowered Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan to raise local armies. After initial defeats, Zeng crushed the rebels in the Third Battle of Nanking in 1864. This was one of the largest wars in the 19th century in terms of troop involvement; there was massive loss of life, with a death toll of about 20 million. A string of civil disturbances followed, including the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars, Nian Rebellion, Dungan Revolt, and Panthay Rebellion. All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. China never rebuilt a strong central army, and many local officials used their military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces. Yet the dynasty appeared to recover in the Tongzhi Restoration (1860–1872), led by Manchu royal family reformers and Han Chinese officials such as Zeng Guofan and his proteges Li Hongzhang and Zuo Zongtang. Their Self-Strengthening Movement made effective institutional reforms, imported Western factories and communications technology, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by official rivalries, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The defeat of Yuan Shikai's modernized "Beiyang Fleet" in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) led to the formation of the New Army. The Guangxu Emperor, advised by Kang Youwei, then launched a comprehensive reform effort, the Hundred Days' Reform (1898). Empress Dowager Cixi, however, feared that precipitous change would lead to bureaucratic opposition and foreign intervention and quickly suppressed it. In the summer of 1900, the Boxer Uprising opposed foreign influence and murdered Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries. When Boxers entered Beijing, the Qing government ordered all foreigners to leave, but they and many Chinese Christians were besieged in the foreign legations quarter. An Eight-Nation Alliance sent the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, British, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege, but they were forced to retreat by Boxer and Qing troops at the Battle of Langfang. After the Alliance's attack on the Dagu Forts, the court declared war on the Alliance and authorized the Boxers to join with imperial armies. After fierce fighting at Tientsin, the Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing; the Empress Dowager evacuated to Xi'an. The Boxer Protocol ended the war, exacting a tremendous indemnity. The Qing court then instituted "New Policies" of administrative and legal reform, including abolition of the examination system. But young officials, military officers, and students debated reform, perhaps a constitutional monarchy, or the overthrow of the dynasty and the creation of a republic. They were inspired by an emerging public opinion formed by intellectuals such as Liang Qichao and the revolutionary ideas of Sun Yat-sen. A localised military uprising, the Wuchang Uprising, began on 10 October 1911, in Wuchang (today part of Wuhan), and soon spread. The Republic of China was proclaimed on 1 January 1912, ending 2,000 years of dynastic rule. Modern China ------------ ### Republic of China (since 1912) The provisional government of the Republic of China was formed in Nanking on 12 March 1912. Sun Yat-sen became President of the Republic of China, but he turned power over to Yuan Shikai, who commanded the New Army. Over the next few years, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and declared himself as the emperor of Empire of China in late 1915. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates; faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in March 1916 and died of natural causes in June. Sun Yat-sen, the intellectual leader of the Revolution.Yuan Shikai, the first official president of the Republic of China. Yuan's death in 1916 left a power vacuum; the republican government was all but shattered. This opened the way for the Warlord Era, during which much of China was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders and the Beiyang government. Intellectuals, disappointed in the failure of the Republic, launched the New Culture Movement. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement began as a response to the pro-Japanese terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Versailles following World War I. It quickly became a nationwide protest movement. The protests were a moral success as the cabinet fell and China refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which had awarded German holdings of Shandong to Japan. Memory of the mistreatment at Versailles fuels resentment into the 21st century. Political and intellectual ferment waxed strong throughout the 1920s and 1930s. According to Patricia Ebrey: "Nationalism, patriotism, progress, science, democracy, and freedom were the goals; imperialism, feudalism, warlordism, autocracy, patriarchy, and blind adherence to tradition were the enemies. Intellectuals struggled with how to be strong and modern and yet Chinese, how to preserve China as a political entity in the world of competing nations." In the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in Guangzhou and set out to unite the fragmented nation. He welcomed assistance from the Soviet Union (itself fresh from Lenin's Communist takeover) and he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Chinese Communist Party (CCP). After Sun's death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Nationalist Party (KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in the Northern Expedition (1926–1927). Having defeated the warlords in the south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North and establish the Nationalist government in Nanking. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CCP and relentlessly purged the Communists elements in his NRA. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the Chinese Soviet Republic, the CCP forces embarked on the Long March across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan'an in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). World War II (Second Sino-Japanese War)Bombing of Chongqing in 1940Chinese soldiers in house-to-house fighting in the Battle of Tai'erzhuangThe Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) Special Naval Landing Forces troops in gas masks prepare for an advance in the rubble of Shanghai, China.Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek announced the Kuomintang policy of resistance against Japan at Lushan on 10 July 1937, three days after the Seventy-seven Incident. The bitter Chinese Civil War between the Nationalists and the Communists continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year-long Japanese occupation of various parts of the country (1931–1945). The two Chinese parties nominally formed a United Front to oppose the Japanese in 1937, during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), which became a part of World War II. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population, including biological warfare (see Unit 731) and the Three Alls Policy (*Sankō Sakusen*), the three alls being: "Kill All, Burn All and Loot All". During the war, China was recognized as one of the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations. China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Nationalist government forces and the CCP resumed, after failed attempts at reconciliation and a negotiated settlement. By 1949, the CCP had established control over most of the country. Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military mistakes than Chiang, and because in his search for a powerful centralized government, Chiang antagonized too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened in the war against the Japanese. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to hear, and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese Nationalism. During the civil war both the Nationalists and Communists carried out mass atrocities, with millions of non-combatants killed by both sides. These included deaths from forced conscription and massacres. When the Nationalist government forces were defeated by CCP forces in mainland China in 1949, the Nationalist government retreated to Taiwan with its forces, along with Chiang and a large number of their supporters; the Nationalist government had taken effective control of Taiwan at the end of WWII as part of the overall Japanese surrender, when Japanese troops in Taiwan surrendered to the Republic of China troops. Until the early 1970s, the ROC was recognized as the sole legitimate government of China by the United Nations, the United States and most Western nations, refusing to recognize the PRC on account of the Cold War. This changed in 1971 when the PRC was seated in the United Nations, replacing the ROC. The KMT ruled Taiwan under martial law until 1987, with the stated goal of being vigilant against Communist infiltration and preparing to retake mainland China. Therefore, political dissent was not tolerated during that period. In the 1990s, the ROC underwent a major democratic reform, beginning with the 1991 resignation of the members of the Legislative Yuan and National Assembly elected in 1947. These groups were originally created to represent mainland China constituencies. Also lifted were the restrictions on the use of Taiwanese languages in the broadcast media and in schools. This culminated with the first direct presidential election in 1996 against the Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) candidate and former dissident, Peng Ming-min. In 2000, the KMT status as the ruling party ended when the DPP took power, only to regain its status in the 2008 election by Ma Ying-jeou. Due to the controversial nature of Taiwan's political status, the ROC is currently recognized by 12 UN member states and Holy See as of 2023 as the legitimate government of "China". ### People's Republic of China (since 1949) Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the KMT pulling out of the mainland, with the government relocating to Taipei and maintaining control only over a few islands. The CCP was left in control of mainland China. On 1 October 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the People's Republic of China. "Communist China" and "Red China" were two common names for the PRC. The PRC was shaped by a series of campaigns and five-year plans. The economic and social plan known as the Great Leap Forward caused an estimated 45 million deaths. Mao's government carried out mass executions of landowners, instituted collectivisation and implemented the Laogai camp system. Execution, deaths from forced labor and other atrocities resulted in millions of deaths under Mao. In 1966 Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, which continued until Mao's death a decade later. The Cultural Revolution, motivated by power struggles within the Party and a fear of the Soviet Union, led to a major upheaval in Chinese society. In 1972, at the peak of the Sino-Soviet split, Mao and Zhou Enlai met U.S. president Richard Nixon in Beijing to establish relations with the U.S. In the same year, the PRC was admitted to the United Nations in place of the Republic of China, with permanent membership of the Security Council. A power struggle followed Mao's death in 1976. The Gang of Four were arrested and blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, marking the end of a turbulent political era in China. Deng Xiaoping outmaneuvered Mao's anointed successor chairman Hua Guofeng, and gradually emerged as the *de facto* leader over the next few years. Deng Xiaoping was the Paramount Leader of China from 1978 to 1992, although he never became the head of the party or state, and his influence within the Party led the country to significant economic reforms. The CCP subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded with many peasants receiving multiple land leases, which greatly increased incentives and agricultural production. In addition, there were many free market areas opened. The most successful free market areas was Shenzhen. It is located in Guangdong and the property tax free area still exists today. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment, a system termed by some as "market socialism", and officially by the CCP as "Socialism with Chinese characteristics". The PRC adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989 the death of former general secretary Hu Yaobang helped to spark the Tiananmen Square protests of that year, during which students and others campaigned for several months, speaking out against corruption and in favour of greater political reform, including democratic rights and freedom of speech. However, they were eventually put down on 4 June when Army troops and vehicles entered and forcibly cleared the square, with considerable numbers of fatalities. This event was widely reported, and brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the government. CCP general secretary and PRC President Jiang Zemin and PRC Premier Zhu Rongji, both former mayors of Shanghai, led post-Tiananmen PRC in the 1990s. Under Jiang and Zhu's ten years of administration, the PRC's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%. The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001. By 1997 and 1999, former European colonies of British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau became the Hong Kong and Macau special administrative regions of the People's Republic of China respectively. Although the PRC needed economic growth to spur its development, the government began to worry that rapid economic growth was degrading the country's resources and environment. Another concern is that certain sectors of society are not sufficiently benefiting from the PRC's economic development; one example of this is the wide gap between urban and rural areas. As a result, under former CCP general secretary and President Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao, the PRC initiated policies to address issues of equitable distribution of resources, but the outcome was not known as of 2014[update]. More than 40 million farmers were displaced from their land, usually for economic development, contributing to 87,000 demonstrations and riots across China in 2005. For much of the PRC's population, living standards improved very substantially and freedom increased, but political controls remained tight and rural areas poor. According to the U.S. Department of Defense, as many as 3 million Uyghurs and members of other Muslim minority groups are being held in China's internment camps which are located in the Xinjiang region and which American news reports often label as "concentration camps". The camps were established in late 2010s under Xi Jinping's administration. Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a "people's war on terror", a policy announced in 2014. The camps have been criticized by the governments of many countries and human rights organizations for alleged human rights abuses, including mistreatment, rape, and torture, with some of them alleging genocide. The novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, which causes the disease COVID-19, was first detected in Wuhan, Hubei in 2019 and led to a global pandemic. * The People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin CampaignThe People's Liberation Army enters Beijing in the Pingjin Campaign * People's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in BeijingPeople's Republic of China 10th Anniversary Parade in Beijing * Blue Sky White Sun Wholly Red EarthThe flag of the People's Republic of China since 1949. See also -------- * Chinese emperors family tree + Ancient – Early – Middle – Late * Chinese exploration * Chinese historiography * Economic history of China * Ethnic groups in Chinese history * Foreign relations of imperial China * Golden ages of China * History of canals in China * History of Islam in China * History of science and technology in China * History of Taiwan * History of the Great Wall of China * List of Chinese monarchs * List of rebellions in China * List of recipients of tribute from China * List of tributary states of China * Military history of China before 1911 * Naval history of China * Population history of China * Timeline of Chinese history * Women in ancient and imperial China * Christianity in China References ---------- ### Sources * Ao, Hong; Dekkers, Mark J.; Wei, Qi; Qiang, Xiaoke; Xiao, Guoqiao (15 August 2013). "New evidence for early presence of hominids in North China". *Scientific Reports*. **3** (2403): 2403. Bibcode:2013NatSR...3E2403A. doi:10.1038/srep02403. PMC 3744199. PMID 23948715. * Boltz, William G. (February 1986). "Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology". *Early Writing Systems*. **17** (3): 420–436. * Ebrey, Patricia Buckley (1999). *The Cambridge Illustrated History of China*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521196208. * Hu, Yue; Marwick, Ben; Zhang, Jia-Fu; Rui, Xue; Hou, Ya-Mei; Yue, Jian-Ping; Chen, Wen-Rong; Huang, Wei-Wen; Li, Bo (19 November 2018). "Late Middle Pleistocene Levallois stone-tool technology in southwest China". *Nature*. **565** (7737): 82–85. Bibcode:2019Natur.565...82H. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0710-1. PMID 30455423. S2CID 53873016. * James, Steven R.; Dennell, R. W.; Gilbert, Allan S.; Lewis, Henry T.; Gowlett, J. A. J.; Lynch, Thomas F.; McGrew, W. C.; Peters, Charles R.; Pope, Geoffrey G.; Stahl, Ann B. (February 1989). "Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence [and Comments and Replies]". *Current Anthropology*. **30** (1): 1–26. doi:10.1086/203705. JSTOR 2743299. S2CID 146473957. * Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). *The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han*. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02477-9. * Liu, Wu; Martinón-Torres, María; Cai, Yan-jun; Xing, Song; Tong, Hao-wen; Pei, Shu-wen; Sier, Mark Jan; Wu, Xiao-Hong; Edwards, R. Lawrence; Cheng, Hai; Li, Yi-Yuan; Yang, Xiong-xin; De Castro, José María Bermúdez; Wu, Xiu-jie (2015). "The earliest unequivocally modern humans in southern China" (PDF). *Nature*. **526** (7575): 696–699. Bibcode:2015Natur.526..696L. doi:10.1038/nature15696. PMID 26466566. S2CID 205246146. * Nylan, Michael (2016). "Mapping Time in the *Shiji* and *Hanshu* Tables". *East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine*. Brill (43): 61–122. doi:10.1163/26669323-04301004. JSTOR 90006244. S2CID 171943719. * Wilkinson, Endymion (2018). *Chinese History: A New Manual* (5th ed.). Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 978-0-9988883-0-9. * Wu, Rukang; Lin, Shenglong (June 1983). "Peking Man". *Scientific American*. **248** (6): 92–93. Bibcode:1983SciAm.248f..86R. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0683-86. JSTOR 24968922. * Xiong, Victor Cunrui; Hammond, Kenneth J. (2019). *Routledge Handbook of Imperial Chinese History*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-58051-3. + Sanft, Charles. "The Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE)". In Xiong & Hammond (2019), pp. 12–24. * Zhu, R.X.; Potts, R.; Pan, Y.X.; Yao, H.T; Lü, L.Q.; Zhao, X.; Gao, X.; Chen, L.W.; Gao, F.; Deng, C.L. (December 2008). "Early evidence of the genus *Homo* in East Asia". *Journal of Human Evolution*. **55** (6): 1075–1085. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.08.005. PMID 18842287. * Fairbank, John K.; Twitchett, Denis, eds. (1978–2020). *The Cambridge History of China*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. + Bagley, Robert (1999). "Shang Archaeology". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. + Keightley, David N. (1999). "The Shang: China's First Historical Dynasty". In Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.). *The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47030-8. + Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". In Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). *The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. + Yu, Ying-shih (1986). "Han Foreign Relations". In Twitchett, Dennis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). *The Cambridge History of China, Volume 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC–AD 220*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-24327-8. Further reading --------------- * Dardess, John W. (2010). *Governing China, 150–1850*. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60384-311-9. * Fairbank, John King and Goldman, Merle. *China: A New History.* 2nd ed. (Harvard UP, 2006). 640 pp. * Gernet, Jacques. *A History of Chinese Civilization* (1996). One-volume survey. * Li, Xiaobing, ed. *China at War: An Encyclopedia*. (ABC-CLIO, 2012). online * Mote, Frederick W. *Imperial China, 900–1800* (Harvard UP, 1999), 1,136 pp. Authoritative treatment of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and early Qing dynasties. * Perkins, Dorothy. *Encyclopedia of China: The Essential Reference to China, Its History and Culture.* (Facts on File, 1999). 662 pp. online * Roberts, J. A. G. *A Concise History of China.* (Harvard U. Press, 1999). 341 pp. * Stanford, Edward. *Atlas of the Chinese Empire, containing separate maps of the eighteen provinces of China* (2nd ed 1917) Legible color maps Online free * Wright, David Curtis. *History of China* (2001) 257 pp.

History of China

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_China

**Évora** (US: /ˈɛvʊrə/ *EV-uurr-ə*, Portuguese: [ˈɛvuɾɐ] ()) is a city and a municipality in Portugal. It has 53,591 inhabitants (2021), in an area of 1307.08 km2. It is the historic capital of the Alentejo and serves as the seat of the Évora District. Due to its well-preserved old town centre, still partially enclosed by medieval walls, and many monuments dating from various historical periods, including a Roman Temple, Évora is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Due to its inland position, Évora is one of Portugal's hottest cities in the summer, frequently subject to heat waves. Évora is ranked number two in the Portuguese most livable cities survey of living conditions published yearly by *Expresso*. It was ranked first in a study concerning competitiveness of the 18 Portuguese district capitals, according to a 2006 study made by Minho University economics researchers. Along with Liepāja, Latvia, Évora was chosen to be European Capital of Culture in 2027. History ------- ### Early history Évora has a history dating back more than five millennia. It was known as *Ebora* by the Celtici, a tribal confederacy, south of the Lusitanians (and of Tagus river), who made the town their regional capital. The etymological origin of the name *Ebora* is from the ancient Celtic word *ebora/ebura*, the genitive plural form of the word *eburos* (yew), the name of a species of tree, so its name means "of the yew trees." The city of York, in northern England, at the time of the Roman Empire, was called *Eboracum/Eburacum*, after the ancient Celtic place name \**Eborakon* (Place of Yew Trees), so the old name of York is etymologically related to the city of Évora. Alternative hypotheses are that the name is derived from *oro*, *aurum*, (gold) as the Romans had extensive gold mining in Portugal; or it may have been named after ivory workers because *ebur* (genitive *eboris*) was Latin for ivory. It may have been capital of the kingdom of Astolpas. ### Roman rule See Ebora Liberalitas Julia for more on Roman Évora. The Romans conquered the town in 57 BC and expanded it into a walled town. Vestiges from this period (city walls and ruins of Roman baths) remain. Julius Caesar called it Liberalitas Julia (Julian generosity). The city grew in importance because it lay at the junction of several important routes. During his travels through Gaul and Lusitania, Pliny the Elder also visited this town and mentioned it in his book *Naturalis Historia* as Ebora Cerealis, because of its many surrounding wheat fields. In those days, Évora became a flourishing city. Its high rank among municipalities in Roman Hispania is clearly shown by many inscriptions and coins. The monumental Corinthian temple in the centre of the town dates from the first century and was probably erected in honour of emperor Augustus. In the fourth century, the town had already a bishop, named Quintianus. During the barbarian invasions, Évora came under the rule of the Visigothic king Leovigild in 584. The town was later raised to the status of a cathedral city. Nevertheless, this was a time of decline and very few artifacts from this period remain. ### Moorish rule In 715, the city was conquered by the Moors under Tariq ibn-Ziyad. During the Moorish rule (715–1165), the town, part of the Taifa of Badajoz, slowly began to prosper again and developed into an agricultural center with a fortress and a mosque. The Moorish influence can still be observed in the character of the historical city. During that time, several notables hailed from Évora, including Abd al-Majid ibn Abdun Al-Yaburi عبد المجيد بن عبدون اليابري, a poet whose diwan still survives to this day. ### Reconquest Évora was wrested from the Moors through a surprise attack by Gerald the Fearless (Geraldo Sem Pavor) in September 1165. The town came under the rule of the Portuguese king Afonso I in 1166. It then flourished as one of the most dynamic cities in the Kingdom of Portugal during the Middle Ages, especially in the 15th century. The court of the first and second dynasties resided here for long periods, constructing palaces, monuments, and religious buildings. Évora became the scene for many royal weddings and a site where many important decisions were made. ### Manueline favour Particularly thriving during the Avis Dynasty (1385–1580), especially under the reign of Manuel I and John III, Évora became a major centre for the humanities (André de Resende - buried in the cathedral) and artists, such as the sculptor Nicolau Chanterene; the painters Cristóvão de Figueiredo and Gregório Lopes; the composers Manuel Cardoso and Duarte Lobo; the chronicler Duarte Galvão; and the father of Portuguese drama, Gil Vicente. Évora also held a large part of the slave population of Portugal. Nicolas Clenard, a Flemish tutor at the Portuguese court, exclaimed in 1535 that "In Évora, it was as if I had been carried off to a city in hell: everywhere I only meet blacks." The city became the seat of an archbishopric in 1540. The university was founded by the Jesuits in 1559, and it was here that great European Masters such as the Flemish humanists Nicolaus Clenardus (Nicolaas Cleynaerts) (1493–1542), Johannes Vasaeus (Jan Was) (1511–1561) and the theologian Luis de Molina passed on their knowledge. In the 18th century, the Jesuits, who had spread intellectual and religious enlightenment since the 16th century, were expelled from Portugal, the university was closed in 1759 by the Marquis of Pombal, and Évora went into decline. The university was only reopened in 1973. ### Recent history The Battle of Évora was fought on 29 July 1808 during the Peninsular War. An outnumbered Portuguese-Spanish force of 2,500, assisted by poorly armed peasant militiamen, tried to stop a French-Spanish division commanded by Louis Henri Loison but it was routed. Led by the hated Loison, known as *Maneta* or One-Hand, the French went on to storm the town which was defended by soldiers, militiamen, and armed townsmen. Breaking into the town, the attackers slaughtered combatants and non-combatants alike before thoroughly pillaging the place. The French invasion inflicted as many as 8,000 casualties while suffering only 290 of their own. In 1834, Évora was the site of the surrender of the forces of King Miguel I, which marked the end of the Liberal Wars. The many monuments erected by major artists of each period now testify to Évora's lively cultural and rich artistic and historical heritage. The variety of architectural styles (Romanesque, Gothic, Manueline, Renaissance, Baroque), the palaces and the picturesque labyrinth of squares and narrow streets of the city centre are all part of the rich heritage of this museum-city. In 1909, the city was damaged by an earthquake. Geography --------- ### Physical geography Évora (altitude 300m) is situated in Alentejo, a large region of wide plains in the south of Portugal, bordered to the North by the Tagus River and to the South by the region of Algarve. The city is 140 km (87 mi) from the capital city Lisbon, and 80 km (50 mi) from Badajoz at the Spanish border. It is the chief city of the region. The seat of the municipality is the city of Évora, composed by the civil parishes of Évora (São Mamede, Sé, São Pedro e Santo Antão) in the historical centre and the urban parishes of Bacelo e Senhora da Saúde and Malagueira e Horta das Figueiras outside the ancient city walls where most of the population in fact reside. The remaining civil parishes in the municipality are rural or suburban and do not form part of the city for statistical purposes. The city's historical centre has about 4,000 buildings and an area of 1.05 km2 (0.41 sq mi). ### Climate Évora has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa*) with hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters. Its location in the interior of southern Portugal makes it subject to frequent droughts and desertification. As is typical of the interior Alentejo, Évora is prone to severe heat extremes with an all-time record of 46.0 °C (114.8 °F). However, the average summer high is usually around 30 °C (86 °F), which is significantly less severe heat than the one found at more interior, lower altitude areas of the Iberian Peninsula. This is due to low-scale maritime effects caused by its relative proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, which also causes seasonal lag predominantly during the warmer period, with night-time temperatures being milder in September than June as well as in October compared with May. Frosts in winter are frequent but not usually severe, snow falling only twice a decade. | Climate data for Évora (Nossa Senhora da Saúde), elevation: 309 m or 1,014 ft, 1981-2010 normals, extremes 1981-present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 24.7(76.5) | 24.3(75.7) | 31.3(88.3) | 32.3(90.1) | 37.8(100.0) | 41.8(107.2) | 45.3(113.5) | 46.0(114.8) | 44.2(111.6) | 36.7(98.1) | 27.6(81.7) | 24.4(75.9) | 46.0(114.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.4(56.1) | 14.7(58.5) | 18.0(64.4) | 19.1(66.4) | 22.6(72.7) | 27.9(82.2) | 31.1(88.0) | 31.1(88.0) | 27.8(82.0) | 22.2(72.0) | 17.1(62.8) | 13.8(56.8) | 21.6(70.8) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.6(49.3) | 10.7(51.3) | 13.3(55.9) | 14.3(57.7) | 17.1(62.8) | 21.4(70.5) | 23.9(75.0) | 24.1(75.4) | 21.9(71.4) | 17.7(63.9) | 13.4(56.1) | 10.5(50.9) | 16.5(61.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.8(42.4) | 6.7(44.1) | 8.6(47.5) | 9.5(49.1) | 11.7(53.1) | 14.8(58.6) | 16.6(61.9) | 17.0(62.6) | 16.0(60.8) | 13.2(55.8) | 9.7(49.5) | 7.1(44.8) | 11.4(52.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −2.9(26.8) | −1.4(29.5) | −2.3(27.9) | 2.9(37.2) | 4.9(40.8) | 6.7(44.1) | 10.9(51.6) | 11.4(52.5) | 9.1(48.4) | 5.5(41.9) | 0.0(32.0) | −0.5(31.1) | −2.9(26.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 60.7(2.39) | 51.9(2.04) | 43.9(1.73) | 55.0(2.17) | 46.5(1.83) | 16.5(0.65) | 4.1(0.16) | 8.2(0.32) | 32.2(1.27) | 83.6(3.29) | 87.6(3.45) | 95.1(3.74) | 585.3(23.04) | | Source: IPMA | | Climate data for Évora (Nossa Senhora da Saúde), elevation: 321 m or 1,053 ft, 1961-1990 normals and extremes | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 21.0(69.8) | 24.2(75.6) | 26.0(78.8) | 29.6(85.3) | 34.2(93.6) | 41.0(105.8) | 40.6(105.1) | 39.5(103.1) | 39.7(103.5) | 32.4(90.3) | 28.4(83.1) | 21.5(70.7) | 41.0(105.8) | | Average high °C (°F) | 12.8(55.0) | 13.7(56.7) | 15.9(60.6) | 17.8(64.0) | 21.6(70.9) | 26.2(79.2) | 30.0(86.0) | 30.2(86.4) | 27.4(81.3) | 21.7(71.1) | 16.3(61.3) | 13.1(55.6) | 20.6(69.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.4(48.9) | 10.2(50.4) | 11.8(53.2) | 13.4(56.1) | 16.3(61.3) | 20.1(68.2) | 23.0(73.4) | 23.2(73.8) | 21.6(70.9) | 17.3(63.1) | 12.7(54.9) | 9.9(49.8) | 15.7(60.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 6.1(43.0) | 6.7(44.1) | 7.7(45.9) | 8.9(48.0) | 11.1(52.0) | 14.0(57.2) | 16.0(60.8) | 16.3(61.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 12.9(55.2) | 9.1(48.4) | 6.6(43.9) | 10.9(51.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −2.9(26.8) | −2.1(28.2) | −0.8(30.6) | 2.0(35.6) | 4.9(40.8) | 6.7(44.1) | 9.8(49.6) | 11.0(51.8) | 7.6(45.7) | 4.0(39.2) | 0.6(33.1) | −2.9(26.8) | −2.9(26.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 88(3.5) | 86(3.4) | 57(2.2) | 56(2.2) | 38(1.5) | 29(1.1) | 8(0.3) | 4(0.2) | 27(1.1) | 69(2.7) | 80(3.1) | 85(3.3) | 627(24.6) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 10 | 10 | 7 | 8 | 6 | 3 | 1 | trace | 3 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 73 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 79 | 77 | 70 | 67 | 63 | 58 | 52 | 51 | 56 | 67 | 75 | 79 | 66 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 148 | 148 | 203 | 220 | 285 | 301 | 363 | 346 | 251 | 204 | 158 | 144 | 2,771 | | Source: NOAA | | Climate data for Évora (Mitra), 1941-1990, altitude: 200 m (660 ft) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.5(56.3) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.3(63.1) | 19.5(67.1) | 23.2(73.8) | 28.1(82.6) | 32.0(89.6) | 31.8(89.2) | 28.5(83.3) | 23.1(73.6) | 17.5(63.5) | 14.2(57.6) | 22.0(71.5) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.5(47.3) | 9.7(49.5) | 11.7(53.1) | 13.6(56.5) | 16.6(61.9) | 20.5(68.9) | 23.3(73.9) | 23.3(73.9) | 20.9(69.6) | 16.8(62.2) | 12.3(54.1) | 9.3(48.7) | 15.5(60.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.4(38.1) | 4.6(40.3) | 6.0(42.8) | 7.6(45.7) | 9.9(49.8) | 12.8(55.0) | 14.6(58.3) | 14.7(58.5) | 13.3(55.9) | 10.5(50.9) | 7.0(44.6) | 4.3(39.7) | 9.1(48.3) | | Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 10.3 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 9.2 | 6.5 | 3.4 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 3.4 | 7.2 | 8.6 | 9.3 | 79.4 | | Source: Instituto de Meteorologia | | Climate data for Évora (Currais), 1941-1990, altitude: 230 m (750 ft) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.5(56.3) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.3(63.1) | 19.8(67.6) | 23.6(74.5) | 28.8(83.8) | 32.6(90.7) | 32.3(90.1) | 29.2(84.6) | 23.3(73.9) | 17.7(63.9) | 14.1(57.4) | 22.2(72.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.6(47.5) | 9.5(49.1) | 11.5(52.7) | 13.5(56.3) | 16.5(61.7) | 20.8(69.4) | 23.6(74.5) | 23.4(74.1) | 21.4(70.5) | 17.1(62.8) | 12.4(54.3) | 9.2(48.6) | 15.6(60.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.6(38.5) | 4.3(39.7) | 5.7(42.3) | 7.2(45.0) | 9.4(48.9) | 12.7(54.9) | 14.5(58.1) | 14.4(57.9) | 13.5(56.3) | 10.9(51.6) | 7.1(44.8) | 4.3(39.7) | 9.0(48.1) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 79.2(3.12) | 67.2(2.65) | 65.3(2.57) | 49.2(1.94) | 39.8(1.57) | 20.2(0.80) | 4.3(0.17) | 3.9(0.15) | 22.4(0.88) | 57.4(2.26) | 70.8(2.79) | 79.9(3.15) | 559.6(22.05) | | Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 13.5 | 11.9 | 11.2 | 9.1 | 6.9 | 3.8 | 0.8 | 0.7 | 3.4 | 8.1 | 10.3 | 12.7 | 92.4 | | Source: Instituto de Meteorologia | ### Human geography Évora is a pleasant medium-sized city and has numerous monuments. Due to its long history, monuments and buildings are its main attraction to outsiders. However, there are numerous "Festas Populares" celebrating saints, holidays, "Feiras" (fairs) and cultural events (such as televised musical presentations) sponsored by the municipality and other organizations The present Mayor is Carlos Pinto de Sá of the CDU coalition. The municipal holiday is 29 June. The municipality consists of the following 12 civil parishes: * Bacelo e Senhora da Saúde * Canaviais * Évora (São Mamede, Sé, São Pedro e Santo Antão) * Malagueira e Horta das Figueiras * Nossa Senhora da Graça do Divor * Nossa Senhora da Tourega e Nossa Senhora de Guadalupe * Nossa Senhora de Machede * São Bento do Mato * São Manços e São Vicente do Pigeiro * São Miguel de Machede * São Sebastião da Giesteira e Nossa Senhora da Boa Fé * Torre de Coelheiros International relations ----------------------- Évora is twinned with: * Portugal Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal, since 1986 * France Chartres, France, since 2003 * Iran Qazvin, Iran, since 2016 * Mozambique Island of Mozambique, Mozambique, since 1997 * Russia Suzdal, Russia, since 1986 Economy ------- Évora is the chief city of the Alentejo region, and plays a role as an important agricultural and services center. It is home to several institutions with great importance for the region, like the state-run University of Évora and the district hospital. In 2015, Embraer built two factories for the production of aircraft parts along with its European Engineering Center. In 2022, these factories were sold to aerospace company Aernnova, a corporate spin-off of Siemens Gamesa. Due to its extensive historical and cultural importance, Évora, as well as the surrounding area, saw in the 2010s a great increase in its international tourism sector, which fomented the creation of many hotels, bed-and-breakfasts and various other styles of accommodation. Some of its most visited sites include the Roman Temple of Évora, the Chapel of Bones, the Cathedral of Évora, Évora's Museum, and its historical centre. ### Transport Évora can be reached by bus or train. Its railway station is the terminus of the Linha de Évora; as of 2023, an extension to Elvas is under construction, the Nova Linha de Évora [pt]. This single-track electrified line is mainly intended for freight traffic, but would also carry some passenger trains, with speeds up to 250 km/h (155 mph). There is a small airfield, the Évora Municipal Airport, currently without commercial airline service. The closest major airports are: Beja, Lisbon, Faro and Badajoz. Architecture ------------ ### Prehistoric * Anta Grande do Zambujeiro, about 10 km (6.2 mi) from Évora near Valverde: It is the larger dolmen in the region. * Cromeleque dos Almendres, 15 km (9.3 mi) from Évora: Megalithic monument, a cromlech with archaeoastronomical interest. ### Civic The city of Évora is marked by the historic square in the *Praça do Geraldo*, where King Duarte constructed the Estaus Palace. The square is marked by the Henriquina fountain, dating to 1570, which includes eight jets symbolizing the eight streets that lead to the square. At the northern end of the square is the Church of Saint Andrew (Portuguese: *Igreja de Santo Antão*) built by Manuel Pires, in the 16th century. A rather large church three-nave church includes a valuable altar antependium from the 13th century in bas relief. In 1483, Fernando II, the Duke of Braganza was executed in the square, in the presence of his brother-in-law king John II. This square also witnessed thousands of *autos-da-fé* during the Inquisition; there were 22000 condemnations, during the course of 200 years. * **Fountain of Portas de Moura** (Portuguese: *Chafariz das Portas de Moura/Fonte da Porta de Moura*), the Renaissance fountain (located in the *Largo das Portas de Moura*) was built in 1556, and an original design that includes globe surrounded by water (referencing the Age of Discovery). * **Holy Spirit College of the Order of Christ** (Portuguese: *Colégio do Espírito Santo/Colégio da Companhia de Jesus/Universidade de Évora*), today a nucleus of the University of Évora, the former Jesuit college was ordered constructed by Cardinal-King Henrique in 1559, and includes 16th century Mannerist elements, in addition to academic buildings constructed between the 17th-18th century (including cloister). * **Royal Palace of Évora**: Remnants of a palace built by King Manuel I in Gothic-Renaissance style. According to some chroniclers, it was in this palace, in 1497, that Vasco da Gama was given the command of the squadron he would lead on his maritime journey to India. * **Palace of the Counts of Basto** (Portuguese: *Palácio dos Condes de Basto / Paço de São Miguel da Freiria / Palácio do Pátio de São Miguel*), a primitive Moorish castle and later residence of the Afonsine dynastic kings. Its outer architecture displays features of Gothic, Manueline, Mudéjar and Renaissance styles. * **Palace of the Dukes of Cadaval** (Portuguese: *Paço dos Duques de Cadaval/Palácio dos Duques de Cadaval*), a 17th-century palace, built from the remains of an old castle (burnt down in 1384), and later serving as Governors and Royal residences. The palace includes Manueline-Moorish architectural elements (including the *Tower of the Five Shields*), and whose first-floor houses a collection of manuscripts, family portraits, and religious art from the 16th century. * **Prata Aqueduct** (Portuguese: *Aqueduto da Água de Prata*), designed by military architect Francisco de Arruda (who previously designed the Belém Tower, it was built during the reign of by King João III between 1531 and 1537, the huge arches which stretched 9 kilometres (6 miles) to supply water from the interior to Évora. Originally, the aqueduct ended in the *Praça do Giraldo*, and bisected the city, resulting in the construction of houses, shops, and cafés built between the arches (such as in the areas of *Rua da Cano*, *Travessa das Nunes* and *Rua do Salvador street*). A segment of the Roman wall and foundations of period buildings are preserved along *Travessa Alcárcova de Cima*, a narrow lane in the historic center. This structure was mentioned in the epic poem *Os Lusíadas* by Luís de Camões. Aqueduto da Água de Prata with baled and wrapped hay, northwest of Évora * **Roman Temple of Évora** (Portuguese: *Templo romano de Évora*), improperly referred to as the *Temple of Diana*, was a 1st-century (in some references 2nd or 3rd century) temple, dedicated to the cult of Emperor Augustus, that was incorporated into mediaeval building and, thus, survived destruction. Évora's most famous landmark, it is constructed of 7.68 m (25.20 ft) Corinthian columns and fourteen granite columns, and whose base, capitals and the architraves of marble excavated from Estremoz. ### Religious * **Cathedral of Évora** (Portuguese: *Catedral de Évora*): Mainly built between 1280 and 1340, it is one of the most important gothic monuments of Portugal. The cathedral has a notable main portal with statues of the Apostles (around 1335) and a beautiful nave and cloister. One transept chapel is Manueline and the outstanding main chapel is Baroque. The pipe organ and choir stalls are renaissance (around 1566). * **Chapel of São Brás** (Portuguese: *Capela de São Brás*) Built around 1480, it is a good example of Mudéjar-Gothic with cylindrical buttresses. Only open for prayer. * Saint Francis Church (*Igreja de São Francisco*): Built between the end of the 15th and the early 16th centuries in mixed Gothic-Manueline styles. The wide nave is a masterpiece of late Gothic architecture. Contains many chapels decorated in Baroque style, including the Chapel of Bones (Capela dos Ossos), totally covered with human bones. * Lóios Convent and Church: Built in the 15th century, contains a number of tombs; the church and the cloister are Gothic in style, with a Manueline chapterhouse with a magnificent portal. The church interior is covered in *azulejos* (ceramic tiles) from the 18th century. In 1965 it was converted into an upmarket *pousada*. Notable people -------------- ### Historical * Abd al-Majid ibn Abdun (c. 1050–1135 in Évora) was a poet from Al-Andalus * Maria of Portugal (1342–1375) a Portuguese infanta (princess), first daughter of King Peter I * Garcia de Resende (1470–1536) a Portuguese poet and editor. He served King John II as a page and private secretary * Miguel da Silva (c. 1480–1556) a Portuguese nobleman, appointed by King Manuel I as ambassador to Rome in 1514 * André de Resende (1498–1573) a Dominican friar, father of archaeology in Portugal * Cristóvão da Gama (c. 1516–1542) a Portuguese military commander who led a Portuguese army of 400 musketeers on a crusade in Ethiopia and Somalia * Gaspar da Cruz (c. 1520–1570) a Portuguese Dominican friar who traveled to Asia and wrote one of the first detailed European accounts about China. * João Manuel, Prince of Portugal (1537–1554) a Portuguese infante (prince), the eighth son of King John III * Luís Mendes de Vasconcellos (c. 1542–1623) a Portuguese nobleman, colonial Governor of Angola and 55th Grand Master of the Order of Saint John * Pedro Fernandes de Queirós (1565–1614) a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, known for the Spanish voyages of discovery in the Pacific Ocean * João dos Santos (Évora – Goa 1622) a Dominican missionary in India and Africa * Estevão Brioso de Figueiredo (1630–1689) a Roman Catholic prelate, served as Bishop of Funchal (1683–1689) and the first Bishop of Olinda (1676–1683) * José Ribeiro da Fonseca (1690–1752) a Portuguese Franciscan, became Bishop of Porto * Joaquim Heliodoro da Cunha Rivara (1809–1879) a Portuguese physician, professor, intellectual and politician ### Recent times * Celestino David (1880–1952) a Portuguese writer, made honorary citizen of Évora. * Túlio Espanca, (Wiki PT) (1913-1993) a Portuguese historian who significantly contributed to the cultural and artistic history of Évora and the Alentejo * José Augusto Alegria, (Wiki PT) (1917–2004) a Portuguese musicologist * António Marcos Galopim de Carvalho, (Wiki PT) (1931) a Portuguese professor, scientist and writer * José Cutileiro (born 1934) a Portuguese diplomat and writer * Vitorino Salomé Vieira (born 1942) a Portuguese singer-songwriter whose music combines the traditional music of Alentejo and urban popular song * António Livramento (1943–1999) a Portuguese roller hockey player of world renown and coach * Joaquim Palminha Silva, (Wiki PT) (1945–2015) a Portuguese journalist and historian * Vítor Norte (born 1951) a Portuguese actor and voice actor * Carlos Francisco Carvalho Falé (born 1952) a former Portuguese footballer, played 271 games for Lusitano de Évora * Hernâni Neves (born 1963) known as Hernâni, is a retired Portuguese football and beach soccer player * Maria Leal da Costa (born 1964) a Portuguese sculptor, she is developing the Alentejo sculpture park * João Magueijo (born 1967) a Portuguese cosmologist and professor in Theoretical Physics at Imperial College London * Orlanda Velez Isidro (born 1972) a Portuguese classically trained coloratura soprano; preferred genre is Renaissance and Baroque repertoire * Inês Zuber (born 1980) a Portuguese politician, was MEP from 2012 to 2016 for the Portuguese Communist Party * Carla Matadinho (born 1982) a Portuguese model * Pedro Rebocho (born 1995) a football player Gallery ------- * Partial view of Évora's Roman temple, with the city's cathedral in the backgroundPartial view of Évora's Roman temple, with the city's cathedral in the background * Praça do Giraldo, Évora*Praça do Giraldo*, Évora * Sé de Évora, Alentejo*Sé de Évora*, Alentejo * Évora, PortugalÉvora, Portugal * Igreja de Santo Antão, Alentejo, Portugal*Igreja de Santo Antão*, Alentejo, Portugal * Panorama of ÉvoraPanorama of Évora See also -------- * University of Évora * Evora Tambacounda 2004 * Évora IPR Notes Sources * Turner, J. - Grove Dictionary of Art - Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1996; ISBN 0-19-517068-7 * *The Rough Guide to Portugal* - 11th edition March 2005 - ISBN 1-84353-438-X * Rentes de Carvalho J. - Portugal, um guia para amigos - In Dutch translation : Portugal - De Arbeiderspers, Amsterdam; ninth edition August 1999 ISBN 90-295-3466-4

Évora

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89vora

**This article contains Khmer text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Khmer script. **This article contains Indic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text. **Angkor Wat** (/ˌæŋkɔːr ˈwɒt/; Khmer: អង្គរវត្ត, "City/Capital of Temples") is a temple complex in Cambodia, located on a site measuring 162.6 hectares (1,626,000 m2; 402 acres). The *Guinness World Records* considers it as the largest religious structure in the world. Originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire by King Suryavarman II during the 12th century, it was gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the century; as such, it is also described as a "Hindu-Buddhist" temple. Angkor Wat was built at the behest of the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (Khmer: យសោធរបុរៈ, present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum. Angkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology: within a moat more than 5 kilometres (3 mi) long and an outer wall 3.6 kilometres (2.2 mi) long are three rectangular galleries, each raised above the next. At the centre of the temple stands a quincunx of towers. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west; scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of the architecture, its extensive bas-reliefs, and for the numerous devatas adorning its walls. The modern name Angkor Wat, alternatively Nokor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer. *Angkor* (អង្គរ *ângkôr*) meaning "city" or "capital city", is a vernacular form of the word *nokor* (នគរ *nôkôr*), which comes from the Sanskrit/Pali word *nagara* (Devanāgarī: नगर). *Wat* (វត្ត *vôtt*) is the word for "temple grounds", also derived from Sanskrit/Pali *vāṭa* (Devanāgarī: वाट), meaning "enclosure". The original name of the temple was Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka meaning "the sacred dwelling of Vishnu". History ------- Angkor Wat lies 5.5 kilometres (3+1⁄2 mi) north of the modern town of Siem Reap, and a short distance south and slightly east of the previous capital, which was centred at Baphuon. In an area of Cambodia where there is an essential group of ancient structures, it is the southernmost of Angkor's main sites. The construction of Angkor Wat took place over 28 years from 1122 to 1150 CE during the reign of King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113–c. 1150). A brahmin by the name of Divākarapaṇḍita (1040–c. 1120) was responsible for urging Suryavarman II to construct the temple. All of the original religious motifs at Angkor Wat derived from Hinduism. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. It was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as *Vrah Viṣṇuloka* after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished. The term *Vrah Viṣṇuloka* or *Parama Viṣṇuloka* literally means "The king who has gone to the supreme world of Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and intend to venerate his glory and memory. In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer. Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon, respectively), a few kilometers north, dedicated to Buddhism, because the king believed that the Hindu gods had failed him. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site, and many Hindu sculptures were replaced by Buddhist art. Facade of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Henri Mouhot, c. 1860Sketch of Angkor Wat, a drawing by Louis Delaporte, c. 1880 Towards the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat gradually transformed from a Hindu centre of worship to Buddhism, which continues to the present day. Angkor Wat is unusual among the Angkor temples in that although it was largely neglected after the 16th century, it was never completely abandoned. Fourteen inscriptions dated from the 17th century, discovered in the Angkor area, testify to Japanese Buddhist pilgrims that had established small settlements alongside Khmer locals. At that time, the temple was thought by the Japanese visitors to be the famed Jetavana garden of the Buddha, which was originally located in the kingdom of Magadha, India. The best-known inscription tells of Ukondayu Kazufusa, who celebrated the Khmer New Year at Angkor Wat in 1632. One of the first Western visitors to the temple was António da Madalena, a Portuguese friar who visited in 1586 and said that it "is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen, particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all the refinements which the human genius can conceive of." In 1622, *The Poem of Angkor Wat* composed in Khmer verse describes the beauty of Angkor Wat and creates a legend around the construction of the complex, supposedly a divine castle built for legendary Khmer king Preah Ket Mealea by Hindu god Preah Pisnukar (or Braḥ Bisṇukār, Vishvakarman), as Suryavarman II had already vanished from people's minds. In 1860, with the help of French missionary Father Charles-Émile Bouillevaux, the temple was effectively rediscovered by the French naturalist and explorer Henri Mouhot, who popularised the site in the West through the publication of travel notes, in which he wrote: > One of these temples, a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michelangelo, might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged. > > In 1861 German anthropologist Adolf Bastian undertook a four-year trip to Southeast Asia. His account of this trip, *The People of East Asia,* ran to six volumes. When Bastian finally published the studies and observations during his *Journey through Cambodia to Cochinchina* in Germany in 1868 – told in detail but uninspiredly, above all without a single one of his drawings of the Angkorian sites – this work hardly made an impression, while everyone was talking about Henri Mouhot's posthumous work with vivid descriptions of Angkor, *Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China, Siam, Cambodia and Laos*, published in 1864 through the Royal Geographical Society. There were no ordinary dwellings or houses or other signs of settlement, including cooking utensils, weapons, or items of clothing usually found at ancient sites. The artistic legacy of Angkor Wat and other Khmer monuments in the Angkor region led directly to France adopting Cambodia as a protectorate on 11 August 1863 and invading Siam to take control of the ruins. This quickly led to Cambodia reclaiming lands in the northwestern corner of the country such as the areas of Siem Reap, Battambang, and Sisophon which were under Siamese rule from 1795 to 1907. Angkor Wat's aesthetics were on display in the plaster cast museum of Louis Delaporte called *musée Indo-chinois* which existed in the Parisian Trocadero Palace from c.1880 to the mid-1920s. The 20th century saw a considerable restoration of Angkor Wat. Gradually teams of laborers and archeologists pushed back the jungle and exposed the expanses of stone, permitting the sun to once again illuminate the dark corners of the temple. Angkor Wat caught the attention and imagination of a wider audience in Europe when the pavilion of French protectorate of Cambodia, as part of French Indochina, recreated the life-size replica of Angkor Wat during Paris Colonial Exposition in 1931. Cambodia gained independence from France on 9 November 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat since then. From the colonial period onwards, until the site was nominated a UNESCO World Heritage in 1992, the temple of Angkor Wat was instrumental in the formation of the modern and gradually globalised concept of built cultural heritage. Restoration work was interrupted by the Cambodian Civil War and Khmer Rouge control of the country during the 1970s and 1980s, but relatively little damage was done during this period. Camping Khmer Rouge forces used whatever wood remained in the building structures for firewood, and a shoot-out between Khmer Rouge and Vietnamese forces put a few bullet holes in a basrelief. Far more damage was done after the wars, by art thieves working out of Thailand, which, in the late 1980s and early 1990s, claimed almost every head that could be lopped off the structures, including reconstructions. The temple is a symbol of Cambodia and is a source of national pride that has factored into Cambodia's diplomatic relations with France, the United States, and its neighbour Thailand. A depiction of Angkor Wat has been a part of Cambodian national flags since the introduction of the first version circa 1863. From a larger historical and transcultural perspective, however, the temple of Angkor Wat did not become a symbol of national pride *sui generis* but had been inscribed into a larger politico-cultural process of French-colonial heritage production in which the original temple site was presented in French colonial and universal exhibitions in Paris and Marseille between 1889 and 1937. In December 2015, it was announced that a research team from the University of Sydney had found a previously unseen ensemble of buried towers built and demolished during the construction of Angkor Wat, as well as a massive structure of unknown purpose on its south side and wooden fortifications. The findings include evidence of low-density residential occupation in the region, with a road grid, ponds, and mounds. These indicate that the temple precinct, bounded by a moat and wall, may not have been used exclusively by the priestly elite, as was previously thought. The team used LiDAR, ground-penetrating radar and targeted excavation to map Angkor Wat. According to a myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect. Architecture ------------ Plan of Angkor WatThe general layout of Angkor Wat with its central structure in the middleA detailed plan of the central structure ### Site and plan Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries, most of which were originally derived from religious beliefs of Hinduism. The construction of Angkor Wat suggests that there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show specific towers to be at the precise location of the solstice at sunrise. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolise the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolise the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns with the morning sun of the spring equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east. This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—*prasavya* in Hindu terminology—as this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic funeral services. Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container that may have been a funerary jar that was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west. Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the structure represents a claimed new era of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circles. She distances herself from the speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of the constellation Draco. The oldest surviving plan of Angkor Wat dates to 1715 and is credited to Fujiwara Tadayoshi. The plan is stored in the Suifu Meitoku-kai Shokokan Museum in Mito, Japan. ### Style Angkor Wat is the prime example of the classical style of Khmer architecture—the Angkor Wat style—to which it has given its name. By the 12th century, Khmer architects had become skilled and confident in the use of sandstone (rather than brick or laterite) as the main building material. Most of the visible areas are sandstone blocks, while laterite was used for the outer wall and hidden structural parts. The binding agent used to join the blocks is yet to be identified, although natural resins or slaked lime has been suggested. The temple has drawn praise above all for the harmony of its design. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple "attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity, and style." Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, pediments, extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers, gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. Architect Jacques Dumarçay believes the layout of Angkor Wat borrows Chinese influence in its system of galleries which join at right angles to form courtyards. However, the axial pattern embedded in the plan of Angkor Wat may be derived from Southeast Asian cosmology in combination with the mandala represented by the main temple. ### Features #### Outer enclosure A view of the gates and west wall of the outer enclosure of Angkor Wat from across the moatThe Northern libraryTa Reach Statue at Angkor Wat, an Eight-Armed Vishnu.The only Angkor Wat Devata showing her teeth The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. The moat extends 1.5 kilometres from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to south. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Under the southern tower is a statue known as *Ta Reach*, originally an eight-armed statue of Vishnu that may have occupied the temple's central shrine. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. The outer wall encloses a space of 820,000 square metres (203 acres), which besides the temple proper was originally occupied by the city and, to the north of the temple, the royal palace. Like all secular buildings of Angkor, these were built of perishable materials rather than of stone, so nothing remains of them except the outlines of some of the streets. Most of the area is now covered by forest. A 350 m (1,150 ft) causeway connects the western gopura to the temple proper, with naga balustrades and six sets of steps leading down to the city on either side. Each side also features a library with entrances at each cardinal point, in front of the third set of stairs from the entrance, and a pond between the library and the temple itself. The ponds are later additions to the design, as is the cruciform terrace guarded by lions connecting the causeway to the central structure. #### Central structure The temple stands on a terrace raised higher than the city. It is made of three rectangular galleries rising to a central tower, each level higher than the last. The two inner galleries each have four large towers at their ordinal corners (that is, NW, NE, SE, and SW) surrounding a higher fifth tower. This pattern is sometimes called a quincunx and represents the mountains of Meru. Because the temple faces west, the features are set back towards the east, leaving more space to be filled in each enclosure and gallery on the west side; for the same reason, the west-facing steps are shallower than those on the other sides. The central tower symbolizing the sacred Mount MeruOne of the four corner towers of Angkor WatA view of the outer gallery of Angkor Wat Mannikka interprets the galleries as being dedicated to the king, Brahma, the moon, and Vishnu. Each gallery has a gopura at each of the points. The outer gallery measures 187 m (614 ft) by 215 m (705 ft), with pavilions rather than towers at the corners. The gallery is open to the outside of the temple, with columned half-galleries extending and buttressing the structure. Connecting the outer gallery to the second enclosure on the west side is a cruciform cloister called *Preah Poan* (meaning "The Thousand Buddhas" Gallery). Buddha images were left in the cloister by pilgrims over the centuries, although most have now been removed. This area has many inscriptions relating to the good deeds of pilgrims, most written in Khmer but others in Burmese and Japanese. The four small courtyards marked out by the cloister may originally have been filled with water. North and south of the cloister are libraries. Beyond, the second and inner galleries are connected to two flanking libraries by another cruciform terrace, again a later addition. From the second level upwards, devatas abound on the walls, singly or in groups of up to four. The second-level enclosure is 100 m (330 ft) by 115 m (377 ft), and may originally have been flooded to represent the ocean around Mount Meru. Three sets of steps on each side lead up to the corner towers and gopuras of the inner gallery. The steep stairways may represent the difficulty of ascending to the kingdom of the gods. This inner gallery, called the *Bakan*, is a 60 m (200 ft) square with axial galleries connecting each gopura with the central shrine and subsidiary shrines located below the corner towers. The roofings of the galleries are decorated with the motif of the body of a snake ending in the heads of lions or garudas. Carved lintels and pediments decorate the entrances to the galleries and the shrines. The tower above the central shrine rises 43 m (141 ft) to a height of 65 m (213 ft) above the ground; unlike those of previous temple mountains, the central tower is raised above the surrounding four. The shrine itself, originally occupied by a statue of Vishnu and open on each side, was walled in when the temple was converted to Theravada Buddhism, the new walls featuring standing Buddhas. In 1934, the conservator George Trouvé excavated the pit beneath the central shrine: filled with sand and water it had already been robbed of its treasure, but he did find a sacred foundation deposit of gold leaf two metres above ground level. #### Decoration Integrated with the architecture of the building, one of the causes for its fame is Angkor Wat's extensive decoration, which predominantly takes the form of bas-relief friezes. The inner walls of the outer gallery bear a series of large-scale scenes mainly depicting episodes from the Hindu epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Higham has called these "the greatest known linear arrangement of stone carving". From the north-west corner anti-clockwise, the western gallery shows the Battle of Lanka (from the Ramayana, in which Rama defeats Ravana) and the Battle of Kurukshetra (from the Mahabharata, showing the mutual annihilation of the Kaurava and Pandava clans). On the southern gallery follow the only historical scene, a procession of Suryavarman II, then the 32 hells and 37 heavens of Hinduism. On the eastern gallery is one of the most celebrated scenes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk, showing 92 asuras and 88 devas using the serpent Vasuki to churn the sea under Vishnu's direction (Mannikka counts only 91 asuras and explains the asymmetrical numbers as representing the number of days from the winter solstice to the spring equinox, and from the equinox to the summer solstice). It is followed by Vishnu defeating asuras (a 16th-century addition). The northern gallery shows Krishna's victory over Bana (where according to Glaize, "The workmanship is at its worst"). Angkor Wat is decorated with depictions of apsaras and devata; there are more than 1,796 depictions of devata in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm or 12–16 in) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110 cm or 37–43 in) more prominently at every level of the temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewellery, and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period. ### Construction techniques CorridorDecoration on the corner The monument was made of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of 1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian pyramids combined and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris. Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids, which use limestone quarried 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi) away, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or more) away. This sandstone was transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast. The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal towards Tonlé Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres (9 mi) against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi). However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead. Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels and even roofs are carved. There are kilometres of reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons pulling chariots, as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader, and celestial dancing girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost 1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were prime targets for robbers. While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason, and sculptor recreated a stone sculpture under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about 400 tons of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone probably ran into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power. Angkor Wat in the present ------------------------- ### Restoration and conservation As with most other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat has faced extensive damage and deterioration by a combination of plant overgrowth, fungi, ground movements, war damage, and theft. The war damage to Angkor Wat's temples however has been very limited, compared to the rest of Cambodia's temple ruins, and it has also received the most attentive restoration. The restoration of Angkor Wat in the modern era began with the establishment of the Conservation d'Angkor (Angkor Conservancy) by the École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in 1908; before that date, activities at the site were primarily concerned with exploration. The Conservation d'Angkor was responsible for the research, conservation, and restoration activities carried out at Angkor until the early 1970s, and a major restoration of Angkor was undertaken in the 1960s. Work on Angkor was abandoned during the Khmer Rouge era and the Conservation d'Angkor was disbanded in 1975. Between 1986 and 1992, the Archaeological Survey of India carried out restoration work on the temple, as France did not recognise the Cambodian government at the time. Criticisms have been raised about both the early French restoration attempts and particularly the later Indian work, with concerns over the damage done to the stone surface by the use of chemicals and cement. In 1992, following an appeal for help by Norodom Sihanouk, Angkor Wat was listed in UNESCO's World Heritage in Danger (later removed in 2004) and as a World Heritage Site together with an appeal by UNESCO to the international community to save Angkor. Zoning of the area was designated to protect the Angkor site in 1994, APSARA was established in 1995 to protect and manage the area, and a law to protect Cambodian heritage was passed in 1996. Several countries such as France, Japan, and China are now involved in Angkor Wat conservation projects. The German Apsara Conservation Project (GACP) is working to protect the devatas, and other bas-reliefs that decorate the temple, from damage. The organisation's survey found that around 20% of the devatas were in very poor condition, mainly because of natural erosion and deterioration of the stone but in part also due to earlier restoration efforts. Other work involves the repair of collapsed sections of the structure, and prevention of further collapse: the west facade of the upper level, for example, has been buttressed by scaffolding since 2002, while a Japanese team completed the restoration of the north library of the outer enclosure in 2005. Microbial biofilms have been found degrading sandstone at Angkor Wat, Preah Khan, and the Bayon and West Prasat in Angkor. The dehydration- and radiation-resistant filamentous cyanobacteria produce organic acids that degrade the stone. A dark filamentous fungus was found in internal and external Preah Khan samples, while the alga *Trentepohlia* was found only in samples taken from external, pink-stained stone at Preah Khan. Replicas have been made to replace some of the lost or damaged sculptures. ### Tourism Since the 1990s, Angkor Wat has become a major tourist destination. In 1993, there were only 7,650 visitors to the site; by 2004, government figures show that 561,000 foreign visitors had arrived in Siem Reap province that year, approximately 50% of all foreign tourists in Cambodia. The number reached over a million in 2007, and over two million by 2012. Most visited Angkor Wat, which received over two million foreign tourists in 2013, and 2.6 million by 2018. The site was managed by the private SOKIMEX group between 1990 and 2016, which rented it from the Cambodian government. The influx of tourists has so far caused relatively little damage, other than some graffiti. Ropes and wooden steps have been introduced to protect the bas-reliefs and floors, respectively. Tourism has also provided some additional funds for maintenance—as of 2000 approximately 28% of ticket revenues across the entire Angkor site was spent on the temples—although most work is carried out by teams sponsored by foreign governments rather than by the Cambodian authorities. Since Angkor Wat has seen significant growth in tourism throughout the years, UNESCO and its International Co-ordinating Committee for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC), in association with representatives from the Royal Government and APSARA, organised seminars to discuss the concept of "cultural tourism". Wanting to avoid commercial and mass tourism, the seminars emphasised the importance of providing high-quality accommodation and services for the Cambodian government to benefit economically, while also incorporating the richness of Cambodian culture. In 2001, this incentive resulted in the concept of the "Angkor Tourist City" which would be developed about traditional Khmer architecture, contain leisure and tourist facilities, and provide luxurious hotels capable of accommodating large numbers of tourists. The prospect of developing such large tourist accommodations has encountered concerns from both APSARA and the ICC, claiming that previous tourism developments in the area have neglected construction regulations and that more of these projects have the potential to damage landscape features. Also, the large scale of these projects have begun to threaten the quality of the nearby town's water, sewage, and electricity systems. It has been noted that such high frequency of tourism and growing demand for quality accommodations in the area, such as the development of a large highway, has had a direct effect on the underground water table, subsequently straining the structural stability of the temples at Angkor Wat. Locals of Siem Reap have also voiced concern that the charm and atmosphere of their town have been compromised to entertain tourism. Since this local atmosphere is the key component to projects like Angkor Tourist City, the local officials continue to discuss how to successfully incorporate future tourism without sacrificing local values and culture. At the ASEAN Tourism Forum 2012, it was agreed that Borobudur and Angkor Wat would become sister sites and the provinces sister provinces. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic led to travel restrictions being introduced across the world, which had a severe impact on Cambodia's tourism sector. As a result, visitors to Angkor Wat plummeted, leaving the usually crowded complex almost deserted. Cambodia, including Angkor Wat, reopened to international visitors in late 2021, but as of the end of 2022 had only received a fraction of its pre-pandemic traffic: a total of 280,000 tourists visited the complex in 2022, versus 2.6 million in 2018. 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Retrieved 25 April 2008. 92. ↑ "The Completion of the Restoration Work of the Northern Library of Angkor Wat". APSARA Authority. 3 June 2005. Retrieved 25 April 2008. 93. ↑ Gaylarde CC; Rodríguez CH; Navarro-Noya YE; Ortega-Morales BO (February 2012). "Microbial biofilms on the sandstone monuments of the Angkor Wat Complex, Cambodia". *Current Microbiology*. **64** (2): 85–92. doi:10.1007/s00284-011-0034-y. PMID 22006074. S2CID 14062354. 94. ↑ Guy De Launey (21 August 2012). "Restoring ancient monuments at Cambodia's Angkor Wat". *BBC*. 95. ↑ Justine Smith (25 February 2007). "Tourist invasion threatens to ruin glories of Angkor Wat". *The Observer*. 96. ↑ "Executive Summary from Jan–Dec 2005". *Tourism of Cambodia*. Statistics & Tourism Information Department, Ministry of Tourism of Cambodia. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 25 April 2008. 97. ↑ "Tourism Statistics: Annual Report" (PDF). *Ministry of Tourism*. p. 60. 98. ↑ "Tourism Annual Report 2012" (PDF). *Ministry of Tourism*. 99. ↑ "Ticket sales at Angkor Wat exceed 2 million". *The Phnom Penh Post*. 21 January 2015. 100. ↑ Cheng Sokhorng (2 January 2019). "Angkor hosts 2.6M visitors". *The Phnom Penh Post*. 101. ↑ Vannak, Chea (2 January 2019). "Ticket revenue at Angkor complex up 8 percent". *Khmer Times*. Retrieved 2 May 2019. 102. ↑ Tales of Asia, Preserving Angkor: Interview with Ang Choulean (13 October 2000) 103. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Winter, Tim (2007). "Rethinking tourism in asia". *Annals of Tourism Research*. **34**: 27–44. doi:10.1016/j.annals.2006.06.004. 104. ↑ "Borobudur, Angkor Wat to become sister sites". *The Jakarta Post*. 13 January 2012. 105. ↑ "Tourists amazed about seeing Angkor Wat without usual crowds". *South China Morning Post*. 6 June 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2021. 106. ↑ "'How Long Can We Survive?': Angkor Visitors Dip, Holiday Bump Minimal". *VOD*. 2 November 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2021. 107. ↑ Hunt, Luke. "Cambodians Reclaim Angkor Wat as Global Lockdowns Continue to Bite". *thediplomat.com*. Retrieved 22 May 2021. 108. ↑ "Cambodia Relocates Angkor Wat Communities in Controversial Tourism Touch-Up". *Skift*. 17 March 2023. Retrieved 26 March 2023.

Angkor Wat

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkor_Wat

**Leo** (♌︎) (Ancient Greek: Λέων, romanized: *Léōn*, Latin for "lion") is the fifth sign of the zodiac. It corresponds to the constellation Leo and comes after Cancer and before Virgo. The traditional Western zodiac associates Leo with the period between about July 23 and August 23, and the sign spans the 120th to 150th degree of celestial longitude. Leo is associated with fire, accompanied by Aries and Sagittarius, and its modality is fixed. The constellation Leo is associated with the mythological Nemean lion. The lion is a very important and prominent symbol in Greek mythology. History ------- Egyptians worshipped the constellation, which they referred to as "Knem", because it was present during the flooding of the Nile River. This event signified plentiful harvests for the upcoming year, and the people interpreted it as a gift from the earth. Ruler of Egypt, Tutankhamun's gold throne features lion heads where the seat and front legs meet, as well as clawed feet at the end of each leg, symbolizing power and royalty. See also -------- * Astronomical symbols * Chinese zodiac * Circle of stars * Cusp (astrology) * Elements of the zodiac Sources ------- * Astronomical Applications Department (2011). *Multiyear Computer Interactive Almanac*. 2.2.2. Washington DC: US Naval Observatory. Longitude of Sun, apparent geocentric ecliptic of date, interpolated to find time of crossing 0°, 30°.... * "Leo". *Britannica*. 2017. Retrieved September 3, 2022. * "Myth about Heraclese and the Nemean Lion". *Windows to the Universe*. Arlington, Virginia: National Science Teachers Association. 2012. Retrieved September 3, 2022.

Leo (astrology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_(astrology)

**Albania** (/ælˈbeɪniə, ɔːl-/ () *a(w)l-BAY-nee-ə*; Albanian: *Shqipëri* or *Shqipëria*), officially the **Republic of Albania** (Albanian: *Republika e Shqipërisë*), is a country in Southeastern Europe. The country is located in the Balkans on the Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea and shares land borders with Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, North Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south. Spanning an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi), it displays varied range of climatic, geological, hydrological and morphological conditions. Albania boasts a significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the Albanian Alps and the Korab, Skanderbeg, Pindus and Ceraunian Mountains, to the hot and sunny Albanian Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. Tirana is its capital and largest city in the country, followed by Durrës, Vlorë, and Shkodër. In ancient times, the Illyrians inhabited northern and central Albania, whilst Epirotes inhabited the south. Several important ancient Greek colonies were also established on the coast. In the 2nd century BCE, the region was annexed by the Roman Republic, and after the division of the Roman Empire it became part of Byzantium. The first known Albanian autonomous principality – Arbanon – was established in the 12th century. The Kingdom of Albania, Principality of Albania and Albania Veneta were formed between the 13th and 15th centuries in different parts of the country, alongside other Albanian principalities and political entities. In the late 15th century, Albania became part of the Ottoman Empire until 1912, when the modern Albanian state declared independence. In 1939, the Kingdom of Albania was invaded by Italy, which became Greater Albania, and then a protectorate of Nazi Germany during World War II. Following the war, the People's Socialist Republic of Albania was formed, which lasted until the Revolutions of 1991 concluded with the fall of communism in Albania and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania. Albania is a unitary parliamentary constitutional republic. It is a developing country, ranking 67th in the Human Development Index, with an upper-middle income economy dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from centralised planning to a market-based economy. Albania provides universal health care and free primary and secondary education to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, UNESCO, NATO, WTO, COE, OSCE, and OIC. It has been an official candidate for membership in the European Union since 2014. It is one of the founding members of the Energy Community, including the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and Union for the Mediterranean. Name ---- The term *Albania* is the medieval Latin name of the country. It may be derived from the Illyrian tribe of Albani (Albanian: *Albanët*) recorded by Ptolemy, who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of Albanopolis located northeast of Durrës. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called Albanon or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates was the first to refer to Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium. During the Middle Ages, the Albanians called their country **Arbëri or Arbëni** and referred to themselves as **Arbëreshë or Arbëneshë**. Nowadays, Albanians call their country **Shqipëri or Shqipëria**. The words *Shqipëri* and *Shqiptar* are attested from 14th century onwards, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename *Shqipëria* and the ethnic demonym *Shqiptarë* gradually replaced *Arbëria* and *Arbëreshë* amongst Albanian speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as "Land of the Eagles" and "Children of the Eagles". History ------- ### Prehistory Mesolithic habitation in Albania has been evidenced in several open air sites which during that period were close to the Adriatic coastline and in cave sites. Mesolithic objects found in a cave near Xarrë include flint and jasper objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the Aurignacian culture. The Neolithic era in Albania began around 7000 BCE and is evidenced in finds which indicate domestication of sheep and goats and small-scale agriculture. A part of the Neolithic population may have been the same as the Mesolithic population of the southern Balkans like in the Konispol cave where the Mesolithic stratum co-exists with Pre-Pottery Neolithic finds. Cardium pottery culture appears in coastal Albania and across the Adriatic after 6500 BCE, while the settlements of the interior took part in the processes which formed Starčevo culture. The Indo-Europeanization of Albania in the context of the IE-ization of the western Balkans began after 2800 BCE. The presence of the Early Bronze Age tumuli in the vicinity of later Apollonia dates to 2679±174 calBCE (2852-2505 calBCE). These burial mounds belong to the southern expression of the Adriatic-Ljubljana culture (related to later Cetina culture) which moved southwards along the Adriatic from the northern Balkans. The same community built similar mounds in Montenegro (Rakića Kuće) and northern Albania (Shtoj). The first archaeogenetic find related to the IE-ization of Albania involves a man with predominantly Yamnaya ancestry buried in a tumulus of northeastern Albania which dates to 2663-2472 calBCE. During the Middle Bronze Age, Cetina culture sites and finds appear in Albania. Cetina culture moved southwards across the Adriatic from the Cetina valley of Dalmatia. In Albania, Cetina finds are concentrated around southern Lake Shkodër and appear typically in tumulus cemeteries like in Shkrel and Shtoj and hillforts like Gajtan (Shkodër) as well as cave sites like Blaz, Nezir and Keputa (central Albania) and lake basin sites like Sovjan (southeastern Albania). ### Antiquity The incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by Indo-European peoples, amongst them numerous Illyrian and Epirote tribes. There were also several Greek colonies. The territory referred to as Illyria corresponded roughly to the area east of the Adriatic Sea in the Mediterranean Sea extending in the south to the mouth of the Vjosë. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from Periplus of the Euxine Sea, a Greek text written in the 4th century BC. The Bryges were also present in central Albania, while the south was inhabited by the Epirote Chaonians, whose capital was at Phoenice. Other colonies such as Apollonia and Epidamnos were established by Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC. The Illyrian Taulanti were a powerful Illyrian tribe that were among the earliest recorded tribes in the area. They lived in a area that corresponds much of present-day Albania. Together with the Dardanian ruler Cleitus, Glaucias, the ruler of the Taulantian kingdom, fought against Alexander the Great at the Battle of Pelium in 335 BC. As the time passed, the ruler of Ancient Macedonia, Cassander of Macedon captured Apollonia and crossed the river Genusus (Albanian: *Shkumbin*) in 314 BC. A few years later Glaucias laid siege to Apollonia and captured the Greek colony of Epidamnos. The Illyrian Ardiaei tribe, centred in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of northern Albania. Their Ardiaean Kingdom reached its greatest extent under King Agron, the son of Pleuratus II. Agron extended his rule over other neighbouring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, Teuta, inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southwards to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by Gentius in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the Third Illyrian War. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions. ### Middle Ages The Roman Empire was split in 395 upon the death of Theodosius I into an Eastern and Western Roman Empire in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the Barbarian Invasions. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the Slavs crossed the Danube and largely absorbed the indigenous Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the Balkans; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century. In the 11th century, the Great Schism formalised the break of communion between the Eastern Orthodox and Western Catholic Church that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of River Shkumbin and established the Principality of Arbanon in 1190 under the leadership of Progon of Kruja. The realm was succeeded by his sons Gjin and Dhimitri. Upon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek Gregory Kamonas and subsequently under the Golem of Kruja. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a semi-autonomous status as the western extremity of the Byzantine Empire, under the Byzantine Doukai of Epirus or Laskarids of Nicaea. Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, Serbs and Venetians started to take possession over the territory. The ethnogenesis of the Albanians is uncertain; however, the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by Michael Attaliates, who referred to the Albanoi as having taken part in a revolt against Constantinople. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianised. After the dissolution of Arbanon, Charles of Anjou concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the Kingdom of Albania and conquered regions back from the Despotate of Epirus. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from Dyrrhachium along the Adriatic Sea coast down to Butrint. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading Catholicism in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of Helen of Anjou, a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, Stefan Dusan, to establish a short-lived empire that included all of Albania except Durrës. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the Despotate of Arta. During that time, several Albanian principalities were created, notably the Principality of Albania, Principality of Kastrioti, Lordship of Berat and Principality of Dukagjini. In the first half of the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire invaded most of Albania, and the League of Lezhë was held under Skanderbeg as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history. #### Ottoman Empire Gjergj Kastrioti SkanderbegAfter serving the Ottoman Empire for nearly 20 years, Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg deserted and began a successful rebellion against the empire that halted Ottoman advance into Europe for 25 years.Ali Pasha TepelenaAli Pasha Tepelena was a powerful autonomous Ottoman-Albanian ruler, governing over the Pashalik of Yanina. With the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into Southeast Europe. They reached the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast in 1385 and erected their garrisons across Southern Albania in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. The Albanians, as Christians, were considered an inferior class of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy taxes among others by the Devshirme system that allowed the Sultan to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the Janissary. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of Islamisation and the rapid construction of mosques. A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the Assembly of Lezhë until the Siege of Shkodër under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the Lord of Albania. Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa. When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal sanjaks. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of Vlorë saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from Bursa and Constantinople. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe. The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, most Catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while Orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. Many Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions and culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian Grand Viziers. Others included members of the prominent Köprülü family, Zagan Pasha, Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. Furthermore, two sultans, Bayezid II and Mehmed III, both had mothers of Albanian origin. ### Rilindja Naum VeqilharxhiNaum Veqilharxhi was among the most important figures of the early Albanian Renaissance.Dora d'IstriaDora d'Istria was among the main advocates in Europe for the Albanian cause. The Albanian Renaissance was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an independent nation. Modern Albanian culture flourished too, especially Albanian literature and arts, and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Prior to the rise of nationalism, Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the Russian-Ottoman Wars resulted the execution of the Treaty of San Stefano which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the United Kingdom and Austro-Hungarian Empire consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the Treaty of Berlin. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the League of Prizren. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the Ottoman administration. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defence of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league Committee of the Real Muslims. Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the administrator of the Sanjak of Prizren as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from Vilayet of Scutari. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the Kararname that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, Epirus and Bosnia and Herzegovina are willing to defend the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro. Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under Abdyl Frashëri, became focused on working towards Albanian autonomy and requested merging four vilayets, including Kosovo, Shkodër, Monastir and Ioannina, into an unified vilayet, the Albanian Vilayet. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of Plav and Gusinje assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the Battle of Novšiće, the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan. #### Independence Albania declared independence from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied with the establishment of the Senate and Government by the Assembly of Vlorë on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the Conference of London. On 29 July 1913, the Treaty of London delineated the borders of the country and its neighbours, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly partitioned between Montenegro, Serbia and Greece. Headquartered in Vlorë, the International Commission of Control was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The International Gendarmerie was established as the first law enforcement agency of the Principality of Albania. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania Wilhelm of Wied *(Princ Vilhelm Vidi)* was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of Durrës and started to organise his government, appointing Turhan Pasha Përmeti to form the first Albanian cabinet. In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, Ahmed Izzet Pasha. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian Great Powers and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land. In February 1914, the Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was proclaimed in Gjirokastër by the local Greek population against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short-lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the revolt of Albanian peasants against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around Essad Pasha Toptani, who proclaimed himself the saviour of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the Mirdita Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince Wied appointed their leader, Prênk Bibë Doda, to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by Isa Boletini and his men, mostly from Kosovo, and northern Mirdita Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914. ### First Republic and Kingdom Following the end of the government of Fan Noli, the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King Zog I of Albania (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) served as the head of state for a seven-year term. Tirana was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital. The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the Albanian regime was replaced by another monarchy that enjoyed strong support from Fascist Italy, with which it maintained close relations until the Italian invasion of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the Gendarmerie despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. After being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943, the Kingdom of Albania was a protectorate and a dependency of the Kingdom of Italy governed by Victor Emmanuel III and his government. In October 1940, Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian invasion of Greece. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the German invasion. In April 1941, territories of Yugoslavia with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia, a strip of eastern Montenegro, the town of Tutin in central Serbia and most of Kosovo. Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government, military and law enforcement. Balli Kombëtar formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led National Liberation Movement of Albania. During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with Enver Hoxha as the head of government. By the end of the Second World War, the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in Nikaj-Mërtur, Dukagjin and Kelmend led by Prek Cali. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 Kelmendi people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of agricultural cooperatives brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border. ### Communism In the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the Axis Powers, the country became initially a satellite state of the Soviet Union, and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established People's Republic of Albania. Soviet-Albanian relations began to deteriorate after Stalin's death in 1953. At this point, the country started to develop foreign relations with other communist countries, among others with the People's Republic of China. During this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a railway system that completely revamped transportation. The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became cooperative, and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country. The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average, respectively.[*failed verification*] The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals, instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations, with much the same effect. Today a secular state without any official religion, religious freedoms and practises were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the waqfs along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the ulema and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone. After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first atheist state in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: "The state recognises no religion", states the 1976 constitution, "and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people". ### Fourth Republic After enduring four decades of communism paired with the revolutions of 1989, Albania witnessed a notable rise in political activism, particularly among the students, which ultimately lead to a transformation in the prevailing order. Subsequent to the attainment of widespread in the first multi-party elections of 1991, the communist party maintained a stronghold in the parliament until their defeat in the parliamentary elections of 1992 directed by the Democratic Party. Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to pyramid schemes that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the International Monetary Fund, Sali Berisha defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting civil war caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees. The crisis led both Aleksandër Meksi and Sali Berisha to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, Operation Alba, a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the Western European Union's multinational Albanian Police element, which worked with the government to restructure the judicial system and simultaneously the Albanian police. ### Contemporary Following the disintegration of the communist system, Albania embarked on an active path towards Westernisation with the ambition to obtain membership in the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). A notable milestone was reached in 2009 when the country attained membership in NATO, marking a pioneering achievement among the nations of Southeast Europe. In adherence to its vision for further integration into the EU, it formally applied for membership on 28 April 2009. Another milestone was reached on 24 June 2014, when the country was granted official candidate status. Edi Rama of the Socialist Party won both the 2013 and 2017 parliamentary elections. As Prime Minister, he implemented numerous reforms focused on modernising the economy, as well as democratising state institutions, including the country's judiciary and law enforcement. Unemployment has been steadily reduced, with Albania achieving the 4th lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans. Rama has also placed gender equality at the centre of his agenda; since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers are female, the largest number of women serving in the country's history. During the 2021 parliamentary elections, the ruling Socialist Party led by Edi Rama secured its third consecutive victory, winning nearly half of votes and enough seats in parliament to govern alone. On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 magnitude earthquake ravaged Albania with the epicentre positioned approximately 16 km (10 mi) southwest of the town of Mamurras. The tremor was felt in Tirana and in places as far away as Taranto, Italy, and Belgrade, Serbia, while the most affected areas were the coastal city of Durrës and the village of Kodër-Thumanë. Comprehensive response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid from the Albanian diaspora and svarious countries around the world. On 9 March 2020, COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June 2020, the government declared a state of emergency as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. The country's COVID-19 vaccination campaign started on 11 January 2021, however, as of 11 August 2021, the total number of vaccines administered so far in Albania amounts to 1,280,239 doses. Geography --------- Albania has an area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi) and is located on the Balkan Peninsula in South and Southeast Europe. Its shoreline faces the Adriatic Sea to the northwest and the Ionian Sea to the southwest along the Mediterranean Sea. Albania lies between latitudes 42° and 39° N, and longitudes 21° and 19° E. Its northernmost point is Vërmosh at 42° 35' 34" northern latitude; the southernmost is Konispol at 39° 40' 0" northern latitude; the westernmost point is Sazan at 19° 16' 50" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is Vërnik at 21° 1' 26" eastern longitude. The highest point is Mount Korab at 2,764 m (9,068.24 ft) above the Adriatic; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at 0 m (0.00 ft). The distance from the east to west is 148 km (92 mi) and from the north to south about 340 km (211 mi). For a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the Albanian Alps in the north, the Korab Mountains in the east, the Pindus Mountains in the southeast, the Ceraunian Mountains in the southwest and the Skanderbeg Mountains in the centre. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The Lake of Shkodër is the largest lake in Southern Europe and located in northwest. In the southeast rises the Lake of Ohrid that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the Large and Small Lake of Prespa, which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the Drin that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the Black and White Drin. Of particular concern is the Vjosë, which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe. ### Climate The climate in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a Mediterranean and continental climate, with four distinct seasons. Defined by the Köppen classification, it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from Mediterranean and subtropical in the western half to oceanic, continental and subarctic in the eastern half of Albania. The warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea Coasts. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the northern and eastern highlands. The mean monthly temperature ranges between −1 °C (30 °F) in winter to 21.8 °C (71.2 °F) in summer. The highest temperature of 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) was recorded in Kuçovë on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of −29 °C (−20 °F) was registered in the village of Shtyllë, Librazhd on 9 January 2017. Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about 1,485 millimetres (58.5 inches). The mean annual precipitation ranges between 600 millimetres (24 inches) and 3,000 millimetres (120 inches) depending on geographical location. The northwestern and southeastern highlands receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst the northeastern and southwestern highlands as well as the Western Lowlands the more limited amount. The Albanian Alps in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least 3,100 mm (122.0 in) of rain annually. An expedition from the University of Colorado discovered four glaciers within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country, particularly on the mountains in the north and east, including the Albanian Alps and Korab Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the Ceraunian Mountains, where it can lie even beyond March. ### Biodiversity A biodiversity hotspot, Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting biodiversity on account of its geographical location at the centre of the Mediterranean Sea and the great diversity in its climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most endangered species of the country, the lynx and brown bear, as well as the wildcat, grey wolf, red fox, golden jackal, Egyptian vulture and golden eagle, the latter constituting the national animal of the country. The estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the greater flamingo, pygmy cormorant and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the dalmatian pelican. Of particular importance are the Mediterranean monk seal, loggerhead sea turtle and green sea turtle that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores. In terms of phytogeography, Albania is part of the Boreal Kingdom and stretches specifically within the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal and Mediterranean Region. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial ecoregions of the Palearctic realm namely within the Illyrian deciduous forests, Balkan mixed forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests and Dinaric Mountains mixed forests. Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a Mediterranean and Eurasian character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and medicinal practices. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of fir, oak, beech and pine. ### Protected areas The protected areas of Albania are areas designated and managed by the Albanian government. There are 15 national parks, 4 ramsar sites, 1 biosphere reserve and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated national parks scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous two-thousanders, Valbonë Valley National Park and Theth National Park cover a combined territory of 106.3 square kilometres (41.0 sq mi) within the rugged Albanian Alps in northern Albania. Shebenik-Jabllanicë National Park and Prespa National Park protect the mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the Great and Small Lakes of Prespa. Divjakë-Karavasta National Park extends along the central Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the Mediterranean Sea, the Lagoon of Karavasta. The Ceraunian Mountains in southern Albania, rising immediately along the Albanian Ionian Sea Coast, characterise the topographical picture of Llogara National Park and continue on the Peninsula of Karaburun within the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park. Further south sprawls the Butrint National Park on a peninsula that is surrounded by the Lake of Butrint and Channel of Vivari on the eastern half of the Straits of Corfu. Dajti National Park is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana. In 2023, Vjosa was designated as the first wild river national park in Europe, constituting one of the approximately one-third of the world's major rivers that remain free from human impediments. ### Environmental issues Environmental issues in Albania include air and water pollution, climate change, waste management, biodiversity loss and nature conservation. Climate change is predicted to have serious effects on the living conditions in Albania. The country is recognised as vulnerable to climate change impacts, ranked 79 among 181 countries in the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index of 2020. Factors that account for the country's vulnerability to climate change risks include geological and hydrological hazards, including earthquakes, flooding, fires, landslides, torrential rains, river and coastal erosion. As a party to the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, Albania is committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 45% and achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 which, along with national policies, will help to mitigate the impacts of the climate change. The country has a moderate and improving performance in the Environmental Performance Index with an overall ranking of 62 out of 180 countries in 2022. Albania's ranking has, however, decreased since its highest placement at position 15 in the Environmental Performance Index of 2012. In 2019, Albania had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.77 from 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries. The Prespa National Park in southeastern Albania is part of the European Green Belt and Ohrid-Prespa Biosphere Reserve. Governance ---------- | | | | --- | --- | | | | | Bajram BegajPresident | Edi RamaPrime Minister | Albania is a parliamentary constitutional republic and sovereign state whose politics operate under a framework laid out in the constitution wherein the president functions as the head of state and the prime minister as the head of government. The sovereignty is vested in the Albanian people and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly. The government is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the legislative, judiciary and executive. The legislative power is held by the parliament and is elected every four years by a system of party-list proportional representation by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic suffrage by secret ballot. The civil law, codified and based on the Napoleonic Code, is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The judicial power is vested in the supreme court, constitutional court, appeal court and administrative court. Law enforcement in the country is primarily the responsibility of the Albanian Police, the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control. The executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the commander-in-chief of the military and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the confidence of the parliament and is elected for a five-year term by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament, is authorised to constitute the cabinet. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers. ### Foreign relations In the time since the end of communism and isolationism, Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs, developing and establishing friendly relations with other countries around the world. The country's foreign policy priorities are its accession into the European Union (EU), the international recognition of Kosovo and the expulsion of Cham Albanians, as well as helping and protecting the rights of the Albanians in Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Greece, Serbia, Italy and the Diaspora. Albania's admission into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was considered by Albanian politicians to be a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy. The country has been extensively engaged with NATO and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and the European Union (EU) in the region of the Balkans. Albania maintains strong ties with the United States ever after it supported Albania's independence and democracy. Nowadays, both countries have signed a number of agreements and treaties. In 2007, Albania welcomed George W. Bush who became the first President of the United States ever to visit the country. Albania and Kosovo are culturally, socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population in Kosovo. In 1998, the country contributed in supporting allied efforts to end the humanitarian tragedy in Kosovo and secure the peace after the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. Albania has been an active member of the United Nations since 1955. The country took on membership for the United Nations Economic and Social Council from 2005 to 2007 as well as in 2012. It served as vice president of the ECOSOC in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the United Nations Human Rights Council from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania is a full member of numerous international organisations inclusively the Council of Europe, International Organisation for Migration, World Health Organization, Union for the Mediterranean, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Monetary Fund, World Trade Organization and La Francophonie. ### Military The Albanian Armed Forces consist of Land, Air and Naval Forces and constitute the military and paramilitary forces of the country. They are led by a commander-in-chief under the supervision of the Ministry of Defence and by the President as the supreme commander during wartime. However, in times of peace its powers are executed through the Prime Minister and the Defence Minister. The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the sovereignty and the territorial integrity of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. Military service is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty. Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in Georgia, where it sent 3 military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's Operation Active Endeavor in the Mediterranean Sea. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for NATO integration. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%. ### Administrative divisions Albania is defined within a territorial area of 28,748 km2 (11,100 sq mi) in the Balkan Peninsula. It is informally divided into three regions, the Northern, Central and Southern Regions. Since its Declaration of Independence in 1912, Albania has reformed its internal organization 21 times. Presently, the primary administrative units are the twelve constituent counties (*qarqe/qarqet*), which hold equal status under the law. Counties had previously been used in the 1950s and were recreated on 31 July 2000 to unify the 36 districts (*rrathë/rrathët*) of that time. The largest county in Albania by population is Tirana County with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is Gjirokastër County with over 70,000 people. The largest in the county, by area, is Korçë County encompassing 3,711 square kilometres (1,433 sq mi) of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is Durrës County with an area of 766 square kilometres (296 sq mi) in the west of Albania. The counties are made up of 61 second-level divisions known as municipalities (*bashki/bashkia*). The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and law enforcement. They unified and simplified the previous system of urban and rural municipalities or communes (*komuna/komunat*) in 2015. For smaller issues of local government, the municipalities are organized into 373 administrative units (*njësia*/*njësitë administrative*). There are also 2980 villages (*fshatra/fshatrat*), neighborhoods or wards (*lagje/lagjet*), and localities (*lokalitete/lokalitetet*) previously used as administrative units. Shkodër Kukës Lezhë Dibër Durrës Tirana Elbasan Fier Berat Korçë Gjirokastër Vlorë | Emblem | County | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2020) | HDI (2019) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Emblem of Berat County | Berat | Berat | 1,798 | 122,003 | 0.782 | | Emblem of Dibër County | Dibër | Peshkopi | 2,586 | 115,857 | 0.754 | | Emblem of Durrës County | Durrës | Durrës | 766 | 290,697 | 0.802 | | Emblem of Elbasan County | Elbasan | Elbasan | 3,199 | 270,074 | 0.784 | | Emblem of Fier County | Fier | Fier | 1,890 | 289,889 | 0.767 | | Emblem of Gjirokastër County | Gjirokastër | Gjirokastër | 2,884 | 59,381 | 0.794 | | Emblem of Korçë County | Korçë | Korçë | 3,711 | 204,831 | 0.790 | | Emblem of Kukës County | Kukës | Kukës | 2,374 | 75,428 | 0.749 | | Emblem of Lezhë County | Lezhë | Lezhë | 1,620 | 122,700 | 0.769 | | Emblem of Shkodër County | Shkodër | Shkodër | 3,562 | 200,007 | 0.784 | | Emblem of Tirana County | Tirana | Tirana | 1,652 | 906,166 | 0.820 | | Emblem of Vlorë County | Vlorë | Vlorë | 2,706 | 188,922 | 0.802 | | | References: | Economy ------- The transition from a socialist planned economy to a capitalist mixed economy in Albania has been largely successful. The country has a developing mixed economy classified by the World Bank as an upper-middle income economy. In 2016, it had the fourth lowest unemployment rate in the Balkans with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The lek (ALL) is the country's currency and is pegged at approximately 132.51 lek per euro. The cities of Tirana and Durrës constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest companies are the petroleum Taçi Oil, Albpetrol, ARMO and Kastrati, the mineral AlbChrome, the cement Antea, the investment BALFIN Group and the technology Albtelecom, Vodafone, Telekom Albania and others. In 2012, Albania's GDP per capita stood at 30% of the European Union average, while GDP (PPP) per capita was 35%. Albania was one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the global financial crisis. The International Monetary Fund predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to *Forbes*, as of December 2016[update], the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was growing at 2.8%. The country had a trade balance of −9.7% and unemployment rate of 14.7%. Foreign direct investment has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious programme to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. ### Primary sector Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the economy of Albania. It employs 41% of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the European Union, farmers are being aided through IPA funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards. Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, olives, grapes, oranges, lemons, apricots, peaches, cherries, figs, sour cherries, plums, and strawberries), vegetables (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), sugar beets, tobacco, meat, honey, dairy products, traditional medicine and aromatic plants. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of salvia, rosemary and yellow gentian. The country's proximity to the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The World Bank and European Community economists report that, Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are carp, trout, sea bream, mussels and crustaceans. Albania has one of Europe's longest histories of viticulture. Today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. During the communist era, the production area expanded to some 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres). ### Secondary sector The secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from electronics, manufacturing, textiles, to food, cement, mining, and energy. The Antea Cement plant in Fushë-Krujë is considered one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the second largest oil deposits in the Balkan peninsula after Romania, and the largest oil reserves in Europe. The Albpetrol company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the European Union (EU) in Albania. According to the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT) as of 2016[update], the textile production marked an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros. Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world's leading chromium producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, nickel and coal. The Batra mine, Bulqizë mine, and Thekna mine are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation. ### Tertiary sector The tertiary sector represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the banking industry is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to privatisation and the commendable monetary policy. Previously one of the most isolated and controlled countries in the world, telecommunication industry represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector. It developed largely through privatisation and subsequent investment by both domestic and foreign investors. Eagle, Vodafone and Telekom Albania are the leading telecommunications service providers in the country. Tourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well. The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, Lonely Planet named as a top travel destination,[*failed verification*] while *The New York Times* placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the Adriatic and Ionian Sea in the west of the country. However, the Albanian Riviera in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches; its coastline has a considerable length of 446 kilometres (277 miles). The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the Mediterranean. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the Albanian Alps, Ceraunian Mountains and Korab Mountains but also the historical cities of Berat, Durrës, Gjirokastër, Sarandë, Shkodër and Korçë. ### Transport Transportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy and entities such as the Albanian Road Authority (ARRSH), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the highways and motorways in Albania, as well as the Albanian Aviation Authority (AAC), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country. The international airport of Tirana is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's national flag carrier airline, Air Albania. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around Europe, Africa and Asia. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in Sarandë, Gjirokastër and Vlorë. The highways and motorways in Albania are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The Autostrada 1 (A1) represents an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway of the country. It will prospectively link Durrës on the Adriatic Sea across Pristina in Kosovo with the Pan-European Corridor X in Serbia. The Autostrada 2 (A2) is part of the Adriatic–Ionian Corridor as well as the Pan-European Corridor VIII and connects Fier with Vlorë. The Autostrada 3 (A3) is currently under construction and will connect, after its completion, Tirana and Elbasan with the Pan-European Corridor VIII. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated 759 kilometres (472 mi) of highway linking it with all of its neighbouring countries. Durrës is the busiest and largest seaport in the country, followed by Vlorë, Shëngjin and Sarandë. As of 2014[update], it is as one of the largest passenger ports on the Adriatic Sea with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with numerous islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece and Italy. The rail network is administered by the national railway company Hekurudha Shqiptare which was extensively promoted by the dictator Enver Hoxha. There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. However, a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is currently planned. The specific location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, makes it an important economic development project. Infrastructure -------------- ### Education In the country, education is secular, free, compulsory and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October, and ending in June or July. Albanian serves as the primary language of instruction in all academic institutions across the country. The study of a first foreign language is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools. The languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. The country has a school life expectancy of 16 years and a literacy rate of 98.7%, with 99.2% for males and 98.3% for females. Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively. Pupils are required to attend school from the age of six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools with specialising in any particular field including arts, sports, languages, sciences or technology. The country's tertiary education, an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education, has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of the Bologna Process. There is a significant number of private and public institutions of higher education well dispersed in the major cities of Albania. Studies in tertiary education are organised at three successive levels which include the bachelor, master and doctorate. ### Health The constitution of Albania guarantees equal, free and universal health care for all its citizens. The health care system of the country is currently organised in three levels, among others primary, secondary and tertiary healthcare, and is in a process of modernisation and development. The life expectancy at birth in Albania is at 77.8 years and ranks 37th in the world outperforming several developed countries. The average healthy life expectancy is at 68.8 years and ranks as well 37th in the world. The country's infant mortality rate is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. In 2000, the country had the 55th best healthcare performance in the world, as defined by the World Health Organization. Cardiovascular disease remain the principal cause of death in the country accounting 52% of total deaths. Accidents, injuries, malignant and respiratory diseases are other primary causes of death. Neuropsychiatric disease has also increased due to recent demographic, social and economic changes in the country. In 2009, the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth highest supply in Europe. In comparison to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of obesity probably thanks to the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. According to World Health Organization data from 2016, 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically overweight, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 25 or more. ### Energy Due to its geographical location and natural resources, Albania has a wide variety of energy resources ranging from gas, oil and coal, to wind, solar and water as well as other renewable sources. Currently, the electricity generation sector of Albania is dependent on hydroelectricity simultaneously ranking fifth in the world in percentage terms. The Drin, located in the north, hosts four hydroelectric power stations, including Fierza, Koman, Skavica and Vau i Dejës. Two other power stations, such as the Banjë and Moglicë, are located along the Devoll in the south. Albania has considerable deposits of oil. It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe and the 58th in the world. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast and Myzeqe Plain within the Western Lowlands, where the country's largest reserve is located. Patos-Marinza, also located within the area, is the largest onshore oil field in Europe. The Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP), part of the planned Southern Gas Corridor, runs for 215 kilometres (134 miles) across Albania's territory before entering the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast approximately 17 kilometres (11 miles) northwest of Fier. The water resources of Albania are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and comprise lakes, rivers, springs and groundwater aquifers. The country's available average quantity of fresh water is estimated at 129.7 cubic metres (4,580 cubic feet) per inhabitant per year, which is one of the highest rates in Europe. According to the data presented by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access to improved sanitation. ### Technology After the fall of communism in 1991, human resources in sciences and technology in Albania have drastically decreased. As of various reports, during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania. In 2009, the government approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015. It aims to triple public spending on research and development to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of GDE from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of the European Union, to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Albania was ranked 84th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021. Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania. Vodafone Albania, Telekom Albania and Albtelecom are the three large providers of mobile and internet in Albania. As of the Electronic and Postal Communications Authority (AKEP) in 2018, the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers. Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931,000 mobile users, Telekom Albania had about 605,000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272,000 users. In January 2023, Albania launched its first two satellites, *Albania 1* and *Albania 2*, into orbit, in what was regarded as a milestone effort in monitoring the country's territory and identifying illegal activities. Demography ---------- As defined by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT), the population of Albania was estimated in 2020 at 2,845,955. The country's total fertility rate of 1.51 children born per woman is one of the lowest in the world. Its population density stands at 259 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy at birth is 78.5 years; 75.8 years for males and 81.4 years for females. The country is the 8th most populous country in the Balkans and ranks as the 137th most populous country in the world. The country's population rose steadily from 2.5 million in 1979 until 1989, when it peaked at 3.1 million. It is forecast that the population will continue shrinking for the next decade at least, depending on the actual birth rate and the level of net migration. The explanation for the recent population decrease is the fall of communism in Albania in the late twentieth century. That period was marked by economic mass emigration from Albania to Greece, Italy and the United States. The migration affected the country's internal population distribution. It decreased particularly in the north and south, while it increased in the centre within the cities of Tirana and Durrës. Migration abroad has continued in recent years, particularly of the young and educated. As much as a third of those born in the country's borders now living outside of it, making Albania one of the countries with the highest rate out outmigration relative to its population in the world. In 2022 the birth rate was 20% lower than in 2021, largely due to emigration of people of childbearing age. About 53.4% of the country's population lives in cities. The three largest counties by population account for half of the total population. Almost 30% of the total population is found in Tirana County followed by Fier County with 11% and Durrës County with 10%. Over 1 million people are concentrated in Tirana and Durrës, making it the largest urban area in Albania. Tirana is one of largest cities in the Balkan Peninsula and ranks seventh with a population about 400,000. ### Minorities Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities: Aromanian, Greek, Macedonian, Montenegrin, Serb, Roma, Egyptian, Bosnian and Bulgarian peoples. Other Albanian minorities are the Gorani people and Jews. Contrary to official statistics that show an over 97 per cent Albanian majority in the country, minority groups (such as Greeks, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Roma and Aromanians) have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. According to the disputed 2011 census, ethnic affiliation was as follows: Albanians 2,312,356 (82.6% of the total), Greeks 24,243 (0.9%), Macedonians 5,512 (0.2%), Montenegrins 366 (0.01%), Aromanians 8,266 (0.30%), Romani 8,301 (0.3%), Balkan Egyptians 3,368 (0.1%), other ethnicities 2,644 (0.1%), no declared ethnicity 390,938 (14.0%), and not relevant 44,144 (1.6%). On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities stated that "the results of the census should be viewed with the utmost caution and calls on the authorities not to rely exclusively on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities". Regarding the Greeks, "it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania". The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania. According to Ian Jeffries, most of Western sources put the number at around 200,000. The 300,000 mark is supported by Greek government as well. The CIA World Factbook estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9% of the total population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17%, and other minorities 0.23%, of the population. The latter questions the validity of the census data about the Greek minority, due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott. Regions with a traditional presence of ethnic groups other than Albanian.Distribution of ethnic groups within Albania, as of the 2011 census. Districts coloured grey are those where a majority of people did not declare an ethnicity (the question was optional). The census was criticised and boycotted by minorities in Albania.Traditional locations of linguistic and religious communities in Albania. ### Language The official language of the country is Albanian which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, Gheg and Tosk, though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The Shkumbin river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Among minority languages, Greek is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, mainly in the country's south where its speakers are concentrated. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include Aromanian, Serbian, Macedonian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Gorani, and Roma. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.8% of the population declared Albanian as their mother tongue. Because of large migration flows from Albania, over half of Albanians during their life learn a second language. The main foreign language known is English with 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. The English speakers were mostly young people, the knowledge of Italian is stable in every age group, while there is a decrease of the speakers of Greek in the youngest group. Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors. Young people have shown a growing interest in the German language in recent years. Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better. Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis. Young people, attracted by economic importance of Turkish investments and common values between the two nations, gain from cultural and academic collaboration of universities. ### Religion Religion in Albania as of the 2011 census conducted by the Institute of Statistics (INSTAT)   Islam (58.79%)  Christianity (16.99%)  No Denomination (5.49%)  Irreligion (2.5%)  Unclear (16.24%) As of the 2011 census, there were 1,587,608 (56.7%) Sunni Muslims, 280,921 (10.03%) Roman Catholics, 188,992 (6.75%) Eastern Orthodox, 58,628 (2.09%) Bektashi Muslims, 3,797 (0.14%) Evangelicals, 1,919 (0.07%) other Christians, 602 (0.02%) of other religions and 153,630 (5.49%) believers without denomination in Albania. 69,995 people (2.5%) were irreligious while 386,024 (13.79%) did not declare their religion. Albania is nevertheless ranked among the least religious countries in the world. Religion constitute an important role in the lives of only 39% of the country's population. In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God and 40% believed in life after death. However, 40% believed in hell, while 42% believed in heaven. The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to give widely different results, with 70% of respondents refusing to declare belief in any of the listed faiths. The Albanian Orthodox Church officially refused to recognize the results, claiming that 24% of the total population adhered to its faith. Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data claiming that many Muslims were not counted and that the number of adherents numbered some 70% of the Albanian population. The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on the census, complaining that many of its believers were not contacted. The Muslim Albanians are spread throughout the country. Orthodox and Bektashis are mostly found in the south, whereas Catholics mainly live in the north. In 2008, there were 694 Catholic churches and 425 orthodox churches, 568 mosques and 70 bektashi tekkes in the country. Albania is a secular and religiously diverse country with no official religion and thus, freedom of religion, belief and conscience are guaranteed under the country's constitution. During modern times, the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had an official religion either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. The communist regime persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely banned religion. The country was then officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom has returned, however, since the end of communism. Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania. Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include Evangelicals and several Protestant communities including Seventh-day Adventist Church, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses. The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned to Tirana in 1853, where he preached Protestantism. Due to that, he was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. The first evangelical Protestants appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 Albanian Jews left in the country. Culture ------- ### Symbols Albania shares many symbols associated with its history, culture and belief. These include the colours red and black, animals such as the golden eagle living across the country, costumes such as the fustanella, plis and opinga which are worn to special events and celebrations, plants such as the olive and red poppy growing as well across the country. The flag of Albania is a red flag with a black double-headed eagle positioned in the centre. The red colour used in the flag symbolises the bravery, strength and valour of the Albanian people, while the black colour appears as a symbol of freedom and heroism. The eagle has been used by Albanians since the Middle Ages including the establishment of the Principality of Arbër and by numerous noble ruling families such as the Kastrioti, Muzaka, Thopia and Dukagjini. Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu, who fought and began a rebellion against the Ottoman Empire which halted Ottoman advance into Europe for nearly 25 years, placed the double-headed eagle on his flag and seal. The country's national motto, *Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar* ("You Albania, you give me honour, you give me the name Albanian"), finds its origins in the Albanian National Awakening. The first to express this motto was Naim Frashëri in his poem *Ti Shqipëri më jep nder*. ### Art and architecture The artistic history of Albania has been particularly influenced by a multitude of ancient and medieval people, traditions and religions. It covers a broad spectrum with mediums and disciplines that include painting, pottery, sculpture, ceramics and architecture all of them exemplifying a great variety in style and shape, in different regions and period. The rise of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empire in the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art in the lands of Albania which are apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout the country. Centuries later, the Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. However, Onufri, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. The architecture of Albania reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to the classical antiquity. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays, the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of various architectural styles. In the 20th century, many historical as well as sacred buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during the communist era. Ancient architecture is found throughout Albania and most visible in Byllis, Amantia, Phoenice, Apollonia, Butrint, Antigonia, Shkodër and Durrës. Considering the long period of rule of the Byzantine Empire, they introduced castles, citadels, churches and monasteries with spectacular wealth of visible murals and frescos. Perhaps the best known examples can be found in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of Korçë, Berat, Voskopojë and Gjirokastër. Involving the introduction of Ottoman architecture there was a development of mosques and other Islamic buildings, particularly seen in Berat and Gjirokastër. A productive period of Historicism, Art Nouveau and Neoclassicism merged into the 19th century, best exemplified in Korçë. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern Italian style, which is present in Tirana such as the Skanderbeg Square and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodër, Vlorë, Sarandë and Durrës. Moreover, other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences. Socialist classicism arrived during the communist era in Albania after the Second World War. At this period many socialist-styled complexes, wide roads and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished. Notable examples of that style include the Mother Teresa Square, Pyramid of Tirana, Palace of Congresses and so on. Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites. These include the ancient remains of Butrint, the medieval Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër, and Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region site shared with North Macedonia since 2019. Furthermore, the royal Illyrian tombs, the remains of Apollonia, the ancient Amphitheatre of Durrës and the Fortress of Bashtovë has been included on the tentative list of Albania. ### Cuisine Throughout the centuries, Albanian cuisine has been widely influenced by Albanian culture, geography and history, and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specific regional cuisines. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south, owing to differing topography and climate that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs, and most notably, olives, which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary, and thyme are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions, peppers, potatoes, tomatoes, as well as legumes of all types. With a coastline along the Adriatic and Ionian in the Mediterranean Sea, fish, crustaceans, and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise, lamb is the traditional meat for different holidays and religious festivals for both Christians and Muslims, although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply. Tavë kosi ("soured milk casserole") is the national dish of Albania, consisting of lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yoghurt. Fërgesë is another national dish, made up of peppers, tomatoes, and cottage cheese. Pite is also popular, a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë (curd) or mish (ground meat). Petulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served with powdered sugar or feta cheese and different sorts of fruit jams. Flia consists of multiple crêpe-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream. Krofne, similar to Berliner doughnuts, are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during cold winter months. Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world. Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafés, bars, or restaurants. Çaj Mali (Sideritis tea) is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties. Black tea with a slice of lemon and sugar, milk, or honey is also popular. Albanian wine is also common throughout the country, and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production, and belongs to the Old World of wine producing countries. Its wine is characterised by its sweet taste and traditionally indigenous varieties. ### Media The freedom of press and speech, and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the constitution of Albania. Albania was ranked 84th on the Press Freedom Index of 2020 compiled by the Reporters Without Borders, with its score steadily declining since 2003. Nevertheless, in the 2020 report of Freedom in the World, the Freedom House classified the freedoms of press and speech in Albania as partly free from political interference and manipulation. Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH) is the national broadcaster corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations in the country. The three major private broadcaster corporations are Top Channel, Televizioni Klan and Vizion Plus whose content are distributed throughout Albania and beyond its territory in Kosovo and other Albanian-speaking territories. Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's declaration of independence. The first movie theater exclusively devoted to showing motion pictures was built in 1912 in Shkodër by an Austrian distribution company with strong efforts by Albanian painter Kolë Idromeno. The opening of other movie theaters followed by 1920 in Shkodër, Berat, Tirana and Vlorë. During the Peoples Republic of Albania, Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration of the Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re in Tirana. In 1953, the Albanian-Soviet epic film, the Great Warrior Skanderbeg, was released chronicling the life and fight of the medieval Albanian hero Skanderbeg. It went on to win the international prize at the 1954 Cannes Film Festival. In 2003, the Tirana International Film Festival was established, the largest film festival in the country. Durrës is host to the Durrës International Film Festival, the second largest film festival, taking place at the Durrës Amphitheatre. ### Music Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overall Albanian music. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northern Gheg varieties, and southern Lab and Tosk varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music. Many songs concern events from Albanian history and culture, including traditional themes of honour, hospitality, treachery, and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two Himariot musicians, Neço Muka and Koço Çakali, in Paris, during their work with Albanian soprano Tefta Tashko-Koço. Several gramophone compilations were recorded at the time by the three artists, which eventually led to the recognition of Albanian iso-polyphony as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage. Festivali i Këngës is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster Radio Televizioni Shqiptar (RTSH). The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including Vaçe Zela and Parashqevi Simaku. It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere, composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public. Contemporary artists Rita Ora, Bebe Rexha, Era Istrefi, Dua Lipa, Ava Max, Bleona, Elvana Gjata, Ermonela Jaho, and Inva Mula have achieved international recognition for their music, while soprano Ermonela Jaho has been described by some as the "world's most acclaimed soprano". Albanian opera singer Saimir Pirgu was nominated for the 2017 Grammy Award. ### Traditional clothing Every cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of costume that vary in style, material, colour, shape, detail, and form. Presently, national costumes are most often worn during special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious holidays, weddings, and by performing dance groups. Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. Clothing was traditionally made mainly from local materials such as leather, wool, linen, hemp fibre, and silk; Albanian textiles are still embroidered in elaborate ancient patterns. ### Literature The Albanian language comprises an independent branch and is a language isolate within the Indo-European family of languages; it is not connected to any other known living language in Europe. Its origin is conclusively unknown, but it is believed to have descended from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language. The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the Albanian language in the area of church texts and publications. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric Gjon Buzuku translated the Catholic liturgy into Albanian, trying to do for Albanian what Martin Luther had done for German. Meshari (*The Missal*) written by Gjon Buzuku was published in 1555 and is considered one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century. Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist Marin Barleti, who in his book Siege of Shkodër (*Rrethimi i Shkodrës*) from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (*in vernacula lingua*) as well as his famous biography of Skanderbeg Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis (*History of Skanderbeg*) from 1508. The *History of Skanderbeg* is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness. During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the catechism (*E mbësuame krishterë*) (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written by Lekë Matrënga, (*Doktrina e krishterë*) (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (*Rituale romanum*) 1621 by Pjetër Budi, the first writer of original Albanian prose and poetry, an apology for George Castriot (1636) by Frang Bardhi, who also published a dictionary and folklore creations, the theological-philosophical treaty *Cuneus Prophetarum* (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by Pjetër Bogdani, the most universal personality of Albanian Middle Ages, were published in Albanian. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably Ismail Kadare. He has been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature several times. ### Sports Albania participated at the Olympic Games in 1972 for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in 2006. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in Barcelona. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the National Olympic Committee of Albania since 1972. The nation has participated at the Mediterranean Games since the games of 1987 in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from 1987 to 2013. Popular sports in Albania include football, weightlifting, basketball, volleyball, tennis, swimming, rugby union and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the Football Association of Albania (Albanian: *Federata Shqiptare e Futbollit*, F.SH.F.), which was created in 1930 and has membership in FIFA and UEFA. Football arrived in Albania early in the 20th century when the inhabitants of the northern city of Shkodër were surprised to see a strange game being played by students at a Christian mission. The Albania national football team, ranking 51st in the World in 2017 (highest 22nd on 22 August 2015) have won the 1946 Balkan Cup and the Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000, but had never participated in any major UEFA or FIFA tournament, until UEFA Euro 2016, Albania's first ever appearance at the continental tournament and at a major men's football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat Romania by 1–0 in a UEFA Euro 2016 match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs in the country are Skënderbeu, KF Tirana, Dinamo Tirana, Partizani and Vllaznia. Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the European Weightlifting Championships and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the European Championships with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the World Weightlifting Championships, the Albanian weightlifting team has won in 1972 a gold in 2002 a silver and in 2011 a bronze medal. ### Diaspora Historically, the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. The Albanian diaspora has been formed since the late Middle Ages, when they emigrated to places such as Italy, especially in Sicily and Calabria, and Greece to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the Ottoman conquest of Albania. Following the fall of communism, large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Scandinavia, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. Albanian minorities are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of North Macedonia, the east of Montenegro, Kosovo in its entirety and southern Serbia. In Kosovo, Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the country. Altogether, the number of ethnic Albanians living abroad is estimated to be higher than the total population inside Albania. See also -------- * Outline of Albania * Bibliography of Albania Further reading --------------- * *History of the Party of Labor of Albania*. Tirana: Institute of Marxist–Leninist Studies, 1971. 691 p. * Abrahams, Fred (2015). *Modern Albania: From Dictatorship to Democracy in Europe*. NYU Press. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-8147-0511-7. Wikimedia Atlas of Albania 41°N 20°E / 41°N 20°E / 41; 20

Albania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albania

The **Canary Islands** (/kəˈnɛəri/; Spanish: *Canarias*, pronounced [kaˈnaɾjas]), also known informally as **the Canaries**, are a Spanish autonomous community and archipelago in Macaronesia in the Atlantic Ocean. At their closest point to the African mainland, they are 100 kilometres (62 miles) west of Morocco. They are the southernmost of the autonomous communities of Spain. The islands have a population of 2.2 million people and are the most populous special territory of the European Union. The seven main islands are (from largest to smallest in area) Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, and El Hierro. The archipelago includes many smaller islands and islets, including La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Oeste, and Roque del Este. It also includes a number of rocks, including Garachico and Anaga. In ancient times, the island chain was often referred to as "the Fortunate Isles". The Canary Islands are the southernmost region of Spain, and the largest and most populous archipelago of Macaronesia. Because of their location, the Canary Islands have historically been considered a link between the four continents of Africa, North America, South America, and Europe. In 2019, the Canary Islands had a population of 2,153,389, with a density of 287.39 inhabitants per km2, making it the eighth most populous autonomous community of Spain. The population is mostly concentrated in the two capital islands: around 43% on the island of Tenerife and 40% on the island of Gran Canaria. The Canary Islands, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote, are a major tourist destination, with over 12 million visitors per year. This is due to their beaches, subtropical climate, and important natural attractions, especially Maspalomas in Gran Canaria and Mount Teide (a World Heritage Site) in Tenerife. Mount Teide is the highest peak in Spain and the 4th tallest volcano in the world, measured from its base on the ocean floor. The islands have warm summers and winters warm enough for the climate to be technically tropical at sea level. The amount of precipitation and the level of maritime moderation vary depending on location and elevation. The archipelago includes green areas as well as desert. The islands' high mountains are ideal for astronomical observation, because they lie above the temperature inversion layer. As a result, the archipelago boasts two professional observatories: the Teide Observatory on Tenerife, and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma. In 1927, the Province of Canary Islands was split into two provinces. In 1982, the autonomous community of the Canary Islands was established. The cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria are, jointly, the capitals of the islands. Those cities are also, respectively, the capitals of the provinces of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria has been the largest city in the Canaries since 1768, except for a brief period in the 1910s. Between the 1833 territorial division of Spain and 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, it was ordered by decree that the capital of the Canary Islands would be shared between two cities, and this arrangement persists to the present day. The third largest city in the Canary Islands is San Cristóbal de La Laguna (another World Heritage Site) on Tenerife. During the Age of Sail, the islands were the main stopover for Spanish galleons during the Spanish colonisation of the Americas, which sailed that far south in order to catch the prevailing northeasterly trade winds. Etymology --------- The name *Islas Canarias* is likely derived from the Latin name *Canariae Insulae*, meaning "Islands of the Dogs", a name that was evidently generalized from the ancient name of one of these islands, *Canaria* – presumably Gran Canaria. According to the historian Pliny the Elder, the island *Canaria* contained "vast multitudes of dogs of very large size". Other theories speculate that the name comes from the Nukkari Berber tribe living in the Moroccan Atlas, named in Roman sources as *Canarii*, though Pliny again mentions the relation of this term with dogs. The connection to dogs is retained in their depiction on the islands' coat-of-arms. It is thought that the aboriginal people of Gran Canaria called themselves "Canarios". It is possible that after being conquered, this name was used in plural in Spanish, i.e., as to refer to all of the islands as the Canarii-as. The name of the islands is not derived from the canary bird; rather, the birds are named after the islands. Physical geography ------------------ Tenerife is the largest and most populous island of the archipelago. Gran Canaria, with 865,070 inhabitants, is both the Canary Islands' second most populous island, and the third most populous one in Spain after Tenerife (966,354 inhabitants) and Majorca (896,038 inhabitants). The island of Fuerteventura is the second largest in the archipelago and located 100 km (62 mi) from the African coast. The islands form the Macaronesia ecoregion with the Azores, Cape Verde, Madeira, and the Savage Isles. The Canary Islands is the largest and most populated archipelago of the Macaronesia region. The archipelago consists of seven large and several smaller islands, all of which are volcanic in origin. According to the position of the islands with respect to the north-east trade winds, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species form laurisilva forests. As a consequence, the individual islands in the Canary archipelago tend to have distinct microclimates. Those islands such as El Hierro, La Palma and La Gomera lying to the west of the archipelago have a climate which is influenced by the moist Canary Current. They are well vegetated even at low levels and have extensive tracts of sub-tropical laurisilva forest. As one travels east toward the African coast, the influence of the current diminishes, and the islands become increasingly arid. Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the islands which are closest to the African mainland, are effectively desert or semi desert. Gran Canaria is known as a "continent in miniature" for its diverse landscapes like Maspalomas and Roque Nublo. In terms of its climate Tenerife is particularly interesting. The north of the island lies under the influence of the moist Atlantic winds and is well vegetated, while the south of the island around the tourist resorts of Playa de las Américas and Los Cristianos is arid. The island rises to almost 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level, and at altitude, in the cool relatively wet climate, forests of the endemic pine *Pinus canariensis* thrive. Many of the plant species in the Canary Islands, like the Canary Island pine and the dragon tree, *Dracaena draco* are endemic, as noted by Sabin Berthelot and Philip Barker Webb in their work, *L'Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries* (1835–50). ### Climate The climate is warm subtropical and generally semidesertic, moderated by the sea and in summer by the trade winds. There are a number of microclimates and the classifications range mainly from semi-arid to desert. According to Köppen, the majority of the Canary Islands have a hot desert climate (*BWh*) and a hot semi-arid climate (*BSh*), caused partly due to the cool Canary Current. There also exists a subtropical humid climate which is very influenced by the ocean in the middle of the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife and La Palma, where laurisilva cloud forests grow. | Climate data for Santa Cruz de Tenerife 35m (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 21.0(69.8) | 21.2(70.2) | 22.1(71.8) | 22.7(72.9) | 24.1(75.4) | 26.2(79.2) | 28.7(83.7) | 29.0(84.2) | 28.1(82.6) | 26.3(79.3) | 24.1(75.4) | 22.1(71.8) | 24.6(76.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.2(64.8) | 18.3(64.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 19.7(67.5) | 21.0(69.8) | 22.9(73.2) | 25.0(77.0) | 25.5(77.9) | 24.9(76.8) | 23.4(74.1) | 21.3(70.3) | 19.4(66.9) | 21.5(70.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.3(59.5) | 15.9(60.6) | 16.5(61.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 19.5(67.1) | 21.2(70.2) | 21.9(71.4) | 21.7(71.1) | 20.3(68.5) | 18.4(65.1) | 16.6(61.9) | 18.4(65.1) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 31.5(1.24) | 35.4(1.39) | 37.8(1.49) | 11.6(0.46) | 3.6(0.14) | 0.9(0.04) | 0.1(0.00) | 2.0(0.08) | 6.8(0.27) | 18.7(0.74) | 34.1(1.34) | 43.2(1.70) | 225.7(8.89) | | Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 8.0 | 7.2 | 6.9 | 5.5 | 2.9 | 0.9 | 0.2 | 0.8 | 2.7 | 6.1 | 8.8 | 9.4 | 59.4 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 178 | 186 | 221 | 237 | 282 | 306 | 337 | 319 | 253 | 222 | 178 | 168 | 2,887 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for Gran Canaria Airport 24m (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 20.8(69.4) | 21.2(70.2) | 22.3(72.1) | 22.6(72.7) | 23.6(74.5) | 25.3(77.5) | 26.9(80.4) | 27.5(81.5) | 27.2(81.0) | 26.2(79.2) | 24.2(75.6) | 22.2(72.0) | 24.2(75.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.1(64.6) | 18.4(65.1) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.5(67.1) | 20.5(68.9) | 22.2(72.0) | 23.8(74.8) | 24.6(76.3) | 24.3(75.7) | 23.1(73.6) | 21.2(70.2) | 19.3(66.7) | 21.2(70.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 15.3(59.5) | 15.6(60.1) | 16.2(61.2) | 16.3(61.3) | 17.3(63.1) | 19.2(66.6) | 20.8(69.4) | 21.6(70.9) | 21.4(70.5) | 20.1(68.2) | 18.1(64.6) | 16.5(61.7) | 18.2(64.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 25(1.0) | 24(0.9) | 13(0.5) | 6(0.2) | 1(0.0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 9(0.4) | 16(0.6) | 22(0.9) | 31(1.2) | 151(5.9) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 22 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 184 | 191 | 229 | 228 | 272 | 284 | 308 | 300 | 241 | 220 | 185 | 179 | 2,821 | | Source: World Meteorological Organization (UN), Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for San Cristóbal de La Laguna (1981–2010) 632 m – Tenerife North Airport | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 16.0(60.8) | 16.7(62.1) | 18.2(64.8) | 18.5(65.3) | 20.1(68.2) | 22.2(72.0) | 24.7(76.5) | 25.7(78.3) | 24.9(76.8) | 22.5(72.5) | 19.7(67.5) | 17.1(62.8) | 20.5(68.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 13.1(55.6) | 13.4(56.1) | 14.5(58.1) | 14.7(58.5) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.1(64.6) | 20.2(68.4) | 21.2(70.2) | 20.7(69.3) | 18.9(66.0) | 16.5(61.7) | 14.3(57.7) | 16.8(62.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | 10.2(50.4) | 10.0(50.0) | 10.7(51.3) | 10.9(51.6) | 12.0(53.6) | 14.0(57.2) | 15.7(60.3) | 16.6(61.9) | 16.5(61.7) | 15.2(59.4) | 13.3(55.9) | 11.5(52.7) | 13.0(55.4) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 80(3.1) | 70(2.8) | 61(2.4) | 39(1.5) | 19(0.7) | 11(0.4) | 6(0.2) | 5(0.2) | 16(0.6) | 47(1.9) | 81(3.2) | 82(3.2) | 517(20.2) | | Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 7 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 10 | 10 | 12 | 95 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 150 | 168 | 188 | 203 | 234 | 237 | 262 | 269 | 213 | 194 | 155 | 137 | 2,410 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for Tenerife South Airport 64m (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 21.7(71.1) | 22.0(71.6) | 23.1(73.6) | 23.1(73.6) | 23.9(75.0) | 25.4(77.7) | 27.7(81.9) | 28.4(83.1) | 27.9(82.2) | 26.8(80.2) | 24.8(76.6) | 22.8(73.0) | 24.8(76.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.5(65.3) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.5(67.1) | 20.4(68.7) | 22.1(71.8) | 24.0(75.2) | 24.7(76.5) | 24.5(76.1) | 23.4(74.1) | 21.5(70.7) | 19.7(67.5) | 21.4(70.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | 15.2(59.4) | 15.0(59.0) | 15.6(60.1) | 16.0(60.8) | 17.0(62.6) | 18.8(65.8) | 20.2(68.4) | 21.1(70.0) | 21.1(70.0) | 20.0(68.0) | 18.2(64.8) | 16.5(61.7) | 17.9(64.2) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 16.6(0.65) | 19.9(0.78) | 14.7(0.58) | 7.4(0.29) | 1.1(0.04) | 0.1(0.00) | 0.1(0.00) | 1.3(0.05) | 3.6(0.14) | 11.9(0.47) | 26.3(1.04) | 30.3(1.19) | 133.3(5.23) | | Average rainy days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 1.8 | 2.2 | 1.9 | 1.1 | 0.3 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 0.6 | 1.6 | 1.9 | 3.5 | 15.1 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 193 | 195 | 226 | 219 | 246 | 259 | 295 | 277 | 213 | 214 | 193 | 195 | 2,725 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for La Palma Airport 33m (1981–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 20.6(69.1) | 20.7(69.3) | 21.2(70.2) | 21.6(70.9) | 22.6(72.7) | 24.1(75.4) | 25.5(77.9) | 26.3(79.3) | 26.6(79.9) | 25.5(77.9) | 23.5(74.3) | 21.8(71.2) | 23.3(74.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 18.1(64.6) | 18.0(64.4) | 18.5(65.3) | 18.9(66.0) | 20.0(68.0) | 21.7(71.1) | 23.1(73.6) | 23.9(75.0) | 24.0(75.2) | 22.8(73.0) | 20.9(69.6) | 19.3(66.7) | 20.8(69.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 15.5(59.9) | 15.3(59.5) | 15.7(60.3) | 16.2(61.2) | 17.4(63.3) | 19.2(66.6) | 20.7(69.3) | 21.4(70.5) | 21.3(70.3) | 20.2(68.4) | 18.3(64.9) | 16.7(62.1) | 18.2(64.7) | | Average rainfall mm (inches) | 49(1.9) | 57(2.2) | 33(1.3) | 19(0.7) | 7(0.3) | 2(0.1) | 1(0.0) | 1(0.0) | 12(0.5) | 41(1.6) | 70(2.8) | 80(3.1) | 372(14.5) | | Average rainy days | 5 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 40 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 141 | 146 | 177 | 174 | 192 | 188 | 222 | 209 | 187 | 175 | 140 | 138 | 2,106 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | ### Geology The seven major islands, one minor island, and several small islets were originally volcanic islands, formed by the Canary hotspot. The Canary Islands is the only place in Spain where volcanic eruptions have been recorded during the Modern Era, with some volcanoes still active (El Hierro, 2011). Volcanic islands such as those in the Canary chain often have steep ocean cliffs caused by catastrophic debris avalanches and landslides. The island chain's most recent eruption occurred at Cumbre Vieja, a volcanic ridge on La Palma, in 2021. The Teide volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in Spain, and the third tallest volcano on Earth on a volcanic ocean island. All the islands except La Gomera have been active in the last million years; four of them (Lanzarote, Tenerife, La Palma and El Hierro) have historical records of eruptions since European discovery. The islands rise from Jurassic oceanic crust associated with the opening of the Atlantic. Underwater magmatism commenced during the Cretaceous, and continued to the present day. The current islands reached the ocean's surface during the Miocene. The islands were once considered as a distinct physiographic section of the Atlas Mountains province, which in turn is part of the larger African Alpine System division, but are nowadays recognized as being related to a magmatic hot spot. In the summer of 2011 a series of low-magnitude earthquakes occurred beneath El Hierro. These had a linear trend of northeast–southwest. In October a submarine eruption occurred about 2 km (1+1⁄4 mi) south of Restinga. This eruption produced gases and pumice, but no explosive activity was reported. The following table shows the highest mountains in each of the islands: | Mountain | Elevation | Island | | --- | --- | --- | | m | ft | | Teide | 3,715 | 12,188 | Tenerife | | Roque de los Muchachos | 2,426 | 7,959 | La Palma | | Pico de las Nieves | 1,949 | 6,394 | Gran Canaria | | Pico de Malpaso | 1,501 | 4,925 | El Hierro | | Garajonay | 1,487 | 4,879 | La Gomera | | Pico de la Zarza | 812 | 2,664 | Fuerteventura | | Peñas del Chache | 670 | 2,200 | Lanzarote | | Aguja Grande | 266 | 873 | La Graciosa | | Caldera de Alegranza | 289 | 948 | Alegranza | | Caldera de Lobos | 126 | 413 | Lobos | | La Mariana | 256 | 840 | Montaña Clara | ### Natural symbols The official natural symbols associated with Canary Islands are the bird *Serinus canaria* (canary) and the *Phoenix canariensis* palm. * Serinus canaria*Serinus canaria* * Phoenix canariensis*Phoenix canariensis* ### National parks Four of Spain's thirteen national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community. Two of these have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites and the other two are part of Biosphere Reserves. The parks are: | Park | Island | Area | Year of Designation | UNESCO Status | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Caldera de Taburiente National Park | La Palma | 46.9 km2 (18.1 sq mi) | 1954 | Part of the La Palma Biosphere Reserve since 2002 | | Garajonay National Park | La Gomera | 39.86 km2 (15.39 sq mi) | 1981 | World Heritage Site since 1986 | | Teide National Park | Tenerife | 189.9 km2 (73.3 sq mi) | 1954 | World Heritage Site since 2007 | | Timanfaya National Park | Lanzarote | 51.07 km2 (19.72 sq mi) | 1974 | Part of the Lanzarote Biosphere Reserve since 1993 | Teide National Park is the oldest and largest national park in the Canary Islands and one of the oldest in Spain. Located in the geographic centre of the island of Tenerife, it is the most visited national park in Spain. In 2010, it became the most visited national park in Europe and second worldwide. The park's highlight is the Teide volcano; standing at an altitude of 3,715 metres (12,188 ft), it is the highest elevation of the country and the third largest volcano on Earth from its base. In 2007, the Teide National Park was declared one of the 12 Treasures of Spain. Politics -------- ### Governance The regional executive body, the Parliament of the Canary Islands, is presided over by Ángel Víctor Torres (PSOE), the current President of the Canary Islands. The latter is invested by the members of the regional legislature, the Parliament of the Canary Islands, that consists of 70 elected legislators. The last regional election took place in May 2019. The islands have 14 seats in the Spanish Senate. Of these, 11 seats are directly elected (3 for Gran Canaria, 3 for Tenerife, and 1 each for Lanzarote (including La Graciosa), Fuerteventura, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro) while the other 3 are appointed by the regional legislature. ### Political geography The **Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands** consists of two provinces (*provincias*), Las Palmas and Santa Cruz de Tenerife, whose capitals (Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife) are capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands is ruled by an island council named *Cabildo Insular*. Each island is subdivided into smaller municipalities (*municipios*); Las Palmas is divided into 34 municipalities, and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is divided into 54 municipalities. The international boundary of the Canaries is one subject of dispute in the Morocco-Spain relations. Moreover, in 2022 the UN has declared the Canary Island's territorial waters as Moroccan coast and Morocco has authorised gas and oil exploration in what the Canary Islands states to be Canarian territorial waters and Western Sahara waters. Morocco's official position is that international laws regarding territorial limits do not authorise Spain to claim seabed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, since the Canary Islands enjoy a large degree of autonomy. In fact, the islands do not enjoy any special degree of autonomy as each one of the Spanish regions is considered an autonomous community with equal status to the European ones. Under the Law of the Sea, the only islands not granted territorial waters or an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) are those that are not fit for human habitation or do not have an economic life of their own, which is not the case of the Canary Islands. ### Canarian nationalism There are some pro-independence political parties, like the National Congress of the Canaries (CNC) and the Popular Front of the Canary Islands, but their popular support is almost insignificant, with no presence in either the autonomous parliament or the *cabildos insulares*. According to a 2012 study by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (53.8%) consider themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 24% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. Only 6.1% of the respondents consider themselves only Canarian while 7% consider themselves only Spanish. ### Defence The defence of the territory is the responsibility of the Spanish Armed Forces. As such, various components of the Army, Navy, Air Force and the Civil Guard are based in the territory. History ------- ### Ancient and pre-Hispanic times Before the arrival of humans, the Canaries were inhabited by prehistoric animals; for example, the giant lizard (*Gallotia goliath*), the Tenerife and Gran Canaria giant rats, and giant prehistoric tortoises, *Geochelone burchardi* and *Geochelone vulcanica*. Although the original settlement of what are now called the Canary Islands is not entirely clear, linguistic, genetic, and archaeological analyses indicate that indigenous peoples were living on the Canary Islands at least 2000 years ago but possibly one thousand years or more before, and that they shared a common origin with the Berbers on the nearby North African coast. Reaching the islands may have taken place using several small boats, landing on the easternmost islands Lanzarote and Fuerteventura. These groups came to be known collectively as the Guanches, although *Guanches* had been the name for only the indigenous inhabitants of Tenerife. As José Farrujia describes, 'The indigenous Canarians lived mainly in natural caves, usually near the coast, 300–500m above sea level. These caves were sometimes isolated but more commonly formed settlements, with burial caves nearby'. Archaeological work has uncovered a rich culture visible through artefacts of ceramics, human figures, fishing, hunting and farming tools, plant fibre clothing and vessels, as well as cave paintings. At Lomo de los Gatos on Gran Canaria, a site occupied from 1,600 years ago up until the 1960s, round stone houses, complex burial sites, and associated artefacts have been found. Across the islands are thousands of Libyco-Berber alphabet inscriptions scattered and they have been extensively documented by many linguists. The social structure of indigenous Canarians encompassed 'a system of matrilineal descent in most of the islands, in which inheritance was passed on via the female line. Social status and wealth were hereditary and determined the individual's position in the social pyramid, which consisted of the king, the relatives of the king, the lower nobility, villeins, plebeians, and finally executioners, butchers, embalmers, and prisoners'. Their religion was animist, centring on the sun and moon, as well as natural features such as mountains. ### Exploration The islands may have been visited by the Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Carthaginians. King Juba II, Caesar Augustus's Numidian protégé, is credited with discovering the islands for the Western world. According to Pliny the Elder, Juba found the islands uninhabited, but found "a small temple of stone" and "some traces of buildings". Juba dispatched a naval contingent to re-open the dye production facility at Mogador in what is now western Morocco in the early first century AD. That same naval force was subsequently sent on an exploration of the Canary Islands, using Mogador as their mission base. The names given by Romans to the individual islands were *Ninguaria* or *Nivaria* (Tenerife), *Canaria* (Gran Canaria), *Pluvialia* or *Invale* (Lanzarote), *Ombrion* (La Palma), *Planasia* (Fuerteventura), *Iunonia* or *Junonia* (El Hierro) and *Capraria* (La Gomera). From the 14th century onward, numerous visits were made by sailors from Majorca, Portugal and Genoa. Lancelotto Malocello settled on Lanzarote in 1312. The Majorcans established a mission with a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. ### Castilian conquest In 1402, the Castilian colonisation of the islands began with the expedition of the French explorers Jean de Béthencourt and Gadifer de la Salle, nobles and vassals of Henry III of Castile, to Lanzarote. From there, they went on to conquer Fuerteventura (1405) and El Hierro. These invasions were "brutal cultural and military clashes between the indigenous population and the Castilians" lasting over a century due to formidable resistance by indigenous Canarians. Professor Mohamed Adhikari has defined the conquest of the islands as a genocide of the Guanches. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but still recognised King Henry III as his overlord. It was not a simple military enterprise, given the aboriginal resistance on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the Crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest (*Conquista señorial*). This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest in exchange for pacts of vassalage between the noble conqueror and the Crown. One can identify within this period an early phase known as the Betancurian or Norman Conquest, carried out by Jean de Bethencourt (who was originally from Normandy) and Gadifer de la Salle between 1402 and 1405, which involved the islands of Lanzarote, El Hierro and Fuerteventura. The subsequent phase is known as the Castilian Conquest, carried out by Castilian nobles who acquired, through purchases, assignments and marriages, the previously conquered islands and also incorporated the island of La Gomera around 1450. Royal conquest (*Conquista realenga*). This defines the conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered: Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448 Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. Despite Pope Nicholas V ruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed the Treaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty recognized Castilian control of the Canary Islands but also confirmed Portuguese possession of the Azores, Madeira, and the Cape Verde islands, and gave the Portuguese rights to any further islands or lands in the Atlantic that might be discovered. The Castilians continued to dominate the islands, but due to the topography and the resistance of the native Guanches, they did not achieve complete control until 1496, when Tenerife and La Palma were finally subdued by Alonso Fernández de Lugo. As a result of this 'the native pre-Hispanic population declined quickly due to war, epidemics, and slavery'. The Canaries were incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile. ### After the conquest and the introduction of slavery After the conquest, the Castilians imposed a new economic model, based on single-crop cultivation: first sugarcane; then wine, an important item of trade with England. Gran Canaria was conquered by the Crown of Castile on 6 March 1480, and Tenerife was conquered in 1496, and each had its own governor. There has been speculation that the abundance of *Roccella tinctoria* on the Canary Islands offered a profit motive for Jean de Béthencourt during his conquest of the islands. Lichen has been used for centuries to make dyes. This includes royal purple colors derived from roccella tinctoria, also known as orseille. The objective of the Spanish Crown to convert the islands into a powerhouse of cultivation required a much larger labour force. This was attained through a brutal practice of enslavement, not only of indigenous Canarians but large numbers of Africans who were forcibly taken from North and Sub-Saharan Africa. Whilst the first slave plantations in the Atlantic region were across Madeira, Cape Verde, and the Canary Islands, it was only the Canary Islands which had an indigenous population and were therefore invaded rather than newly occupied. This agriculture industry was largely based on sugarcane and the Castilians converted large swaths of the landscape for sugarcane production, and the processing and manufacturing of sugar, facilitated by enslaved labourers. The cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria became a stopping point for the Spanish traders, as well as conquistadors, and missionaries on their way to the New World. This trade route brought great wealth to the Castilian social sectors of the islands and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over Europe. As the wealth grew, enslaved African workers were also forced into demeaning domestic roles for the rich Castilians on the islands such as servants in their houses. Research on the skeletons of some of these enslaved workers from the burial site of Finca Clavijo on Gran Canaria have showed that 'all of the adults buried in Finca Clavijo undertook extensive physical activity that involved significant stress on the spine and appendicular skeleton' that result from relentless hard labour, akin to the physical abnormalities found with enslaved peoples from other sugarcane plantations around the world. These findings of the physical strain that the enslaved at Finca Clavijo were subjected to in order to provide wealth for the Spanish elite has inspired a poem by British writer Ralph Hoyte, entitled *Close to the Bone*. As a result of the huge wealth generated, magnificent palaces and churches were built on La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. The Church of El Salvador survives as one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 16th century. Civilian architecture survives in forms such as Casas de los Sánchez-Ochando or Casa Quintana. The Canaries' wealth invited attacks by pirates and privateers. Ottoman Turkish admiral and privateer Kemal Reis ventured into the Canaries in 1501, while Murat Reis the Elder captured Lanzarote in 1585. The most severe attack took place in 1599, during the Dutch Revolt. A Dutch fleet of 74 ships and 12,000 men, commanded by Pieter van der Does, attacked the capital Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (the city had 3,500 of Gran Canaria's 8,545 inhabitants). The Dutch attacked the Castillo de la Luz, which guarded the harbor. The Canarians evacuated civilians from the city, and the Castillo surrendered (but not the city). The Dutch moved inland, but Canarian cavalry drove them back to Tamaraceite, near the city. The Dutch then laid siege to the city, demanding the surrender of all its wealth. They received 12 sheep and 3 calves. Furious, the Dutch sent 4,000 soldiers to attack the Council of the Canaries, who were sheltering in the village of Santa Brígida. 300 Canarian soldiers ambushed the Dutch in the village of Monte Lentiscal, killing 150 and forcing the rest to retreat. The Dutch concentrated on Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, attempting to burn it down. The Dutch pillaged Maspalomas, on the southern coast of Gran Canaria, San Sebastián on La Gomera, and Santa Cruz on La Palma, but eventually gave up the siege of Las Palmas and withdrew. In 1618 the Barbary pirates from North Africa attacked Lanzarote and La Gomera taking 1000 captives to be sold as slaves. Another noteworthy attack occurred in 1797, when Santa Cruz de Tenerife was attacked by a British fleet under Horatio Nelson on 25 July. The British were repulsed, losing almost 400 men. It was during this battle that Nelson lost his right arm. ### 18th to 19th century The sugar-based economy of the islands faced stiff competition from Spain's Caribbean colonies. Low sugar prices in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop, cochineal (*cochinilla*), came into cultivation during this time, reinvigorating the islands' economy. During this time the Canarian-American trade was developed, in which Canarian products such as cochineal, sugarcane and rum were sold in American ports such as Veracruz, Campeche, La Guaira and Havana, among others. By the end of the 18th century, Canary Islanders had already emigrated to Spanish American territories, such as Havana, Veracruz, and Santo Domingo, San Antonio, Texas and St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana. These economic difficulties spurred mass emigration during the 19th and first half of the 20th century, primarily to the Americas. Between 1840 and 1890 as many as 40,000 Canary Islanders emigrated to Venezuela. Also, thousands of Canarians moved to Puerto Rico where the Spanish monarchy felt that Canarians would adapt to island life better than other immigrants from the mainland of Spain. Deeply entrenched traditions, such as the Mascaras Festival in the town of Hatillo, Puerto Rico, are an example of Canarian culture still preserved in Puerto Rico. Similarly, many thousands of Canarians emigrated to the shores of Cuba. During the Spanish–American War of 1898, the Spanish fortified the islands against a possible American attack, but no such event took place. ### Romantic period and scientific expeditions Sirera and Renn (2004) distinguish two different types of expeditions, or voyages, during the period 1770–1830, which they term "the Romantic period": First are "expeditions financed by the States, closely related with the official scientific Institutions. characterised by having strict scientific objectives (and inspired by) the spirit of Illustration and progress". In this type of expedition, Sirera and Renn include the following travellers: * J. Edens, whose 1715 ascent and observations of Mt. Teide influenced many subsequent expeditions. * Louis Feuillée (1724), who was sent to measure the meridian of El Hierro and to map the islands. * Jean-Charles de Borda (1771, 1776) who more accurately measured the longitudes of the islands and the height of Mount Teide * the Baudin-Ledru expedition (1796) which aimed to recover a valuable collection of natural history objects. The second type of expedition identified by Sirera and Renn is one that took place starting from more or less private initiatives. Among these, the key exponents were the following: * Alexander von Humboldt (1799) * Buch and Smith (1815) * Broussonet * Webb * Sabin Berthelot. Sirera and Renn identify the period 1770–1830 as one in which "In a panorama dominated until that moment by France and England enters with strength and brio Germany of the Romantic period whose presence in the islands will increase". ### Early 20th century At the beginning of the 20th century, the British introduced a new cash-crop, the banana, the export of which was controlled by companies such as Fyffes. 30 November 1833 the Province of Canary Islands had been created with the capital being declared as Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The rivalry between the cities of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife for the capital of the islands led to the division of the archipelago into two provinces on 23 September 1927. During the time of the Second Spanish Republic, Marxist and anarchist workers' movements began to develop, led by figures such as Jose Miguel Perez and Guillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority and fell easily to Nationalist forces during the Spanish Civil War. ### Franco regime In 1936, Francisco Franco was appointed General Commandant of the Canaries. He joined the military revolt of 17 July which began the Spanish Civil War. Franco quickly took control of the archipelago, except for a few points of resistance on La Palma and in the town of Vallehermoso, on La Gomera. Though there was never a war in the islands, the post-war suppression of political dissent on the Canaries was most severe. During the Second World War, Winston Churchill prepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as a naval base, in the event of Gibraltar being invaded from the Spanish mainland. The planned operation was known as Operation Pilgrim. Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which experienced an upheaval of parties such as the Communist Party of Spain and the formation of various nationalist, leftist parties. During the Ifni War, the Franco regime set up concentration camps on the islands to extrajudicially imprison those in Western Sahara suspected of disloyalty to Spain, many of whom were colonial troops recruited on the spot but were later deemed to be potential fifth columnists and deported to the Canary Islands. These camps were characterised by the use of forced labour for infrastructure projects and highly unsanitary conditions resulting in the widespread occurrence of tuberculosis. ### Self-governance After the death of Franco, there was a pro-independence armed movement based in Algeria, the Movement for the Independence and Self-determination of the Canaries Archipelago (MAIAC). In 1968, the Organisation of African Unity recognized the MAIAC as a legitimate African independence movement, and declared the Canary Islands as an African territory still under foreign rule. After the establishment of a democratic constitutional monarchy in Spain, autonomy was granted to the Canaries via a law passed in 1982, with a newly established autonomous devolved government and parliament. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) won. In the 2007 elections, the PSOE gained a plurality of seats, but the nationalist Canarian Coalition and the conservative Partido Popular (PP) formed a ruling coalition government. ### Capitals At present, the Canary Islands is the only autonomous community in Spain that has two capitals: Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, since the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands [es] was created in 1982. The political capital of the archipelago did not exist as such until the nineteenth century. The first cities founded by the Europeans at the time of the conquest of the Canary Islands in the 15th century were: Telde (in Gran Canaria), San Marcial del Rubicón (in Lanzarote) and Betancuria (in Fuerteventura). These cities boasted the first European institutions present in the archipelago, including Catholic bishoprics. Although, because the period of splendor of these cities developed before the total conquest of the archipelago and its incorporation into the Crown of Castile never had a political and real control of the entire Canary archipelago. The function of a Canarian city with full jurisdiction for the entire archipelago only exists after the conquest of the Canary Islands, although originally *de facto*, that is, without legal and real meaning and linked to the headquarters of the Canary Islands General Captaincy. Las Palmas de Gran Canaria was the first city that exercised this function. This is because the residence of the Captain General of the Canary Islands was in this city during part of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In May 1661, the Captain General of the Canary Islands, Jerónimo de Benavente y Quiñones, moved the headquarters of the captaincy to the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna on the island of Tenerife. This was due to the fact that this island since the conquest was the most populated, productive and with the highest economic expectations. La Laguna would be considered the *de facto* capital of the archipelago until the official status of the capital of Canary Islands in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife was confirmed in the 19th century, due in part to the constant controversies and rivalries between the bourgeoisies of San Cristóbal de La Laguna and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria for the economic, political and institutional hegemony of the archipelago. Already in 1723, the Captain General of the Canary Islands Lorenzo Fernandez de Villavicencio had moved the headquarters of the General Captaincy of the Canary Islands from San Cristóbal de La Laguna to Santa Cruz de Tenerife. This decision continued without pleasing the society of the island of Gran Canaria. It would be after the creation of the Province of Canary Islands in November 1833 in which Santa Cruz would become the first fully official capital of the Canary Islands (*De jure* and not of *de facto* as happened previously). Santa Cruz de Tenerife would be the capital of the Canary archipelago until during the Government of General Primo de Rivera in 1927 the Province of Canary Islands was split in two provinces: Las Palmas with capital in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, and Santa Cruz de Tenerife with capital in the homonymous city. Finally, with the Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands in 1982 and the creation of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands, the capital of the archipelago between Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and Santa Cruz de Tenerife is fixed, which is how it remains today. Demographics ------------ Population history| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1768 | 155,763 | —     | | 1787 | 168,928 | +0.43% | | 1797 | 173,865 | +0.29% | | 1842 | 241,266 | +0.73% | | 1860 | 237,036 | −0.10% | | 1887 | 301,983 | +0.90% | | 1900 | 364,408 | +1.46% | | 1920 | 488,483 | +1.48% | | 1940 | 687,937 | +1.73% | | 1960 | 966,177 | +1.71% | | 1981 | 1,367,646 | +1.67% | | 1990 | 1,589,403 | +1.68% | | 2000 | 1,716,276 | +0.77% | | 2010 | 2,118,519 | +2.13% | | 2011 | 2,082,655 | −1.69% | | 2012 | | —     | | 2013 | | —     | | 2014 | 2,104,815 | —     | | 2015 | 2,128,647 | +1.13% | | 2016 | | —     | | 2017 | 2,154,905 | —     | | 2018 | 2,127,685 | −1.26% | | 2019 | 2,153,387 | +1.21% | | 2021 | 2,172,944 | +0.45% | The Canary Islands have a population of 2,153,389 inhabitants (2019), making it the eighth most populous of Spain's autonomous communities. The total area of the archipelago is 7,493 km2 (2,893 sq mi), resulting in a population density of 287.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The population of the islands according to the 2019 data are: * Tenerife – 917,841 * Gran Canaria – 851,231 * Lanzarote – 152,289 (including the population of La Graciosa) * Fuerteventura – 116,886 * La Palma – 82,671 * La Gomera – 21,503 * El Hierro – 10,968 The Canary Islands have become home to many European residents, mainly coming from Italy, Germany and the UK. Because of the vast immigration to Venezuela and Cuba during the second half of the 20th century and the later return to the Canary Islands of these people along with their families, there are many residents whose country of origin was Venezuela (66,593) or Cuba (41,807). Since the 1990s, many illegal migrants have reached the Canary Islands, Melilla and Ceuta, using them as entry points to the EU. | Population of the Canary Islands 2019 | | --- | | Birthplace | Population | Percent | | Canary Islands | 1,553,517 | 72.1 | | Rest of Spain | 176,302 | 8.2 | | **Total, Spain** | **1,735,457** | **80.6** | | Foreign-born | 417,932 | 19.4 | | **Americas** | 201,257 | 9.3 | | Venezuela | 66,573 | – | | Cuba | 41,792 | – | | Colombia | 31,361 | – | | Argentina | 17,429 | – | | Uruguay | 8,687 | – | | **Rest of Europe** | 154,511 | 7.2 | | Italy | 39,469 | – | | Germany | 25,921 | – | | United Kingdom | 25,339 | – | | **Africa** | 38,768 | 1.8 | | Morocco | 24,268 | – | | **Asia** | 23,082 | 1.1 | | China | 9,848 | – | | **Oceania** | 314 | 0.0 | | Total | 2,153,389 | 100.0 | | Source | ### Religion The Catholic Church has been the majority religion in the archipelago for more than five centuries, ever since the Conquest of the Canary Islands. There are also several other religious communities. #### Roman Catholic Church The overwhelming majority of native Canarians are Roman Catholic (76.7%) with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such as Protestants. The appearance of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands: Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur and José de Anchieta. Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries in Guatemala and Brazil. The Canary Islands are divided into two Catholic dioceses, each governed by a bishop: * Diócesis Canariense: Includes the islands of the Eastern Province: Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura and Lanzarote. Its capital was San Marcial El Rubicón (1404) and Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (1483–present). There was a previous bishopric which was based in Telde, but it was later abolished. * Diócesis Nivariense: Includes the islands of the western province: Tenerife, La Palma, La Gomera and El Hierro. Its capital is San Cristóbal de La Laguna (1819–present). #### Other religions Separate from the overwhelming Christian majority are a minority of Muslims. Among the followers of Islam, the Islamic Federation of the Canary Islands exists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community. For its part, there is also the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands in the archipelago. Other religious faiths represented include Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints as well as Hinduism. Minority religions are also present such as the Church of the Guanche People which is classified as a neo-pagan native religion. Also present are Buddhism, Judaism, Baháʼí, African religion, and Chinese religions. According to Statista in 2019, there are 75,662 Muslims in Canary Islands. #### Statistics The distribution of beliefs in 2012 according to the CIS Barometer Autonomy was as follows: * Catholic 84.9% * Atheist/Agnostic/Unbeliever 12.3% * Other religions 1.7% ### Population genetics Islands ------- Ordered from west to east, the Canary Islands are El Hierro, La Palma, La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and Lanzarote. In addition, north of Lanzarote are the islets of La Graciosa, Montaña Clara, Alegranza, Roque del Este and Roque del Oeste, belonging to the Chinijo Archipelago, and northeast of Fuerteventura is the islet of Lobos. There are also a series of small adjacent rocks in the Canary Islands: the Roques de Anaga, Garachico and Fasnia in Tenerife, and those of Salmor and Bonanza in El Hierro. * The Canary Islands * El HierroEl Hierro * La PalmaLa Palma * La GomeraLa Gomera * TenerifeTenerife * Gran CanariaGran Canaria * FuerteventuraFuerteventura * LanzaroteLanzarote ### El Hierro El Hierro, the westernmost island, covers 268.71 km2 (103.75 sq mi), making it the second smallest of the major islands, and the least populous with 10,798 inhabitants. The whole island was declared Reserve of the Biosphere in 2000. Its capital is Valverde. Also known as Ferro, it was once believed to be the westernmost land in the world. ### Fuerteventura Barranco de Pecenescal – Fuerteventura Fuerteventura, with a surface of 1,660 km2 (640 sq mi), is the second largest island of the archipelago. It has been declared a biosphere reserve by UNESCO. It has a population of 113,275. The oldest of the islands, it is more eroded. Its highest point is the Peak of the Bramble, at a height of 807 metres (2,648 feet). Its capital is Puerto del Rosario. ### Gran Canaria Gran Canaria has 846,717 inhabitants. The capital, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (377,203 inhabitants), is the most populous city and shares the status of capital of the Canaries with Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Gran Canaria's surface area is 1,560 km2 (600 sq mi). Roque Nublo 1,813 metres (5,948 feet) and Pico de las Nieves ("Peak of Snow") 1,949 metres (6,394 feet) are located in the center of the island. On the south of the island are the Maspalomas Dunes (Gran Canaria). ### La Gomera La Gomera has an area of 369.76 km2 (142.77 sq mi) and is the second least populous island with 21,136 inhabitants. Geologically it is one of the oldest of the archipelago. The insular capital is San Sebastian de La Gomera. Garajonay National Park is located on the island. ### Lanzarote Lanzarote is the easternmost island and one of the oldest of the archipelago, and it has shown evidence of recent volcanic activity. It has a surface of 845.94 km2 (326.62 sq mi), and a population of 149,183 inhabitants, including the adjacent islets of the Chinijo Archipelago. The capital is Arrecife, with 56,834 inhabitants. #### Chinijo Archipelago The Chinijo Archipelago includes the islands La Graciosa, Alegranza, Montaña Clara, Roque del Este and Roque del Oeste. It has a surface of 40.8 km2 (15.8 sq mi), and only La Graciosa is populated, with 658 inhabitants. With 29 km2 (11 sq mi), La Graciosa, is the largest island of the Chinijo Archipelago but also the smallest inhabited island of the Canaries. ### La Palma La Palma, with 81,863 inhabitants covering an area of 708.32 km2 (273.48 sq mi), is in its entirety a biosphere reserve. For long it showed no signs of volcanic activity, even though the volcano Teneguía entered into eruption last in 1971. On September 19, 2021, the volcanic Cumbre Vieja on the island erupted. It is the second-highest island of the Canaries, with the Roque de los Muchachos at 2,423 metres (7,949 feet) as its highest point. Santa Cruz de La Palma (known to those on the island as simply "Santa Cruz") is its capital. ### Tenerife Tenerife is, with its area of 2,034 km2 (785 sq mi), the most extensive island of the Canary Islands. In addition, with 904,713 inhabitants it is the most populated island of the archipelago and Spain. Two of the islands' principal cities are located on it: the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal de La Laguna (a World Heritage Site). San Cristóbal de La Laguna, the second city of the island is home to the oldest university in the Canary Islands, the University of La Laguna. Teide, with its 3,715 metres (12,188 feet) is the highest peak of Spain and also a World Heritage Site. Tenerife is the site of the worst air disaster in the history of aviation, in which 583 people were killed in the collision of two Boeing 747s on 27 March 1977. ### La Graciosa Graciosa Island or commonly La Graciosa is a volcanic island in the Canary Islands of Spain, located 2 km (1.2 mi) north of the island of Lanzarote across the Strait of El Río. It was formed by the Canary hotspot. The island is part of the Chinijo Archipelago and the Chinijo Archipelago Natural Park (Parque Natural del Archipiélago Chinijo). It is administrated by the municipality of Teguise. In 2018 La Graciosa officially became the eighth Canary Island. Before then, La Graciosa had the status of an islet, administratively dependent on the island of Lanzarote. It is the smallest and least populated of the main islands, with a population of about 700 people. Data ---- | Flag | Coat of arms | Island | Capital | Area (km2) | Population (2010) | Population Density (people/km2) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | El Hierro | Valverde | 268.71 | 10,960 | 40.79 | | | | Fuerteventura | Puerto del Rosario | 1,660 | 103,492 | 62.34 | | | | Gran Canaria | Las Palmas de Gran Canaria | 1,560.1 | 845,676 | 542.07 | | | | La Gomera | San Sebastián | 369.76 | 22,776 | 61.6 | | | | Lanzarote | Arrecife | 845.94 | 141,437 | 167.2 | | | | La Palma | Santa Cruz de La Palma | 708.32 | 86,324 | 121.87 | | | | Tenerife | Santa Cruz de Tenerife | 2,034.38 | 906,854 | 445.76 | | – | – | La Graciosa | Caleta de Sebo | 29.05 | 658 | 22.65 | | – | – | Alegranza | – | 10.3 | – | – | | – | – | Isla de Lobos | – | 4.5 | – | – | | – | – | Montaña Clara | – | 1.48 | – | – | | – | – | Roque del Este | – | 0.06 | – | – | | – | – | Roque del Oeste | – | 0.015 | – | – | Economy and environment ----------------------- **Tourism in the Canary Islands**| Year | Visitors | | --- | --- | | 2009(Jan–Jun) | 4,002,013 | | 2008 | 9,210,509 | | 2007 | 9,326,116 | | 2006 | 9,530,039 | | 2005 | 9,276,963 | | 2004 | 9,427,265 | | 2003 | 9,836,785 | | 2002 | 9,778,512 | | 2001 | 10,137,205 | | 2000 | 9,975,977 | | 1993 | 6,545,396 | | Largest byCountry (2008) | Population | | Germany | 2,498,847 | | United Kingdom | 3,355,942 | The economy is based primarily on tourism, which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 12 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily bananas and tobacco, are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the more arid islands, are being overexploited but there are still many agricultural resources like tomatoes, potatoes, onions, cochineal, sugarcane, grapes, vines, dates, oranges, lemons, figs, wheat, barley, maize, apricots, peaches and almonds. Water resources are also being overexploited, due to the high water usage by tourists. Also, some islands (such as Gran Canaria and Tenerife) overexploit the ground water. This is done in such degree that, according to European and Spanish legal regulations, the current situation is not acceptable. To address the problems, good governance and a change in the water use paradigm have been proposed. These solutions depend largely on controlling water use and on demand management. As this is administratively difficult and politically unpalatable, most action is currently directed at increasing the public offer of water through import from outside; a decision which is economically, politically and environmentally questionable. To bring in revenue for environmental protection, innovation, training and water sanitation a tourist tax was considered in 2018, along with a doubling of the ecotax and restrictions on holiday rents in the zones with the greatest pressure of demand. The economy is € 25 billion (2001 GDP figures). The islands experienced continuous growth during a 20-year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fueled mainly by huge amounts of foreign direct investment, mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments), and European Funds (near €11 billion in the period from 2000 to 2007), since the Canary Islands are labelled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds). Additionally, the EU allows the Canary Islands Government to offer special tax concessions for investors who incorporate under the Zona Especial Canaria (ZEC) regime and create more than five jobs. Spain gave permission in August 2014 for Repsol and its partners to explore oil and natural gas prospects off the Canary Islands, involving an investment of €7.5 billion over four years, to commence at the end of 2016. Repsol at the time said the area could ultimately produce 100,000 barrels of oil a day, which would meet 10 percent of Spain's energy needs. However, the analysis of samples obtained did not show the necessary volume nor quality to consider future extraction, and the project was scrapped. Despite currently having very high dependence on fossil fuels, research on the renewable energy potential concluded that a high potential for renewable energy technologies exists on the archipelago. This, in such extent even that a scenario pathway to 100% renewable energy supply by 2050 has been put forward. The Canary Islands have great natural attractions, climate and beaches make the islands a major tourist destination, being visited each year by about 12 million people (11,986,059 in 2007, noting 29% of Britons, 22% of Spanish (from outside the Canaries), and 21% of Germans). Among the islands, Tenerife has the largest number of tourists received annually, followed by Gran Canaria and Lanzarote. The archipelago's principal tourist attraction is the Teide National Park (in Tenerife) where the highest mountain in Spain and third largest volcano in the world (Mount Teide), receives over 2.8 million visitors annually. The combination of high mountains, proximity to Europe, and clean air has made the Roque de los Muchachos peak (on La Palma island) a leading location for telescopes like the Grantecan. The islands, as an autonomous region of Spain, are in the European Union and the Schengen Area. They are in the European Union Customs Union but outside the VAT area. Instead of VAT there is a local Sales Tax (IGIC) which has a general rate of 7%, an increased tax rate of 13.5%, a reduced tax rate of 3% and a zero tax rate for certain basic need products and services. Consequently, some products are subject to additional VAT if being exported from the islands into mainland Spain or the rest of the EU. Canarian time is Western European Time (WET) (or GMT; in summer one hour ahead of GMT). So Canarian time is one hour behind that of mainland Spain and the same as that of the UK, Ireland and mainland Portugal all year round. ### Tourism statistics The number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands had been in 2018 16,150,054 and in the year 2019 15,589,290. **Number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands by air in 2019, by island of destination**| Rank | Island | Number of Visitors | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Tenerife | 5,889,454 | | 2 | Gran Canaria | 4,267,385 | | 3 | Lanzarote | 3,065,575 | | 4 | Fuerteventura | 2,023,196 | | 5 | La Palma | 343,680 | **Number of tourists who visited the Canary Islands by air, by island of destination**| Month | Lanzarote | Fuerteventura | Gran Canaria | Tenerife | La Palma | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2020 May | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 2020 April | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | 2020 March | 99,407 | 71,988 | 141,692 | 208,696 | 11,531 | | 2020 February | 215,054 | 175,618 | 387,432 | 528,873 | 31,996 | | 2020 January | 209,769 | 149,140 | 405,208 | 512,153 | 36,618 | | **2020** | **524,230** | **396,746** | **934,332** | **1,249,722** | **80,145** | | 2019 December | 256,733 | 168,717 | 416,723 | 526,258 | 35,515 | | 2019 November | 231,995 | 159,352 | 405,715 | 487,576 | 29,614 | | 2019 October | 258,722 | 175,472 | 354,718 | 484,905 | 24,506 | | 2019 September | 235,534 | 154,056 | 291,855 | 432,241 | 21,106 | | 2019 August | 273,783 | 175,153 | 328,921 | 501,712 | 26,465 | | 2019 July | 270,438 | 171,819 | 333,530 | 481,976 | 22,059 | | 2019 June | 242,901 | 159,945 | 274,881 | 451,244 | 18,266 | | 2019 May | 230,821 | 140,370 | 261,250 | 423,740 | 19,447 | | 2019 April | 256,776 | 179,318 | 324,647 | 484,097 | 32,927 | | 2019 March | 295,614 | 201,556 | 447,905 | 579,224 | 39,570 | | 2019 February | 272,428 | 164,970 | 403,123 | 513,880 | 32,162 | | 2019 January | 239,830 | 172,468 | 424,117 | 522,601 | 42,043 | | **2019** | **3,065,575** | **2,023,196** | **4,267,385** | **5,889,454** | **343,680** | | 2018 December | 258,185 | 171,248 | 420,041 | 519,566 | 34,266 | | 2018 November | 256,755 | 163,189 | 410,456 | 513,953 | 40,401 | | 2018 October | 265,950 | 207,176 | 397,411 | 541,492 | 27,865 | | 2018 September | 249,877 | 181,272 | 326,673 | 451,957 | 22,094 | | 2018 August | 260,216 | 206,718 | 370,232 | 516,048 | 28,054 | | 2018 July | 258,746 | 208,723 | 374,844 | 485,961 | 23,453 | | 2018 June | 233,824 | 181,406 | 301,068 | 448,667 | 19,384 | | 2018 May | 245,563 | 159,808 | 285,178 | 421,763 | 22,702 | | 2018 April | 266,433 | 184,772 | 347,043 | 488,679 | 30,675 | | 2018 March | 299,270 | 223,478 | 441,620 | 572,515 | 35,369 | | 2018 February | 246,215 | 181,218 | 396,707 | 484,485 | 40,282 | | 2018 January | 222,283 | 184,199 | 438,555 | 503,856 | 50,215 | | **2018** | **3,063,317** | **2,253,207** | **4,509,828** | **5,948,942** | **374,760** | | Source (05/2020): | | | | | | ### GDP statistics The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in the Canary Islands in 2015 was €40,923 million, €19,222 per capita. The figures by island are as follows: **GDP by island in million euros**| Island | GDP | | --- | --- | | Tenerife | 17,615 | | Gran Canaria | 15,812 | | Lanzarote | 3,203 | | Fuerteventura | 2,298 | | La Palma | 1,423 | | La Gomera | 394 | | El Hierro | 178 | Transport --------- ### Current fleet The Canary Islands have eight airports altogether, two of the main ports of Spain, and an extensive network of autopistas (highways) and other roads. For a road map see multimap. Traffic congestion is sometimes a problem in Tenerife and on Grand Canaria. Large ferry boats and fast ferries link most of the islands. Both types can transport large numbers of passengers, cargo, and vehicles. Fast ferries are made of aluminium and powered by modern and efficient diesel engines, while conventional ferries have a steel hull and are powered by heavy oil. Fast ferries travel in excess of 30 kn (56 km/h; 35 mph); conventional ferries travel in excess of 20 kn (37 km/h; 23 mph), but are slower than fast ferries. A typical ferry ride between La Palma and Tenerife may take up to eight hours or more while a fast ferry takes about two and a half hours and between Tenerife and Gran Canaria can be about one hour. The largest airport is the Gran Canaria Airport. Tenerife has two airports, Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport. The island of Tenerife gathers the highest passenger movement of all the Canary Islands through its two airports. The two main islands (Tenerife and Gran Canaria) receive the greatest number of passengers. Tenerife 6,204,499 passengers and Gran Canaria 5,011,176 passengers. The port of Las Palmas is first in freight traffic in the islands, while the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Spanish government publication Statistical Yearbook of State Ports. Similarly, it is the second port in Spain as regards ship traffic, only surpassed by the Port of Algeciras Bay. The port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area. The port of Los Cristianos (Tenerife) has the greatest number of passengers recorded in the Canary Islands, followed by the port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The Port of Las Palmas is the third port in the islands in passengers and first in number of vehicles transported. The SS America was beached at the Canary islands on 18 January 1994. However, the ocean liner broke apart after the course of several years and eventually sank beneath the surface. ### Rail transport The Tenerife Tram opened in 2007 and is currently the only one in the Canary Islands, travelling between the cities of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and San Cristóbal de La Laguna. Three more railway lines are being planned for the Canary Islands: | Line | Island | Terminus A | Terminus B | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Tren de Gran Canaria | Gran Canaria | Las Palmas de Gran Canaria | Maspalomas | | Tren del Sur | Tenerife | Santa Cruz de Tenerife | Los Cristianos | | Tren del Norte | Tenerife | Santa Cruz de Tenerife | Los Realejos | ### Airports * Tenerife South Airport – Tenerife * Tenerife North Airport – Tenerife * César Manrique-Lanzarote Airport – Lanzarote * Fuerteventura Airport – Fuerteventura * Gran Canaria Airport – Gran Canaria * La Palma Airport – La Palma * La Gomera Airport – La Gomera * El Hierro Airport – El Hierro ### Ports * Port of Puerto del Rosario – Fuerteventura * Port of Arrecife – Lanzarote * Port of Playa Blanca—Lanzarote * Port of Santa Cruz de La Palma – La Palma * Port of San Sebastián de La Gomera – La Gomera * Port of La Estaca – El Hierro * Port of Las Palmas – Gran Canaria * Port of Arinaga – Gran Canaria * Port of Agaete – Gran Canaria * Port of Los Cristianos – Tenerife * Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife – Tenerife * Port of Garachico – Tenerife * Port of Granadilla – Tenerife Health ------ The *Servicio Canario de Salud* is an autonomous body of administrative nature attached to the Ministry responsible for Health of the Government of the Canary Islands. The majority of the archipelago's hospitals belong to this organization: * Hospital Nuestra Señora de los Reyes – El Hierro * Hospital General de La Palma – La Palma * Hospital Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe – La Gomera * Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria – Tenerife * Hospital Universitario de Canarias – Tenerife * Hospital del Sur de Tenerife – Tenerife * Hospital del Norte de Tenerife – Tenerife * Hospital Universitario de Gran Canaria Doctor Negrín – Gran Canaria * Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria – Gran Canaria * Hospital General de Lanzarote Doctor José Molina Orosa – Lanzarote * Hospital General de Fuerteventura – Fuerteventura Wildlife -------- ### Extinct fauna The Canary Islands were previously inhabited by a variety of endemic animals, such as extinct giant lizards (*Gallotia goliath*), giant tortoises (*Centrochelys burchardi* and *C. vulcanica*), and Tenerife and Gran Canaria giant rats (*Canariomys bravoi* and *C. tamarani*), among others. Extinct birds known only from Pleistocene and Holocene age bones include the Canary Islands quail (*Coturnix gomerae*), Dune shearwater (*Puffinus holeae*), Lava shearwater (*P. olsoni*), Trias greenfinch (*Chloris triasi*), Slender-billed greenfinch (*C. aurelioi*) and the Long-legged bunting (*Emberiza alcoveri*). ### Current fauna The bird life includes European and African species, such as the black-bellied sandgrouse, Canary, Graja, a subspecies of red-billed chough endemic to La Palma, Gran Canaria blue chaffinch, Tenerife blue chaffinch, Canary Islands chiffchaff, Fuerteventura chat, Tenerife goldcrest, La Palma chaffinch, Canarian Egyptian vulture, Bolle's pigeon, Laurel pigeon, Plain swift, and Houbara bustard. Terrestrial fauna includes the El Hierro giant lizard, La Gomera giant lizard, and the La Palma giant lizard. Mammals include the Canarian shrew, Canary big-eared bat, the Algerian hedgehog, and the more recently introduced mouflon. ### Marine life The marine life found in the Canary Islands is also varied, being a combination of North Atlantic, Mediterranean and endemic species. In recent years, the increasing popularity of both scuba diving and underwater photography have provided biologists with much new information on the marine life of the islands. Fish species found in the islands include many species of shark, ray, moray eel, bream, jack, grunt, scorpionfish, triggerfish, grouper, goby, and blenny. In addition, there are many invertebrate species, including sponge, jellyfish, anemone, crab, mollusc, sea urchin, starfish, sea cucumber and coral. There are a total of five different species of marine turtle that are sighted periodically in the islands, the most common of these being the endangered loggerhead sea turtle. The other four are the green sea turtle, hawksbill sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle and Kemp's ridley sea turtle. Currently, there are no signs that any of these species breed in the islands, and so those seen in the water are usually migrating. However, it is believed that some of these species may have bred in the islands in the past, and there are records of several sightings of leatherback sea turtle on beaches in Fuerteventura, adding credibility to the theory. Marine mammals include the large varieties of cetaceans including rare and not well-known species (see more details in the *Marine life of the Canary Islands*). Hooded seals have also been known to be vagrant in the Canary Islands every now and then. The Canary Islands were also formerly home to a population of the rarest pinniped in the world, the Mediterranean monk seal. ### Native flora gallery * Arbutus canariensis*Arbutus canariensis* * Argyranthemum frutescens*Argyranthemum frutescens* * Bosea yervamora*Bosea yervamora* * Canarina canariensis*Canarina canariensis* * Digitalis canariensis*Digitalis canariensis* * Echium wildpretii*Echium wildpretii* * Euphorbia canariensis*Euphorbia canariensis* * Gonospermum elegans*Gonospermum elegans* * Lavatera acerifolia var. acerifolia*Lavatera acerifolia var. acerifolia* * Lavatera phoenicea*Lavatera phoenicea* * Lotus berthelotii*Lotus berthelotii* * Pericallis webbii*Pericallis webbii* * Persea indica*Persea indica* * Phoenix canariensis*Phoenix canariensis* * Sonchus palmensis*Sonchus palmensis* * Cytisus supranubius*Cytisus supranubius* Holidays -------- Some holidays of those celebrated in the Canary Islands are international and national, others are regional holidays and others are of insular character. The official day of the autonomous community is Canary Islands Day on 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The common festive calendar throughout the Canary Islands is as follows: | Date | Name | Data | | --- | --- | --- | | 1 January | New Year | International festival. | | 6 January | Epiphany | Catholic festival. | | March or April | Holy Thursday and Holy Friday | Christian festival. | | 1 May | International Workers' Day | International festival. | | 30 May | Canary Islands Day | Day of the autonomous community. Anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands. | | 15 August | Assumption of Mary | Catholic festival. This day is festive in the archipelago as in all of Spain. Popularly, in the Canary Islands it is known as the day on which the Virgin of Candelaria (Saint Patron of the Canary Islands) is celebrated. | | 12 October | Fiesta Nacional de España (*Día de la Hispanidad*) | National Holiday of Spain. Commemoration of discovery of the Americas. | | 1 November | All Saints' Day | Catholic festival. | | 6 December | Constitution Day | Commemoration of the Spanish constitutional referendum, 1978. | | 8 December | Immaculate Conception | Catholic festival. The Immaculate Conception is the Saint Patron of Spain. | | 25 December | Christmas | Christian festival. Commemoration of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. | In addition, each of the islands has an island festival, in which it is a holiday only on that specific island. These are the festivities of island patrons saints of each island. Organized chronologically are: | Date | Island | Saint/Virgin | | --- | --- | --- | | 2 February | Tenerife | Our Lady of Candelaria | | 5 August | La Palma | Our Lady of the Snows | | 8 September | Gran Canaria | Our Lady of the Pine | | 15 September | Lanzarote | Our Lady of Dolours | | Third Saturday of the month of September | Fuerteventura | Our Lady of the Peña | | 24 September | El Hierro | Our Lady of the Kings | | Monday following the first Saturday of October | La Gomera | Our Lady of Guadalupe | The most famous festivals of the Canary Islands is the carnival. It is the most famous and international festival of the archipelago. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest are those of the two Canarian capitals; the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (*Tourist Festival of International Interest*) and the Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros of El Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes of Teguise in Lanzarote, Los Indianos de La Palma, the Carnival of San Sebastián de La Gomera and the Carnival of Puerto del Rosario in Fuerteventura. Science and technology ---------------------- In the 1960s, Gran Canaria was selected as the location for one of the 14 ground stations in the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN) to support the NASA space program. Maspalomas Station, located in the south of the island, took part in a number of space missions including the Apollo 11 Moon landings and Skylab. Today it continues to support satellite communications as part of the ESA network. Because of the remote location, a number of astronomical observatories are located in the archipelago, including the Teide Observatory on Tenerife, the Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on La Palma, and the Temisas Astronomical Observatory on Gran Canaria. Tenerife is the home of the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). The latter is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales (RICET, "Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases"), located in various parts of Spain. The Instituto Volcanológico de Canarias (Volcanological Institute of the Canary Islands) is based in Tenerife. Sports ------ A unique form of wrestling known as Canarian wrestling (*lucha canaria*) has opponents stand in a special area called a "terrero" and try to throw each other to the ground using strength and quick movements. Another sport is the "game of the sticks" (palo canario) where opponents fence with long sticks. This may have come about from the shepherds of the islands who would challenge each other using their long walking sticks. Furthermore, there is the shepherd's jump (*salto del pastor*). This involves using a long stick to vault over an open area. This sport possibly evolved from the shepherd's need to occasionally get over an open area in the hills as they were tending their sheep. The two main football teams in the archipelago are: the CD Tenerife (founded in 1912) and UD Las Palmas (founded in 1949). As of the 2018/2019 season, both Tenerife and Las Palmas play in Segunda División. When in the same division, the clubs contest the Canary Islands derby. There are smaller clubs also playing in the mainland Spanish football league system, most notably UD Lanzarote and CD Laguna, although no other Canarian clubs have played in the top flight. The mountainous terrain of the Canary Islands also caters to the growing popularity of ultra running and ultramarathons as host of annual competitive long-distance events including CajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail on Tenerife, Transvulcania on La Palma, Transgrancanaria on Gran Canaria, and the Half Marathon des Sables on Fuerteventura. A yearly Ironman Triathlon has been taking place on Lanzarote since 1992. ### Notable athletes * Paco Campos, (1916–1995); a footballer who played as a forward. With 127 goals, 120 of which were for Atlético Madrid, he is the highest scoring player from the Canary Islands in La Liga. * Nicolás García Hemme, born 20 June 1988 in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, 2012 London Olympics, Taekwondo Silver Medalist in Men's Welterweight category (−80 kg). * Alfredo Cabrera, (1881–1964); shortstop for the St. Louis Cardinals in 1913 * Sergio Rodríguez, born in San Cristóbal de La Laguna in 1986, played point guard for the Portland Trail Blazers, Sacramento Kings, and New York Knicks. * David Silva, born in Arguineguín in 1986, plays association football for Real Sociedad, member of the 2010 FIFA World Cup champion Spain national football team * Juan Carlos Valerón, born in Arguineguín in 1975, played association football for Deportivo la Coruna and Las Palmas. * Pedro, born in Santa Cruz de Tenerife in 1987, plays association football for Lazio, member of the 2010 FIFA World Cup champion Spain national football team * Carla Suárez Navarro, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1988, professional tennis player * Paola Tirados, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1980, synchronized swimmer, who participated in the Olympic Games of 2000, 2004 and 2008. She won the silver medal in Beijing in 2008 in the team competition category. * Jesé, born in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria in 1993, plays association football for Las Palmas. * Christo Bezuidenhout, born in Tenerife in 1970, played rugby union for Gloucester and South Africa. * Pedri, born in Tegueste in 2002, plays association football for Barcelona. See also -------- ### History * Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797) * First Battle of Acentejo * Pyramids of Güímar * Second Battle of Acentejo * Tanausu * Tenerife airport disaster; the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history. ### Geography * Cumbre Vieja, a volcano on La Palma * Guatiza (Lanzarote) * La Matanza de Acentejo * Los Llanos de Aridane * Orotava Valley * San Andrés * Islands of Macaronesia + Azores + Madeira + Cabo Verde ### Culture * Canarian cuisine * Canarian Spanish * Religion in Canary Islands * Isleños * Military of the Canary Islands * Music of the Canary Islands * Silbo Gomero, a whistled language, is an indigenous variant of Spanish * Tortilla canaria * Virgin of Candelaria (Patron saint of Canary Islands) Further reading --------------- * Borgesen, F. (1973). "Marine Algae from the Canary Islands". *Taxon*. **22** (1): 150. doi:10.2307/1218064. ISSN 0040-0262. JSTOR 1218064. * Børgesen, Frederik; Frémy, Pierre (1925). *Marine algae from the Canary Islands, especially from Teneriffe and Gran Canaria*. Høst in Komm. OCLC 1070942615. * Gill, Robin (1994). J.T., Greensmith (ed.). *Tenerife, Canary Islands*. [London]: Geologists' Association. ISBN 0-900717-62-9. OCLC 31214272. * \* Greensmith, Trevor (2000). *Lanzarote, Canary Islands*. [London]: Geologists' Association. ISBN 0-900717-74-2. * Paegelow, Claus (2009). *Bibliografie Kanarische Inseln = Canary Islands bibliography*. Bremen: Paegelow. ISBN 978-3-00-028676-6. OCLC 551948019.

Canary Islands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands

**Nice** (/niːs/ *NEESS*, French pronunciation: [nis] (); Niçard: *Niça*, classical norm, or *Nissa*, nonstandard, pronounced [ˈnisa]; Italian: *Nizza* [ˈnittsa]; Ligurian: *Nissa*; Ancient Greek: Νίκαια; Latin: *Nicaea*) is the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly 1 million on an area of 744 km2 (287 sq mi). Located on the French Riviera, the southeastern coast of France on the Mediterranean Sea, at the foot of the French Alps, Nice is the second-largest French city on the Mediterranean coast and second-largest city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region after Marseille. Nice is approximately 13 kilometres (8 mi) from the principality of Monaco and 30 kilometres (19 mi) from the French–Italian border. Nice's airport serves as a gateway to the region. The city is nicknamed *Nice la Belle* (*Nissa La Bella* in Niçard), meaning 'Nice the Beautiful', which is also the title of the unofficial anthem of Nice, written by Menica Rondelly in 1912. The area of today's Nice contains Terra Amata, an archaeological site which displays evidence of a very early use of fire 380,000 years ago. Around 350 BC, Greeks of Marseille founded a permanent settlement and called it Νίκαια, *Nikaia*, after Nike, the goddess of victory. Through the ages, the town has changed hands many times. Its strategic location and port significantly contributed to its maritime strength. From 1388 it was a dominion of Savoy, then became part of the French First Republic between 1792 and 1815, when it was returned to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the legal predecessor of the Kingdom of Italy, until its re-annexation by France in 1860. The natural environment of the Nice area and its mild Mediterranean climate came to the attention of the English upper classes in the second half of the 18th century, when an increasing number of aristocratic families took to spending their winters there. In 1931, following its refurbishment the city's main seaside promenade, the Promenade des Anglais ("Walkway of the English"), was inaugurated by Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught; it owes its name to visitors to the resort. These included Queen Victoria along with her son Edward VII who spent winters there, as well as Henry Cavendish, born in Nice, who discovered hydrogen. The clear air and soft light have particularly appealed to notable painters, such as Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle and Arman. Their work is commemorated in many of the city's museums, including Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse and Musée des Beaux-Arts. International writers have also been attracted and inspired by the city. Frank Harris wrote several books including his autobiography *My Life and Loves* in Nice. Friedrich Nietzsche spent six consecutive winters in Nice, and wrote *Thus Spoke Zarathustra* here. Additionally, Russian writer Anton Chekhov completed his play *Three Sisters* while living in Nice. Nice's appeal extended to the Russian upper classes. Prince Nicholas Alexandrovich, heir apparent to Imperial Russia, died in Nice and was a patron of the Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice where Princess Catherine Dolgorukova, morganatic wife of the Tsar Alexander II of Russia, is buried. Also buried there are General Dmitry Shcherbachev and General Nikolai Yudenich, leaders of the anti-Communist White Movement. Those interred at the Cimetière du Château include celebrated jeweler Alfred Van Cleef, Emil Jellinek-Mercedes, founder of the Mercedes car company, film director Louis Feuillade, poet Agathe-Sophie Sasserno, dancer Carolina Otero, *Asterix* comics creator René Goscinny, *The Phantom of the Opera* author Gaston Leroux, French prime minister Léon Gambetta, and the first president of the International Court of Justice José Gustavo Guerrero. Because of its historical importance as a winter resort town for the European aristocracy and the resulting mix of cultures found in the city, UNESCO proclaimed Nice a World Heritage Site in 2021. The city has the second largest hotel capacity in the country, and it is the second most visited metropolis in Metropolitan France, receiving 4 million tourists every year. It also has the third busiest airport in France, after the two main Parisian ones. It is the historical capital city of the County of Nice (French: *Comté de Nice*, Niçard: *Countèa de Nissa*). History ------- ### Foundation The first known hominid settlements in the Nice area date back about 400,000 years (homo erectus); the *Terra Amata* archeological site shows one of the earliest uses of fire, construction of houses, as well as flint findings dated to around 230,000 years ago. Nice was probably founded around 350 BC by colonists from the Greek city of Phocaea in western Anatolia. It was given the name of *Níkaia* (Νίκαια) in honour of a victory over the neighbouring Ligurians (people from the northwest of Italy, probably the Vediantii kingdom); Nike (Νίκη) was the Greek goddess of victory. The city soon became one of the busiest trading ports on the Ligurian coast; but it had an important rival in the Roman town of Cemenelum, which continued to exist as a separate city until the time of the Lombard invasions. The ruins of Cemenelum are in Cimiez, now a district of Nice. ### Early development In the 7th century, Nice joined the Genoese League formed by the towns of Liguria. In 729 the city repulsed the Saracens; but in 859 and again in 880 the Saracens pillaged and burned it, and for most of the 10th century remained masters of the surrounding country. During the Middle Ages, Nice participated in the wars and history of Italy. As an ally of Pisa it was the enemy of Genoa, and both the King of France and the Holy Roman Emperor endeavoured to subjugate it; but in spite of this it maintained its municipal liberties. During the 13th and 14th centuries the city fell more than once into the hands of the Counts of Provence, but it regained its independence even though related to Genoa. The medieval city walls surrounded the Old Town. The landward side was protected by the River Paillon, which was later covered over and is now the tram route towards the Acropolis. The east side of the town was protected by fortifications on Castle Hill. Another river flowed into the port on the east side of Castle Hill. Engravings suggest that the port area was also defended by walls. Under Monoprix in Place de Garibaldi are excavated remains of a well-defended city gate on the main road from Turin. ### Duchy of Savoy In 1388, the commune placed itself under the protection of the Counts of Savoy. Nice participated – directly or indirectly – in the history of Savoy until 1860. The maritime strength of Nice now rapidly increased until it was able to cope with the Barbary pirates; the fortifications were largely extended and the roads to the city improved. In 1561 Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy abolished the use of Latin as an administrative language and established the Italian language as the official language of government affairs in Nice. During the struggle between Francis I and Charles V great damage was caused by the passage of the armies invading Provence; pestilence and famine raged in the city for several years. In 1538, in the nearby town of Villeneuve-Loubet, through the mediation of Pope Paul III, the two monarchs concluded a ten years' truce. In 1543, Nice was attacked by the united Franco-Ottoman forces of Francis I and Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, in the Siege of Nice; though the inhabitants repulsed the assault which followed the terrible bombardment, they were ultimately compelled to surrender, and Barbarossa was allowed to pillage the city and to carry off 2,500 captives. Pestilence appeared again in 1550 and 1580. In 1600, Nice was briefly taken by the Duke of Guise. By opening the ports of the county to all nations, and proclaiming full freedom of trade (1626), the commerce of the city was given great stimulus, the noble families taking part in its mercantile enterprises. Captured by Nicolas Catinat in 1691, Nice was restored to Savoy in 1696; but it was again besieged by the French in 1705, and in the following year its citadel and ramparts were demolished. ### Kingdom of Sardinia The Treaty of Utrecht (1713) once more gave the city back to the Duke of Savoy, who was on that same occasion recognised as King of Sicily. In the peaceful years which followed, the "new town" was built. From 1744 until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) the French and Spaniards were again in possession. In 1775 the king, who in 1718 had swapped his sovereignty of Sicily for the Kingdom of Sardinia, destroyed all that remained of the ancient liberties of the commune. Conquered in 1792 by the armies of the First French Republic, the County of Nice continued to be part of France until 1814; but after that date it reverted to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. ### French annexation After the Treaty of Turin was signed in 1860 between the Sardinian king and Napoleon III as a consequence of the Plombières Agreement, the county was again and definitively ceded to France as a territorial reward for French assistance in the Second Italian War of Independence against Austria, which saw Lombardy united with Piedmont-Sardinia. King Victor-Emmanuel II, on April 1, 1860, solemnly asked the population to accept the change of sovereignty, in the name of Italian unity, and the cession was ratified by a regional referendum. Italophile manifestations and the acclamation of an "Italian Nice" by the crowd are reported on this occasion. A plebiscite was voted on April 15 and April 16, 1860. The opponents of annexation called for abstention, hence the very high abstention rate. The "yes" vote won 83% of registered voters throughout the county of Nice and 86% in Nice, partly thanks to pressure from the authorities. This is the result of a masterful operation of information control by the French and Piedmontese governments, in order to influence the outcome of the vote in relation to the decisions already taken. The irregularities in the plebiscite voting operations were evident. The case of Levens is emblematic: the same official sources recorded, faced with only 407 voters, 481 votes cast, naturally almost all in favor of joining France. The Italian language was the official language of the County, used by the Church, at the town hall, taught in schools, used in theaters and at the Opera, was immediately abolished and replaced by French. Discontent over annexation to France led to the emigration of a large part of the Italophile population, also accelerated by Italian unification after 1861. A quarter of the population of Nice, around 11,000 people from Nice, decided to voluntarily exile to Italy. The emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy took the name of Niçard exodus. Many Italians from Nizza then moved to the Ligurian towns of Ventimiglia, Bordighera and Ospedaletti, giving rise to a local branch of the movement of the Italian irredentists which considered the re-acquisition of Nice to be one of their nationalist goals. Giuseppe Garibaldi, born in Nice, strongly opposed the cession to France, arguing that the ballot was rigged by the French. Furthermore, for the niçard general his hometown was unquestionably Italian. Politically, the liberals of Nice and the partisans of Garibaldi also appreciated very little Napoleonic authoritarianism. Elements on the right (aristocrats) as on the left (Garibaldians) therefore wanted Nice to return to Italy. Savoy was also transferred to the French crown by similar means. In 1871, during the first free elections in the County, the pro-Italian lists obtained almost all the votes in the legislative elections (26,534 votes out of 29,428 votes cast), and Garibaldi was elected deputy at the National Assembly. Pro-Italians take to the streets cheering *"Viva Nizza! Viva Garibaldi!".* The French government sends 10,000 soldiers to Nice, closes the Italian newspaper *Il Diritto di Nizza* and imprisons several demonstrators. The population of Nice rose up from February 8 to 10 and the three days of demonstration took the name of "Niçard Vespers". The revolt is suppressed by French troops. On February 13, Garibaldi was not allowed to speak at the French parliament meeting in Bordeaux to ask for the reunification of Nice to the newborn Italian unitary state, and he resigned from his post as deputy. The failure of Vespers led to the expulsion of the last pro-Italian intellectuals from Nice, such as Luciano Mereu or Giuseppe Bres, who were expelled or deported. The pro-Italian irredentist movement persisted throughout the period 1860–1914, despite the repression carried out since the annexation. The French government implemented a policy of Francization of society, language and culture. The toponyms of the communes of the ancient County have been francized, which acted as a bank to the obligation to use French in Nice., as well as certain surnames (for example the Italian surname "Bianchi" was francized into "Leblanc", and the Italian surname "Del Ponte" was francized into "Dupont"). Italian-language newspapers in Nice were banned. In 1861, *La Voce di Nizza* was closed (temporarily reopened during the Niçard Vespers), followed by *Il Diritto di Nizza*, closed in 1871. In 1895 it was the turn of *Il Pensiero di Nizza*, accused of irredentism. Many journalists and writers from Nice wrote in these newspapers in Italian. Among these are Enrico Sappia, Giuseppe André, Giuseppe Bres, Eugenio Cais di Pierlas and others. ### 20th century In 1900, the Tramway de Nice electrified its horse-drawn streetcars and spread its network to the entire *département* from Menton to Cagnes-sur-Mer. By the 1930s more bus connections were added in the area. In the 1930s, Nice hosted international car racing in the Formula Libre (predecessor to Formula One) on the so-called Circuit Nice. The circuit started along the waterfront just south of the Jardin Albert I, then headed westward along the Promenade des Anglais followed by a hairpin turn at the Hotel Negresco to come back eastward and around the Jardin Albert I before heading again east along the beach on the Quai des Etats-Unis. As war broke out in September 1939, Nice became a city of refuge for many displaced foreigners, notably Jews fleeing the Nazi progression into Eastern Europe. From Nice many sought further shelter in the French colonies, Morocco and North and South America. After July 1940 and the establishment of the Vichy Regime, antisemitic aggressions accelerated the exodus, starting in July 1941 and continuing through 1942. On 26 August 1942, 655 Jews of foreign origin were rounded up by the Laval government and interned in the Auvare barracks. Of these, 560 were deported to Drancy internment camp on 31 August 1942. Due to the activity of the Jewish banker Angelo Donati and of the Capuchin friar Père Marie-Benoît the local authorities hindered the application of anti-Jewish Vichy laws. The first *résistants* to the new regime were a group of high school seniors of the Lycée de Nice, now Lycée Masséna [fr], in September 1940, later arrested and executed in 1944 near Castellane. The first public demonstrations occurred on 14 July 1942 when several hundred protesters took to the streets along the Avenue de la Victoire and in the Place Masséna. In November 1942 German troops moved into most of unoccupied France, but Italian troops moved into a smaller zone including Nice. A certain ambivalence remained among the population, many of whom were recent immigrants of Italian ancestry. However, the resistance gained momentum after the Italian surrender in 1943 when the German army occupied the former Italian zone. Reprisals intensified between December 1943 and July 1944, when many partisans were tortured and executed by the local Gestapo and the French Milice. American paratroopers entered the city on 30 August 1944 and Nice was finally liberated. The consequences of the war were heavy: the population decreased by 15% and economic life was totally disrupted. In the second half of the 20th century, Nice enjoyed an economic boom primarily driven by tourism and construction. Two men dominated this period: Jean Médecin, mayor for 33 years from 1928 to 1943 and from 1947 to 1965, and his son Jacques, mayor for 24 years from 1966 to 1990. Under their leadership, there was extensive urban renewal, including many new constructions. These included the convention centre, theatres, new thoroughfares and expressways. The arrival of the Pieds-Noirs, refugees from Algeria after 1962 independence, also gave the city a boost and somewhat changed the make-up of its population and traditional views. By the late 1980s, rumors of political corruption in the city government surfaced; and eventually formal accusations against Jacques Médecin forced him to flee France in 1990. Later arrested in Uruguay in 1993, he was extradited back to France in 1994, convicted of several counts of corruption and associated crimes and sentenced to imprisonment. On 16 October 1979, a landslide and an undersea slide caused two tsunamis that hit the western coast of Nice; these events killed between 8 and 23 people. ### 21st century In February 2001, European leaders met in Nice to negotiate and sign what is now the Treaty of Nice, amending the institutions of the European Union. In 2003, local Chief Prosecutor Éric de Montgolfier alleged that some judicial cases involving local personalities had been suspiciously derailed by the local judiciary, which he suspected of having unhealthy contacts through Masonic lodges with the defendants. A controversial official report stated later that Montgolfier had made unwarranted accusations. On 14 July 2016, a truck was deliberately driven into a crowd of people by Mohamed Lahouaiej-Bouhlel on the Promenade des Anglais. The crowd was watching a fireworks display in celebration of Bastille Day. A total of 87 people were killed, including the perpetrator, who was shot dead by police. Another 434 were injured, with 52 in critical care and 25 in intensive care, according to the Paris prosecutor. On 29 October 2020, a stabbing attack killed three people at the local Notre-Dame de Nice. One of the victims, a woman, was beheaded by the attacker. Several additional victims were injured. The attacker, who was shot by the police, was taken into custody. The Islamic state claimed responsibility for both attacks. In 2021, the city was proclaimed a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as "Nice, Winter Resort Town of the Riviera". Architecture ------------ Panorama of Nice from Colline du Château The Promenade des Anglais ("Promenade of the English") is a promenade along the Baie des Anges ("Bay of the Angels"), which is a bay of the Mediterranean in Nice. Before Nice was urbanised, the coastline at Nice was just bordered by a deserted stretch of shingle beach (covered with large pebbles). The first houses were located on higher ground well away from the sea, as wealthy tourists visiting Nice in the 18th century did not come for the beach, but for the gentle winter weather. The areas close to the water were home to Nice's dockworkers and fishermen. In the second half of the 18th century, many wealthy English people took to spending the winter in Nice, enjoying the panorama along the coast. This early aristocratic English colony conceived the building of a promenade with the leadership and financial support of Rev. Lewis Way. With the initial promenade completed, the city of Nice, intrigued by the prospect, greatly increased the scope of the work. The Promenade was first called the *Camin dei Anglès* (the English Way) by the Niçois in their native dialect Nissart. In 1823, the promenade was named *La Promenade des Anglais* by the French, a name that would stick after the annexation of Nice by France in 1860. The Hotel Negresco on the Promenade des Anglais was named after Henri Negresco who had the palatial hotel constructed in 1912. In keeping with the conventions of the time, when the Negresco first opened in 1913 its front opened on the side opposite the Mediterranean. Another place worth mentioning is the small street parallel to the Promenade des Anglais, leading from Nice's downtown, beginning at Place Masséna and running parallel to the promenade in the direction of the airport for a short distance of about 4 blocks. This section of the city is referred to as the "Zone Pietonne", or "Pedestrian Zone". Cars are not allowed (with exception to delivery trucks), making this avenue a popular walkway. Old Nice is also home to the Opéra de Nice. It was constructed at the end of the 19th century under the design of François Aune, to replace King Charles Félix's Maccarani Theater. Today, it is open to the public and provides a regular program of performances. Other sights include: * Palais communal de Nice * Palais de la Méditerranée * Palais de l'agriculture * Gare du Sud * Jardin Albert-Ier * Castle of Nice ### Religious buildings Religious buildings in the city include: * Nice Cathedral * Notre-Dame de Nice * Russian Orthodox Cathedral, Nice * Église Notre-Dame-du-Port de Nice * Church of Gesù, Nice ### Museums * Musée Masséna [fr] * Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nice * Musée Matisse * Musée Marc Chagall ### Squares #### Place Masséna The *Place Masséna* is the main square of the city. Before the Paillon River was covered over, the Pont-Neuf was the only practicable way between the old town and the modern one. The square was thus divided into two parts (North and South) in 1824. With the demolition of the Masséna Casino in 1979, the Place Masséna became more spacious and less dense and is now bordered by red ochre buildings of Italian architecture. The recent rebuilding of the tramline gave the square back to the pedestrians, restoring its status as a real Mediterranean square. It is lined with palm trees and stone pines, instead of being the rectangular roundabout of sorts it had become over the years. Since its construction, the Place Masséna has always been the spot for great public events. It is used for concerts, and particularly during the summer festivals, the *Corso carnavalesque* (carnival parade) in February, the military procession of 14 July (Bastille Day) or other traditional celebrations and banquets. The Place Masséna is a two-minute walk from the Promenade des Anglais, old town, town centre, and Albert I Garden (*Jardin Albert Ier*). It is also a large crossroads between several of the main streets of the city: avenue Jean Médecin, *avenue Félix Faure*, *boulevard Jean Jaurès*, *avenue de Verdun* and *rue Gioffredo*. * View of the Place MassénaView of the Place Masséna * Place Masséna by night, 2012Place Masséna by night, 2012 #### Place Garibaldi The *Place Garibaldi* also stands out for its architecture and history. It is named after Giuseppe Garibaldi, hero of the Italian unification (born in Nice in 1807 when Nice was part of the Napoleonic Empire, before reverting to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia). The square was built at the end of the 18th century and served as the entry gate to the city and end of the road from Turin. It took several names between 1780 and 1870 (Plaça Pairoulièra, Place de la République, Place Napoléon, Place d'Armes, Place Saint-Augustin, Piazza Vittorio) and finally Place Garibaldi in September 1870. A statue of Garibaldi, who was fiercely in favour of the union of Nice with Italy, stands in the centre of the square. The recent rebuilding of the area to accommodate the new tramway line gave mostly the entire square to pedestrians. The architecture is in line with the Turin model, which was the norm of urban renewal throughout the entire realm of the House of Savoy. It is a crossroads between the *Vieux Nice* (old town) and the town centre. Place Garibaldi is close to the eastern districts of Nice, *Port Lympia* (Lympia Harbour), and the TNL commercial centre. This square is also a junction of several important streets: the *boulevard Jean-Jaurès*, the *avenue de la République*, the *rue Cassini* and the *rue Catherine-Ségurane*. #### Place Rossetti Entirely enclosed and pedestrianised, this square is located in the heart of the old town. With typical buildings in red and yellow ochres surrounding the square, the *cathédrale Sainte-Réparate* and the fountain in the centre, *place Rossetti* is a must-see spot in the old town. By day, the place is invaded by the terraces of traditional restaurants and the finest ice-cream makers. By night, the environment changes radically, with tourists and youths flocking to the square, where music reverberates on the walls of the small square. The square's lighting at night gives it a magical aspect. Place Rossetti is in the centre of the old town, streets *Jesus*, *Rossetti*, *Mascoïnat* and the *Pont-vieux* (old bridge) #### Cours Saleya The Cours Saleya is situated parallel to the *Quai des États-Unis*. In the past, it belonged to the upper classes. It is probably the most traditional square of the town, with its daily flower market. The *Cours Saleya* also opens on the *Palais des Rois Sardes* (Palace of the Kings of Sardinia). In the present, the *court* is mostly a place of entertainment. #### Place du Palais As its name indicates, the *Place du Palais* is where the *Palais de la Justice* (Law courts) of Nice is located. On this square, there also is the *Palais Rusca*, which also belongs to the justice department (home of the *tribunal de grande instance*). The square is also notable due to the presence of the city clock. Today, the *Place du Palais* is alive day and night. Often, groups of youths will hangout on the steps leading to the *Palais de la Justice*. Concerts, films, and other major public events frequently occur in this space. It is situated halfway between the *Cours Saleya* and *Place Masséna*. Administration -------------- Located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, Nice is a commune and the prefecture (administrative capital) of the Alpes-Maritimes département. However, it is also the largest city in France that is not a regional capital; the much larger Marseille is its regional capital. Christian Estrosi, its mayor, is a member of the Republicans (formerly the Union for a Popular Movement), the party supporting former President Nicolas Sarkozy. The city is divided into nine cantons: Nice-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. ### Coat of arms The coat of arms of Nice appeared for the first time in a copy of the *Regulations* of Amadeus VIII, probably written around 1430. The Nice is symbolised by a red eagle on silver background, placed on three mountains, which can be described in French heraldic language as "d'argent à une aigle de gueule posée sur trois coupeaux". ("Upon silver a red eagle is displayed, posed upon three mounds.") The arms have only undergone minor changes: the eagle has become more and more stylised, it now "wears" a coronet for the County of Nice, and the three mountains are now surrounded by a stylised sea. The presence of the eagle, an imperial emblem, shows that these arms are related to the power of the House of Savoy. The eagle standing over the three hills is a depiction of Savoy, referring to its domination over the country around Nice. The combination of silver and red (argent and gules) is a reference to the colours of the flag of Savoy. The three mountains symbolise a territorial honour, without concern for geographic realism. Geography --------- Nice consists of two large bays. Villefranche-sur-Mer sits on an enclosed bay, while the main expanse of the city lies between the old port city and the Aeroport de Côte d'Azur, across a gently curving bay. The city rises from the flat beach into gentle rising hills, then is bounded by surrounding mountains that represent the Southern and nearly the Western extent of the Ligurian Alps range. ### Flora The natural vegetation of Nice is typical for a Mediterranean landscape, with a heavy representation of broadleaf evergreen shrubs. Trees tend to be scattered but form dense forests in some areas. Large native tree species include evergreens such as holm oak, stone pine and arbutus. Many introduced species grow in parks and gardens. Palms, eucalyptus and citrus fruits are among the trees which give Nice a subtropical appearance. But there are also species familiar to temperate areas around the world; examples include horse chestnut, linden and even Norway spruce. ### Climate Nice has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa*), enjoying mild winters with moderate rainfall. It is one of the warmest Mediterranean climates for its latitude. Summers are warm to hot, dry, and sunny. Rainfall is rare in this season, and a typical July month only records one or two days with measurable rainfall. The temperature is typically above 26 °C (79 °F) but rarely above 32 °C (90 °F). The climate data is recorded from the airport, located just metres from the sea. Summer temperatures, therefore, are often higher in the city. The average maximum temperature in the warmest months of July and August is about 27 °C (81 °F). The highest recorded temperature was 37.7 °C (99.9 °F) on 1 August 2006. Autumn generally starts sunny in September and becomes more cloudy and rainy towards October, while temperatures usually remain above 20 °C (68 °F) until November where days start to cool down to around 17 °C (63 °F). Winters are characterised by mild days (11 to 17 °C (52 to 63 °F)), cool nights (4 to 9 °C (39 to 48 °F)), and variable weather. Days can be either sunny and dry or damp and rainy. The average minimum temperature in January is around 5 °C (41 °F). Frost is unusual and snowfalls are rare. The most recent snowfall in Nice was on 26 February 2018. Nice also received a dusting of snow in 2005, 2009 and 2010. Spring starts cool and rainy in late March, and Nice becomes increasingly warm and sunny around June. | Climate data for Nice (Nice Côte d'Azur Airport), elevation: 4 m or 13 ft, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1942–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.5(72.5) | 25.8(78.4) | 26.1(79.0) | 26.1(79.0) | 31.4(88.5) | 36.8(98.2) | 37.0(98.6) | 37.7(99.9) | 33.9(93.0) | 29.9(85.8) | 25.4(77.7) | 22.0(71.6) | 37.7(99.9) | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.3(55.9) | 13.5(56.3) | 15.4(59.7) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.0(69.8) | 24.7(76.5) | 27.5(81.5) | 27.9(82.2) | 24.8(76.6) | 21.0(69.8) | 17.0(62.6) | 14.1(57.4) | 19.8(67.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.5(49.1) | 9.8(49.6) | 11.8(53.2) | 14.1(57.4) | 17.7(63.9) | 21.4(70.5) | 24.1(75.4) | 24.5(76.1) | 21.2(70.2) | 17.5(63.5) | 13.3(55.9) | 10.3(50.5) | 16.3(61.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.8(42.4) | 6.1(43.0) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.8(51.4) | 14.5(58.1) | 18.1(64.6) | 20.8(69.4) | 21.1(70.0) | 17.7(63.9) | 14.0(57.2) | 9.7(49.5) | 6.6(43.9) | 12.8(55.0) | | Record low °C (°F) | −7.2(19.0) | −5.8(21.6) | −5.0(23.0) | 2.9(37.2) | 3.7(38.7) | 8.1(46.6) | 11.7(53.1) | 11.4(52.5) | 7.6(45.7) | 4.2(39.6) | 0.1(32.2) | −2.7(27.1) | −7.2(19.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 73.5(2.89) | 53.6(2.11) | 51.0(2.01) | 68.8(2.71) | 40.3(1.59) | 35.7(1.41) | 13.6(0.54) | 17.2(0.68) | 81.0(3.19) | 127.9(5.04) | 138.4(5.45) | 90.3(3.56) | 791.3(31.15) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 5.8 | 5.1 | 4.9 | 6.4 | 5.1 | 3.8 | 1.8 | 2.3 | 4.9 | 7.5 | 8.5 | 6.0 | 62.1 | | Average snowy days | 0.3 | 0.7 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.2 | 1.1 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 156.7 | 166.1 | 218.0 | 229.2 | 270.9 | 309.8 | 349.3 | 323.2 | 249.8 | 191.1 | 151.5 | 145.2 | 2,760.5 | | Average ultraviolet index | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 | | Source 1: Météo-France | | Source 2: Weather Atlas | | Climate data for Nice (Nice Côte d'Azur Airport), elevation: 4 m or 13 ft, 1961–1990 normals and extremes | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 19.6(67.3) | 25.8(78.4) | 23.8(74.8) | 25.2(77.4) | 30.3(86.5) | 31.1(88.0) | 35.7(96.3) | 34.4(93.9) | 33.9(93.0) | 29.9(85.8) | 23.8(74.8) | 21.3(70.3) | 35.7(96.3) | | Mean maximum °C (°F) | 14.7(58.5) | 17.6(63.7) | 16.5(61.7) | 18.1(64.6) | 21.8(71.2) | 25.1(77.2) | 28.7(83.7) | 28.4(83.1) | 26.4(79.5) | 22.7(72.9) | 17.7(63.9) | 14.7(58.5) | 28.7(83.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 12.6(54.7) | 13.1(55.6) | 14.7(58.5) | 16.6(61.9) | 19.7(67.5) | 23.1(73.6) | 26.5(79.7) | 26.8(80.2) | 24.3(75.7) | 21.0(69.8) | 16.4(61.5) | 13.6(56.5) | 19.0(66.3) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 8.7(47.7) | 9.4(48.9) | 11.0(51.8) | 13.1(55.6) | 16.4(61.5) | 19.8(67.6) | 22.9(73.2) | 23.1(73.6) | 20.5(68.9) | 17.0(62.6) | 12.5(54.5) | 9.7(49.5) | 15.3(59.6) | | Average low °C (°F) | 4.8(40.6) | 5.8(42.4) | 7.3(45.1) | 9.7(49.5) | 13.0(55.4) | 16.3(61.3) | 19.3(66.7) | 19.4(66.9) | 16.9(62.4) | 13.3(55.9) | 8.4(47.1) | 5.7(42.3) | 11.7(53.0) | | Mean minimum °C (°F) | 2.1(35.8) | 2.5(36.5) | 4.1(39.4) | 8.1(46.6) | 11.0(51.8) | 14.8(58.6) | 17.3(63.1) | 17.0(62.6) | 13.8(56.8) | 8.4(47.1) | 6.9(44.4) | 3.2(37.8) | 2.1(35.8) | | Record low °C (°F) | −7.2(19.0) | −5.8(21.6) | −5.0(23.0) | 2.9(37.2) | 6.6(43.9) | 8.1(46.6) | 10.0(50.0) | 13.0(55.4) | 7.6(45.7) | 4.5(40.1) | 0.6(33.1) | −2.7(27.1) | −7.2(19.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 61.3(2.41) | 50.8(2.00) | 66.2(2.61) | 57.0(2.24) | 37.4(1.47) | 30.8(1.21) | 6.5(0.26) | 24.5(0.96) | 29.5(1.16) | 78.9(3.11) | 91.5(3.60) | 67.1(2.64) | 601.5(23.67) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 6.8 | 6.4 | 6.1 | 6.3 | 5.2 | 4.1 | 1.9 | 3.1 | 4.0 | 5.8 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 62.7 | | Average snowy days | 0.7 | 0.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.3 | 1.4 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 67 | 68 | 69 | 72 | 75 | 75 | 73 | 72 | 74 | 73 | 71 | 67 | 71.3 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 150.3 | 151.9 | 202.3 | 226.9 | 269.8 | 295.7 | 340.4 | 306.8 | 238.7 | 205.0 | 155.5 | 150.9 | 2,694.2 | | Percent possible sunshine | 53 | 52 | 55 | 57 | 60 | 65 | 74 | 72 | 64 | 61 | 55 | 55 | 60 | | Source 1: NOAA | | Source 2: Infoclimat.fr (humidity) | | Climate data for Nice | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average sea temperature °C (°F) | 13.4(56.1) | 13.0(55.4) | 13.4(56.1) | 14.6(58.3) | 18.0(64.4) | 21.8(71.2) | 23.1(73.6) | 23.6(74.5) | 22.2(72.0) | 19.6(67.3) | 17.4(63.3) | 14.9(58.8) | 17.9(64.3) | | Mean daily daylight hours | 9.0 | 11.0 | 12.0 | 13.0 | 15.0 | 15.0 | 15.0 | 14.0 | 12.0 | 11.0 | 10.0 | 9.0 | 12.2 | | Source: Weather Atlas | Economy and tourism ------------------- Nice is the seat of the Chambre de commerce et d'industrie Nice Côte d'Azur, which manages the Port of Nice. Investors from France and abroad can benefit from the assistance of the Côte d'Azur Economic Development Agency Team Côte d'Azur. Nice has one conference centre: the Palais des Congrès Acropolis. The city also has several business parks, including l'Arenas, Nice the Plain, Nice Méridia, Saint Isidore, and the Northern Forum. In addition, the city features several shopping centres such as Nicetoile on Avenue Jean Médecin, Cap3000 in Saint-Laurent-du-Var (the 5th-biggest mall in France by surface area), Nice TNL, Nice Lingostière, Northern Forum, St-Isidore, the Trinity (around the Auchan hypermarket) and Polygone Riviera in Cagnes-sur-Mer. Sophia Antipolis is a technology park northwest of Antibes. Much of the park is within the commune of Valbonne. Established between 1970 and 1984, it primarily houses companies in the fields of computing, electronics, pharmacology and biotechnology. Several institutions of higher learning are also located here, along with the European headquarters of W3C. It is known as "Europe's first science and technology hub" and is valued at more than 5 billion euros. The Nice metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $47.7 billion, and $34,480 per capita, slightly lower than the French average. Transport --------- ### Port The main port of Nice is also known as Lympia port. This name comes from the Lympia spring which fed a small lake in a marshy zone where work on the port was started in 1745. Today this is the principal harbour installation of Nice – there is also a small port in the Carras district. The port is the first port cement manufacturer in France, linked to the treatment plants of the rollers of the valley of Paillon. Fishing activities remain but the number of professional fishermen is now less than 10. Nice, being the point of continental France nearest to Corsica, has ferry connections with the island developed with the arrival of NGV (*navires à grande vitesse*) or high-speed craft. The connections are provided by Corsica Ferries - Sardinia Ferries. Located in front of the port, the Place Cassini has been renamed Place of Corsica. ### Airport Nice Côte d'Azur Airport is the third busiest airport in France after Charles de Gaulle Airport and Orly Airport, both near Paris. It is on the Promenade des Anglais, near l'Arénas and has two terminals. Due to its proximity to the Principality of Monaco, it also serves as that city–state's airport. A helicopter service provided by Heli Air Monaco and Monacair links the city and airport. It is run by the ACA (Aéroports Côte d'Azur), which includes Cannes - Mandelieu Airport and La Môle – Saint-Tropez Airport. Public transportation into the city proper is serviced by the Tramway line 2 (T2). ### Rail The main railway station is Nice-Ville, served both by high speed TGV trains connecting Paris and Nice in less than 6 hours and by local commuter TER services. Marseille is reached in 2.5 hours. Nice also has international connections to Italy, Switzerland, Belgium, and Russia. Nice is also served by several suburban stations including Nice St-Augustin, Nice St-Roch and Nice Riquier. Nice is also the southern terminus of the independently run Chemins de Fer de Provence railway line which connects the city with Digne in approximatively 4 hours from the Nice CP station. A metro-like suburban service is also provided on the southern part of the line. ### Tram Tramway de Nice began operating horse-drawn trams in 1879. Electrified in 1900, the combined length of the network reached 144 km (89+1⁄2 mi) by 1930. The replacement of trams with trolleybuses began in 1948 and was completed in 1953. In 2007, the new Tramway de Nice linked the northern and eastern suburbs via the city centre. Two other lines are currently operating. The second line runs east–west from Jean Médecin to the Nice Côte d'Azur Airport and reaches the Port, while the third line provides a connection to the future TGV Nice Saint-Augustin and to Lingostière railway station. A fourth line is set to run from the future TGV Nice Saint-Augustin to Cagnes-sur-Mer. ### Road The A8 autoroute and the Route nationale 7 pass through the Nice agglomeration. ### Sports and entertainment * Stade du Ray (demolished) * Allianz Riviera * Stade Charles-Ehrmann * Palais Nikaia * Nice Jazz Festival * Nice Carnaval Sport ----- * The city's major football club is OGC Nice. They play in Ligue 1 (the top division in France). * The Olympic Nice swimming club (French: *Olympic Nice Natation*) is also notable; Camille Muffat and Yannick Agnel trained there. * Nice hosts the finish of the annual cycling race Paris–Nice. * The Nice Hockey Élite club play in Ligue Magnus, the top men's division of the French ice hockey pyramid. * The Stade Niçois is a rugby club playing in Fédérale 1. Population ---------- Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 24,117 | —     | | 1800 | 18,475 | −3.74% | | 1806 | 19,783 | +1.15% | | 1822 | 25,231 | +1.53% | | 1838 | 33,811 | +1.85% | | 1848 | 39,000 | +1.44% | | 1858 | 44,091 | +1.23% | | 1861 | 48,273 | +3.07% | | 1866 | 50,180 | +0.78% | | 1872 | 52,377 | +0.72% | | 1876 | 53,397 | +0.48% | | 1881 | 66,279 | +4.42% | | 1886 | 77,478 | +3.17% | | 1891 | 88,273 | +2.64% | | 1896 | 93,760 | +1.21% | | 1901 | 105,109 | +2.31% | | 1906 | 134,232 | +5.01% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1911 | 142,940 | +1.27% | | 1921 | 155,839 | +0.87% | | 1926 | 184,441 | +3.43% | | 1931 | 219,549 | +3.55% | | 1936 | 241,916 | +1.96% | | 1946 | 211,165 | −1.35% | | 1954 | 244,360 | +1.84% | | 1962 | 292,958 | +2.29% | | 1968 | 322,442 | +1.61% | | 1975 | 344,481 | +0.95% | | 1982 | 337,085 | −0.31% | | 1990 | 342,439 | +0.20% | | 1999 | 343,123 | +0.02% | | 2007 | 348,721 | +0.20% | | 2012 | 343,629 | −0.29% | | 2017 | 340,017 | −0.21% | | | | | Source: EHESS and INSEE | As of 2018[update], the urban area (*unité urbaine*) of Nice, defined by INSEE, is home to 944,321 inhabitants (seventh most populous in France) and its metropolitan area (*aire urbaine*) totals 609,695 inhabitants, which makes it the 13th largest in France. Part of the urban area of Nice belongs to the metropolitan area of Cannes–Antibes. Since the 1970s, the number of inhabitants has not changed significantly; the relatively high migration to Nice is balanced by a natural negative growth of the population. Observatory ----------- The *Observatoire de Nice* (Nice Observatory) is located on the summit of Mont Gros. The observatory was established in 1879 by the banker Raphaël Bischoffsheim. The architect was Charles Garnier; Gustave Eiffel designed the main dome. The 76-cm (30-inch) refractor telescope that became operational in 1888 was at that time the world's largest telescope. Culture ------- Terra-Amata, an archaeological site dating from the Lower Palaeolithic age, is situated near Nice. Nice itself was established by the ancient Greeks. There was also an independent Roman city, Cemenelum, near Nice, where the hill of Cimiez is located. Since the 2nd century AD, the light of the city has attracted painters and sculptors such as Chagall, Matisse, Niki de Saint Phalle, Klein, Arman and Sosno. Nice inspired many composers and intellectuals in different countries e.g. Berlioz, Rossini, Nietzsche, etc. Nice also has numerous museums of all kinds: Musée Marc Chagall, Musée Matisse, Musée des Beaux-Arts, Musée international d'Art naïf Anatole Jakovsky, Musée Terra-Amata, Museum of Asian Art, Musée d'art moderne et d'art contemporain (which devotes much space to the well-known *École of Nice* "), Museum of Natural History, Musée Masséna, Naval Museum and *Galerie des Ponchettes*. Being a vacation resort, Nice hosts many festivals throughout the year, such as the Nice Carnival and the Nice Jazz Festival. Nice has a distinct culture due to its unique history. The local language *Niçard (Nissart)* is an Occitan dialect (but some Italian scholars argue that it is a Ligurian dialect). It is still spoken by a substantial minority. Strong Italian and (to a lesser extent) Corsican influences make it more intelligible to speakers of Italian than other extant Provençal dialects. In the past, Nice has welcomed many immigrants from Italy (who continue to make up a large proportion of the population), as well as Spanish and Portuguese immigrants. However, in the past few decades immigration has been opened to include immigrants from all over the world, particularly those from former Northern and Western African colonies, as well as Southeast Asia. Traditions are still alive, especially in folk music and dances, including the farandole – an open-chain community dance. Since 1860 a cannon (based at the Château east of Old Nice) is shot at twelve o'clock sharp. The detonation can be heard almost all over the city. This tradition goes back to Sir Thomas Coventry, who intended to remind the citizens of having lunch on time. ### Cuisine The cuisine of Nice is especially close to those of Provence but also Liguria and Piedmont and uses local ingredients (olive oil, anchovies, fruit and vegetables) but also those from more remote regions, in particular from Northern Europe, because ships which came to pick up olive oil arrived full of food products, such as dried haddock. The local cuisine is rich in around 200 recipes. Most famous include the local tart made with onions and anchovies (or anchovy paste), named "Pissaladière" and derived from the ligurian pissalandrea, a sort of pizza. *Socca* is a type of pancake made from chickpea flour. *Farcis niçois* is a dish made from vegetables stuffed with a mixture of breadcrumbs, meat (generally sausage and ground beef), and herbs; and *salade niçoise* is a tomato salad with baked eggs, tuna or anchovies, olives and often lettuce. Green peppers, vinaigrette, and other raw green vegetables may be included. Potatoes and green beans are not traditional components. Local meat comes from neighbouring valleys, such as the sheep of Sisteron. Local fish, such as mullets, bream, sea urchins, anchovies and poutine/gianchetti are used to a great extent, so much so that it has given birth to a proverb: "fish are born in the sea and die in oil". Examples of Niçois specialties include: * Salade niçoise * Pan-bagnat * Ratatouille * Daube * Pissaladière * Socca * Barbajuan * Tapenade * Fougasse Education --------- * Côte d'Azur University * Institut Eurécom * École des hautes études commerciales du nord * École pour l'informatique et les nouvelles technologies * Villa Arson * ESRA film school * Institut supérieur européen de formation par l'action * IPAG Business School * Supinfo * Skema Business School International relations ----------------------- Nice is twinned with: * Spain Alicante, Spain * Madagascar Antananarivo, Madagascar * Kazakhstan Astana, Kazakhstan * Vietnam Can Tho, Vietnam * Colombia Cartagena, Colombia * Italy Cuneo, Italy * United Kingdom Edinburgh, UK * Poland Gdańsk, Poland * China Hangzhou, China * United States Houston, United States * Japan Kamakura, Japan * Canada Laval, Canada * Gabon Libreville, Gabon * Switzerland Locarno, Switzerland * United States Louisiana (state), United States * Philippines Manila, Philippines * United States Miami, United States * Israel Netanya, Israel * France Nouméa, New Caledonia * Germany Nuremberg, Germany * France Papeete, France * Thailand Phuket, Thailand * Brazil Rio de Janeiro, Brazil * France Saint-Denis, France * Russia Saint Petersburg, Russia * Spain Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain * Italy Sorrento, Italy * Hungary Szeged, Hungary * Greece Thessaloniki, Greece * China Xiamen, China * Ukraine Russia Yalta, Ukraine or Russia (disputed) * Armenia Yerevan, Armenia Notable people -------------- * Nicholas Alexandrovich – tsesarevich, the heir apparent, of Imperial Russia died in Nice and was patron of the Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice * Louis Aragon – Poet and novelist and his wife, the Russian-born writer Elsa Triolet, lived clandestinely in Nice during World War II * The Avener (born 1987) – musical artist and DJ, born in Nice * Jean Behra (1921–1959) – racing driver, born in Nice * Elliot Benchetrit (born 1998) – tennis player * Freda Betti (1924–1979) – opera singer * Henri Betti (1917–2005) – composer and pianist * Priscilla Betti (born 1989) – singer and actress * Jules Bianchi (1989–2015) – Formula 1 Driver * Surya Bonaly (born 1973) – figure skater * Alexy Bosetti (born 1993) – footballer * Loïc Bruni (born 1994) professional downhill mountain biker * Albert Calmette (1863–1933) – physician, bacteriologist and immunologist * René Cassin – jurist, law professor and judge, former student of Nice's Lycée Massena, he received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1968 * Henry Cavendish – British scientist noted for his discovery of hydrogen * Éric Ciotti (born 1965) – politician, born in Nice * Alfred Van Cleef – jeweler buried in Nice at the Cimetière du Château * Alizé Cornet (born 1990) – tennis player * Marc Duret (born 1957) – French-American actor and director, starring in *The Big Blue*, *La Femme Nikita*, *La haine*, *Borgia*, *Outlander*, born in Nice * Christian Estrosi (born 1955) – born in Nice, mayor from 2008 to 2016 and again since 2017 * Jacqueline Eymar (1922–2008) – classical pianist * Feder (born 1987) – musical artist and DJ, born in Nice * Léon Gambetta (1838–1881) – politician, buried in Nice * Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) – Italian general, politician and patriot, a founding father of Italy, born in Nice * René Goscinny – *Asterix* creator, buried in Nice * James C Harris – 19th century British consul at Nice; painted many scenes in and around the city * José Gustavo Guerrero – first president of the International Court of Justice buried in Nice at Cimetière du Château * Dominic Howard – drummer for Muse currently lives in Nice * Cyprien Iov (born 1989) – known simply as Cyprien, comedian and actor with a large Youtube channel, born in Nice * Dominique Jean-Zéphirin (born 1982) – footballer * Emil Jellinek-Mercedes – General Counsel for Austria-Hungary, and founder of Mercedes car company buried in Nice at Cimetière du Château * Elton John – singer, owned a house in Mont Boron on the hills of Nice * David Kadouch (born 1985), pianist and chamber musician * Alexis Kossenko (born 1977) – classical flautist and conductor * Georges Lautner (1926–2013) – director born in Nice, buried in the cemetery of the Castle * J. M. G. Le Clézio – author and professor, was awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize in Literature * Hugo Lloris (born 1986) – French international footballer, born in Nice * Heinrich Mann – German novelist (and brother of Thomas Mann) lived in Nice * André Masséna (1758–1817) – 1st Duc de Rivoli, 1st Prince d'Essling, one of the original 18 Marshals of the Empire, French military commander during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, his nickname was l'Enfant chéri de la Victoire ("the Dear Child of Victory") * Jean-Pierre Mocky (1929–2019) – film director, actor, screenwriter and producer * Amedeo Modigliani lived for a few months in Nice with his companion Jeanne Hébuterne; she gave birth to their daughter Giovanna in 1918. * Mohammed VI, king of Morocco, obtained the title of Doctor of Law at the University of Nice Sophia Antipolis * Jacques Ochs (1883–1971) – artist and Olympic fencing champion * Clairemarie Osta (born 1970) – ballet dancer, *étoile* at Paris Opera Ballet * Pino Presti – Italian bassist, arranger, composer, conductor and record producer, lived in Nice * Fabio Quartararo (born 1999) – French MotoGP World Champion * Auguste Renoir – had his studio in Nice from 1911 to 1919 at the corner of the Rue Alfred Mortier and the Quai St Jean Baptiste. A commemorative plaque is affixed to it. * Dick Rivers – born Hervé Forneri, rock singer, born in Nice in 1945 * Ken Samaras (born 1990) - known as Nekfeu, french rapper, born in the suburbs of Nice * Robert W. Service – poet and writer of the Klondike Gold Rush lived in Nice during the summers from 1916 to 1940 * Joann Sfar – comics artist, comic book creator and film director * Michel Siffre (born 1939) – adventurer and scientist * Gilles Simon (born 1984) – tennis player * Michael Sinterniklaas (born 1972) – American voice actor * Aimé Teisseire (1914–2008) – French Army officer, lived in Nice after his retirement from the military until his death at the age of 93 * Simone Veil (1927–2017) – lawyer and politician who served as Minister of Health, President of the European Parliament and member of the Constitutional Council of France; survivor of the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, born in Nice * Queen Victoria – Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India, stayed many winters in Nice * Valérie Zenatti (born 1970) – writer * Nguyễn Văn Xuân (1892–1989), French Army general and Vietnamese politician, lived in France in later life until he died in Nice at the age of 96 ### Honorary citizens Charles III, then Prince of Wales, received honorary citizenship of Nice on 8 May 2018. See also -------- * 37th G8 summit * Charles-Léonce Brossé * Cimetière du Château * European Institute of High International Studies * Le Méridien * Nice biscuit * Rugby Nice Côte d'Azur Université-Racing * Russian Orthodox Cemetery, Nice * Albert Spaggiari Further reading --------------- * Sykes, Colonel. "Statistics of Nice Maritime." *Journal of the Statistical Society of London* 18.1 (1855): 34–73. online * Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Diocese of Nice". *Catholic Encyclopedia*. New York: Robert Appleton Company.

Nice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nice

The **jaguar** (***Panthera onca***) is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus *Panthera* native to the Americas. With a body length of up to 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in) and a weight of up to 158 kg (348 lb), it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the third largest in the world. Its distinctively marked coat features pale yellow to tan colored fur covered by spots that transition to rosettes on the sides, although a melanistic black coat appears in some individuals. The jaguar's powerful bite allows it to pierce the carapaces of turtles and tortoises, and to employ an unusual killing method: it bites directly through the skull of mammalian prey between the ears to deliver a fatal blow to the brain. The modern jaguar's ancestors probably entered the Americas from Eurasia during the Early Pleistocene via the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Today, the jaguar's range extends from core Southwestern United States across Mexico and much of Central America, the Amazon rainforest and south to Paraguay and northern Argentina. It inhabits a variety of forested and open terrains, but its preferred habitat is tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest, wetlands and wooded regions. It is adept at swimming and is largely a solitary, opportunistic, stalk-and-ambush apex predator. As a keystone species, it plays an important role in stabilizing ecosystems and in regulating prey populations. The jaguar is threatened by habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, poaching for trade with its body parts and killings in human–wildlife conflict situations, particularly with ranchers in Central and South America. It has been listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002. The wild population is thought to have declined since the late 1990s. Priority areas for jaguar conservation comprise 51 Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs), defined as large areas inhabited by at least 50 breeding jaguars. The JCUs are located in 36 geographic regions ranging from Mexico to Argentina. The jaguar has featured prominently in the mythology of indigenous peoples of the Americas, including those of the Aztec and Maya civilizations. Etymology --------- The word "jaguar" is possibly derived from the Tupi-Guarani word *yaguara* meaning 'wild beast that overcomes its prey at a bound'. In North America, the word is pronounced disyllabic /ˈdʒæɡwɑːr/, while in British English, it is pronounced with three syllables /ˈdʒæɡjuːər/. Because that word also applies to other animals, indigenous peoples in Guyana call it *jaguareté*, with the added sufix *eté*, meaning "true beast". "Onca" is derived from the Portuguese name *onça* for a spotted cat that is larger than a lynx; cf. *ounce*. The word "panther" is derived from classical Latin *panthēra*, itself from the ancient Greek πάνθηρ (*pánthēr*). Taxonomy and evolution ---------------------- ### Taxonomy In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the jaguar in his work *Systema Naturae* and gave it the scientific name *Felis onca*. In the 19th and 20th centuries, several jaguar type specimens formed the basis for descriptions of subspecies. In 1939, Reginald Innes Pocock recognized eight subspecies based on the geographic origins and skull morphology of these specimens. Pocock did not have access to sufficient zoological specimens to critically evaluate their subspecific status but expressed doubt about the status of several. Later consideration of his work suggested only three subspecies should be recognized. The description of *P. o. palustris* was based on a fossil skull. By 2005, nine subspecies were considered to be valid taxa. Formerly recognized subspecies * *P. o. onca* (Linnaeus, 1758) was a jaguar from Brazil. * *P. o. peruviana* (De Blainville, 1843) was a jaguar skull from Peru. * *P. o. hernandesii* (Gray, 1857) was a jaguar from Mazatlán in Mexico. * *P. o. palustris* (Ameghino, 1888) was a fossil jaguar mandible excavated in the Sierras Pampeanas of Córdova District, Argentina. * *P. o. centralis* (Mearns, 1901) was a skull of a male jaguar from Talamanca, Costa Rica. * *P. o. goldmani* (Mearns, 1901) was a jaguar skin from Yohatlan in Campeche, Mexico. * *P. o. paraguensis* (Hollister, 1914) was a skull of a male jaguar from Paraguay. * *P. o. arizonensis* (Goldman, 1932) was a skin and skull of a male jaguar from the vicinity of Cibecue, Arizona. * *P. o. veraecrucis* (Nelson and Goldman, 1933) was a skull of a male jaguar from San Andrés Tuxtla in Mexico. Reginald Innes Pocock placed the jaguar in the genus *Panthera* and observed that it shares several morphological features with the leopard (*P. pardus*). He, therefore, concluded that they are most closely related to each other. Results of morphological and genetic research indicate a clinal north–south variation between populations, but no evidence for subspecific differentiation. DNA analysis of 84 jaguar samples from South America revealed that the gene flow between jaguar populations in Colombia was high in the past. Since 2017, the jaguar is considered to be a monotypic taxon. ### Evolution The *Panthera* lineage is estimated to have genetically diverged from the common ancestor of the Felidae around 9.32 to 4.47 million years ago to 11.75 to 0.97 million years ago, and the geographic origin of the genus is most likely northern Central Asia. Some genetic analyses place the jaguar as a sister species to the lion with which it diverged 3.46 to 1.22 million years ago, but other studies place the lion closer to the leopard. The lineage of the jaguar appears to have originated in Africa and spread to Eurasia 1.95–1.77 mya. The modern species may have descended from *Panthera gombaszoegensis*, which is thought to have entered the American continent via Beringia, the land bridge that once spanned the Bering Strait. Fossils of modern jaguars have been found in North America dating to over 850,000 years ago. Results of mitochondrial DNA analysis of 37 jaguars indicate that current populations evolved between 510,000 and 280,000 years ago in northern South America and subsequently recolonized North and Central America after the extinction of jaguars there during the Late Pleistocene. Two extinct subspecies of jaguar are recognized in the fossil record: the North American *P. o. augusta* and South American *P. o. mesembrina*. Phylogenetic relationships of the jaguar as derived through analysis of | nuclear DNA: | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Felidae | | | | | --- | --- | | | Felinae | | | | Pantherinae | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Panthera* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Lion (*P. leo*) | | | | | **Jaguar** | | | | | | | | Leopard (*P. pardus*) | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Tiger (*P. tigris*) | | | | | Snow leopard (*P. uncia*) | | | | | | | | | | | *Neofelis* | | | | | | | | | | | mitochondrial DNA: | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Felidae | | | | | --- | --- | | | Felinae | | | | Pantherinae | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Panthera* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Lion | | | | | Leopard | | | | | | | | Snow leopard | | | | | | | | **Jaguar** | | | | | | | | Tiger | | | | | | | | *Neofelis* | | | | | | | | | | Description ----------- Skull of a jaguarIllustration of cheetah, leopard and jaguarA black jaguar. Such melanistic jaguars as well as leopards are commonly called black panthers The jaguar is a compact and muscular animal. It is the largest cat native to the Americas and the third largest in the world, exceeded in size only by the tiger and the lion. It stands 68 to 75 cm (26.8 to 29.5 in) tall at the shoulders. Its size and weight vary considerably depending on sex and region: weights in most regions are normally in the range of 56–96 kg (123–212 lb). Exceptionally big males have been recorded to weigh as much as 158 kg (348 lb). The smallest females from Middle America weigh about 36 kg (79 lb). It is sexually dimorphic, with females typically being 10–20% smaller than males. The length from the nose to the base of the tail varies from 1.12 to 1.85 m (3 ft 8 in to 6 ft 1 in). The tail is 45 to 75 cm (18 to 30 in) long and the shortest of any big cat. Its muscular legs are shorter than the legs of other *Panthera* species with similar body weight. Size tends to increase from north to south. Jaguars in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve on the Pacific coast of central Mexico weighed around 50 kg (110 lb). Jaguars in Venezuela and Brazil are much larger, with average weights of about 95 kg (209 lb) in males and of about 56–78 kg (123–172 lb) in females. The jaguar's coat ranges from pale yellow to tan or reddish-yellow, with a whitish underside and covered in black spots. The spots and their shapes vary: on the sides, they become rosettes which may include one or several dots. The spots on the head and neck are generally solid, as are those on the tail where they may merge to form bands near the end and create a black tip. They are elongated on the middle of the back, often connecting to create a median stripe, and blotchy on the belly. These patterns serve as camouflage in areas with dense vegetation and patchy shadows. Jaguars living in forests are often darker and considerably smaller than those living in open areas, possibly due to the smaller numbers of large, herbivorous prey in forest areas. The jaguar closely resembles the leopard but is generally more robust, with stockier limbs and a more square head. The rosettes on a jaguar's coat are larger, darker, fewer in number and have thicker lines, with a small spot in the middle. It has powerful jaws with the third-highest bite force of all felids, after the tiger and the lion. It has an average bite force at the canine tip of 887.0 Newton and a bite force quotient at the canine tip of 118.6. A 100 kg (220 lb) jaguar can bite with a force of 4.939 kN (1,110 lbf) with the canine teeth and 6.922 kN (1,556 lbf) at the carnassial notch. ### Color variation Melanistic jaguars are also known as black panthers. The black morph is less common than the spotted one. Black jaguars have been documented in Central and South America. Melanism in the jaguar is caused by deletions in the melanocortin 1 receptor gene and inherited through a dominant allele. In 2004, a camera trap in the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains photographed the first documented black jaguar in Northern Mexico. Black jaguars were also photographed in Costa Rica's Alberto Manuel Brenes Biological Reserve, in the mountains of the Cordillera de Talamanca, in Barbilla National Park and in eastern Panama. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ A female jaguar at Piquiri River, Mato Grosso state, BrazilA jaguar in São Lourenço River In the 19th century, the jaguar was still sighted at the North Platte River in Colorado and coastal Louisiana. In 1919, sightings of jaguars were reported in the Monterey, California region. In 1999, its historic range at the turn of the 20th century was estimated at 19,000,000 km2 (7,300,000 sq mi), stretching from the southern United States through Central America to southern Argentina. By the turn of the 21st century, its global range had decreased to about 8,750,000 km2 (3,380,000 sq mi), with most declines in the southern United States, northern Mexico, northern Brazil, and southern Argentina. Its present range extends from Mexico through Central America to South America comprising Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, particularly on the Osa Peninsula, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. It is considered to be locally extinct in El Salvador and Uruguay. Jaguars have been occasionally sighted in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas. Between 2012 and 2015, a male vagrant jaguar was recorded in 23 locations in the Santa Rita Mountains. The jaguar prefers dense forest and typically inhabits dry deciduous forests, tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, rainforests and cloud forests in Central and South America; open, seasonally flooded wetlands, dry grassland and historically also oak forests in the United States. It has been recorded at elevations up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft) but avoids montane forests. It favors riverine habitat and swamps with dense vegetation cover. In the Mayan forests of Mexico and Guatemala, 11 GPS-collared jaguars preferred undisturbed dense habitat away from roads; females avoided even areas with low levels of human activity, whereas males appeared less disturbed by human population density. A young male jaguar was also recorded in the semi-arid Sierra de San Carlos at a waterhole. Behavior and ecology -------------------- The jaguar is mostly active at night and during twilight. However, jaguars living in densely forested regions of the Amazon Rainforest and the Pantanal are largely active by day, whereas jaguars in the Atlantic Forest are primarily active by night. The activity pattern of the jaguar coincides with the activity of its main prey species. Jaguars are good swimmers and play and hunt in the water, possibly more than tigers. They have been recorded moving between islands and the shore. Jaguars are also good at climbing trees but do so less often than cougars. ### Ecological role The adult jaguar is an apex predator, meaning it is at the top of the food chain and is not preyed upon in the wild. The jaguar has also been termed a keystone species, as it is assumed that it controls the population levels of prey such as herbivorous and seed-eating mammals and thus maintains the structural integrity of forest systems. However, field work has shown this may be natural variability, and the population increases may not be sustained. Thus, the keystone predator hypothesis is not accepted by all scientists. The jaguar is sympatric with the cougar (*Puma concolor*). In central Mexico, both prey on white-tailed deer (*Odocoileus virginianus*), which makes up 54% and 66% of jaguar and cougar's prey, respectively. In northern Mexico, the jaguar and the cougar share the same habitat, and their diet overlaps dependent on prey availability. Jaguars seemed to prefer deer and calves. In Mexico and Central America, neither of the two cats are considered to be the dominant predator. In South America, the jaguar is larger than the cougar and tends to take larger prey, usually over 22 kg (49 lb). The cougar's prey usually weighs between 2 and 22 kg (4 and 49 lb), which is thought to be the reason for its smaller size. This situation may be advantageous to the cougar. Its broader prey niche, including its ability to take smaller prey, may give it an advantage over the jaguar in human-altered landscapes. ### Hunting and diet The jaguar is an obligate carnivore and depends solely on flesh for its nutrient requirements. An analysis of 53 studies documenting the diet of the jaguar revealed that its prey ranges in weight from 1 to 130 kg (2.2 to 286.6 lb); it prefers prey weighing 45–85 kg (99–187 lb), with the rodent capybara (*Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris*) and the pilosan giant anteater (*Myrmecophaga tridactyla*) being the most selected. When available, it also preys on marsh deer (*Blastocerus dichotomus*), southern tamandua (*Tamandua tetradactyla*), collared peccary (*Dicotyles tajacu*) and black agouti (*Dasyprocta fuliginosa*). In floodplains, jaguars opportunistically take reptiles such as turtles and caimans. Consumption of reptiles appears to be more frequent in jaguars than in other big cats. One remote population in the Brazilian Pantanal is recorded to primarily feed on aquatic reptiles and fish. The jaguar also preys on livestock in cattle ranching areas where wild prey is scarce. The daily food requirement of a captive jaguar weighing 34 kg (75 lb) was estimated at 1.4 kg (3.1 lb) of meat. The jaguar's bite force allows it to pierce the carapaces of the yellow-spotted Amazon river turtle (*Podocnemis unifilis*) and the yellow-footed tortoise (*Chelonoidis denticulatus*). It employs an unusual killing method: it bites mammalian prey directly through the skull between the ears to deliver a fatal bite to the brain. It kills capybara by piercing its canine teeth through the temporal bones of its skull, breaking its zygomatic arch and mandible and penetrating its brain, often through the ears. It has been hypothesized to be an adaptation to cracking open turtle shells; armored reptiles may have formed an abundant prey base for the jaguar following the late Pleistocene extinctions. However, this is disputed, as even in areas where jaguars prey on reptiles, they are still taken relatively infrequently compared to mammals in spite of their greater abundance. Between October 2001 and April 2004, 10 jaguars were monitored in the southern Pantanal. In the dry season from April to September, they killed prey at intervals ranging from one to seven days; and ranging from one to 16 days in the wet season from October to March. The jaguar uses a stalk-and-ambush strategy when hunting rather than chasing prey. The cat will slowly walk down forest paths, listening for and stalking prey before rushing or ambushing. The jaguar attacks from cover and usually from a target's blind spot with a quick pounce; the species' ambushing abilities are considered nearly peerless in the animal kingdom by both indigenous people and field researchers and are probably a product of its role as an apex predator in several different environments. The ambush may include leaping into water after prey, as a jaguar is quite capable of carrying a large kill while swimming; its strength is such that carcasses as large as a heifer can be hauled up a tree to avoid flood levels. After killing prey, the jaguar will drag the carcass to a thicket or other secluded spot. It begins eating at the neck and chest. The heart and lungs are consumed, followed by the shoulders. ### Social activity The jaguar is generally solitary except for females with cubs. In 1977, groups consisting of a male, female and cubs, and two females with two males were sighted several times in a study area in the Paraguay River valley. In some areas, males may form paired coalitions which together mark, defend and invade territories, find and mate with the same females and search for and share prey. A radio-collared female moved in a home range of 25–38 km2 (9.7–14.7 sq mi), which partly overlapped with another female. The home range of the male in this study area overlapped with several females. The jaguar uses scrape marks, urine, and feces to mark its territory. The size of home ranges depends on the level of deforestation and human population density. The home ranges of females vary from 15.3 km2 (5.9 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 53.6 km2 (20.7 sq mi) in the Amazon to 233.5 km2 (90.2 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest. Male jaguar home ranges vary from 25 km2 (9.7 sq mi) in the Pantanal to 180.3 km2 (69.6 sq mi) in the Amazon to 591.4 km2 (228.3 sq mi) in the Atlantic Forest and 807.4 km2 (311.7 sq mi) in the Cerrado. Studies employing GPS telemetry in 2003 and 2004 found densities of only six to seven jaguars per 100 km2 in the Pantanal region, compared with 10 to 11 using traditional methods; this suggests the widely used sampling methods may inflate the actual numbers of individuals in a sampling area. Fights between males occur but are rare, and avoidance behavior has been observed in the wild. In one wetland population with degraded territorial boundaries and more social proximity, adults of the same sex are more tolerant of each other and engage in more friendly and co-operative interactions. The jaguar roars/grunts for long-distance communication; intensive bouts of counter-calling between individuals have been observed in the wild. This vocalization is described as "hoarse" with five or six guttural notes. Chuffing is produced by individuals when greeting, during courting, or by a mother comforting her cubs. This sound is described as low intensity snorts, possibly intended to signal tranquility and passivity. Cubs have been recorded bleating, gurgling and mewing. ### Reproduction and life cycle In captivity, the female jaguar is recorded to reach sexual maturity at the age of about 2.5 years. Estrus lasts 7–15 days with an estrus cycle of 41.8 to 52.6 days. During estrus, she exhibits increased restlessness with rolling and prolonged vocalizations. She is an induced ovulator but can also ovulate spontaneously. Gestation lasts 91 to 111 days. The male is sexually mature at the age of three to four years. His mean ejaculate volume is 8.6±1.3 ml. Generation length of the jaguar is 9.8 years. In the Pantanal, breeding pairs were observed to stay together for up to five days. Females had one to two cubs. The young are born with closed eyes but open them after two weeks. Cubs are weaned at the age of three months but remain in the birth den for six months before leaving to accompany their mother on hunts. Jaguars remain with their mothers for up to two years. They appear to rarely live beyond 11 years, but captive individuals may live 22 years. In 2001, a male jaguar killed and partially consumed two cubs in Emas National Park. DNA paternity testing of blood samples revealed that the male was the father of the cubs. Two more cases of infanticide were documented in the northern Pantanal in 2013. To defend against infanticide, the female may hide her cubs and distract the male with courtship behavior. ### Attacks on humans The Spanish conquistadors feared the jaguar. According to Charles Darwin, the indigenous peoples of South America stated that people did not need to fear the jaguar as long as capybaras were abundant. The first official record of a jaguar killing a human in Brazil dates to June 2008. Two children were attacked by jaguars in Guyana. The jaguar is the least likely of all big cats to kill and eat humans, and the majority of attacks come when it has been cornered or wounded. Threats ------- The jaguar is threatened by loss and fragmentation of habitat, illegal killing in retaliation for livestock depredation and for illegal trade in jaguar body parts. It is listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List since 2002, as the jaguar population has probably declined by 20–25% since the mid-1990s. Deforestation is a major threat to the jaguar across its range. Habitat loss was most rapid in drier regions such as the Argentine pampas, the arid grasslands of Mexico and the southwestern United States. In 2002, it was estimated that the range of the jaguar had declined to about 46% of its range in the early 20th century. In 2018, it was estimated that its range had declined by 55% in the last century. The only remaining stronghold is the Amazon rainforest, a region that is rapidly being fragmented by deforestation. Between 2000 and 2012, forest loss in the jaguar range amounted to 83.759 km2 (32.340 sq mi), with fragmentation increasing in particular in corridors between Jaguar Conservation Units (JCUs). By 2014, direct linkages between two JCUs in Bolivia were lost, and two JCUs in northern Argentina became completely isolated due to deforestation. In Mexico, the jaguar is primarily threatened by poaching. Its habitat is fragmented in northern Mexico, in the Gulf of Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, caused by changes in land use, construction of roads and tourism infrastructure. In Panama, 220 of 230 jaguars were killed in retaliation for predation on livestock between 1998 and 2014. In Venezuela, the jaguar was extirpated in about 26% of its range in the country since 1940, mostly in dry savannas and unproductive scrubland in the northeastern region of Anzoátegui. In Ecuador, the jaguar is threatened by reduced prey availability in areas where the expansion of the road network facilitated access of human hunters to forests. In the Alto Paraná Atlantic forests, at least 117 jaguars were killed in Iguaçu National Park and the adjacent Misiones Province between 1995 and 2008. Some Afro-Colombians in the Colombian Chocó Department hunt jaguars for consumption and sale of meat. Between 2008 and 2012, at least 15 jaguars were killed by livestock farmers in central Belize. The international trade of jaguar skins boomed between the end of the Second World War and the early 1970s. Significant declines occurred in the 1960s, as more than 15,000 jaguars were yearly killed for their skins in the Brazilian Amazon alone; the trade in jaguar skins decreased since 1973 when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species was enacted. Interview surveys with 533 people in the northwestern Bolivian Amazon revealed that local people killed jaguars out of fear, in retaliation, and for trade. Between August 2016 and August 2019, jaguar skins and body parts were seen for sale in tourist markets in the Peruvian cities of Lima, Iquitos and Pucallpa. Human-wildlife conflict, opportunistic hunting and hunting for trade in domestic markets are key drivers for killing jaguars in Belize and Guatemala. Seizure reports indicate that at least 857 jaguars were involved in trade between 2012 and 2018, including 482 individuals in Bolivia alone; 31 jaguars were seized in China. Between 2014 and early 2019, 760 jaguar fangs were seized that originated in Bolivia and were destined for China. Undercover investigations revealed that the smuggling of jaguar body parts is run by Chinese residents in Bolivia. Conservation ------------ The jaguar is listed on CITES Appendix I, which means that all international commercial trade in jaguars or their body parts is prohibited. Hunting jaguars is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, the United States, and Venezuela. Hunting jaguars is restricted in Guatemala and Peru. In Ecuador, hunting jaguars is prohibited, and it is classified as threatened with extinction. In Guyana, it is protected as an endangered species, and hunting it is illegal. In 1986, the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary was established in Belize as the world's first protected area for jaguar conservation. ### Jaguar Conservation Units In 1999, field scientists from 18 jaguar range countries determined the most important areas for long-term jaguar conservation based on the status of jaguar population units, stability of prey base and quality of habitat. These areas, called "Jaguar Conservation Units" (JCUs), are large enough for at least 50 breeding individuals and range in size from 566 to 67,598 km2 (219 to 26,100 sq mi); 51 JCUs were designated in 36 geographic regions including: * the Sierra Madre Occidental and Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico * the Selva Maya tropical forests extending over Mexico, Belize and Guatemala * the Chocó–Darién moist forests from Honduras and Panama to Colombia * Venezuelan Llanos * northern Cerrado and Amazon basin in Brazil * Tropical Andes in Bolivia and Peru * Misiones Province in Argentina Optimal routes of travel between core jaguar population units were identified across its range in 2010 to implement wildlife corridors that connect JCUs. These corridors represent areas with the shortest distance between jaguar breeding populations, require the least possible energy input of dispersing individuals and pose a low mortality risk. They cover an area of 2,600,000 km2 (1,000,000 sq mi) and range in length from 3 to 1,102 km (1.9 to 684.8 mi) in Mexico and Central America and from 489.14 to 1,607 km (303.94 to 998.54 mi) in South America. Cooperation with local landowners and municipal, state, or federal agencies is essential to maintain connected populations and prevent fragmentation in both JCUs and corridors. Seven of 13 corridors in Mexico are functioning with a width of at least 14.25 km (8.85 mi) and a length of no more than 320 km (200 mi). The other corridors may hamper passage, as they are narrower and longer. In August 2012, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service set aside 3,392.20 km2 (838,232 acres) in Arizona and New Mexico for the protection of the jaguar. The Jaguar Recovery Plan was published in April 2019, in which Interstate 10 is considered to form the northern boundary of the Jaguar Recovery Unit in Arizona and New Mexico. In Mexico, a national conservation strategy was developed from 2005 on and published in 2016. The Mexican jaguar population increased from an estimated 4,000 individuals in 2010 to about 4,800 individuals in 2018. This increase is seen as a positive effect of conservation measures that were implemented in cooperation with governmental and non-governmental institutions and landowners. An evaluation of JCUs from Mexico to Argentina revealed that they overlap with high-quality habitats of about 1,500 mammals to varying degrees. Since co-occurring mammals benefit from the JCU approach, the jaguar has been called an umbrella species. Central American JCUs overlap with the habitat of 187 of 304 regional endemic amphibian and reptile species, of which 19 amphibians occur only in the jaguar range. ### Approaches In setting up protected reserves, efforts generally also have to be focused on the surrounding areas, as jaguars are unlikely to confine themselves to the bounds of a reservation, especially if the population is increasing in size. Human attitudes in the areas surrounding reserves and laws and regulations to prevent poaching are essential to make conservation areas effective. To estimate population sizes within specific areas and to keep track of individual jaguars, camera trapping and wildlife tracking telemetry are widely used, and feces are sought out with the help of detection dogs to study jaguar health and diet. Current conservation efforts often focus on educating ranch owners and promoting ecotourism. Ecotourism setups are being used to generate public interest in charismatic animals such as the jaguar while at the same time generating revenue that can be used in conservation efforts. A key concern in jaguar ecotourism is the considerable habitat space the species requires. If ecotourism is used to aid in jaguar conservation, some considerations need to be made as to how existing ecosystems will be kept intact, or how new ecosystems will be put into place that are large enough to support a growing jaguar population. Conservationists and professionals in Mexico and the United States have established the 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) Northern Jaguar Reserve in northern Mexico. Advocacy for reintroduction of the jaguar to its former range in Arizona and New Mexico have been supported by documentation of natural migrations by individual jaguars into the southern reaches of both states, the recency of extirpation from those regions by human action, and supportive arguments pertaining to biodiversity, ecological, human, and practical considerations. In culture and mythology ------------------------ Jaguar warrior in the Aztec cultureMoche jaguar figurine dating to 300 CE, at the Larco Museum in Lima, Peru In the pre-Columbian Americas, the jaguar was a symbol of power and strength. In the Andes, a jaguar cult disseminated by the early Chavín culture became accepted over most of today's Peru by 900 BC. The later Moche culture in northern Peru used the jaguar as a symbol of power in many of their ceramics. In the Muisca religion in Altiplano Cundiboyacense, the jaguar was considered a sacred animal, and people dressed in jaguar skins during religious rituals. The skins were traded with peoples in the nearby Orinoquía Region. The name of the Muisca ruler Nemequene was derived from the Chibcha words *nymy* and *quyne*, meaning "force of the jaguar". Sculptures with "Olmec were-jaguar" motifs were found on the Yucatán Peninsula in Veracruz and Tabasco; they show stylized jaguars with half-human faces. In the later Maya civilization, the jaguar was believed to facilitate communication between the living and the dead and to protect the royal household. The Maya saw these powerful felines as their companions in the spiritual world, and several Maya rulers bore names that incorporated the Mayan word for jaguar *b'alam* in many of the Mayan languages. *Balam* remains a common Maya surname, and it is also the name of Chilam Balam, a legendary author to whom are attributed 17th and 18th-centuries Maya miscellanies preserving much important knowledge. Remains of jaguar bones were discovered in a burial site in Guatemala, which indicates that Mayans may have kept jaguars as pets. The Aztec civilization shared this image of the jaguar as the representative of the ruler and as a warrior. The Aztecs formed an elite warrior class known as the Jaguar warrior. In Aztec mythology, the jaguar was considered to be the totem animal of the powerful god Tezcatlipoca. A conch shell gorget depicting a jaguar was found in a burial mound in Benton County, Missouri. The gorget shows evenly-engraved lines and measures 104 mm × 98 mm (4.1 in × 3.9 in). Rock drawings made by the Hopi, Anasazi and Pueblo all over the desert and chaparral regions of the American Southwest show an explicitly spotted cat, presumably a jaguar, as it is drawn much larger than an ocelot. The jaguar is also used as a symbol in contemporary culture. It is the national animal of Guyana and is featured in its coat of arms. The flag of the Department of Amazonas features a black jaguar silhouette leaping towards a hunter. The crest of the Argentine Rugby Union features a jaguar. See also -------- * List of largest cats Listen to this article (35 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 26 December 2011 (2011-12-26), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Jaguar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaguar

**Atmospheric pressure**, also known as **barometric pressure** (after the barometer), is the pressure within the atmosphere of Earth. The standard atmosphere (symbol: atm) is a unit of pressure defined as 101,325 Pa (1,013.25 hPa), which is equivalent to 1,013.25 millibars, 760 mm Hg, 29.9212 inches Hg, or 14.696 psi. The atm unit is roughly equivalent to the mean sea-level atmospheric pressure on Earth; that is, the Earth's atmospheric pressure at sea level is approximately 1 atm. In most circumstances, atmospheric pressure is closely approximated by the hydrostatic pressure caused by the weight of air above the measurement point. As elevation increases, there is less overlying atmospheric mass, so atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing elevation. Because the atmosphere is thin relative to the Earth's radius—especially the dense atmospheric layer at low altitudes—the Earth's gravitational acceleration as a function of altitude can be approximated as constant and contributes little to this fall-off. Pressure measures force per unit area, with SI units of pascals (1 pascal = 1 newton per square metre, 1 N/m2). On average, a column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 square centimetre (cm2), measured from the mean (average) sea level to the top of Earth's atmosphere, has a mass of about 1.03 kilogram and exerts a force or "weight" of about 10.1 newtons, resulting in a pressure of 10.1 N/cm2 or 101 kN/m2 (101 kilopascals, kPa). A column of air with a cross-sectional area of 1 in2 would have a weight of about 14.7 lbf, resulting in a pressure of 14.7 lbf/in2. Mechanism --------- Atmospheric pressure is caused by the gravitational attraction of the planet on the atmospheric gases above the surface and is a function of the mass of the planet, the radius of the surface, and the amount and composition of the gases and their vertical distribution in the atmosphere. It is modified by the planetary rotation and local effects such as wind velocity, density variations due to temperature and variations in composition. Mean sea-level pressure ----------------------- The *mean sea-level pressure* (MSLP) is the atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (PMSL). This is the atmospheric pressure normally given in weather reports on radio, television, and newspapers or on the Internet. When barometers in the home are set to match the local weather reports, they display pressure adjusted to sea level, not the actual local atmospheric pressure. The *altimeter setting* in aviation is an atmospheric pressure adjustment. Average *sea-level pressure* is 1,013.25 hPa (29.921 inHg; 760.00 mmHg). In aviation weather reports (METAR), QNH is transmitted around the world in hectopascals or millibars (1 hectopascal = 1 millibar), except in the United States, Canada, and Japan where it is reported in inches of mercury (to two decimal places). The United States and Canada also report *sea-level pressure* SLP, which is adjusted to sea level by a different method, in the remarks section, not in the internationally transmitted part of the code, in hectopascals or millibars. However, in Canada's public weather reports, sea level pressure is instead reported in kilopascals. In the US weather code remarks, three digits are all that are transmitted; decimal points and the one or two most significant digits are omitted: 1,013.2 hPa (14.695 psi) is transmitted as 132; 1,000 hPa (100 kPa) is transmitted as 000; 998.7 hPa is transmitted as 987; etc. The highest *sea-level pressure* on Earth occurs in Siberia, where the Siberian High often attains a *sea-level pressure* above 1,050 hPa (15.2 psi; 31 inHg), with record highs close to 1,085 hPa (15.74 psi; 32.0 inHg). The lowest measurable *sea-level pressure* is found at the centres of tropical cyclones and tornadoes, with a record low of 870 hPa (12.6 psi; 26 inHg). Surface pressure ---------------- *Surface pressure* is the atmospheric pressure at a location on Earth's surface (terrain and oceans). It is directly proportional to the mass of air over that location. For numerical reasons, atmospheric models such as general circulation models (GCMs) usually predict the nondimensional *logarithm of surface pressure*. The average value of surface pressure on Earth is 985 hPa. This is in contrast to mean sea-level pressure, which involves the extrapolation of pressure to sea level for locations above or below sea level. The average pressure at mean sea level (MSL) in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is 1,013.25 hPa, or 1 atmosphere (atm), or 29.92 inches of mercury. Pressure (P), mass (m), and acceleration due to gravity (g) are related by P = F/A = (m\*g)/A, where A is the surface area. Atmospheric pressure is thus proportional to the weight per unit area of the atmospheric mass above that location. Altitude variation ------------------ Pressure on Earth varies with the altitude of the surface, so air pressure on mountains is usually lower than air pressure at sea level. Pressure varies smoothly from the Earth's surface to the top of the mesosphere. Although the pressure changes with the weather, NASA has averaged the conditions for all parts of the earth year-round. As altitude increases, atmospheric pressure decreases. One can calculate the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude. Temperature and humidity also affect the atmospheric pressure. Pressure is proportional to temperature and inversely proportional to humidity. And it is necessary to know both of these to compute an accurate figure. The graph on the rightabove was developed for a temperature of 15 °C and a relative humidity of 0%. At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases by about 1.2 kPa (12 hPa) for every 100  metres. For higher altitudes within the troposphere, the following equation (the barometric formula) relates atmospheric pressure *p* to altitude *h*: p = p 0 ⋅ ( 1 − L ⋅ h T 0 ) g ⋅ M R 0 ⋅ L = p 0 ⋅ ( 1 − g ⋅ h c p ⋅ T 0 ) c p ⋅ M R 0 ≈ p 0 ⋅ exp ⁡ ( − g ⋅ h ⋅ M T 0 ⋅ R 0 ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}p&=p\_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {L\cdot h}{T\_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {g\cdot M}{R\_{0}\cdot L}}\\&=p\_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {g\cdot h}{c\_{\text{p}}\cdot T\_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {c\_{\text{p}}\cdot M}{R\_{0}}}\approx p\_{0}\cdot \exp \left(-{\frac {g\cdot h\cdot M}{T\_{0}\cdot R\_{0}}}\right)\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}p&=p_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {L\cdot h}{T_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {g\cdot M}{R_{0}\cdot L}}\\&=p_{0}\cdot \left(1-{\frac {g\cdot h}{c_{\text{p}}\cdot T_{0}}}\right)^{\frac {c_{\text{p}}\cdot M}{R_{0}}}\approx p_{0}\cdot \exp \left(-{\frac {g\cdot h\cdot M}{T_{0}\cdot R_{0}}}\right)\end{aligned}}} . The values in these equations are: | Parameter | Description | Value | | --- | --- | --- | | *h* | Height above mean sea level |  m | | *p*0 | Sea level standard atmospheric pressure | 101,325 Pa | | *L* | Temperature lapse rate, = *g*/*c*p for dry air | ~ 0.00976 K/m | | *c*p | Constant-pressure specific heat | 1,004.68506 J/(kg·K) | | *T*0 | Sea level standard temperature | 288.16 K | | *g* | Earth-surface gravitational acceleration | 9.80665 m/s2 | | *M* | Molar mass of dry air | 0.02896968 kg/mol | | *R*0 | Universal gas constant | 8.314462618 J/(mol·K) | Local variation --------------- Atmospheric pressure varies widely on Earth, and these changes are important in studying weather and climate. Atmospheric pressure shows a diurnal or semidiurnal (twice-daily) cycle caused by global atmospheric tides. This effect is strongest in tropical zones, with an amplitude of a few hectopascals, and almost zero in polar areas. These variations have two superimposed cycles, a circadian (24 h) cycle, and a semi-circadian (12 h) cycle. Records ------- The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded on Earth (above 750 meters) was 1,084.8 hPa (32.03 inHg) measured in Tosontsengel, Mongolia on 19 December 2001. The highest adjusted-to-sea level barometric pressure ever recorded (below 750 meters) was at Agata in Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Russia (66°53' N, 93°28' E, elevation: 261 m, 856 ft) on 31 December 1968 of 1,083.8 hPa (32.005 inHg). The discrimination is due to the problematic assumptions (assuming a standard lapse rate) associated with reduction of sea level from high elevations. The Dead Sea, the lowest place on Earth at 430 metres (1,410 ft) below sea level, has a correspondingly high typical atmospheric pressure of 1,065 hPa. A below-sea-level surface pressure record of 1,081.8 hPa (31.95 inHg) was set on 21 February 1961. The lowest non-tornadic atmospheric pressure ever measured was 870 hPa (0.858  atm; 25.69 inHg), set on 12 October 1979, during Typhoon Tip in the western Pacific Ocean. The measurement was based on an instrumental observation made from a reconnaissance aircraft. Measurement based on the depth of water --------------------------------------- One atmosphere (101.325 kPa or 14.7 psi) is also the pressure caused by the weight of a column of freshwater of approximately 10.3 m (33.8 ft). Thus, a diver 10.3 m underwater experiences a pressure of about 2 atmospheres (1 atm of air plus 1 atm of water). Conversely, 10.3 m is the maximum height to which water can be raised using suction under standard atmospheric conditions. Low pressures, such as natural gas lines, are sometimes specified in inches of water, typically written as *w.c.* (water column) gauge or *w.g.* (inches water) gauge. A typical gas-using residential appliance in the US is rated for a maximum of 1⁄2 psi (3.4 kPa; 34 mbar), which is approximately 14 w.g. Similar metric units with a wide variety of names and notation based on millimetres, centimetres or metres are now less commonly used. Boiling point of liquids ------------------------ Pure water boils at 100 °C (212 °F) at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the liquid. Because of this, the boiling point of liquids is lower at lower pressure and higher at higher pressure. Cooking at high elevations, therefore, requires adjustments to recipes or pressure cooking. A rough approximation of elevation can be obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boils; in the mid-19th century, this method was used by explorers. Conversely, if one wishes to evaporate a liquid at a lower temperature, for example in distillation, the atmospheric pressure may be lowered by using a vacuum pump, as in a rotary evaporator. Measurement and maps -------------------- An important application of the knowledge that atmospheric pressure varies directly with altitude was in determining the height of hills and mountains, thanks to reliable pressure measurement devices. In 1774, Maskelyne was confirming Newton's theory of gravitation at and on Schiehallion mountain in Scotland, and he needed to measure elevations on the mountain's sides accurately. William Roy, using barometric pressure, was able to confirm Maskelyne's height determinations, the agreement being to be within one meter (3.28 feet). This method became and continues to be useful for survey work and map making. See also -------- * Atmospheric density – Mass per unit volume of earths atmosphere * Atmosphere of Earth – Gas layer surrounding Earth * Barometric formula – Formula used to model how air pressure varies with altitude * Barotrauma – Injury caused by pressure – physical damage to body tissues caused by a difference in pressure between an air space inside or beside the body and the surrounding gas or liquid. * Cabin pressurization – Process to maintain internal air pressure in aircraft * Cavitation – Low-pressure voids formed in liquids * Collapsing can – an aluminium can is crushed by the atmospheric pressure surrounding it * Effects of high altitude on humans – Environmental effects on physiology * High-pressure area – In meteorology, an anticyclone * International Standard Atmosphere – Atmospheric model, a tabulation of typical variations of principal thermodynamic variables of the atmosphere (pressure, density, temperature, etc.) with altitude, at middle latitudes. * Low-pressure area – Area with air pressures lower than adjacent areas * Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting * NRLMSISE-00, an empirical, global reference atmospheric model of the Earth from ground to space * Plenum chamber – Chamber containing a fluid under pressure * Pressure – Force distributed over an area * Pressure measurement – Analysis of force applied by a fluid on a surface * Standard atmosphere (unit) – Unit of pressure defined as 101325 Pa * Horse latitudes – Latitudes 30–35 degrees north and south of the Equator ### Experiments * Movies on atmospheric pressure experiments from Georgia State University's HyperPhysics website – requires QuickTime * Test showing a can being crushed after boiling water inside it, then moving it into a tub of ice-cold water.

Atmospheric pressure

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure

**Christianity** is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers representing one-third of the global population. Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories, and believe that Jesus is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in the New Testament. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, and doctrinally diverse concerning justification and the nature of salvation, ecclesiology, ordination, and Christology. The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God—the Logos incarnated—who ministered, suffered, and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the salvation of humankind; and referred to as the gospel, meaning the "good news". Describing Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, with the Old Testament as the gospel's respected background. Christianity began in the 1st century after the birth of Jesus as a Judaic sect with Hellenistic influence, in the Roman province of Judea. The disciples of Jesus spread their faith around the Eastern Mediterranean area, despite significant persecution. The inclusion of Gentiles led Christianity to slowly separate from Judaism (2nd century). Emperor Constantine the Great decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the State church of the Roman Empire (380). The Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy both split over differences in Christology (5th century), while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East–West Schism (1054). Protestantism split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century). Following the Age of Discovery (15th–17th century), Christianity expanded throughout the world via missionary work, extensive trade and colonialism. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages. The six major branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (1.3 billion people), Protestantism (800 million), Eastern Orthodoxy (220 million), Oriental Orthodoxy (60 million), Restorationism (35 million), and the Church of the East (600 thousand). Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity (ecumenism). In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia. Etymology --------- Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' (Koinē Greek: τῆς ὁδοῦ, romanized: *tês hodoû*), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3, "prepare the way of the Lord". According to Acts 11:26, the term "Christian" (Χρῑστῐᾱνός, *Khrīstiānós*), meaning "followers of Christ" in reference to Jesus's disciples, was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" (Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός, *Khrīstiānismós*) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100 AD. Beliefs ------- While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based. ### Creeds Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. "Jesus is Lord" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the World Council of Churches. The Apostles' Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Western Rite Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Its points include: * Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit * The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ * The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints * Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful The Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism, at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. The Chalcedonian Definition, or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox, taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person. The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance". Most Christians (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above. Certain Evangelical Protestants, though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, and the Churches of Christ. ### Jesus The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the New Testament, he rose from the dead, ascended to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of the Messianic prophecy, including the resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and the final establishment of the Kingdom of God. According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament, because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds. #### Death and resurrection Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in history. Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. The New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", before Jesus' ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life. Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church. Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues. Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless". ### Salvation > > "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life". > > > — John 3:16, NIV Paul the Apostle, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life. For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise" The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the "children of God", and were therefore no longer "in the flesh". Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be saved from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to Eastern Orthodox theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus' recapitulation theory, Jesus' death is a ransom. This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of *theosis* c.q. divinization, becoming the kind of humans God wants humanity to be. According to Catholic doctrine, Jesus' death satisfies the wrath of God, aroused by the offense to God's honor caused by human's sinfulness. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized. In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a substitutionary penalty carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law. Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible. In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus. ### Trinity *Trinity* refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the *Father*, the *Son* (incarnate in Jesus Christ), and the *Holy Spirit*. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God". They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the New Testament, and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times. However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the Trinity is depicted in art, the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a cruciform halo identifying Christ, and in depictions of the Garden of Eden, this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some Early Christian sarcophagi the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent". The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century. According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each eternal and omnipotent. Other Christian religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share those views on the Trinity. The Greek word *trias* is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom". The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent, *trinitas*, appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian. In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen. #### Trinitarianism *Trinitarianism* denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate apprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons. #### Nontrinitarianism *Nontrinitarianism* (or *antitrinitarianism*) refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to disputes about Christology. Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the Gnosticism of the Cathars between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with Unitarian theology in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, in the 18th-century Enlightenment, amongst Restorationist groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century, and most recently, in Oneness Pentecostal churches. ### Eschatology The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth. Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies. #### Death and afterlife Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics, Orthodox and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death. In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence. Those who have attained this goal are called *saints* (Latin *sanctus*, "holy"). Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view. Practices --------- Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), prayer (including the Lord's Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services. Christian rites, rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Many ritualistic Christian churches make a distinction between sacred language, liturgical language and vernacular language. The three important languages in the early Christian era were: Latin, Greek and Syriac. ### Communal worship Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy. Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his *First Apology* (c. 150) to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship: > And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. > > Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels. Instruction is given based on these readings, in the form of a sermon or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. Psalms, hymns, worship songs, and other church music may be sung. Services can be varied for special events like significant feast days. Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and gave them wine saying, "This is my blood". In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service. Some denominations such as Confessional Lutheran churches continue to practice 'closed communion'. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin. Many other churches, such as Anglican Communion and the Methodist Churches (such as the Free Methodist Church and United Methodist Church), practice 'open communion' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate. ### Sacraments or ordinances 2nd-century description of the Eucharist > > And this food is called among us *Eukharistia* [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. > > > Justin Martyr In Christian belief and practice, a *sacrament* is a rite, instituted by Christ, that confers grace, constituting a sacred mystery. The term is derived from the Latin word *sacramentum*, which was used to translate the Greek word for *mystery*. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions. The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are Baptism and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: Confirmation (Chrismation in the Eastern tradition), Holy Orders (or ordination), Penance (or Confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Matrimony (see Christian views on marriage). Taken together, these are the Seven Sacraments as recognized by churches in the High Church tradition—notably Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, many Anglicans, and some Lutherans. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology. Certain denominations of Christianity, such as Anabaptists, use the term "ordinances" to refer to rites instituted by Jesus for Christians to observe. Seven ordinances have been taught in many Conservative Mennonite Anabaptist churches, which include "baptism, communion, footwashing, marriage, anointing with oil, the holy kiss, and the prayer covering". In addition to this, the Church of the East has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include Holy Leaven (Melka) and the sign of the cross. * A penitent confessing his sins in a Ukrainian Catholic churchA penitent confessing his sins in a Ukrainian Catholic church * A Methodist minister celebrating the EucharistA Methodist minister celebrating the Eucharist * Confirmation being administered in an Anglican churchConfirmation being administered in an Anglican church * Ordination of a priest in the Eastern Orthodox traditionOrdination of a priest in the Eastern Orthodox tradition * Mystery of Crowning during Holy Matrimony in the Syro-Malabar Catholic ChurchMystery of Crowning during Holy Matrimony in the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church * Service of the Sacrament of Holy Unction served on Great and Holy WednesdayService of the Sacrament of Holy Unction served on Great and Holy Wednesday ### Liturgical calendar Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the liturgical year. The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of seasons, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of paraments and vestments for clergy, scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home. Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective rites. Calendars set aside holy days, such as solemnities which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary, or the saints, and periods of fasting, such as Lent and other pious events such as memoria, or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations such as Quaker Christians make no use of a liturgical calendar. ### Symbols Most Christian denominations have not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols. The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times. Tertullian, in his book *De Corona*, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads. Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century. Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century. Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word *ichthys* (fish) forming an acrostic for the Greek phrase *Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter* (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ), (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith. Other major Christian symbols include the chi-rho monogram, the dove and olive branch (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the vine (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament. ### Baptism Infant baptism by effusion in a Catholic Church in VenezuelaBeliever's baptism of adult by immersion, Northolt Park Baptist Church, in Greater London, Baptist Union of Great Britain Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the Church. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Baptists and Plymouth Brethren view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology (or mode) of the act. These modes are: by *immersion*; if immersion is total, by *submersion*; by affusion (pouring); and by aspersion (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of infant baptism; the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Lutheran Church and the Catholic Church also practice infant baptism, usually by affusion, and utilizing the Trinitarian formula. Anabaptist Christians practice believer's baptism, in which an adult chooses to receive the ordinance after making a decision to follow Jesus. Anabaptist denominations such as the Mennonites, Amish and Hutterites use pouring as the mode to administer believer's baptism, whereas Anabaptists of the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions baptize by immersion. ### Prayer > > "... ‘Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil’". > > > — The Lord's Prayer, Matthew 6:9–13, EHV In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer. The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the *Didache* and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm. In the second century *Apostolic Tradition*, Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray at seven fixed prayer times: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion". Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and prostrations have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church. Breviaries such as the Shehimo and Agpeya are used by Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer. The *Apostolic Tradition* directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation. *Intercessory prayer* is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people. In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah. The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying. The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Lutheran and Anglican churches. Apart from certain sectors within the latter two denominations, other Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ. The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous. According to the *Catechism of the Catholic Church*: "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God". The *Book of Common Prayer* in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms. Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony. At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in. Scriptures ---------- Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in 2 Timothy 3:16 is *theopneustos*, which literally means "God-breathed". Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles inerrant. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version. Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science. The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the Tanakh (the canon of the Hebrew Bible), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the deuterocanonical books which appear in the Septuagint, the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic; Protestants regard the latter as apocryphal, important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches. Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and *Divine Principle* in the Unification Church. ### Catholic interpretation In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called *theoria*) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning. Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual. The *literal* sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The *spiritual* sense is further subdivided into: * The *allegorical* sense, which includes typology. An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism. * The *moral* sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. * The *anagogical* sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world. Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds: * The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the *literal* * That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held * That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church" and * That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome". ### Protestant interpretation #### Qualities of Scripture Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of *sola scriptura*—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation; other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of *prima scriptura* which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible. Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness". He advocated for "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture". John Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light". Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life. #### Original intended meaning of Scripture Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method. The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text. This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations. The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture". Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics. Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology. History ------- ### Early Christianity #### Apostolic Age Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism. An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, the brother of Jesus, Peter, and John. Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook, which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments. Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ, and participation in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed. At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion. #### Ante-Nicene period This formative period was followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of Christ's apostles. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and the study of them is called patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Persecution of Christians occurred intermittently and on a small scale by both Jewish and Roman authorities, with Roman action starting at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the New Testament include the deaths of Saint Stephen and James, son of Zebedee. The Decian persecution was the first empire-wide conflict, when the edict of Decius in 250 AD required everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods. The Diocletianic Persecution beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan. While Proto-orthodox Christianity was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs. Gnostic Christianity developed a duotheistic doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin. With only a few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most Gnostic texts and Gnostic gospels were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians. A gradual splitting off of Gentile Christianity left Jewish Christians continuing to follow the Law of Moses, including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the Jewish–Christian gospels would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity. #### Spread and acceptance in Roman Empire Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire, including Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage. Mark the Evangelist is claimed to have started the Church of Alexandria in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo. King Tiridates III made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314, thus Armenia became the first officially Christian state. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier. Constantine I was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed. During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only five percent of the Roman population. Influenced by his adviser Mardonius, Constantine's nephew Julian unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity. On 27 February 380, Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II established Nicene Christianity as the State church of the Roman Empire. As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land. Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and many other Protestant churches. Nicaea was the first of a series of ecumenical councils, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning Christology. The Church of the East did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors (Assyrian Church of the East). In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization, and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture. There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek. Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance. The later rise of Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa and the Nubian Church in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia). ### Middle Ages #### Early Middle Ages With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals. The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While Arianists instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the Massacre of Verden, for example), what would later become Catholicism also spread among the Hungarians, the Germanic, the Celtic, the Baltic and some Slavic peoples. Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and Kingdom of Italy culture and Benedict of Nursia set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. Monasticism became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in Ireland, Scotland, and Gaul, contributing to the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. In the 7th century, Muslims conquered Syria (including Jerusalem), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to Islam, and placing the rest under a separate legal status. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with Persia. Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of Carolingian leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the Frankish Kingdom. The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration. In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny. #### High and Late Middle Ages In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools became universities (see, for example, University of Oxford, University of Paris and University of Bologna). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (*Scholae monasticae*), led by monks and nuns. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century CE. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans, founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic, respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the Cistercians, whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the impulse to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished. From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the First Crusade was launched. These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the so-called Latin or Western Christian branch (the Catholic Church), and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches. In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe. Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution. ### Modern era #### Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the *Ninety-five Theses* 1517 against the sale of indulgences. Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches. Other reformers like Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices. The Reformation in England began in 1534, when King Henry VIII had himself declared head of the Church of England. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved. Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations. Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. Lutheranism spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, Livonia, and Scandinavia. Anglicanism was established in England in 1534. Calvinism and its varieties, such as Presbyterianism, were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. Arminianism gained followers in the Netherlands and Frisia. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration. In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution. Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle. #### Post-Enlightenment In the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies, such as versions of socialism and liberalism. Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism. Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church. The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent, often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the *Kulturkampf*. Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own, particularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians, most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon. Demographics ------------ With around 2.4 billion adherents according to a 2020 estimation by Pew Research Center, split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion. High birth rates and conversions in the global South were cited as the reasons for the Christian population growth. The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on Earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, within the next four decades, Christianity will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to some scholars, Christianity ranks at first place in net gains through religious conversion. As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world. The so-called *popular Protestantism* is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world. Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity. Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics. And if in 2018, the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow, as will other religious groups. According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1 billion African Christians by 2050. In 2010, 87% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the majority, while 13% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the minority. Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa. There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, East Timor, and the Philippines. However, it is declining in some areas including the northern and western United States, some areas in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration, and Macau). The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the southern United States, and the province of Alberta, Canada, but the percentage is decreasing. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been stable or even increased in the Central and Eastern European countries. Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentage in China, other Asian countries, Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, Eastern Europe, North Africa (Maghreb), Gulf Cooperation Council countries, and Oceania. Despite a decline in adherence in the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the region, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity remains the largest religion in Western Europe, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018. A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians. By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had Christian majorities. There are many charismatic movements that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia. Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America. From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelical Protestants grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey from the University of Melbourne, since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the Evangelical and Pentecostal forms. A study conducted by St. Mary's University estimated about 10.2 million Muslim converts to Christianity in 2015; according to the study significant numbers of Muslim converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Central Asia (including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other countries), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and other countries), North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia), Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United Kingdom, the United States, and other western countries). It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Asia; according to a report by the Singapore Management University, more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them young and having a university degree. According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam there is a "rapid expansion" of Christianity in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea. According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since the 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea, and Vietnam. In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades. Some sources view this as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general. Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion. According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more. Conversely, according to the World Values Survey, about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians, and about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly. According to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center, Christians in Africa and Latin America and the United States have high levels of commitment to their faith. Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic), Costa Rica (Catholic), the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran), England (Anglican), Greece (Greek Orthodox), Iceland (Lutheran), Liechtenstein (Catholic), Malta (Catholic), Monaco (Catholic), Norway (Lutheran), Samoa, Tonga (Methodist), Tuvalu (Reformed), and Vatican City (Catholic). There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination. Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2020 data)| Tradition | Followers |  % of the Christian population |  % of the world population | Follower dynamics | Dynamics in- and outside Christianity | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Catholic Church | 1,329,610,000 | 50.1 | 15.9 | Increase Growing | Increase Growing | | Protestantism | 900,640,000 | 36.7 | 11.6 | Increase Growing | Increase Growing | | Eastern Orthodox Church | 220,380,000 | 11.9 | 3.8 | Increase Growing | Decrease Declining | | Other Christianity | 28,430,000 | 1.3 | 0.4 | Increase Growing | Increase Growing | | Christianity | 2,382,750,000 | 100 | 31.7 | Increase Growing | Steady Stable | **Christians (self-described) by region** (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)| Region | Christians |  % Christian | | --- | --- | --- | | Europe | 558,260,000 | 75.2 | | Latin America–Caribbean | 531,280,000 | 90.0 | | Sub-Saharan Africa | 517,340,000 | 62.9 | | Asia Pacific | 286,950,000 | 7.1 | | North America | 266,630,000 | 77.4 | | Middle East–North Africa | 12,710,000 | 3.7 | | World | 2,173,180,000 | 31.5 | Regional median ages of Christians compared with overall median ages (Pew Research Center, 2010 data)| | Christian median age in region (years) | Regional median age (years) | | --- | --- | --- | | World | 30 | 29 | | Sub-Saharan Africa | 19 | 18 | | Latin America-Caribbean | 27 | 27 | | Asia-Pacific | 28 | 29 | | Middle East-North Africa | 29 | 24 | | North America | 39 | 37 | | Europe | 42 | 40 | * Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink.Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink. * Nations with Christianity as their state religion are in blue.Nations with Christianity as their state religion are in blue. * Distribution of CatholicsDistribution of Catholics * Distribution of ProtestantsDistribution of Protestants * Distribution of Eastern OrthodoxDistribution of Eastern Orthodox * Distribution of Oriental OrthodoxDistribution of Oriental Orthodox * Distribution of other ChristiansDistribution of other Christians Churches and denominations -------------------------- Christianity can be taxonomically divided into six main groups: Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East, and Restorationism. A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, which has its origins in the East–West Schism (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western or Eastern World Christianity has also stood out, for example, in African-initiated churches. However, there are other present and historical Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories. There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations. The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant (such as Lutheran and Anglican) denominations. Major denominational families in Christianity: *Western Christianity* *Eastern Christianity* Protestantism Anabaptism Anglicanism Calvinism Lutheranism (Latin Church) Catholic Church (Eastern Catholic Churches) Eastern Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Church Church of the East Schism *(1552)* Assyrian Church of the East Ancient Church of the East Protestant Reformation *(16th century)* Great Schism *(11th century)* Council of Ephesus *(431)* Council of Chalcedon *(451)* *Early Christianity* *Great Church* (Full communion) (Not shown are non-Nicene, nontrinitarian, and some restorationist denominations.) ### Catholic Church The Catholic Church consists of those particular churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance. Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ. Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities and works towards reconciliation among all Christians. The Catholic faith is detailed in the *Catechism of the Catholic Church*. Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions. Its teaching includes Divine Mercy, sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasises voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates thousands of Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. Canon law (Latin: *jus canonicum*) is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system, and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches *sui iuris.* As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The 2,834 sees are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments. With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1% all Christians as well as one sixth of the world's population. Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions. ### Eastern Orthodox Church The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches. Eastern Orthodox theology is based on holy tradition which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven Ecumenical Councils, the Scriptures, and the teaching of the Church Fathers. The church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Its patriarchates, reminiscent of the pentarchy, and other autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation. It recognises seven major sacraments, of which the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in synaxis. The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the God-bearer, honoured in devotions. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 230 million adherents, although Protestants collectively outnumber them, substantially. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East. The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live mainly in Southeast and Eastern Europe, Cyprus, Georgia, and parts of the Caucasus region, Siberia, and the Russian Far East. Over half of Eastern Orthodox Christians follow the Russian Orthodox Church, while the vast majority live within Russia. There are also communities in the former Byzantine regions of Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, and in the Middle East. Eastern Orthodox communities are also present in many other parts of the world, particularly North America, Western Europe, and Australia, formed through diaspora, conversions, and missionary activity. ### Oriental Orthodoxy The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology. The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches. These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically. These churches are generally not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion. Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide. As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia, Egypt, Turkey, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan and parts of the Middle East and India. An Eastern Christian body of autocephalous churches, its bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination, and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils. Some Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other Christian denominations, and its followers adhere to certain practices: following dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut, require that their male members undergo circumcision, and observes ritual purification. ### Church of the East The Church of the East, which was part of the Great Church, shared communion with those in the Roman Empire until the Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorius in 431. Continuing as a *dhimmi* community under the Sunni Caliphate after the Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654), the Church of the East played a major role in the history of Christianity in Asia. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest Christian denomination in terms of geographical extent. It established dioceses and communities stretching from the Mediterranean Sea and today's Iraq and Iran, to India (the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of Kerala), the Mongol kingdoms in Central Asia, and China during the Tang dynasty (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the Mongol Empire, where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court. The Assyrian Church of the East, with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent Eastern Christian denomination which claims continuity from the Church of the East—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the Chaldean Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Pope. It is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East. Largely aniconic and not in communion with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity, and uses the East Syriac Rite in its liturgy. Its main spoken language is Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic, and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians, mostly living in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, India (Chaldean Syrian Church), and in the Assyrian diaspora. It is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient Assyria. Its hierarchy is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops, while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia). The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964. It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia. It is officially headquartered in the city of Baghdad, Iraq. The majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians. ### Protestantism In 1521, the Edict of Worms condemned Martin Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the Reformation. Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin. The 1529 Protestation at Speyer against being excommunicated gave this party the name Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are referred to as the Reformed tradition. Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields. The Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organized in the Anglican Communion. Some, but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic. Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the "Magisterial Reformation". On the other hand, groups such as the Anabaptists, who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the Radical Reformation, which though sometimes protected under *Acts of Toleration*, do not trace their history back to any state church. They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—credobaptism (Anabaptists include the Amish, Apostolic, Bruderhof, Mennonites, Hutterites, River Brethren and Schwarzenau Brethren groups.) The term *Protestant* also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions. In the 18th century, for example, Methodism grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical revival movement. Several Pentecostal and non-denominational churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of Methodism. Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior", which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth, they often refer to themselves as being born-again. Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination. Estimates vary, mainly over the question of which denominations to classify as Protestant. Yet, the total number of Protestant Christians is generally estimated between 800 million and 1 billion, corresponding to nearly 40% of the world's Christians. The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. Adventists, Anglicans, Baptists, Reformed (Calvinists), Lutherans, Methodists, Moravians/Hussites, and Pentecostals. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, neo-charismatic, independent, and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Historical chart of the main Protestant branches Historical chart of the main Protestant branches ### Restorationism The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches. A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy. In Asia, Iglesia ni Cristo is a known restorationist religion that was established during the early 1900s. Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly. ### Other Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century; the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era. They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism. Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church, include the word *Catholic* in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church, but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See. Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobors and Molokans, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism. Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs. Esoteric Christians, such as The Christian Community, regard Christianity as a mystery religion and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices, hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people. Nondenominational Christianity or non-denominational Christianity consists of churches which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities by not formally aligning with a specific Christian denomination. Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, with followers organizing themselves as "Christians" and "Disciples of Christ", but many typically adhere to evangelical Christianity. Cultural influence ------------------ Christian culture*Clockwise from top*: Sistine chapel ceiling, Notre-Dame cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox wedding, *Christ the Redeemer* statue, Nativity scene The history of the Christendom spans about 1,700 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, and technology. Since the spread of Christianity from the Levant to Europe and North Africa during the early Roman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West. Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centred around the cities of Rome (Western Christianity) and Carthage, whose communities were called Western or Latin Christendom, and Constantinople (Eastern Christianity), Antioch (Syriac Christianity), Kerala (Indian Christianity) and Alexandria (Coptic Christianity), whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom. The Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Eastern Christian civilization. From the 11th to 13th centuries, Latin Christendom rose to the central role of the Western world. The Bible has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of Western law, art, texts, and education. With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of personal hygiene to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more. Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy, science and technology, medicine, fine arts and architecture, politics, literatures, music, and business. According to *100 Years of Nobel Prizes* a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world (particularly Jacobite and Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Umayyad and the Abbasid, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic. They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine. Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians in the Middle East have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Mashriq, Turkey, and Iran. ### Influence on Western culture Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity. Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music, Christian literature, and so on. Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many Catholic clergy, Jesuits in particular, have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science. Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution. Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, contribution to the medical and health care, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), architecture, politics, literature, personal hygiene (ablution), and family life. Historically, *extended families* were the basic family unit in the Christian culture and countries. Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion. *Postchristianity* is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies. Ecumenism --------- Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways. One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics. The other way was an institutional union with united churches, a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada, and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches. The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom. The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions. The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation". The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually. Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration. Criticism, persecution, and apologetics --------------------------------------- ### Criticism Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g. Matthew 15:1–20 and Mark 7:1–23). In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life. Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God in Judaism is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs. One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote *The True Word*, a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society. In response, the church father Origen published his treatise *Contra Celsum*, or *Against Celsus*, a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability. By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies. The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume *Adversus Christianos* as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus. By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body. In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life. In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in *Why I Am Not a Christian*, formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments. Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism. New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in *The Christ Myth Theory and its problems*. ### Persecution Christians are one of the most persecuted religious groups in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia. In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution" with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians. In 2019, a report commissioned by the United Kingdom's Secretary of State of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America, among others, and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states. This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians. ### Apologetics Christian apologetics aims to present a rational basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός *apologētikos*) comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι *apologeomai*, meaning "(I) speak in defense of". Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the *Summa Theologica*, while his *Summa contra Gentiles* was a major apologetic work. Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion. He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality. The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his *Questions of Truth*, discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God. Creationist apologetics is apologetics that aims to defend creationism. See also -------- * Outline of Christianity * Christian atheism * Christianity and Islam * Christianity and Judaism * Christianity and politics * Christian mythology * Christianisation * One true church * Prophets of Christianity ### Bibliography * Bahnsen, Greg. *A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics* (article 6) Archived 4 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine. * Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). *The Essential Jesus*. Pacific Press (2002). ISBN 0816319294. * Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others. (ed.). *World Christian Encyclopedia*. Oxford University Press (2001). * Barry, John F. *One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief*. William H. Sadlier (2001). ISBN 0821522078 * Benton, John. *Is Christianity True?* Darlington, Eng.: Evangelical Press (1988). ISBN 0-85234-260-8 * Bettenson, Henry (ed.). *Documents of the Christian Church*. Oxford University Press (1943). * Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). *A Concise History of the Catholic Church*. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0385505840. * Browning, Robert (1992). *The Byzantine Empire*. Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 978-0813207544. * Cameron, Averil (2006). *The Byzantines*. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1405198332. * Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. *The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period*. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). ISBN 0394317343. * Coffey, John. *Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689*. Pearson Education (2000). * Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A. (ed.). *The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church*. Oxford University Press (1997). ISBN 019211655X. * Deppermann, Klaus. *Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation*. ISBN 0567086542. * Dilasser, Maurice. *The Symbols of the Church*. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). ISBN 081462538X * Duffy, Eamon. *Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes*. Yale University Press (1997). ISBN 0300073321 * Elwell, Walter; Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001). *Tyndale Bible Dictionary*. Tyndale House Publishers. ISBN 0-8423-7089-7. * Esler, Philip F. *The Early Christian World*. Routledge (2004). * Farrar, F.W. *Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?"*. Macmillan, London/New York (1904). * Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David, eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (1988). ISBN 0-85110-636-6 * Foutz, Scott. *Martin Luther and Scripture*. * Fowler, Jeaneane D. *World Religions: An Introduction for Students*, Sussex Academic Press (1997). ISBN 1898723486. * Fuller, Reginald H. *The Foundations of New Testament Christology* Scribners (1965). ISBN 068415532X. * Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, *Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church*, Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) ISBN 157075375X * Funk, Robert. *The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?*. Polebridge Press (1998). ISBN 0060629789. * Glenny, W. Edward. *Typology: A Summary of the Present Evangelical Discussion*. * González, Justo L. (1984). *The Story of Christianity* (1st ed.). Harper & Row. ISBN 0060633158. * Hanegraaff, Hank. *Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity*. Thomas Nelson (2000). ISBN 0849916437. * Harnack, Adolf von. *History of Dogma* (1894). * Hickman, Hoyt L. and others. *Handbook of the Christian Year*. Abingdon Press (1986). ISBN 068716575X * Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. *Geography of Religion*. National Geographic Society (2004) ISBN 0792273133 * Kelly, J.N.D. *Early Christian Doctrines*. * Kelly, J.N.D. *The Athanasian Creed*. Harper & Row, New York (1964). * Kirsch, Jonathan. *God Against the Gods*. * Kreeft, Peter. *Catholic Christianity*. Ignatius Press (2001) ISBN 0898707986 * Letham, Robert. *The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship*. P & R Publishing (2005). ISBN 0875520006. * Lorenzen, Thorwald. *Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today*. Smyth & Helwys (2003). ISBN 1573123994. * McLaughlin, R. Emmet, *Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540*, New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). ISBN 0300033672. * MacCulloch, Diarmaid, *The Reformation: A History*. Viking Adult (2004). * MacCulloch, Diarmaid, *A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years*. London, Allen Lane. 2009. ISBN 978-0713998696 * Marber, Peter. *Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles*. FT Press (2003). ISBN 0130654809 * Marthaler, Berard. *Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues*. Paulist Press (1994). ISBN 0809134950 * Mathison, Keith. *The Shape of Sola Scriptura* (2001). * McClintock, John, *Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature*. Harper &Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889) * McManners, John. *Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity*. Oxford University Press (1990). ISBN 0198229283. * Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). *Oxford Companion to the Bible*. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0195046455. * Mullin, Robert Bruce (2008). *A short world history of Christianity*. Westminster John Knox Press.. * Norman, Edward. *The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History*. University of California (2007) ISBN 978-0520252516 * Olson, Roger E., *The Mosaic of Christian Belief*. InterVarsity Press (2002). ISBN 978-0830826957. * Orlandis, Jose, *A Short History of the Catholic Church*. Scepter Publishers (1993) ISBN 1851821252 * Otten, Herman J. *Baal or God? Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs. Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today*.... Second ed. New Haven, Mo.: Lutheran News, 1988. * Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) *Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition*. Yale University Press (2003). ISBN 0300093896. * Putnam, Robert D. *Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society*. Oxford University Press (2002). * Ricciotti, Giuseppe (1999). *Julian the Apostate: Roman Emperor (361–363)*. TAN Books. ISBN 978-1505104547. * Riley-Smith, Jonathan. *The Oxford History of the Crusades*. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999). * Schama, Simon. *A History of Britain*. Hyperion (2000). ISBN 0786866756. * Servetus, Michael. *Restoration of Christianity*. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007). * Simon, Edith. *Great Ages of Man: The Reformation*. Time-Life Books (1966). ISBN 0662278208. * Spitz, Lewis. *The Protestant Reformation*. Concordia Publishing House (2003). ISBN 0570033209. * Spurgeon, Charles. *A Defense of Calvinism*. * Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. *The Study of Anglicanism*. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). ISBN 080063151X. * Talbott, Thomas. *Three Pictures of God in Western Theology* (1995). * Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). *The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000*. Cambridge University Press (2003). * Walsh, Chad. *Campus Gods on Trial*. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: Macmillan Co., 1962, t.p. 1964. xiv, [4], 154 p. * White, James F. (2010). *Introduction to Christian Worship Third Edition: Revised and Expanded* (3rd ed.). Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-1426722851. * Woodhead, Linda (2004). *Christianity: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192803221. * Lim, Timothy H. (2017) [2005]. *The Dead Sea Scrolls: a very short introduction* (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198779520. LCCN 2016953719. OCLC 978451657. * Woods, Thomas E. (2005). *How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization*. Washington, DC: Regnery. * Riches, John (2000). *The Bible: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192853431. Further reading --------------- * Challoner, Richard (1801). "Rules for a Christian Life". *Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month*. T. Haydock. * Gill, Robin (2001). *The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521779180. * Gunton, Colin E. (1997). *The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521476959. * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. *Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years* (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pp.; survey by leading historian * MacMullen, Ramsay (2006). *Voting About God in Early Church Councils*. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300115963. * Padgett, Alan G.; Bruyneel, Sally (2003). *Introducing Christianity*. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-1570753954. * Price, Matthew Arlen; Collins, Michael (1999). *The story of Christianity*. New York: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0751304671. * Ratzinger, Joseph (2004). *Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books)*. San Francisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1586170295. * Roper, J.C., *Bp*. (1923), *et al.*. *Faith in God*, in series, *Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada*, vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. *N.B*.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover. * Robinson, George (2000). *Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals*. New York: Pocket Books. ISBN 978-0671034818. * Rüegg, Walter (1992). *"Foreword. The University as a European Institution," in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521361052. * Tucker, Karen; Wainwright, Geoffrey (2006). *The Oxford history of Christian worship*. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195138863. * Verger, Jacques (1999). *Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles* (1st ed.). Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes. ISBN 978-2868473448. * Wagner, Richard (2004). *Christianity for Dummies*. For Dummies. ISBN 978-0764544828. * Webb, Jeffrey B. (2004). *The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity*. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-1592571765. * Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, *The New Testament: A Translation*, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), *The New York Review of Books*, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.

Christianity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity

***Resident Evil***, or ***Biohazard*** in Japan and Southeast Asia, is a Japanese horror game media franchise created by Capcom. It consists of survival horror, third-person shooter and first-person shooter games, with players typically surviving in environments inhabited by zombies and other frightening creatures. The franchise has expanded into other media, including a live-action film series, animated films, television series, comic books, novels, audio dramas and merchandise. *Resident Evil* is the highest-grossing horror franchise. The first *Resident Evil* was created by Shinji Mikami and Tokuro Fujiwara and released for the PlayStation in 1996. It is credited for defining the survival horror genre and returning zombies to popular culture. With *Resident Evil 4* (2005), the franchise shifted to more dynamic shooting action, achieved acclaim and influenced the evolution of the survival horror and third-person genres, popularizing the "over-the-shoulder" third-person view. After *Resident Evil 5* (2009) and *Resident Evil 6* (2012) received mixed reviews, the franchise returned to survival horror with *Resident Evil 7: Biohazard* (2017) and *Resident Evil Village* (2021), which used a first-person perspective. Capcom has released four *Resident Evil* remakes: *Resident Evil* (2002), *Resident Evil 2* (2019), *Resident Evil 3* (2020) and *Resident Evil 4* (2023). *Resident Evil* is Capcom's best-selling franchise and the best-selling horror game series, with 142 million copies sold worldwide as of March 31 2023. The first *Resident Evil* film was released in 2002, followed by five sequels and a 2021 reboot, *Welcome to Raccoon City*. The films have received mostly negative reviews, but have grossed more than $1.2 billion, making *Resident Evil* the third-highest-grossing video game film series. History ------- Release timeline| 1996 | ***Resident Evil*** | | 1997 | | 1998 | ***Resident Evil 2*** | | 1999 | ***Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*** | | 2000 | *Resident Evil Survivor* | | ***Resident Evil – Code: Veronica*** | | 2001 | *Resident Evil Survivor 2 – Code: Veronica* | | *Resident Evil Gaiden* | | 2002 | ***Resident Evil*** (remake) | | ***Resident Evil Zero*** | | 2003 | *Resident Evil: Dead Aim* | | *Resident Evil Outbreak* | | 2004 | *Resident Evil Outbreak: File #2* | | 2005 | ***Resident Evil 4*** | | 2006 | | 2007 | *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles* | | 2008 | | 2009 | ***Resident Evil 5*** | | *Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles* | | 2010 | | 2011 | *Resident Evil: The Mercenaries 3D* | | 2012 | *Resident Evil: Revelations* | | *Resident Evil: Operation Raccoon City* | | ***Resident Evil 6*** | | 2013 | | 2014 | | 2015 | *Resident Evil: Revelations 2* | | 2016 | *Umbrella Corps* | | 2017 | ***Resident Evil 7: Biohazard*** | | 2018 | | 2019 | ***Resident Evil 2*** (remake) | | 2020 | ***Resident Evil 3*** (remake) | | *Resident Evil: Resistance* | | 2021 | ***Resident Evil Village*** | | 2022 | *Resident Evil Re:Verse* | | 2023 | ***Resident Evil 4*** (remake) | The development of the first *Resident Evil*, released as *Biohazard* in Japan, began in 1993 when Capcom's Tokuro Fujiwara told Shinji Mikami and other co-workers to create a game using elements from Fujiwara's 1989 game *Sweet Home* on the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). When in late 1994 marketing executives were setting up to release *Biohazard* in the United States, it was pointed out that securing the rights to the name *Biohazard* would be very difficult as a DOS game had been registered under that name, as well as a New York hardcore punk band called Biohazard. A contest was held among company personnel to choose a new name; this competition turned up *Resident Evil*, the name under which it was released in the west. *Resident Evil* made its debut on the PlayStation in 1996 and was later ported to the Sega Saturn. The first entry in the series was the first game to be dubbed a "survival horror", a term coined for the new genre it initiated, and its critical and commercial success led to the production of two sequels, *Resident Evil 2* in 1998 and *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis* in 1999, both for the PlayStation. A port of *Resident Evil 2* was released for the Nintendo 64. In addition, ports of all three were released for Windows. The fourth game in the series, *Resident Evil – Code: Veronica*, was developed for the Dreamcast and released in 2000, followed by ports of *Resident Evil 2* and *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*. *Resident Evil – Code: Veronica* was later re-released for Dreamcast in Japan in an updated form as *Code: Veronica Complete*, which included slight changes, many of which revolved around story cutscenes. This updated version was later ported to the PlayStation 2 and GameCube under the title *Code: Veronica X*. Despite earlier announcements that the next game in the series would be released for the PlayStation 2, which resulted in the creation of an unrelated game titled *Devil May Cry*, series' creator and producer Shinji Mikami decided to make the series exclusively for the GameCube. The next three games in the series—a remake of the original *Resident Evil* and the prequel *Resident Evil Zero*, both released in 2002, as well as *Resident Evil 4* (2005)—were all released initially as GameCube exclusives. *Resident Evil 4* was later released for Windows, PlayStation 2, and Wii. A trilogy of GunCon-compatible light gun games known as the *Gun Survivor* series featured first-person gameplay. The first, *Resident Evil Survivor*, was released in 2000 for the PlayStation and PC but received mediocre reviews. The subsequent games, *Resident Evil Survivor 2 – Code: Veronica* and *Resident Evil: Dead Aim*, fared somewhat better. *Dead Aim* is the fourth *Gun Survivor* game in Japan, with *Gun Survivor 3* being the *Dino Crisis* spin-off *Dino Stalker*. In a similar vein, the *Chronicles* series features first-person gameplay, albeit on an on-rails path. *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles* was released in 2007 for the Wii, with a sequel, *Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles* released in 2009 (both were later ported to the PlayStation 3 in 2012). Also in 2009, *Resident Evil 5* was released for PlayStation 3, Windows and Xbox 360, becoming the best selling game of the franchise despite mixed fan reception. *Resident Evil Outbreak* is an online game for the PlayStation 2, released in 2003, depicting a series of episodic storylines in Raccoon City set during the same period as *Resident Evil 2* and *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*. It was the first in the series and the first survival horror title to feature cooperative gameplay. It was followed by a sequel, *Resident Evil Outbreak: File #2*. Raccoon City is a metropolis located in the Arklay Mountains of the Midwestern United States that succumbed to the deadly T-virus outbreak and was consequently destroyed via a nuclear missile attack issued by the United States government. The town served as a critical junction for the series' progression as one of the main catalysts to Umbrella's downfall and the entry point for some of the series' most notable characters. *Resident Evil Gaiden* is an action-adventure game for the Game Boy Color featuring a role-playing-style combat system. There have been several downloadable mobile games based on the *Resident Evil* series in Japan. Some of these mobile games have been released in North America and Europe through T-Mobile. At the Sony press conference during E3 2009, *Resident Evil Portable* was announced for the PlayStation Portable, described as an all-new title being developed with "the PSP Go in mind" and "totally different for a *Resident Evil* game". No further announcements have been made, and the game is considered to have been canceled. Capcom revealed the third-person shooter *Resident Evil: Operation Raccoon City*, which was developed by Slant Six Games for the PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and Windows and released in March 2012. A survival horror game for the Nintendo 3DS, *Resident Evil: Revelations*, was released in February 2012. In October of the same year, the next numbered entry in the main series, *Resident Evil 6*, was released to mixed reviews, but enthusiastic pre-order sales. In 2013, producer Masachika Kawata said the *Resident Evil* franchise would return to focus on elements of horror and suspense over action, adding that "survival horror as a genre is never going to be on the same level, financially, as shooters and much more popular, mainstream games. At the same time, I think we need to have the confidence to put money behind these projects, and it doesn't mean we can't focus on what we need to do as a survival horror game to meet fan's needs." *Resident Evil: Revelations 2*, an episodic game set between *Resident Evil 5* and *Resident Evil 6*, was released in March 2015. A series of team-based multiplayer games were developed beginning with the poorly received *Umbrella Corps*, which was released in June 2016. *Resident Evil: Resistance* was released in April 2020, followed by *Resident Evil Re:Verse* in October 2022, with both being available for free to those who bought *Resident Evil 3* and *Village* respectively. Using the new RE Engine, which would develop the next generation of *Resident Evil* games, the series continued to shift back towards more horror elements. The next mainline game, *Resident Evil 7: Biohazard* was released for Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One in January 2017. Set in a dilapidated mansion in Louisiana, the game uses a first-person perspective and emphasizes horror and exploration over action, unlike previous installments. The first-person perspective continued in the eighth mainline game *Resident Evil Village.* Released in May 2021, the game, set in a mysterious European village, is a direct sequel to *Resident Evil 7: Biohazard* although it incorporates more action elements inspired from *Resident Evil 4*. The game also marked the franchise's debut on PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S A new generation of remakes of older entries began in 2019 with a remake of *Resident Evil 2*, being released for the PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One. The remake outsold the original game within a year, selling over five million copies. Following in the success of the *Resident Evil 2* remake, Capcom revealed a remake of *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis* in December 2019, known as *Resident Evil 3*. It was released in April 2020. In June 2022, a remake of *Resident Evil 4* was announced and released on March 24, 2023 for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S, and PC. Story ----- The early *Resident Evil* games focused on the Umbrella Corporation, an international pharmaceutical company that secretly develops mutagenic viruses to further their "bio-organic weapons" (BOW) research. The company's viruses can transform humans into mindless zombies while also mutating plants and animals into horrifying monstrosities. The Umbrella Corporation uses its vast resources to effectively control Raccoon City, a fictional midwestern American city. In the original *Resident Evil*, members of an elite police task force, Special Tactics and Rescue Service (STARS), are lured to a derelict mansion on the outskirts of Raccoon City. The STARS team is mostly decimated by zombies and other BOWs, leaving only a handful of survivors, including Chris Redfield, Jill Valentine, and Albert Wesker. Chris and Jill explore the zombie-infested mansion and uncover a secret underground Umbrella research facility. Wesker reveals himself to be a double agent for Umbrella and betrays his comrades. However, Wesker is seemingly murdered by a Tyrant, a special BOW that is the culmination of the Umbrella Corporation's research. Chris and Jill escape the mansion, but their testimony is ridiculed by Raccoon City's officials due to Umbrella's influence. Meanwhile, a separate viral outbreak occurs in another Umbrella research facility underneath Raccoon City. Most of the city's residents are infected and become zombies. *Resident Evil 2* introduces two new protagonists, Leon S. Kennedy, a rookie police officer and Claire Redfield, the younger sister of Chris. Leon and Claire arrive in Raccoon City amidst the chaos of the viral outbreak. Leon is aided by Ada Wong, a corporate spy posing as an FBI agent, while Claire rescues Sherry Birkin, the daughter of two prominent Umbrella researchers. At the same time, Jill makes her escape from the city in *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*. She is relentlessly pursued by a new Tyrant, Nemesis, who is deployed by Umbrella to eliminate all surviving STARS members. The U.S. Government destroys Raccoon City with a missile strike to sterilize the viral outbreak. Leon, Claire, Sherry, Ada, and Jill escape the city before its eradication. Claire continues to look for Chris, whereas Leon is recruited to work for the U.S. Government. *Resident Evil – Code: Veronica* follows Claire as she escapes from a prison camp in the Southern Ocean and later reunites with Chris at an Umbrella research facility in Antarctica. *Resident Evil 4* is set six years after the Raccoon City incident and focuses on Leon as he tries to rescue the U.S. President's daughter from a cult in Spain. A government investigation into the Umbrella Corporation reveals its involvement in the Raccoon City disaster and leads to the company's dissolution. Despite the downfall of the Umbrella Corporation, the company's research and BOWs proliferate across the black market and lead to the rise of bioterrorism. Chris and Jill establish the Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance (BSAA) to combat these ever-growing threats on a global scale. Wesker is revealed to be alive and involved in the development of new potent viral agents and BOWs. In *Resident Evil 5*, Wesker seeks to unleash a highly mutagenic virus that will infect all of humanity. Chris and the BSAA confront and kill Wesker in Africa before he can fulfill his mission. *Resident Evil 6* features Leon and Chris meeting for the first time in the video game series. The two work separately to triage bioterrorist attacks in the United States, Eastern Europe, and China. They are assisted by Sherry, Jake Muller, Wesker's illegitimate son, and many members of the BSAA and U.S. government. *Resident Evil 7: Biohazard* and *Resident Evil Village* introduce a new protagonist, Ethan Winters, who becomes entangled in a bioterrorism incident while searching for his missing wife. He encounters Chris and the BSAA, who help him rescue his wife and defeat Eveline, a powerful BOW. Ethan, Mia, and their newborn daughter, Rosemary, are relocated to Eastern Europe but are abducted by a cult. Ethan ultimately sacrifices himself to destroy a fungal colony being weaponized by bioterrorists and save his family. Gameplay -------- The *Resident Evil* franchise has had a variety of control schemes and gameplay mechanics throughout its history. Puzzle-solving has figured prominently throughout the series. ### Tank controls The first game introduced a control scheme that the player community has come to refer to as "tank controls" to the series. In a game with tank controls, players control movement relative to the position of the player character, rather than relative to the fixed virtual camera from which the player views the current scene. Pressing up (for example on a D-pad, analog stick, or cursor movement keys) on the game controller moves the character in the direction being faced, pressing down backpedals, and left and right rotates the character. This can feel counter-intuitive when the character is facing the camera, as the controls are essentially reversed in this state. This differs from many 3D games, in which characters move in the direction the player pushes the controls from the perspective of the camera. Some critics have posited that the control scheme is intentionally clumsy, meant to enhance stress and exacerbate difficulty. While the first three entries in the series featured this control scheme, the third, *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*, saw some action-oriented additions. These included a 180 degree turn and dodge command that, according to *GameSpot*, "hinted at a new direction that the series would go in." Later games in the series, like *Resident Evil 4*, would feature a more fluid over-the-shoulder third-person camera instead of a fixed camera for each room, while *Resident Evil 7* and *Resident Evil Village* are played from the first-person perspective. ### Third-person shooter gameplay *Resident Evil 4* saw significant changes to the established gameplay, including switching from fixed camera perspectives to a tracking camera, and more action-oriented gameplay and mechanics. This was complemented by an abundance of ammunition and revised aiming and melee mechanics. Some critics claimed that this overhauled control scheme "made the game less scary." The next two games in the franchise furthered the action-oriented mechanics: *Resident Evil 5* featured cooperative play and added strafing, while *Resident Evil 6* allowed players to move while aiming and shooting for the first time, fully abandoning the series' signature tank controls. ### First-person shooter gameplay and VR *Resident Evil 7* is the first main *Resident Evil* game to use the first-person perspective and to use virtual reality. It drew comparisons to modern survival horror games such as *Outlast* and *PT*. The eighth main-series game, *Resident Evil Village*, also features a first-person perspective. A VR version of *Resident Evil 4* was released on the Oculus Quest 2 on October 21, 2021. Other media ----------- The *Resident Evil* franchise features video games and tie-in merchandise and products, including various live-action and animated films, comic books, and novels. ### Films #### Live-action films From 2002 to 2016, six live-action *Resident Evil* films were produced, all written and produced by Paul W. S. Anderson. The films do not follow the games' premise but feature some game characters. The series' protagonist is Alice, an original character created for the films portrayed by Milla Jovovich. Despite a negative reaction from critics, the live-action film series has made over $1 billion worldwide. They are, to date, the only video game adaptations to increase the amount of money made with each successive film. The series holds the record for the "Most Live-Action Film Adaptations of a Video Game" in the 2012 *Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition*, which also described it as "the most successful movie series to be based on a video game." A reboot, *Resident Evil: Welcome to Raccoon City,* was released on November 24, 2021, with Johannes Roberts as writer/director. #### Animated films The first computer animated film for the franchise was *Biohazard 4D-Executer*. It was a short 3D film produced for Japanese theme parks and did not feature any characters from the game. Starting in 2008, a series of feature-length computer animated films have been released. These films take place in the same continuity with the games of the series, and feature characters such as Leon Kennedy, Claire Redfield, Ada Wong, Chris Redfield, Jill Valentine and Rebecca Chambers. ### Television *Resident Evil: Infinite Darkness*, a four-part CG anime series, premiered on July 8, 2021, on Netflix. Starring the *Resident Evil 2* protagonists Leon S. Kennedy and Claire Redfield, the series features both uncovering a worldwide plot. The series released on July 8, 2021 on Netflix. *Resident Evil* premiered on July 14, 2022, on Netflix. An eight episode live-action series, two plotlines set in 2022 and 2036 follow Albert Wesker and his daughters navigating Umbrella's experiments in New Raccoon City. ### Merchandise Over the years, various toy companies have acquired the *Resident Evil* license, with each producing their own unique line of *Resident Evil* action figures or models. These include, but are not limited to, Toy Biz, Palisades Toys, NECA, and Hot Toys. Tokyo Marui also produced replicas of the guns used in the *Resident Evil* series in the form of gas blow-back airsoft guns. Some models included the STARS Beretta featured in *Resident Evil 3*, and the Desert Eagle in a limited edition that came with other memorabilia in a wooden case, along with the Gold Lugers from *Code: Veronica* and the "Samurai Edge" pistol from the *Resident Evil* remake. Other merchandise includes an energy drink called "T-virus Antidote". *Resident Evil Archives* is a reference guide of the *Resident Evil* series written by staff members of Capcom. It was translated into English and published by BradyGames. The guide describes and summarizes all of the key events that occur in *Resident Evil Zero*, *Resident Evil*, *Resident Evil 2*, *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*, and *Code: Veronica*. The main plot analysis also contains character relationship charts, artwork, item descriptions, and file transcripts for all five games. A second Archives book was later released in December 2011 and covers *Resident Evil 4*, *Resident Evil 5*, the new scenarios detailed in *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles* and *Resident Evil: The Darkside Chronicles*, and the 2008 CGI movie, *Resident Evil: Degeneration*. The second Archives volume was also translated by Capcom and published by BradyGames. A *Resident Evil* theme restaurant called Biohazard Cafe & Grill S.T.A.R.S. opened in Tokyo in 2012. Halloween Horror Nights 2013, held at Universal Orlando, featured a haunted house titled *Resident Evil: Escape from Raccoon City*, based on *Resident Evil 2* and *Resident Evil 3: Nemesis*. ### Novels The first *Resident Evil* novel was Hiroyuki Ariga's novella *Biohazard: The Beginning*, published in 1997 as a portion of the book *The True Story of Biohazard*, which was given away as a pre-order bonus with the Sega Saturn version of *Biohazard*. The story serves as a prelude to the original *Resident Evil*, in which Chris investigates the disappearance of his missing friend, Billy Rabbitson. S. D. Perry has written novelizations of the first five games, as well as two original novels taking place between games. The novels often take liberties with the games' plot by exploring events occurring outside and beyond the games. This often meant that the games would later contradict the books on a few occasions. One notable addition from the novels is the original character Trent, who often served as a mysterious behind-the-scenes string-puller who aided the main characters. Perry's novels were translated and released in Japan with new cover arts by Wolfina. Perry's novels, particularly *The Umbrella Conspiracy*, also alluded to events in *Biohazard: The Beginning*, such as the disappearance of Billy Rabbitson and Brian Irons' bid to run for Mayor. A reprinting of Perry's novels with new cover artwork began in 2012 to coincide with the release of *Resident Evil: Retribution* and its respective novelization. There are a trilogy of original *Biohazard* novels in Japan. *Hokkai no Yōjū* (北海の妖獣, lit. "The Strange Beast of the North Sea") was published in 1998 and was written by Kyū Asakura and the staff of Flagship. Two additional novels were published in 2002, *To the Liberty* by Sudan Kimura and *Rose Blank* by Tadashi Aizawa. While no official English translation of these novels has been published yet, the last two books were translated into German and published in 2006. Novelizations of three of the six Paul Anderson films; *Genesis*, *Apocalypse*, and *Extinction*, were written by Keith DeCandido. *Afterlife* did not receive a novelization due to Capcom's decision to discontinue working with Pocket Books, who had been their primary source of publishing books up to that point, Capcom would later make Titan Books their primary publisher going forth. *Retribution* was written by John Shirley, while *The Final Chapter* was written by Tim Waggoner. *Genesis* was published over two years after that film's release and coincided with the publication of *Apocalypse*, *Genesis* being marketed as a prequel to *Apocalypse*, while the *Extinction* novel was released in late July 2007, two months before the film's release. *The Final Chapter* was published in December 2016 alongside the film's theatrical release. There was also a Japanese novelization of the first film, unrelated to DeCandido's version, written by Osamu Makino. Makino also wrote two novels based on the game *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles*. The books are a two-part direct novelization of the game and are published in Japanese and German only. The first novel, titled *Biohazard: The Umbrella Chronicles Side A* in Japan and *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles 1* in Germany, was released on December 22, 2007. The second novel, titled *Biohazard: The Umbrella Chronicles Side B* in Japan and *Resident Evil: The Umbrella Chronicles 2* in Germany, was published in January 2008. ### Comics In 1997, Marvel Comics published a single-issue prologue comic based on the original *Resident Evil*, released through a promotional giveaway alongside the original PlayStation game. In 1998, WildStorm began producing a monthly comic book series based on the first two games, titled *Resident Evil: The Official Comic Magazine*, which lasted five issues. The first four issues were published by Image, while Wildstorm themselves published the fifth and final issue. Each issue was a compilation of short stories that were both adaptations of events from the games and related side stories. Like the Perry novels, the comics also explored events occurring beyond *Resident Evil 2* (the latest game during the series' publication) and thus were contradicted by later games. Wildstorm also published a four-issue miniseries titled *Resident Evil: Fire & Ice*, which depicted the ordeal of Charlie Team, a third STARS team created specifically for the comic. In 2009, Wildstorm reprinted *Fire & Ice* in a trade paperback collection. In Hong Kong, there has been officially licensed *Biohazard* manhua adaptations of *Biohazard 0* by publisher Yulang Group, *Biohazard 2* by Kings Fountain, *Biohazard 3 Supplemental Edition* by Cao Zhihao and, *Biohazard 3 The Last Escape*, and *Biohazard Code: Veronica* by Lee Chung Hing published by Tinhangse Publishing. The Code: Veronica manhua was translated into English, formatted to look like an American comic and distributed by WildStorm as a series of four graphic novel collections. In 2009, Wildstorm began publishing a comic book prequel to *Resident Evil 5*, titled *Resident Evil*, which centers around two original members of the BSAA named Mina Gere and Holiday Sugarman. Written by Ricardo Sanchez and illustrated by Kevin Sharpe and Jim Clark, the first issue was published on March 11, 2009. On November 11, 2009, the third issue was released, and the fourth was released March 24, 2010. The sixth and final book was finally published in February 2011. ### Plays In the summer of 2000, *Bioroid: Year Zero* was performed in Japan. It was a musical horror-comedy but took the perspective of the infected. Super Eccentric Theater put on the production under the direction of Osamu Yagihashi. The stage play was performed from early July to late August. *Biohazard The Stage* was released in Japan in 2015. The play focused on iconic characters, Chris Redfield and Rebecca Chambers, as Philosophy University in Australia is experiencing a bioterrorist attack. The production was handled by Avex Live Creative and Ace Crew Entertainment, under supervision from Capcom. The following year, *Musical Biohazard ~Voice of Gaia~* was released in September. It was produced by Umeda Arts Theater by director G2 and composer, Shunsuke Wada. *Biohazard the Experience* was the second *Resident Evil* play produced by Avex Live Creative and Ace Crew Entertainment. The story is set in 2015 and follows a cast of thirteen survivors who were abducted and woke up in a mansion during an outbreak. Reception and legacy -------------------- Most of the games in the prominent *Resident Evil* series have been released to positive reviews. Some of the games, most notably *Resident Evil*, *Resident Evil 2* and *Resident Evil 4*, have been bestowed with multiple Game of the Year honors and often placed on lists of the best video games ever made. In 1999, *Next Generation* listed the *Resident Evil* series as number 13 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "Flawless graphics, excellent music, and a top-notch storyline all combined to make a game of unparalleled atmosphere and suspense." In 2012, *Complex* ranked *Resident Evil* at number 22 on the list of the best video game franchises. That same year, G4tv called it "one of the most successful series in gaming history." ### Commercial performance By December 2022, around 135 million *Resident Evil* games had been sold. The first two *Resident Evil* games had collectively sold approximately 11 million units worldwide by March 1999. By early 2001, the series had sold 17 million units worldwide, earning more than $600 million. By 2011, it had sold about 46 million copies and was estimated to have grossed at least $1.3 billion. It is recognized by *Guinness World Records* as the best-selling survival horror series, with *Resident Evil 5* the best-selling survival horror game as of 2016[update]. Seven of the top ten best-selling horror games in North America are *Resident Evil* games, with *Resident Evil 5* the best-selling horror game as of 2019[update]. The 2023 *Resident Evil 4* remake sold more than three million copies in its first two days of release. It sold four million copies in its first two weeks, making it one of the fastest-selling *Resident Evil* games. In Japan, it was the best-selling retail game in its first week, selling 89,662 copies on PlayStation 5 and 85,371 on PlayStation 4. The *Resident Evil* film series was the highest-grossing film series based on video games by 2012. By 2011, the films had grossed over $600 million at the box office, bringing the franchise's estimated revenue to at least more than $1.9 billion in combined video game sales and box office gross up until then. As of 2020[update], the films have grossed more than $1.3 billion in box office and home video sales. The success of the video games and films have made *Resident Evil* the highest-grossing franchise in the horror and zombie genres. ### Cultural impact GameSpot listed the original *Resident Evil* as one of the fifteen most influential video games of all time. It is credited with defining and popularizing the survival horror genre of games. It is also credited with taking video games in a cinematic direction with its B-movie style cut-scenes, including live-action full-motion video (FMV) footage. Its live-action opening, however, was controversial; it became one of the first action games to receive the "Mature 17+" (M) rating from the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), despite the opening cutscene being censored in North America. The *Resident Evil* franchise is credited with sparking a revival of the zombie genre in popular culture, leading to a renewed interest in zombie films during the 2000s. *Resident Evil* also helped redefine the zombie genre, playing an important role in its shift from supernatural themes to scientific themes by using science to explain the origins of zombies. According to Kim Newman in the book *Nightmare Movies* (2011), "the zombie revival began in the Far East" mainly due to the 1996 Japanese zombie games *Resident Evil* and *The House of the Dead*. George Romero, in 2013, said it was the video games *Resident Evil* and *House of the Dead* "more than anything else" that popularised his zombie concept in early 21st-century popular culture. In a 2015 interview with *Huffington Post*, screenwriter-director Alex Garland credited the *Resident Evil* series as a primary influence on his script for the horror film *28 Days Later* (2002), and credited the first *Resident Evil* game for revitalizing the zombie genre. Screenwriter Edgar Wright cited *Resident Evil 2* as a primary influence on his zombie comedy film *Shaun of the Dead* (2004), with the film's star and co-writer Simon Pegg also crediting the first game with starting the zombie revival in popular culture. *The Walking Dead* comic book creator Robert Kirkman cited *Resident Evil* as his favorite zombie game, while *The Walking Dead* television series director Greg Nicotero credited *Resident Evil* and *The House of the Dead* with introducing the zombie genre "to a whole generation of younger people who didn't grow up watching *Night of the Living Dead* and *Dawn of the Dead*." The *Resident Evil* Apocalypse zombies were conceptualized and choreographed by Sharon B. Moore and Derek Aasland. Through script analysis and movement research a "scientific logic" was devised for the T-Virus accounting for each Zombie behaviour envisioned in Paul W. S. Anderson's script. Sharon B. Moore and Derek Aasland then wrote the so-called Undead Bible - a Handbook for the Undead - used as the guide for the nearly 1000 cast under the choreographic department (stunt performers, actors, dancers, extras) to ensure the Undead physicality was performed in a unified way across the picture.  The Stunt and Core teams participated in the "Undead Bootcamp".  See also 2007 Documentary *Undead Bootcamp* starring producer Jeremy Bolt, director Alexander Witt, and choreographers Sharon B. Moore and Derek Aasland. On the DVD Featurette '*Resident Evil; Game Over*' RE2 Apocalypse director Alexander Witt said the zombies needed to be "more aggressive and more dangerous" than the original film, so they were created by the film's choreographers Sharon B. Moore and Derek Aasland as "liquid zombie[s]' in terms of their relentless forward motion: unstoppable, flowing around any kind of resistance, and then rushing in on the final attack. This is also detailed in the University of Liverpool book Biopunk Dystopias Genetic Engineering, Society, and Science Fiction (Lars Schmeink, 2016, p.214)  Additionally, the first *Resident Evil* film adaptation also contributed to the revival of zombie films, with the success of the film and the games resulting in zombies achieving greater mainstream prominence and several zombie films being greenlit, such as the video game film adaptation *House of the Dead* (2003), the remake *Dawn of the Dead* (2004) and Romero's *Land of the Dead* (2005). The *Resident Evil* films, *28 Days Later* and the *Dawn of the Dead* remake all set box office records for the zombie genre, reaching levels of commercial success not seen since the original *Dawn of the Dead* (1978). They were followed by other zombie films such as *28 Weeks Later* (2007), *Zombieland* (2009), *Cockneys vs Zombies* (2012), and *World War Z* (2013), as well as zombie-themed graphic novels and television shows such as *The Walking Dead* and *The Returned*, and books such as *World War Z* (2006), *Pride and Prejudice and Zombies* (2009) and *Warm Bodies* (2010). The zombie revival trend was popular across different media up until the mid-2010s. Since then, zombie films have declined in popularity during the late 2010s, but zombie video games have remained popular, as seen with the commercial success of the *Resident Evil 2* remake and *Days Gone* in 2019. See also -------- * Genetic engineering in fiction * List of fictional diseases * List of zombie video games * *Dino Crisis*, another horror series by Capcom * *Devil May Cry*, another series by Capcom, initially conceived as the fourth title in the series * *Onimusha*, another series by Capcom with similar gameplay, initially conceived as a spin-off * *The Evil Within*, other horror game made by Shinji Mikami

Resident Evil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Evil

Scenes from Greek mythology depicted in ancient art. Left-to-right, top-to-bottom: the birth of Aphrodite, a revel with Dionysus and Silenus, Adonis playing the *kithara* for Aphrodite, Heracles slaying the Lernaean Hydra, the Colchian dragon regurgitating Jason in the presence of Athena, Hermes with his mother Maia, the Trojan Horse, and Odysseus's ship sailing past the island of the sirens A major branch of classical mythology, **Greek mythology** is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities of deities, heroes, and mythological creatures, and the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks' cult and ritual practices. Modern scholars study the myths to shed light on the religious and political institutions of ancient Greece, and to better understand the nature of myth-making itself. The Greek myths were initially propagated in an oral-poetic tradition most likely by Minoan and Mycenaean singers starting in the 18th century BC; eventually the myths of the heroes of the Trojan War and its aftermath became part of the oral tradition of Homer's epic poems, the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the *Theogony* and the *Works and Days*, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also preserved in the *Homeric Hymns*, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and Pausanias. Aside from this narrative deposit in ancient Greek literature, pictorial representations of gods, heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancient vase paintings and the decoration of votive gifts and many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict scenes from the Epic Cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence. Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered contemporary significance and relevance in the themes. Sources ------- Greek mythology is known today primarily from Greek literature and representations on visual media dating from the Geometric period from c. 900 BC to c. 800 BC onward. In fact, literary and archaeological sources integrate, sometimes mutually supportive and sometimes in conflict; however, in many cases, the existence of this corpus of data is a strong indication that many elements of Greek mythology have strong factual and historical roots. ### Literary sources Mythical narration plays an important role in nearly every genre of Greek literature. Nevertheless, the only general mythographical handbook to survive from Greek antiquity was the *Library* of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This work attempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets and provides a grand summary of traditional Greek mythology and heroic legends. Apollodorus of Athens lived from c. 180 BC to c. 125 BC and wrote on many of these topics. His writings may have formed the basis for the collection; however, the "Library" discusses events that occurred long after his death, hence the name Pseudo-Apollodorus. Among the earliest literary sources are Homer's two epic poems, the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey*. Other poets completed the Epic Cycle, but these later and lesser poems now are lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name, the *Homeric Hymns* have no direct connection with Homer. The oldest are choral hymns from the earlier part of the so-called Lyric age. Hesiod, a possible contemporary with Homer, offers in his *Theogony* (*Origin of the Gods*) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths, dealing with the creation of the world, the origin of the gods, Titans, and Giants, as well as elaborate genealogies, folktales, and aetiological myths. Hesiod's *Works and Days*, a didactic poem about farming life, also includes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the Five Ages. The poet advises on the best way to succeed in a dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by its gods. Lyrical poets often took their subjects from myth, but their treatment became gradually less narrative and more allusive. Greek lyric poets, including Pindar, Bacchylides and Simonides, and bucolic poets such as Theocritus and Bion, relate individual mythological incidents. Additionally, myth was central to classical Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides took most of their plots from myths of the age of heroes and the Trojan War. Many of the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon and his children, Oedipus, Jason, Medea, etc.) took on their classic form in these tragedies. The comic playwright Aristophanes also used myths, in *The Birds* and *The Frogs*. Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, and geographers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout the Greek world and noted the stories they heard, supplied numerous local myths and legends, often giving little-known alternative versions. Herodotus in particular, searched the various traditions he encountered and found the historical or mythological roots in the confrontation between Greece and the East. Herodotus attempted to reconcile origins and the blending of differing cultural concepts. The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was primarily composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise. Nevertheless, it contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of: 1. The Roman poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus, Seneca and Virgil with Servius's commentary. 2. The Greek poets of the Late Antique period: Nonnus, Antoninus Liberalis, and Quintus Smyrnaeus. 3. The Greek poets of the Hellenistic period: Apollonius of Rhodes, Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius. Prose writers from the same periods who make reference to myths include Apuleius, Petronius, Lollianus, and Heliodorus. Two other important non-poetical sources are the *Fabulae* and *Astronomica* of the Roman writer styled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the *Imagines* of Philostratus the Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the *Descriptions* of Callistratus. Finally, several Byzantine Greek writers provide important details of myth, much derived from earlier now lost Greek works. These preservers of myth include Arnobius, Hesychius, the author of the *Suda*, John Tzetzes, and Eustathius. They often treat mythology from a Christian moralizing perspective. ### Archaeological sources The discovery of the Mycenaean civilization by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the nineteenth century, and the discovery of the Minoan civilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Arthur Evans in the twentieth century, helped to explain many existing questions about Homer's epics and provided archaeological evidence for many of the mythological details about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidence about myths and rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sites is entirely monumental, as the Linear B script (an ancient form of Greek found in both Crete and mainland Greece) was used mainly to record inventories, although certain names of gods and heroes have been tentatively identified. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth-century  BC depict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the adventures of Heracles. These visual representations of myths are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greek myths are attested on vases earlier than in literary sources: of the twelve labors of Heracles, for example, only the Cerberus adventure occurs in a contemporary literary text. Secondly, visual sources sometimes represent myths or mythical scenes that are not attested in any extant literary source. In some cases, the first known representation of a myth in geometric art predates its first known representation in late archaic poetry, by several centuries. In the Archaic (c. 750 – c. 500 BC), Classical (c. 480–323 BC), and Hellenistic (323–146 BC) periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear, supplementing the existing literary evidence. Survey of mythic history ------------------------ Greek mythology has changed over time to accommodate the evolution of their culture, of which mythology, both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is an index of the changes. In Greek mythology's surviving literary forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressive changes, it is inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertson (1975) has argued. The earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were an agricultural people who, using animism, assigned a spirit to every aspect of nature. Eventually, these vague spirits assumed human forms and entered the local mythology as gods. When tribes from the north of the Balkan Peninsula invaded, they brought with them a new pantheon of gods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and violent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural world fused with those of the more powerful invaders or else faded into insignificance. After the middle of the Archaic period, myths about relationships between male gods and male heroes became more and more frequent, indicating the parallel development of pedagogic pederasty (παιδικὸς ἔρως, *eros paidikos*), thought to have been introduced around 630 BC. By the end of the fifth-century  BC, poets had assigned at least one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their sexual companion, to every important god except Ares and many legendary figures. Previously existing myths, such as those of Achilles and Patroclus, also then were cast in a pederastic light. Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often re-adapted stories of Greek mythological characters in this fashion. The achievement of epic poetry was to create story-cycles and, as a result, to develop a new sense of mythological chronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds as a phase in the development of the world and of humans. While self-contradictions in these stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned. The resulting mythological "history of the world" may be divided into three or four broader periods: 1. *The myths of origin* or *age of gods (Theogonies, "births of gods")*: myths about the origins of the world, the gods, and the human race. 2. *The age when gods and mortals mingled freely*: stories of the early interactions between gods, demigods, and mortals. 3. *The age of heroes (heroic age)*, where divine activity was more limited. The last and greatest of the heroic legends is the story of *the Trojan War and after* (which is regarded by some researchers as a separate, fourth period). While the age of gods often has been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes, establishing a chronology and record of human accomplishments after the questions of how the world came into being were explained. For example, the heroic *Iliad* and *Odyssey* dwarfed the divine-focused *Theogony* and Homeric Hymns in both size and popularity. Under the influence of Homer the "hero cult" leads to a restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the separation of the realm of the gods from the realm of the dead (heroes), of the Chthonic from the Olympian. In the *Works and Days*, Hesiod makes use of a scheme of Four Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver, Bronze, and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of the gods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos, the subsequent races to the creation of Zeus. The presence of evil was explained by the myth of Pandora, when all of the best of human capabilities, save hope, had been spilled out of her overturned jar. In *Metamorphoses*, Ovid follows Hesiod's concept of the four ages. ### Origins of the world and the gods "Myths of origin" or "creation myths" represent an attempt to explain the beginnings of the universe in human language. The most widely accepted version at the time, although a philosophical account of the beginning of things, is reported by Hesiod, in his *Theogony*. He begins with Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of the void emerged Gaia (the Earth) and some other primary divine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss (the Tartarus), and the Erebus. Without male assistance, Gaia gave birth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her. From that union were born first the Titans—six males: Coeus, Crius, Cronus, Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and six females: Mnemosyne, Phoebe, Rhea, Theia, Themis, and Tethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and Uranus decreed no more Titans were to be born. They were followed by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires or Hundred-Handed Ones, who were both thrown into Tartarus by Uranus. This made Gaia furious. Cronus ("the wily, youngest and most terrible of Gaia's children"), was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He did this and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife, Rhea, as his consort, and the other Titans became his court. A motif of father-against-son conflict was repeated when Cronus was confronted by his son, Zeus. Because Cronus had betrayed his father, he feared that his offspring would do the same, and so each time Rhea gave birth, he snatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this and tricked him by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in a baby's blanket, which Cronus ate. When Zeus was full-grown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which caused him to vomit, throwing up Rhea's other children, including Poseidon, Hades, Hestia, Demeter, and Hera, and the stone, which had been sitting in Cronus's stomach all this time. Zeus then challenged Cronus to war for the kingship of the gods. At last, with the help of the Cyclopes (whom Zeus freed from Tartarus), Zeus and his siblings were victorious, while Cronus and the Titans were hurled down to imprisonment in Tartarus. Zeus was plagued by the same concern, and after a prophecy that the offspring of his first wife, Metis, would give birth to a god "greater than he", Zeus swallowed her. She was already pregnant with Athena, however, and she burst forth from his head—fully-grown and dressed for war. The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the theogonies to be the prototypical poetic genre—the prototypical *mythos*—and imputed almost magical powers to it. Orpheus, the archetypal poet, also was the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in Apollonius' *Argonautica*, and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to Hades. When Hermes invents the lyre in the *Homeric Hymn to Hermes*, the first thing he does is sing about the birth of the gods. Hesiod's *Theogony* is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the Muses. Theogony also was the subject of many lost poems, including those attributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and mystery-rites. There are indications that Plato was familiar with some version of the Orphic theogony. A silence would have been expected about religious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature of the culture would not have been reported by members of the society while the beliefs were held. After they ceased to become religious beliefs, few would have known the rites and rituals. Allusions often existed, however, to aspects that were quite public. Images existed on pottery and religious artwork that were interpreted and more likely, misinterpreted in many diverse myths and tales. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by Neoplatonist philosophers and recently unearthed papyrus scraps. One of these scraps, the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the fifth-century BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheus was in existence. The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead. Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes. #### Greek pantheon According to Classical-era mythology, after the overthrow of the Titans, the new pantheon of gods and goddesses was confirmed. Among the principal Greek gods were the Olympians, residing on Mount Olympus under the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of their number to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea.) Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshipped various gods of the countryside, the satyr-god Pan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers), Naiads (who dwelled in springs), Dryads (who were spirits of the trees), Nereids (who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and others. In addition, there were the dark powers of the underworld, such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those guilty of crimes against blood-relatives. In order to honor the Ancient Greek pantheon, poets composed the Homeric Hymns (a group of thirty-three songs). Gregory Nagy (1992) regards "the larger Homeric Hymns as simple preludes (compared with *Theogony*), each of which invokes one god." The gods of Greek mythology are described as having essentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to Walter Burkert, the defining characteristic of Greek anthropomorphism is that "the Greek gods are persons, not abstractions, ideas or concepts." Regardless of their underlying forms, the Ancient Greek gods have many fantastic abilities; most significantly, the gods are not affected by disease, and can be wounded only under highly unusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immortality as the distinctive characteristic of their gods; this immortality, as well as unfading youth, was insured by the constant use of nectar and ambrosia, by which the divine blood was renewed in their veins. Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer, or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and epithets, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves (e.g., *Apollo Musagetes* is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses"). Alternatively, the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece. Most gods were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler of the underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom and courage. Some gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others, such as Hestia (literally "hearth") and Helios (literally "sun"), were little more than personifications. The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated to a limited number of gods, who were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to minor gods. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere. During the heroic age, the cult of heroes (or demigods) supplemented that of the gods. ### Age of gods and mortals "The origins of humanity [were] ascribed to various figures, including Zeus and Prometheus." Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and mortals moved together. These were the early days of the world when the groups mingled more freely than they did later. Most of these tales were later told by Ovid's *Metamorphoses* and they are often divided into two thematic groups: tales of love, and tales of punishment. Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic offspring. The stories generally suggest that relationships between gods and mortals are something to avoid; even consenting relationships rarely have happy endings. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the *Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite*, where the goddess lies with Anchises to produce Aeneas. The second type (tales of punishment) involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when Prometheus steals fire from the gods, when Tantalus steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his subjects—revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon invents sacrifice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and the Mysteries to Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents the aulos and enters into a musical contest with Apollo. Ian Morris considers Prometheus' adventures as "a place between the history of the gods and that of man." An anonymous papyrus fragment, dated to the third century, vividly portrays Dionysus' punishment of the king of Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the new god came too late, resulting in horrific penalties that extended into the afterlife. The story of the arrival of Dionysus to establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of an Aeschylean trilogy. In another tragedy, Euripides' *The Bacchae*, the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished by Dionysus, because he disrespected the god and spied on his Maenads, the female worshippers of the god. In another story, based on an old folktale-motif, and echoing a similar theme, Demeter was searching for her daughter, Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called Doso, and received a hospitable welcome from Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual. ### Heroic age The age in which the heroes lived is known as the Heroic age. The epic and genealogical poetry created cycles of stories clustered around particular heroes or events and established the family relationships between the heroes of different stories; they thus arranged the stories in sequence. According to Ken Dowden (1992), "there is even a saga effect: We can follow the fates of some families in successive generations." After the rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitute the sacral sphere and are invoked together in oaths and prayers which are addressed to them. Burkert (2002) notes that "the roster of heroes, again in contrast to the gods, is never given fixed and final form. Great gods are no longer born, but new heroes can always be raised up from the army of the dead." Another important difference between the hero cult and the cult of gods is that the hero becomes the centre of local group identity. The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as the dawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are also ascribed three great events: the Argonautic expedition, the Theban Cycle, and the Trojan War. #### Heracles and the Heracleidae Some scholars believe that behind Heracles' complicated mythology there was probably a real man, perhaps a chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some scholars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for the sun's yearly passage through the twelve constellations of the zodiac. Others point to earlier myths from other cultures, showing the story of Heracles as a local adaptation of hero myths already well established. Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene, granddaughter of Perseus. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many folk-tale themes, provided much material for popular legend. According to Burkert (2002), "He is portrayed as a sacrificer, mentioned as a founder of altars, and imagined as a voracious eater himself; it is in this role that he appears in comedy. While his tragic end provided much material for tragedy—*Heracles* is regarded by Thalia Papadopoulou as "a play of great significance in examination of other Euripidean dramas." In art and literature Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate height; his characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club. Vase paintings demonstrate the unparalleled popularity of Heracles, his fight with the lion being depicted many hundreds of times. Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythology and cult, and the exclamation "mehercule" became as familiar to the Romans[*clarification needed*] as "Herakleis" was to the Greeks. In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger. Heracles attained the highest social prestige through his appointment as official ancestor of the Dorian kings. This probably served as a legitimation for the Dorian migrations into the Peloponnese. Hyllus, the eponymous hero of one Dorian phyle, became the son of Heracles and one of the *Heracleidae* or *Heraclids* (the numerous descendants of Heracles, especially the descendants of Hyllus—other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto, Bianor, Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These Heraclids conquered the Peloponnesian kingdoms of Mycenae, Sparta and Argos, claiming, according to legend, a right to rule them through their ancestor. Their rise to dominance is frequently called the "Dorian invasion". The Lydian and later the Macedonian kings, as rulers of the same rank, also became Heracleidae. Other members of this earliest generation of heroes such as Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale, as they slay monsters such as the Chimera and Medusa. Bellerophon's adventures are commonplace types, similar to the adventures of Heracles and Theseus. Sending a hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent theme of this early heroic tradition, used in the cases of Perseus and Bellerophon. #### Argonauts The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the *Argonautica* of Apollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and director of the Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleece from the mythical land of Colchis. In the *Argonautica*, Jason is impelled on his quest by king Pelias, who receives a prophecy that a man with one sandal would be his nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a river, arrives at the court of Pelias, and the epic is set in motion. Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as Heracles, went with Jason in the ship *Argo* to fetch the Golden Fleece. This generation also included Theseus, who went to Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female heroine, and Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the *Iliad* and *Odyssey*. Pindar, Apollonius and the *Bibliotheca* endeavor to give full lists of the Argonauts. Although Apollonius wrote his poem in the 3rd century BC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts is earlier than *Odyssey*, which shows familiarity with the exploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may have been partly founded on it). In ancient times the expedition was regarded as a historical fact, an incident in the opening up of the Black Sea to Greek commerce and colonization. It was also extremely popular, forming a cycle to which a number of local legends became attached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught the imagination of the tragic poets. #### House of Atreus and Theban Cycle In between the Argo and the Trojan War, there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes. This includes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos. Behind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the two principal heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus) lies the problem of the devolution of power and of the mode of accession to sovereignty. The twins Atreus and Thyestes with their descendants played the leading role in the tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae. The Theban Cycle deals with events associated especially with Cadmus, the city's founder, and later with the doings of Laius and Oedipus at Thebes; a series of stories that lead to the war of the Seven against Thebes and the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the Epigoni. (It is not known whether the Seven figured in early epic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accounts seem to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after the revelation that Iokaste was his mother, and subsequently marrying a second wife who becomes the mother of his children—markedly different from the tale known to us through tragedy (e.g. Sophocles' *Oedipus Rex*) and later mythological accounts. #### Trojan War and aftermath Greek mythology culminates in the Trojan War, fought between Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homer's works, such as the *Iliad*, the chief stories have already taken shape and substance, and individual themes were elaborated later, especially in Greek drama. The Trojan War also elicited great interest in the Roman culture because of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose journey from Troy led to the founding of the city that would one day become Rome, as recounted in Virgil's *Aeneid* (Book II of Virgil's *Aeneid* contains the best-known account of the sack of Troy). Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that passed under the names of Dictys Cretensis and Dares Phrygius. The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems, starts with the events leading up to the war: Eris and the golden apple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abduction of Helen, the sacrifice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To recover Helen, the Greeks launched a great expedition under the overall command of Menelaus's brother, Agamemnon, king of Argos, or Mycenae, but the Trojans refused to return Helen. The *Iliad*, which is set in the tenth year of the war, tells of the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles, who was the finest Greek warrior, and the consequent deaths in battle of Achilles' beloved comrade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After Hector's death the Trojans were joined by two exotic allies, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of the Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos. Achilles killed both of these, but Paris then managed to kill Achilles with an arrow in the heel. Achilles' heel was the only part of his body which was not invulnerable to damage by human weaponry. Before they could take Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel the wooden image of Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally, with Athena's help, they built the Trojan Horse. Despite the warnings of Priam's daughter Cassandra, the Trojans were persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned desertion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an offering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to have the horse destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At night the Greek fleet returned, and the Greeks from the horse opened the gates of Troy. In the total sack that followed, Priam and his remaining sons were slaughtered; the Trojan women passed into slavery in various cities of Greece. The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek leaders (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas (the *Aeneid*), and the murder of Agamemnon) were told in two epics, the Returns (the lost *Nostoi*) and Homer's *Odyssey*. The Trojan cycle also includes the adventures of the children of the Trojan generation (e.g., Orestes and Telemachus). The Trojan War provided a variety of themes and became a main source of inspiration for Ancient Greek artists (e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting the sack of Troy); this artistic preference for themes deriving from the Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the Ancient Greek civilization. The same mythological cycle also inspired a series of posterior European literary writings. For instance, Trojan Medieval European writers, unacquainted with Homer at first hand, found in the Troy legend a rich source of heroic and romantic storytelling and a convenient framework into which to fit their own courtly and chivalric ideals. Twelfth-century authors, such as Benoît de Sainte-Maure (*Roman de Troie* [Romance of Troy, 1154–60]) and Joseph of Exeter (*De Bello Troiano* [On the Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war while rewriting the standard version they found in *Dictys* and *Dares*. They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgil's example: they rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling something completely new. Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusion in the Trojan War were: *On the Trojan side:* * Aeneas * Hector * Paris *On the Greek side:* * Ajax (there were two Ajaxes) * Achilles * King Agamemnon * Menelaus * Odysseus Greek and Roman conceptions of myth ----------------------------------- Mythology was at the heart of everyday life in Ancient Greece. Greeks regarded mythology as a part of their history. They used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace the descent of one's leaders from a mythological hero or a god. Few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the Trojan War in the *Iliad* and *Odyssey*. According to Victor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist, political essayist, and former classics professor, and John Heath, a classics professor, the profound knowledge of the Homeric epos was deemed by the Greeks the basis of their acculturation. Homer was the "education of Greece" (*Ἑλλάδος παίδευσις*), and his poetry "the Book". ### Philosophy and myth After the rise of philosophy, history, prose and rationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of myth became uncertain, and mythological genealogies gave place to a conception of history which tried to exclude the supernatural (such as the Thucydidean history). While poets and dramatists were reworking the myths, Greek historians and philosophers were beginning to criticize them. By the sixth century BC, a few radical philosophers were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies: Xenophanes of Colophon complained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods "all that is shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal, commit adultery, and deceive one another." This line of thought found its most sweeping expression in Plato's *Republic* and *Laws*. Plato created his own allegorical myths (such as the vision of Er in the *Republic*), attacked the traditional tales of the gods' tricks, thefts, and adulteries as immoral, and objected to their central role in literature. Plato's criticism was the first serious challenge to the Homeric mythological tradition, referring to the myths as "old wives' chatter." For his part Aristotle criticized the pre-Socratic quasi-mythical philosophical approach and underscored that "Hesiod and the theological writers were concerned only with what seemed plausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ... But it is not worth taking seriously writers who show off in the mythical style; as for those who do proceed by proving their assertions, we must cross-examine them." Nevertheless, even Plato did not manage to wean himself and his society from the influence of myth; his own characterization for Socrates is based on the traditional Homeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher to praise the righteous life of his teacher: > But perhaps someone might say: "Are you then not ashamed, Socrates, of having followed such a pursuit, that you are now in danger of being put to death as a result?" But I should make to him a just reply: "You do not speak well, Sir, if you think a man in whom there is even a little merit ought to consider danger of life or death, and not rather regard this only, when he does things, whether the things he does are right or wrong and the acts of a good or a bad man. For according to your argument all the demigods would be bad who died at Troy, including the son of Thetis, who so despised danger, in comparison with enduring any disgrace, that when his mother (and she was a goddess) said to him, as he was eager to slay Hector, something like this, I believe, > > > > > > My son, if you avenge the death of your friend Patroclus and kill Hector, you yourself shall die; for straightway, after Hector, is death appointed unto you. (Hom. Il. 18.96) > > > he, when he heard this, made light of death and danger, and feared much more to live as a coward and not to avenge his friends, and said, > > > > > Straightway may I die, after doing vengeance upon the wrongdoer, that I may not stay here, jeered at beside the curved ships, a burden of the earth. > > Hanson and Heath estimate that Plato's rejection of the Homeric tradition was not favorably received by the grassroots Greek civilization. The old myths were kept alive in local cults; they continued to influence poetry and to form the main subject of painting and sculpture. More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian Euripides often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. Yet the subjects of his plays were taken, without exception, from myth. Many of these plays were written in answer to a predecessor's version of the same or similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the myths about the gods and begins his critique with an objection similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates: the gods, as traditionally represented, are far too crassly anthropomorphic. ### Hellenistic and Roman rationalism During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on the prestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors as belonging to a certain class. At the same time, the skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced. Greek mythographer Euhemerus established the tradition of seeking an actual historical basis for mythical beings and events. Although his original work (*Sacred Scriptures*) is lost, much is known about it from what is recorded by Diodorus and Lactantius. Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even more popular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physicalist theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy. Stoics presented explanations of the gods and heroes as physical phenomena, while the Euhemerists rationalized them as historical figures. At the same time, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists promoted the moral significations of the mythological tradition, often based on Greek etymologies. Through his Epicurean message, Lucretius had sought to expel superstitious fears from the minds of his fellow-citizens. Livy, too, is skeptical about the mythological tradition and claims that he does not intend to pass judgement on such legends (fabulae). The challenge for Romans with a strong and apologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend that tradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who regarded religion as a human institution with great importance for the preservation of good in society, devoted rigorous study to the origins of religious cults. In his *Antiquitates Rerum Divinarum* (which has not survived, but Augustine's *City of God* indicates its general approach) Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fears the gods, the truly religious person venerates them as parents. According to Varro, there have been three accounts of deities in the Roman society: the mythical account created by poets for theatre and entertainment, the civil account used by people for veneration as well as by the city, and the natural account created by the philosophers. The best state is, adds Varro, where the civil theology combines the poetic mythical account with the philosopher's. Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal and allegorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that myths have no place in philosophy. Cicero is also generally disdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in his support for the state religion and its institutions. It is difficult to know how far down the social scale this rationalism extended. Cicero asserts that no one (not even old women and boys) is so foolish as to believe in the terrors of Hades or the existence of Scyllas, centaurs or other composite creatures, but, on the other hand, the orator elsewhere complains of the superstitious and credulous character of the people. *De Natura Deorum* is the most comprehensive summary of Cicero's line of thought. ### Syncretizing trends In Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity. The surviving 2nd-century collection of Orphic Hymns (second century AD) and the *Saturnalia* of Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (fifth century) are influenced by the theories of rationalism and the syncretizing trends as well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classical poetic compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself the subject of a renowned myth. In reality, these poems were probably composed by several different poets, and contain a rich set of clues about prehistoric European mythology. The stated purpose of the *Saturnalia* is to transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has derived from his reading, even though much of his treatment of gods is colored by Egyptian and North African mythology and theology (which also affect the interpretation of Virgil). In Saturnalia reappear mythographical comments influenced by the Euhemerists, the Stoics and the Neoplatonists. Modern interpretations ---------------------- The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythology is regarded by some scholars as a double reaction at the end of the eighteenth century against "the traditional attitude of Christian animosity", in which the Christian reinterpretation of myth as a "lie" or fable had been retained. In Germany, by about 1795, there was a growing interest in Homer and Greek mythology. In Göttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner began to revive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian Gottlob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann, and laid the foundations for mythological research both in Germany and elsewhere. ### Comparative and psychoanalytic approaches The development of comparative philology in the 19th century, together with ethnological discoveries in the 20th century, established the science of myth. Since the Romantics, all study of myth has been comparative. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer, and Stith Thompson employed the comparative approach to collect and classify the themes of folklore and mythology. In 1871 Edward Burnett Tylor published his *Primitive Culture*, in which he applied the comparative method and tried to explain the origin and evolution of religion. Tylor's procedure of drawing together material culture, ritual and myth of widely separated cultures influenced both Carl Jung and Joseph Campbell. Max Müller applied the new science of comparative mythology to the study of myth, in which he detected the distorted remains of Aryan nature worship. Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the ways myth fulfills common social functions. Claude Lévi-Strauss and other structuralists have compared the formal relations and patterns in myths throughout the world. Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and biological conception of man and a view of myth as an expression of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the basis of Freudian myth interpretation and Freud's concept of dreamwork recognizes the importance of contextual relationships for the interpretation of any individual element in a dream. This suggestion would find an important point of rapprochement between the structuralist and psychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freud's thought. Carl Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological approach with his theory of the "collective unconscious" and the archetypes (inherited "archaic" patterns), often encoded in myth, that arise out of it. According to Jung, "myth-forming structural elements must be present in the unconscious psyche." Comparing Jung's methodology with Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal (1990) concludes that "to interpret a myth Campbell simply identifies the archetypes in it. An interpretation of the *Odyssey*, for example, would show how Odysseus's life conforms to a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers the identification of archetypes merely the first step in the interpretation of a myth." Karl Kerényi, one of the founders of modern studies in Greek mythology, gave up his early views of myth, in order to apply Jung's theories of archetypes to Greek myth. ### Origin theories Max Müller attempted to understand an Indo-European religious form by tracing it back to its Indo-European (or, in Müller's time, "Aryan") "original" manifestation. In 1891, he claimed that "the most important discovery which has been made during the nineteenth century concerning the ancient history of mankind ... was this sample equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus = Latin Jupiter = Old Norse Tyr". The question of Greek mythology's place in Indo-European studies has generated much scholarship since Müller's time. For example, philologist Georges Dumézil draws a comparison between the Greek Uranus and the Sanskrit Varuna, although there is no hint that he believes them to be originally connected. In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove, as in the case of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse mythology. It appears that the Mycenaean religion was the mother of the Greek religion and its pantheon already included many divinities that can be found in classical Greece. However, Greek mythology is generally seen as having heavy influence of Pre-Greek and Near Eastern cultures, and as such contains few important elements for the reconstruction of the Proto-Indo-European religion. Consequently, Greek mythology received minimal scholarly attention in the context of Indo-European comparative mythology until the mid 2000s. Archaeology and mythography have revealed influence from Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis seems to be the Greek counterpart—more clearly in cult than in myth—of a Near Eastern "dying god". Cybele is rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphrodite's iconography may spring from Semitic goddesses. There are also possible parallels between the earliest divine generations (Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in the *Enuma Elish*. According to Meyer Reinhold, "near Eastern theogonic concepts, involving divine succession through violence and generational conflicts for power, found their way…into Greek mythology." In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the indigenous pre-Greek societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos, Thebes and Orchomenus. Historians of religion were fascinated by a number of apparently ancient configurations of myth connected with Crete (the god as bull, Zeus and Europa, Pasiphaë who yields to the bull and gives birth to the Minotaur, etc.). Martin P. Nilsson asserts, based on the representations and general function of the gods, that a lot of Minoan gods and religious conceptions were fused in the Mycenaean religion. and concluded that all great classical Greek myths were tied to Mycenaean centres and anchored in prehistoric times. Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography of the Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no confirmation for these theories. Motifs in Western art and literature ------------------------------------ The widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb the popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, the poetry of Ovid became a major influence on the imagination of poets, dramatists, musicians and artists. From the early years of Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, portrayed the Pagan subjects of Greek mythology alongside more conventional Christian themes. Through the medium of Latin and the works of Ovid, Greek myth influenced medieval and Renaissance poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante in Italy. In Northern Europe, Greek mythology never took the same hold of the visual arts, but its effect was very obvious on literature. The English imagination was fired by Greek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Milton and continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridges in the 20th century. Racine in France and Goethe in Germany revived Greek drama, reworking the ancient myths. Although during the Enlightenment of the 18th century reaction against Greek myth spread throughout Europe, the myths continued to provide an important source of raw material for dramatists, including those who wrote the libretti for many of Handel's and Mozart's operas. By the end of the 18th century, Romanticism initiated a surge of enthusiasm for all things Greek, including Greek mythology. In Britain, new translations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired contemporary poets (such as Alfred Tennyson, Keats, Byron and Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton and Lawrence Alma-Tadema). Christoph Gluck, Richard Strauss, Jacques Offenbach and many others set Greek mythological themes to music. American authors of the 19th century, such as Thomas Bulfinch and Nathaniel Hawthorne, held that the study of the classical myths was essential to the understanding of English and American literature. In more recent times, classical themes have been reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, Jean Cocteau, and Jean Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neill in America, and T. S. Eliot in Britain and by novelists such as James Joyce and André Gide. References ---------- ### Primary sources (Greek and Roman) * Aeschylus, *The Persians*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Aeschylus, *Prometheus Bound*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 2 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Apollodorus, *Library and Epitome*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 2 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Apollonius of Rhodes, *Argonautica*, Book I. *See original text in Sacred Texts Archived 12 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine*. * Cicero, *De Divinatione*. *See original text in the Latin Library Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine*. * Cicero, *Tusculanae resons*. *See original text in the Latin Library Archived 15 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine*. * Herodotus, *The Histories*, I. *See original text in the Sacred Texts Archived 16 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine*. * Hesiod, *Works and Days*. *Translated into English Archived 12 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*. * Hesiod (1914). *Theogony*. Translated by Hugh Gerard Evelyn-White – via Wikisource. * Homer, *Iliad*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 27 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * *Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite*. *Translated into English by Gregory Nagy*. * *Homeric Hymn to Demeter*. *See original text in Perseus project Archived 11 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine*. * *Homeric Hymn to Hermes*. *See the English translation in the Medieval and Classical Literature Library Archived 25 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Ovid, *Metamorphoses*. *See original text in the Latin Library Archived 23 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine*. * Pausanias, *Description of Greece* *See original text in Perseus program Archived 20 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine*. * Pindar, *Pythian Odes*, Pythian 4: For Arcesilas of Cyrene Chariot Race 462 BC. *See original text in the Perseus program Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Plato, *Apology*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. * Plato, *Theaetetus*. *See original text in Perseus program Archived 29 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine*. ### Secondary sources * Ackerman, Robert (1991). "Introduction". *Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion by Jane Ellen Harrison* (Reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01514-9. * Albala Ken G; Johnson Claudia Durst; Johnson Vernon E. (2000). "Origin of Mythology". *Understanding the Odyssey*. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-41107-1. * Algra, Keimpe (1999). "The Beginnings of Cosmology". *The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44667-9. * Allen, Douglas (1978). "Early Methological Approaches". *Structure & Creativity in Religion: Hermeneutics in Mircea Eliade's Phenomenology and New Directions*. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7594-2. * "Argonaut". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * Betegh, Gábor (2004). "The Interpretation of the poet". *The Derveni Papyrus*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-80108-9. * Bonnefoy, Yves (1992). "Kinship Structures in Greek Heroic Dynasty". *Greek and Egyptian Mythologies*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06454-3. * Bulfinch, Thomas (2003). "Greek Mythology and Homer". *Bulfinch's Greek and Roman Mythology*. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-30881-9. * Burkert, Walter (2002). "Prehistory and the Minoan Mycenaen Era". *Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical (translated by John Raffan)*. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-15624-6. * Burn, Lucilla (1990). *Greek Myths*. University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-72748-9. * Bushnell, Rebecca W. (2005). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo". *Medieval A Companion to Tragedy*. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0735-8. * Chance, Jane (1994). "Helicocentric Stoicism in the Saturnalia: The Egyptian Apollo". *Medieval Mythography*. University Press of Florida. ISBN 978-0-8130-1256-8. * Caldwell, Richard (1990). "The Psychoanalytic Interpretation of Greek Myth". *Approaches to Greek Myth*. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3864-4. * Calimach, Andrew (2002). "The Cultural Background". *Lovers' Legends: The Gay Greek Myths*. Haiduk Press. ISBN 978-0-9714686-0-3. * Cartledge, Paul A. (2002). "Inventing the Past: History v. Myth". *The Greeks*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280388-7. * Cartledge, Paul A. (2004). *The Spartans (translated in Greek)*. Livanis. ISBN 978-960-14-0843-9. * Cashford, Jules (2003). "Introduction". *The Homeric Hymns*. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-043782-9. * Dowden, Ken (1992). "Myth and Mythology". *The Uses of Greek Mythology*. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-06135-3. * Dunlop, John (1842). "Romances of Chivalry". *The History of Fiction*. Carey and Hart. ISBN 978-1-149-40338-9. * Edmunds, Lowell (1980). "Comparative Approaches". *Approaches to Greek Myth*. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3864-4. * "Euhemerus". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * Foley, John Miles (1999). "Homeric and South Slavic Epic". *Homer's Traditional Art*. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-01870-6. * Gale, Monica R. (1994). "The Cultural Background". *Myth and Poetry in Lucretius*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45135-2. * "Greek Mythology". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * "Greek Religion". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * Griffin, Jasper (1986). "Greek Myth and Hesiod". *The Oxford Illustrated History of Greece and the Hellenistic World edited by John Boardman, Jasper Griffin and Oswyn Murray*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285438-4. * Grimal, Pierre (1986). "Argonauts". *The Dictionary of Classical Mythology*. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. * Hacklin, Joseph (1994). "The Mythology of Persia". *Asiatic Mythology*. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0920-4. * Hanson, Victor Davis; Heath, John (1999). *Who Killed Homer (translated in Greek by Rena Karakatsani)*. Kakos. ISBN 978-960-352-545-5. * Hard, Robin (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth". *The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: based on H. J. Rose's "A Handbook of Greek mythology"*. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. * "Heracles". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * Jung Carl Gustav, Kerényi Karl (2001). "Prolegomena". *Essays on a Science of Mythology* (Reprint ed.). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01756-3. * Jung, C.J. (2002). "Troy in Latin and French Joseph of Exeter's "Ylias" and Benoît de Sainte-Maure's "Roman de Troie"". *Science of Mythology*. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-26742-7. * Kelly, Douglas (2003). "Sources of Greek Myth". *An Outline of Greek and Roman Mythology*. Douglas Kelly. ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. * Kelsey, Francis W. (1889). *A Handbook of Greek Mythology*. Allyn and Bacon. * Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1973). "The Thematic Simplicity of the Myths". *Myth: Its Meaning and Functions in Ancient and Other Cultures*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-02389-5. * Kirk, Geoffrey Stephen (1974). *The Nature of Greek Myths*. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-021783-4. * Klatt J. Mary, Brazouski Antoinette (1994). "Preface". *Children's Books on Ancient Greek and Roman Mythology: An Annotated Bibliography*. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-28973-6. * *Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae*, Artemis-Verlag, 1981–1999 * Miles, Geoffrey (1999). "The Myth-kitty". *Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology*. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-415-14754-5. * Morris, Ian (2000). *Archaeology As Cultural History*. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-19602-0. * "myth". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * Nagy, Gregory (1992). "The Hellenization of the Indo-European Poetics". *Greek Mythology and Poetics*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8048-5. * Nilsson, Martin P. (1940). "The Religion of Eleusis". *Greek Popular Religion*. Columbia University Press. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2006. * North John A.; Beard Mary; Price Simon R.F. (1998). "The Religions of Imperial Rome". *Classical Mythology in English Literature: A Critical Anthology*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-31682-8. * Papadopoulou, Thalia (2005). "Introduction". *Heracles and Euripidean Tragedy*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85126-8. * Percy, William Armostrong III (1999). "The Institutionalization of Pederasty". *Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece*. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-252-06740-2. * Poleman, Horace I. (March 1943). "Review of "Ouranos-Varuna. Etude de mythologie comparee indo-europeenne by Georges Dumezil"". *Journal of the American Oriental Society*. **63** (1): 78–79. doi:10.2307/594160. JSTOR 594160. * Reinhold, Meyer (20 October 1970). "The Generation Gap in Antiquity". *Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society*. **114** (5): 347–65. JSTOR 985800. * Rose, Herbert Jennings (1991). *A Handbook of Greek Mythology*. Routledge (UK). ISBN 978-0-415-04601-5. * Segal, Robert A. (1991). "A Greek Eternal Child". *Myth and the Polis edited by Dora Carlisky Pozzi, John Moore Wickersham*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-2473-1. * Segal, Robert A. (4 April 1990). "The Romantic Appeal of Joseph Campbell". *Christian Century*. Archived from the original on 7 January 2007. * Segal, Robert A. (1999). "Jung on Mythology". *Theorizing about Myth*. Univ of Massachusetts Press. ISBN 978-1-55849-191-5. * Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (translated by R. B. Paul) (1852). *Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks*. Francis and John Rivington. * Trobe, Kala (2001). "Dionysus". *Invoke the Gods*. Llewellyn Worldwide. ISBN 978-0-7387-0096-0. * "Trojan War". *Encyclopaedia The Helios*. 1952. * "Troy". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. 2002. * "Volume: Hellas, Article: Greek Mythology". *Encyclopaedia The Helios*. 1952. * Walsh, Patrick Gerald (1998). "Liberating Appearance in Mythic Content". *The Nature of the Gods*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-282511-7. * Weaver, John B. (1998). "Introduction". *The Plots of Epiphany*. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018266-8. * Winterbourne, Anthony (2004). "Spinning and Weaving Fate". *When the Norns Have Spoken*. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-4048-7. * Wood, Michael (1998). "The Coming of the Greeks". *In Search of the Trojan War*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21599-3. Further reading --------------- * Gantz, Timothy (1993). *Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources*. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4410-2. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2021. * Graves, Robert (1993) [1955]. *The Greek Myths* (Cmb/Rep ed.). Penguin (Non-Classics). ISBN 978-0-14-017199-0. * Hamilton, Edith (1998) [1942]. *Mythology* (New ed.). Back Bay Books. ISBN 978-0-316-34151-6. * Kerenyi, Karl (1980) [1951]. *The Gods of the Greeks* (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27048-6. * Kerenyi, Karl (1978) [1959]. *The Heroes of the Greeks* (Reissue ed.). Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27049-3. * Luchte, James (2011). *Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn*. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-567-35331-3. * Morford M.P.O., Lenardon L.J. (2006). *Classical Mythology*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530805-1. * Pinsent, John (1972). *Greek Mythology*. Bantam. ISBN 978-0-448-00848-6. * Pinsent, John (1991). *Myths and Legends of Ancient Greece*. Library of the World's Myths and Legends. Peter Bedrick Books. ISBN 978-0-87226-250-8. * Powell, Barry (2008). *Classical Myth* (6th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-606171-7. * Powell, Barry (2001). *A Short Introduction to Classical Myth*. Prentice-Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-025839-7. * Ruck Carl, Staples Blaise Daniel (1994). *The World of Classical Myth*. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-575-7. * Smith, William (1870), *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*. * Veyne, Paul (1988). *Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on Constitutive Imagination*. (translated by Paula Wissing). University of Chicago. ISBN 978-0-226-85434-2. * Woodward, Roger D., ed. (2007). *The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology*. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84520-5. Listen to this article (1 hour and 8 minutes) Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 19 January 2009 (2009-01-19), and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)

Greek mythology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology

**Lak** (лакку маз, *lakːu maz*) is a Northeast Caucasian language forming its own branch within this family. It is the language of the Lak people from the Russian autonomous republic of Dagestan, where it is one of six standardized languages. It is spoken by about 157,000 people. History ------- In 1864 Russian ethnographer and linguist P. K. Uslar wrote: "Kazikumukh grammar or as I called it for short in the native language, the Lak grammar, Lakku maz, the Lak language, is ready". In 1890, P. K. Uslar compiled a textbook on Lak grammar titled *The Lak Language*. It stated under the title "Lak alphabet": "The proposed alphabet is written for people who name themselves collectively Lak, genitive Lakral. From among these people each one is named separately Lakkuchu 'Lakian man', the woman – Lakkusharssa 'Lakian woman'. Their homeland they name Lakral kIanu – 'Lak place'." Lak has throughout the centuries adopted a number of loanwords from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Russian. Ever since Dagestan was part of the Soviet Union and later Russia, the largest portion of loanwords have come from Russian, especially political and technical vocabulary. There is a newspaper and broadcasting station in Lak. In accordance with the Constitution of the Republic of Dagestan of 1994, Lak was named as the state language along with Russian and some other major languages spoken in Dagestan (about 20 local languages are unwritten and have no official status). Lak is used as a teaching tool in elementary school and taught as a subject in secondary schools, vocational schools and universities. There is a Lak newspaper, "Ilchi". The standard Lak language is based on the dialect of the city of Kumukh. This city should not be confused with the Kumyk ethnic group, a Turkic people also present in the Caucasus. Lak has the following dialects: Kumukh, Vitskhi, Arakul, Balkhar, Shadni, Shalib, Vikhli, Kuli, and Kaya. Initially Lak by lexicon was found to be close to Dargin and the two were often combined in one Lak–Dargin subgroup of Dagestani languages. However, further research has led linguists to conclude that this association was insufficient. Phonology --------- ### Consonants Consonants| | Labial | Dental | Postalveolar | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | plain | sib. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | plain | lab. | | Nasal | m | n | | | | | | | | | | | Plosive/ Affricate | voiced | b | d | | | | ɡ | ɡʷ1 | | | ʡ2 | | | voiceless lenis | p | t | t͡s | t͡ʃ | t͡ʃʷ1 | k | kʷ1 | q | qʷ1 | | ʔ3 | | voiceless fortis | pː | tː | t͡sː | t͡ʃː | t͡ʃːʷ1 | kː | kːʷ1 | qː | qːʷ1 | | | | ejective | pʼ | tʼ | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ | t͡ʃʷʼ1 | kʼ | kʷʼ1 | qʼ | qʷʼ1 | | | | Fricative | voiceless lenis | | | s | ʃ | ʃʷ1 | x | xʷ1 | χ | χʷ1 | | h | | voiceless fortis | | | sː | ʃː | ʃːʷ1 | xː | xːʷ1 | χː | χːʷ1 | | | | voiced | v~w~β1 | | z | ʒ | ʒʷ1 | | | ʁ | ʁʷ1 | | | | Approximant | l | | j | | | | | | | | | Trill | | r | | | | | | | | | | 1. These consonants are given by Schulze, but not by TITUS. 2. The consonant /ʡ/ (grey) is given by TITUS, but not by Schulze. 3. The sound transcribed here as a glottal stop is named rather ambiguously a "glottalic laryngeal" by both sources. ### Vowels Five vowels are presented as /a, e, i, o, u/. Three vowels /i, a, u/ are also pharyngealized as /iˤ, aˤ, uˤ/, and also have fronted allophones of [e, æ, œ]. Grammar ------- Lak is one of the few North East Caucasian languages with verbal agreement for person. It generally only distinguishes between speech-act participants and non-speech-act participants. In other words, the first- and second-person agreement markers are the same. | | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | 1,2 | *-ra* | *-ru* | | 3 | *-r* / *-ri* / *-∅* | The free pronouns of Lak do distinguish first and second person. | | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | | Absolutive | Oblique | | | 1 | *na* | *tːu-* | *žu(-)* | | 2 | *ina* | *wi-* | *zu(-)* | Writing systems --------------- The Lak language was written using the Arabic script until 1928. Afterwards it was written with a Latin alphabet for ten years, and since 1938 it has been written in Cyrillic. The Lak alphabet in Cyrillic initially included 48 letters and later 54 letters with double letters as "тт", "пп", "чч", "хьхь", etc.: | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | А а | Аь аь | Б б | В в | Г г | Гъ гъ | Гь гь | Д д | | Е е | Ё ё | Ж ж | З з | И и | Й й | К к | Къ къ | | Кь кь | Кӏ кӏ | Л л | М м | Н н | О о | Оь оь | П п | | Пп пп | Пӏ пӏ | Р р | С с | Т т | Тӏ тӏ | У у | Ф ф | | Х х | Хъ хъ | Хь хь | Хӏ хӏ | Ц ц | Цӏ цӏ | Ч ч | Чӏ чӏ | | Ш ш | Щ щ | Ъ ъ | Ы ы | Ь ь | Э э | Ю ю | Я я |

Lak language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lak_language

**Messier 69** or **M69**, also known **NGC 6637**, is a globular cluster in the southern constellation of Sagittarius. It can be found 2.5° to the northeast of the star Epsilon Sagittarii and is dimly visible in 50 mm aperture binoculars. The cluster was discovered by Charles Messier on August 31, 1780, the same night he discovered M70. At the time, he was searching for an object described by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in 1751–2 and thought he had rediscovered it, but it is unclear if Lacaille actually described M69. This cluster is about 28,700 light-years away from Earth and 5,200 ly from the Galactic Center, with a spatial radius of 45 light-years. It is a relatively metal-rich globular cluster that is a likely member of the galactic bulge population. It has a mass of 200000 *M*☉ with a half-mass radius of 11.6 ly, a core radius of 29.2 ly, and a tidal radius of 91.9 ly. Its center has a bright luminosity density of 6,460 *L*☉·pc−3 (meaning per cubic parsec). It is a close neighbor of its analog M70 – possibly only 1,800 light-years separates the two. Gallery ------- * As globular clusters go, M69 is one of the most metal-rich on record.As globular clusters go, M69 is one of the most metal-rich on record. * Map showing location of M69Map showing location of M69 See also -------- * List of Messier objects References and footnotes ------------------------ 1. ↑ Shapley, Harlow; Sawyer, Helen B. (August 1927), "A Classification of Globular Clusters", *Harvard College Observatory Bulletin*, **849** (849): 11–14, Bibcode:1927BHarO.849...11S. 2. 1 2 Goldsbury, Ryan; et al. (December 2010), "The ACS Survey of Galactic Globular Clusters. X. New Determinations of Centers for 65 Clusters", *The Astronomical Journal*, **140** (6): 1830–1837, arXiv:1008.2755, Bibcode:2010AJ....140.1830G, doi:10.1088/0004-6256/140/6/1830, S2CID 119183070. 3. 1 2 3 4 5 Kharchenko, N. V.; et al. (2013), "Global survey of star clusters in the Milky Way. II. The catalogue of basic parameters", *Astronomy and Astrophysics*, **558**: 8, arXiv:1308.5822, Bibcode:2013A&A...558A..53K, doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201322302, S2CID 118548517, A53. 4. ↑ "Messier 69". *SEDS Messier Catalog*. Retrieved April 30, 2022. 5. 1 2 Mandushev, G.; et al. (December 1991), "Dynamical masses for galactic globular clusters", *Astronomy and Astrophysics*, **252**: 94, Bibcode:1991A&A...252...94M. 6. 1 2 From trigonometry: distance × sin( diameter\_angle / 2 ) = 28,700 × 0.00157 = 45 ly. radius 7. 1 2 Forbes, Duncan A.; Bridges, Terry (May 2010), "Accreted versus in situ Milky Way globular clusters", *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society*, **404** (3): 1203–1214, arXiv:1001.4289, Bibcode:2010MNRAS.404.1203F, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16373.x, S2CID 51825384. 8. ↑ "NGC 6637". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved November 17, 2006. 9. ↑ Thompson, Robert Bruce; Thompson, Barbara Fritchman (2007), *Illustrated Guide to Astronomical Wonders: From Novice to Master Observer*, Maker Media, Inc., ISBN 978-1680451917 10. 1 2 Piotto, G.; et al. (September 2002), "HST color-magnitude diagrams of 74 galactic globular clusters in the HST F439W and F555W bands", *Astronomy and Astrophysics*, **391** (3): 945–965, arXiv:astro-ph/0207124, Bibcode:2002A&A...391..945P, doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020820, S2CID 17333985. 11. ↑ Heasley, J. N.; et al. (August 2000), "Hubble Space Telescope Photometry of the Metal-rich Globular Clusters NGC 6624 and NGC 6637", *The Astronomical Journal*, **120** (2): 879–893, Bibcode:2000AJ....120..879H, doi:10.1086/301461. 12. ↑ Frommert, Hartmut; Kronberg, Christine (July 20, 2011), "Globular Cluster M69", *SEDS Messier pages*, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space (SEDS), retrieved December 3, 2018. 13. ↑ "Cosmic riches". *ESA/Hubble Picture of the Week*. Retrieved October 3, 2012. 1. ↑ In daily rising of this globular cluster, whether in day- or nighttime, it will reach 15° above the due southern horizon, at the 90°−32°−15° parallel thus the 43rd parallel north, the furthest north for very detailed, easy observation for this object

Messier 69

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_69

**Codeine** is an opiate and prodrug of morphine mainly used to treat pain, coughing, and diarrhea. It is also commonly used as a recreational drug. It is found naturally in the sap of the opium poppy, *Papaver somniferum*. It is typically used to treat mild to moderate degrees of pain. Greater benefit may occur when combined with paracetamol (acetaminophen) or a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) such as aspirin or ibuprofen. Evidence does not support its use for acute cough suppression in children or adults. In Europe, it is not recommended as a cough medicine in those under 12 years of age. It is generally taken by mouth. It typically starts working after half an hour, with maximum effect at two hours. Its effects last for about four to six hours. Codeine exhibits abuse potential similar to other opioid medications. Common side effects include vomiting, constipation, itchiness, lightheadedness, and drowsiness. Serious side effects may include breathing difficulties and addiction. Whether its use in pregnancy is safe is unclear. Care should be used during breastfeeding, as it may result in opiate toxicity in the baby. Its use as of 2016 is not recommended in children. Codeine works following being broken down by the liver into morphine; how quickly this occurs depends on a person's genetics. Codeine was discovered in 1832 by Pierre Jean Robiquet. In 2013, about 361,000 kg (795,000 lb) of codeine were produced while 249,000 kg (549,000 lb) were used, which made it the most commonly taken opiate. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Codeine occurs naturally and makes up about 2% of opium. Medical uses ------------ ### Pain Codeine is used to treat mild to moderate pain. It is commonly used to treat post-surgical dental pain. Weak evidence indicates that it is useful in cancer pain, but it may have increased adverse effects, especially constipation, compared to other opioids. The American Academy of Pediatrics does not recommend its use in children due to side effects. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists age under 12 years old as a contraindication to use. ### Cough Codeine is used to relieve coughing. Evidence does not support its use for acute cough suppression in children. In Europe, it is not recommended as a cough medicine in those under 12 years of age. Some tentative evidence shows it can reduce a chronic cough in adults. ### Diarrhea It is used to treat diarrhea and diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome, although loperamide (which is available without a prescription for milder diarrhea), diphenoxylate, paregoric, or even laudanum are more frequently used to treat severe diarrhea. ### Formulations Codeine is marketed as both a single-ingredient drug and in combination preparations with paracetamol (as co-codamol: *e.g.,* brands Paracod, Panadeine, and the Tylenol-with-codeine series, including Tylenol 3 and 1, 2, and 4); with aspirin (as co-codaprin); or with ibuprofen (as Nurofen Plus). These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone (drug synergy). Codeine is also commonly marketed in products containing codeine with other pain killers or muscle relaxers, as well as codeine mixed with phenacetin (Emprazil with codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), naproxen, indomethacin, diclofenac, and others, as well as more complex mixtures, including such mixtures as aspirin + paracetamol + codeine ± caffeine ± antihistamines and other agents, such as those mentioned above. Codeine-only products can be obtained with a prescription as a time release tablet. Codeine is also marketed in cough syrups with zero to a half-dozen other active ingredients, and a linctus (*e.g.,* Paveral) for all of the uses for which codeine is indicated. Injectable codeine is available for subcutaneous or intramuscular injection only; intravenous injection is contraindicated, as this can result in nonimmune mast-cell degranulation and resulting anaphylactoid reaction. Codeine suppositories are also marketed in some countries. Side effects ------------ Common adverse effects associated with the use of codeine include drowsiness and constipation. Less common are itching, nausea, vomiting, dry mouth, miosis, orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention, euphoria, and dysphoria. Rare adverse effects include anaphylaxis, seizure, acute pancreatitis, and respiratory depression. As with all opiates, long-term effects can vary, but can include diminished libido, apathy, and memory loss. Some people may have allergic reactions to codeine, such as the swelling of skin and rashes. Tolerance to many of the effects of codeine, including its therapeutic effects, develops with prolonged use. This occurs at different rates for different effects, with tolerance to the constipation-inducing effects developing particularly slowly for instance. As with other opioids, a potentially serious adverse drug reaction is respiratory depression. This depression is dose-related and is a mechanism for the potentially fatal consequences of overdose. As codeine is metabolized to morphine, morphine can be passed through breast milk in potentially lethal amounts, fatally depressing the respiration of a breastfed baby. In August 2012, the United States Food and Drug Administration issued a warning about deaths in pediatric patients less than 6 years old after ingesting "normal" doses of paracetamol with codeine after tonsillectomy; this warning was upgraded to a black box warning in February 2013. Some patients are very effective converters of codeine to its active form, morphine, resulting in lethal blood levels. The FDA is presently recommending very cautious use of codeine in young tonsillectomy patients; the drug should be used in the lowest amount that can control the pain, "as needed" and not "around the clock", and immediate medical attention is needed if the user responds negatively. ### Withdrawal and dependence As with other opiates, chronic use of codeine can cause physical dependence which can lead to severe withdrawal symptoms if a person suddenly stops the medication. Withdrawal symptoms include drug craving, runny nose, yawning, sweating, insomnia, weakness, stomach cramps, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle spasms, chills, irritability, and pain. These side-effects also occur in acetaminophen/aspirin combinations, though to a lesser extent. To minimize withdrawal symptoms, long-term users should gradually reduce their codeine medication under the supervision of a healthcare professional. Also, no evidence indicates that CYP2D6 inhibition is useful in treating codeine dependence, though the metabolism of codeine to morphine (and hence further metabolism to glucuronide morphine conjugates) does have an effect on the abuse potential of codeine. However, CYP2D6 has been implicated in the toxicity and death of neonates when codeine is administered to lactating mothers, particularly those with increased enzyme activity ("ultra-rapid" metabolizers). In 2019 Ireland was said to be on the verge of a codeine addiction epidemic, according to a paper in the Irish Medical Journal. Under Irish law, codeine can be bought over-the-counter under supervision of a pharmacist, but there is no mechanism to detect patients travelling to different pharmacies to purchase codeine. Pharmacology ------------ ### Pharmacodynamics Codeine (and metabolite) at opioid receptors| Compound | Affinities (Ki) | Ratio | Ref | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | MOR | DOR | KOR | MOR:DOR:KOR | | Codeine | 79 nM | >1,000 nM | >1,000 nM | ND | | | Morphine | 1.8 nM | 90 nM | 317 nM | 1:50:176 | | Equianalgesic doses| Compound | Route | Dose | | --- | --- | --- | | Codeine | PO | 200 mg | | Hydrocodone | PO | 20–30 mg | | Hydromorphone | PO | 7.5 mg | | Hydromorphone | IV | 1.5 mg | | Morphine | PO | 30 mg | | Morphine | IV | 10 mg | | Oxycodone | PO | 20 mg | | Oxycodone | IV | 10 mg | | Oxymorphone | PO | 10 mg | | Oxymorphone | IV | 1 mg | Codeine is a nonsynthetic opioid. It is a selective agonist of the μ-opioid receptor (MOR). Codeine itself has relatively weak affinity for the MOR. Instead of acting directly on the MOR, codeine functions as a prodrug of its major active metabolites morphine and codeine-6-glucuronide, which are far more potent MOR agonists in comparison. Codeine has been found as an endogenous compound, along with morphine, in the brains of nonhuman primates with depolarized neurons, indicating that codeine may function as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator in the central nervous system. Like morphine, codeine causes TLR4 signaling which causes allodynia and hyperalgesia. It doesn't need to be converted to morphine to increase pain sensitivity. ### Mechanism of action Codeine is an opioid and an agonist of the mu opioid receptor (MOR). It acts on the central nervous system to have an analgesic effect. It is metabolised in the liver to produce morphine which is ten times more potent against the mu receptor. Opioid receptors are G protein-coupled receptors that positively and negatively regulate synaptic transmission through downstream signalling. Binding of codeine or morphine to the mu opioid receptor results in hyperpolarization of the neuron leading to the inhibition of release of nociceptive neurotransmitters, causing an analgesic effect and increased pain tolerance due to reduced neuronal excitability. ### Pharmacokinetics The conversion of codeine to morphine occurs in the liver and is catalyzed by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6. CYP3A4 produces norcodeine, and UGT2B7 conjugates codeine, norcodeine, and morphine to the corresponding 3- and 6-glucuronides. Srinivasan, Wielbo and Tebbett speculate that codeine-6-glucuronide is responsible for a large percentage of the analgesia of codeine, and thus these patients should experience some analgesia. Many of the adverse effects will still be experienced in poor metabolizers. Conversely, between 0.5% and 2% of the population are "extensive metabolizers"; multiple copies of the gene for 2D6 produce high levels of CYP2D6 and will metabolize drugs through that pathway more quickly than others. Some medications are CYP2D6 inhibitors and reduce or even completely block the conversion of codeine to morphine. The best-known of these are two of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, paroxetine (Paxil) and fluoxetine (Prozac) as well as the antihistamine diphenhydramine (Benadryl) and the antidepressant bupropion (Wellbutrin, also known as Zyban). Other drugs, such as rifampicin and dexamethasone, induce CYP450 isozymes and thus increase the conversion rate. CYP2D6 converts codeine into morphine, which then undergoes glucuronidation. Life-threatening intoxication, including respiratory depression requiring intubation, can develop over a matter of days in patients who have multiple functional alleles of CYP2D6, resulting in ultrarapid metabolism of opioids such as codeine into morphine. Studies on codeine's analgesic effect are consistent with the idea that metabolism by CYP2D6 to morphine is important, but some studies show no major differences between those who are poor metabolizers and extensive metabolizers. Evidence supporting the hypothesis that ultrarapid metabolizers may get greater analgesia from codeine due to increased morphine formation is limited to case reports. Due to increased metabolism of codeine to morphine, ultrarapid metabolizers (those possessing more than two functional copies of the CYP2D6 allele) are at increased risk of adverse drug effects related to morphine toxicity. Guidelines released by the Clinical Pharmacogenomics Implementation Consortium (CPIC) advise against administering codeine to ultrarapid metabolizers, where this genetic information is available. The CPIC also suggests that codeine use be avoided in poor metabolizers, due to its lack of efficacy in this group. Codeine and its salts are readily absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, and ingestion of codeine phosphate produces peak plasma concentrations in about one hour. Plasma half life is between 3 and 4 hours, and oral/intramuscular analgesic potency ratio is approximately equal to 1:1.5. The most common conversion ratio, given on equianalgesia charts used in the United States, Canada, the UK, Republic of Ireland, the European Union, Russia and elsewhere as 130 mg IM equals 200 mg PO—both of which are equivalent to 10 mg of morphine sulphate IV and 60 mg of morphine sulphate PO. The salt:freebase ratio of the salts of both drugs in use are roughly equivalent, and do not generally make a clinical difference. Codeine is metabolised by *O*- and *N*-demethylation in the liver to morphine and norcodeine. Hydrocodone is also a metabolite of codeine in humans. Codeine and its metabolites are mostly removed from the body by the kidneys, primarily as conjugates with glucuronic acid. The active metabolites of codeine, notably morphine, exert their effects by binding to and activating the μ-opioid receptor. Chemistry --------- While codeine can be directly extracted from opium, its original source, most codeine is synthesized from the much more abundant morphine through the process of O-methylation, through a process first completed in the late 20th century by Robert C. Corcoran and Junning Ma. ### Relation to other opioids Codeine has been used in the past as the starting material and prototype of a large class of mainly mild to moderately strong opioids; such as hydrocodone (1920 in Germany), oxycodone (1916 in Germany), dihydrocodeine (1908 in Germany), and its derivatives such as nicocodeine (1956 in Austria). However, these opioids are no longer synthesized from codeine and are usually synthesized from other opium alkaloids; specifically thebaine. Other series of codeine derivatives include isocodeine and its derivatives, which were developed in Germany starting around 1920. In general, the various classes of morphine derivatives such as ketones, semisynthetics like dihydromorphine, halogeno-morphides, esters, ethers, and others have codeine, dihydrocodeine, and isocodeine analogues. The codeine ester acetylcodeine is a common active impurity in street heroin as some codeine tends to dissolve with the morphine when it is extracted from opium in underground heroin and morphine base labs. As an analgesic, codeine compares weakly to other opiates. Related to codeine in other ways are codoxime, thebacon, codeine-*N*-oxide (genocodeine), related to the nitrogen morphine derivatives as is codeine methobromide, and heterocodeine, which is a drug six times stronger than morphine and 72 times stronger than codeine due to a small re-arrangement of the molecule, namely moving the methyl group from the 3 to the 6 position on the morphine carbon skeleton. Drugs bearing resemblance to codeine in effects due to close structural relationship are variations on the methyl groups at the 3 position including ethylmorphine, also known as codethyline (Dionine), and benzylmorphine (Peronine). While having no narcotic effects of its own, the important opioid precursor thebaine differs from codeine only slightly in structure. Pseudocodeine and some other similar alkaloids not currently used in medicine are found in trace amounts in opium as well. History ------- Codeine, or 3-methylmorphine, is an alkaloid found in the opium poppy, *Papaver somniferum* var. *album*, a plant in the family Papaveraceae. Opium poppy has been cultivated and utilized throughout human history for a variety of medicinal (analgesic, anti-tussive and anti-diarrheal) and hypnotic properties linked to the diversity of its active components, which include morphine, codeine and papaverine. Codeine is found in concentrations of 1% to 3% in opium prepared by the latex method from unripe pods of *Papaver somniferum*. The name codeine is derived from the Ancient Greek κώδεια (*kṓdeia*, "poppy head"). The relative proportion of codeine to morphine, the most common opium alkaloid at 4% to 23%, tends to be somewhat higher in the poppy straw method of preparing opium alkaloids. Until the beginning of the 19th century, raw opium was used in diverse preparations known as laudanum (see Thomas de Quincey's *Confessions of an English Opium-Eater*, 1821) and paregoric elixirs, a number of which were popular in England since the beginning of the 18th century; the original preparation seems to have been elaborated in Leiden, the Netherlands around 1715 by a chemist named Lemort; in 1721 the *London Pharmacopoeia* mentions an Elixir Asthmaticum, replaced by the term Elixir Paregoricum ("pain soother") in 1746. The progressive isolation of opium's several active components opened the path to improved selectivity and safety of the opiates-based pharmacopeia. Morphine had already been isolated in Germany by Friedrich Sertürner in 1804. Codeine was first isolated in 1832 in France by Pierre Robiquet, already famous for the discovery of alizarin, the most widespread red dye, while working on refined morphine extraction processes. Robiquet is also credited with discovering caffeine independently of Pelletier, Caventou, and Runge. Thomas Anderson determined the correct composition in 1853 but a chemical structure was proposed only in 1925 by J. M. Gulland and Robert Robinson. The first crystal structure would have to wait until 1954. Codeine and morphine, as well as opium, were used in an attempt to treat diabetes in the 1880s and thereafter, as recently as the 1950s. Numerous codeine salts have been prepared since the drug was discovered. The most commonly used are the hydrochloride (freebase conversion ratio 0.805, i.e. 10 mg of the hydrochloride salt is equivalent in effect to 8.05 mg of the freebase form), phosphate (0.736), sulphate (0.859), and citrate (0.842). Others include a salicylate NSAID, codeine salicylate (0.686), a bromide (codeine methylbromide, 0.759), and at least five codeine-based barbiturates, the phenylethylbarbiturate (0.56), cyclohexenylethylbarbiturate (0.559), cyclopentenylallylbarbiturate (0.561), diallylbarbiturate (0.561), and diethylbarbiturate (0.619). The latter was introduced as Codeonal in 1912, indicated for pain with nervousness. Codeine methylbromide is also considered a separate drug for various purposes. Society and culture ------------------- Codeine is the most widely used opiate in the world, and is one of the most commonly used drugs overall according to numerous reports by organizations including the World Health Organization and its League of Nations predecessor agency. ### Names It is often sold as a salt in the form of either codeine sulfate or codeine phosphate in the United States, United Kingdom and Australia. Codeine hydrochloride is more common worldwide and the citrate, hydroiodide, hydrobromide, tartrate, and other salts are also seen. The chemical name for codeine is morphinan-6-ol, 7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methyl-, (5α,6α)- ### Recreational use A heroin (diamorphine) or other opiate/opioid addict may use codeine to ward off the effects of withdrawal during periods where their preferred drug is unavailable or unaffordable. Codeine was used recreationally during the 1940's as a component in the cocktail 'Ricketts' Folly" as described by John Steinbeck in the non-fiction book The Log from the Sea of Cortez. The drink was invented by Ed Ricketts while serving in the army. The drink and experience of consuming it are described in the book. "Quite early in the second hitch in the Army Ed got tired of the sameness of laboratory alcohol and grapefruit juice. With his unlimited medicine chest, he began to experiment. Now another rumor crept about the presidio of Monterey that a fabulous drink had been invented. It had a strange effect. No one had tasted or felt anything quite like it. It was called "Ricketts' Folly". It was said that the commanding officer of the unit, and he a major at that, after two drinks of it had marched smartly and with no hint of stagger right into a wall, and that he had made a short heroic speech as he slid to the ground. After Ed was safely and honorably discharged I asked him about the drink that had achieved a notoriety as far east as Chicago and that was discussed with hushed respect on the beachheads of the Pacific. "Well, actually it was very simple", he said. "Its components were not complicated and it was delicious. I never could figure why it had such a curious and sometimes humorous effect. It was nothing but alcohol, codeine, and grenadine. It was a pretty drink too. You know", he said, "it made every other kind of liquor seem kind of weak and flabby." Codeine is also available in conjunction with the anti-nausea medication promethazine in the form of a syrup. Brand named as Phenergan with Codeine or in generic form as promethazine with codeine, it began to be mixed with soft drinks in the 1990s as a recreational drug, called 'syrup', 'lean', or 'purple drank'. Rapper Pimp C, from the group UGK, died from an overdose of this combination. Codeine is used in illegal drug laboratories to make morphine. ### Detection Codeine and its major metabolites may be quantitated in blood, plasma or urine to monitor therapy, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning or assist in a medico-legal death investigation. Drug abuse screening programs generally test urine, hair, sweat or saliva. Many commercial opiate screening tests directed at morphine cross-react appreciably with codeine and its metabolites, but chromatographic techniques can easily distinguish codeine from other opiates and opioids. It is important to note that codeine usage results in significant amounts of morphine as an excretion product. Furthermore, heroin contains codeine (or acetyl codeine) as an impurity and its use will result in excretion of small amounts of codeine. Poppy seed foods represent yet another source of low levels of codeine in one's biofluids. Blood or plasma codeine concentrations are typically in the 50–300 µg/L range in persons taking the drug therapeutically, 700–7,000 µg/L in chronic users and 1,000–10,000 µg/L in cases of acute fatal over dosage. Codeine is produced in the human body along the same biosynthetic pathway as morphine. Urinary concentrations of endogenous codeine and morphine have been found to significantly increase in individuals taking L-DOPA for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. ### Legal status Around the world, codeine is, contingent on its concentration, a Schedule II and III drug under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. In Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States and many other countries, codeine is regulated under various narcotic control laws. In some countries, it is available without a medical prescription in combination preparations from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 20 mg, or 30 mg when sold combined with 500 mg paracetamol. Of the European Union member states, 11 countries (Bulgaria, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovenia) allow the sale of OTC codeine solid dosage forms. #### Australia In Australia, since 1 February 2018, preparations containing codeine are not available without a prescription. Preparations containing pure codeine (e.g., codeine phosphate tablets or codeine phosphate linctus) are available on prescription and are considered S8 (Schedule 8, or "Controlled Drug Possession without authority illegal"). Schedule 8 preparations are subject to the strictest regulation of all medications available to consumers. Prior to 1 February 2018, Codeine was available over-the-counter (OTC). #### Canada In Canada, codeine is regulated under the Narcotic Control Regulations (NCR), which falls under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (CDSA). Regulations state the pharmacists may, without a prescription, sell low-dose codeine products (containing up to 8 mg of codeine per tablet or up to 20 mg per 30 ml in liquid preparation) if the preparation contains at least two additional medicinal ingredients other than a narcotic (S.36.1 NCR). In Canada tablets containing 8 mg of codeine combined with 15 mg of caffeine and 300 mg of acetaminophen are sold as T1s (Tylenol Number 1) without a prescription. A similar tablet called "A.C. & C." (which stands for Acetylsalicylic acid with Caffeine and Codeine) containing 325–375 mg of acetylsalicylic acid (Aspirin) instead of acetaminophen is also available without a prescription. Codeine combined with an antihistamine, and often caffeine, is sold under various trade names and is available without a prescription. These products are kept behind the counter and must be dispensed by a pharmacist who may limit quantities. Names of many codeine and dihydrocodeine products in Canada tend to follow the narcotic content number system (Tylenol With Codeine No. 1, 2, 3, 4 &c) mentioned below in the section on the United States; it came to be in its current form with the Pure Food & Drug Act of 1906. Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (S.C. 1996, c. 19) effective July 28, 2020. Codeine is now classified under Schedule 1, giving it a higher priority in the treatments of offenders of the law. Codeine became a prescription-only medication in the province of Manitoba on February 1, 2016. The number of low-dose codeine tablets sold in Manitoba decreased by 94 percent from 52.5 million tablets sold in the year prior to the policy change to 3.3 million in the year after. A pharmacist may issue a prescription, and all purchases are logged to a central database to prevent overprescribing. Saskatchewan's pharmacy college is considering enacting a similar ban to Manitoba's. On 9 May 2019, the Canadian Pharmacists Association wrote to Health Canada proposing regulations amending the NCR, the BOTSR, and the FDR - Part G, which included requiring that all products containing codeine be available by prescription only. New safety measures were issued by Health Canada on July 28, 2016; "codeine should no longer be used (contraindicated) in patients under 18 years of age to treat pain after surgery to remove tonsils or adenoids, as these patients are more susceptible to the risk of serious breathing problems. Codeine (prescription and non-prescription) is already not recommended for children under the age of 12, for any use." #### Denmark In Denmark codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 9.6 mg (with aspirin, brand name Kodimagnyl); anything stronger requires a prescription. #### Estonia In Estonia codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 8 mg (with paracetamol, brand name Co-Codamol). #### France In France, most preparations containing codeine only began requiring a doctor's prescription in 2017. Products containing codeine include Néocodion (codeine and camphor), Tussipax (ethylmorphine and codeine), Paderyl (codeine alone), Codoliprane (codeine with paracetamol), Prontalgine and Migralgine (codeine, paracetamol and caffeine). The 2017 law change made a prescription mandatory for all codeine products, along with those containing ethylmorphine and dextromethorphan. #### Germany, Switzerland and Austria Codeine is listed under the *Betäubungsmittelgesetz* in Germany and the similarly named narcotics and controlled substances law in Switzerland. In Austria, the drug is listed under the *Suchtmittelgesetz* in categories corresponding to their classification under the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Dispensing of products containing codeine and similar drugs (dihydrocodeine, nicocodeine, benzylmorphine, ethylmorphine, etc.) generally requires a prescription order from a doctor or the discretion of the pharmacist. Municipal and provincial regulations may impact availability, in particular in Austria and Switzerland, which allows cities and provinces to regulate the selling of the least-regulated schedule of the SMG/BtMG. Individual chemists' shops can opt out of providing them or imposing volume, frequency, or single-purchase limitations and other things of the same store. Plain codeine hydrochloride tablets as well as other non-injectable forms of codeine and its midrange derivatives can be dispensed in this way; the same goes for most chemical classes of benzodiazepines, the majority of non-barbiturate sedative/hypnotics, and at least a handful of barbiturates. Title 76 of the Schengen treaty has made it possible for countries within the signatory states to import and export drugs with various provisos, recording and ordering requirements, and various other rules. #### Greece Codeine is classed as an illegal drug in Greece, and individuals possessing it could conceivably be arrested, even if they were legitimately prescribed it in another country. It is sold only with a doctor's prescription (Lonarid-N, Lonalgal). #### Hong Kong In Hong Kong, China, codeine is regulated under Laws of Hong Kong, Dangerous Drugs Ordinance, Chapter 134, Schedule 1. It can be used legally only by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000 (HKD). The maximum penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 (HKD) fine and/or 7 years of jail time. However, codeine is available without prescription from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 0.1% (i.e. 5 mg/5ml) #### India Codeine preparations require a prescription in India. A preparation of paracetamol and codeine is available in India. Codeine is also present in various cough syrups as codeine phosphate including chlorpheniramine maleate. Pure codeine is also available as codeine sulphate tablets. Codeine containing cough medicine has been banned in India with effect from 14 March 2016. The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has found no proof of its efficacy against cough control. #### Iran Preparations of codeine in Iran normally comes with paracetamol or guaifenesin, and can be purchased over-the-counter. Pure codeine is also available as codeine phosphate 30 mg tablets and special permit required to purchasing. Iran's deputy health minister reported that codeine combinations is Iran's best selling OTC medication. #### Ireland In Ireland, new regulations came into effect on 1 August 2010 concerning codeine, due to worries about the overuse of the drug. Codeine remains a semi non-prescriptive, over-the-counter drug up to a limit of 12.8 mg per pill, but codeine products must be out of the view of the public to facilitate the legislative requirement that these products "are not accessible to the public for self-selection". In practice, this means customers must ask pharmacists for the product containing codeine in name, and the pharmacist makes a judgement whether it is suitable for the patient to be using codeine, and that patients are fully advised of the correct use of these products. Products containing more than 12.8 mg codeine are available on prescription only. #### Italy Codeine tablets or preparations require a prescription in Italy. Preparations of paracetamol and codeine are available in Italy as *Co-Efferalgan* and *Tachidol*. #### Japan Codeine is available over the counter at pharmacies, allowing up to 50 mg of codeine phosphate per day for adults. #### Latvia In Latvia codeine is sold over the counter in dosages up to 8 mg (with paracetamol, brand name Co-Codamol). #### Maldives The Maldives takes an infamously strict line on medicines, with many common drugs, notably anything with containing codeine being banned unless you have a notarized and authenticated doctor's prescription. Visitors breaking the rules, even inadvertently, have been deported or imprisoned. #### Nigeria Nigeria in 2018 plans to ban the manufacture and import of cough syrup that include codeine as an ingredient. This is due to concerns regarding its use to get intoxicated. #### Romania Codeine is not allowed without a medical prescription. Codeine is sold under the name Farmacod and its concentration does not exceed 15 mg. There is a known combination of acetylsalicylic acid, paracetamol and codeine phosphate hemihydrate named Aspaco that is allowed without a medical prescription but its case is signed with an exclamation red symbol which means that driving won't be allowed during treatment. There are no sanctions whether the drug is given without a prescription. #### The Russian Federation According to ITAR-Tass and Austria Presse-Agentur, OTC availability of codeine products was rescinded nationwide in 2012 because of the discovery of the Krokodil method of underground desomorphine synthesis. Opponents of the move point out that codeine has not been available OTC in 22 of Russia's regions for years and the demand will call forth its own supply, meaning that only legitimate end users are negatively affected (activist quoted in Pravda story on issue). #### South Africa Codeine is available over the counter in South Africa. Certain pharmacies require people to write down their name and address to ensure they are not buying too much over a short period although many do not require this at all. According to Lochan Naidoo, the former president of the National Narcotics Control Board, making the drugs more difficult to obtain could lead to even worse problems where people in withdrawal would turn to illicit drugs to get their fix. Although codeine is freely available, South Africa has a fairly low annual prevalence rate of opiate use at 0.3% compared to the United States at 0.57% where all opiates are strictly regulated. #### Sri Lanka Codeine preparations are available as over the counter pharmacy medicines in Sri Lanka. The most common preparation is Panadeine, which contains 500 mg of Paracetamol and 8 mg of Codeine. But cough syrup containing codeine and promethazine is banned, even with a prescription. #### United Arab Emirates The UAE takes an exceptionally strict line on medicines, with many common drugs, notably anything containing codeine being banned unless one has a notarized and authenticated doctor's prescription. Visitors breaking the rules, even inadvertently, have been deported or imprisoned. The US Embassy to the UAE maintains an unofficial list of what may not be imported. #### United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the sale and possession of codeine are restricted separately under law. Neat codeine and higher-strength codeine formulations are generally prescription-only medicines (POM) meaning that the sale of such products is restricted under the Medicines Act 1968. Lower-strength products containing combinations of up to 12.8 mg of codeine per dosage unit, combined with paracetamol, ibuprofen or aspirin are available over the counter at pharmacies. Codeine linctus of 15 mg per 5 ml is also available at some pharmacies, although a purchaser would have to request it specifically from the pharmacist. Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 codeine is a Class B controlled substance or a Class A drug when prepared for injection. The possession of controlled substances without a prescription is a criminal offence. However, certain preparations of codeine are exempt from this restriction under Schedule 5 of the Misuse of Drugs Regulations 2001. It is thus legal to possess codeine without a prescription, provided that it is compounded with at least one other active or inactive ingredient and that the dosage of each tablet, capsule, etc. does not exceed 100 mg or 2.5% concentration in the case of liquid preparations. The exemptions do not to apply to any preparation of codeine designed for injection. #### United States In the United States, codeine is regulated by the Controlled Substances Act. Federal law dictates that codeine be a Schedule II controlled substance when used in products for pain-relief that contain codeine alone or more than 80 mg per dosage unit. Codeine without aspirin or acetaminophen (Tylenol) is very rarely available or prescribed in order to discourage abuse. Tablets of codeine in combination with aspirin or acetaminophen (paracetamol) and intended for pain relief are listed as Schedule III. Cough syrups are classed as Schedule III, IV or V, depending on formulation. For example, the acetaminophen/codeine antitussive liquid is a Schedule IV controlled substance. Some states have chosen to reclassify codeine preparations at a more restrictive schedule in order to lower the instances of its abuse. Minnesota, for instance, has chosen to reclassify Schedule V some codeine preparations (e.g. Cheratussin) as a Schedule II controlled substance. Schedule V Controlled Substances Substances in this schedule have a low potential for abuse relative to substances listed in Schedule IV and consist primarily of preparations containing limited quantities of certain narcotics. Examples of Schedule V substances include: cough preparations containing not more than 200 milligrams of codeine per 100 milliliters or per 100 grams (Robitussin AC®, Phenergan with Codeine®), and ezogabine. Further reading --------------- * Dean L (2012). "Codeine Therapy and CYP2D6 Genotype". In Pratt VM, McLeod HL, Rubinstein WS, et al. (eds.). *Medical Genetics Summaries*. National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). PMID 28520350. Bookshelf ID: NBK100662.

Codeine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codeine

**Messier 84** or **M84**, also known as **NGC 4374**, is a giant elliptical or lenticular galaxy in the constellation Virgo. Charles Messier discovered the object in 1781 in a systematic search for "nebulous objects" in the night sky. It is the 84th object in the Messier Catalogue and in the heavily populated core of the Virgo Cluster of galaxies, part of the local supercluster. This galaxy has morphological classification E1, denoting it has flattening of about 10%. The extinction-corrected total luminosity in the visual band is about 7.64×1010 *L*☉. The central mass-to-light ratio is 6.5, which, to a limit, steadily increases away from the core. The visible galaxy is surrounded by a massive dark matter halo. Radio observations and Hubble Space Telescope images of M84 have revealed two jets of matter shooting out from its center as well as a disk of rapidly rotating gas and stars indicating the presence of a 1.5 ×109 M☉ supermassive black hole. It also has a few young stars and star clusters, indicating star formation at a very low rate. The number of globular clusters is 1,775±150, which is much lower than expected for an elliptical galaxy. Viewed from Earth its half-light radius, relative angular size of its 50% peak of lit zone of the sky, is 72.5″, thus just over an arcminute. Two supernovae have been observed in M84: SN 1957B and SN 1991bg. Seen between these dates, it may have bore a third, SN 1980I – which may have been in either neighboring galaxy NGC 4387 or M86. This high rate of supernovae is rare for elliptical galaxies, which may indicate there is a population of stars of intermediate age in M84. See also -------- * List of Messier objects References and footnotes ------------------------ 1. 1 2 Lambert, S. B.; Gontier, A.-M. (January 2009). "On radio source selection to define a stable celestial frame". *Astronomy and Astrophysics*. **493** (1): 317–323. Bibcode:2009A&A...493..317L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200810582. 2. 1 2 "NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database". *Results for NGC 4374*. Retrieved 2006-11-14. 3. 1 2 Tully, R. Brent; et al. (August 2016). "Cosmicflows-3". *The Astronomical Journal*. **152** (2): 21. arXiv:1605.01765. Bibcode:2016AJ....152...50T. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/152/2/50. S2CID 250737862. 50. 4. ↑ "Messier 84". *SEDS Messier Catalog*. Retrieved 30 April 2022. 5. 1 2 3 4 Napolitano, N. R.; et al. (March 2011). "The PN.S Elliptical Galaxy Survey: a standard ΛCDM halo around NGC 4374?". *Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society*. **411** (3): 2035–2053. arXiv:1010.1533. Bibcode:2011MNRAS.411.2035N. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17833.x. S2CID 52221902. 6. ↑ "M 84". *SIMBAD*. Centre de données astronomiques de Strasbourg. Retrieved 2009-12-17. 7. ↑ Jones, K. G. (1991). *Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters* (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37079-0. 8. ↑ Finoguenov, A.; Jones, C. (2002). "Chandra Observation of Low-Mass X-Ray Binaries in the Elliptical Galaxy M84". *Astrophysical Journal*. **574** (2): 754–761. arXiv:astro-ph/0204046. Bibcode:2002ApJ...574..754F. doi:10.1086/340997. S2CID 17551432. 9. ↑ Bower, G.A.; et al. (1998). "Kinematics of the Nuclear Ionized Gas in the Radio Galaxy M84 (NGC 4374)". *Astrophysical Journal*. **492** (1): 111–114. arXiv:astro-ph/9710264. Bibcode:1998ApJ...492L.111B. doi:10.1086/311109. S2CID 119456112. 10. ↑ Ford, Alyson; Bregman, J. N. (2012). "Detection of Ongoing, Low-Level Star Formation in Nearby Ellipticals". *American Astronomical Society*. **219**: 102.03. Bibcode:2012AAS...21910203F. 11. 1 2 Gómez, M.; Richtler, T. (February 2004). "The globular cluster system of NGC 4374". *Astronomy and Astrophysics*. **415** (2): 499–508. arXiv:1703.00313. Bibcode:2004A&A...415..499G. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20034610. 12. ↑ Götz, W. (1958). "Supernova in NGC 4374 (= M 84)". *Astronomische Nachrichten*. **284** (3): 141–142. Bibcode:1958AN....284..141G. doi:10.1002/asna.19572840308. 13. ↑ Kosai, H.; et al. (1958). "Supernova 1991bg in NGC 4374". *IAU Circular*. **5400**: 1. Bibcode:1991IAUC.5400....1K. 14. ↑ Smith, H. A. (1981). "The spectrum of the intergalactic supernova 1980I". *Astronomical Journal*. **86**: 998–1002. Bibcode:1981AJ.....86..998S. doi:10.1086/112975. 1. ↑ on 18 March

Messier 84

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messier_84

**Durham** (/ˈdʌrəm/ *DURR-əm*) is a city in the U.S. state of North Carolina and the county seat of Durham County. Small portions of the city limits extend into Orange County and Wake County. With a population of 283,506 in the 2020 census, Durham is the 4th-most populous city in North Carolina, and the 74th-most populous city in the United States. The city is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region along the Eno River. Durham is the core of the four-county Durham-Chapel Hill Metropolitan Area, which had a population of 649,903 at the 2020 census. The Office of Management and Budget also includes Durham as a part of the Raleigh-Durham-Cary Combined Statistical Area, commonly known as the Research Triangle, which had a population of 2,043,867 at the 2020 census. A railway depot was established in 1849 on land donated by Bartlett S. Durham, the namesake of the city. Following the American Civil War, the community of Durham Station expanded rapidly, in part due to the tobacco industry. The town was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, in April 1869. The establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly 12 years later, in 1881. It became known as the founding place and headquarters of the American Tobacco Company. Textile and electric power industries also played an important role. While these industries have declined, Durham underwent revitalization and population growth to become an educational, medical, and research center. Durham is home to several recognized institutions of higher education, most notably Duke University and North Carolina Central University. Durham is also a national leader in health-related activities, which are focused on the Duke University Hospital and many private companies. Duke and its Duke University Health System are the largest employers in the city. North Carolina Central University is a historically black university that is part of the University of North Carolina system. Together, the two universities make Durham one of the vertices of the Research Triangle area; central to this is the Research Triangle Park south of Durham, which encompasses an area of 11 square miles and is devoted to research facilities. On the Duke University campus are the neo-Gothic Duke Chapel and the Nasher Museum of Art. Other notable sites in the city include the Museum of Life and Science, Durham Performing Arts Center, Carolina Theatre, and Duke Homestead and Tobacco Factory. Bennett Place commemorates the location where Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to William T. Sherman in the American Civil War. The city is served, along with Raleigh, by Raleigh–Durham International Airport. History ------- ### Pre-establishment The Eno and the Occoneechi, related to the Sioux and the Shakori, lived in the area and may have established a village named Adshusheer in the area which became Durham. The Occaneechi Path, a corridor of trading roads and trails, went through the area. Native Americans expanded the region by establishing settlements and commercial transportation routes. In 1701, English explorer John Lawson, document the area and would later call it "the flower of the Carolinas." In the mid-1700s, Scots, Irish, and English colonists settled on land granted to George Carteret by King Charles I. Early settlers built settlements as well as farms and mills, like West Point Mill. Frontiersmen in the area, prior to the American Revolutionary War, participated in the Regulator Movement. Loyalist militia used Cornwallis Road to cut through the area in 1771 to quell the rebellion. William Johnston, a local a farmer and shopkeeper, made munitions for the Continental Army, served in the Provincial Congress in 1775, and helped Daniel Boone on his westward explorations. ### Antebellum and Civil War Prior to the arrival of the railroad, the area now known as Durham was the eastern part of present-day Orange County and was almost entirely agricultural, with a few businesses catering to travelers (particularly livestock drivers) along the Hillsborough Road. This road, eventually followed by US Route 70, was the major east–west route in North Carolina from colonial times until the construction of interstate highways. Steady population growth and an intersection with the road connecting Roxboro and Fayetteville made the area near this site suitable for a US Post Office. Roxboro, Fayetteville and Hillsborough Roads remain major thoroughfares in Durham, although they no longer exactly follow their early 19th century rights-of-way. Large plantations, Hardscrabble, Fairntosh, Lipscomb, Walnut Hall, Patterson, and Leigh among them, were established in the antebellum period. By 1860, Stagville Plantation lay at the center of one of the largest plantation holdings in the South. African slaves were brought to labor on these farms and plantations, and slave quarters became the hearth of distinctively Southern cultural traditions involving crafts, social relations, life rituals, music, and dance. There were free African-Americans in the area as well, including several who fought in the Revolutionary War. Durham's location is a result of the needs of the 19th century railroad industry. The wood-burning steam locomotives of the time had to stop frequently for wood and water and the new North Carolina Railroad needed a depot between the settled towns of Raleigh and Hillsborough. The residents of what is now downtown Durham thought their businesses catering to livestock drivers had a better future than "a new-fangled nonsense like a railroad" and refused to sell or lease land for a depot. In 1849, a North Carolina Railroad depot was established on a four-acre tract of land donated by Dr. Bartlett S. Durham; the station was named after him in recognition of his gift. A U.S. post office was established there on April 26, 1853, now recognized as the city's official birthday. Durham Station, as it was known for its first 20 years, was a depot for the occasional passenger or express package until early April 1865, when the Federal Army commanded by Major General William T. Sherman occupied the nearby state capital of Raleigh during the American Civil War. The last formidable Confederate Army in the South, commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston, was headquartered in Greensboro 50 miles (80 km) to the west. After the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee at Appomattox, Virginia on April 9, 1865, Gen. Johnston sought surrender terms, which were negotiated on April 17, 18 and 26 at Bennett Place, the small farm of James and Nancy Bennett, located halfway between the army's lines about 3 miles (4.8 km) west of Durham Station. As both armies passed through Durham, Hillsborough, and surrounding Piedmont communities, they enjoyed the mild flavor of the area's Brightleaf tobacco, which was considered more pleasant to smoke or chew than was available back home after the war. Some began sending letters to Durham to get more. ### Reconstruction and the rise of Durham tobacco The community of Durham Station grew slowly before the Civil War, but expanded rapidly following the war. Much of this growth attributed to the establishment of a thriving tobacco industry. Veterans returned home after the war with an interest in acquiring more of the tobacco they had sampled in North Carolina. Numerous orders were mailed to John Ruffin Green's tobacco company requesting more of the Durham tobacco. W.T. Blackwell partnered with Green and renamed the company as the "Bull Durham Tobacco Factory". The name "Bull Durham" is said to have been taken from the bull on the British Colman's Mustard, which Mr. Blackwell mistakenly believed was manufactured in Durham, England. Mustard known as Durham Mustard was originally produced in Durham, England, by Mrs Clements and later by Ainsley during the eighteenth century. However, production of the original Durham Mustard has now been passed into the hands of Colman's of Norwich, England. ### Incorporation As Durham Station's population rapidly increased, the station became a town and was incorporated by act of the North Carolina General Assembly, on April 10, 1869. It was named for the man who provided the land on which the station was built, Dr. Bartlett Durham. At the time of its incorporation by the General Assembly, Durham was located in Orange County. The increase in business activity, land transfers etc., made the day long trip back and forth to the county seat in Hillsborough untenable, so twelve years later, on April 17, 1881, a bill for the establishment of Durham County was ratified by the General Assembly, having been introduced by Caleb B.Green, creating Durham County from the eastern portion of Orange County and the western portion of Wake County. In 1911, parts of Cedar Fork Township of Wake County was transferred to Durham County and became Carr Township. ### Early growth (1900–1970) The rapid growth and prosperity of the Bull Durham Tobacco Company, and Washington Duke's W. Duke & Sons Tobacco Company, resulted in the rapid growth of the city of Durham. Washington Duke was a good businessman, but his sons were brilliant and established what amounted to a monopoly of the smoking and chewing tobacco business in the United States by 1900. In the early 1910s, the Federal Government forced a breakup of the Duke's business under the antitrust laws. The Dukes retained what became known as American Tobacco, a major corporation in its own right, with manufacturing based in Durham. American Tobacco's ubiquitous advertisements on radio shows beginning in the 1930s and television shows up to 1970 was the nation's image of Durham until Duke University supplanted it in the late 20th century. Prevented from further investment in the tobacco industry, the Dukes turned to the then new industry of electric power generation, which they had been investing in since the early 1890s. Duke Power (now Duke Energy) brought in electricity from hydroelectric dams in the western mountains of North Carolina through the newly invented technology of high voltage power lines. At this time (1910–1920), the few towns and cities in North Carolina that had electricity depended on local "powerhouses". These were large, noisy, and smoky coal-fired plants located next to the railroad tracks. Duke Power quickly took over the electricity franchises in these towns and then electrified all the other towns of central and western North Carolina, making even more money than they ever made from tobacco. Duke Power also had a significant business in local franchises for public transit (buses and trolleys) before local government took over this responsibility in the mid- to late 20th century. Duke Power ran Durham's public bus system (now the Durham Area Transit Authority) until 1991. The success of the tobacco industry in the late 19th and early 20th century encouraged the then-growing textile industry to locate just outside Durham. The early electrification of Durham was also a large incentive. Drawing a labor force from the economic demise of single family farms in the region at the time, these textile mills doubled the population of Durham. These areas were known as East Durham and West Durham until they were eventually annexed by the City of Durham. Much of the early city architecture, both commercial and residential, dates from the period of 1890–1930. Durham recorded its worst fire in history on March 23, 1914. The multimillion-dollar blaze destroyed a large portion of the downtown business district. The fire department's water source failed during the blaze, prompting voters to establish a city-owned water system in place of the private systems that had served the city since 1887. Durham quickly developed a black community, the center of which was an area known as *Hayti*, (pronounced HAY-tie), just south of the center of town, where some of the most prominent and successful black-owned businesses in the country during the early 20th century were established. These businesses — the best known of which are North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company and Mechanics & Farmers Bank — were centered on Parrish St., which would come to be known as "Black Wall Street." In 1910, Dr. James E. Shepard founded North Carolina Central University, the nation's first publicly supported liberal arts college for African-Americans. In 1924, James Buchanan Duke established a philanthropic foundation in honor of his father Washington Duke to support Trinity College in Durham. The college changed its name to Duke University and built a large campus and hospital a mile west of Trinity College (the original site of Trinity College is now known as the Duke East Campus). Durham's manufacturing fortunes declined during the mid-20th century. Textile mills began to close during the 1930s. Competition from other tobacco companies (as well as a decrease in smoking after the 1960s) reduced revenues from Durham's tobacco industry. In a far-sighted move in the late 1950s, Duke University, along with the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University in Raleigh, persuaded the North Carolina Legislature to purchase a large tract of sparsely settled land in southern Durham County and create the nation's first "science park" for industry. Cheap land and a steady supply of trained workers from the local universities made the Research Triangle Park an enormous success which, along with the expansion resulting from the clinical and scientific advances of Duke Medical Center and Duke University, more than made up for the decline of Durham's tobacco and textile industries. ### Civil rights movement As a result of its substantial African-American community, including many activists, a prominent civil rights movement developed in Durham. Multiple sit-ins were held, and Martin Luther King Jr., visited the city during the struggle for equal rights. The Durham Committee on Negro Affairs, organized in 1935 by C.C. Spaulding, Louis Austin, Conrad Pearson, and James E. Shepard, has been cited nationally for its role in fighting for black voting rights. The committee also has used its voting strength to pursue social and economic rights for African-Americans and other ethnic groups. In 1957, Douglas E. Moore, minister of Durham's Asbury Temple Methodist Church, along with other religious and community leaders, pioneered sit-ins throughout North Carolina to protest discrimination at lunch counters that served only whites. Widely credited as the first sit-in of the civil rights movement in North Carolina, on June 23, 1957, Moore and six others assembled at the church to plan the protest. The young African Americans moved over to the segregated Royal Ice Cream Parlor and took up whites-only booths. When they refused to budge, the manager called the police who charged them with trespassing. Unlike the Greensboro Four, three years later, the Royal Seven were arrested and ultimately found guilty of trespassing. The six-month-long sit-in at a Woolworth's counter in Greensboro, NC, captured the nation's attention. Within a week, students from North Carolina College at Durham and Duke University staged a sit-in in Durham. About a week later, Martin Luther King Jr. met Moore in Durham, where King coined his famous rallying cry "Fill up the jails," during a speech at White Rock Baptist Church. Advocating non-violent confrontation with segregation laws for the first time, King said, "Let us not fear going to jail. If the officials threaten to arrest us for standing up for our rights, we must answer by saying that we are willing and prepared to fill up the jails of the South." This community was not enough to prevent the demolition of portions of the Hayti district for the construction of the Durham Freeway during the late 1960s. The freeway construction resulted in losses to other historic neighborhoods, including Morehead Hill, West End, and West Durham. Combined with large-scale demolition using Urban Renewal funds, Durham suffered significant losses to its historic architectural base. ### 1970s – present In 1970, the Census Bureau reported city's population as 38.8% black and 60.8% white. Durham's growth began to rekindle during the 1970s and 1980s, with the construction of multiple housing developments in the southern part of the city, nearest Research Triangle Park, and the beginnings of downtown revitalization. In 1975, the St. Joseph's Historical Foundation at the Hayti Heritage Center was incorporated to "preserve the heritage of the old Hayti community, and to promote the understanding of and appreciation for the African American experience and African Americans' contributions to world culture." A new downtown baseball stadium was constructed for the Durham Bulls in 1994. The Durham Performing Arts Center now ranks in the top ten in theater ticket sales in the US according to Pollstar magazine. Many famous people have performed there including B.B. King and Willie Nelson. After the departure of the tobacco industry, large-scale renovations of the historic factories into offices, condominiums, and restaurants began to reshape downtown. While these efforts continue, the large majority of Durham's residential and retail growth since 1990 has been along the I-40 corridor in southern Durham County. Major employers in Durham are Duke University and Duke Medical Center (39,000 employees, 14,000 students), about 2 miles (3.2 km) west of the original downtown area, and companies in the Research Triangle Park (49,000 employees), about 10 miles (16 km) southeast. These centers are connected by the Durham Freeway (NC 147). ### Downtown revitalization In recent years the city of Durham has stepped up revitalization of its downtown and undergone an economic and cultural renaissance of sorts. Partnering with developers from around the world, the city continues to promote the redevelopment of many of its former tobacco districts, projects supplemented by the earlier construction of the Durham Performing Arts Center and new Durham Bulls Athletic Park. The American Tobacco Historic District, adjacent to both the athletic park and performing arts center, is one such project, having successfully lured a number of restaurants, entertainment venues, and office space geared toward hi-tech entrepreneurs, investors, and startups. Many other companies have purchased and renovated historic buildings, such as Measurement Incorporated and Capitol Broadcasting Company. The American Underground section of the American Tobacco Campus, home to successful small software firms including Red Hat, was selected by Google to host its launch of the Google Glass Road show in October 2013. The district is also slated for expansion featuring 158,000 square feet of offices, retail, residential or hotel space The Durham County Justice Center, a major addition to downtown Durham, was completed in early 2013. Many of the historic tobacco buildings elsewhere in the city have been converted into loft-style apartment complexes. The downtown corridor along West Main St. has seen significant redevelopment including bars, entertainment venues, art studios, and co-working spaces, in addition to shopping and dining in nearby Brightleaf Square, another former tobacco warehouse in the Bright Leaf Historic District. Other current and future projects include expansion of the open-space surrounding the American Tobacco Trail, new hotels and apartment complexes, a $6.35-million facelift of Durham City Hall, and ongoing redevelopment of the Duke University Central Campus. In 2013, 21c Museum Hotels announced plans to fully renovate the Hill Building. The renovations added a contemporary art museum and upscale restaurant to the historic building. Additionally, a boutique hotel was built in this major renovation effort in downtown Durham. Skanska is responsible for managing this project. In 2014, it was announced that downtown Durham would be the site of a brand new 27 story high building, tentatively named "City Center Tower", titled "One City Center" as of 2018[update]. Along with other new buildings in downtown Durham, it was under construction in 2018. Construction has already started, and the building will be at the corner of Main St. and Corcoran St. It will be directly across from Durham's current tallest building, but once completed, will be the new tallest building in downtown Durham and the 4th largest building in the Triangle. Originally scheduled for a 2016 opening, the building was then expected to open in May 2018. This is an ambitious, $80 million project. In October 2014, a major new development, the Durham Innovation District, was announced. The development will span 15 acres and comprise over 1.7 million square feet of office, residential, and retail space. On April 10, 2019, a gas explosion rocked Kaffeinate, a coffee shop in Bright Leaf Historic District. The blast destroyed a city block and killed Kong Lee, the owner, as well as injuring 25 others. Geography --------- MapInteractive map of Durham city limits Durham is located in the east-central part of the Piedmont region at 35°59′19″N 78°54′26″W / 35.98861°N 78.90722°W / 35.98861; -78.90722 (35.988644, −78.907167). Like much of the region, its topography is generally flat with some rolling hills. The city has a total area of 108.3 square miles (280.4 km2), of which 107.4 square miles (278.1 km2) is land and 0.93 square miles (2.4 km2), or 0.84%, is water. The soil is predominantly clay, making it poor for agriculture. The Eno River, a tributary of the Neuse River, passes through the northern part of Durham, along with several other small creeks. The center of Durham is on a ridge that forms the divide between the Neuse River watershed, flowing east to Pamlico Sound, and the Cape Fear River watershed, flowing south to the Atlantic near Wilmington. A small portion of the city is in Wake County. Durham is located 10.41 miles northeast of Chapel Hill, 20.78 miles northwest of Raleigh, 50.21 miles east of Greensboro, 121.40 miles northeast of Charlotte and 134.06 miles southwest of Richmond, Virginia. ### Cityscape ### Climate Durham is classified as a humid subtropical climate (*Cfa*) according to the Köppen classification, with hot and humid summers, cool winters, and warm to mild spring and autumn. Durham receives abundant precipitation, with thunderstorms common in the summer and temperatures from 80 to 100 degrees F. The region sees an average of 6.8 inches (170 mm) of snow per year, which usually melts within a few days. Durham consistently ranks in the top 10 least challenging places to live with seasonal allergies. Climate change is expected to increase the number of days of extreme precipitation in Durham as well as moderately increase temperature within the region. The number of days of inland flooding within the Piedmont is also expected to increase, which puts Durham at higher risk of future flooding. High intensity short duration storms are predicted to grow in frequency to upwards of 9 days a year by 2100. Inland flooding is anticipated to have a greater impact on the elderly and other at-risk groups in Durham. | Climate data for Raleigh–Durham International Airport, North Carolina (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1887–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °F (°C) | 80(27) | 84(29) | 94(34) | 95(35) | 99(37) | 105(41) | 105(41) | 105(41) | 104(40) | 100(38) | 88(31) | 81(27) | 105(41) | | Mean maximum °F (°C) | 71.9(22.2) | 74.4(23.6) | 81.6(27.6) | 86.4(30.2) | 91.3(32.9) | 96.6(35.9) | 98.2(36.8) | 96.7(35.9) | 92.3(33.5) | 86.7(30.4) | 78.5(25.8) | 72.8(22.7) | 99.6(37.6) | | Average high °F (°C) | 51.9(11.1) | 55.8(13.2) | 63.3(17.4) | 72.7(22.6) | 80.0(26.7) | 87.4(30.8) | 90.8(32.7) | 88.7(31.5) | 82.5(28.1) | 73.0(22.8) | 63.0(17.2) | 54.7(12.6) | 72.0(22.2) | | Daily mean °F (°C) | 41.9(5.5) | 45.0(7.2) | 51.8(11.0) | 60.8(16.0) | 68.8(20.4) | 76.7(24.8) | 80.5(26.9) | 78.8(26.0) | 72.6(22.6) | 61.7(16.5) | 51.5(10.8) | 44.6(7.0) | 61.2(16.2) | | Average low °F (°C) | 31.8(−0.1) | 34.2(1.2) | 40.3(4.6) | 48.9(9.4) | 57.7(14.3) | 66.0(18.9) | 70.2(21.2) | 68.9(20.5) | 62.7(17.1) | 50.3(10.2) | 40.0(4.4) | 34.4(1.3) | 50.4(10.2) | | Mean minimum °F (°C) | 14.0(−10.0) | 19.2(−7.1) | 23.7(−4.6) | 32.2(0.1) | 42.8(6.0) | 54.2(12.3) | 61.0(16.1) | 58.7(14.8) | 48.7(9.3) | 33.2(0.7) | 24.4(−4.2) | 19.9(−6.7) | 12.1(−11.1) | | Record low °F (°C) | −9(−23) | −2(−19) | 11(−12) | 23(−5) | 29(−2) | 38(3) | 48(9) | 46(8) | 37(3) | 19(−7) | 11(−12) | 0(−18) | −9(−23) | | Average precipitation inches (mm) | 3.43(87) | 2.78(71) | 4.10(104) | 3.53(90) | 3.58(91) | 3.89(99) | 5.02(128) | 4.71(120) | 5.15(131) | 3.37(86) | 3.32(84) | 3.39(86) | 46.07(1,170) | | Average snowfall inches (cm) | 2.6(6.6) | 1.4(3.6) | 0.3(0.76) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.0(0.0) | 0.1(0.25) | 0.8(2.0) | 5.2(13) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 10.1 | 9.3 | 10.7 | 9.5 | 9.9 | 11.2 | 11.7 | 10.7 | 9.0 | 7.6 | 8.2 | 9.7 | 117.6 | | Average snowy days (≥ 0.1 in) | 1.2 | 1.2 | 0.4 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.1 | 0.5 | 3.4 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 66.5 | 64.1 | 63.0 | 61.7 | 71.1 | 73.6 | 76.0 | 77.9 | 77.1 | 73.3 | 69.1 | 68.5 | 70.2 | | Average dew point °F (°C) | 26.8(−2.9) | 28.2(−2.1) | 35.8(2.1) | 43.3(6.3) | 55.2(12.9) | 63.5(17.5) | 67.8(19.9) | 67.5(19.7) | 61.5(16.4) | 49.3(9.6) | 39.4(4.1) | 31.1(−0.5) | 47.5(8.6) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 163.8 | 173.1 | 228.9 | 250.7 | 258.4 | 267.7 | 259.5 | 239.6 | 217.6 | 215.4 | 174.0 | 157.6 | 2,606.3 | | Percent possible sunshine | 53 | 57 | 62 | 64 | 59 | 61 | 58 | 57 | 58 | 62 | 56 | 52 | 59 | | Average ultraviolet index | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 6 | | Source 1: NOAA (relative humidity, dew point, and sun 1961–1990) | | Source 2: Weather Atlas (UV Index) | Demographics ------------ Historical population| Census | Pop. | Note | %± | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1880 | 2,041 | | — | | 1890 | 5,485 | | 168.7% | | 1900 | 6,679 | | 21.8% | | 1910 | 18,241 | | 173.1% | | 1920 | 21,719 | | 19.1% | | 1930 | 52,037 | | 139.6% | | 1940 | 60,195 | | 15.7% | | 1950 | 71,311 | | 18.5% | | 1960 | 78,302 | | 9.8% | | 1970 | 95,438 | | 21.9% | | 1980 | 101,149 | | 6.0% | | 1990 | 136,611 | | 35.1% | | 2000 | 187,035 | | 36.9% | | 2010 | 228,330 | | 22.1% | | 2020 | 283,506 | | 24.2% | | 2022 (est.) | 291,928 | | 3.0% | | U.S. Decennial Census | **Durham racial composition** (*NH = Non-Hispanic*)| Race/Ethnicity | Pop 2020 | Pop 2010 | % 2020 | % 2010 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | White alone (NH) | 109,401 | 86,519 | 38.59% | 37.89% | | Black or African American alone (NH) | 101,422 | 92,285 | 35.78% | 40.42% | | Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 593 | 611 | 0.21% | 0.27% | | Asian alone (NH) | 15,917 | 11,478 | 5.61% | 5.03% | | Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 64 | 129 | 0.02% | 0.06% | | Some Other Race alone (NH) | 1,598 | 616 | 0.56% | 0.27% | | Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH) | 11,021 | 4,233 | 3.89% | 1.85% | | Hispanic or Latino\* (any race) | 43,470 | 32,459 | 15.33% | 14.22% | | **Total** | **283,506** | **228,330** | **100.00%** | **100.00%** | | \* Treated as a separate ethnic category; may be of any race | As of the 2010 census, there were 228,330 people, 93,441 households, and 52,409 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,406.0 inhabitants per square mile (929.0/km2). There were 103,221 housing units at an average density of 1,087.7 per square mile (420.0/km2). Durham's population, as of July 1, 2019 and according to the 2019 U.S. census data estimate, had grown to 278,993, making it the 50th fastest growing city in the US, and the 2nd fastest growing city in North Carolina, behind Cary but ahead of Charlotte, Raleigh and Greensboro. As of the 2020 United States census, there were 283,506 people, 114,726 households, and 64,982 families residing in the city. In 2010, the racial composition of the city was: 42.45% White, 40.96% Black or African American, 5.07% Asian American, 0.51% Native American, 0.07% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 8.28% some other race, and 2.66% two or more races; 14.22% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. Non-Hispanic Whites comprised 37.9% of the population. There were 93,441 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.2% were married couples living together, 15.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 43.9% were non-families. 33.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34, and the average family size was 3.04. In the city, the population was spread out, with 22.7% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $47,394, and the median income for a family was $60,157. Males had a median income of $35,202 versus $30,359 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,156. About 13.1% of families and 18.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 24.3% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over. Economy ------- Duke University and Duke University Health System are Durham's largest employers. Below is a list of Durham's largest employers. Healthcare and pharmaceuticals continue to grow in importance with many companies based in Durham including IQVIA, Aerie Pharmaceuticals, Chimerix, BioCryst Pharmaceuticals, Bio Products Laboratory USA, bioMérieux USA and North Carolina Biotechnology Center. Other prominent companies based in Durham include Center for Community Self-Help, Liggett Group, North Carolina Mutual Life Insurance Company, American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, Bronto Software, Counter Culture Coffee, Burt's Bees, McKinney (advertising agency), Sugar Hill Records, Mechanics and Farmers Bank, Southern Express. | Employer | No. of employees | | --- | --- | | Duke University & Duke Univ. Health System | 34,863 | | IBM | 10,000 | | Durham Public Schools | 4,600 | | GlaxoSmithKline | 3,700 | | Blue Cross & Blue Shield of NC | 3,200 | | City of Durham | 2,437 | | Fidelity Investments | 2,400 | | IQVIA | 2,400 | | RTI International | 2,300 | | Durham VA Medical Center | 2,162 | | Cree | 2,125 | | AW North Carolina | 2,000 | Arts and culture ---------------- Durham is the venue for the annual Bull Durham Blues Festival and the OUTsouth Queer Film Festival, the 2nd largest LGBTQ+ film festival in the Southeast. Other events include jazz festivals, plays, symphony concerts, art exhibitions, and a multitude of cultural expositions, including the American Dance Festival, Tobacco Road Dance, and the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival. A center of Durham's culture is its Carolina Theatre, which presents concerts, comedy and arts in historic Fletcher Hall and Independent and repertory film in its cinemas. There is a resurgence of restaurants in and around the downtown area, including several new restaurants in the American Tobacco District. The Nasher Museum of Art opened in October 2005 and has produced nationally recognized traveling exhibitions of global, contemporary art. Durham also has a history museum, the Museum of Durham History. In 2019, the museum hosted several exhibits, including one on journalist and civil rights activist Louis Austin, and in conjunction with the 150th anniversary of the city of Durham, an exhibit titled, "150 Faces of Durham", which highlighted many of the women and men who influenced the history of Durham. The Durham Association for Downtown Arts (DADA) is a non-profit arts organization located in the downtown area. Incorporated in 2000, the organization's mission is a commitment to the development, presentation and fiscal sponsorship of original art and performance in Durham. DADA supports local artists working in a diversity of artistic media. DADA also helps local residents gain access to these artists by providing free or low-cost venue admission. Movies such as *Bull Durham* (1988) and *The Handmaid's Tale* (1989) have been shot in Durham. ### Music Durham has an active and diverse local music culture. Artists' styles range from jazz, hip-hop, soul, folk, Americana, blues, bluegrass, punk, metal and rock. Popular bands and musicians include Branford Marsalis, Iron & Wine, Carolina Chocolate Drops, The Mountain Goats, John Dee Holeman, 9th Wonder, Red Clay Ramblers, The Old Ceremony, Megafaun, Curtis Eller, Mount Moriah, Hiss Golden Messenger, Sylvan Esso, Mel Melton, Hammer No More the Fingers, Yahzarah, G Yamazawa, and Jim Mills. Members of The Butchies, Superchunk, Chatham County Line, Alice Donut, and the Avett Brothers live in Durham. Merge Records, a successful independent record label, has its headquarters in downtown Durham. Other independent record labels include Jamla, 307 Knox, Churchkey Records, and Paradise of Bachelors. Roots label Sugar Hill Records was founded in Durham, by Barry Lyle Poss, before it moved to Nashville in 1998. In 1996, the feminist / queer record label Mr. Lady Records was founded and operated in Durham until its demise in 2004. Duke University's radio station WXDU is an active participant in the community. WNCU, which is supported in part by NPR, is a jazz focused FM radio station, with broadcast studios on the campus of NCCU. The music album Sandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamil by composer Rajan Somasundaram made in association with Academy nominated singer Bombay Jayashri and Durham Symphony (led by William Henry Curry) became Amazon's Top#10 bestseller under 'International Music album' category in 2020. Durham has a rich history of African American rhythm and blues, soul, and funk music. In the 1960s and 1970s, more than 40 R&B, soul, and funk groups—including The Modulations, The Black Experience Band, The Communicators, and Duralcha—recorded over 30 singles and three full-length albums. Durham was also home to ten recording labels that released soul music, though most of them only released one or two records apiece. A few successful local soul groups from Durham also recorded on national labels like United Artists or on regional labels in the mid-Atlantic and Northeast. Since 1980, the Eno River Festival has been held annually at the West Point on the Eno park in Durham, hosting a wide variety of musical acts. ### Visual arts Durham is home to the Nasher Museum of Art and smaller visual arts galleries and studios. Downtown Durham sponsors a celebration of culture and arts on display every third Friday of the month, year round. The event has come to be known as 3rd Friday. A selection of locally renowned galleries remain in business throughout the city. Galleries include but are not limited to local spots such as the Pleiades Gallery, the Carrack Modern Art, and Golden Belt Studios. Supporting a variety of local, nationwide, and worldwide talent, these galleries often host weekly events and art shows. The Durham Art Walk is another annual arts festival hosted in May each year in downtown Durham. The Durham Art Walk features a variety of artists that come together each year for a large showcase of work in the streets of Durham. A secondary magnet school, Durham School of the Arts, is also located in downtown Durham. It focuses on providing education in various forms of art ranging from visual to the performing arts. Sports ------ Collegiate athletics are a primary focus in Durham. Duke University's men's basketball team draws a large following, selling out every home game at Cameron Indoor Stadium since 1990. The fans are known as the Cameron Crazies and are known nationwide for their chants and rowdiness. The team has won the NCAA Division I championship three times since 2001 and five times overall. Duke competes in a total of 27 sports in the Atlantic Coast Conference. Durham's professional sports team is the Durham Bulls International League baseball team. A movie involving an earlier Carolina League team of that name, *Bull Durham*, was produced in 1988. Today's Bulls play in the Durham Bulls Athletic Park, on the southern end of downtown, constructed in 1994. One of the more successful teams in the minor leagues, the Bulls usually generate an annual attendance of around 500,000. Previously Durham Athletic Park (DAP), located on the northern end of downtown, had served as the Bull's ballpark. Historically, many players for the current and former Durham Bulls teams have transferred to the big leagues after several years in the minor leagues. DAP has been preserved for the use of other teams as well as for concerts sponsored by the City of Durham and other events. The Durham Dragons, a women's fast pitch softball team, played in the Durham Athletic Park from 1998 to 2000. The DAP recently went through a $5 million renovation. Government ---------- The area is predominantly Democratic, and has voted for the Democratic Party's presidential candidate in every election since the city's founding in 1869. Durham County is the most liberal county in North Carolina, measured by the percentage of voters aligning with the Democratic party in the last several presidential elections, such as 2008. The shifting alliances of the area's political action committees since the 1980s has led to a very active local political scene. Notable groups include the Durham Committee on the Affairs of Black People, the Durham People's Alliance, and the Friends of Durham. The first two groups tend to be affiliated with Democratic party progressive activists, while the third group tends to attract Republican activists. Compared to other similarly sized Southern cities, Durham has a larger than average population of middle class African-Americans and white liberals. Working together in coalition, these two groups have dominated city and county politics since the early 1980s. Durham operates under a council-manager government. The mayor, since 2017, was Steve Schewel, who was elected with 59.45% of the vote. The seven-member City Council is the primary budgetary and lawmaking authority. In November 2021, Elaine O'Neal was elected as the new mayor of Durham, becoming the first black female mayor in the city. Key political issues have been the redevelopment of Downtown Durham and revival of other historic neighborhoods and commercial districts, ending cash bail, ending mandatory sentencing minimums, decriminalization of marijuana, raising minimum wage for city employees to $15, the fluoridation of public drinking water, a 45% reduction of crime, a 10-year plan to end homelessness, initiatives to reduce truancy, issues related to growth and development. Naturally, a merger of Durham City Schools (several inner city neighborhoods) and Durham County Schools in the early 1990s has not been without controversy. More recently, the Durham City Council's 2018 statement opposing militarized policing that mentioned Israel has drawn its third lawsuit. In 2018, Durham appointed its first Latino council member Javiera Caballero. Durham has had majority female county boards since the 1980s, and in 2020, Durham elected, for the first time, an all female Durham County Board of Commissioners and the first Muslim-American woman to win elected office in the history of North Carolina. Federally, Durham is in North Carolina's 4th congressional district, which is represented by Democrat Valerie Foushee. Since 2003 the city has had a policy to prohibit police from inquiring into the citizenship status of persons unless they have otherwise been arrested or charged with a crime. A city council resolution mandates that police officers "...may not request specific documents for the sole purpose of determining a person's civil immigration status, and may not initiate police action based solely on a person's civil immigration status ..." Since 2010, the Durham police have accepted the Mexican Consular Identification Card as a valid form of identification. In 2006, racial and community tensions stirred following false allegations of a sexual assault by three white members of the Duke University lacrosse team in what is now known as the 2006 Duke University lacrosse case. The allegations were made by Crystal Gail Mangum, a young female African-American student and mother of two children. She and another young woman had been hired to dance at a party that the team held in an off-campus house. In 2007, all charges in the case were dropped and the players were declared innocent. Durham County District Attorney Mike Nifong was dismissed from his job and disbarred from legal practice for his criminal misconduct handling of the case, including withholding of exculpatory evidence. There have been several other results from the case, including lawsuits against both city and Duke University officials. The new Durham County Justice Center was completed in early 2013. Education --------- ### Primary and secondary schools Public schools in Durham are run by Durham Public Schools, the eighth largest school district in North Carolina. The district runs 46 public schools, consisting of 30 elementary, 10 middle, 2 secondary, and 12 high schools. Several magnet high schools focus on distinct subject areas, such as the Durham School of the Arts and the City of Medicine Academy. Public schools in Durham were partially segregated until 1970. The North Carolina School for Science and Mathematics is a boarding high school operated by the University of North Carolina in central Durham. The residential school accepts rising juniors living in North Carolina with a focus on science, mathematics, and technology. There are several charter school options as well, including Research Triangle High School (a STEM school in Research Triangle Park), Voyager Academy (K-12), Kestrel Heights School (K-12), Maureen Joy Charter School (K-8), and most recently Excelsior Classical Academy (K-8). Several private schools operate in Durham, such as Durham Academy, Triangle Day School, and The Duke School. There are also religious schools, including Carolina Friends School, Trinity School of Durham and Chapel Hill, Cristo Rey Research Triangle High School, Immaculata Catholic School, and Durham Nativity School. In December 2007, Forbes.com ranked Durham as one of the "Top 20 Places to Educate Your Child;" Durham was the only MSA from North Carolina to make the list. ### Colleges and universities Duke University has approximately 14,000 students, split evenly between graduates and undergraduates. Duke's 8600 acre campus and Medical Center are located in western Durham, about 2 miles (3.2 km) from downtown. Duke forms one of the three vertices of the Research Triangle along with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University. The university's research, medical, and teaching efforts are all among the highest-ranked in both the United States and the world. North Carolina Central University is a public, historically black university located in southeastern Durham. It was ranked the number 1 Public HBCU in the nation by *U.S. News & World Report* in 2010 and 2011. It was ranked the 10th best HBCU overall. The university was founded by James E. Shepard in 1910 as the National Religious Training School and Chautauqua to address the needs of the region's black population, and now grants baccalaureate, master's, professional and doctoral degrees. NCCU became a university in 1969 and joined the University of North Carolina system in 1972. Durham Technical Community College is a two-year public institution that grants associate degrees. Media ----- The major daily newspaper in Durham is *The Herald-Sun*, which began publication in 1893. The Durham-based *Independent Weekly*, noted for its progressive/liberal perspective, provides political and entertainment news for the greater Research Triangle; it began publication in 1983. Duke's independent student newspaper, *The Chronicle*, also provides local coverage. Durham is part of the Raleigh-Durham-Fayetteville designated market area, the 24th largest broadcast television market in the United States. ABC owned and operated WTVD is licensed to and based in Durham, while the studios for statewide public television service UNC-TV are based in Research Triangle Park. All major U.S. television networks have affiliates serving the region. The city is part of the Raleigh-Durham Arbitron radio market, ranked No. 37 nationally. National Public Radio affiliate WUNC, based in Chapel Hill, has significant operations in Durham. Infrastructure -------------- ### Transportation Most travel in Durham is by private motor vehicle on its network of public streets and highways. Important arteries for traffic include NC 147, which connects Duke University, downtown, and Research Triangle Park, U.S. 15-501 between Durham and Chapel Hill, I-85, connecting Durham to Virginia and western North Carolina cities, and I-40 running across southern Durham County between the Research Triangle Park and Chapel Hill. The I-40 corridor has been the main site of commercial and residential development in Durham since its opening in the early 1990s. Over 95% of commuters use a car to get to work, with 14% of those people in carpools. Durham maintains an extensive network of bicycle routes and trails and has been recognized with a Bicycle Friendly Community Award. The American Tobacco Trail begins in downtown and continues south through Research Triangle Park and ends in Wake County. The city is also considering furthering the progress on the Triangle Greenway System. Air travel is serviced by Raleigh-Durham International Airport, 12 miles southeast of Durham, which enplanes about 4.5 million passengers per year. Frequent service (five flights a day or more) is available to Boston, Charlotte, Philadelphia, New York LaGuardia, New York Kennedy, Newark, Washington Reagan, Washington Dulles, Chicago O'Hare, Dallas, Houston, and Atlanta, GA. Non-stop daily service is provided to approximately 30 destinations in the United States and daily international service is also available to London Heathrow, Toronto-Pearson and Paris Charles de Gaulle. Amtrak operates a daily train between Charlotte and New York City (the Carolinian) which stops in downtown Durham. The State of North Carolina, in cooperation with Amtrak, operates three additional daily trains between Raleigh and Charlotte which also stop in Durham. A new Amtrak station was built in 2011 in a former tobacco warehouse. Some of the downtown streets cross the tracks at grade level, while other intersections have grade separation. One downtown railroad underpass has attracted national media coverage, because it provides only 11 feet-8 inches of clearance, and has damaged the roofs of many trucks. As of October 26, 2019, the underpass was closed down to both automotive and train traffic in preparation for raising it to 12 feet and 4 inches, so as to provide clearance underneath to reduce large vehicle damage. National bus service is provided by Greyhound and Megabus at the Durham Transit Station in downtown Durham, which opened in 2009. GoDurham provides municipal bus service. GoTriangle offers scheduled, fixed-route regional and commuter bus service between Raleigh and the region's other principal cities of Durham, Cary and Chapel Hill, as well as to and from the Raleigh-Durham International Airport, Research Triangle Park and several of the region's larger suburban communities. GoTriangle also coordinates an extensive vanpool and rideshare program that serves the region's larger employers and commute destinations. From 1995, the cornerstone of GoTriangle's long-term plan was a 28-mile (45 km) rail corridor from northeast Raleigh, through downtown Raleigh, Cary, and Research Triangle Park, to Durham using DMU technology. There were proposals to extend this corridor 7 miles (11 km) to Chapel Hill with light rail technology. However, in 2006 Triangle Transit deferred implementation indefinitely when the Federal Transit Administration declined to fund the program. Government agencies throughout the Raleigh-Durham metropolitan area have struggled with determining the best means of providing fixed-rail transit service for the region. The project was cancelled 2019 with costs more than $157 million. The region's two metropolitan planning organizations appointed a group of local citizens in 2007 to reexamine options for future transit development in light of Triangle Transit's problems. The Special Transit Advisory Commission (STAC) retained many of the provisions of Triangle Transit's original plan, but recommended adding new bus services and raising additional revenues by adding a new local half-cent sales tax to fund the project. Duke University also maintains its own transit system, Duke Transit operates more than 30 buses with routes throughout the campus and health system. Duke campus buses and vans have alternate schedules or do not operate during breaks and holidays. In an effort to create safer roadways for vehicles, bicyclists, and pedestrians, drivers can enroll in Durham's Pace Car Program and agree to drive the speed limit, stop at all stop signs, stop at all red lights, and stop to let pedestrians cross the street. Notable people -------------- * Blind Boy Fuller (Fulton Allen), musician * Louis Austin (1898–1971), journalist, civil rights leader * Ernie Barnes, artist/painter * Kara Medoff Barnett, theater producer, arts director * Samuel Beam, singer/songwriter from Iron & Wine, current resident * Ben Brantley, *The New York Times* theater critic * Andrew Britton, novelist * Mic'hael Brooks, NFL player * Little Brother, hip-hop group * Kelly Bruno, world-record holding amputee runner and athlete; contestant on reality TV show *Survivor: Nicaragua* * Dan Bryk, singer, rock star * Shirley Caesar, pastor and gospel recording artist * Carolina Chocolate Drops, folk band who cite their hometown as Durham * Anthony Roth Costanzo, countertenor known for his performance as the title role of the opera Akhnaten (opera) * Crystal Cox, track and field athlete; member of national team for the 2004 Athens Summer Olympics; contestant on reality TV show *Survivor: Gabon* * Roger Lee Craig, Major League Baseball pitcher and manager * John Darnielle, musician and novelist best known as the primary (and often solitary) member of the American band the Mountain Goats, for which he is the writer, composer, guitarist, pianist, and vocalist * Betty Davis, funk and soul singer * Reverend Gary Davis, musician * The Duffer Brothers, creators of the Netflix series *Stranger Things* * Benjamin Newton Duke, tobacco, textile, and energy industrialist and philanthropist * James Buchanan Duke, industrialist, founder of The Duke Endowment and Duke University * Victor Dzau, scientist and academic * Sylvan Esso, grammy-nominated dance and electronic music duo * Rapsody (Marlanna Evans), Grammy-nominated female rapper * Pura Fé, Native American singer * Rick Ferrell, Major League Baseball catcher; member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame * John Wesley Fletcher, pastor * Tate Fogleman, NASCAR driver * Nnenna Freelon, jazz singer/composer * Philip Freelon (1953–2019), architect, designer of the National Museum of African American History and Culture * Penny Fuller, award-winning actress in numerous Broadway, film, and television productions * Julian Gamble (born 1989), basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League * David Garrard, NFL quarterback from 2002 to 2013 * David Gergen, advisor to presidents Ford, Reagan, and Clinton * Heather Gordon (born 1967), artist * John H. Hager, former Virginia lieutenant governor (1998–2002) and the father-in-law of former First Daughter Jenna Bush Hager * Mary Katharine Ham, Conservative journalist; grew up in Durham * Michael Hardt, philosopher and theorist of globalization, politics and culture * Jay Huff, college basketball player for Virginia Cavaliers * Brandon Hargest, singer for Jump5 * Brittany Hargest, singer for Jump5 * Heather Havrilesky, author, essayist, and humorist raised in Durham * Biff Henderson, *Late Show with David Letterman* comedian and television personality * Wilbur Hobby, labor leader and former president of the North Carolina AFL-CIO * Alexander Isley, designer and educator * Fredric Jameson, literary critic and Marxist political theorist * Big Daddy Kane, hip-hop artist and actor * John P. Kee, pastor and gospel recording artist * Stuart Krohn (born 1962), professional rugby union player * Mike Krzyzewski, former head coach of the Duke men's basketball team and former head coach of Team USA * Patrick Kypson, professional tennis player * Mur Lafferty, podcaster and writer * Caitlin Linney, singer/songwriter * John D. Loudermilk, songwriter ("Tobacco Road", "Then You Can Tell Me Goodbye") * John Lucas II, NBA player and coach * David Lynch, film and TV director; lived in Durham as a child; parents met at Duke University * John Malachi, jazz pianist * Crystal Mangum, accuser in the 2006 Duke lacrosse case, who was later found guilty of fatally stabbing her boyfriend * Leo Mangum, Major League Baseball pitcher * John H. Manning, lawyer, officer and Adjutant General of North Carolina * Pigmeat Markham, comic actor and novelty musician * Doug Marlette, Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist; lived in Durham as a child * Branford Marsalis, resident of Durham for several years. The Branford Marsalis Quartet's 2006 album *Braggtown* was titled after Braggtown Baptist Church, located in northeastern Durham, just north of Highways 70/85. * Frank Matthews, drug trafficker during the late 1960s and early 1970s * Tracy McGrady, attended Mount Zion Christian Academy his senior year, NBA player * Clyde McPhatter, singer/songwriter, founding member of The Drifters * LeRoi Moore of the Dave Matthews Band, contemporary jazz musician * Anita Morris, actress (*Ruthless People,* *The Hotel New Hampshire*, nominated for a Tony for her work in *Nine*) * The Mountain Goats, indie rock band * Pauli Murray (1910–1985), civil rights and women's activist, attorney, author, poet and priest, lived here as a child with grandparents; in 1977 was the first black woman to be ordained as an Episcopal priest; in 2012 was named as an Episcopal saint (one of its "Holy Women, Holy Men") * Link Neal, YouTuber with Rhett McLaughlin for the channels Rhett & Link & Good Mythical Morning * Mike Nifong, Durham County district attorney disbarred in 2006 for actions in Duke University lacrosse case that year * David Noel, NBA player for the Milwaukee Bucks * Wye Oak, musical duo composed of Jenn Wasner and Andy Stack * Ike Opara, Major League Soccer defender for Sporting Kansas City * Robert Martin Patterson, United States Army soldier and Medal of Honor recipient * Sidney Powell, prosecutor and attorney * Brian Roberts, Major League Baseball player, second baseman for the Baltimore Orioles * Leah Roberts, former North Carolina State University student who abruptly left Durham in March 2000 and has remained missing ever since * Rodney Rogers, NBA power forward from 1993 to 2005 * Ben Ruffin, civil rights activist, educator, and businessman * Don Schlitz, songwriter (Kenny Rogers's "The Gambler") * James E. Shepard (1875–1947), educator, founder and president of North Carolina College for Negroes (now North Carolina Central University) * Robert K. Steel, former Undersecretary of the Treasury * Jamie Stewart, art-pop musician best known as the frontman of Xiu Xiu * Andre Leon Talley, (1948-2022) *Vogue* editor, fashion luminary, and current judge of *America's Next Top Model* * Grady Tate, American musician and singer * Justin Tornow, dancer and choreographer * Emilie Townes, dean of Vanderbilt Divinity School, former president of the American Academy of Religion * Jeff Tremaine, filmmaker known for *Jackass* * Teresa Trull, singer, songwriter, and record producer * LeRoy T. Walker (1918–2012), former United States Olympic president; former chancellor of North Carolina Central University (NCCU) * Dewayne Washington, NFL cornerback from 1994 to 2005 * Seth Wescott, Olympic champion snowboarder * Josh Whitesell, Major League Baseball first baseman of the Arizona Diamondbacks * T. J. Warren, NBA player for the Indiana Pacers * Bull City Red (birth name George Washington), blues musician * Harvey D. Williams (1930–2020), African-American U.S. Army major general * Walter Lee Williams, one of the FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives * Morgan Wootten, head basketball coach at DeMatha Catholic High School and member of the Basketball Hall of Fame * James B. Wyngaarden, American physician, researcher and academic administrator. * Freekey Zekey (Ezekiel Giles), rapper; spent almost three years in jail at Durham Correctional Center on drug charges before being released on November 20, 2006 Sister cities ------------- Durham's sister cities are: * Tanzania Arusha, Tanzania * Mexico Celaya, Mexico * England Durham, County Durham, England, United Kingdom * Greece Kavala, Greece * Russia Kostroma, Russia * Romania Sibiu, Romania * Costa Rica Tilarán, Costa Rica * Japan Toyama, Japan * China Zhuzhou, China See also -------- * List of municipalities in North Carolina * Norfolk Southern–Gregson Street Overpass * Triangle J Council of Governments * List of U.S. cities with large Black populations Further reading --------------- * *Turner & Co.'s Durham directory for the years 1889 and 1890*, Danville, Va: E.F. Turner, 1889, OL 13511643M * *Ramsey's Durham directory, for the year 1892*, Durham, N.C: N.A. Ramsey, 1892, OL 13511644M

Durham, North Carolina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina

A **pentagram** (sometimes known as a pentalpha, pentangle, or star pentagon) is a regular five-pointed star polygon, formed from the diagonal line segments of a convex (or simple, or non-self-intersecting) regular pentagon. Drawing a circle around the five points creates a similar symbol referred to as the pentacle , which is used widely by Wiccans and in paganism, or as a sign of life and connections. The word "pentagram" refers only to the five-pointed star, not the surrounding circle of a pentacle. Pentagrams were used symbolically in ancient Greece and Babylonia. Christians once commonly used the pentagram to represent the five wounds of Jesus. The symbol when enclosed by a circle is called a pentacle. The pentacle is used in the Wiccan faith along with witchcraft and paganism beliefs. The word *pentagram* comes from the Greek word πεντάγραμμον (*pentagrammon*), from πέντε (*pente*), "five" + γραμμή (*grammē*), "line". Pentagram refers to just the star and pentacle refers to the star within the circle specifically although there is some overlap in usage. The word *pentalpha* is a 17th-century revival of a post-classical Greek name of the shape. History ------- ### Early history Early pentagrams have been found on Sumerian pottery from Ur circa 3500 BCE, and the five-pointed star was at various times the symbol of Ishtar or Marduk. Pentagram symbols from about 5,000 years ago were found in the Liangzhu culture of China. The pentagram was known to the ancient Greeks, with a depiction on a vase possibly dating back to the 7th century BCE. Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BCE and used the pentagram as a symbol of mutual recognition, of wellbeing, and to recognize good deeds and charity. From around 300-150 BCE the pentagram stood as the symbol of Jerusalem, marked by the 5 Hebrew letters ירשלם spelling its name. The word *Pentemychos* (πεντέμυχος lit. "five corners" or "five recesses") was the title of the cosmogony of Pherecydes of Syros. Here, the "five corners" are where the seeds of Chronos are placed within the Earth in order for the cosmos to appear.[*clarification needed*] In Neoplatonism, the pentagram was said to have been used as a symbol or sign of recognition by the Pythagoreans, who called the pentagram ὑγιεία *hugieia* "health" ### Western symbolism #### Middle Ages The pentagram was used in ancient times as a Christian symbol for the five senses, or of the five wounds of Christ. The pentagram plays an important symbolic role in the 14th-century English poem *Sir Gawain and the Green Knight*, in which the symbol decorates the shield of the hero, Gawain. The unnamed poet credits the symbol's origin to King Solomon, and explains that each of the five interconnected points represents a virtue tied to a group of five: Gawain is perfect in his five senses and five fingers, faithful to the Five Wounds of Christ, takes courage from the five joys that Mary had of Jesus, and exemplifies the five virtues of knighthood, which are generosity, friendship, chastity, chivalry, and piety. The North rose of Amiens Cathedral (built in the 13th century) exhibits a pentagram-based motif. Some sources interpret the unusual downward-pointing star as symbolizing the Holy Spirit descending on people. #### Renaissance Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa and others perpetuated the popularity of the pentagram as a magic symbol, attributing the five neoplatonic elements to the five points, in typical Renaissance fashion. #### Romanticism By the mid-19th century, a further distinction had developed amongst occultists regarding the pentagram's orientation. With a single point upwards it depicted spirit presiding over the four elements of matter, and was essentially "good". However, the influential but controversial writer Éliphas Lévi, known for believing that magic was a real science, had called it evil whenever the symbol appeared the other way up. * "A reversed pentagram, with two points projecting upwards, is a symbol of evil and attracts sinister forces because it overturns the proper order of things and demonstrates the triumph of matter over spirit. It is the goat of lust attacking the heavens with its horns, a sign execrated by initiates." * "The flaming star, which, when turned upside down, is the heirolgyphic [*sic*] sign of the goat of black magic, whose head may be drawn in the star, the two horns at the top, the ears to the right and left, the beard at the bottom. It is a sign of antagonism and fatality. It is the goat of lust attacking the heavens with its horns." * "Let us keep the figure of the Five-pointed Star always upright, with the topmost triangle pointing to heaven, for it is the seat of wisdom, and if the figure is reversed, perversion and evil will be the result." * Man inscribed in a pentagram, from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's De occulta philosophia libri tres. The five signs at the pentagram's vertices are astrological.Man inscribed in a pentagram, from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's *De occulta philosophia libri tres*. The five signs at the pentagram's vertices are astrological. * Another pentagram from Agrippa's book. This one has the Pythagorean letters inscribed around the circle.Another pentagram from Agrippa's book. This one has the Pythagorean letters inscribed around the circle. * The occultist and magician Éliphas Lévi's pentagram, which he considered to be a symbol of the microcosm, or humanThe occultist and magician Éliphas Lévi's pentagram, which he considered to be a symbol of the microcosm, or human The apotropaic (protective) use in German folklore of the pentagram symbol (called *Drudenfuss* in German) is referred to by Goethe in *Faust* (1808), where a pentagram prevents Mephistopheles from leaving a room (but did not prevent him from entering by the same way, as the outward pointing corner of the diagram happened to be imperfectly drawn): > > Mephistopheles: > > > I must confess, I'm prevented though > By a little thing that hinders me, > The Druid's-foot on your doorsill– > Faust: > > > The Pentagram gives you pain? > Then tell me, you Son of Hell, > If that's the case, how did you gain > Entry? Are spirits like you cheated? > Mephistopheles: > > > Look carefully! It's not completed: > One angle, if you inspect it closely > Has, as you see, been left a little open. Also protective is the use in Icelandic folklore of a gestured or carved rather than painted pentagram (called *smèrhnút* in Icelandic), according to 19th century folklorist Jón Árnason: A butter that comes from the fake vomit is called a fake butter; it looks like something else; but if one makes a sign of a cross over it, or carves a cross on it, or a figure called a buttermilk-knot,\* it all explodes into small pieces and becomes like a grain of dross, so that nothing remains of it, except only particles, or it subsides like foam. Therefore it seems more prudent, if a person is offered a horrible butter to eat, or as a fee, to make either mark on it, because a fake butter cannot withstand either a cross mark or a butter-knot. \* The butter-knot is shaped like this:  ### East Asian symbolism Wu Xing (Chinese: 五行; pinyin: *Wǔ Xíng*) are the five phases, or five elements in Taoists Chinese tradition. They are differentiated from the formative ancient Japanese or Greek elements, due to their emphasis on cyclic transformations and change. The five phases are: Fire (火 *huǒ*), Earth (土 *tǔ*), Metal (金 *jīn*), Water (水 *shuǐ*), and Wood (木 *mù*). The Wuxing is the fundamental philosophy and doctrine of traditional Chinese Medicine and Acupuncture. ### Uses in modern occultism Based on Renaissance-era occultism, the pentagram found its way into the symbolism of modern occultists. Its major use is a continuation of the ancient Babylonian use of the pentagram as an apotropaic charm to protect against evil forces. Éliphas Lévi claimed that "The Pentagram expresses the mind's domination over the elements and it is by this sign that we bind the demons of the air, the spirits of fire, the spectres of water, and the ghosts of earth." In this spirit, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn developed the use of the pentagram in the lesser banishing ritual of the pentagram, which is still used to this day by those who practice Golden Dawn-type magic. Aleister Crowley made use of the pentagram in his Thelemic system of magick: an adverse or inverted pentagram represents the descent of spirit into matter, according to the interpretation of Lon Milo DuQuette. Crowley contradicted his old comrades in the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, who, following Levi, considered this orientation of the symbol evil and associated it with the triumph of matter over spirit. ### Use in new religious movements #### Baháʼí Faith The five-pointed star is a symbol of the Baháʼí Faith. In the Baháʼí Faith, the star is known as the *Haykal* (Arabic: "temple"), and it was initiated and established by the Báb. The Báb and Bahá'u'lláh wrote various works in the form of a pentagram. #### The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is theorized to have begun using both upright and inverted five-pointed stars in Temple architecture, dating from the Nauvoo Illinois Temple dedicated on 30 April 1846. Other temples decorated with five-pointed stars in both orientations include the Salt Lake Temple and the Logan Utah Temple. These usages come from the symbolism found in Revelation chapter 12: "And there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed with the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of twelve stars." #### Wicca Typical Neopagan pentagram (circumscribed)USVA headstone emblem 37 Because of a perceived association with Satanism and occultism, many United States schools in the late 1990s sought to prevent students from displaying the pentagram on clothing or jewelry. In public schools, such actions by administrators were determined in 2000 to be in violation of students' First Amendment right to free exercise of religion. The encircled pentagram (referred to as a pentacle by the plaintiffs) was added to the list of 38 approved religious symbols to be placed on the tombstones of fallen service members at Arlington National Cemetery on 24 April 2007. The decision was made following ten applications from families of fallen soldiers who practiced Wicca. The government paid the families US$225,000 to settle their pending lawsuits. ### Other religious use #### Satanism The inverted pentagram is the most notable and widespread symbol of Satanism.The Sigil of Baphomet, the official insignia of the Church of Satan and LaVeyan Satanism The inverted pentagram is the symbol used for Satanism, sometimes depicted with the goat's head of Baphomet within it, which originated from the Church of Satan. In some depictions the devil is depicted, like Baphomet, as a goat, therefore the goat and goat's head is a significant symbol throughout Satanism. The inverted pentagram is also used as the logo for The Satanic Temple, which also featured a depiction of Baphomet's head. The Sigil of Baphomet is also adopted by the Joy of Satan Ministries who instead incorporate cuneiform script, attributing it to the earliest use of the pentagram in Sumeria. #### Serer religion The five-pointed star is a symbol of the Serer religion and the Serer people of West Africa. Called *Yoonir* in their language, it symbolizes the universe in the Serer creation myth, and also represents the star Sirius. #### Judaism The pentagram has been used in Judaism since at least 300BCE when it first was used as the stamp of Jerusalem. It is used to represent justice, mercy, and wisdom. ### Other modern use * The pentagram is featured on the national flags of Morocco (adopted 1915) and Ethiopia (adopted 1996 and readopted 2009) * Morocco's flagMorocco's flag * Ethiopia's flagEthiopia's flag * The Order of the Eastern Star, an organization (established 1850) associated with Freemasonry, uses a pentagram as its symbol, with the five isosceles triangles of the points colored blue, yellow, white, green, and red. In most Grand Chapters the pentagram is used pointing down, but in a few, it is pointing up. Grand Chapter officers often have a pentagon inscribed around the star(the emblem shown here is from the Prince Hall Association). * Order of the Eastern Star emblem Order of the Eastern Star emblem * A pentagram is featured on the flag of the Dutch city of Haaksbergen, as well on its coat of arms. * Flag of Haaksbergen Flag of Haaksbergen * A pentagram is featured on the flag of the Japanese city of Nagasaki, as well on its emblem. * Flag of Nagasaki Flag of Nagasaki Geometry -------- The pentagram is the simplest regular star polygon. The pentagram contains ten points (the five points of the star, and the five vertices of the inner pentagon) and fifteen line segments. It is represented by the Schläfli symbol {5/2}. Like a regular pentagon, and a regular pentagon with a pentagram constructed inside it, the regular pentagram has as its symmetry group the dihedral group of order 10. It can be seen as a net of a pentagonal pyramid although with isosceles triangles. ### Construction The pentagram can be constructed by connecting alternate vertices of a pentagon; see details of the construction. It can also be constructed as a stellation of a pentagon, by extending the edges of a pentagon until the lines intersect. ### Golden ratio The golden ratio, *φ* = (1 + √5) / 2 ≈ 1.618, satisfying φ = 1 + 2 sin ⁡ ( π / 10 ) = 1 + 2 sin ⁡ 18 ∘ {\displaystyle \varphi =1+2\sin(\pi /10)=1+2\sin 18^{\circ }\,} \varphi =1+2\sin(\pi /10)=1+2\sin 18^{\circ }\, φ = 1 / ( 2 sin ⁡ ( π / 10 ) ) = 1 / ( 2 sin ⁡ 18 ∘ ) {\displaystyle \varphi =1/(2\sin(\pi /10))=1/(2\sin 18^{\circ })\,} \varphi =1/(2\sin(\pi /10))=1/(2\sin 18^{\circ })\, φ = 2 cos ⁡ ( π / 5 ) = 2 cos ⁡ 36 ∘ {\displaystyle \varphi =2\cos(\pi /5)=2\cos 36^{\circ }\,} \varphi =2\cos(\pi /5)=2\cos 36^{\circ }\, plays an important role in regular pentagons and pentagrams. Each intersection of edges sections the edges in the golden ratio: the ratio of the length of the edge to the longer segment is *φ*, as is the length of the longer segment to the shorter. Also, the ratio of the length of the shorter segment to the segment bounded by the two intersecting edges (a side of the pentagon in the pentagram's center) is *φ*. As the four-color illustration shows: r e d g r e e n = g r e e n b l u e = b l u e m a g e n t a = φ . {\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {red} }{\mathrm {green} }}={\frac {\mathrm {green} }{\mathrm {blue} }}={\frac {\mathrm {blue} }{\mathrm {magenta} }}=\varphi .} {\frac {{\mathrm {red}}}{{\mathrm {green}}}}={\frac {{\mathrm {green}}}{{\mathrm {blue}}}}={\frac {{\mathrm {blue}}}{{\mathrm {magenta}}}}=\varphi . The pentagram includes ten isosceles triangles: five acute and five obtuse isosceles triangles. In all of them, the ratio of the longer side to the shorter side is *φ*. The acute triangles are golden triangles. The obtuse isosceles triangle highlighted via the colored lines in the illustration is a golden gnomon. ### Trigonometric values sin ⁡ π 10 = sin ⁡ 18 ∘ = 5 − 1 4 = φ − 1 2 = 1 2 φ cos ⁡ π 10 = cos ⁡ 18 ∘ = 2 ( 5 + 5 ) 4 tan ⁡ π 10 = tan ⁡ 18 ∘ = 5 ( 5 − 2 5 ) 5 cot ⁡ π 10 = cot ⁡ 18 ∘ = 5 + 2 5 sin ⁡ π 5 = sin ⁡ 36 ∘ = 2 ( 5 − 5 ) 4 cos ⁡ π 5 = cos ⁡ 36 ∘ = 5 + 1 4 = φ 2 tan ⁡ π 5 = tan ⁡ 36 ∘ = 5 − 2 5 cot ⁡ π 5 = cot ⁡ 36 ∘ = 5 ( 5 + 2 5 ) 5 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\sin 18^{\circ }={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}-1}{4}}={\frac {\varphi -1}{2}}={\frac {1}{2\varphi }}\\[5pt]\cos {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\cos 18^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {2(5+{\sqrt {5}})}}{4}}\\[5pt]\tan {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\tan 18^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {5(5-2{\sqrt {5}})}}{5}}\\[5pt]\cot {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\cot 18^{\circ }={\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}\\[5pt]\sin {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\sin 36^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {2(5-{\sqrt {5}})}}{4}}\\[5pt]\cos {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\cos 36^{\circ }={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}+1}{4}}={\frac {\varphi }{2}}\\[5pt]\tan {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\tan 36^{\circ }={\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}\\[5pt]\cot {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\cot 36^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {5(5+2{\sqrt {5}})}}{5}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\sin {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\sin 18^{\circ }={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}-1}{4}}={\frac {\varphi -1}{2}}={\frac {1}{2\varphi }}\\[5pt]\cos {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\cos 18^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {2(5+{\sqrt {5}})}}{4}}\\[5pt]\tan {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\tan 18^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {5(5-2{\sqrt {5}})}}{5}}\\[5pt]\cot {\frac {\pi }{10}}&=\cot 18^{\circ }={\sqrt {5+2{\sqrt {5}}}}\\[5pt]\sin {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\sin 36^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {2(5-{\sqrt {5}})}}{4}}\\[5pt]\cos {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\cos 36^{\circ }={\frac {{\sqrt {5}}+1}{4}}={\frac {\varphi }{2}}\\[5pt]\tan {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\tan 36^{\circ }={\sqrt {5-2{\sqrt {5}}}}\\[5pt]\cot {\frac {\pi }{5}}&=\cot 36^{\circ }={\frac {\sqrt {5(5+2{\sqrt {5}})}}{5}}\end{aligned}}} As a result, in an isosceles triangle with one or two angles of 36°, the longer of the two side lengths is *φ* times that of the shorter of the two, both in the case of the acute as in the case of the obtuse triangle. ### Spherical pentagram A pentagram can be drawn as a star polygon on a sphere, composed of five great circle arcs, whose all internal angles are right angles. This shape was described by John Napier in his 1614 book *Mirifici logarithmorum canonis descriptio* (Description of the wonderful rule of logarithms) along with rules that link the values of trigonometric functions of five parts of a right spherical triangle (two angles and three sides). It was studied later by Carl Friedrich Gauss. ### Three-dimensional figures Several polyhedra incorporate pentagrams: * Pentagrammic prismPentagrammic prism * Pentagrammic antiprismPentagrammic antiprism * Pentagrammic crossed-antiprismPentagrammic crossed-antiprism * Small stellated dodecahedronSmall stellated dodecahedron * Great stellated dodecahedronGreat stellated dodecahedron * Small ditrigonal icosidodeca­hedronSmall ditrigonal icosidodeca­hedron * DodecadodecahedronDodecadodecahedron ### Higher dimensions Orthogonal projections of higher dimensional polytopes can also create pentagrammic figures: | 4D | 5D | | --- | --- | | The regular 5-cell (4-simplex) has five vertices and 10 edges. | The rectified 5-cell has 10 vertices and 30 edges. | The rectified 5-simplex has 15 vertices, seen in this orthogonal projection as three nested pentagrams. | The birectified 5-simplex has 20 vertices, seen in this orthogonal projection as four overlapping pentagrams. | All ten 4-dimensional Schläfli–Hess 4-polytopes have either pentagrammic faces or vertex figure elements. Pentagram of Venus ------------------ The pentagram of Venus is the apparent path of the planet Venus as observed from Earth. Successive inferior conjunctions of Venus repeat with an orbital resonance of approximately 13:8—that is, Venus orbits the Sun approximately 13 times for every eight orbits of Earth—shifting 144° at each inferior conjunction. The tips of the five loops at the center of the figure have the same geometric relationship to one another as the five vertices, or points, of a pentagram, and each group of five intersections equidistant from the figure's center have the same geometric relationship. In computer systems ------------------- The pentagram has these Unicode code points that enable them to be included in documents: * U+26E4 ⛤ PENTAGRAM * U+26E5 ⛥ RIGHT-HANDED INTERLACED PENTAGRAM * U+26E6 ⛦ LEFT-HANDED INTERLACED PENTAGRAM * U+26E7 ⛧ INVERTED PENTAGRAM See also -------- * Abe no Seimei – Japanese painter * Christian symbolism – Use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity * Command at Sea insignia * Enneagram (geometry) – Nine-pointed star polygon * Five-pointed star – Geometrically a regular concave decagon, is a common ideogram in modern culture * Heptagram – Star polygon * Hexagram – Six-pointed star polygon * Lute of Pythagoras – Self-similar geometric figure * Medal of Honor – Highest award in the United States Armed Forces * Pentachoron – the 4-simplex * Pentagram map – Discrete dynamical system on the moduli space of polygons in the projective plane * Pentalpha – Puzzle involving stones and a pentagram * Petersen graph – Cubic graph with 10 vertices and 15 edges * Ptolemy's theorem – Relates the 4 sides and 2 diagonals of a quadrilateral with vertices on a common circle * Seal of Solomon – Signet ring attributed to the Israelite king Solomon * Star polygons in art and culture – Polygons as symbolic elements * Star (heraldry) – In heraldry, any pierced or unpierced star-shaped charge with any number of straight or wavy rays * Stellated polygons – Extending the elements of a polytope to form a new figure

Pentagram

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentagram

**UTC+5:30** is an identifier for a time offset from UTC of +05:30. This time is used in India and Sri Lanka, and was formerly used in Nepal. It is five and a half hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Around 1.4 billion people live inside this time zone, making it the second-most populous after UTC+08:00. As standard time (year-round) ----------------------------- *Principal cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Colombo* ### South Asia * India – Indian Standard Time * Sri Lanka – Sri Lanka Standard Time See also -------- * Indian Standard Time * Sri Lanka Standard Time * Time in India * Time in Sri Lanka

UTC+05:30

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B05:30

**This article contains Khmer text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Khmer script. The **Khmer people** (Khmer: ជនជាតិខ្មែរ, *Chônchéatĕ Khmêr* [cɔnciət kʰmae]) are a Austroasiatic ethnic group native to Cambodia. They comprise over 90% of Cambodia's population of 17 million. They speak the Khmer language, which is part of the larger Austroasiatic-language family found in parts of Southeast Asia (including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, and Malaysia), parts of central, eastern, and northeastern India, parts of Bangladesh in South Asia, in parts of Southern China and numerous islands in the Indian Ocean. The majority of the Khmers follow Theravada Buddhism, then there is also a minority Khmer Muslim convert from Buddhism found in Kwan village, Kampong Speu. Significant populations of Khmers reside in adjacent areas of Thailand (Northern Khmer) and the Mekong Delta region of neighboring Vietnam (Khmer Krom), while there are over one million Khmers in the Khmer diaspora living mainly in France, the United States, and Australia. Ethnonyms --------- The earliest record of the word *Khmer* as an ethnonym is found in Ka.64 inscription (678–877) which mentions "kñuṃ kmer ghoda" meaning "Khmer slaves". Distribution ------------ ### Cambodia The majority of the world's Khmers live in Cambodia, the population of which is over 90% Khmers. ### Thailand and Vietnam There are also significant Khmer populations native to Thailand and Vietnam. In Thailand, there are over one million Khmers (known as the Khmer Surin), mainly in Surin (*Sorin*), Buriram (*Borei Rom*) and Sisaket (*Srei Saket*) provinces. Estimates for the number of the Khmers in Vietnam (known as the Khmer Krom) vary from the 1.3 million given by government data to 7 million advocated by the Khmers Kampuchea-Krom Federation. Percentage of the total Khmer population in various provinces of Thailand| Province | 1990 | 2000 | | --- | --- | --- | | Buriram | 0.3% | 27.6% | | Chanthaburi | 0.6% | 1.6% | | Maha Sarakham | 0.2% | 0.3% | | Roi Et | 0.4% | 0.5% | | Sa Kaew | — | 1.9% | | Sisaket | 30.2% | 26.2% | | Surin | 63.4% | 47.2% | | Trat | 0.4% | 2.1% | | Ubon Ratchathani | 0.8% | 0.3% | ### Western nations Due to migration as a result of the Cambodian Civil War and Cambodian Genocide, there is a large Khmer diaspora residing in the United States, Canada, Australia and France. History ------- ### Origin myths According to one Khmer legend attributed by George Coedes to a tenth century inscription, the Khmers arose from the union of the brahmin Kambu Swayambhuva and the apsara ("celestial nymph") Mera. Their marriage is said to have given rise to the name *Khmer* and founded the Varman dynasty of ancient Cambodia. A more popular legend, reenacted to this day in the traditional Khmer wedding ceremony and taught in elementary school, holds that Cambodia was created when an Indian Brahmin priest named Kaundinya I (commonly referred to as *Preah Thong*) married Princess Soma, a Nāga (*Neang Neak*) princess. Kaundinya sailed to Southeast Asia following an arrow he saw in a dream. Upon arrival he found an island called *Kok Thlok* and, after conquering Soma's Naga army, he fell in love with her. As a dowry, the father of princess Soma drank the waters around the island, which was revealed to be the top of a mountain, and the land below that was uncovered became Cambodia. Kaundinya and Soma and their descendants became known as the Khmers and are said to have been the rulers of Funan, Chenla and the Khmer Empire. This myth further explains why the oldest Khmer *wats*, or temples, were always built on mountaintops, and why today mountains themselves are still revered as holy places. ### Arrival in Southeast Asia Bas-relief showing Khmer daily life during the Khmer Empire. The Khmers, an Austroasiatic people, are one of the oldest ethnic groups in the area, having filtered into Southeast Asia from southern China, possibly Yunnan, or from Northeast India around the same time as the Mon, who settled further west on the Indochinese Peninsula and to whom the Khmer are ancestrally related. Most archaeologists and linguists, and other specialists like Sinologists and crop experts, believe that they arrived no later than 2000 BCE (over four thousand years ago) bringing with them the practice of agriculture and in particular the cultivation of rice. This region is also one of the first places in the world to use bronze. They were the builders of the later Khmer Empire, which dominated Southeast Asia for six centuries beginning in 802, and now form the mainstream of political, cultural, and economic Cambodia. The Khmers developed the Khmer alphabet, which in turn gave birth to the later Thai and Lao alphabets. The Khmers are considered by archaeologists and ethnologists to be indigenous to the contiguous regions of Isan, southern Laos, Cambodia and South Vietnam. That is to say the Cambodians have historically been a lowland people who lived close to one of the tributaries of the Mekong River. The reason they migrated into Southeast Asia is not well understood, but scholars believe that Austroasiatic speakers were pushed south by invading Tibeto-Burman speakers from the north as evident by Austroasiatic vocabulary in Chinese, because of agricultural purposes as evident by their migration routes along major rivers, or a combination of these and other factors. The Khmer are considered a part of Greater India, owing to them adopting Indian culture, traditions and religious identities. The first powerful trading kingdom in Southeast Asia, the Kingdom of Funan, was established in southeastern Cambodia and the Mekong Delta in the first century, although extensive archaeological work in Angkor Borei District near the modern Vietnamese border has unearthed brickworks, canals, cemeteries and graves dating to the fifth century BCE. During the Funan period (1st–6th centuries CE) the Khmer also acquired Buddhism, the concept of the Shaiva imperial cult of the devaraja and the great temple as a symbolic world mountain. The rival Khmer Chenla Kingdom emerged in the fifth century and later conquered the Kingdom of Funan. Chenla was an upland state whose economy was reliant on agriculture whereas Funan was a lowland state with an economy dependent on maritime trade. These two states, even after conquest by Chenla in the sixth century, were constantly at war with each other and smaller principalities. During the Chenla period (5th–8th centuries), Khmers left the world's earliest known zero in one of their temple inscriptions. Only when King Jayavarman II declared an independent and united Cambodia in 802 was there relative peace between the two lands, upper and lowland Cambodia. Jayavarman II (802–830) revived Khmer power and built the foundation for the Khmer Empire, founding three capitals—Indrapura, Hariharalaya, and Mahendraparvata—the archeological remains of which reveal much about his times. After winning a long civil war, Suryavarman I (reigned 1002–1050) turned his forces eastward and subjugated the Mon kingdom of Dvaravati. Consequently, he ruled over the greater part of present-day Thailand and Laos, as well as the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. This period, during which Angkor Wat was constructed, is considered the apex of Khmer civilization. ### Khmer Empire (802–1431) The Khmer kingdom became the Khmer Empire and the great temples of Angkor, considered an archeological treasure replete with detailed stone bas-reliefs showing many aspects of the culture, including some musical instruments, remain as monuments to the culture of the Cambodia. After the death of Suryavarman II (1113–1150), Cambodia lapsed into chaos until Jayavarman VII (1181–1218) ordered the construction of a new city. He was a Buddhist, and for a time, Buddhism became the dominant religion in Cambodia. As a state religion, however, it was adapted to suit the Deva Raja cult, with a Buddha Raja being substituted for the former Shiva Raja or Vishnu Raja. The rise of the Tai kingdoms of Sukhothai (1238) and Ayutthaya (1350) resulted in almost ceaseless wars with the Khmers and led to the destruction of Angkor in 1431. They are said to have carried off 90,000 prisoners, many of whom were likely dancers and musicians. The period following 1432, with the Khmer people bereft of their treasures, documents, and human culture bearers, was one of precipitous decline. ### Post-empire (1431–present) In 1434, King Ponhea Yat made Phnom Penh his capital, and Angkor was abandoned to the jungle. Due to continued Siamese and Vietnamese aggression, Cambodia appealed to France for protection in 1863 and became a French protectorate in 1864. During the 1880s, along with southern Vietnam and Laos, Cambodia was drawn into the French-controlled Indochinese Union. For nearly a century, the French exploited Cambodia commercially, and demanded power over politics, economics, and social life. During the second half of the twentieth century, the political situation in Cambodia became chaotic. King Norodom Sihanouk (later, Prince, then again King), proclaimed Cambodia's independence in 1949 (granted in full in 1953) and ruled the country until March 18, 1970, when he was overthrown by General Lon Nol, who established the Khmer Republic. On April 17, 1975, Khmer Rouge, who under the leadership of Pol Pot combined Khmer nationalism and extreme Communism, came to power and virtually destroyed the Cambodian people, their health, morality, education, physical environment, and culture in the Cambodian genocide. On January 7, 1979, Vietnamese forces ousted the Khmer Rouge. After more than ten years of painfully slow rebuilding, with only meager outside help, the United Nations intervened resulting in the Paris Peace Accord on October 23, 1992, and created conditions for general elections in May 1993, leading to the formation of the current government and the restoration of Prince Sihanouk to power as King in 1993. The Khmer Rouge continued to control portions of western and northern Cambodia until the late 1990s, when they surrendered to government forces in exchange for either amnesty or re-adjustment for positions into the Cambodian government. In the 19th century, King Ang Duong introduced the classical Siamese style of the Rattanakosin period to his Cambodian court after being held captive in Bangkok for 27 years. Royal dancers from Siam were sent to Cambodia to teach classical dance, resulting in a distinctive Rattanakosin-style influence on the depicted costumes. The dancers in the photographs also have notably long artificial nails. In the 21st century, Cambodia's economy has grown faster than that of any other country in Asia except for China and India. Today, post-conflict Cambodia exports over $5 billion worth of clothing, mainly to the United States and the European Union, is one of the top ten exporters of rice in the world, and has seen international tourist arrivals balloon from less than 150,000 in 2000 to over 4.2 million in 2013. Cambodia is no longer seen as being on the brink of disaster, a reputation it gained in the 1980s and 1990s as guerilla-style warfare was still being waged by the Khmer Rouge until their ceasefire in 1998. Cambodians in the diaspora are returning to their homeland to start businesses, and immigrant Western workers in fields as diverse as architecture, archaeology, philanthropy, banking, hospitality, agriculture, music, diplomacy and garments are increasingly attracted to Cambodia because of its relaxed lifestyle and traditional way of life. Culture and society ------------------- The culture of the ethnic Khmers is fairly homogeneous throughout their geographic range. Regional dialects exist, but are mutually intelligible. The standard is based on the dialect spoken throughout the Central Plain, a region encompassed by the northwest and central provinces. The varieties of Khmer spoken in this region are representative of the speech of the majority of the population. A unique and immediately recognizable dialect has developed in Phnom Penh that, due to the city's status as the national capital, has been modestly affected by recent French and Vietnamese influence. Other dialects are Northern Khmer dialect, called *Khmer Surin* by Khmers, spoken by over a million Khmer native to Northeast Thailand; and Khmer Krom spoken by the millions of Khmer native to the Mekong Delta regions of Vietnam adjacent to Cambodia and their descendants abroad. A little-studied dialect known as Western Khmer, or Cardamom Khmer, is spoken by a small, isolated population in the Cardamom Mountain range extending from Cambodia into eastern Central Thailand. Although little studied, it is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer. The modern Khmer strongly identify their ethnic identity with their religious beliefs and practices, which combine the tenets of Theravada Buddhism with elements of indigenous ancestor-spirit worship, animism and shamanism. Most Cambodians, whether or not they profess to be Buddhists or other faiths, believe in a rich supernatural world. Several types of supernatural entities are believed to exist; they make themselves known by means of inexplicable sounds or happenings. Among these phenomena are *kmaoch* ខ្មោច (ghosts), *pret* ប្រែត (comes in many forms depending on their punishments) and *beisach* បិសាច (monsters) [these are usually the spirits of people who have died a violently, untimely, or unnatural deaths]; *arak* អារក្ស (evil spirits, devils), *ahp* krasue, *neak ta* អ្នកតា (tutelary spirit or entity residing in inanimate objects; land, water, trees etc.), *chomneang/mneang phteah* ជំនាងផ្ទះ/ម្នាងផ្ទះ(house guardians), *meba* មេបា (ancestral spirits), and *mrenh kongveal* ម្រេញគង្វាល (little mischief spirit guardians dressed in red). All spirits must be shown proper respect, and, with the exception of the *mneang phteah* and *mrenh kongveal*, they can cause trouble ranging from mischief to serious life-threatening illnesses. The majority of the Cambodians live in rural villages either as rice farmers or fishermen. Their life revolves around the *Wat* (temple) and the various Buddhist ceremonies throughout the year. However, if Cambodians become ill, they will frequently see a *kru khmae* (shaman/healer), whom they believe can diagnose which of the many spirits has caused the illness and recommend a course of action to propitiate the offended spirit, thereby curing the illness. The *kru khmae* is also learned in herb lore and is often sought to prepare various "medicines" and potions or for a magical tattoo, all believed to endow one with special prowess and ward off evil spirits or general bad luck. Khmer beliefs also rely heavily on astrology, a remnant of Hinduism. A fortune teller, called *hao-ra* (astrologists) or *kru teay* in Khmer, is often consulted before major events, like choosing a spouse, beginning an important journey or business venture, setting the date for a wedding and determining the proper location for building new structures. Throughout the year, the Cambodian celebrate many holidays, most of a religious or spiritual nature, some of which are also observed as public holidays. The two most important are *Chol Chhnam* (Cambodian New Year) and *Pchum Ben* ("Ancestor Day"). The Cambodian Buddhist calendar is divided into 12 months with the traditional new year beginning on the first day of *khae chaet*, which coincides with the first new moon of April in the western calendar. The modern celebration has been standardized to coincide with April 13. Cambodian culture has influenced Thai and Lao cultures and vice versa. Many Khmer loanwords are found in Thai and Lao, while many Lao and Thai loanwords are found in Khmer. The Thai and Lao alphabets are also derived from the Khmer script. Genetics -------- The Khmer people are genetically closely related to other Southeast Asian populations. They show strong genetic relation to other Austroasiatic people in Southeast Asia and East Asia and have a minor genetic influence from Indian people. Cambodians trace about 16% of their ancestry to a Eurasian population that is equally related to both Europeans and East Asians, while the remaining 84% of their ancestry is related to other Southeast Asians, particularly to a source similar to the Dai people. Another study suggests that Cambodians trace about 19% of their ancestry to a similar Eurasian population related to modern-day Central Asians, South Asians, and East Asians, while the remaining 81% of their ancestry is related specifically to modern-day Dai and Han people. The genetic testing website 23andMe groups Khmer people under the "Indonesian, Khmer, Thai & Myanmar" reference population. This reference population contains people who have had recent ancestors from Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar and Thailand. ### Immunoglobulin G Hideo Matsumoto, professor emeritus at Osaka Medical College tested Gm types, genetic markers of immunoglobulin G, of Khmer people for a 2009 study. The study found that the Gm afb1b3 is a southern marker gene possibly originating in southern China and found at high frequencies across southern China, Southeast Asia, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Nepal, Assam and parts of the Pacific Islands. The study found that the average frequency of Gm afb1b3 was 76.7% for the Khmer population. Gallery ------- * Group of Khmers at a village meetingGroup of Khmers at a village meeting * Khmer bride and groomKhmer bride and groom * Pchum BenPchum Ben * Khmer girlsKhmer girls See also -------- * Anvaya (organization) * Cambodian cuisine * Khmer Krom * Khmer Loeu * Kamboj

Khmer people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_people

**Lithuania** (/ˌlɪθjuˈeɪniə/ (); Lithuanian: *Lietuva* [lʲɪɛtʊˈvɐ]), officially the **Republic of Lithuania** (Lithuanian: *Lietuvos Respublika* [lʲɪɛtʊˈvoːs rʲɛsˈpʊblʲɪkɐ]), is a country in the Baltic region of Europe. It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania shares land borders with Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and Russia to the southwest. It has a maritime border with Sweden to the west on the Baltic Sea. Lithuania covers an area of 65,300 km2 (25,200 sq mi), with a population of 2.8 million. Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities are Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Lithuanians belong to the ethno-linguistic group of the Balts and speak Lithuanian, one of only a few living Baltic languages. For millennia the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, becoming king and founding the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. In the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe; present-day Lithuania, Belarus, most of Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were all lands of the Grand Duchy. The Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were in a *de facto* personal union from 1386 with the marriage of the Polish queen Hedwig and Lithuania's Grand Duke Jogaila, who was crowned King *jure uxoris* Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland. The Commonwealth of Poland and Lithuania was established by the Union of Lublin in July 1569. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries dismantled it in 1772–1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory. As World War I ended, Lithuania's Act of Independence was signed on 16 February 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania. In World War II, Lithuania was occupied first by the Soviet Union and then by Nazi Germany. Towards the end of the war in 1944, when the Germans were retreating, the Soviet Union reoccupied Lithuania. Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania passed the Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania, becoming the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence. Lithuania is a developed country with a high income, advanced economy, and ranking 35th in the Human Development Index. Lithuania is a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, the eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, and OECD. It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format. Etymology --------- The first known record of the name of Lithuania (Lithuanian: *Lietuva*) is in a 9 March 1009 story of Saint Bruno in the Quedlinburg Chronicle. The Chronicle recorded a Latinized form of the name Lietuva: *Litua* (pronounced [litua]). Due to the lack of reliable evidence, the true meaning of the name is unknown. Nowadays, scholars still debate the meaning of the word and there are a few plausible versions. Since *Lietuva* has a suffix (-*uva*), the original word should have no suffix. A likely candidate is *Lietā*. Because many Baltic ethnonyms originated from hydronyms, linguists have searched for its origin among local hydronyms. Usually, such names evolved through the following process: hydronym → toponym → ethnonym. Lietava, a small river not far from Kernavė, the core area of the early Lithuanian state and a possible first capital of the eventual Grand Duchy of Lithuania, is usually credited as the source of the name. However, the river is very small and some find it improbable that such a small and local object could have lent its name to an entire nation. On the other hand, such naming is not unprecedented in world history. Artūras Dubonis proposed another hypothesis, that Lietuva relates to the word *leičiai* (plural of *leitis*). From the middle of the 13th century, *leičiai* were a distinct warrior social group of the Lithuanian society subordinate to the Lithuanian ruler or the state itself. The word *leičiai* is used in the 14–16th century historical sources as an ethnonym for Lithuanians (but not Samogitians) and is still used, usually poetically or in historical contexts, in the Latvian language, which is closely related to Lithuanian. History ------- The first people settled in the territory of Lithuania after the last glacial period in the 10th millennium BC: Kunda, Neman and Narva cultures. They were traveling hunters and did not form stable settlements. In the 8th millennium BC, the climate became much warmer, and forests developed. The inhabitants of what is now Lithuania then travelled less and engaged in local hunting, gathering and fresh-water fishing. Agriculture did not emerge until the 3rd millennium BC due to a harsh climate and terrain and a lack of suitable tools to cultivate the land. Crafts and trade also started to form at this time. Over a millennium, the Indo-Europeans, who arrived in the 3rd – 2nd millennium BC, mixed with the local population and formed various Baltic tribes. The Baltic tribes did not maintain close cultural or political contacts with the Roman Empire, but they did maintain trade contacts (see Amber Road). Tacitus, in his study *Germania*, described the Aesti people, inhabitants of the south-eastern Baltic Sea shores who were probably Balts, around the year 97 AD. The Western Balts differentiated and became known to outside chroniclers first. Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD knew of the Galindians and Yotvingians, and early medieval chroniclers mentioned Old Prussians, Curonians and Semigallians. The Lithuanian language is considered to be very conservative for its close connection to Indo-European roots. It is believed to have differentiated from the Latvian language, the most closely related existing language, around the 7th century. Traditional Lithuanian pagan customs and mythology, with many archaic elements, were long preserved. Rulers' bodies were cremated up until the conversion to Christianity: the descriptions of the cremation ceremonies of the grand dukes Algirdas and Kęstutis have survived. ### Grand Duchy of Lithuania From the 9th to the 11th centuries, coastal Balts were subjected to raids by the Vikings, and the kings of Denmark collected tribute at times. During the 10–11th centuries, Lithuanian territories were among the lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus', and Yaroslav the Wise was among the Ruthenian rulers who invaded Lithuania (from 1040). From the mid-12th century, it was the Lithuanians who were invading Ruthenian territories. In 1183, Polotsk and Pskov were ravaged, and even the distant and powerful Novgorod Republic was repeatedly threatened by the excursions from the emerging Lithuanian war machine toward the end of the 12th century. From the late 12th century, an organized Lithuanian military force existed; it was used for external raids, plundering and the gathering of slaves. Such military and pecuniary activities fostered social differentiation and triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania. This initiated the formation of early statehood, from which the Grand Duchy of Lithuania developed. The disparate Lithuanian tribes along the Nemunas were united into the Lithuanian state by 1219, at the latest. The only Lithuanian Roman Catholic king, Mindaugas, was baptised as a Roman Catholic in 1251 and crowned as King of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. After his assassination in 1263, pagan Lithuania was a target of the Christian crusades of the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. The siege of Pilėnai is noted for the Lithuanians' defense against the intruders. Despite the devastating century-long struggle with the Orders, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania expanded rapidly, overtaking former Ruthenian principalities of Kievan Rus'. On 22 September 1236, the Battle of Saulė between Samogitians and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword took place close to Šiauliai. The Livonian Brothers were defeated during it and their further conquest of the Balts lands were stopped. The battle inspired rebellions among the Curonians, Semigallians, Selonians, Oeselians, tribes previously conquered by the Sword-Brothers. Some thirty years' worth of conquests on the left bank of Daugava were lost. In 2000, the Lithuanian and Latvian parliaments declared 22 September to be the Day of Baltic Unity. According to the legend, Grand Duke Gediminas was once hunting near the Vilnia River; tired after the successful hunt, he settled in for the night and dreamed of a huge Iron Wolf standing on top a hill and howling as strong and loud as a hundred wolves. *Krivis* (pagan priest) Lizdeika interpreted the dream that the Iron Wolf represents Vilnius Castles. Gediminas, obeying the will of the gods, built the city and gave it the name Vilnius – from the stream of the Vilnia River. In 1362 or 1363, Grand Duke Algirdas achieved a decisive victory in the Battle of Blue Waters against the Golden Horde and stopped its further expansion in the present-day Ukraine. The victory brought the city of Kyiv and a large part of present-day Ukraine, including sparsely populated Podolia and Dykra, under the control of the expanding Grand Duchy of Lithuania. After taking Kyiv, Lithuania became a direct neighbor and rival of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. By the end of the 14th century, Lithuania was one of the largest countries in Europe and included present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia. The geopolitical situation between the west and the east determined the multicultural and multi-confessional character of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The ruling elite practised religious tolerance and the Chancery Slavonic language was used as an auxiliary language to Latin for official documents. In 1385, the Grand Duke Jogaila accepted Poland's offer to become its king. Jogaila embarked on gradual Christianization of Lithuania and established a personal union between Poland and Lithuania. Lithuania was one of the last pagan areas of Europe to adopt Christianity. While territories to the north had been Christianized in 1186 by Western merchants and missionaries who formed the Order of the Brothers and the Sword to spread Christianity through military organization, the Lithuanians had defeated the Order's militant efforts in 1236. After two civil wars, Vytautas the Great became the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1392. During his reign, Lithuania reached the peak of its territorial expansion, centralization of the state began, and the Lithuanian nobility became increasingly prominent in state politics. In the great Battle of the Vorskla River in 1399, the combined forces of Tokhtamysh and Vytautas were defeated by the Mongols. Thanks to close cooperation, the armies of Lithuania and Poland achieved a victory over the Teutonic Knights in 1410 at the Battle of Grunwald, one of the largest battles of medieval Europe. During the inaugurations of Lithuanian monarchs until 1569, Gediminas' Cap was placed on the monarch's head by the Bishop of Vilnius in Vilnius Cathedral. In January 1429, at the Congress of Lutsk Vytautas received the title of King of Lithuania with the backing of Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, but the envoys who were transporting the crown were stopped by Polish magnates in autumn of 1430. Another crown was sent, but Vytautas died in the Trakai Island Castle several days before it reached Lithuania. He was buried in the Cathedral of Vilnius. After the deaths of Jogaila and Vytautas, the Lithuanian nobility attempted to break the union between Poland and Lithuania, independently selecting Grand Dukes from the Jagiellon dynasty. But, at the end of the 15th century, Lithuania was forced to seek a closer alliance with Poland when the growing power of the Grand Duchy of Moscow threatened Lithuania's Russian principalities and sparked the Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars and the Livonian War. On 8 September 1514, the Battle of Orsha between Lithuanians, commanded by the Grand Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, and Muscovites was fought. According to *Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii* by Sigismund von Herberstein, the primary source for information on the battle, the much smaller army of Poland–Lithuania (under 30,000 men) defeated a force of 80,000 Muscovite soldiers, capturing their camp and commander. The battle destroyed a military alliance against Lithuania and Poland. Thousands of Muscovites were captured as prisoners and used as labourers in the Lithuanian manors, while Konstanty Ostrogski delivered the captured Muscovite flags to the Cathedral of Vilnius. The Livonian War was ceased for ten years with a Truce of Yam-Zapolsky signed on 15 January 1582 according to which the already Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth recovered Livonia, Polotsk and Velizh, but transferred Velikiye Luki to the Tsardom of Russia. The truce was extended for twenty years in 1600, when a diplomatic mission to Moscow led by Lew Sapieha concluded negotiations with Tsar Boris Godunov. The truce was broken when the Poles invaded Muscovy in 1605. ### Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was created in 1569 by the Union of Lublin. As a member of the Commonwealth, Lithuania retained its institutions, including a separate army, currency, and statutory laws – the Statute of Lithuania. Eventually Polonization affected all aspects of Lithuanian life: politics, language, culture, and national identity. From the mid-16th to the mid-17th centuries, culture, arts, and education flourished, fueled by the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation. From 1573, the Kings of Poland and Grand Dukes of Lithuania were elected by the nobility, who were granted ever-increasing Golden Liberties. These liberties, especially the *liberum veto*, led to anarchy and the eventual dissolution of the state. The Commonwealth reached its Golden Age in the early 17th century. Its powerful parliament was dominated by nobles who were reluctant to get involved in the Thirty Years' War; this neutrality spared the country from the ravages of a political-religious conflict that devastated most of contemporary Europe. The Commonwealth held its own against Sweden, the Tsardom of Russia, and vassals of the Ottoman Empire, and even launched successful expansionist offensives against its neighbours. In several invasions during the Time of Troubles, Commonwealth troops entered Russia and managed to take Moscow and hold it from 27 September 1610 to 4 November 1612, when they were driven out after a siege. In 1655, after the extinguishing battle, for the first time in history the Lithuanian capital Vilnius was taken by a foreign army. The Russian army looted the city, splendid churches, and manors. Between 8,000 and 10,000 citizens were killed; the city burned for 17 days. Those who returned after the catastrophe could not recognise the city. The Russian occupation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lasted up to 1661. Many artefacts and cultural heritage were either lost or looted, significant parts of the state archive – Lithuanian Metrica, collected since the 13th century, were lost and the rest was moved out of the country. During the Northern Wars (1655–1661), the Lithuanian territory and economy were devastated by the Swedish army. Almost all territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was occupied by Swedish and Russian armies. This period is known as *Tvanas* (The Deluge). Before it could fully recover, Lithuania was ravaged during the Great Northern War (1700–1721). The war, a plague, and a famine caused the deaths of approximately 40% of the country's population. Foreign powers, especially Russia, became dominant in the domestic politics of the Commonwealth. Numerous fractions among the nobility used the Golden Liberties to prevent any reforms. The Constitution of 3 May 1791 was adopted by the Great Sejm (parliament) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth trying to save the state. The legislation was designed to redress the Commonwealth's political defects due to the system of Golden Liberties, also known as the "Nobles' Democracy," which had conferred disproportionate rights on the nobility (Szlachta) and over time had corrupted politics. The constitution sought to supplant the prevailing anarchy fostered by some of the country's magnates with a more democratic constitutional monarchy. It introduced elements of political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the protection of the government, thus mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. It banned parliamentary institutions such as the *liberum veto*, which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any deputy who could revoke all the legislation that had been passed by that Sejm. It was drafted in relation to a copy of the United States Constitution. It is regarded as the world's second-oldest codified national governmental constitution after the 1787 U.S. Constitution. ### Russian Empire Eventually, the Commonwealth was partitioned in 1772, 1793, and 1795 by the Russian Empire, Prussia, and the Habsburg monarchy. The largest area of Lithuanian territory became part of the Russian Empire. After the unsuccessful uprisings in 1831 and 1863, the Tsarist authorities implemented a number of Russification policies. In 1840 the Third Statute of Lithuania was abolished. They banned the Lithuanian press, closed cultural and educational institutions and made Lithuania part of a new administrative region called Northwestern Krai. The Russification failed, owing to an extensive network of Lithuanian book smugglers and secret Lithuanian homeschooling. After the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), when German diplomats assigned what were seen as Russian spoils of war to Turkey, the relationship between Russia and the German Empire became complicated. The Russian Empire resumed the construction of fortresses at its western borders for defence against a potential invasion from Germany in the West. On 7 July 1879 the Russian Emperor Alexander II approved a proposal from the Russian military leadership to build the largest "first-class" defensive structure in the entire state – the 65 km2 (25 sq mi) Kaunas Fortress. Large numbers of Lithuanians went to the United States in 1867–1868 after a famine. Simonas Daukantas promoted a return to Lithuania's pre-Commonwealth traditions, which he depicted as a Golden Age of Lithuania and a renewal of the native culture, based on the Lithuanian language and customs. With those ideas in mind, he wrote already in 1822 a history of Lithuania in Lithuanian – *Darbai senųjų lietuvių ir žemaičių* (*The Deeds of Ancient Lithuanians and Samogitians*), though it was not published at that time. A colleague of S. Daukantas, Teodor Narbutt wrote in Polish a voluminous *Ancient History of the Lithuanian Nation* (1835–1841), where he likewise expounded and expanded further on the concept of historic Lithuania, whose days of glory had ended with the Union of Lublin in 1569. Narbutt, invoking German scholarship, pointed out the relationship between the Lithuanian and Sanskrit languages. A Lithuanian National Revival, inspired by the ancient Lithuanian history, language and culture, laid the foundations of the modern Lithuanian nation and independent Lithuania. ### 20th and 21st centuries #### 1918–1939 As a result of the Great Retreat during World War I, Germany occupied the entire territory of Lithuania and Courland by the end of 1915. A new administrative entity, Ober Ost, was established. Lithuanians lost all political rights they had gained: personal freedom was restricted, and at the beginning, the Lithuanian press was banned. However, the Lithuanian intelligentsia tried to take advantage of the existing geopolitical situation and began to look for opportunities to restore Lithuania's independence. On 18–22 September 1917, the Vilnius Conference elected the 20-member Council of Lithuania. The council adopted the Act of Independence of Lithuania on 16 February 1918 which proclaimed the restoration of the independent state of Lithuania governed by democratic principles, with Vilnius as its capital. The state of Lithuania which had been built within the framework of the Act lasted from 1918 until 1940. Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918, the first Provisional Constitution of Lithuania was adopted and the first government of Prime Minister Augustinas Voldemaras was organized. At the same time, the army and other state institutions began to be organized. Lithuania fought three wars of independence: against the Bolsheviks who proclaimed the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, against the Bermontians, and against Poland. As a result of the staged Żeligowski's Mutiny in October 1920, Poland took control of Vilnius Region and annexed it as Wilno Voivodeship in 1922. Lithuania continued to claim Vilnius as its *de jure* capital (the *de facto*, provisional capital being Kaunas) and relations with Poland remained particularly tense and hostile for the entire interwar period. In January 1923, Lithuania staged the Klaipėda Revolt and captured Klaipėda Region (Memel territory) which was detached from East Prussia by the Treaty of Versailles. The region became an autonomous region of Lithuania. On 15 May 1920, the first meeting of the democratically elected constituent assembly took place. The documents it adopted, i. e. the temporary (1920) and permanent (1922) constitutions of Lithuania, strove to regulate the life of the new state. Land, finance, and educational reforms started to be implemented. The currency of Lithuania, the Lithuanian litas, was introduced. The University of Lithuania was opened. All major public institutions had been established. As Lithuania began to gain stability, foreign countries started to recognize it. In 1921 Lithuania was admitted to the League of Nations. On 17 December 1926, a military coup d'état took place, resulting in the replacement of the democratically elected government with a conservative authoritarian government led by Antanas Smetona. Augustinas Voldemaras was appointed to form a government. The so-called authoritarian phase had begun strengthening the influence of one party, the Lithuanian Nationalist Union, in the country. In 1927, the Seimas was dissolved. A new constitution was adopted in 1928, which consolidated presidential powers. Gradually, opposition parties were banned, censorship was tightened, and the rights of national minorities were narrowed. The only democratically elected body that continued to exist at the time was a Parliament of the Klaipėda Region. On 15 July 1933, Steponas Darius and Stasys Girėnas, Lithuanian pilots, emigrants to the United States, made a significant flight in the history of world aviation. They flew across the Atlantic Ocean, covering a distance of 6,411 km (3,984 mi) without landing, in 37 hours and 11 minutes (172.4 km/h (107.1 mph)). In terms of comparison, as far as the distance of non-stop flights was concerned, their result ranked second only to that of Russell Boardman and John Polando. The provisional capital Kaunas, which was nicknamed *Little Paris*, and the country itself had a Western standard of living with sufficiently high salaries and low prices. At the time, qualified workers there were earning very similar real wages as workers in Germany, Italy, Switzerland and France, the country also had a surprisingly high natural increase in population of 9.7 and the industrial production of Lithuania increased by 160% from 1913 to 1940. The situation was aggravated by the global economic crisis. The purchase price of agricultural products had declined significantly. In 1935, farmers began strikes in Suvalkija and Dzūkija. In addition to economic ones, political demands were made. The government cruelly suppressed the unrest. In the spring of 1936, four peasants were sentenced to death for starting the riots. #### 1939–1944 On 20 March 1939, after years of rising tensions, Lithuania was handed an ultimatum by Nazi Germany demanding it relinquish the Klaipėda Region. Two days later, the Lithuanian government accepted the ultimatum. When Nazi Germany and Soviet Union concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Lithuania was initially assigned to the German sphere of influence but was later transferred to the Soviet sphere. At the outbreak of World War II, Lithuania declared neutrality. In October 1939, Lithuania was forced to sign the Soviet–Lithuanian Mutual Assistance Treaty: five Soviet military bases with 20,000 troops were established in Lithuania in exchange for Vilnius, which the Soviets had captured from Poland. Delayed by the Winter War with Finland, the Soviets issued an ultimatum to Lithuania on 14 June 1940. They demanded the replacement of the Lithuanian government and that the Red Army be allowed into the country. The government decided that, with Soviet bases already in Lithuania, armed resistance was impossible and accepted the ultimatum. President Smetona left the country, hoping to form a government in exile, while more than 200,000 Soviet Red Army soldiers crossed the Belarus–Lithuania border. The next day, identical ultimatums were presented to Latvia and Estonia. The Baltic states were occupied. The Soviets followed semi-constitutional procedures for transforming the independent countries into soviet republics and incorporating them into the Soviet Union. Vladimir Dekanozov was sent to supervise the formation of the puppet People's Government and the rigged election to the People's Seimas. The Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed on 21 July and accepted into the Soviet Union on 3 August. Lithuania was rapidly Sovietized: political parties and various organizations (except the Communist Party of Lithuania) were outlawed, some 12,000 people, including many prominent figures, were arrested and imprisoned in Gulag as "enemies of the people", larger private property was nationalized, the Lithuanian litas was replaced by the Soviet rouble, farm taxes were increased by 50–200%, the Lithuanian Army was transformed into the 29th Rifle Corps of the Red Army. On 14–18 June 1941, less than a week before the Nazi invasion, some 17,000 Lithuanians were deported to Siberia, where many perished due to inhumane living conditions (see the June deportation). The occupation was not recognized by Western powers and the Lithuanian Diplomatic Service, based on pre-war consulates and legations, continued to represent independent Lithuania until 1990. When Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, Lithuanians began the anti-Soviet June Uprising, organized by the Lithuanian Activist Front. Lithuanians proclaimed independence and organized the Provisional Government of Lithuania. This government quickly self-disbanded. Lithuania became part of the Reichskommissariat Ostland, German civil administration. By 1 December 1941, over 120,000 Lithuanian Jews, or 91–95% of Lithuania's pre-war Jewish community, had been killed. Nearly 100,000 Jews, Poles, Russians and Lithuanians were murdered at Paneriai. However, thousands of Lithuanian families risking their lives also protected Jews from the Holocaust. Israel has recognized 918 Lithuanians (as of 1 January 2021) as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust. Approximately 13,000 men served in the Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions. 10 of the 26 Lithuanian Auxiliary Police Battalions working with the Nazi Einsatzkommando, were involved in the mass killings. Rogue units organised by Algirdas Klimaitis and supervised by SS *Brigadeführer* Walter Stahlecker started the Kaunas pogrom in and around Kaunas on 25 June 1941. In 1941, the Lithuanian Security Police (*Lietuvos saugumo policija*), subordinate to Nazi Germany's Security Police and Nazi Germany's Criminal Police, was created. The *Lietuvos saugumo policija* targeted the communist underground. A new occupation had begun. Nationalized assets were not returned to the residents. Some of them were forced to fight for Nazi Germany or were taken to German territories as forced labourers. Jewish people were herded into ghettos and gradually killed by shooting or sending them out to concentration camps. #### 1944–1990 After the retreat of the German armed forces, the Soviets reestablished their control of Lithuania in July–October 1944. The massive deportations to Siberia were resumed and lasted until the death of Stalin in 1953. Antanas Sniečkus, the leader of the Communist Party of Lithuania from 1940 to 1974, supervised the arrests and deportations. All Lithuanian national symbols were banned. Under the pretext of Lithuania's economic recovery, the Moscow authorities encouraged the migration of workers and other specialists to Lithuania with the intention to further integrate Lithuania into the Soviet Union and to develop the country's industry. At the same time, Lithuanians were lured to work in the USSR by promising them all the privileges of settling in a new place. The second Soviet occupation was accompanied by the guerrilla warfare of the Lithuanian population, which took place in 1944–1953. It sought to restore an independent state of Lithuania, to consolidate democracy by destroying communism in the country, returning national values and the freedom of religion. About 50,000 Lithuanians took to the forests and fought Soviet occupants with a gun in their hands. In the later stages of the partisan war, Lithuanians formed the Union of Lithuanian Freedom Fighters and its leader Jonas Žemaitis (codename Vytautas) was posthumously recognized as the president of Lithuania. Despite the fact that the guerrilla warfare did not achieve its goal of liberating Lithuania and that it resulted in more than 20,000 deaths, the armed resistance *de facto* demonstrated that Lithuania did not voluntarily join the USSR and it also legitimized the will of the people of Lithuania to be independent. Lithuanian courts and the ECHR both treat the Soviets' annihilation of the Lithuanian partisans as a genocide. Even with the suppression of partisan resistance, the Soviet government failed to stop the movement for the independence of Lithuania. The underground dissident groups were active publishing the underground press and Catholic literature. The most active participants of the movement included Vincentas Sladkevičius, Sigitas Tamkevičius and Nijolė Sadūnaitė. In 1972, after Romas Kalanta's public self-immolation, the unrest in Kaunas lasted for several days. The Helsinki Group, which was founded in Lithuania after the international conference in Helsinki (Finland), where the post-WWII borders were acknowledged, announced a declaration for Lithuania's independence on foreign radio station. The Helsinki Group informed the Western world about the situation in the Soviet Lithuania and violations of human rights. With the beginning of the increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities (*glasnost*) in the Soviet Union, on 3 June 1988, the Sąjūdis was established in Lithuania with Romualdas Ozolas acting as the key figure of the movement. Very soon it began to seek the country's independence. Eventually, Vytautas Landsbergis became the movement's leader. The supporters of Sąjūdis joined movement's groups all over Lithuania. On 23 August 1988 a big rally took place at the Vingis Park in Vilnius. It was attended by approx. 250,000 people. A year later, on 23 August 1989 commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and aiming to draw the attention of the whole world to the occupation of the Baltic states, a political demonstration, the Baltic Way, was organized. The event, led by Sąjūdis, was a human chain spanning 600 kilometres (370 mi) across Vilnius, Riga and Tallinn, indicating the desire of the people of Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia to break away from the Soviet Union. #### 1990–present On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council announced the restoration of Lithuania's independence. After refusal to revoke the Act, the Soviet forces stormed the Seimas Palace, while Lithuanians defended their democratically elected Council. The Act was the first such declaration in the USSR and later served as a model, inspiration to other Soviet republics, and strongly influenced the dissolution of the Soviet Union. On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council announced the restoration of Lithuania's independence. Lithuania became the first Soviet-occupied state to announce the restitution of independence. On 20 April 1990, the Soviets imposed an economic blockade by ceasing to deliver supplies of raw materials (primarily oil) to Lithuania. Not only the domestic industry, but also the population started feeling the lack of fuel, essential goods, and even hot water. Although the blockade lasted for 74 days, Lithuania did not renounce the declaration of independence. Gradually, economic relations had been restored. However, tensions had peaked again in January 1991. At that time, attempts were made to carry out a coup using the Soviet Armed Forces, the Internal Army of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the USSR Committee for State Security (KGB). Because of the poor economic situation in Lithuania, the forces in Moscow thought the coup d'état would receive strong public support. People from all over Lithuania flooded to Vilnius to defend their legitimately elected Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania and independence. The coup ended with a few casualties of peaceful civilians and caused huge material loss. Not a single person who defended Lithuanian Parliament or other state institutions used a weapon, but the Soviet Army did. Soviet soldiers killed 14 people and injured hundreds. A large part of the Lithuanian population participated in the January Events. Shortly after, on 11 February 1991, the Icelandic parliament voted to confirm that Iceland's 1922 recognition of Lithuanian independence was still in full effect, as it never formally recognized the Soviet Union's control over Lithuania, and that full diplomatic relations should be established as soon as possible. On 31 July 1991, Soviet paramilitaries killed seven Lithuanian border guards on the Belarusian border in what became known as the Medininkai Massacre. On 17 September 1991, Lithuania was admitted to the United Nations. On 25 October 1992, the citizens of Lithuania voted in a referendum to adopt the current constitution. On 14 February 1993, during the direct general elections, Algirdas Brazauskas became the first president after the restoration of independence of Lithuania. On 31 August 1993 the last units of the Soviet Army left the territory of Lithuania. On 31 May 2001, Lithuania joined the World Trade Organization (WTO). Since 29 March 2004, Lithuania has been part of NATO. On 1 May 2004, it became a fully-fledged member of the European Union, and a member of the Schengen Agreement on 21 December 2007. On 1 January 2015, Lithuania joined the eurozone and adopted the European Union's single currency as the last of the Baltic states. On 4 July 2018, Lithuania officially joined OECD. Dalia Grybauskaitė was the first female President of Lithuania (2009–2019) and the first president to be re-elected for a second consecutive term. On 24 February 2022, Lithuania declared a state of emergency in response to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Together with the eight other NATO member states, the country also invoked NATO Article 4 to hold consultations on security. Geography --------- Lithuania is located in the Baltic region of Europe and covers an area of 65,300 km2 (25,200 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 53° and 57° N, and mostly between longitudes 21° and 27° E (part of the Curonian Spit lies west of 21°). It has around 99 kilometres (61.5 mi) of sandy coastline, only about 38 kilometres (24 mi) of which face the open Baltic Sea, less than the other two Baltic states. The rest of the coast is sheltered by the Curonian sand peninsula. Lithuania's major warm-water port, Klaipėda, lies at the narrow mouth of the Curonian Lagoon (Lithuanian: *Kuršių marios*), a shallow lagoon extending south to Kaliningrad. The country's main and largest river, the Nemunas River, and some of its tributaries carry international shipping. Lithuania lies at the edge of the North European Plain. Its landscape was smoothed by the glaciers of the last ice age, and is a combination of moderate lowlands and highlands. Its highest point is Aukštojas Hill at 294 metres (965 ft) in the eastern part of the country. The terrain features numerous lakes (Lake Vištytis, for example) and wetlands, and a mixed forest zone covers over 33% of the country. Drūkšiai is the largest, Tauragnas is the deepest and Asveja is the longest lake in Lithuania. After a re-estimation of the boundaries of the continent of Europe in 1989, Jean-George Affholder, a scientist at the Institut Géographique National (French National Geographic Institute), determined that the geographic centre of Europe was in Lithuania, at 54°54′N 25°19′E / 54.900°N 25.317°E / 54.900; 25.317 (Purnuškės (centre of gravity)), 26 kilometres (16 mi) north of Lithuania's capital city of Vilnius. Affholder accomplished this by calculating the centre of gravity of the geometrical figure of Europe. ### Climate Lithuania has a temperate climate with both maritime and continental influences. It is defined as humid continental (Dfb) under the Köppen climate classification (but is close to oceanic in a narrow coastal zone). Average temperatures on the coast are −2.5 °C (27.5 °F) in January and 16 °C (61 °F) in July. In Vilnius the average temperatures are −6 °C (21 °F) in January and 17 °C (63 °F) in July. During the summer, 20 °C (68 °F) is common during the day while 14 °C (57 °F) is common at night; in the past, temperatures have reached as high as 30 or 35 °C (86 or 95 °F). Some winters can be very cold. −20 °C (−4 °F) occurs almost every winter. Winter extremes are −34 °C (−29 °F) in coastal areas and −43 °C (−45 °F) in the east of Lithuania. The average annual precipitation is 800 mm (31.5 in) on the coast, 900 mm (35.4 in) in the Samogitia highlands and 600 mm (23.6 in) in the eastern part of the country. Snow occurs every year, it can snow from October to April. In some years sleet can fall in September or May. The growing season lasts 202 days in the western part of the country and 169 days in the eastern part. Severe storms are rare in the eastern part of Lithuania but common in the coastal areas. The longest records of measured temperature in the Baltic area cover about 250 years. The data show warm periods during the latter half of the 18th century, and that the 19th century was a relatively cool period. An early 20th-century warming culminated in the 1930s, followed by a smaller cooling that lasted until the 1960s. A warming trend has persisted since then. Lithuania experienced a drought in 2002, causing forest and peat bog fires. ### Environment Typical Lithuanian flatlands with lakes, swamps and forests. Thousands of various lakes lie in Lithuania and create magnificent sights from the bird's eye view.Sand dunes of the Curonian Spit near Nida, which are the highest drifting sand dunes in Europe (UNESCO World Heritage Site) After the restoration of Lithuania's independence in 1990, the *Aplinkos apsaugos įstatymas* (Environmental Protection Act) was adopted already in 1992. The law provided the foundations for regulating social relations in the field of environmental protection, established the basic rights and obligations of legal and natural persons in preserving the biodiversity inherent in Lithuania, ecological systems and the landscape. Lithuania agreed to cut carbon emissions by at least 20% of 1990 levels by 2020 and by at least 40% by 2030, together with all European Union members. Also, by 2020 at least 20% (27% by 2030) of the country's total energy consumption should be from the renewable energy sources. In 2016, Lithuania introduced especially effective container deposit legislation, which resulted in collecting 92% of all packagings in 2017. Lithuania does not have high mountains and its landscape is dominated by blooming meadows, dense forests and fertile fields of cereals. However it stands out by the abundance of hillforts, which previously had castles where the ancient Lithuanians burned altars for pagan gods. Lithuania is a particularly watered region with more than 3,000 lakes, mostly in the northeast. The country is also drained by numerous rivers, most notably the longest Nemunas. Lithuania is home to two terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests and Sarmatic mixed forests. Forest has long been one of the most important natural resources in Lithuania. Forests occupy one third of the country's territory and timber-related industrial production accounts for almost 11% industrial production in the country. Lithuania has five national parks, 30 regional parks, 402 nature reserves, 668 state-protected natural heritage objects. In 2018 Lithuania was ranked fifth, second to Sweden (first 3 places were not granted) in the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI). It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 1.62/10, ranking it 162nd globally out of 172 countries. ### Biodiversity Lithuanian ecosystems include natural and semi-natural (forests, bogs, wetlands and meadows), and anthropogenic (agrarian and urban) ecosystems. Among natural ecosystems, forests are particularly important to Lithuania, covering 33% of the country's territory. Wetlands (raised bogs, fens, transitional mires, etc.) cover 7.9% of the country, with 70% of wetlands having been lost due to drainage and peat extraction between 1960 and 1980. Changes in wetland plant communities resulted in the replacement of moss and grass communities by trees and shrubs, and fens not directly affected by land reclamation have become drier as a result of a drop in the water table. There are 29,000 rivers with a total length of 64,000 km in Lithuania, the Nemunas River basin occupying 74% of the territory of the country. Due to the construction of dams, approximately 70% of spawning sites of potential catadromous fish species have disappeared. In some cases, river and lake ecosystems continue to be impacted by anthropogenic eutrophication. Agricultural land comprises 54% of Lithuania's territory (roughly 70% of that is arable land and 30% meadows and pastures), approximately 400,000 ha of agricultural land is not farmed, and acts as an ecological niche for weeds and invasive plant species. Habitat deterioration is occurring in regions with very productive and expensive lands as crop areas are expanded. Currently, 18.9% of all plant species, including 1.87% of all known fungi species and 31% of all known species of lichens, are listed in the Lithuanian Red Data Book. The list also contains 8% of all fish species. The wildlife populations have rebounded as the hunting became more restricted and urbanization allowed replanting forests (forests already tripled in size since their lows). Currently, Lithuania has approximately 250,000 larger wild animals or 5 per each square kilometre. The most prolific large wild animal in every part of Lithuania is the roe deer, with 120,000 of them. They are followed by boars (55,000). Other ungulates are the deer (~22,000), fallow-deer (~21,000) and the largest one: moose (~7,000). Among the Lithuanian predators, foxes are the most common (~27,000). Wolves are, however, more ingrained into the mythology as there are just 800 in Lithuania. Even rarer are the lynxes (~200). The large animals mentioned above exclude the rabbit, ~200,000 of which may live in the Lithuanian forests. Government and politics ----------------------- ### Government Since Lithuania declared the restoration of its independence on 11 March 1990, it has maintained strong democratic traditions. It held its first independent general elections on 25 October 1992, in which 56.75% of voters supported the new constitution. There were intense debates concerning the constitution, particularly the role of the president. A separate referendum was held on 23 May 1992 to gauge public opinion on the matter, and 41% of voters supported the restoration of the President of Lithuania. Through compromise, a semi-presidential system was agreed on. Gitanas Nausėda, President since 2019Ingrida Šimonytė, Prime Minister since 2020 The Lithuanian head of state is the president, directly elected for a five-year term and serving a maximum of two terms. The president oversees foreign affairs and national security, and is the commander-in-chief of the military. The president also appoints the prime minister and, on the latter's nomination, the rest of the cabinet, as well as a number of other top civil servants and the judges for all courts except the Constitutional Court. The current Lithuanian head of state, Gitanas Nausėda was elected on 26 May 2019 by unanimously winning in all municipalities of Lithuania on the second election tour. The judges of the Constitutional Court (*Konstitucinis Teismas*) serve nine-year terms. The court is renewed by a third every three years. The judges are appointed by the Seimas, on the nomination of the President, Chairman of the Seimas, and the Chairman of the Supreme Court,. The unicameral Lithuanian parliament, the Seimas, has 141 members who are elected to four-year terms. 71 of the members of its members are elected in single-member constituencies, and the others in a nationwide vote by proportional representation. A party must receive at least 5% of the national vote to be eligible for any of the 70 national seats in the Seimas. ### Political parties and elections Lithuania was one of the first countries in the world to grant women a right to vote in the elections. Lithuanian women were allowed to vote by the 1918 Constitution of Lithuania and used their newly granted right for the first time in 1919. By doing so, Lithuania allowed it earlier than such democratic countries as the United States (1920), France (1945), Greece (1952), Switzerland (1971). Lithuania exhibits a fragmented multi-party system, with a number of small parties in which coalition governments are common. Ordinary elections to the Seimas take place on the second Sunday of October every four years. To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 25 years old on the election day, not under allegiance to a foreign state and permanently reside in Lithuania. Persons serving or due to serve a sentence imposed by the court 65 days before the election are not eligible. Also, judges, citizens performing military service, and servicemen of professional military service and officials of statutory institutions and establishments may not stand for election. Homeland Union – Lithuanian Christian Democrats won the 2020 Lithuanian parliamentary elections and gained 50 of 141 seats in the parliament. In October 2020, the prime ministerial candidate of Homeland Union-Lithuanian Christian Democrats (TS-LKD) Ingrida Šimonytė formed a centre-right coalition with two liberal parties. The President of Lithuania is the head of state of the country, elected to a five-year term in a majority vote. Elections take place on the last Sunday no more than two months before the end of current presidential term. To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 40 years old on the election day and reside in Lithuania for at least three years, in addition to satisfying the eligibility criteria for a member of the parliament. Same President may serve for not more than two terms. Gitanas Nausėda has won the most recent election as an independent candidate in 2019. Each municipality in Lithuania is governed by a municipal council and a mayor, who is a member of the municipal council. The number of members, elected on a four-year term, in each municipal council depends on the size of the municipality and varies from 15 (in municipalities with fewer than 5,000 residents) to 51 (in municipalities with more than 500,000 residents). 1,524 municipal council members were elected in 2015. Members of the council, with the exception of the mayor, are elected using proportional representation. Starting with 2015, the mayor is elected directly by the majority of residents of the municipality. Social Democratic Party of Lithuania won most of the positions in the 2015 elections (372 municipal councils seats and 16 mayors). As of 2019, the number of seats in the European Parliament allocated to Lithuania was 11. Ordinary elections take place on a Sunday on the same day as in other EU countries. The vote is open to all citizens of Lithuania, as well as citizens of other EU countries that permanently reside in Lithuania, who are at least 18 years old on the election day. To be eligible for election, candidates must be at least 21 years old on the election day, a citizen of Lithuania or a citizen of another EU country permanently residing in Lithuania. Candidates are not allowed to stand for election in more than one country. Persons serving or due to serve a sentence imposed by the court 65 days before the election are not eligible. Also, judges, citizens performing military service, and servicemen of professional military service and officials of statutory institutions and establishments may not stand for election. Six political parties and one committee representatives gained seats in the 2019 elections. ### Law and law enforcement The first attempt to codify the Lithuanian laws was in 1468 when the Casimir's Code was compiled and adopted by Grand Duke Casimir IV Jagiellon. In the 16th century three editions of the Statutes of Lithuania were created with the First Statute being adopted in 1529, the Second Statute in 1566, and the Third Statute in 1588. On 3 May 1791, the Europe's first and the world's second Constitution was adopted by the Great Sejm. The Third Statute was partly in force in the territory of Lithuania even until 1840, despite the Third Partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795. In 1934–1935, Lithuania held the first mass trial of the Nazis in Europe, the convicted were sentenced to imprisonment in a heavy labor prison and capital punishments. After regaining of independence in 1990, the largely modified Soviet legal codes were in force for about a decade. The current Constitution of Lithuania was adopted on 25 October 1992. In 2001, the Civil Code of Lithuania was passed in Seimas. It was succeeded by the Criminal Code and Criminal Procedure Code in 2003. The approach to the criminal law is inquisitorial, as opposed to adversarial; it is generally characterised by an insistence on formality and rationalisation, as opposed to practicality and informality. Normative legal act enters into force on the next day after its publication in the *Teisės aktų registras*, unless it has a later entry into force date. The European Union law is an integral part of the Lithuanian legal system since 1 May 2004. Lithuania, after breaking away from the Soviet Union, had a difficult crime situation, however, the Lithuanian law enforcement agencies fought crime over the years, making Lithuania a reasonably safe country. Crime in Lithuania has been declining rapidly. Law enforcement in Lithuania is primarily the responsibility of local *Lietuvos policija* (Lithuanian Police) commissariats. They are supplemented by the *Lietuvos policijos antiteroristinių operacijų rinktinė Aras* (Anti-Terrorist Operations Team of the Lithuanian Police *Aras*), *Lietuvos kriminalinės policijos biuras* (Lithuanian Criminal Police Bureau), *Lietuvos policijos kriminalistinių tyrimų centras* (Lithuanian Police Forensic Research Center) and *Lietuvos kelių policijos tarnyba* (Lithuanian Road Police Service). In 2017, there were 63,846 crimes registered in Lithuania. Of these, thefts comprised a large part with 19,630 cases (13.2% less than in 2016). While 2,835 crimes were serious and very serious (crimes that may lead to more than six years imprisonment), which is 14.5% less than in 2016. In total, 129 homicides or attempted homicide occurred (19.9% less than in 2016), while serious bodily harm was registered 178 times (17.6% less than in 2016). Another problematic crime contraband cases also decreased by 27.2% from 2016 numbers. Meanwhile, crimes in electronic data and information technology security fields noticeably increased by 26.6%. In the 2013 Special Eurobarometer, 29% of Lithuanians said that corruption affects their daily lives (EU average 26%). Moreover, 95% of Lithuanians regarded corruption as widespread in their country (EU average 76%), and 88% agreed that bribery and the use of connections is often the easiest way of obtaining certain public services (EU average 73%). Though, according to local branch of Transparency International, corruption levels have been decreasing over the past decade. Capital punishment in Lithuania was suspended in 1996 and eliminated in 1998. Lithuania has the highest number of prison inmates in the EU. According to scientist Gintautas Sakalauskas, this is not because of a high criminality rate in the country, but due to Lithuania's high repression level and the lack of trust of the convicted, who are frequently sentenced to imprisonment. ### Administrative divisions Alytus County Kaunas County Klaipėda County Marijampolė County Panevėžys County Šiauliai County Tauragė County Telšiai County Utena County Vilnius County *Baltic sea* *Latvia* *Belarus* *Poland* *Russia* The current system of administrative division was established in 1994 and modified in 2000 to meet the requirements of the European Union. The country's 10 counties (Lithuanian: singular – *apskritis*, plural – *apskritys*) are subdivided into 60 municipalities (Lithuanian: singular – *savivaldybė*, plural – *savivaldybės*), and further divided into 500 elderships (Lithuanian: singular – *seniūnija*, plural – *seniūnijos*). Municipalities have been the most important unit of administration in Lithuania since the system of county governorship (*apskrities viršininkas*) was dissolved in 2010. Some municipalities are historically called "district municipalities" (often shortened to "district"), while others are called "city municipalities" (sometimes shortened to "city"). Each has its own elected government. The election of municipality councils originally occurred every three years, but now takes place every four years. The council appoints elders to govern the elderships. Mayors have been directly elected since 2015; prior to that, they were appointed by the council. Elderships, numbering over 500, are the smallest administrative units and do not play a role in national politics. They provide necessary local public services—for example, registering births and deaths in rural areas. They are most active in the social sector, identifying needy individuals or families and organizing and distributing welfare and other forms of relief. Some citizens feel that elderships have no real power and receive too little attention, and that they could otherwise become a source of local initiative for addressing rural problems. | County | Area (km2) | Population (thousands) (2019) | Nominal GDP (billion EUR) | GDP per capita (EUR) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Alytus County | 5,425 | 134 | 1.6 | 11,500 | | Kaunas County | 8,089 | 562 | 11.6 | 20,400 | | Klaipėda County | 5,209 | 319 | 6.0 | 18,400 | | Marijampolė County | 4,463 | 136 | 1.6 | 11,800 | | Panevėžys County | 7,881 | 221 | 3.0 | 14,100 | | Šiauliai County | 8,540 | 261 | 3.9 | 15,000 | | Tauragė County | 4,411 | 91 | 1.1 | 10,900 | | Telšiai County | 4,350 | 130 | 1.8 | 13,500 | | Utena County | 7,201 | 124 | 1.4 | 11,200 | | Vilnius County | 9,731 | 820 | 24.2 | 29,800 | | Lithuania | 65,300 | 2,828 | 56.2 | 20,000 | ### Foreign relations Lithuania became a member of the United Nations on 18 September 1991, and is a signatory to a number of its organizations and other international agreements. It is also a member of the European Union, the Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, as well as NATO and its adjunct North Atlantic Coordinating Council. Lithuania gained membership in the World Trade Organization on 31 May 2001, and joined the OECD on 5 July 2018, while also seeking membership in other Western organizations. Lithuania has established diplomatic relations with 149 countries. In 2011, Lithuania hosted the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Ministerial Council Meeting. During the second half of 2013, Lithuania assumed the role of the presidency of the European Union. Lithuania is also active in developing cooperation among northern European countries. It is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States. Lithuania also cooperates with Nordic and the two other Baltic countries through the NB8 format. A similar format, NB6, unites Nordic and Baltic members of EU. NB6's focus is to discuss and agree on positions before presenting them to the Council of the European Union and at the meetings of EU foreign affairs ministers. The Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS) was established in Copenhagen in 1992 as an informal regional political forum. Its main aim is to promote integration and to close contacts between the region's countries. The members of CBSS are Iceland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, Russia, and the European Commission. Its observer states are Belarus, France, Italy, Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ukraine. The Nordic Council of Ministers and Lithuania engage in political cooperation to attain mutual goals and to determine new trends and possibilities for joint cooperation. The council's information office aims to disseminate Nordic concepts and to demonstrate and promote Nordic cooperation. Lithuania, together with the five Nordic countries and the two other Baltic countries, is a member of the Nordic Investment Bank (NIB) and cooperates in its NORDPLUS programme, which is committed to education. The Baltic Development Forum (BDF) is an independent nonprofit organization that unites large companies, cities, business associations and institutions in the Baltic Sea region. In 2010 the BDF's 12th summit was held in Vilnius. Poland was highly supportive of Lithuanian independence, despite Lithuania's discriminatory treatment of its Polish minority. The former Solidarity leader and Polish President Lech Wałęsa criticised the government of Lithuania over discrimination against the Polish minority and rejected Lithuania's Order of Vytautas the Great. Lithuania maintains greatly warm mutual relations with Georgia and strongly supports its European Union and NATO aspirations. During the Russo-Georgian War in 2008, when the Russian troops were occupying the territory of Georgia and approaching towards the Georgian capital Tbilisi, President Valdas Adamkus, together with the Polish and Ukrainian presidents, went to Tbilisi by answering to the Georgians request of the international assistance. Shortly, Lithuanians and the Lithuanian Catholic Church also began collecting financial support for the war victims. In 2004–2009, Dalia Grybauskaitė served as European Commissioner for Financial Programming and the Budget within the José Manuel Barroso-led Commission. In 2013, Lithuania was elected to the United Nations Security Council for a two-year term, becoming the first Baltic country elected to this post. During its membership, Lithuania actively supported Ukraine and often condemned Russia for the war in Ukraine, immediately earning vast Ukrainians esteem. As the war in Donbas progressed, President Dalia Grybauskaitė has compared the Russian President Vladimir Putin to Josef Stalin and to Adolf Hitler, she has also called Russia a "terrorist state". In 2018 Lithuania, along with Latvia and Estonia were awarded the Peace of Westphalia Prize [de] – for their exceptional model of democratic development and contribution to peace in the continent. In 2019 Lithuania condemned the Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria. In December 2021, Lithuania reported that in an escalation of the diplomatic spat with China over its relations with Taiwan, China had stopped all imports from Lithuania. The 2023 NATO summit will be held in the Lithuanian capital Vilnius. ### Military The Lithuanian Armed Forces is the name for the unified armed forces of Lithuanian Land Force, Lithuanian Air Force, Lithuanian Naval Force, Lithuanian Special Operations Force and other units: Logistics Command, Training and Doctrine Command, Headquarters Battalion, Military Police. Directly subordinated to the Chief of Defence are the Special Operations Forces and Military Police. The Reserve Forces are under command of the Lithuanian National Defence Volunteer Forces. The Lithuanian Armed Forces consist of some 20,000 active personnel, which may be supported by reserve forces. Compulsory conscription ended in 2008 but was reintroduced in 2015. The Lithuanian Armed Forces currently have deployed personnel on international missions in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Mali and Somalia. Lithuania became a full member of NATO in March 2004. Fighter jets of NATO members are deployed in Šiauliai Air Base and provide safety for the Baltic airspace. Since the summer of 2005, Lithuania has been part of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan (ISAF), leading a Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in the town of Chaghcharan in the province of Ghor. The PRT includes personnel from Denmark, Iceland and the US. There are also special operation forces units in Afghanistan, placed in Kandahar Province. Since joining international operations in 1994, Lithuania has lost two soldiers: Lt. Normundas Valteris fell in Bosnia, as his patrol vehicle drove over a mine. Sgt. Arūnas Jarmalavičius was fatally wounded during an attack on the camp of his Provincial Reconstruction Team in Afghanistan. The Lithuanian National Defence Policy aims to guarantee the preservation of the independence and sovereignty of the state, the integrity of its land, territorial waters and airspace, and its constitutional order. Its main strategic goals are to defend the country's interests, and to maintain and expand the capabilities of its armed forces so they may contribute to and participate in the missions of NATO and European Union member states. The defense ministry is responsible for combat forces, search and rescue, and intelligence operations. The 5,000 border guards fall under the Interior Ministry's supervision and are responsible for border protection, passport and customs duties, and share responsibility with the navy for smuggling and drug trafficking interdiction. A special security department handles VIP protection and communications security. In 2015 National Cyber Security Centre of Lithuania was created. Paramilitary organisation Lithuanian Riflemen's Union acts as a civilian self-defence institution. According to NATO, in 2020, Lithuania allocated 2.13% of its GDP to the national defense. For a long time, especially after the global financial crisis in 2008, Lithuania lagged behind NATO allies in terms of defence spending. However, in recent years it has begun to rapidly increase the funding, exceeding the NATO guideline of 2% in 2019. Lithuania's president Gitanas Nausėda called for more NATO troops on 22 April 2022, saying NATO should increase its deployment of troops in Lithuania and elsewhere on Europe's eastern flank following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, during a meeting in Vilnius. Economy ------- Lithuania has an open and mixed economy that is classified as high-income economy by the World Bank. According to data from 2017, the three largest sectors in Lithuanian economy are – services (67.2% of GDP), industry (29.4%) and agriculture (3.5%). World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report ranks Lithuania 41st (of 137 ranked countries). Lithuania joined NATO in 2004, EU in 2004, Schengen in 2007 and OECD in 2018. On 1 January 2015, the euro became the national currency, replacing litas at the rate of EUR 1.00 = LTL 3.45280. Agricultural products and food comprise 18.3% of exports; other major sectors include chemical products and plastics (17.8%), machinery and appliances (15.8%), mineral products (14.7%), wood and furniture (12.5%). According to data from 2016, more than half of all Lithuanian exports go to 7 countries including Russia (14%), Latvia (9.9%), Poland (9.1%), Germany (7.7%), Estonia (5.3%), Sweden (4.8%) and United Kingdom (4.3%). Exports equaled 81.31 percent of Lithuania's GDP in 2017. Lithuanian GDP experienced very high real growth rates for decade up to 2009, peaking at 11.1% in 2007. As a result, the country was often termed as a Baltic Tiger. However, in 2009 due to a global financial crisis marked experienced a drastic decline – GDP contracted by 14.9% and unemployment rate reached 17.8% in 2010. After the decline of 2009, Lithuanian annual economic growth has been much slower compared to pre-2009 years. According to IMF, financial conditions are conducive to growth and financial soundness indicators remain strong. The public debt ratio in 2016 fell to 40 percent of GDP, to compare with 42.7 in 2015 (before global finance crisis – 15 percent of GDP in 2008). On average, more than 95% of all foreign direct investment in Lithuania comes from European Union countries. Sweden is historically the largest investor with 20% – 30% of all FDI in Lithuania. FDI into Lithuania spiked in 2017, reaching its highest ever recorded number of greenfield investment projects. In 2017, Lithuania was third country, after Ireland and Singapore by the average job value of investment projects. The US was the leading source country in 2017, 24.59% of total FDI. Next up are Germany and the UK, each representing 11.48% of total project numbers. Based on the Eurostat's data, in 2017, the value of Lithuanian exports recorded the most rapid growth not only in the Baltic countries, but also across Europe, which was 16.9 per cent. In the period between 2004 and 2016, one out of five Lithuanians emigrated, primarily due to insufficient income for residents; secondarily seeking to study abroad. Long term emigration and economy growth has resulted in a noticeable shortage in the labor market and growth in salaries being larger than growth in labor efficiency. Unemployment rate in 2017 was 8.1%. As of 2021, Lithuanian median wealth per adult was $28,400 (mean was $63,500), while the total national wealth was $138 billion. As of December 2022, the average monthly gross salary in Lithuania was €2,042. Although, cost of living in the country also is sufficiently less with the price level for household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) – 63, being 39% lower than EU average – 102 in 2016. Lithuania has a flat tax rate rather than a progressive scheme. According to Eurostat, the personal income tax (15%) and corporate tax (15%) rates in Lithuania are among the lowest in the EU. The country has the lowest implicit rate of tax on capital (9.8%) in the EU. Corporate tax rate in Lithuania is 15% and 5% for small businesses. 7 Free Economic Zones are operating in Lithuania. Information technology production is growing in the country, reaching €1.9 billion in 2016. In 2017 only, 35 FinTech companies came to Lithuania – a result of Lithuanian government and Bank of Lithuania simplified procedures for obtaining licences for the activities of e-money and payment institutions. Europe's first international Blockchain Centre launched in Vilnius in 2018. Lithuania has granted a total of 39 e-money licenses, second in the EU only to the U.K. with 128 licenses. In 2018 Google set up a payment company in Lithuania. ### Companies Largest companies of Lithuania in 2021, by revenue: | Rank | Name | Headquarters | Revenue(bil. €) | Employees | Industry | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 01. | Orlen Lietuva, AB | Mažeikiai | 4.263 | 1,427 | Oil, petrol | | 02. | Thermo Fisher Scientific Baltics, UAB | Vilnius | 1.941 | 1,790 | Biotechnology, pharmaceutical | | 03. | Maxima LT, UAB | Vilnius | 1.759 | 12,339 | Retail | | 04. | Girteka Logistics, UAB | Vilnius | 1.145 | 1,516 | Logistics | | 05. | Ignitis, UAB | Vilnius | 0.862 | 325 | Energy | | 06. | Linas Agro Group, AB | Panevėžys | 0.743 | 120 | Agribusiness | | 07. | Viada LT, UAB | Vilnius | 0.688 | 1,098 | Petrol stations | | 08. | Sanitex, UAB | Kaunas | 0.618 | 1,189 | General merchandise, logistics | | 09. | Achema, AB | Jonava | 0.590 | 1,238 | Fertilizer | | 010. | Lidl Lietuva, UAB | Vilnius | 0.578 | 2,513 | Retail | ### Agriculture Agriculture in Lithuania dates to the Neolithic period, about 3,000 to 1,000 BC. It has been one of Lithuania's most important occupations for many centuries. Lithuania's accession to the European Union in 2004 ushered in a new agricultural era. The EU pursues a very high standard of food safety and purity. In 1999, the Seimas (parliament) of Lithuania adopted a Law on Product Safety, and in 2000 it adopted a Law on Food. The reform of the agricultural market has been carried out on the basis of these two laws. In 2016, agricultural production in Lithuania was €2.29 billion. Cereal crops occupied the largest part of it (5709.7 tons), other significant types include: sugar beets (933.9 tons), rapeseed (392.5 tons) and potatoes (340.2 tons). Products totaling €4,385.2 million were exported from Lithuania to foreign markets, of which products for €3,165.2 million were Lithuanian origin. Export of agricultural and food products accounted for 19.4% of all exports of goods from the country. Organic farming is constantly becoming more popular in Lithuania. The status of organic growers and producers in the country is granted by the public body *Ekoagros*. In 2016, there were 2539 such farms that occupied 225,541.78 hectares. Of these, 43.13% were cereals, 31.22% were perennial grasses, 13.9% were leguminous crops and 11.75% were others. ### Science and technology Lithuanian *bajoras* and artillery expert Kazimieras Simonavičius developed and popularized the concept of a multistage rocket. Foundation of the University of Vilnius in 1579 was a major factor of establishing local scientist community in Lithuania and making connections with other universities and scientists of Europe. Georg Forster, Jean-Emmanuel Gilibert, Johann Peter Frank and many other visiting scientists have worked at University of Vilnius. Lithuanian *bajoras* and Grand Duchy of Lithuania artillery expert Kazimieras Simonavičius is a pioneer of rocketry, who has published *Artis Magnae Artilleriae* in 1650 that for over two centuries was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual and contains a large chapter on caliber, construction, production and properties of rockets (for military and civil purposes), including multistage rockets, batteries of rockets, and rockets with delta wing stabilizers. A botanist Jurgis Pabrėža (1771–1849), created first systematic guide of Lithuanian flora *Taislius auguminis* (*Botany*), written in Samogitian dialect, the Latin-Lithuanian dictionary of plant names, first Lithuanian textbook of geography. German scientist Theodor Grotthuss (1785–1822), who proposed the Grotthuss mechanism, lived and worked in the Gedučiai manor [lt] where he gained prominence amongst the locals for his effort in educating the peasants and improving their well-being. During the Interwar period humanitarian and social scientists emerged such as Vosylius Sezemanas, Levas Karsavinas, Mykolas Römeris. Due to the World Wars, Lithuanian science and scientists suffered heavily from the occupants, however some of them reached a world-class achievements in their lifetime. Most notably, Antanas Gustaitis, Vytautas Andrius Graičiūnas, Marija Gimbutas, Birutė Galdikas, A. J. Kliorė, Algirdas Julien Greimas, medievalist Jurgis Baltrušaitis, Algirdas Antanas Avižienis. Jonas Kubilius, long-term rector of the University of Vilnius is known for works in Probabilistic number theory, Kubilius model, Theorem of Kubilius and Turán–Kubilius inequality bear his name. Jonas Kubilius successfully resisted attempts to Russify the University of Vilnius. Nowadays, the country is among moderate innovators group in the International Innovation Index. and in the European Innovation Scoreboard ranked 15th among EU countries. Lithuania was ranked 39th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021 Lasers and biotechnology are flagship fields of the Lithuanian science and high tech industry. Lithuanian "Šviesos konversija" (Light Conversion) has developed a femtosecond laser system that has 80% marketshare worldwide, and is used in DNA research, ophthalmological surgeries, nanotech industry and science. Vilnius University Laser Research Center has developed one of the most powerful femtosecond lasers in the world dedicated primarily to oncological diseases. In 1963, Vytautas Straižys and his coworkers created Vilnius photometric system that is used in astronomy. Noninvasive intracranial pressure and blood flow measuring devices were developed by KTU scientist A. Ragauskas. K.Pyragas contributed to Control of chaos with his way of delayed feedback control – Pyragas method. Kavli Prize laureate Virginijus Šikšnys is known for his discoveries in CRISPR field – invention of CRISPR-Cas9. Lithuania has launched three satellites to space: LitSat-1, Lituanica SAT-1 and LituanicaSAT-2. Lithuanian Museum of Ethnocosmology and Molėtai Astronomical Observatory is located in Kulionys. 15 R&D institutions are members of Lithuanian Space Association; Lithuania is a cooperating state with European Space Agency. Rimantas Stankevičius is the only ethnically Lithuanian astronaut. Lithuania in 2018 became Associated Member State of CERN. Two CERN incubators in Vilnius and Kaunas will be hosted. Most advanced scientific research in Lithuania is being conducted at the Life Sciences Center, Center For Physical Sciences and Technology. As of 2016 calculations, yearly growth of Lithuania's biotech and life science sector was 22% over the past 5 years. 16 academic institutions, 15 R&D centres (science parks and innovation valleys) and more than 370 manufacturers operate in the Lithuanian life science and biotech industry. In 2008 the Valley development programme was started aiming to upgrade Lithuanian scientific research infrastructure and encourage business and science cooperation. Five R&D Valleys were launched – Jūrinis (maritime technologies), Nemunas (agro, bioenergy, forestry), Saulėtekis (laser and light, semiconductor), Santara (biotechnology, medicine), Santaka (sustainable chemistry and pharmacy). Lithuanian Innovation Center is created to provide support for innovations and research institutions. ### Tourism Statistics from 2016 showed that 1.49 million tourists from foreign countries visited Lithuania and spent at least one night in the country. The largest number of tourists came from Germany (174,800), Belarus (171,900), Russia (150,600), Poland (148,400), Latvia (134,400), Ukraine (84,000), and the UK (58,200). The total contribution of Travel & Tourism to country GDP was €2,005.5 million, 5.3% of GDP in 2016, and is forecast to rise by 7.3% in 2017, and to rise by 4.2% pa to €3,243.5 million, 6.7% of GDP in 2027. Hot air ballooning is very popular in Lithuania, especially in Vilnius and Trakai. Bicycle tourism is growing, especially in Lithuanian Seaside Cycle Route. EuroVelo routes EV10, EV11, EV13 go through Lithuania. Total length of bicycle tracks amounts to 3769 km (of which 1988 km is asphalt pavement). Nemunas Delta Regional Park and Žuvintas biosphere reserve are known for birdwatching. Domestic tourism has been on the rise as well. Currently there are up to 1000 places of attraction in Lithuania. Most tourists visit the big cities—Vilnius, Klaipėda, and Kaunas, seaside resorts, such as Neringa, Palanga, and Spa towns – Druskininkai, Birštonas. Infrastructure -------------- ### Communication Lithuania has a well developed communications infrastructure. The country has 2.8 million citizens and 5 million SIM cards. The largest LTE (4G) mobile network covers 97% of Lithuania's territory. Usage of fixed phone lines has been rapidly decreasing due to rapid expansion of mobile-cellular services. In 2017, Lithuania was top 30 in the world by average mobile broadband speeds and top 20 by average fixed broadband speeds. Lithuania was also top 7 in 2017 in the List of countries by 4G LTE penetration. In 2016, Lithuania was ranked 17th in United Nations' e-participation index. There are four TIER III datacenters in Lithuania. Lithuania is 44th globally ranked country on data center density according to Cloudscene. Long-term project (2005–2013) – Development of Rural Areas Broadband Network (RAIN) was started with the objective to provide residents, state and municipal authorities and businesses with fibre-optic broadband access in rural areas. RAIN infrastructure allows 51 communications operators to provide network services to their clients. The project was funded by the European Union and the Lithuanian government. 72% of Lithuanian households have access to internet, a number which in 2017 was among EU's lowest and in 2016 ranked 97th by CIA World Factbook. Number of households with internet access is expected to increase and reach 77% by 2021. Almost 50% of Lithuanians had smartphones in 2016, a number that is expected to increase to 65% by 2022. Lithuania has the highest FTTH (Fiber to the home) penetration rate in Europe (36.8% in September 2016) according to FTTH Council Europe. ### Transport Lithuania received its first railway connection in the middle of the 19th century, when the Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway was constructed. It included a stretch from Daugavpils via Vilnius and Kaunas to Virbalis. The first and only still operating tunnel was completed in 1860. Rail transport in Lithuania consists of 1,762 km (1,095 mi) of 1,520 mm (4 ft 11.8 in) Russian gauge railway of which 122 km (76 mi) are electrified. This railway network is incompatible with European standard gauge and requires train switching. However, Lithuanian railway network also has 115 km (71 mi) of standard gauge lines. More than half of all inland freight transported in Lithuania is carried by rail. The Trans-European standard gauge Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki–Tallinn–Riga–Kaunas–Warsaw and continuing on to Berlin is under construction. In 2017, Lietuvos Geležinkeliai, a company that operates most railway lines in Lithuania, received EU penalty for breaching EU's antitrust laws and restricting competition. Transportation is the third largest sector in Lithuanian economy. Lithuanian transport companies drew attention in 2016 and 2017 with huge and record-breaking orders of trucks. Almost 90% of commercial truck traffic in Lithuania is international transports, the highest of any EU country. Lithuania has an extensive network of motorways. WEF grades Lithuanian roads at 4.7 / 7.0 and Lithuanian road authority (LAKD) at 6.5 / 10.0. The Port of Klaipėda is the only commercial cargo port in Lithuania. In 2011 45.5 million tons of cargo were handled (including Būtingė oil terminal figures) Port of Klaipėda is outside of EU's 20 largest ports, but it is the eighth largest port in the Baltic Sea region with ongoing expansion plans. Vilnius International Airport is the largest airport in Lithuania, 91st busiest airport in Europe (EU's 100 largest airports). It served 3.8 million passengers in 2016. Other international airports include Kaunas International Airport, Palanga International Airport and Šiauliai International Airport. Kaunas International Airport is also a small commercial cargo airport which started regular commercial cargo traffic in 2011. The inland river cargo port in Marvelė, linking Kaunas and Klaipėda, received first cargo in 2019. ### Water supply and sanitation Lithuania has one of the largest fresh water supplies, compared with other countries in Europe. Lithuania and Denmark are the only countries in Europe, which are fully equipped with fresh groundwater. Lithuanians consume about 0.5 million cubic metres of water per day, which is only 12–14 percent of all explored fresh groundwater resources. Water quality in the country is very high and is determined by the fact that drinking water comes from deep layers that are protected from pollution on the surface of the earth. Drilling depth usually reaches 30–50 metres, but in Klaipėda Region it even reaches 250 metres. Consequently, Lithuania is one of very few European countries where groundwater is used for centralized water supply. With a large underground fresh water reserves, Lithuania exports mineral-rich water to other countries. Approved mineral water quantity is about 2.7 million cubic metres per year, while production is only 4–5 percent of all mineral water resources. Vilnius is the only Baltic capital that uses centralized water supplying from deep water springs, which are protected from pollution and has no nitrates or nitrites that are harmful to the human body. Water is cleaned without chemicals in Lithuania. About 20% of the consumed water in the state is a non-filtered very high quality water. ### Energy Systematic diversification of energy imports and resources is Lithuania's key energy strategy. Long-term aims were defined in National Energy Independence strategy in 2012 by Lietuvos Seimas. It was estimated that strategic energy independence initiatives will cost €6.3–7.8 billion in total and provide annual savings of €0.9–1.1 billion. After the decommissioning of the Ignalina Nuclear Power Plant, Lithuania turned from electricity exporter to electricity importer. Unit No. 1 was closed in December 2004, as a condition of Lithuania's entry into the European Union; Unit No. 2 was closed down on 31 December 2009. Proposals have been made to construct a new – Visaginas Nuclear Power Plant in Lithuania. However, a non-binding referendum held in October 2012 clouded the prospects for the Visaginas project, as 63% of voters said no to a new nuclear power plant. The country's main primary source of electrical power is Elektrėnai Power Plant. Other primary sources of Lithuania's electrical power are Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant and Kaunas Hydroelectric Power Plant. Kruonis Pumped Storage Plant is the only in the Baltic states power plant to be used for regulation of the power system's operation with generating capacity of 900 MW for at least 12 hours. As of 2015[update], 66% of electrical power was imported. First geothermal heating plant (Klaipėda Geothermal Demonstration Plant) in the Baltic Sea region was built in 2004. Lithuania–Sweden submarine electricity interconnection NordBalt and Lithuania–Poland electricity interconnection LitPol Link were launched at the end of 2015. In order to break down Gazprom's monopoly in natural gas market of Lithuania, first large scale LNG import terminal (Klaipėda LNG FSRU) in the Baltic region was built in port of Klaipėda in 2014. The Klaipėda LNG terminal was called Independence, thus emphasising the aim to diversify energy market of Lithuania. Norvegian company Equinor supplies 540 million cubic metres (19 billion cubic feet) of natural gas annually from 2015 until 2020. The terminal is able to meet the Lithuania's demand 100 percent, and Latvia's and Estonia's national demand 90 percent in the future. Gas Interconnection Poland–Lithuania (GIPL), also known as Lithuania–Poland pipeline, is a proposed natural gas pipeline interconnection between Lithuania and Poland that is expected to be finished by 2019. In 2018 synchronising the Baltic States' electricity grid with the Synchronous grid of Continental Europe has started. In 2016, 20.8% of electricity consumed in Lithuania came from renewable sources. Demographics ------------ Since the Neolithic period, the demographics of Lithuania have stayed fairly homogenous. There is a high probability that the inhabitants of present-day Lithuania have similar genetic compositions to their ancestors, although without being actually isolated from them. The Lithuanian population appears to be relatively homogeneous, without apparent genetic differences among ethnic subgroups. A 2004 analysis of MtDNA in the Lithuanian population revealed that Lithuanians are genetically close to the Slavic and Finno-Ugric speaking populations of Northern and Eastern Europe. Y-chromosome SNP haplogroup analysis showed Lithuanians to be genetically closest to Latvians and Estonians. In 2021, the age structure of the population was as follows: * 0–14 years, 14.86% (male 214,113/female 203,117) * 15–64 years: 65.19% (male 896,400/female 934,467) * 65 years and over: 19.95% (male 195,269/female 365,014). The median age in 2022 was 44 years (male: 41, female: 47). Lithuania has a sub-replacement fertility rate: the total fertility rate (TFR) in Lithuania was 1.34 children born per woman in 2021, and the mean age of women at childbirth was 30.3 years. The average age of first childbirth for women was 28.2 years. The human sex ratio is male leaning for the age categories 15–44, with 1.0352 males for every female. As of 2021[update], 25.6% of births were to unmarried women. The mean age at first marriage in 2021 was 28.3 years for women and 30.5 years for men. ### Functional urban areas | Functional urban areas | Population (2021) | | --- | --- | | Vilnius | 708,203 | | Kaunas | 391,153 | | Panevėžys | 124,526 | | | ### Ethnic groups | Residents of Lithuania by ethnicity (2021) | | --- | | | | | | Lithuanians |   | 84.6% | | Poles |   | 6.5% | | Russians |   | 5.0% | | Belarusians |   | 1.0% | | Ukrainians |   | 0.5% | | Others |   | 2.3% | Ethnic Lithuanians make up about five-sixths of the country's population. Furthermore, Lithuania has the most homogeneous population in the Baltic States. In 2015, the population of Lithuania was 2,921,262. 84.2% of that percentage are ethnic Lithuanians who speak Lithuanian, which is the official language of the country. Several sizeable minorities exist, such as Poles (6.6%), Russians (5.8%), Belarusians (1.2%) and Ukrainians (0.5%). Poles in Lithuania are the largest minority, concentrated in southeast Lithuania (the Vilnius region). Russians in Lithuania are the second largest minority, concentrated mostly in Vilnius (12%) and Klaipėda (19.6%), as well as Visaginas (52%). About 3,000 Roma live in Lithuania, mostly in Vilnius, Kaunas and Panevėžys; their organizations are supported by the National Minority and Emigration Department. For centuries, a small Tatar community has flourished in Lithuania. The official language is Lithuanian, but in some areas there is a significant presence of minority languages such as Polish, Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian. The greatest presence of minorities and the use of these languages are in Šalčininkai District Municipality, Vilnius District Municipality and Visaginas Municipality. Yiddish is spoken by members of the tiny remaining Jewish community in Lithuania. The state laws guarantee education in minority languages and there are numerous publicly funded schools in the areas populated by minorities, with Polish as the language of instruction being the most widely available. According to the survey carried out within the framework of the Lithuanian census of 2021, 85.33% of the country's population speak Lithuanian as their native language, 6.8% are native speakers of Russian and 5.1% of Polish. As of 2021[update], 60.6% of residents speak Russian as a foreign language, 31.1% – English, 10.5% – Lithuanian, 8% – German, 7.9% – Polish, 1.9% – French, 2.6% – various others. Most Lithuanian schools teach English as the first foreign language, but students may also study German, or, in some schools, French or Russian. Around 80% of young people in Lithuania know English. ### Urbanization There has been a steady movement of population to the cities since the 1990s, encouraged by the planning of regional centres, such as Alytus, Marijampolė, Utena, Plungė, and Mažeikiai. By the early 21st century, about two-thirds of the total population lived in urban areas. As of 2021[update], 68.19% of the total population lives in urban areas. Lithuania's functional urban areas include Vilnius (population 708,203), Kaunas (population 391,153), and Panevėžys (population 124,526). The fDI of the Financial Times in their research *Cities and Regions of the Future* ranked Vilnius fourth in the mid-sized European cities category in the 2018–19 ranking, second in the 2022–23 ranking, second in 2023 ranking while the city claimed 24th spot in the worldwide overall ranking in 2021–22 and Vilnius county was ranked 10th in the small European regions category in 2018–19, fifth in 2022–23, fifth in 2023 rankings. |    Largest cities or towns in LithuaniaStatistics Lithuania (2023) | | --- | | | Rank | Name | County | Pop. | Rank | Name | County | Pop. | | | VilniusVilniusKaunasKaunas | 1 | Vilnius | Vilnius | 581,475 | 11 | Kėdainiai | Kaunas | 23,447 | KlaipėdaKlaipėdaŠiauliaiŠiauliai | | 2 | Kaunas | Kaunas | 305,120 | 12 | Telšiai | Telšiai | 22,261 | | 3 | Klaipėda | Klaipėda | 158,420 | 13 | Tauragė | Tauragė | 21,416 | | 4 | Šiauliai | Šiauliai | 104,300 | 14 | Ukmergė | Vilnius | 21,048 | | 5 | Panevėžys | Panevėžys | 87,913 | 15 | Visaginas | Utena | 19,586 | | 6 | Alytus | Alytus | 51,856 | 16 | Palanga | Klaipėda | 18,132 | | 7 | Marijampolė | Marijampolė | 36,807 | 17 | Plungė | Telšiai | 17,385 | | 8 | Mažeikiai | Telšiai | 33,249 | 18 | Kretinga | Klaipėda | 17,207 | | 9 | Jonava | Kaunas | 27,134 | 19 | Šilutė | Klaipėda | 16,200 | | 10 | Utena | Utena | 25,608 | 20 | Gargždai | Klaipėda | 15,932 | ### Health Lithuania provides free state-funded healthcare to all citizens and registered long-term residents. It co-exists with a significant private healthcare sector. In 2003–2012, the network of hospitals was restructured, as part of wider healthcare service reforms. It started in 2003–2005 with the expansion of ambulatory services and primary care. In 2016, Lithuania ranked 27th in Europe in the Euro health consumer index, a ranking of European healthcare systems based on waiting time, results and other indicators. As of 2019[update] Lithuanian life expectancy at birth was 76.0 (71.2 years for males and 80.4 for females) and the infant mortality rate was 2.99 per 1,000 births. The annual population growth rate increased by 0.3% in 2007. Lithuania has seen a dramatic rise in suicides in the 1990s. The suicide rate has been constantly decreasing since, but it still remains the highest in the EU and the OECD. The suicide rate as of 2019 is 20.2 per 100,000 people. Suicide in Lithuania has been a subject of research, but the main reasons behind the high rate are thought to be both psychological and economic, including: social transformations and economic recessions, alcoholism, lack of tolerance in the society, bullying. By 2000 the vast majority of Lithuanian health care institutions were non-profit-making enterprises and a private sector developed, providing mostly outpatient services which are paid for out-of-pocket. The Ministry of Health also runs a few health care facilities and is involved in the running of the two major Lithuanian teaching hospitals. It is responsible for the State Public Health Centre which manages the public health network including ten county public health centres with their local branches. The ten counties run county hospitals and specialised health care facilities. There is Compulsory Health Insurance for the Lithuanian residents. There are 5 Territorial Health Insurance Funds, covering Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Contributions for people who are economically active are 9% of income. Emergency medical services are provided free of charge to all residents. Access to the secondary and tertiary care, such as hospital treatment, is normally via referral by a general practitioner. Lithuania also has one of the lowest health care prices in Europe. ### Religion According to the 2021 census, 74.2% of residents of Lithuania were Catholics. Catholicism has been the main religion since the official Christianisation of Lithuania in 1387. The Catholic Church was persecuted by the Russian Empire as part of the Russification policies and by the Soviet Union as part of the overall anti-religious campaigns. During the Soviet era, some priests actively led the resistance against the Communist regime, as symbolised by the Hill of Crosses and exemplified by *The Chronicle of the Catholic Church in Lithuania*. 3.7% of the population are Eastern Orthodox, mainly among the Russian minority. The community of Old Believers (0.6% of population) dates back to the 1660s. Protestants are 0.8%, of which 0.6% are Lutheran and 0.2% are Reformed. The Reformation did not impact Lithuania to a great extent as seen in East Prussia, Estonia, or Latvia. Before World War II, according to Losch (1932), the Lutherans were 3.3% of the total population. They were mainly Germans and Prussian Lithuanians in the Klaipėda Region (Memel territory). This population fled or was expelled after the war, and today Protestantism is mainly represented by ethnic Lithuanians throughout the northern and western parts of the country, as well as in large urban areas. Newly arriving evangelical churches have established missions in Lithuania since 1990. Hinduism is a minority religion and a fairly recent development in Lithuania. Hinduism is spread in Lithuania by Hindu organizations: ISKCON, Sathya Sai Baba, Brahma Kumaris and Osho Rajneesh. ISKCON (Lithuanian: Krišnos sąmonės judėjimas) is the largest and the oldest movement as the first Krishna followers date to 1979. It has three centres in Lithuania: in Vilnius, Klaipėda and Kaunas. Brahma Kumaris maintains the Centre Brahma Kumaris in Antakalnis, Vilnius. The historical communities of Lipka Tatars maintain Islam as their religion. Lithuania was historically home to a significant Jewish community and was an important centre of Jewish scholarship and culture from the 18th century until the eve of World War II. Of the approximately 220,000 Jews who lived in Lithuania in June 1941, almost all were killed during the Holocaust. The Lithuanian Jewish community numbered about 4,000 at the end of 2009. Romuva, the neopagan revival of the ancient religious practices, has gained popularity over the years. Romuva claims to continue living pagan traditions, which survived in folklore and customs. Romuva is a polytheistic pagan faith, which asserts the sanctity of nature and has elements of ancestor worship. According to the 2001 census, there were 1,270 people of Baltic faith in Lithuania. That number jumped to 5,118 in the 2011 census. ### Education The Constitution of Lithuania mandates ten-year education ending at age 16 and guarantees a free public higher education for students deemed 'good'. The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Lithuania proposes national educational policies and goals that are then voted for in the Seimas. Laws govern long-term educational strategy along with general laws on standards for higher education, vocational training, law and science, adult education, and special education. 5.4% of GDP or 15.4% of total public expenditure was spent for education in 2016. According to the World Bank, the literacy rate among Lithuanians aged 15 years and older is 100%. School attendance rates are above the EU average and school leave is less common than in the EU. According to Eurostat Lithuania leads among other countries of the European Union in people with secondary education (93.3%). Based on OECD data, Lithuania is among the top 5 countries in the world in postsecondary (tertiary) education attainment. As of 2016[update], 54.9% of the population aged 25 to 34, and 30.7% of the population aged 55 to 64 had completed tertiary education. The share of tertiary-educated 25–64-year-olds in STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields in Lithuania were above the OECD average (29% and 26% respectively), similarly to business, administration and law (25% and 23% respectively). Modern Lithuanian education system has multiple structural problems. Insufficient funding, quality issues, and decreasing student population are the most prevalent. Lithuanian teacher salaries are the lowest in the entire EU. Low teacher salaries was the primary reason behind national teacher strikes in 2014, 2015, and 2016. Salaries in the higher education sector are also low. Many Lithuanian professors have a second job to supplement their income. PISA report from 2010 found that Lithuanian results in math, science and reading were below OECD average. PISA report from 2015 reconfirmed these findings. The population ages 6 to 19 has decreased by 36% between 2005 and 2015. As a result, the student-teacher ratio is decreasing and expenditure per student is increasing, but schools, particularly in rural areas, are forced into reorganizations and consolidations. As with other Baltic nations, in particular Latvia, the large volume of higher education graduates within the country, coupled with the high rate of spoken second languages is contributing to an education brain drain. As of 2008[update], there were 15 public and 6 private universities as well as 16 public and 11 private colleges in Lithuania (see: List of universities in Lithuania). Vilnius University is one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe and the largest university in Lithuania. Kaunas University of Technology is the largest technical university in the Baltic States and the second largest university in Lithuania. In an attempt to reduce costs and adapt to sharply decreasing number of high-school students, Lithuanian parliament decided to reduce the number of universities in Lithuania. In early 2018, Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences and Aleksandras Stulginskis University were merged into Vytautas Magnus University. Culture ------- ### Lithuanian language A priest, lexicographer Konstantinas Sirvydas – cherisher of Lithuanian language in the 17th centuryJonas Jablonskis is the father of standard Lithuanian language. The Lithuanian language (*lietuvių kalba*) is the official state language of Lithuania and is recognized as one of the official languages of the European Union. There are about 2.96 million native Lithuanian speakers in Lithuania and about 0.2 million abroad. Lithuanian is a Baltic language, closely related to Latvian, although they are not mutually intelligible. It is written in an adapted version of the Roman script. Lithuanian is believed to be the linguistically most conservative living Indo-European tongue, retaining many features of Proto Indo-European. Lithuanian language studies are important for comparative linguistics and for reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European language. Lithuanian was studied by linguists such as Franz Bopp, August Schleicher, Adalbert Bezzenberger, Louis Hjelmslev, Ferdinand de Saussure, Winfred P. Lehmann, Vladimir Toporov and others. There are two main dialects of the Lithuanian language: Aukštaitian dialect and Samogitian dialect. Aukštaitian dialect is mainly used in the central, southern and eastern parts of Lithuania while Samogitian dialect is used in the western part of the country. The Samogitian dialect also has many completely different words and is even considered a separate language by some linguists. Nowadays, the distinguishing feature between the two main Lithuanian dialects is the unequal pronunciation of accented and unaccented two-vowels uo and ie. The groundwork for written Lithuanian was laid in 16th and 17th centuries by Lithuanian noblemen and scholars, who promoted Lithuanian language, created dictionaries and published books – Mikalojus Daukša, Stanislovas Rapolionis, Abraomas Kulvietis, Jonas Bretkūnas, Martynas Mažvydas, Konstantinas Sirvydas, Simonas Vaišnoras-Varniškis. The first grammar book of the Lithuanian language *Grammatica Litvanica* was published in Latin in 1653 by Danielius Kleinas. Jonas Jablonskis' works and activities are especially important for the Lithuanian literature moving from the use of dialects to a standard Lithuanian language. The linguistic material which he collected was published in the 20 volumes of Academic Dictionary of Lithuanian and is still being used in research and in editing of texts and books. He also introduced the letter *ū* into Lithuanian writing. ### Literature There is a great deal of Lithuanian literature written in Latin, the main scholarly language of the Middle Ages. The edicts of the Lithuanian King Mindaugas are the prime example of the literature of this kind. The Letters of Gediminas are another crucial heritage of the Lithuanian Latin writings. One of the first Lithuanian authors who wrote in Latin was Nicolaus Hussovianus (around 1480 – after 1533). His poem *Carmen de statura, feritate ac venatione bisontis* (*A Song about the Appearance, Savagery and Hunting of the Bison*), published in 1523, describes the Lithuanian landscape, way of life and customs, touches on some actual political problems, and reflects the clash of paganism and Christianity. A person under the pseudonym Michalo Lituanus [lt] (around 1490 – 1560) wrote a treatise *De moribus tartarorum, lituanorum et moscorum* (*On the Customs of Tatars, Lithuanians and Muscovites*) in the middle of the 16th century, but it was not published until 1615. An extraordinary figure in the cultural life of Lithuania in the 16th century was the lawyer and poet of Spanish origin Petrus Roysius Maurus Alcagnicensis (around 1505 – 1571). The publicist, lawyer, and mayor of Vilnius, Augustinus Rotundus (around 1520–1582) wrote a no longer existent history of Lithuania in Latin around the year 1560. loannes Radvanus, a humanist poet of the second half of the 16th century, wrote an epic poem imitating the Aeneid of Vergil. His *Radivilias*, intended to become the Lithuanian national epic, was published in Vilnius in 1588. 17th century Lithuanian scholars also wrote in Latin – Kazimieras Kojelavičius-Vijūkas, Žygimantas Liauksminas are known for their Latin writings in theology, rhetorics and music. Albertas Kojalavičius-Vijūkas wrote first printed Lithuanian history *Historia Lithuania*. Lithuanian literary works in the Lithuanian language started being first published in the 16th century. In 1547 Martynas Mažvydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book *Katekizmo prasti žodžiai* (*The Simple Words of Catechism*), which marks the beginning of literature, printed in Lithuanian. He was followed by Mikalojus Daukša with *Katechizmas*. In the 16th and 17th centuries, as in the whole Christian Europe, Lithuanian literature was primarily religious. The evolution of the old (14th–18th century) Lithuanian literature ends with Kristijonas Donelaitis, one of the most prominent authors of the Age of Enlightenment. Donelaitis' poem *Metai* (*The Seasons*) is a landmark of the Lithuanian fiction literature, written in hexameter. With a mix of Classicism, Sentimentalism and Romanticism, the Lithuanian literature of the first half of the 19th century is represented by Maironis, Antanas Baranauskas, Simonas Daukantas, Oscar Milosz, and Simonas Stanevičius. During the Tsarist annexation of Lithuania in the 19th century, the Lithuanian press ban was implemented, which led to the formation of the Knygnešiai (Book smugglers) movement. This movement is thought to be the very reason the Lithuanian language and literature survived until today. 20th-century Lithuanian literature is represented by Juozas Tumas-Vaižgantas, Antanas Vienuolis, Bernardas Brazdžionis, Antanas Škėma, Balys Sruoga, Vytautas Mačernis and Justinas Marcinkevičius. In 21st century debuted Kristina Sabaliauskaitė, Renata Šerelytė, Valdas Papievis, Laura Sintija Černiauskaitė, Rūta Šepetys. ### Architecture Several famous Lithuania-related architects are notable for their achievements in the field of architecture. Johann Christoph Glaubitz, Marcin Knackfus, Laurynas Gucevičius and Karol Podczaszyński were instrumental in introducing Baroque and neoclassical architectural movements to the Lithuanian architecture during the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries. Vilnius is considered as a capital of the Eastern Europe Baroque. Vilnius Old Town that is full of astonishing Baroque churches and other buildings is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Lithuania is also known for numerous castles. About twenty castles exist in Lithuania. Some castles had to be rebuilt or survive partially. Many Lithuanian nobles' historic palaces and manor houses have remained till the nowadays and were reconstructed. Lithuanian village life has existed since the days of Vytautas the Great. Zervynos and Kapiniškiai are two of many ethnographic villages in Lithuania. Rumšiškės is an open space museum where old ethnographic architecture is preserved. During the interwar period, Art Deco, Lithuanian National Romanticism architectural style buildings were constructed in the Lithuania's temporary capital Kaunas. Its architecture is regarded as one of the finest examples of the European Art Deco and has received the European Heritage Label. ### Arts and museums The Lithuanian Art Museum was founded in 1933 and is the largest museum of art conservation and display in Lithuania. Among other important museums are the Palanga Amber Museum, where amber pieces comprise a major part of the collection, National Gallery of Art, presenting collection of Lithuanian art of the 20th and 21st century, National Museum of Lithuania presenting Lithuanian archaeology, history and ethnic culture. In 2018 two private museums were opened – MO Museum devoted to modern and contemporary Lithuanian art and *Tartle*, exhibiting a collection of Lithuanian art heritage and artefacts. Perhaps the most renowned figure in Lithuania's art community was the composer Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1875–1911), an internationally renowned musician. The 2420 Čiurlionis asteroid, identified in 1975, honors his achievements. The M. K. Čiurlionis National Art Museum, as well as the only military museum in Lithuania, Vytautas the Great War Museum, are located in Kaunas. Franciszek Smuglewicz, Jan Rustem, Józef Oleszkiewicz and Kanuty Rusiecki are the most prominent Lithuanian painters of the 18th and 19th centuries. ### Theatre Lithuania has some very famous theatre directors well known in the country and abroad. One of them is Oskaras Koršunovas. He was awarded more than forty times with special prizes. Possibly most prestigious award is Swedish Commander Grand Cross: Order of the Polar Star. Today's the most famous theatres in Lithuania are in Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda and Panevėžys. It is Lithuanian National Drama Theatre, *Keistuolių teatras* (Theatre of Freaks) in Vilnius, Kaunas State Drama Theatre, Theatre of Oskaras Koršunovas, Klaipėda Drama Theatre, Theatre of Gytis Ivanauskas, Miltinis Drama Theatre in Panevėžys, The Doll's Theatre, Old Theatre of Vilnius and others. There are some very popular theatre festivals like *Sirenos* (Sirens), *TheATRIUM*, *Nerk į teatrą* (Dive into the Theatre) and others. The figures dominating in Lithuanian theatre world are directors like Eimuntas Nekrošius, Jonas Vaitkus, Cezaris Graužinis, Gintaras Varnas, Dalia Ibelhauptaitė, Artūras Areima; number of talented actors like Dainius Gavenonis, Rolandas Kazlas, Saulius Balandis, Gabija Jaraminaitė and many others. ### Cinema On 28 July 1896, Thomas Edison live photography session was held in the Concerts Hall of the Botanical Garden of Vilnius University. After a year, similar American movies were available with the addition of special phonograph records that also provided sound. In 1909, Lithuanian cinema pioneers Antanas Račiūnas [lt] and Ladislas Starevich released their first movies. Soon the Račiūnas' recordings of Lithuania's views became very popular among the Lithuanian Americans abroad. In 1925, Pranas Valuskis filmed movie *Naktis Lietuvoje* (Night in Lithuania) about Lithuanian book smugglers that left the first bright Lithuanian footprint in Hollywood. The most significant and mature Lithuanian American movie of the time *Aukso žąsis* (Golden goose) was created in 1965 by Birutė Pūkelevičiūtė [lt] that featured motifs from the Brothers Grimm fairy tales. In 1940, Romuva Cinema was opened in Kaunas and currently is the oldest still operational cinema in Lithuania. After the occupation of the state, movies mostly were used for the Soviet propaganda purposes, nevertheless Almantas Grikevičius, Gytis Lukšas, Henrikas Šablevičius, Arūnas Žebriūnas, Raimondas Vabalas were able to overcome the obstacles and create valuable films. After the restoration of the independence, Šarūnas Bartas, Audrius Stonys, Arūnas Matelis, Audrius Juzėnas, Algimantas Puipa, Janina Lapinskaitė [lt], Dijana and her husband Kornelijus Matuzevičius received success in international movie festivals. In 2018, 4,265,414 cinema tickets were sold in Lithuania with the average price of €5.26. ### Music Lithuanians dancing at *Skamba skamba kankliai* festival and singing at Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival in Vingis Park Lithuanian folk music belongs to Baltic music branch which is connected with neolithic corded ware culture. Two instrument cultures meet in the areas inhabited by Lithuanians: stringed (kanklių) and wind instrument cultures. Lithuanian folk music is archaic, mostly used for ritual purposes, containing elements of paganism faith. There are three ancient styles of singing in Lithuania connected with ethnographical regions: monophony, heterophony and polyphony. Folk song genres: Sutartinės (Multipart Songs), Wedding Songs, War-Historical Time Songs, Calendar Cycle and Ritual Songs and Work Songs. Italian artists organized the first opera in Lithuania on 4 September 1636 at the Palace of the Grand Dukes by the order of Władysław IV Vasa. Currently, operas are staged at the Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theatre and also by independent troupe Vilnius City Opera. Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis is the most renowned Lithuanian painter and composer. During his short life he created about 200 pieces of music. His works have had profound influence on modern Lithuanian culture. His symphonic poems *In the Forest* (*Miške*) and *The Sea* (*Jūra*) were performed only posthumously. Čiurlionis contributed to symbolism and art nouveau and was representative of the fin de siècle epoch. He has been considered one of the pioneers of abstract art in Europe. In Lithuania, choral music is very important. Vilnius is the only city with three choirs laureates (Brevis, Jauna Muzika and Chamber Choir of the Conservatoire) at the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing. There is a long-standing tradition of the *Dainų šventė* (Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival). The first one took place in Kaunas in 1924. Since 1990, the festival has been organised every four years and summons roughly 30,000 singers and folk dancers of various professional levels and age groups from across the country. In 2008, Lithuanian Song and Dance Festival together with its Latvian and Estonian versions was inscribed as UNESCO Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. *Gatvės muzikos diena* (Street Music Day) gathers musicians of various genres annually. Conductor Mirga Gražinytė-Tyla performing on the scenes of Rome, New York and Birmingham. Modern classical composers emerged in seventies – Bronius Kutavičius, Feliksas Bajoras, Osvaldas Balakauskas, Onutė Narbutaitė, Vidmantas Bartulis and others. Most of those composers explored archaic Lithuanian music and its harmonic combination with modern minimalism and neoromanticism. Jazz scene was active even during the years of Soviet occupation. The real breakthrough would occur in 1970–71 with the coming together of the Ganelin/Tarasov/Chekasin trio, the alleged instigators of the Vilnius Jazz School. Most known annual events are Vilnius Jazz Festival, Kaunas Jazz, Birštonas Jazz. Music Information Centre Lithuania (MICL) collects, promotes and shares information on Lithuanian musical culture. #### Rock and protest music After the Soviet reoccupation of Lithuania in 1944, the Soviet's censorship continued firmly controlling all artistic expressions in Lithuania, and any violations by criticizing the regime would immediately result in punishments. The first local rock bands started to emerge around 1965 and included *Kertukai*, *Aitvarai* and *Nuogi ant slenksčio* in Kaunas, and Kęstutis Antanėlis, *Vienuoliai*, and *Gėlių Vaikai* in Vilnius, among others. Unable to express their opinions directly, the Lithuanian artists began organizing patriotic Roko Maršai and were using metaphors in their songs' lyrics, which were easily identified for their true meanings by the locals. Postmodernist rock band Antis and its vocalist Algirdas Kaušpėdas were one of the most active performers who mocked the Soviet regime by using metaphors. For example, in the song *Zombiai* (Zombies), the band indirectly sang about the Red Army soldiers who occupied the state and its military base in Ukmergė. Vytautas Kernagis' song *Kolorado vabalai* (Colorado beetles) was also a favourite due to its lyrics in which true meaning of the Colorado beetles was intended to be the Soviets decorated with the Ribbons of Saint George. In the early independence years, rock band Foje was particularly popular and gathered tens of thousands of spectators to the concerts. After disbanding in 1997, Foje vocalist Andrius Mamontovas remained one of the most prominent Lithuanian performers and an active participant in various charity events. Marijonas Mikutavičius is famous for creating unofficial Lithuania sport anthem *Trys milijonai* (Three million) and official anthem of the EuroBasket 2011 *Nebetyli sirgaliai* (English version was named *Celebrate Basketball*). ### Cuisine Lithuanian cuisine features the products suited to the cool and moist northern climate of Lithuania: barley, potatoes, rye, beets, greens, berries, and mushrooms are locally grown, and dairy products are one of its specialties. Fish dishes are very popular in the coastal region. Since it shares its climate and agricultural practices with Northern Europe, Lithuanian cuisine has some similarities to Scandinavian cuisine. Nevertheless, it has its own distinguishing features, which were formed by a variety of influences during the country's long and difficult history. Dairy products are an important part of traditional Lithuanian cuisine. These include white cottage cheese (*varškės sūris*), curd (*varškė*), soured milk (*rūgpienis*), sour cream (*grietinė*), butter (*sviestas*), and sour cream butter *kastinis*. Traditional meat products are usually seasoned, matured and smoked – smoked sausages (*dešros*), lard (*lašiniai*), *skilandis*, smoked ham (*kumpis*). Soups (*sriubos*) – boletus soup (*baravykų sriuba*), cabbage soup (*kopūstų sriuba*), beer soup (*alaus sriuba*), milk soup (*pieniška sriuba*), cold-beet soup (*šaltibarščiai*) and various kinds of porridges (*košės*) are part of tradition and daily diet. Freshwater fish, herring, wild berries and mushrooms, honey are highly popular diet to this day. One of the oldest and most fundamental Lithuanian food products was and is rye bread. Rye bread is eaten every day for breakfast, lunch and dinner. Bread played an important role in family rituals and agrarian ceremonies. Lithuanians and other nations that once formed part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania share many dishes and beverages. German traditions also influenced Lithuanian cuisine, introducing pork and potato dishes, such as potato pudding (*kugelis* or kugel) and potato sausages (*vėdarai*), as well as the baroque tree cake known as *Šakotis*. The most exotic of all the influences is Eastern (Karaite) cuisine – the *kibinai* are popular in Lithuania. Lithuanian noblemen usually hired French chefs, so French cuisine influence came to Lithuania in this way. Balts were using mead (*midus*) for thousands of years. Beer (*alus*) is the most common alcoholic beverage. Lithuania has a long farmhouse beer tradition, first mentioned in 11th century chronicles. Beer was brewed for ancient Baltic festivities and rituals. Farmhouse brewing survived to a greater extent in Lithuania than anywhere else, and through accidents of history the Lithuanians then developed a commercial brewing culture from their unique farmhouse traditions. Lithuania is top 5 by consumption of beer per capita in Europe in 2015, counting 75 active breweries, 32 of them are microbreweries. The microbrewery scene in Lithuania has been growing in later years, with a number of bars focusing on these beers popping up in Vilnius and also in other parts of the country. Eight Lithuanian restaurants are listed in the White Guide Baltic Top 30. ### Media The Constitution of Lithuania provides for freedom of speech and press, and the government generally respects these rights in practice. An independent press, an effective judiciary, and a functioning democratic political system combine to promote these freedoms. However, the constitutional definition of freedom of expression does not protect certain acts, such as incitement to national, racial, religious, or social hatred, violence and discrimination, or slander, and disinformation. It is a crime to deny or "grossly trivialize" Soviet or Nazi German crimes against Lithuania or its citizens, or to deny genocide, crimes against humanity, or war crimes. In 2021, the best-selling daily national newspapers in Lithuania were *Lietuvos rytas* (5.4% of all weekly readers), *Vakaro žinios [lt]* (3.2%), *Kauno diena* (2.9%). Best-selling weekly newspapers were *Savaitė [lt]* (16.5%), *Žmonės [lt]* (8.4%), *Prie kavos* (4.1%), *Savaitgalis* (3.9%) and *Verslo žinios* (3.2%). In 2021, the most popular national television channels in Lithuania were TV3 (34.6% of the daily auditorium), LNK (32.3%), Lithuanian National Radio and Television (31.6%), BTV (17.3%), Lietuvos rytas TV (16.2%), TV6 (15.3%). The most popular radio stations in Lithuania were M-1 (14.5% of daily listeners), *Lietus* (12.7%), *Radiocentras* (9.1%) and *LRT Radijas* (8.5%). ### Public holidays and festivals As a result of a thousand-years history, Lithuania has two National days. First one is the Statehood Day on 6 July, marking the establishment of the medieval Kingdom of Lithuania by Mindaugas in 1253. Creation of modern Lithuanian state is commemorated on 16 February as a Lithuanian State Reestablishment Day on which declaration of independence from Russia and Germany was declared in 1918. Joninės (previously known as *Rasos*) is a public holiday with paganic roots that celebrates a solstice. As of 2018, there are 13 public holidays (which come with a day off). Kaziuko mugė is an annual fair held since the beginning of the 17th century that commemorates the anniversary of Saint Casimir's death and gathers thousands of visitors and many craftsmen. Other notable festivals are Vilnius International Film Festival, Kauno Miesto Diena, Klaipėda Sea Festival, Mados infekcija, Vilnius Book Fair, Vilnius Marathon, Devilstone Open Air, Apuolė 854 [lt], Great Žemaičių Kalvarija Festival. | Public holidays in Lithuania | | --- | | Date | English name | Local name | Remarks | | 1 January | New Year's Day | Naujieji metai |   | | 16 February | the Day of Restoration of the State of Lithuania (1918) | Lietuvos valstybės atkūrimo diena |   | | 11 March | Day of Restoration of Independence of Lithuania (from the Soviet Union, 1990) | Lietuvos nepriklausomybės atkūrimo diena |   | | The first Sunday after the full moon that occurs on or soonest after 21 March and following Monday | Easter | Velykos | Commemorates resurrection of Jesus | | 1 May | International Workers' Day | Tarptautinė darbo diena |   | | First Sunday in May | Mother's Day | Motinos diena |   | | First Sunday in June | Father's Day | Tėvo diena |   | | 24 June | St. John's Day [Christian name], Day of Dew [original pagan name] | Joninės, Rasos | Celebrated according to mostly pagan traditions. (aka: Midsummer Day, Saint Jonas Day) | | 6 July | Statehood Day | Valstybės (Lietuvos karaliaus Mindaugo karūnavimo) diena | Commemorates coronation of the first king, Mindaugas | | 15 August | Assumption Day | Žolinė (Švč. Mergelės Marijos ėmimo į dangų diena) |   | | 1 November | All Saints' Day | Visų šventųjų diena (Vėlinės) |   | | 24 December | Christmas Eve | Šv. Kūčios |   | | 25 and 26 December | Christmas | Šv. Kalėdos | Commemorates birth of Jesus | ### Sports Basketball is the most popular and national sport of Lithuania. The Lithuania national basketball team has had significant success in international basketball events, having won the EuroBasket on three occasions (1937, 1939 and 2003), as well a total of 8 other medals in the Eurobasket, the World Championships and the Olympic Games. The men's national team also has extremely high TV ratings as about 76% of the country's population watched their games live in 2014. Lithuania hosted the Eurobasket in 1939 and 2011. The historic Lithuanian basketball team BC Žalgiris, from Kaunas, won the European basketball league Euroleague in 1999. Lithuania has produced a number of NBA players, including Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees Arvydas Sabonis and Šarūnas Marčiulionis, and current NBA players Jonas Valančiūnas, Domantas Sabonis, and Ignas Brazdeikis. Lithuania has won a total of 26 medals at the Olympic Games, including 6 gold medals in athletics, modern pentathlon, shooting, and swimming. Numerous other Lithuanians won Olympic medals representing Soviet Union. Discus thrower Virgilijus Alekna is the most successful Olympic athlete of independent Lithuania, having won gold medals in the 2000 Sydney and 2004 Athens games, as well as a bronze in 2008 Summer Olympics and numerous World Championship medals. More recently, the gold medal won by a then 15-year-old swimmer Rūta Meilutytė at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London sparked a rise in popularity for the sport in Lithuania. Lithuania has produced prominent athletes in athletics, modern pentathlon, road and track cycling, chess, rowing, aerobatics, strongman, wrestling, boxing, mixed martial arts, Kyokushin Karate, and other sports. Lithuania hosted the 2021 FIFA Futsal World Cup, the first time Lithuania had hosted a FIFA tournament. Few Lithuanian athletes have found success in winter sports, although facilities are provided by several ice rinks and skiing slopes, including Snow Arena, the first indoor ski slope in the Baltics. In 2018 Lithuania men's national ice hockey team won gold medals at the 2018 IIHF World Championship Division I. See also -------- * Index of Lithuania-related articles * List of Lithuanians * Outline of Lithuania Government General information * in libraries (WorldCat catalog)The Baltic States and geopolitics * Lithuania Archived 2 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine – Lithuanian internet gates * Lithuania. *The World Factbook*. Central Intelligence Agency. * Lithuania. CIA Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments Archived 16 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine * Lithuania from *UCB Libraries GovPubs* * Lithuania at Curlie * Lithuania from the BBC News * Wikimedia Atlas of Lithuania Other * Key Development Forecasts for Lithuania from International Futures * Heraldry of Lithuania * Geographic data related to Lithuania at OpenStreetMap 55°N 24°E / 55°N 24°E / 55; 24

Lithuania

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuania

**Clannad** (Irish pronunciation: [ˈkl̪ˠan̪ˠəd̪ˠ]) are an Irish band formed in 1970 in Gweedore, County Donegal by siblings Ciarán, Pól, and Moya Brennan and their twin uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan. They have adopted various musical styles throughout their history, including folk, folk rock, traditional Irish, Celtic and new-age music, often incorporating elements of smooth jazz and Gregorian chant. Initially known as *Clann as Dobhar*, they shortened their name to Clannad in 1973 after winning the Letterkenny Folk Festival with the song "Liza". By 1979, they had released three albums and completed a successful US tour. From 1980 to 1982, they operated as a six-piece with their sister/niece Enya Brennan on additional keyboards and vocals, before she left the group to pursue a solo career. Later in 1982, Clannad gained international attention with their single "Theme from Harry's Game" which became a top-five hit in Ireland and the UK. The song was featured on *Magical Ring* (1983), which was met with much acclaim. They experimented with more new-age and pop-influenced sounds in the 1980s and 1990s, as evident on *Macalla* (1985), and *Anam* (1990). This transition would ultimately go on to define their sound as almost purely 'Celtic', making them innovators of that genre. After *Landmarks* (1997), the band went on a hiatus in order to pursue solo projects. They regrouped in 2007 as a four piece again, with Moya, Ciarán, Noel, and Pádraig completing a world tour in 2008. In 2013, Pól rejoined and they released *Nádúr*, their first studio album in fifteen years. Pádraig Duggan died in 2016, leaving the group to embark on their 2020 farewell tour as a quartet. Clannad have won numerous awards throughout their career, including a Grammy Award, a BAFTA, an Ivor Novello Award, and a Billboard Music Award. They have recorded in six different languages and scored eight UK top 10 albums. They are widely regarded as a band that have brought Irish music and the Irish language to a wider audience, often experiencing more popularity abroad than in their native Ireland. History ------- ### Formation Clannad was formed in 1970 by siblings Ciarán Brennan, Pól, and Máire Brennan and their twin uncles Noel and Pádraig Duggan. The five grew up in Dore, an area of Gweedore, a remote parish in County Donegal in the northwest corner of Ireland. It is a Gaeltacht region where Irish is the main spoken language. Raised as a Roman Catholic family of musicians, the Brennans' mother, Máire "Baba" Brennan (née Duggan), was a music teacher while their father, Leo Brennan, was a member of the Slieve Foy Band, an Irish showband. Later in their careers the two bought and ran Leo's Tavern, a pub in nearby Meenaleck where the Duggan and Brennan children would perform covers of songs by the Beatles, the Beach Boys, and Joni Mitchell. The band adopted the name Clann as Dobhar, Irish for 'Family from Dore', when they entered a local music competition, and they used that name until 1973. The Brennans' and Duggans' interest in traditional Irish music reached beyond their native Gweedore,[*clarification needed*] and they performed elsewhere including Tory Island, off Donegal's coast. Armed with some 500 Gaelic songs, they would later begin to arrange these songs for a full band. ### 1973–1982: Early years and six-piece band with Enya "Liza" (1973) A sample of "Liza" from *Clannad* (1973), the first song that Clannad wrote. --- *Problems playing this file? See media help.* In 1973, Clannad came in first place in the annual folk festival in Letterkenny, County Donegal which led to a deal with Philips Records. Having now secured a label the group prepared material for their debut album and recorded at Eamonn Andrews Studios in Dublin, choosing Gaelic and English songs and a cover of "Morning Dew" by Bonnie Dobson. Released in 1973, *Clannad* was met with initial resistance from the label due to the Gaelic songs and the group soon found themselves more popular outside Ireland, particularly Germany. Later in 1973, Clannad competed for Ireland in the heat stages of the 1973 Eurovision Song Contest for Ireland with "An Pháirc" from *Clannad* as their entry. The band followed their debut with *Clannad 2* in 1974, released by Gael Linn Records and produced by Dónal Lunny, founder of Planxty and The Bothy Band. Like their first, *Clannad 2* features a mixture of English and Gaelic songs, this time with Lunny and Bothy Band members on additional instruments. *Dúlamán* was released in 1976 and named after the Irish folk song "Dúlamán" which became a stage favourite at Clannad concerts. It was recorded at Rockfield Studios in Wales and is their first album produced by Nicky Ryan. At the time of its release, Clannad capitalised on their growing popularity in Europe with their debut tour across the continent. At one show, the standing ovation they received after an extended rendition of "Níl Sé Ina Lá (Níl Sé'n Lá)" from their debut album convinced the group to continue full-time. Recordings from a tour of Switzerland in 1978 were released in the following year as part of their first live album, *Clannad in Concert*. Also in 1979, Clannad underwent a 36-date tour of North America, the most extensive by an Irish band at the time. In 1980, Clannad became a six-piece band following the addition of Enya Brennan on keyboards and additional vocals. Ryan wished to expand the group's sound with vocals and electronic instruments and invited her to join. Enya's first recordings with the group were made as a guest musician for their *Crann Úll* (Irish for *Apple Tree*), their fifth studio album recorded in Cologne, Germany and released in 1980 on Tara Music. "Ar a Ghabháil 'n a 'Chuain Domh" featured a particularly full band arrangement reflective of their live jams at the time. "Lá Cuimhthíoch Fán dTuath" showed the first hints of the more atmospheric side of the band's arrangements. By the time Clannad entered Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin to record *Fuaim* (Irish for *Sound*), Enya had become a full-time member. The album displays the group's further experimentation with electronic instruments, and Enya is featured on lead vocals on "An tÚll" and "Buaireadh an Phósta". Neil Buckley plays the clarinet and saxophone with Noel Bridgeman on percussion and Pat Farrell on electric guitar. *Fuaim* was released by Tara Music in 1982. After a further European tour, their managers Nicky Ryan and Roma Ryan left the group. Nicky had brought Enya into the group to expand their sound, yet the group soon settled into their "boring" musical formula once more and called a meeting during the tour. After a group vote, the Ryans split. Enya followed suit, feeling increasingly restricted in a band setting and pursued a solo career with the Ryans as collaborators, causing a rift between the two groups for a short time. ### 1982–1988: "Theme from Harry's Game", *Magical Ring*, and commercial success "Theme from Harry's Game" (1982) The song that introduced Clannad to a worldwide audience. --- "Robin (The Hooded Man)" (1984) Hit song from their 1984 album *Legend*. --- *Problems playing these files? See media help.* In 1982, the now five-piece Clannad signed to RCA Records. They then accepted an invitation to record a song for *Harry's Game*, a three-part television drama depicting The Troubles in Northern Ireland. Ciarán, Pól, and Máire got together and wrote "Theme from Harry's Game". The song became a commercial success upon its release as a single in October 1982, peaking at number 2 in Ireland and number 5 in the UK. It remains the only UK hit single to be sung entirely in Irish. From 1983 to 1987, rock band U2 used the song at the end of every concert. Following their newfound success with "Theme from Harry's Game", Clannad included the song on their seventh studio album, *Magical Ring*, released in 1983. The single and album marked the start of their international career, and *Magical Ring* became their first to be certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). After *Magical Ring*, Clannad were commissioned to score the 26-episode drama series *Robin of Sherwood*, aired from 1984 to 1986. They once again began to stretch themselves, creating music for a range of characters and events. For the first time in the career, the album was recorded in its entirety in English. The soundtrack was released in 1984 as *Legend* and won the band a BAFTA award for Best Original Television Music, the first Irish band to win it. In 2003, Clannad revealed that there were other pieces recorded for the third series of *Robin of Sherwood* that were not included on *Legend*, yet the master recordings have yet to be found. In 1985, Clannad released *Macalla* (Irish for *Echo*) which was recorded in Switzerland, England, and Ireland. It contained all original material except one traditional song and yielded the group a hit single "In a Lifetime", a duet with U2 singer Bono which begins with Máire being heard teaching Gaelic to Bono during the introduction. The album features numerous backing musicians who have continued to tour with them, including ex-King Crimson saxophonist Mel Collins, Moving Hearts' guitarist Anthony Drennan, and drummer Paul Moran. Also on board was producer Steve Nye, who oversaw the pop-flavoured "Closer to Your Heart" and the ballad "Almost Seems (Too Late to Turn)" and became hit singles, the latter serving as the Children in Need charity single in 1985. ### 1988–1990: *Sirius*, *Atlantic Realm*, and *The Angel and the Soldier Boy* *Sirius* was released by RCA in 1988 and was recorded in Los Angeles with rock producers Greg Ladanyi and Russ Kunkel, the drummer for James Taylor's band. The album included a duet with Bruce Hornsby and guest appearances by Steve Perry and J.D. Souther. The title track was Pól's encouraging call to the environmental movement, and to the Greenpeace ship of the same name. "Something to Believe In" features Hornsby on vocals and keyboards. Completed with the help of some of the biggest names on the Californian rock scene, *Sirius* was another different creation, just like their previous three albums. Between 1988 and 1991, Clannad were involved in side projects including *Atlantic Realm* (1989) and *The Angel and the Soldier Boy* (1990). *Atlantic Realm* was a small album made for a BBC documentary about the Atlantic Ocean. The recording was mainly instrumental as their voices as instruments. *The Angel and the Soldier Boy* was a half – hour animation without voice overs, with the music telling the story. Both albums proved to be a minor success, and also demonstrated once again that Clannad were one of the most acclaimed soundtrack artists in the music industry. Two greatest hits albums were released at around this time: *Past Present* and *The Collection*. In 1990, Pól initially left the group to pursue a solo career and work with the WOMAD (World of Music, Arts and Dance) organisation in Britain. Pól rejoined the band in January 2011, when Clannad performed at Temple Bar TradFest. Initially a single concert, it was extended with an extra two nights. ### 1990–2000: Four-piece band, *Anam*, *Banba*, and *Lore* After Pól's exit, Clannad continued as a quartet and recorded *Anam* (Irish for *Soul*) in Dublin and England. It marked a return to their sound heard on *Magical Ring* and *Macalla*, and features greater contributions from Ciarán who is credited as a writer on nine of the album's ten original songs. The US edition, released in 1992, features "In a Lifetime" with Bono and "Theme from Harry's Game", which had been included in the film *Patriot Games* and a Volkswagen television advert, boosting the group's recognition in the country. The public interest generated from the advert made *Anam* reach No. 46 on the US *Billboard* 200, still the group's highest position on the chart. The latter won a Billboard Music Award for World Music Song of the Year. Clannad dedicated "Rí na Cruinne", the opening track, was included on the *One World One Voice* charity album to raise awareness of environmental issues. In 1991, Clannad released a duet with Paul Young, a cover version of the Joni Mitchell song "Both Sides Now". The track had been put together for the Blake Edwards film *Switch*, featuring Ellen Barkin. In the storyline, a nasty male chauvinist, is reincarnated as an attractive female. The use of the Joni Mitchell song was therefore suitable and proved a hit for the group. Released in 1993, *Banba* became Clannad's 13th studio album and received rave reviews and the band's first Grammy nomination. The album jogged comfortably to the number one spot in the World Music Chart. *Banba* is a romantic mythical name for Ireland. In the track "I Will Find You," written especially for the film *The Last of the Mohicans*, Máire sings in English, Mohican and Cherokee. Once again all the songs were written and produced by Ciarán Brennan, except "Sunset Dreams", written by Noel Duggan. Moya Brennan described the album as *"a fusion of various styles of music, growing out of a traditional Gaelic root."* *Banba* has been described as one of Clannad's most visual albums, and has sold over 1 million copies to date. 'I Will Find You' (1993) One of Clannad's most recognisable songs, from *Banba*. --- "The Other Side" (1993) Also on *Banba*. --- *Problems playing these files? See media help.* The album *Lore* (1996) gave some thought to the Native American Indians. On "Trail of Tears", when Noel Duggan imagines how it felt to be exiled from one's ancestral land, he was also thinking about these people and their connection with the Irish. It opens with "Croí Cróga" ('braveheart' in English) which was written as a theme tune for the Mel Gibson film *Braveheart* which, for unknown reasons, never made it onto the soundtrack. *Lore* features American drummer Vinnie Colaiuta and Mel Collins. It contained a strong jazz element, with songs such as "Seanchas" blending contemporary sounds with traditional Irish music and the Irish language. Clannad toured Europe, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand in 1996 to promote the *Lore* album, but due to apparent disagreements with Atlantic Records, plans to tour the USA were scrapped. In 1996, they received a lifetime achievement award from the Irish recording industry (the IRMA). Clannad returned in 1997 with another album, *Landmarks*. In the song "Of This Land", Máire sings about Ireland, of its past and of its future. The track "Fadó" (translates as *Long Ago*), demonstrates the influences of old Celtic history on Clannad's music. It became one of the most celebrated Irish albums in history and in 1999, it won the group a Grammy award for Best New Age Album. In 1999, the group composed the song "What Will I Do" for the Kevin Costner film, *Message in a Bottle*. ### 2000–present: Hiatus, return to activity and *Nádúr*, and final tour Between 1999 and 2007, Clannad were largely inactive while the individual members pursued solo projects. In 2003, BMG/RCA released the greatest hits album *The Best of Clannad: In a Lifetime*, which peaked at No. 23 in the UK. In the following year, the Duggan twins got together for the first time outside of Clannad and released *Rubicon* under their duo moniker, The Duggans. Clannad reunited for a one-off performance in 2006 during Moya Brennan's solo concert in De Doelen, the Netherlands, which was dedicated to Leo and Máire Brennan. The whole of Clannad, including former member Pól Brennan and sister Deirdre, performed five songs in the second half of the concert. The audience, Leo, and Máire were unaware of the plan, which resulted in multiple standing ovations from the audience. In January 2007, the five original members of Clannad performed at the Celtic Connections Festival in Glasgow. In the following month, the group received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the annual Meteor Ireland Music Awards in Dublin. In March 2008, Clannad began their first UK tour in over 12 years. In May 2008, Clannad's version of the traditional song "Down by the Salley Gardens" was featured in the listening paper for Music GCSE from the Oxford, Cambridge and RSA Examinations exam board. Also in 2008, two compilation albums were released: *Celtic Themes: The Very Best of Clannad* and *Beginnings: The Best of the Early Years*. In 2009, Clannad were nominated for an IMA Award for Best Revival Act. In 2011, Pól Brennan returned to the group as a full-time member for the first time since 1990. He recalled that the most exciting thing about his return was writing songs with his brother Ciarán again. In January 2011, the band organised two additional concerts at the Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin due to the high demand for tickets. The group appeared on RTÉ's *The Late Late Show* on 21 January, performing "Theme from Harry's Game" with vocan ensemble Anúna. It was their first appearance on the show in 14 years. In September 2013, Clannad released their first studio album since 1998 and their final overall, *Nádúr*. It was their final album before the death of Padraig Duggan in 2016. An international tour commenced in October 2013, starting in Australia and New Zealand, and lasted through 2014. In 2016, Moya Brennan announced she was diagnosed with pulmonary fibrosis, a progressive lung disease that required her to rephrase the vocals to some songs. In February 2020, BMG announced the release of *In a Lifetime*, a greatest hits set to commemorate the band's fiftieth anniversary. Released on April 3 by BMG, the album was available on CD, vinyl, digital platforms, and a deluxe edition that contains over 100 tracks spanning their career. The set includes two new tracks, "A Celtic Dream" and "Who Knows (Where the Time Goes)", their first recorded since Padraig Duggan's passing. The album coincided with the In a Lifetime Tour, their final as a group, which was to take place in the UK and North America between March and October 2020. However, the tour was postponed after several shows due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The tour resumed in 2021, before Noel Duggan died on 15 October 2022 at age 73. The band performed their farewell concert at the 3Arena in Dublin on 18 February 2023. The tour will conclude with a US leg in October 2023, after which Clannad will disband and the individual members will continue with solo projects. Musical style and legacy ------------------------ > "There's a feeling in all our music, an ambience that stems directly from where we were brought up and to have to define our sound, I always say that if they were to visit Gweedore they wouldn't need to ask." – Ciarán Brennan > > When Clannad first started out in the early 1970s their music and sound stemmed solely from their traditional background. Despite this they managed to popularise such old songs as "Dúlamán", "Teidhir Abhaile Riú" and "Coinleach Glas An Fhómhair", and these songs have remained popular numbers at their concerts. On the departure from their folk and traditional background in 1982, they created a new sound that would define the meaning of new-age and Celtic music forever. When "Theme from Harry's Game" and "Newgrange" were first heard, radio stations all over the world became fascinated by the earthly and spiritual sound that they had never encountered before. One critic said "the tunes were seeped in the old ways, but the production and the arrangement was fresh and inventive". This transition in Clannad's career is often seen as the birth of Celtic music, and to this day they are regarded as the pioneers of that genre. They are also noted for their melodious harmonies, which have been at the heart of their music since their first album. *Legend* (1984) was based on English folklore. With later albums, Clannad delved further into the realms of electronica and even pop. Due to this, many of their singles entered pop charts all over the world, and widened their fan base once again. Despite their success with this genre of music, the group managed to maintain a link with their Gaelic roots throughout their career, giving traditional Irish songs such as "Tráthnóna Beag Aréir" and "Buachaill Ón Éirne" the Clannad treatment. Even though the rock-infused *Sirius* and the pop-inclined *Macalla* were successful for Clannad, it was their breakthrough style that they created themselves that has left the greatest legacy. Clannad's influence can be found in the film *Titanic*, where James Horner admitted to basing the soundtrack on Clannad's style. The soundtrack was so like Clannad's work that it has been incorrectly credited to them for many years. Clannad's 'Celtic mysticism' is a recurring theme in the film *Intermission*. The "otherworldly" and "ethereal" Clannad sound comes from the ancient hills and glens that surround Gweedore, according to lead singer Moya Brennan. Traces of Clannad's legacy can be heard in the music of many artists, including Enya, Altan, Capercaillie, The Corrs, Loreena McKennitt, Anúna, Riverdance, Órla Fallon and even U2. Bono stated that Moya has "one of the greatest voices the human ear has ever experienced". A Japanese visual novel released in 2004, which spawned a 2007 film and a 2007–08 television series based on it, was named after the band because screenwriter Jun Maeda mistakenly believed it to mean the word "family" in Irish. Private lives ------------- ### Band members The private life of lead member Moya was detailed in her autobiography in 2000. In it, Brennan recalls her upbringing as the eldest of nine siblings in rural County Donegal, Ireland. Along with the highs of success in the music business, she also recounts low periods where alcohol, drugs and an abortion made her re-evaluate her life. She emerged from dark years as a committed Christian with rekindled faith. She remarried in 1991 (having previously been married to a Dublin musician) and now resides in Dublin with her husband, photographer Tim Jarvis, and children, Aisling and Paul. ### The Brennan family The Brennans are Ireland's most successful music family, with combined sales of over 90 million records. Máire (or Baba) Duggan and Leo Brennan are the parents of the Brennan siblings Máire (or Moya), Leon, Ciarán, Deirdre, Pól, Olive, Eithne (or Enya), Bartley and Brídín. Baba was the local school's music teacher and Leo led the celebrated Slieve Foy show band. The catalyst that would propel the entire family onto the stage was the opening of Leo's Tavern in 1968 in Meenaleck, Co. Donegal. The other six children can all sing and play one or more instruments—Olive and Deirdre have sung on Moya's solo albums and Brídín, who for years toured with Clannad as a backing vocalist, has released a solo record, *Eyes of Innocence*. Enya is also Ireland's best selling solo artist, earning international success. Máire 'Baba' Duggan is currently the lead member of the local Catholic choir, Cór Mhuire Doire Beaga, but no longer continues to teach in the local community school Pobalscoil Ghaoth Dobhair. The choir has been frequently joined by Leo Brennan and the Brennan siblings. Leo Brennan died on 22 June 2016 (age 90) at his home at Upper Dore, Gweedore in West Donegal, Ireland. Leon Brennan, one of the nine siblings of the Brennan family died in December 2021. Online announcements were made by his sisters Moya, and Enya, in a rare personal message on 17 December 2021. Members ------- Current members * Ciarán Brennan – bass, guitar, keyboards, mandolin, vocals (1970–present) * Moya Brennan – vocals, harp (1970–present) * Pól Brennan – flute, guitar, percussion, whistles, vocals (1970–1990, 2011–present) Former members * Noel Duggan – guitar, vocals (1970–2022; his death) * Pádraig Duggan – guitar, mandola, mandolin, vocals (1970–2016; his death) * Enya Brennan – percussion, keyboards, vocals (1980–1982) Discography ----------- ### Studio albums * *Clannad* (1973) * *Clannad 2* (1974) * *Dúlamán* (1976) * *Crann Úll* (1980) * *Fuaim* (1982) * *Magical Ring* (1983) * *Legend* (1984) * *Macalla* (1985) * *Sirius* (1987) * *Atlantic Realm* (1989) * *The Angel and the Soldier Boy* (1989) * *Anam* (1990) * *Banba* (1994) * *Lore* (1996) * *Landmarks* (1997) * *Nádúr* (2013) ### EPs * *Christmas Angels* (1997) ### Live albums * *Clannad in Concert* (1979) * *Clannad: Live in Concert* (2005) * *Clannad: Christ Church Cathedral* (2012) * *Turas 1980* (2018) Videography ----------- * *Pastpresent* (1989) * *Clannad: Christ Church Cathedral* (2012) Sheet music book for 'Past Present' * *A Woman's Voice* (1991) Eddie Rowley in conversation with Máire Brennan * *Ireland: Landscapes of God's Peace*, Máire Brennan (2002) sometimes called *God of Peace* * *The Other Side of the Rainbow*, Máire Brennan with Angela Little (2001) Later subtitled: The Autobiography of the Voice of Clannad * *Moments in a Lifetime*, Noel Duggan (2008) Detailing Clannad's journey as a band Awards and nominations ---------------------- **Won** 1. 1982: 1982 Ivor Novello Awards, *Best Soundtrack* for "Theme From Harry's Game" 2. 1984: 1984 BAFTA Awards, *Best Television Music* for "Robin of Sherwood" 3. 1992: Billboard Music Award, *World Music Song of the Year* for "Rí na Cruinne" 4. 1999: Grammy Awards of 1999, *Best New Age Album* for "Landmarks" 5. 2007: Meteor Music Awards, *Lifetime Achievement Award* 6. 2014: BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards, *Lifetime Achievement Award* **Nominations** 1. 1982: 1982 BAFTA Awards, *Best Television Music* for "Harry's Game" 2. 1994: Grammy Awards of 1994, *Best New Age Album* for "Banba" 3. 1996: Grammy Awards of 1996, *Best New Age Album* for "Lore" 4. 2009: Ireland's Music Awards, *Best Revival Act*

Clannad

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clannad

The **Balearic Islands** (Catalan: *Illes Balears* [ˈiʎəz bəleˈas]; Spanish: *Islas Baleares* [ˈislas βaleˈaɾes] /ˌbæliˈærɪk/ *BAL-ee-ARR-ik* or /bəˈlɪərɪk/ *bə-LEER-ik*) are an archipelago in the Balearic Sea, near the eastern coast of the Iberian Peninsula. The archipelago is an autonomous community and a province of Spain; its capital is Palma. The 2007 Statute of Autonomy designates the Balearic Islands as one of the *nationalities* of Spain. The official languages of the Balearic Islands are Catalan and Spanish. Its four largest islands are Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera. Many of its minor islands and islets are close to the larger islands, including Cabrera, Dragonera, and S'Espalmador. The islands have a Mediterranean climate, and the four major islands are all popular tourist destinations. Ibiza, in particular, is known as an international party destination, attracting many of the world's most popular DJs to its nightclubs. The islands' culture and cuisine are similar to those of the rest of Spain but have their own distinctive features. Etymology --------- The official name of the Balearic Islands in Catalan is *Illes Balears*, while in Spanish, they are known as the *Islas Baleares*. The ancient Greeks usually adopted local names into their own language, but they called the islands Γυμνησίαι/*Gymnesiai*, unlike the native inhabitants of the islands, as well as the Carthaginians and Romans, who called them Βαλεαρεῖς/*Baleareis*. The term "Balearic" may derive from Greek (Γυμνησίαι/*Gymnesiae* and Βαλλιαρεῖς/*Balliareis*). In Latin, it is *Baleares*. Of the various theories on the origins of the two ancient Greek and Latin names for the islands—*Gymnasiae* and *Baleares*—classical sources provide two. According to Lycophron's *Alexandra* verses, the islands were called Γυμνησίαι/*Gymnesiae* (γυμνός/*gymnos*, meaning naked in Greek) because its inhabitants were often nude, probably because of the balmy year-round climate. However, Strabo thought that *Gymnesiai* probably referred to the light equipment used by the Balearic troops γυμνῆται/*gymnetae*. Most of the ancient Greek and Roman writers thought that the name of the people, (βαλεαρεῖς/*baleareis*, from βάλλω/*ballo*: ancient Greek meaning "to launch") was based on their skill as slingers. However, Strabo thought the name was of Phoenician origin. He observed that it was the Phoenician word for lightly armoured soldiers, which the ancient Greeks called γυμνῆτας/*gymnetas*. The root *bal* arguably suggests a Phoenician origin; Strabo, in Volume III, Book XIV of his *Geography* suggests that the name comes from the Phoenician *balearides*. Geology ------- The Balearic Islands are on a raised platform called the Balearic Promontory, and were formed by uplift. They are cut by a network of northwest to southeast faults. Geography and hydrography ------------------------- The main islands of the autonomous community are Majorca (*Mallorca*), Menorca/Minorca (*Menorca*), Ibiza (*Eivissa/Ibiza*), and Formentera, all popular tourist destinations. Amongst the minor islands is Cabrera, the location of the Cabrera Archipelago Maritime-Terrestrial National Park. Neighbours: Algeria (south), Spain's Catalonia and Valencian Community (west), France's South (north), and France's Corsica as well as Italy's Sardinia (east). The islands can be further grouped, with Majorca, Menorca, and Cabrera as the Gymnesian Islands (*Illes Gimnèsies*), and Ibiza and Formentera as the Pityusic Islands (*Illes Pitiüses* officially in Catalan), also referred to as the Pityuses (or sometimes informally in English as the Pine Islands). Many minor islands or islets are close to the biggest islands, such as Es Conills, Es Vedrà, Sa Conillera, Dragonera, S'Espalmador, S'Espardell, Ses Bledes, Santa Eulària, Plana, Foradada, Tagomago, Na Redona, Colom, L'Aire, etc. The Balearic Front is a sea density regime north of the Balearic Islands on the shelf slope of the Balearic Islands, which is responsible for some of the surface-flow characteristics of the Balearic Sea. Climate ------- Located in the west of the Mediterranean Sea, the Balearic Islands have mostly typical hot-summer Mediterranean climates (Köppen: Csa) with some high altitude areas having a Warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csb) in the island of Majorca. The semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh and BSk) is also found in the Balearic Islands, mostly on the islands of Ibiza and Formentera but also in the southern part of Majorca. | Climate data for Palma, Port (1981–2010) 3 metres (9.8 feet) (Satellite view) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.5(59.9) | 17.2(63.0) | 19.2(66.6) | 22.5(72.5) | 26.5(79.7) | 29.4(84.9) | 29.8(85.6) | 27.1(80.8) | 23.7(74.7) | 19.3(66.7) | 16.5(61.7) | 21.8(71.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.9(53.4) | 11.9(53.4) | 13.4(56.1) | 15.5(59.9) | 18.8(65.8) | 22.7(72.9) | 25.7(78.3) | 26.2(79.2) | 23.5(74.3) | 20.2(68.4) | 15.8(60.4) | 13.1(55.6) | 18.2(64.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | 8.3(46.9) | 8.4(47.1) | 9.6(49.3) | 11.7(53.1) | 15.1(59.2) | 18.9(66.0) | 21.9(71.4) | 22.5(72.5) | 19.9(67.8) | 16.6(61.9) | 12.3(54.1) | 9.7(49.5) | 14.6(58.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 43(1.7) | 37(1.5) | 28(1.1) | 39(1.5) | 36(1.4) | 11(0.4) | 6(0.2) | 22(0.9) | 52(2.0) | 69(2.7) | 59(2.3) | 48(1.9) | 449(17.7) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 6 | 6 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 53 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 167 | 170 | 205 | 237 | 284 | 315 | 346 | 316 | 227 | 205 | 161 | 151 | 2,779 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for Ibiza Airport (1981–2010) 6 metres (20 feet) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 15.7(60.3) | 15.9(60.6) | 17.7(63.9) | 19.7(67.5) | 22.7(72.9) | 26.8(80.2) | 29.7(85.5) | 30.3(86.5) | 27.7(81.9) | 24.0(75.2) | 19.6(67.3) | 16.7(62.1) | 22.2(72.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.9(53.4) | 12.1(53.8) | 13.7(56.7) | 15.6(60.1) | 18.6(65.5) | 22.6(72.7) | 25.6(78.1) | 26.3(79.3) | 23.8(74.8) | 20.2(68.4) | 15.9(60.6) | 13.1(55.6) | 18.3(64.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | 8.1(46.6) | 8.3(46.9) | 9.6(49.3) | 11.4(52.5) | 14.6(58.3) | 18.4(65.1) | 21.4(70.5) | 22.2(72.0) | 19.9(67.8) | 16.5(61.7) | 12.3(54.1) | 9.5(49.1) | 14.3(57.7) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 37(1.5) | 36(1.4) | 27(1.1) | 31(1.2) | 27(1.1) | 11(0.4) | 5(0.2) | 18(0.7) | 57(2.2) | 58(2.3) | 53(2.1) | 52(2.0) | 413(16.3) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 162 | 166 | 211 | 246 | 272 | 299 | 334 | 305 | 236 | 205 | 157 | 151 | 2,744 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | | Climate data for Menorca Airport (1981–2010) 91 metres (299 feet) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.1(57.4) | 14.2(57.6) | 15.9(60.6) | 18.0(64.4) | 21.6(70.9) | 25.8(78.4) | 28.9(84.0) | 29.2(84.6) | 26.2(79.2) | 22.7(72.9) | 18.1(64.6) | 15.2(59.4) | 20.8(69.4) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 10.8(51.4) | 10.8(51.4) | 12.3(54.1) | 14.3(57.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 21.8(71.2) | 24.9(76.8) | 25.4(77.7) | 22.6(72.7) | 19.4(66.9) | 14.9(58.8) | 12.1(53.8) | 17.2(63.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 7.5(45.5) | 7.4(45.3) | 8.6(47.5) | 10.6(51.1) | 13.9(57.0) | 17.8(64.0) | 20.8(69.4) | 21.5(70.7) | 18.9(66.0) | 16.1(61.0) | 11.6(52.9) | 9.0(48.2) | 13.6(56.5) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 52(2.0) | 54(2.1) | 38(1.5) | 45(1.8) | 37(1.5) | 14(0.6) | 3(0.1) | 20(0.8) | 61(2.4) | 78(3.1) | 88(3.5) | 61(2.4) | 546(21.5) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 144 | 146 | 202 | 222 | 270 | 311 | 347 | 312 | 225 | 183 | 142 | 130 | 2,632 | | Source: Agencia Estatal de Meteorología | History ------- ### Ancient history The earliest known evidence of inhabitation of the Balearic Islands is dated to the 3rd millennium BC, around 2500-2300 BC from the Iberian Peninsula or southern France, by people associated with the Bell Beaker culture. Little is recorded on the inhabitants of the islands during classical antiquity, though many legends exist. The story, preserved by Lycophron, that certain shipwrecked Greek Boeotians were cast nude on the islands, was evidently invented to account for the name Gymnesiae (Ancient Greek: Γυμνήσιαι). In addition, Diodorus Siculus writes that the Greeks called the islands Gymnesiae because the inhabitants were naked (γυμνοί) during the summer time. Also, a tradition holds that the islands were colonized by Rhodes after the Trojan War. The islands had a very mixed population. Several stories describing them as having unusual habits. Some have it that they went naked year-round (a folk etymology claims this inspired the islands’ name), some say they went naked only in the summer, some that they wore only sheepskins—until the Phoenicians arrived and provided them with broad-bordered tunics. Other stories have it that the inhabitants lived in hollow rocks and artificial caves, that their men were remarkable for their love of women and would trade three or four men to ransom one woman, that they had no gold or silver coin, and forbade the importation of the precious metals—-so that those of them who served as mercenaries took their pay in wine and women instead of money. The Roman Diodorus Siculus described their marriage and funeral customs (v. 18 book 6 chapter 5), noting that Roman observers found those customs peculiar. In ancient times, the islanders of the Gymnesian Islands (*Illes Gimnèsies*) constructed talayots, and were famous for their skill with the sling. As slingers, they served as mercenaries, first under the Carthaginians, and afterwards under the Romans. They went into battle ungirt, with only a small buckler, and a javelin burnt at the end, and in some cases tipped with a small iron point; but their effective weapons were their slings, of which each man carried three, wound round his head (Strabo p. 168; Eustath.), or, as seen in other sources, one round the head, one round the body, and one in the hand. (Diodorus) The three slings were of different lengths, for stones of different sizes; the largest they hurled with as much force as if it were flung from a catapult; and they seldom missed their mark. To this exercise, they were trained from infancy, in order to earn their livelihood as mercenary soldiers. It is said that the mothers allowed their children to eat bread only when they had struck it off a post with the sling. The Phoenicians took possession of the islands in very early times; a remarkable trace of their colonisation is preserved in the town of Mago (Maó in Menorca). After the fall of Carthage in 146 BC, the islands seem to have been virtually independent. Notwithstanding their celebrity in war, the people were generally very quiet and inoffensive. The Romans, however, easily found a pretext for charging them with complicity with the Mediterranean pirates, and they were conquered by Q. Caecilius Metellus, thence surnamed Balearicus, in 123 BC. Metellus settled 3,000 Roman and Spanish colonists on the larger island, and founded the cities of Palma and Pollentia. The islands belonged, under the Roman Empire, to the conventus of Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), in the province of Hispania Tarraconensis, of which province they formed the fourth district, under the government of a praefectus pro legato. An inscription of the time of Nero mentions the PRAEF. PRAE LEGATO INSULAR. BALIARUM. (Orelli, No. 732, who, with Muratori, reads *pro* for *prae*.) They were afterwards made a separate province, called Hispania Balearica, probably in the division of the empire under Constantine. The two largest islands (the Balearic Islands, in their historical sense) had numerous excellent harbours, though rocky at their mouth, and requiring care in entering them (Strabo, Eustath.; Port Mahon is one of the finest harbours in the world). Both were extremely fertile in all produce, except wine and olive oil. They were celebrated for their cattle, especially for the mules of the lesser island; they had an immense number of rabbits, and were free from all venomous reptiles. Amongst the snails valued by the Romans as a diet was a species from the Balearic isles called *cavaticae* because they were bred in caves. Their chief mineral product was the red earth, called *sinope*, which was used by painters. Their resin and pitch are mentioned by Dioscorides. The population of the two islands is stated by Diodorus at 30,000. The part of the Mediterranean east of Spain, around the Balearic Isles, was called *Mare Balearicum*, or *Sinus Balearicus*. ### Medieval period #### Late Roman and early Islamic eras The Vandals under Genseric conquered the Islands sometime between 461 and 468 during their war on the Roman Empire. However, in late 533 or early 534, following the Battle of Ad Decimum, the troops of Belisarius reestablished control of the islands for the Romans. Imperial power receded precipitately in the western Mediterranean after the fall of Carthage and the Exarchate of Africa to the Umayyad Caliphate in 698, and in 707 the islands submitted to the terms of an Umayyad fleet, which allowed the residents to maintain their traditions and religion as well as a high degree of autonomy. Now nominally both Byzantine and Umayyad, the *de facto* independent islands occupied a strategic and profitable grey area between the competing religions and kingdoms of the western Mediterranean. The prosperous islands were thoroughly sacked by the Swedish Viking King Björn Ironside and his brother Hastein during their Mediterranean raid of 859–862. In 902, the heavy use of the islands as a pirate base provoked the Emirate of Córdoba, nominally the island's overlords, to invade and incorporate the islands into their state. However, the Cordoban emirate disintegrated in civil war and partition in the early eleventh century, breaking into smaller states called *taifa*. Mujahid al-Siqlabi, the ruler of the Taifa of Dénia, sent a fleet and seized control of the islands in 1015, using it as the base for subsequent expeditions to Sardinia and Pisa. In 1050, the island's governor Abd Allah ibn Aglab rebelled and established the independent Taifa of Mallorca. #### The Crusade against the Balearics For centuries, the Balearic sailors and pirates had been masters of the western Mediterranean. But the expanding influence of the Italian maritime republics and the shift of power on the Iberian peninsula from the Muslim states to the Christian states left the islands vulnerable. A crusade was launched in 1113. Led by Ugo da Parlascio Ebriaco and Archbishop Pietro Moriconi of the Republic of Pisa, the expedition included 420 ships, a large army and a personal envoy from Pope Paschal II. In addition to the Pisans (who had been promised suzerainty over the islands by the Pope), the expedition included forces from the Italian cities of Florence, Lucca, Pistoia, Rome, Siena, and Volterra, from Sardinia and Corsica, Catalan forces under Ramon Berenguer, Hug II of Empúries, and Ramon Folc II of Cardona came from Spain and Occitan forces under William V of Montpellier, Aimery II of Narbonne, and Raymond I of Baux came from France. The expedition also received strong support from Constantine I of Logudoro and his base of Porto Torres. The crusade sacked Palma in 1115 and generally reduced the islands, ending their period as a great sea power, but then withdrew. Within a year, the now shattered islands were conquered by the Berber Almoravid dynasty, whose aggressive, militant approach to religion mirrored that of the crusaders and departed from the island's history as a tolerant haven under Cordoba and the *taifa*. The Almoravids were conquered and deposed in North Africa and on the Iberian Peninsula by the rival Almohad Dynasty of Marrakech in 1147. Muhammad ibn Ganiya, the Almoravid claimant, fled to Palma and established his capital there. His dynasty, the Banu Ghaniya, sought allies in their effort to recover their kingdom from the Almohads, leading them to grant Genoa and Pisa their first commercial concessions on the islands. In 1184, an expedition was sent to recapture Ifriqiya (the coastal areas of what is today Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya) but ended in defeat. Fearing reprisals, the inhabitants of the Balearics rebelled against the Almoravids and accepted Almohad suzerainty in 1187. #### Reconquista On the last day of 1229, King James I of Aragon captured Palma after a three-month siege. The rest of Mallorca quickly followed. Menorca fell in 1232 and Ibiza in 1235. In 1236, James traded most of the islands to Peter I, Count of Urgell for Urgell, which he incorporated into his kingdom. Peter ruled from Palma, but after his death without issue in 1258, the islands reverted by the terms of the deal to the Crown of Aragon. James died in 1276, having partitioned his domains between his sons in his will. The will created a new Kingdom of Mallorca from the Balearic islands and the mainland counties of Roussillon or Montpellier, which was left to his son James II. However, the terms of the will specified that the new kingdom be a vassal state to the Crown of Aragon, which was left to his older brother Peter. Chafing under the vassalage, James joined forces with the Pope Martin IV and Philip III of France against his brother in the Aragonese Crusade, leading to a 10-year Aragonese occupation before the islands were restored in the 1295 Treaty of Anagni. The tension between the kingdoms continued through the generations until James' grandson James III was killed by the invading army of Peter's grandson Peter IV at the 1349 Battle of Llucmajor. The Balearic Islands were then incorporated directly into the Crown of Aragon. ### Modern period In 1469, Ferdinand II of Aragon (king of Aragon) and Isabella I of Castile (queen of Castile) were married. After their deaths, their respective territories (until then governed separately) were governed jointly, in the person of their grandson, the Emperor Charles V. This can be considered the foundation of the modern Spanish state, albeit a decentralized one wherein the various component territories within the united crowns retained their particular historic laws and privileges. The Balearic Islands were frequently attacked by Ottomans and Barbary pirates from North Africa; Formentera was even temporarily abandoned by its population. In 1514, 1515 and 1521, the coasts of the Balearic Islands and the Spanish mainland were raided by Turkish privateers under the command of the Ottoman admiral, Hayreddin Barbarossa. The Balearic Islands were ravaged in 1558 by Ottoman corsair Turgut Reis, and 4,000 people were taken into slavery. #### Menorca The island of Menorca was a British dependency for most of the 18th century as a result of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. This treaty—signed by the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Portugal as well as the Kingdom of Spain, to end the conflict caused by the War of the Spanish Succession—gave Gibraltar and Menorca to the Kingdom of Great Britain, Sardinia to Austria (both territories had been part of the Crown of Aragon for more than four centuries), and Sicily to the House of Savoy. In addition, Flanders and other European territories of the Spanish Crown were given to Austria. The island fell to French forces, under Armand de Vignerot du Plessis in June 1756 and was occupied by them for the duration of the Seven Years' War. The British re-occupied the island after the war but, with their military forces diverted away by the American War of Independence, it fell to a Franco-Spanish force after a seven-month siege (1781–82). Spain retained it under the Treaty of Paris in 1783. However, during the French Revolutionary Wars, when Spain became an ally of France, it came under French rule. Menorca was finally returned to Spain by the Treaty of Amiens during the French Revolutionary Wars, following the last British occupation, which lasted from 1798 to 1802. The continued presence of British naval forces, however, meant that the Balearic Islands were never occupied by the French during the Napoleonic Wars. ### 20th century The islands saw limited fighting in the 1936-1939 Spanish Civil War, with Menorca staying loyal to the Republican Spanish Government, while the rest of the Balearic Islands supported the Spanish Nationalists. The Republican forces recaptured Ibiza early in the conflict, but were unable to take control of Majorca in the Battle of Majorca in August 1936, an amphibious landing aimed at driving the Nationalists from the island and reclaiming it for the Republic. After the battle, Nationalist forces re-took Ibiza in September 1936. Menorca would be occupied by the Nationalists in February 1939 after the Battle of Menorca. Culture ------- ### Cuisine The cuisine of the islands can be grouped as part of wider Catalan, Spanish or Mediterranean cuisines. It features much pastry, cheese, wine, pork and seafood. Sobrassada is a local pork sausage. Lobster stew (so-called *caldereta*) from Menorca, is one of their most sought after dishes. Mayonnaise is said to originate from the Menorcan city of Maó (Mahón) which also produces its own cheese. Local pastries include Ensaïmada, Flaó and Coca. ### Languages Both Catalan and Spanish are official languages in the islands. Catalan is designated as a *llengua pròpia*, literally *own language* in its statute of autonomy. The Balearic dialect features several differences from standard Catalan. Typically, speakers of Balearic Catalan call their own language with a name specific to each island: *Mallorquí*, *Menorquí*, *Eivissenc*, *Formenterenc*. Virtually all residents of the Balearic Islands speak Spanish fluently. In 2003 74.6% of the Islands' residents also knew how to speak Catalan and 93.1% could understand it. Most of the native speakers of Spanish in the islands have family roots elsewhere in Spain. Other languages, such as English, German, French and Italian, are often spoken by locals, especially those who work in the tourism industry. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1900 | 311,649 | —     | | 1910 | 326,063 | +4.6% | | 1920 | 338,894 | +3.9% | | 1930 | 365,512 | +7.9% | | 1940 | 407,497 | +11.5% | | 1950 | 422,089 | +3.6% | | 1960 | 443,327 | +5.0% | | 1970 | 558,287 | +25.9% | | 1981 | 655,945 | +17.5% | | 1991 | 708,138 | +8.0% | | 2001 | 841,669 | +18.9% | | 2011 | 1,100,513 | +30.8% | | 2021 | 1,183,415 | +7.5% | | Source: | | Population in the Balearic Islands (2005) Insular council(*official name in Catalan and equivalent in Spanish*) | Population |  % total of Balearic Islands | Density (inhabitants/km2) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Majorca** (*Mallorca/Mallorca*) | 777,821 | 79.12% | 214.84 | | **Ibiza** (*Eivissa/Ibiza*) | 111,107 | 11.30% | 193.22 | | **Menorca** (*Menorca/Menorca*) | 86,697 | 8.82% | 124.85 | | **Formentera** (*Formentera/Formentera*) | 7,506 | 0.76% | 90.17 | Circa 2017 there were 1,115,999 residents of the Balearics; 16.7% of the islands' population were foreign (non-Spanish). At that time the islands had 23,919 Moroccans, 19,209 Germans, 16,877 Italians, and 14,981 British registered in town halls. The next-largest foreign groups were the Romanians; the Bulgarians; the Argentines, numbering at 6,584; the French; the Colombians; and the Ecuadoreans, numbering at 5,437. Circa 2016 the islands had 1,107,220 total residents; the figures of Germans and British respectively were 20,451 and 16,134. Between 2016 and 2017 people from other parts of Spain moved to the Balearics, while the foreign population declined by 2,000. In 2007 there were 29,189 Germans, 19,803 British, 17,935 Moroccans, 13,100 Ecuadoreans, 11,933 Italians, and 11,129 Argentines. The numbers of Germans, British, and South Americans declined between 2007 and 2017 while the largest-increasing populations were the Moroccans, Italians, and Romanians. Roman Catholicism is, by far, the largest religion in Balearic Islands. In 2012, the proportion of Balearicians that identify themselves as Roman Catholic was 68.7%. Xueta Christianity is a syncretic religion on the island of Majorca, Spain followed by the Xueta people, who are supposedly descendants of persecuted Jews who were converts to Christianity. Administration -------------- Each one of the three main islands is administered, along with its surrounding minor islands and islets, by an insular council (*consell insular* in Catalan) of the same name. These four insular councils are the first level of subdivision in the autonomous community (and province) of Illes Balears. Before administrative reform in 1977, Ibiza and Formentera formed a single insular council, covering the whole of the Pitiusic Islands. The insular council of Mallorca is further subdivided into six comarques; three other comarques cover the same territory as the three remaining insular councils. These nine comarques are then subdivided into municipalities (*municipis*), with the exception of Formentera, which is at the same time an insular council, a comarca, and a municipality. Note that the maritime and terrestrial natural reserves in the Balearic Islands are not owned by the municipalities, even if they fall within their territory, but are owned and managed by the respective insular councils. Those municipalities are further subdivided into civil parishes (*parròquies*), that are slightly larger than the traditional religious parishes. On Ibiza and Formentera parishes are further divided into administrative villages (named *véndes* in Catalan); each *vénda* is grouping several nearby hamlets (*casaments*) and their immediate surroundings. These *casaments* are traditionally formed by grouping together several cubic houses to form a defensive block with windows open to the east (against heat), sharing their collective precious water resources, whose residents decide and plan common collective works. However, these last levels of subdivisions do not have their own local administration: they are mostly natural economical units for agriculture (and consequently referenced in local norms for constructions and urbanisation as well) and the reference space for families (they may be appended to the names of people and their properties) and are still used in statistics. Historically, these structures had been used for defensive purpose as well, and were more tied to the local Catholic church and parishes (notably after the *Reconquista*). Wildlife -------- At the time of human arrival, the only terrestrial mammals native to the Balearic Islands were the dwarf goat-antelope *Myotragus*, the giant dormouse *Hypnomys*, and the shrew *Nesiotites hidalgo* which were found on Mallorca and Menorca, which became extinct shortly after human arrival. The only other terrestrial vertebrates native to the islands are Lilford's wall lizard, which today is confined to offshore islets surrounding Mallorca and Menorca, the Ibiza wall lizard native to the Pityusics, and the Majorcan midwife toad, today only found in the mountains of Mallorca. An extinct dwarf subspecies of Lataste's viper, *Vipera latastei ebusitana*, was also native to the Pityusics until it became extinct after human settlement. The Balearic warbler is an endemic bird species found on the islands excluding Menorca. Seabirds nesting on the islands include the Balearic shearwater, European storm petrel, Scopoli's shearwater, European shag, Audouin's gull and the yellow-legged gull. Economy ------- The gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 32.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 2.7% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 29,700 euros or 98% of the EU27 average in the same year. Transport --------- ### Water transport There are approximately 150 ferries between Mallorca and other destinations every week, most of them to mainland Spain. * Baleària + to the Balearic Islands from Dénia, Valencia and Barcelona * Trasmediterránea + Mainland-Baleares: regular lines, in both directions, from: - Barcelona to Palma, Ibiza and Mahón. - Valencia to Palma, Ibiza and Mahón. - Gandia to Palma and Ibiza. * Grandi Navi Veloci + to Palma from Valencia and Barcelona * Corsica Ferries + Toulon (France) to Palma and Alcudia Sport ----- ### Association football The islands' most prominent football club is RCD Mallorca from Palma, currently playing in the top-tier LaLiga in 2021. Founded in 1916, it is the oldest club in the islands, and won its only Copa del Rey title in 2003 and was the runner-up in the 1999 European Cup Winners' Cup. RCD Mallorca contests the long-standing Palma derby with the other established team on the islands, CD Atlético Baleares. The islands also have another professional football club since 2015: UD Ibiza, a phoenix club of UD Ibiza-Eivissa, itself a phoenix of SD Ibiza. The islands also have an islands' unofficial national team, as well as an unofficial Menorcan national team. Local clubs play in the regional divisions managed by the Balearic Islands Football Federation. ### Individuals Tennis player Rafael Nadal, winner of 22 Grand Slam single titles, and former world no. 1 tennis player Carlos Moyá are both from Majorca. Rafael Nadal's uncle, Miguel Ángel Nadal, is a former Spanish international footballer. Other famous sportsmen include basketball player Rudy Fernández and motorcycle road racers Jorge Lorenzo, who won the 2010, 2012 and 2015 MotoGP World Championships, and Joan Mir, who won the 2020 MotoGP World Championship. ### Watersports Ibiza is one of the world's top yachting hubs attracting a wide assortment of charter yachts. See also -------- * Battle of Majorca * Formentera * Ibiza * Ibiza (town) (*Vila d'Eivissa* or *Vila*) * List of butterflies of Menorca * List of dragonflies of Menorca * List of municipalities in Balearic Islands * List of presidents of the Balearic Islands Parliament * Mallorca * Menorca * Palma de Mallorca * List of presidents of the Balearic Islands Notes and references -------------------- 1. ↑ "Ley 3/1986, de 19 de abril, de normalización linguística". Boe.es. Archived from the original on 22 October 2007. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 2. ↑ "Ley 13/1997, de 25 de abril, por la que pasa a denominarse oficialmente Illes Balears la Provincia de Baleares". Boe.es. Archived from the original on 22 October 2007. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 3. ↑ "Ley Orgánica 1/2007, de 28 de febrero, de reforma del Estatuto de Autonomía de las Illes Balears". Boe.es. Archived from the original on 22 October 2007. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 4. ↑ Wells, John C. (2008). *Longman Pronunciation Dictionary* (3rd ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0. 5. ↑ Roach, Peter (2011). *Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary* (18th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2. 6. ↑ Estatut d'Autonomia de les Illes Balears, Llei Orgànica 1/2007, article 1r 7. ↑ "The Party Island of Ibiza". *www.vice.com*. 8. ↑ Plin.; Agathem.; Dion Cass. ap. Tzetz. ad Lycophr. 533; Eustath. 9. ↑ Diod. v. 17, Eustath. ad Dion. 457; Baliareis – Βαλιαρεῖς, Baliarides – *Βαλιαρίδες*, Steph. B.; Balearides – *Βαλεαρίδες*, Strabo; Balliarides – *Βαλλιαρίδες*, Ptol. ii. 6. § 78; Baleariae – *Βαλεαρίαι* Agathem. 10. 1 2 3 Strab. xiv. p. 654; Plin. l. c "The Rhodians, like the Baleares, were celebrated slingers" Sil. Ital. iii. 364, 365: "Jam cui Tlepolemus sator, et cui Lindus origo, Funda bella ferens Balearis et alite plumbo." 11. ↑ "The Geography of Strabo, Volume III (of 3) by Strabo". *Hellenica World*. Retrieved 5 January 2022. 12. ↑ Roberts, David G.; A. W. Bally (2012). *Regional Geology and Tectonics: Phanerozoic Passive Margins, Cratonic Basins and Global Tectonic Maps, Volume 1*. ISBN 9780444563576. Retrieved 21 June 2016. 13. ↑ "History of Mallorca" (PDF). 2007–2012. Retrieved 21 June 2016. 14. ↑ C. Michael Hogan. 2011. *Balearic Sea*. Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. P. Saundry & C. J. Cleveland. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington D.C. 15. ↑ "Standard climate values, Illes Balears". Aemet.es. Retrieved 10 December 2014. 16. ↑ "Guía resumida del clima en España (1981–2010)". Archived from the original on 18 November 2012. 17. ↑ "Valores climatológicos normales. Ibiza, Aeropuerto". June 2021. 18. ↑ "Valores Climatológicos Normales. Minorca / Aeropuerto". June 2021. 19. ↑ Fernandes, Daniel M.; Mittnik, Alissa; Olalde, Iñigo; Lazaridis, Iosif; Cheronet, Olivia; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Bernardos, Rebecca; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Carlsson, Jens; Culleton, Brendan J. (1 March 2020). "The spread of steppe and Iranian-related ancestry in the islands of the western Mediterranean". *Nature Ecology & Evolution*. **4** (3): 334–345. doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1102-0. ISSN 2397-334X. PMC 7080320. PMID 32094539. 20. ↑ Alcover, Josep Antoni (1 March 2008). "The First Mallorcans: Prehistoric Colonization in the Western Mediterranean". *Journal of World Prehistory*. **21** (1): 19–84. doi:10.1007/s10963-008-9010-2. ISSN 1573-7802. S2CID 161324792. 21. ↑ Diodorus Siculus, Library, §5.17.1 22. ↑ Strabo; Diod.; Flor. iii. 8; Tzetzes *ad Lycophron*. 23. ↑ Strabo iii. pp. 167, 168. 24. ↑ Strabo; but Florus gives them a worse character, iii. 8. 25. ↑ Livy *Epit. Ix.*; Freinsh. Supp. lx. 37; Florus, Strabo *ll. cc.* 26. ↑ Strabo, Pomponius Mela, Pliny the Elder. 27. ↑ *Notitia Dignitatum* Occid. c. xx. vol. ii. p. 466, Böcking. 28. ↑ Aristot. de Mir. Ausc. 89; Diodorus, but Pliny praises their wine as well as their corn, xiv. 6. s. 8, xviii. 7. s. 12: the two writers are speaking, in fact, of different periods. 29. ↑ Strabo, Mela; Pliny l. c., viii. 58. s. 83, xxxv. 19. s. 59; Varro, R. R. iii. 12; Aelian, H. A. xiii. 15; Gaius Julius Solinus 26. 30. ↑ Pliny xxx. 6. s. 15. 31. ↑ Pliny xxxv. 6. s. 13; Vitruv. vii. 7. 32. ↑ Materia Medica i. 92. 33. ↑ τὸ Βαλλεαρικὸν πέλαγος, Ptol. ii 4. § 3. 34. ↑ Flor. iii. 6. § 9. 35. ↑ Carr, Matthew, *Blood and Faith: the Purging of Muslim Spain* (Leiden, 1968), p. 120. 36. ↑ Curiosidades turísticas en Menorca. Sobreespana.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. 37. ↑ "Mayonnaise". *Andalucia For Holidays*. 6 July 2013. Archived from the original on 15 December 2013. Retrieved 12 July 2013. 38. ↑ Estad Archived 1 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Ibestat.cat. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. 39. ↑ "Enquesta d'usos lingüístics a les Illes Balears 2014 - Anàlisi" (in Catalan). Conselleria de Cultura, Participació i Esports (Govern de les Illes Balears) - Departament de Cultura (Generalitat de Catalunya) - Universitat de les Illes Balears. October 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2021. *A partir dels anys seixanta, la població illenca pràcticament s'ha triplicat. El principal factor ha estat l'aportació de la immigració, que des d'un punt de vista lingüístic inclou les persones nascudes fora dels territoris de llengua catalana. Aquest factor, a més d'aportar no catalanoparlants procedents de fora del domini lingüístic, també n'aporta de nascuts a les Illes, majoritàriament, en el si de famílies immigrades. Per les circumstàncies i limitacions socials i polítiques de la societat que les acull, la integració lingüística d'aquestes persones sol ser lenta i incompleta. [] Fins a final de segle, gran part de la població immigrada procedia de l'Estat espanyol, però a partir d'aquests anys la immigració estrangera ha crescut fins a superar en nombre l'espanyola. En aquest sentit, també convé tenir en compte la incidència del turisme, que al llarg de l'any aporta un contingent de persones que multiplica per deu el nombre de residents, amb efectes directes en el paisatge lingüístic i la percepció dels rols de les diferents llengües que entren en contacte.* [*Beginning with the 1960s, the population of the Islands has virtually tripled. The main factor has been immigration, which from a linguistic point of view includes people born outside of the Catalan speaking area. This factor, in addition to adding non-Catalan speakers from outside that area, includes also those born in the Islands within immigrant families. Because of the circumstances and political and social limitations of the society which accommodates them, the linguistic integration of these people is usually slow and incomplete. [...] Until the end of the [20th] century, a good deal of the immigrant population came from Spain, but afterwards foreign immigration has grown and has surpassed the Spanish one. [...] One has to consider also the impact of tourism [...].*] 40. ↑ "1.1.1.01 Población por año de nacimiento, isla de residencia y sexo". *Institut d'Estadística de las Illes Balears* (in Spanish). 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2019. 41. ↑ Fuente: *INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España (01-01-2005)* 42. 1 2 "British and German foreign communities decreasing". Majorca Daily Bulletin. 19 January 2018. Retrieved 31 August 2018. 43. ↑ Interactivo: Creencias y prácticas religiosas en España 44. ↑ "El cristianismo judío de un chueta pobre". *Monografias.com* (in Spanish). 9 February 2003. Retrieved 10 November 2011. 45. ↑ Jefatura del Estado (26 April 1997), *Ley 13/1997, de 25 de abril, por la que pasa a denominarse oficialmente Illes Balears la provincia de Baleares*, pp. 13448–13448, retrieved 22 May 2023 46. ↑ Bover, Pere; Quintana, Josep; Alcover, Josep Antoni (May 2008). "Three islands, three worlds: Paleogeography and evolution of the vertebrate fauna from the Balearic Islands". *Quaternary International*. **182** (1): 135–144. Bibcode:2008QuInt.182..135B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.06.039. hdl:10261/85878. 47. ↑ Torres-Roig, Enric; Mitchell, Kieren J; Alcover, Josep Antoni; Martínez-Freiría, Fernando; Bailón, Salvador; Heiniger, Holly; Williams, Matthew; Cooper, Alan; Pons, Joan; Bover, Pere (30 April 2021). "Origin, extinction and ancient DNA of a new fossil insular viper: molecular clues of overseas immigration". *Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society*. **192** (1): 144–168. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa094. ISSN 0024-4082. 48. ↑ Seabirds of the Balearic Islands: status and recent changes (1987-2014) Conservation of Marine and Coastal Birds 49. ↑ "Regional GDP per capita ranged from 30% to 263% of the EU average in 2018". *Eurostat*. 50. ↑ "Mallorca Ferry Schedule". *DirectFerries.com*. Direct Ferries Limited. Retrieved 11 March 2022. there are on average around 167 ferries running per week, across 12 different routes, provided by 3 different ferry operators 51. ↑ Spain Cups 2002/03. Rsssf.com (2004-02-03). Retrieved on 2013-07-12. 52. ↑ UEFA Champions League, Cup Winners Cup, UEFA Cup 1998–99. Rsssf.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12. 53. ↑ "Yacht Charter Ibiza | Boat Charter Ibiza | Magenta Yachts Brokers". *Magenta Yachts*. Retrieved 6 August 2019.

Balearic Islands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balearic_Islands

The **Great Barrier Reef** is the world's largest coral reef system, composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia, separated from the coast by a channel 160 kilometres (100 mi) wide in places and over 61 metres (200 ft) deep. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labelled it one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World in 1997. Australian World Heritage places included it in its list in 2007. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland in 2006. A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff of manmade pollutants, climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching, dumping of dredging sludge and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish. According to a study published in October 2012 by the *Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences*, the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985, a finding reaffirmed by a 2020 study which found over half of the reef's coral cover to have been lost between 1995 and 2017, with the effects of a widespread 2020 bleaching event not yet quantified. The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and is an important part of local groups' cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an important economic activity for the region, generating over AUD$3 billion per year. In November 2014, Google launched Google Underwater Street View in 3D of the Great Barrier Reef. A March 2016 report stated that coral bleaching was more widespread than previously thought, seriously affecting the northern parts of the reef as a result of warming ocean temperatures. In October 2016, *Outside* published an obituary for the reef; the article was criticized for being premature and hindering efforts to bolster the resilience of the reef. In March 2017, the journal *Nature* published a paper showing that huge sections of an 800-kilometre (500 mi) stretch in the northern part of the reef had died in the course of 2016 of high water temperatures, an event that the authors put down to the effects of global climate change. The percentage of baby corals being born on the Great Barrier Reef dropped drastically in 2018 and scientists are describing it as the early stage of a "huge natural selection event unfolding". Many of the mature breeding adults died in the bleaching events of 2016–17, leading to low coral birth rates. The types of corals that reproduced also changed, leading to a "long-term reorganisation of the reef ecosystem if the trend continues." The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 (section 54) stipulates an Outlook Report on the Reef's health, pressures, and future every five years. The last report was published in 2019. In March 2022, another mass bleaching event has been confirmed, which raised further concerns about the future of this reef system, especially when considering the possible effects of El Niño weather phenomenon. The Australian Institute of Marine Science conducts annual surveys of the Great Barrier Reef's status, and the 2022 report showed the greatest recovery in 36 years. It is mainly due to the regrowth of two-thirds of the reef by the fast-growing Acropora coral, which is the dominant coral there. Geology and geography --------------------- The Great Barrier Reef is a distinct feature of the East Australian Cordillera division. It reaches from Torres Strait (between Bramble Cay, its northernmost island, and the south coast of Papua New Guinea) in the north to the unnamed passage between Lady Elliot Island (its southernmost island) and Fraser Island in the south. Lady Elliot Island is located 1,915 km (1,190 mi) southeast of Bramble Cay as the crow flies. It includes the smaller Murray Islands. The plate tectonic theory indicates Australia has moved northwards at a rate of 7 cm (2.8 in) per year, starting during the Cenozoic. Eastern Australia experienced a period of tectonic uplift, which moved the drainage divide in Queensland 400 km (250 mi) inland. Also during this time, Queensland experienced volcanic eruptions leading to central and shield volcanoes and basalt flows. Some of these became volcanic islands. After the Coral Sea Basin formed, coral reefs began to grow in the Basin, but until about 25 million years ago, northern Queensland was still in temperate waters south of the tropics – too cool to support coral growth. The Great Barrier Reef's development history is complex; after Queensland drifted into tropical waters, it was largely influenced by reef growth and decline as sea level changed. Reefs can increase in diameter by 1 to 3 centimetres (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only above a depth of 150 metres (490 ft) due to their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level. When Queensland edged into tropical waters 24 million years ago, some coral grew, but a sedimentation regime quickly developed with erosion of the Great Dividing Range; creating river deltas, oozes and turbidites, unsuitable conditions for coral growth. 10 million years ago, the sea level significantly lowered, which further enabled sedimentation. The reef's substrate may have needed to build up from the sediment until its edge was too far away for suspended sediments to inhibit coral growth. In addition, approximately 400,000 years ago there was a particularly warm Interglacial period with higher sea levels and a 4 °C (7 °F) water temperature change. The land that formed the substrate of the current Great Barrier Reef was a coastal plain formed from the eroded sediments of the Great Dividing Range with some larger hills (most of which were themselves remnants of older reefs or, in rare cases, volcanoes). The Reef Research Centre, a Cooperative Research Centre, has found coral 'skeleton' deposits that date back half a million years. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) considers the earliest evidence of complete reef structures to have been 600,000 years ago. According to the GBRMPA, the current, living reef structure is believed to have begun growing on the older platform about 20,000 years ago. The Australian Institute of Marine Science agrees, placing the beginning of the growth of the current reef at the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. At around that time, sea level was 120 metres (390 ft) lower than it is today. From 20,000 years ago until 6,000 years ago, sea level rose steadily around the world. As it rose, the corals could then grow higher on the newly submerged maritime margins of the hills of the coastal plain. By around 13,000 years ago the sea level was only 60 metres (200 ft) lower than the present day, and corals began to surround the hills of the coastal plain, which were, by then, continental islands. As the sea level rose further still, most of the continental islands were submerged. The corals could then overgrow the submerged hills, to form the present cays and reefs. Sea level here has not risen significantly in the last 6,000 years. The CRC Reef Research Centre estimates the age of the present, living reef structure at 6,000 to 8,000 years old. The shallow water reefs that can be seen in air-photographs and satellite images cover an area of 20,679 km2, most (about 80%) of which has grown on top of limestone platforms that are relics of past (Pleistocene) phases of reef growth. The remains of an ancient barrier reef similar to the Great Barrier Reef can be found in The Kimberley, Western Australia. The Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area has been divided into 70 bioregions, of which 30 are reef bioregions. In the northern part of the Great Barrier Reef, ribbon reefs and deltaic reefs have formed; these structures are not found in the rest of the reef system. A previously undiscovered reef, 500 meters tall and 1.5 km wide at the base, was found in the northern area in 2020. There are no atolls in the system, and reefs attached to the mainland are rare. Fringing reefs are distributed widely, but are most common towards the southern part of the Great Barrier Reef, attached to high islands, for example, the Whitsunday Islands. Lagoonal reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, and further north, off the coast of Princess Charlotte Bay. Crescentic reefs are the most common shape of reef in the middle of the system, for example the reefs surrounding Lizard Island. Crescentic reefs are also found in the far north of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, and in the Swain Reefs (20–22 degrees south). Planar reefs are found in the northern and southern parts, near Cape York Peninsula, Princess Charlotte Bay, and Cairns. Most of the islands on the reef are found on planar reefs. Wonky holes can have localised impact on the reef, providing upwellings of fresh water, sometimes rich in nutrients contributing to eutrophication. Ecology ------- The Great Barrier Reef supports an extraordinary diversity of life, including many vulnerable or endangered species, some of which may be endemic to the reef system. Thirty species of cetaceans have been recorded in the Great Barrier Reef, including the dwarf minke whale, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin, and the humpback whale. Large populations of dugongs live there. More than 1,500 fish species live on the reef, including the clownfish, red bass, red-throat emperor, and several species of snapper and coral trout. Forty-nine species mass spawn, while eighty-four other species spawn elsewhere in their range. Seventeen species of sea snake live on the Great Barrier Reef in warm waters up to 50 metres (160 ft) deep and are more common in the southern than in the northern section. None found in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area are endemic, nor are any endangered. Six species of sea turtles come to the reef to breed: the green sea turtle, leatherback sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, loggerhead sea turtle, flatback turtle, and the olive ridley. The green sea turtles on the Great Barrier Reef have two genetically distinct populations, one in the northern part of the reef and the other in the southern part. Fifteen species of seagrass in beds attract the dugongs and turtles, and provide fish habitat. The most common genera of seagrasses are *Halophila* and *Halodule*. Saltwater crocodiles live in mangrove and salt marshes on the coast near the reef. Nesting has not been reported, and the salt water crocodile population in the GBRWHA is wide-ranging but low density. Around 125 species of shark, stingray, skates or chimaera live on the reef. Close to 5,000 species of mollusc have been recorded on the reef, including the giant clam and various nudibranchs and cone snails. Forty-nine species of pipefish and nine species of seahorse have been recorded. At least seven species of frog inhabit the islands. 215 species of birds (including 22 species of seabirds and 32 species of shorebirds) visit the reef or nest or roost on the islands, including the white-bellied sea eagle and roseate tern. Most nesting sites are on islands in the northern and southern regions of the Great Barrier Reef, with 1.4 to 1.7 million birds using the sites to breed. The islands of the Great Barrier Reef also support 2,195 known plant species; three of these are endemic. The northern islands have 300–350 plant species which tend to be woody, whereas the southern islands have 200 which tend to be herbaceous; the Whitsunday region is the most diverse, supporting 1,141 species. The plants are propagated by birds. There are at least 330 species of ascidians on the reef system with the diameter of 1–10 cm (0.4–4 in). Between 300 and 500 species of bryozoans live on the reef. Four hundred coral species, both hard corals and soft corals inhabit the reef. The majority of these spawn gametes, breeding in mass spawning events that are triggered by the rising sea temperatures of spring and summer, the lunar cycle, and the diurnal cycle. Reefs in the inner Great Barrier Reef spawn during the week after the full moon in October, while the outer reefs spawn in November and December. Its common soft corals belong to 36 genera. Five hundred species of marine algae or seaweed live on the reef, including thirteen species of genus *Halimeda*, which deposit calcareous mounds up to 100 metres (110 yd) wide, creating mini-ecosystems on their surface which have been compared to rainforest cover. Environmental threats --------------------- Climate change, pollution, crown-of-thorns starfish and fishing are the primary threats to the health of this reef system. Other threats include shipping accidents, oil spills, and tropical cyclones. Skeletal Eroding Band, a disease of bony corals caused by the protozoan *Halofolliculina corallasia*, affects 31 coral species. According to a 2012 study by the National Academy of Sciences, since 1985, the Great Barrier Reef has lost more than half of its corals with two-thirds of the loss occurring from 1998 due to the factors listed before. ### Climate change The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority considers the greatest threat to the Great Barrier Reef to be climate change, causing ocean warming which increases coral bleaching. Mass coral bleaching events due to marine heatwaves occurred in the summers of 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016, 2017 and 2020, and coral bleaching is expected to become an annual occurrence. In 2020, a study found that the Great Barrier Reef has lost more than half of its corals since 1995 due to warmer seas driven by climate change. As global warming continues, corals will not be able to keep up with increasing ocean temperatures. Coral bleaching events lead to increased disease susceptibility, which causes detrimental ecological effects for reef communities. In July 2017 UNESCO published in a draft decision, expressing serious concern about the impact of coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. The draft decision also warned Australia that it will not meet the targets of the Reef 2050 report without considerable work to improve water quality. Climate change has implications for other forms of reef life – some fish's preferred temperature range leads them to seek new habitat, thus increasing chick mortality in predatory seabirds. Climate change will also affect the sea turtle's population and available habitat. Bleaching events in benthic coral communities (deeper than 20 metres or 66 feet) in the Great Barrier reef are not as well documented as those at shallower depths, but recent research has shown that benthic communities are just as negatively impacted in the face of rising ocean temperatures. Five Great Barrier Reef species of large benthic corals were found bleached under elevated temperatures, affirming that benthic corals are vulnerable to thermal stress. ### Pollution Another key threat faced by the Great Barrier Reef is pollution and declining water quality. The rivers of north-eastern Australia pollute the Reef during tropical flood events. Over 90% of this pollution comes from farm runoff. 80% of the land adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef is used for farming including intensive cropping of sugar cane, and major beef cattle grazing. Farming practices damage the reef due to overgrazing, increased run-off of agricultural sediments, nutrients and chemicals including fertilisers, herbicides and pesticides representing a major health risk for the coral and biodiversity of the reefs. According to a 2016 report, while higher regulation contributes to less overall pollution from "other land uses, such as industrial, mining, port development, dredging and urban development", these can still be locally significant. Sediments containing high levels of copper and other heavy metals sourced from the Ok Tedi Mine in Papua New Guinea are a potential pollution risk for the far northern Great Barrier Reef and Torres Strait regions. Some 67% of corals died in the reef's worst-hit northern section, the ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies report said. #### Loss of coastal wetland The runoff problem is exacerbated by the loss of coastal wetlands which act as a natural filter for toxins and help deposit sediment. It is thought that the poor water quality is due to increased light and oxygen competition from algae. #### Eutrophication Farming fertiliser runoff release nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium into the oceanic ecosystem, and these limiting nutrients cause massive algal growth which eventually leads to a reduction in oxygen available for other creatures in a process called eutrophication. This decreases the biodiversity in the affected areas, altering the species composition. A study by Katharina Fabricius and Glen Death of Australian Institute of Marine Science found that hard corals numbers were almost double on reefs that were far from agricultural areas. Fertilizers also increase the amount of phytoplankton available for the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae to consume. A study showed that a doubling of the chlorophyll in the water leads to a tenfold increase in the crown-of-thorns starfish larvae's survival rate. #### Sediment runoff Sediment runoff from farming carries chemicals into the reef environment also reduces the amount of light available to the corals decreasing their ability to extract energy from their environment. #### Pesticides Pesticides used in farming are made up of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic and other toxins are released into the wider environment due to erosion of farm soil, which has a detrimental effect on the coral. #### Pollution from mining Mining company Queensland Nickel discharged nitrate-laden water into the Great Barrier Reef in 2009 and 2011 – on the later occasion releasing 516 tonnes (508 long tons; 569 short tons) of waste water. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) stated "We have strongly encouraged the company to investigate options that do not entail releasing the material to the environment and to develop a management plan to eliminate this potential hazard; however, GBRMPA does not have legislative control over how the Yabulu tailings dam is managed". ### Crown of thorns The crown-of-thorns starfish preys on coral polyps. Large outbreaks of these starfish can devastate reefs. In 2000, an outbreak contributed to a loss of 66% of live coral cover on sampled reefs in a study by the Reef Research Centre (RRC). Outbreaks are believed to occur in natural cycles, worsened by poor water quality and overfishing of the starfish's predators. ### Overfishing The unsustainable overfishing of keystone species, such as the giant Triton, can disrupt food chains vital to reef life. Fishing also impacts the reef through increased water pollution from boats, by-catch of unwanted species (such as dolphins and turtles) and habitat destruction from trawling, anchors and nets. As of the middle of 2004, approximately one-third of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park is protected from species removal of any kind, including fishing, without written permission. ### Shipping Shipping accidents are a pressing concern, as several commercial shipping routes pass through the Great Barrier Reef. Although the route through the Great Barrier Reef is not easy, reef pilots consider it safer than outside the reef in the event of mechanical failure, since a ship can sit safely while being repaired. There have been over 1,600 known shipwrecks in the Great Barrier Reef region. On 3 April 2010, the bulk coal carrier *Shen Neng 1* ran aground on Douglas Shoals, spilling up to four tonnes of oil into the water and causing extensive damage to the reef. ### Shark culling The government of Queensland has a "shark control" program (shark culling) that deliberately kills sharks throughout Queensland, including in the Great Barrier Reef. Environmentalists and scientists say that this program harms the marine ecosystem; they also say it is "outdated, cruel and ineffective". The Queensland "shark control" program uses shark nets and drum lines with baited hooks to kill sharks in the Great Barrier Reef – there are 173 lethal drum lines in the Great Barrier Reef. In Queensland, sharks found alive on the baited hooks are shot. Queensland's "shark control" program killed about 50,000 sharks from 1962 to 2018. Also, Queensland's "shark control" program has also killed many other animals (such as dolphins and turtles) – the program killed 84,000 marine animals from 1962 to 2015, including in the Great Barrier Reef. In 2018, Humane Society International filed a lawsuit against the government of Queensland to stop shark culling in the Great Barrier Reef. Protection and preservation: Reef 2050 plan ------------------------------------------- In March 2015, the Australian and Queensland's governments formed a plan for the protection and preservation of the reef's universal heritage until 2050. This 35 years plan, titled "Reef 2050 Plan" is a document proposing possible measures for the long-term management of the pollution, climate change and other issues that threaten the life span and value of this global heritage. The plan contains all the elements for measurement and improvements, including; long-term sustainability plan, water quality improvement plan and the investment plan for the protection and preservation of The Reef until 2050. However, whereas the 2050 plan aims to incorporate protective measures such as improving water quality, reef restoration, killing of predatory starfish, it does not incorporate additional measures to address what may be the root cause the problem – climate change, which is caused by greenhouse gas emissions. As such, experts doubted whether it would be enough to save the fragile environment. Another issue is that the time left to the 1.5 °C warming threshold (the temperature limit that coral reefs can still cope with) is very limited. As part of the Reef 2050 plan, an AUD$443 million grant was given to the Great Barrier Reef Foundation in 2018. The announcement of the grant was subject to backlash as the grant had avoided proper tender and transparency processes. ### Conservation Policy: Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan The Great Barrier Reef contributes to the overall wellbeing of the marine biome. Numerous species of aquatic plants, fish and megafauna use the reef for feeding, shelter and mating. Threats such as ocean acidification, pollution runoff and outbreaks of destructive species like the crown-of-thorns starfish have brought about the decline of this ecosystem. These threats to the reef are not only a danger to the organisms inhabiting it, but also the economy of this region, a large part of which relies on revenue from ecotourism of the Great Barrier Reef. The Australian government has had the goal of protecting this World Heritage Site since 1972 when they created The Australian Institute of Marine Science. The Australian and Queensland governments have contributed about $142.5 million to their National Environmental Science Program which is how they've collected much of their data regarding threats to the Great Barrier Reef. In addition, the Reef 2050 Water Quality Improvement Plan was announced in 2018 in order to help transition local communities, agricultural organizations and industries to more sustainable practices. This plan will join the Queensland government and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to manage the amounts of runoff that reach the Great Barrier Reef as well as mitigating crown-of-thorns starfish population flare-ups. Human use --------- The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples. Aboriginal Australians have been living in the area for at least 40,000 years, and Torres Strait Islanders since about 10,000 years ago. For these 70 or so clan groups, the reef is also an important cultural feature. In 1768 Louis de Bougainville found the reef during an exploratory mission, but did not claim the area for the French. On 11 June 1770, HM Bark *Endeavour*, captained by explorer James Cook, ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, sustaining considerable damage. Lightening the ship and re-floating it during an incoming tide eventually saved it. One of the most famous wrecks was HMS *Pandora*, which sank on 29 August 1791, killing 35 men. The Queensland Museum has led archaeological digs to wreck of *Pandora* since 1983. Because the reef had no atolls, it was largely unstudied in the 19th century. During this time, some of the reef's islands were mined for deposits of guano, and lighthouses were built as beacons throughout the system. as in Raine Island, the earliest example. In 1922, the Great Barrier Reef Committee began carrying out much of the early research on the reef. ### Management Royal Commissions disallowed oil drilling in the Great Barrier Reef, in 1975 the Government of Australia created the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park and prohibited various activities. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park does not include the entire Great Barrier Reef Province. The park is managed, in partnership with the Government of Queensland, through the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority to ensure that it is used in a sustainable manner. A combination of zoning, management plans, permits, education and incentives (such as eco-tourism certification) are employed in the effort to conserve the reef. In 1999, the Australian Parliament passed the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act, which improved the operation of national environmental law by providing guidance about regional biodiversity conservation priorities. The marine bioregional planning process came from the implementation of this law. This process conserves marine biodiversity by considering the whole ecosystem a species is in and how different species interact in the marine environment. There are two steps to this process. The first step is to identify regional conservation priorities in the five (currently) different marine regions. The second step is to identify marine reserves (protected areas or marine parks) to be added to Australia's National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Like protected areas on land, marine reserves are created to protect biodiversity for generations to come. Marine reserves are identified based on criteria written in a document created by Australian and New Zealand Environment and Conservation Council called "Guidelines for establishing the national representative system of marine protected areas", also known as just "the Guidelines". These guidelines are nationally recognised and implemented at the local level based on the Australian policy for implementation outlined in the "Goals and Principles for the Establishment of the National Representative System of Marine Protected Areas in Commonwealth Waters". These policies are in place to make sure that a marine reserve is only added to the NRSMPA after careful evaluation of different data. The priorities for each region are created based on human and environmental threats and the Marine Bioregional Plans are drafted to address these priorities. To assess different region's priorities, three steps are taken, first, a bioregional profile is created, second, a bioregional plan is drafted, and third, the plan is finalised. After the plan is finalised, activity in different bioregions may become limited based on particular threats an activity may pose. In 2001, the GBRMPA released a report about the declining water quality in the Great Barrier Reef and detailed the importance of this issue. In response to this report, in 2003, the Australian and Queensland governments launched a joint initiative to improve the quality of water entering the Great Barrier Reef. The decline in the quality of water over the past 150 years (due to development) has contributed to coral bleaching, algal blooms, and pesticide pollution. These forms of pollution have made the reef less resilient to climate change. When the plan was introduced in October 2003, it originally contained 65 actions built on previous legislation. Their immediate goal was to halt and reverse the decline in water quality entering the reef by 2013. By 2020, they hope that the quality of the water entering in the reef improves enough so that it doesn't have a detrimental impact on the health of the Great Barrier Reef. To achieve these goals they decided to reduce pollutants in the water entering the reef and to rehabilitate and conserve areas of the reef that naturally help reduce water pollutants. To achieve the objectives described above, this plan focuses on non-point sources of pollution, which cannot be traced to a single source such as a waste outlet. The plan specifically targets nutrients, pesticides and sediment that make their way into the reef as a result of agricultural activities. Other non-point sources of pollution that are attributed to urban areas are covered under different legislation. In 2009, the plan was updated. The updated version states that to date, none of the efforts undertaken to improve the quality of water entering the reef has been successful. The new plan attempts to address this issue by "targeting priority outcomes, integrating industry and community initiatives and incorporating new policy and regulatory frameworks (Reef Plan 5)". This updated version has improved the clarity of the previous plan and targets set by that plan, have improved accountability and further improved monitoring and assessment. The 2009 report found that 41 out of the 65 actions met their original goals, however, 18 were not progressing well according to evaluation criteria as well as 6 were rated as having unsatisfactory levels of progress. Some key achievements made since the plan's initial passing in 2003 were the establishment of the Reef Quality Partnership to set targets, report findings and monitor progress towards targets, improved land condition by landowners was rewarded with extended leases, Water Quality Improvement Plans were created to identify regional targets and identified management changes that needed to be made to reach those targets, Nutrient Management Zones have been created to combat sediment loss in particular areas, education programs have been started to help gather support for sustainable agriculture, changes to land management practices have taken place through the implementation of the Farm Management Systems and codes of practice, the creation of the Queensland Wetland program and other achievements were made to help improve the water quality flowing into the coral reefs. A taskforce of scientists was also created to assess the impact of different parts of the plan on the quality of water flowing into the coral reefs. They found that many of the goals have yet to be reached but found more evidence that states that improving the water quality of the Great Barrier Reef will improve its resilience to climate change. The Reefocus summit in 2008, which is also detailed in the report, came to similar conclusions. After this, a stakeholder working group was formed that worked between several groups as well as the Australian and Queensland governments to update reef goals and objectives. The updated version of the plan focuses on strategic priority areas and actions to achieve 2013 goals. Also quantitative targets have been made to critically assess whether targets are being met. Some examples of the water quality goals outlined by this plan are that by 2013, there will be a 50% reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus loads at the end of catchments and that by 2020, there will be a reduction in sediment load by 20%. The plan also outlines a number of steps that must be taken by landholders to help improve grazing, soil, nutrient, and chemical management practices. There are also a number of supporting initiatives to take place outlined in the plan to help create a framework to improve land use practices which will in turn improve water quality. Through these means the governments of Australia and Queensland hope to improve water quality by 2013. The 2013 outlook report and revised water quality plan will assess what needs to be done in the future to improve water quality and the livelihoods of the wildlife that resides there. In July 2004, a new zoning plan took effect for the entire Marine Park, and has been widely acclaimed as a new global benchmark for marine ecosystem conservation. The rezoning was based on the application of systematic conservation planning techniques, using marxan software. While protection across the Marine Park was improved, the highly protected zones increased from 4.5% to over 33.3%. At the time, it was the largest Marine Protected Area in the world, although in 2006, the new Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Monument became the largest. In 2006, a review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act of 1975 recommended that there should be no further zoning plan changes until 2013, and that every five years, a peer-reviewed outlook report should be published, examining the reef's health, management, and environmental pressures. In each outlook report, several assessments are required. Each assessment has a set of assessment criteria that allows for better presentation of available evidence. Each assessment is judged by these criteria and given a grade. Every outlook report follows the same judging and grading process so that information can be tracked over time. No new research is done to produce the report. Only readily available information goes into the report so little of what is known about the Reef is actually featured in each outlook report. #### Abbot Point coal port dredge dumping controversy In December 2013, Greg Hunt, the Australian environment minister, approved a plan for dredging to create three shipping terminals as part of the construction of a coalport. According to corresponding approval documents, the process will create around 3 million cubic metres of dredged seabed that will be dumped within the Great Barrier Reef marine park area. On 31 January 2014, the GBRMPA issued a dumping permit that will allow three million cubic metres of sea bed from Abbot Point, north of Bowen, to be transported and unloaded in the waters of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. Potential significant harms have been identified in relation to dredge spoil and the process of churning up the sea floor in the area and exposing it to air: firstly, new research shows the finer particles of dredge spoil can cloud the water and block sunlight, thereby starving sea grass and coral up to distances of 80 km away from the point of origin due to the actions of wind and currents. Furthermore, dredge spoil can literally smother reef or sea grass to death, while storms can repeatedly resuspend these particles so that the harm caused is ongoing; secondly, disturbed sea floor can release toxic substances into the surrounding environment. The dredge spoil from the Abbot Point port project is to be dumped 24 kilometres (15 mi) away, near Bowen in north Queensland, and the approval from the Authority will result in the production of an extra 70 million tonnes of coal annually, worth between A$1.4 billion and $2.8 billion. Authority chairman, Dr Russell Reichelt, stated after the confirmation of the approval: > > This approval is in line with the agency's view that port development along the Great Barrier Reef coastline should be limited to existing ports. As a deepwater port that has been in operation for nearly 30 years, Abbot Point is better placed than other ports along the Great Barrier Reef coastline to undertake expansion as the capital and maintenance dredging required will be significantly less than what would be required in other areas. It's important to note the seafloor of the approved disposal area consists of sand, silt and clay and does not contain coral reefs or seagrass beds. > > The approval was provided with a corresponding set of 47 new environmental conditions that include the following: * A long-term water quality monitoring plan extending five years after the disposal activity is completed. * A heritage management plan to protect the Catalina second world war aircraft wreck in Abbot Bay. * The establishment of an independent dredging and disposal technical advice panel and a management response group, to include community representatives. The Australian Federal Government announced on 13 November that there would now be a ban on the dumping of dredge spoil in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The World Heritage Committee asked Environment Minister Greg Hunt to investigate alternative options to dump on land instead. The Queensland government and the Commonwealth have now accepted the alternative option and advice from The World Heritage Committee and will now commence dumping on land. ### Tourism Due to its vast biodiversity, warm clear waters and accessibility from the tourist boats called "live aboards", the reef is a very popular destination, especially for scuba divers. Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef is concentrated in Cairns and also The Whitsundays due to their accessibility. These areas make up 7–8% of the park's area. The Whitsundays and Cairns have their own Plans of Management. Many cities along the Queensland coast offer daily boat trips. Several continental and coral cay islands are now resorts, including Green Island and Lady Elliot Island. As of 1996, 27 islands on the Great Barrier Reef supported resorts. In 1996, most of the tourism in the region was domestically generated and the most popular visiting times were during the Australian winter. At this time, it was estimated that tourists to the Great Barrier Reef contributed A$776 million per annum. As the largest commercial activity in the region, it was estimated in 2003 that tourism generated over A$4 billion annually, and the 2005 estimate increased to A$5.1 billion. A Deloitte report published by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in March 2013 states that the Reef's 2,000 kilometres of coastline attracts tourism worth A$6.4 billion annually and employs more than 64,000 people. Approximately two million people visit the Great Barrier Reef each year. Although most of these visits are managed in partnership with the marine Tourism industry, there is a concern among the general public that tourism is harmful to the Great Barrier Reef. A variety of boat tours and cruises are offered, from single day trips, to longer voyages. Boat sizes range from dinghies to superyachts. Glass-bottomed boats and underwater observatories are also popular, as are helicopter flights. By far, the most popular tourist activities on the Great Barrier Reef are snorkelling and diving, for which pontoons are often used, and the area is often enclosed by nets. The outer part of the Great Barrier Reef is favoured for such activities, due to water quality. Management of tourism in the Great Barrier Reef is geared towards making tourism ecologically sustainable. A daily fee is levied that goes towards research of the Great Barrier Reef. This fee ends up being 20% of the GBRMPA's income. Policies on cruise ships, bareboat charters, and anchorages limit the traffic on the Great Barrier Reef. The problems that surround ecotourism in the Great Barrier Reef revolve around permanent tourism platforms. Platforms are large, ship-like vessels that act as a base for tourists while scuba diving and snorkelling in the Great Barrier Reef. Seabirds will land on the platforms and defecate which will eventually be washed into the sea. The feces carry nitrogen, phosphorus and often DDT and mercury, which cause aspergillosis, yellow-band disease, and black band disease. Areas without tourism platforms have 14 out of 9,468 (1.1%) diseased corals versus areas with tourism platforms that have 172 out of 7,043 (12%) diseased corals. Tourism is a major economic activity for the region. Thus, while non-permanent platforms could be possible in some areas, overall, permanent platforms are likely a necessity. Solutions have been suggested to siphon bird waste into gutters connecting to tanks helping lower runoff that causes coral disease. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority has also placed many permanent anchorage points around the general use areas. These act to reduce damage to the reef due to anchoring destroying soft coral, chipping hard coral, and disturbing sediment as it is dragged across the bottom. Tourism operators also must comply with speed limits when travelling to or from tourist destinations, to prevent excessive wake from the boats disturbing the reef ecosystem. ### Fishing The fishing industry in the Great Barrier Reef, controlled by the Queensland Government, is worth A$1 billion annually. It employs approximately 2000 people, and fishing in the Great Barrier Reef is pursued commercially, for recreation, and as a traditional means for feeding one's family. ### Dugong hunting Under the Native Title Act 1993, native title holders retain the right to legally hunt dugongs and green turtles for "personal, domestic or non-commercial communal needs".[*unreliable source?*] Four traditional owners groups agreed to cease the hunting of dugongs in the area in 2011 due to their declining numbers, partially accelerated by seagrass damage from Cyclone Yasi. See also -------- * Catlin Seaview Survey * Coral Triangle * Galápagos Islands * Islands on the Great Barrier Reef * Komodo National Park * List of reefs * Ocean acidification in the Great Barrier Reef * Sixth extinction * Valdes Peninsula * Great Southern Reef Further reading --------------- * Bell, Peter (1998). *AIMS: The First Twenty-five Years*. Townsville: Australian Institute of Marine Science. ISBN 978-0-642-32212-8. * Bowen, James; Bowen, Margarita (2002). *The Great Barrier Reef : history, science, heritage*. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82430-3. * Done, T.J. (1982). "Patterns in the distribution of coral communities across the central Great Barrier Reef". *Coral Reefs*. **1** (2): 95–107. Bibcode:1982CorRe...1...95D. doi:10.1007/BF00301691. S2CID 38013851. * "Research Publications". Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Archived from the original on 18 July 2011. * Hutchings, Pat; Kingsford, Mike; Hoegh-Guldberg, Ove (2008). *The Great Barrier Reef: Biology, Environment and Management*. CSIRO Publishing. ISBN 978-0-643-09557-1. * Lucas, P.H.C.; et al. (1997). *The outstanding universal value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area*. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. ISBN 0-642-23028-5. * Mather, P.; Bennett, I., eds. (1993). *A Coral Reef Handbook: A Guide to the Geology, Flora and Fauna of the Great Barrier Reef* (3rd ed.). Chipping North: Surrey Beatty & Sons Pty Ltd. ISBN 0-949324-47-7.[*permanent dead link*]

Great Barrier Reef

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef

The **Argentina national football team** (Spanish: *Selección de fútbol de Argentina*) represents Argentina in men's international football and is administered by the Argentine Football Association, the governing body for football in Argentina. Nicknamed *La Albiceleste* ('The White and Sky Blue'), they are the reigning world champions, having won the most recent World Cup in 2022. Overall, Argentina has appeared in a World Cup final six times; a record equalled by Italy and surpassed only by Brazil and Germany. Argentina played in the first ever final in 1930, which they lost 4–2 to Uruguay. The next final appearance came 48 years later, in 1978, when the team captained by Daniel Passarella defeated the Netherlands 3–1 in extra time, being crowned world champions for the first time. Captained by Diego Maradona, Argentina won their second World Cup eight years later, in 1986, with a 3–2 final victory over West Germany. They reached the final once more under the guidance of Maradona, in 1990, but were ultimately beaten 1–0 by West Germany. A few decades later, Argentina led by Lionel Messi made their fifth final appearance in 2014, losing to Germany 1–0 after extra time. In 2022, again captained by Messi, they were crowned the world champions for the third time, the fourth-most of any country, beating France 4–2 on penalties, following a 3–3 draw after extra time. The team's World Cup–winning managers are César Luis Menotti in 1978, Carlos Bilardo in 1986 and Lionel Scaloni in 2022. Since the Golden Ball for tournament's best player has been officially awarded by FIFA from 1982, Argentina players have won it thrice; Maradona in 1986 and Messi in 2014 and 2022. Argentines Guillermo Stábile in 1930 and Mario Kempes in 1978 were the top-scoring players at their respective World Cups. Argentina has also been very successful in the Copa América, winning it 15 times, a record shared with Uruguay, most recently winning the 2021 edition. The team also won the inaugural FIFA Confederations Cup in 1992. Argentina is the most successful team in the CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions, having won it twice, in 1993 and 2022. Argentina is known for having rivalries with Brazil, Uruguay, England, Germany and the Netherlands. As of 2023, Argentina holds the record for most official titles won by a men's national team with 22. Individually for Argentina, Lionel Messi is the all-time most-capped player with 175 games and the highest goalscorer with 103 goals. History ------- The first ever match Argentina played was against Uruguay, on 20 June 1902. The game, which was the first international for both sides, was held in Montevideo, and Argentina won 6–0. During the first years of its existence, Argentina only played friendly matches against other South American teams. The reasons for this varied, including long travel times between countries and the interruption due to World War I. *La Albiceleste* has appeared in World Cup finals six times, including the first ever final in 1930, which they lost 4–2 to Uruguay. Argentina won their next final in 1978, beating the Netherlands 3–1. Eight years later, in 1986, Argentina led by Diego Maradona won their second title with a 3–2 victory over West Germany. Under the guidance of Maradona, they reached the final again, in 1990, but ultimately lost 1–0 to West Germany, by a much-disputed penalty. Led by Lionel Messi, Argentina reached the final in 2014, where they were beaten 1–0 by Germany in extra time. In 2022, again under the captaincy of Messi, Argentina won their third World Cup, beating France 4–2 on penalties, following a 3–3 draw after extra time. The team's World Cup–winning managers are César Luis Menotti in 1978, Carlos Bilardo in 1986 and Lionel Scaloni in 2022. Argentina has also been very successful in the South American Football Championship, the Copa América, winning it 15 times, a record it shares with Uruguay; they were crowned champions most recently in 2021. The team also won the inaugural FIFA Confederations Cup in 1992 and the CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions in 1993 and 2022. In March 2007, Argentina reached the top of the FIFA Men's World Ranking for the first time. Home stadium ------------ Argentina plays most of its home matches at River Plate's stadium, Estadio Monumental, in Buenos Aires, although the team also uses various other venues frequently, such as Estadio Único Madre de Ciudades and Boca Juniors' stadium, La Bombonera. Those venues, along with Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes and Estadio San Juan del Bicentenario, were used for the 2022 World Cup qualification. Additionally, Argentina played some matches at Rosario Central´s stadium, Estadio Gigante de Arroyito, during their 2010 World Cup qualifying campaign. GEBA Stadium was the first stadium Argentina used for its home matches; that includes the Copa Newton match against Uruguay held on 13 September 1908, which has a historic significance for being the first time Argentina wore the light blue and white-striped jersey in an official game, which has since then been the defining uniform up to the present day. GEBA was also used for the Copa Centenario Revolución de Mayo, the first competition held between South American national teams, considered the predecessor of Copa América, organised by the Argentine Football Association (AFA) in 1910. Most recently, Argentina played at GEBA on 19 October 1919, winning the Copa Premier Honor Argentino after a 6–1 victory over Uruguay. Furthermore, Estadio Sportivo Barracas is also considered a memorable venue for Argentina; the stadium was commonly used by Argentina from 1920 to 1932. Playing at the stadium for *La Albiceleste* on 2 October 1924, forward Cesáreo Onzari scored directly from a corner kick, the first such incident in football, when Argentina beat Uruguay 2–1; such goals are now often referred as *Olympic goals* due to the fact that Argentina had just won the 1924 Olympic title. Sportivo Barracas was later demolished after 1936. Team image ---------- ### Kit The classic light blue and white-striped jersey first worn on 2 July 1908 in a friendly match at São PauloThe blue shirt worn v England at the 1986 World Cup, when Diego Maradona scored "the Hand of God goal" The first kit ever worn by Argentina, in their official debut against Uruguay in 1902, included a light blue shirt. On 2 July 1908, Argentina debuted a shirt with light blue vertical stripes on a white jersey, which they used when they played a side formed of Liga Paulista players at Velódromo Paulistano; they used the jersey in an official game against Uruguay on 13 September 1908, and the striped jersey has remained as the definitive kit for Argentina ever since then. The team's away kits have been in dark blue shades, with the colours of shorts and socks varying from time to time. Argentina has also sported other kits; on 3 June 1919 in Rio de Janeiro, playing against Brazil, Argentina wore a light blue kit, similar to that of Uruguay, out of respect for Roberto Chery, a substitute goalkeeper for Uruguay, who had collapsed and died during a match against Chile at the 1919 South American Championship; the game between Argentina and Brazil was organised by the Brazilian Football Confederation for the benefit of Chery's relatives. At the 1958 World Cup, Argentina wore the yellow jersey of Swedish club IFK Malmö against West Germany, as the team had arrived in Sweden without an away kit. At the 1986 World Cup in Mexico, the then manager, Carlos Bilardo, asked the team's kit supplier, Le Coq Sportif, for lighter blue shirts for their quarter-final against England in three days, but they could not be provided. Then, a member of the coaching staff scoured the shops of Mexico City for 38 plain shirts, which were transformed with an improvised version of the AFA emblem embroidered on to the shirts and silvery American football numbers ironed to the backs. Sporting the makeshift jerseys, Argentina beat England on 22 June, with Diego Maradona scoring his famous "Hand of God goal". Afterwards, the shirt became a symbol of the occasion and an important collector's item. At the 2018 World Cup in Russia, Argentina debuted a black away kit; and at the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar, they wore a purple away kit in a competitive game for the first time. ### Kit suppliers | Kit supplier | Period | Ref. | | --- | --- | --- | | St. Margaret | 1901–1924 | | Gath & Chaves | 1930–1934 | | | Industria Lanús | 1958–1963 | | | Noceto Sports | 1964–1965 | | | Sportlandia | 1966 | | | Uribarri | 1967–1974 | | | Adidas | 1974–1979 | | | Le Coq Sportif | 1980–1989 | | | Adidas | 1990–1998 | | | Reebok | 1999–2001 | | | Adidas | 2001–present | | ### Crest Argentina has used the logo of the Argentine Football Association as its emblem since it was first worn at the 1958 World Cup in Sweden; the logo was added to the team's jackets, but not the shirts. The emblem was not used on jerseys until 16 November 1976, when Argentina played the Soviet Union at Estadio Monumental. At the beginning, the crest used did not include a laurel wreath, which was first added for the 1982 World Cup. As an respected and common practice, two stars were added above the crest in 2004, symbolising Argentina's World Cup titles in 1978 and 1986. In 2022, a third star was added after Argentina were crowned world champions for the third time. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Argentina  v  Honduras | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 September Friendly | **Argentina** | **3–0** | **Honduras** | Miami Gardens, United States | | 20:00 (UTC-4) | * La. Martínez 16' * Messi 45+2' (pen.), 69' | Report | | Stadium: Hard Rock StadiumReferee: Rubiel Vasquez (United States) | Jamaica  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September Friendly | **Jamaica** | **0–3** | **Argentina** | Harrison, United States | | 20:00 (UTC-4) | | Report | * Álvarez 13' * Messi 86', 89' | Stadium: Red Bull ArenaReferee: Marco Antonio Ortíz Nava (Mexico) | United Arab Emirates  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 16 November Friendly | **United Arab Emirates** | **0–5** | **Argentina** | Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates | | 19:30 (UTC+4) | | Report | * Álvarez 17' * Di María 25', 36' * Messi 44' * Correa 60' | Stadium: Mohammed bin Zayed StadiumReferee: Ibrahim Nour El Din (Egypt) | Argentina  v  Saudi Arabia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 22 November 2022 FIFA World Cup Group C | **Argentina** | **1–2** | **Saudi Arabia** | Lusail, Qatar | | 13:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Messi 10' (pen.) | Report | * Al-Shehri 48' * S. Al-Dawsari 53' | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,012Referee: Slavko Vinčić (Slovenia) | Argentina  v  Mexico | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 November 2022 FIFA World Cup Group C | **Argentina** | **2–0** | **Mexico** | Lusail, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Messi 64' * Fernández 87' | Report | | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,966Referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) | Poland  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 30 November 2022 FIFA World Cup Group C | **Poland** | **0–2** | **Argentina** | Doha, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | | Report | * Mac Allister 46' * Álvarez 67' | Stadium: Stadium 974Attendance: 44,089Referee: Danny Makkelie (Netherlands) | Argentina  v  Australia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 3 December 2022 FIFA World Cup R16 | **Argentina** | **2–1** | **Australia** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Messi 35' * Álvarez 57' | Report | * Fernández 77' (o.g.) | Stadium: Ahmad bin Ali StadiumAttendance: 45,032Referee: Szymon Marciniak (Poland) | Netherlands  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 9 December 2022 FIFA World Cup QF | **Netherlands** | **2–2** (a.e.t.) (**3–4** p) | **Argentina** | Lusail, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Weghorst 83', 90+11' | Report | * Molina 35' * Messi 73' (pen.) | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,235Referee: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) | | | **Penalties** | | | * Van Dijk soccer ball with red X * Berghuis soccer ball with red X * Koopmeiners soccer ball with check mark * Weghorst soccer ball with check mark * L. de Jong soccer ball with check mark | | * soccer ball with check mark Messi * soccer ball with check mark Paredes * soccer ball with check mark Montiel * soccer ball with red X Fernández * soccer ball with check mark La. Martínez | Argentina  v  Croatia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 13 December 2022 FIFA World Cup SF | **Argentina** | **3–0** | **Croatia** | Lusail, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Messi 34' (pen.) * Álvarez 39', 69' | Report | | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,966Referee: Daniele Orsato (Italy) | Argentina  v  France | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 18 December 2022 FIFA World Cup Final | **Argentina** | **3–3** (a.e.t.) (**4–2** p) | **France** | Lusail, Qatar | | 18:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Messi 23' (pen.), 109' * Di María 36' | Report | * Mbappé 80' (pen.), 81', 118' (pen.) | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,966Referee: Szymon Marciniak (Poland) | | | **Penalties** | | | * Messi soccer ball with check mark * Dybala soccer ball with check mark * Paredes soccer ball with check mark * Montiel soccer ball with check mark | | * soccer ball with check mark Mbappé * soccer ball with red X Coman * soccer ball with red X Tchouaméni * soccer ball with check mark Kolo Muani | ### 2023 Argentina  v  Panama | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 March Friendly | **Argentina** | **2–0** | **Panama** | Buenos Aires, Argentina | | 20:30 ART (UTC−3) | * Almada 78' * Messi 89' | Report | | Stadium: Más MonumentalAttendance: 83,214Referee: Cristian Ferreyra (Uruguay) | Argentina  v  Curaçao | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March Friendly | **Argentina** | **7–0** | **Curaçao** | Santiago del Estero, Argentina | | 20:30 ART (UTC−3) | * Messi 20', 33', 37' * González 23' * Fernández 35' * Di María 78' (pen.) * Montiel 87' | Report | | Stadium: Estadio Único Madre de CiudadesAttendance: 42,000Referee: Gustavo Tejera (Uruguay) | Argentina  v  Australia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 June Friendly | **Argentina** | **2–0** | **Australia** | Beijing, China | | 20:00 (UTC+8) | * Messi 2' * Pezzella 68' | Report | | Stadium: Workers' StadiumAttendance: 68,000Referee: Ma Ning (China) | Indonesia  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 19 June Friendly | **Indonesia** | **0–2** | **Argentina** | Jakarta, Indonesia | | 19:30 (UTC+7) | | Report | * Paredes 38' * Romero 55' | Stadium: Gelora Bung Karno StadiumAttendance: 56,060Referee: Muhammad Usaid bin Jamal (Malaysia) | Argentina  v  Ecuador | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Argentina** | **v** | **Ecuador** | Argentina | | --:-- ART (UTC−3) | | | | | Bolivia  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Bolivia** | **v** | **Argentina** | La Paz, Bolivia | | --:-- BOT (UTC−4) | | | | Stadium: Estadio Hernando Siles | Argentina  v  Paraguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Argentina** | **v** | **Paraguay** | Argentina | | --:-- ART (UTC−3) | | | | | Peru  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Peru** | **v** | **Argentina** | Lima, Peru | | --:-- PET (UTC−5) | | | | Stadium: Estadio Nacional | Argentina  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Argentina** | **v** | **Uruguay** | Argentina | | --:-- ART (UTC−3) | | | | | Brazil  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 2026 FIFA World Cup qualification | **Brazil** | **v** | **Argentina** | Brazil | | --:-- BRA (UTC−3) | | | | | Coaching staff -------------- | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head coach | Argentina Lionel Scaloni | | Assistant coach | Argentina Pablo Aimar | | Assistant coach | Argentina Roberto Ayala | | Assistant coach | Argentina Walter Samuel | | Assistant coach (analyst) | Argentina Matías Manna | | Fitness coach | Argentina Luis Martín | | Goalkeeping coach | Argentina Martín Tocalli | ### Manager history * Sources: * Argentina Pedro Calomino (1921) * Argentina Ángel Vázquez (1924–1925) * Spain José Lago Millán (1927–1928) * Argentina Francisco Olazar (1929) * Argentina Francisco Olazar & Argentina Juan J. Tramutola (1929–1930) * Italy Felipe Pascucci (1934) * Argentina Manuel Seoane (1935–1937) * Argentina Ángel Fernández Roca (1937–1939) * Argentina Guillermo Stábile (1939–1958) * Argentina José Manuel Moreno (1959) * Argentina Guillermo Stábile (1960) * Argentina Victorio Spinetto (1960–1961) * Argentina José D'Amico (1962) * Argentina Juan Carlos Lorenzo (1962) * Argentina Néstor Rossi (1962) * Argentina Jim Lópes (1962) * Argentina Horacio A. Torres (1963–1964) * Argentina José D'Amico (1964) * Argentina José María Minella (1964–1965) * Argentina Osvaldo Zubeldía (1965) * Argentina Juan Carlos Lorenzo (1966) * Argentina Jim Lópes (1967) * Argentina Carmelo Faraone (1967) * Argentina Renato Cesarini (1967–1968) * Argentina José María Minella (1968) * Argentina Humberto Maschio (1968–1969) * Argentina Adolfo Pedernera (1969) * Argentina Juan José Pizzuti (1970–1972) * Argentina Omar Sívori (1972–1973) * Argentina Vladislao Cap (1974) * Argentina César Menotti (1974–1982) * Argentina Carlos Bilardo (1983–1990) * Argentina Alfio Basile (1990–1994) * Argentina Daniel Passarella (1994–1998) * Argentina Marcelo Bielsa (1998–2004) * Argentina José Pékerman (2004–2006) * Argentina Alfio Basile (2006–2008) * Argentina Diego Maradona (2008–2010) * Argentina Sergio Batista (2010–2011) * Argentina Alejandro Sabella (2011–2014) * Argentina Gerardo Martino (2014–2016) * Argentina Edgardo Bauza (2016–2017) * Argentina Jorge Sampaoli (2017–2018) * Argentina Lionel Scaloni (2018–present) Players ------- ### Current squad The following 28 players were named in the squad for friendlies against Australia and Indonesia on 15 and 19 June 2023, respectively. *Caps and goals are correct as of 19 June 2023, after the match against Indonesia.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Walter Benítez | (1993-01-19) 19 January 1993 (age 30) | 0 | 0 | Netherlands PSV Eindhoven | | 12 | 1GK | Gerónimo Rulli | (1992-05-20) 20 May 1992 (age 31) | 4 | 0 | Netherlands Ajax | | 23 | 1GK | Emiliano Martínez | (1992-09-02) 2 September 1992 (age 30) | 30 | 0 | England Aston Villa | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Facundo Medina | (1999-05-28) 28 May 1999 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | France Lens | | 3 | 2DF | Nicolás Tagliafico | (1992-08-31) 31 August 1992 (age 30) | 49 | 0 | France Lyon | | 4 | 2DF | Gonzalo Montiel | (1997-01-01) 1 January 1997 (age 26) | 23 | 1 | Spain Sevilla | | 6 | 2DF | Germán Pezzella | (1991-06-27) 27 June 1991 (age 32) | 38 | 3 | Spain Real Betis | | 8 | 2DF | Marcos Acuña | (1991-10-28) 28 October 1991 (age 31) | 53 | 0 | Spain Sevilla | | 13 | 2DF | Cristian Romero | (1998-04-27) 27 April 1998 (age 25) | 22 | 2 | England Tottenham Hotspur | | 19 | 2DF | Nicolás Otamendi | (1988-02-12) 12 February 1988 (age 35) | 103 | 4 | Portugal Benfica | | 25 | 2DF | Leonardo Balerdi | (1999-01-26) 26 January 1999 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | France Marseille | | 26 | 2DF | Nahuel Molina | (1998-04-06) 6 April 1998 (age 25) | 30 | 1 | Spain Atlético Madrid | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Leandro Paredes | (1994-06-29) 29 June 1994 (age 28) | 54 | 5 | Italy Juventus | | 7 | 3MF | Rodrigo De Paul | (1994-05-24) 24 May 1994 (age 29) | 54 | 2 | Spain Atlético Madrid | | 14 | 3MF | Exequiel Palacios | (1998-10-05) 5 October 1998 (age 24) | 25 | 0 | Germany Bayer Leverkusen | | 16 | 3MF | Thiago Almada | (2001-04-26) 26 April 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 1 | United States Atlanta United | | 17 | 3MF | Lucas Ocampos | (1994-07-11) 11 July 1994 (age 28) | 11 | 2 | Spain Sevilla | | 18 | 3MF | Guido Rodríguez | (1994-04-12) 12 April 1994 (age 29) | 29 | 1 | Spain Real Betis | | 20 | 3MF | Alexis Mac Allister | (1998-12-24) 24 December 1998 (age 24) | 17 | 1 | England Liverpool | | 21 | 3MF | Giovani Lo Celso | (1996-04-09) 9 April 1996 (age 27) | 44 | 2 | Spain Villarreal | | 24 | 3MF | Enzo Fernández | (2001-01-17) 17 January 2001 (age 22) | 13 | 2 | England Chelsea | | 27 | 3MF | Facundo Buonanotte | (2004-12-23) 23 December 2004 (age 18) | 1 | 0 | England Brighton & Hove Albion | | --- | | 9 | 4FW | Julián Álvarez | (2000-01-31) 31 January 2000 (age 23) | 22 | 7 | England Manchester City | | 10 | 4FW | Lionel Messi *(captain)* | (1987-06-24) 24 June 1987 (age 36) | 175 | 103 | France Paris Saint-Germain | | 11 | 4FW | Ángel Di María | (1988-02-14) 14 February 1988 (age 35) | 132 | 29 | Italy Juventus | | 15 | 4FW | Nicolás González | (1998-04-06) 6 April 1998 (age 25) | 24 | 4 | Italy Fiorentina | | 22 | 4FW | Giovanni Simeone | (1995-07-05) 5 July 1995 (age 27) | 6 | 1 | Italy Napoli | | 28 | 4FW | Alejandro Garnacho | (2004-07-01) 1 July 2004 (age 18) | 2 | 0 | England Manchester United | ### Recent call-ups The following players have been called up for the team in the last twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Franco Armani | (1986-10-16) 16 October 1986 (age 36) | 19 | 0 | Argentina River Plate | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | GK | Agustín Marchesín | (1988-03-16) 16 March 1988 (age 35) | 8 | 0 | Spain Celta | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | GK | Juan Musso | (1994-05-06) 6 May 1994 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | Italy Atalanta | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | GK | Agustín Rossi | (1995-08-21) 21 August 1995 (age 27) | 0 | 0 | Saudi Arabia Al-Nassr | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | DF | Juan Foyth | (1998-01-12) 12 January 1998 (age 25) | 18 | 0 | Spain Villarreal | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Lisandro Martínez | (1998-01-18) 18 January 1998 (age 25) | 16 | 0 | England Manchester United | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Nehuén Pérez | (2000-06-24) 24 June 2000 (age 23) | 1 | 0 | Italy Udinese | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Lautaro Blanco | (1999-02-19) 19 February 1999 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Spain Elche | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Lucas Martínez Quarta | (1996-05-10) 10 May 1996 (age 27) | 11 | 0 | Italy Fiorentina | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Walter Kannemann | (1991-03-14) 14 March 1991 (age 32) | 6 | 0 | Brazil Grêmio | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Marcos Senesi | (1997-05-10) 10 May 1997 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | England Bournemouth | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Nicolás Fernández | (2000-01-11) 11 January 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Spain Elche | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | MF | Emiliano Buendía | (1996-12-25) 25 December 1996 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | England Aston Villa | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Máximo Perrone | (2003-01-07) 7 January 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | England Manchester City | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Valentín Carboni | (2005-03-05) 5 March 2005 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Italy Internazionale | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Alejandro Gómez | (1988-02-15) 15 February 1988 (age 35) | 17 | 3 | Spain Sevilla | v.  Panama, 23 March 2023 INJ | | MF | Roberto Pereyra | (1991-01-07) 7 January 1991 (age 32) | 19 | 2 | Italy Udinese | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Maximiliano Meza | (1992-12-15) 15 December 1992 (age 30) | 11 | 0 | Mexico Monterrey | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Nicolás Domínguez | (1998-06-28) 28 June 1998 (age 24) | 11 | 1 | Italy Bologna | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Matías Soulé | (2003-04-15) 15 April 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Italy Juventus | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Nicolás Paz | (2004-09-08) 8 September 2004 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Spain Real Madrid | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Luka Romero | (2004-11-18) 18 November 2004 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Italy Lazio | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | FW | Lautaro Martínez | (1997-08-22) 22 August 1997 (age 25) | 48 | 21 | Italy Internazionale | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Paulo Dybala | (1993-11-15) 15 November 1993 (age 29) | 38 | 3 | Italy Roma | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Ángel Correa | (1995-03-09) 9 March 1995 (age 28) | 23 | 3 | Spain Atlético Madrid | v.  Curaçao, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Joaquín Correa | (1994-08-13) 13 August 1994 (age 28) | 19 | 4 | Italy Internazionale | 2022 FIFA World Cup INJ | | FW | Lucas Alario | (1992-10-08) 8 October 1992 (age 30) | 9 | 3 | Germany Eintracht Frankfurt | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- COV Withdrew from the squad due to quarantine or infection by COVID-19 INJ Withdrew due to injury PRE Preliminary squad RET Retired from the national team SUS Suspended | Individual records and achievements ----------------------------------- *As of 15 June 2023* *Players in **bold** are still active with Argentina.* ### Most-capped players | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Lionel Messi** | 175 | 103 | 2005–present | | 2 | Javier Mascherano | 147 | 3 | 2003–2018 | | 3 | Javier Zanetti | 145 | 5 | 1994–2011 | | 4 | **Ángel Di María** | 132 | 29 | 2008–present | | 5 | Roberto Ayala | 115 | 7 | 1994–2007 | | 6 | Diego Simeone | 104 | 11 | 1988–2002 | | 7 | **Nicolás Otamendi** | 103 | 4 | 2009–present | | 8 | Sergio Agüero | 101 | 41 | 2006–2021 | | 9 | Oscar Ruggeri | 97 | 7 | 1983–1994 | | 10 | Sergio Romero | 96 | 0 | 2009–2018 | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Lionel Messi** (list) | 103 | 175 | 0.59 | 2005–present | | 2 | Gabriel Batistuta (list) | 56 | 78 | 0.72 | 1991–2002 | | 3 | Sergio Agüero | 41 | 101 | 0.41 | 2006–2021 | | 4 | Hernán Crespo | 35 | 64 | 0.55 | 1995–2007 | | 5 | Diego Maradona (list) | 34 | 91 | 0.37 | 1977–1994 | | 6 | Gonzalo Higuaín | 31 | 75 | 0.41 | 2009–2018 | | 7 | **Ángel Di María** | 29 | 132 | 0.22 | 2008–present | | 8 | Luis Artime | 24 | 25 | 0.96 | 1961–1967 | | 9 | Leopoldo Luque | 22 | 45 | 0.49 | 1975–1981 | | Daniel Passarella | 22 | 70 | 0.31 | 1976–1986 | | 11 | Herminio Masantonio | 21 | 19 | 1.11 | 1935–1942 | | José Sanfilippo | 21 | 30 | 0.7 | 1957–1962 | | **Lautaro Martínez** | 21 | 48 | 0.44 | 2018–present | ### World Cup-winning captains World Cup winning captains of ArgentinaDaniel Passarella in 1978Diego Maradona in 1986Lionel Messi in 2022 | Year | Player | Caps | Goals | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1978 | Daniel Passarella | 70 | 22 | | 1986 | Diego Maradona | 91 | 34 | | 2022 | Lionel Messi | 175 | 103 | ### Caps * Most-capped player: **175**, Lionel Messi, 2005– * Youngest player: Diego Maradona, 16 years, 120 days old against Hungary on 27 February 1977 * Youngest player to appear in a FIFA World Cup match: Lionel Messi, 18 years, 357 days old against Serbia and Montenegro on 16 June 2006 * Oldest player: Ángel Labruna, 39 years, 260 days old against Czechoslovakia at the 1958 FIFA World Cup on 15 June ### Goals * Most goals scored: **103**, Lionel Messi, 2005– * Oldest goalscorer: Martín Palermo, 36 years and 7 months old in 2010 against Greece * Youngest goalscorer: Diego Maradona, 18 years, 7 months and 4 days old in 1979 against Scotland * Youngest player to score in a FIFA World Cup match: Lionel Messi, 18 years and 357 days, against Serbia and Montenegro in 2006 * Most goals scored in a single match: **5** – Manuel Seoane in 1925, Juan Marvezzi in 1941, Lionel Messi in 2022 * Most goals scored in a calendar year: **18** – Lionel Messi in 2022 * Most goals scored at FIFA World Cup finals : **13** – Lionel Messi ### Manager records * Most games coached: **127**, Guillermo Stábile. During his tenure, he won the South American Championship six times with Argentina, in 1941, the 1945, 1946, 1947, 1955 and 1957. ### World Cup awards and achievements **World Cup Golden Ball** The World Cup Golden Ball has been given by FIFA to the best player at the World Cup since 1982; Argentina players have won it thrice; Maradona in 1986 and Messi in 2014 and 2022. **World Cup top goalscorer** Guillermo Stábile in 1930 and Mario Kempes in 1978 were both the top-scoring players at their respective World Cups. **World Cup Golden Glove** The best goalkeeper at the World Cup is awarded the FIFA World Cup Golden Glove. In 2022 this award was won by Emiliano Martínez. **World Cup Young Player Award** The best player at the World Cup who is no older than 21 during the calendar year of the tournament is awarded the FIFA World Cup Young Player Award. In 2022 this award was won by Enzo Fernández. Competitive record ------------------   **Champions**    **Runners-up**    **Third place**     Tournament played fully or partially on home soil   ### FIFA World Cup | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **4** | **0** | **1** | **18** | **9** | **Squad** | *Qualified as invitees* | | Italy 1934 | Round of 16 | 9th | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Squad | *Qualified automatically* | | France 1938 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Brazil 1950 | | Switzerland 1954 | | Sweden 1958 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 10 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 2 | | Chile 1962 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | Squad | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 3 | | England 1966 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 2 | | Mexico 1970 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 6 | | West Germany 1974 | Second group stage | 8th | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 9 | 12 | Squad | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 2 | | Argentina 1978 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **5** | **1** | **1** | **15** | **4** | **Squad** | *Qualified as hosts* | | Spain 1982 | Second group stage | 11th | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 8 | 7 | Squad | *Qualified as defending champions* | | Mexico 1986 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **6** | **1** | **0** | **14** | **5** | **Squad** | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 12 | 6 | | Italy 1990 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **7** | **2** | **3** | **2** | **5** | **4** | **Squad** | *Qualified as defending champions* | | United States 1994 | Round of 16 | 10th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 6 | Squad | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 10 | | France 1998 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 4 | Squad | 16 | 8 | 6 | 2 | 23 | 13 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Group stage | 18th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | Squad | 18 | 13 | 4 | 1 | 42 | 15 | | Germany 2006 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 11 | 3 | Squad | 18 | 10 | 4 | 4 | 29 | 17 | | South Africa 2010 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 10 | 6 | Squad | 18 | 8 | 4 | 6 | 23 | 20 | | Brazil 2014 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **7** | **5** | **1** | **1** | **8** | **4** | **Squad** | 16 | 9 | 5 | 2 | 35 | 15 | | Russia 2018 | Round of 16 | 16th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 9 | Squad | 18 | 7 | 7 | 4 | 19 | 16 | | Qatar 2022 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **4** | **2** | **1** | **15** | **8** | **Squad** | 17 | 11 | 6 | 0 | 27 | 8 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | 3 Titles | 18/22 | 88 | 47 | 17 | 24 | 152 | 101 | — | 153 | 86 | 42 | 25 | 262 | 135 | *\*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.* ### Copa América | South American Championship / Copa América record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Argentina 1916 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **1** | **2** | **0** | **7** | **2** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1917 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **5** | **3** | **Squad** | | Brazil 1919 | Third place | 3rd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 7 | 7 | Squad | | Chile 1920 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **1** | **2** | **0** | **4** | **2** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1921 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **5** | **0** | **Squad** | | Brazil 1922 | Fourth place | 4th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 3 | Squad | | Uruguay 1923 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **6** | **6** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1924 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **1** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **0** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1925 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **0** | **11** | **4** | **Squad** | | Chile 1926 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **2** | **1** | **1** | **14** | **3** | **Squad** | | Peru 1927 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **15** | **4** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1929 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **9** | **1** | **Squad** | | Peru 1935 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **8** | **5** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1937 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **0** | **1** | **14** | **5** | **Squad** | | Peru 1939 | *Withdrew* | | Chile 1941 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **10** | **2** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1942 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **21** | **6** | **Squad** | | Chile 1945 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **22** | **5** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1946 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **5** | **0** | **0** | **17** | **3** | **Squad** | | Ecuador 1947 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **6** | **1** | **0** | **28** | **4** | **Squad** | | Brazil 1949 | *Withdrew* | | Peru 1953 | | Chile 1955 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **18** | **6** | **Squad** | | Uruguay1956 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 3 | Squad | | Peru 1957 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **0** | **1** | **25** | **6** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1959 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **19** | **5** | **Squad** | | Ecuador 1959 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **2** | **1** | **1** | **9** | **9** | **Squad** | | Bolivia 1963 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 10 | Squad | | Uruguay 1967 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **4** | **0** | **1** | **12** | **3** | **Squad** | | 1975 | Group stage | 5th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 17 | 4 | Squad | | 1979 | Group stage | 8th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 6 | Squad | | 1983 | Group stage | 6th | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 4 | Squad | | Argentina 1987 | Fourth place | 4th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | Squad | | Brazil 1989 | Third place | 3rd | 7 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 4 | Squad | | Chile 1991 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **6** | **1** | **0** | **16** | **6** | **Squad** | | Ecuador 1993 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **2** | **4** | **0** | **6** | **4** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1995 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 8 | 6 | Squad | | Bolivia 1997 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 3 | Squad | | Paraguay 1999 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 6 | Squad | | Colombia 2001 | *Withdrew* | | Peru 2004 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **16** | **6** | **Squad** | | Venezuela 2007 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **5** | **0** | **1** | **16** | **6** | **Squad** | | Argentina 2011 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 5 | 2 | Squad | | Chile 2015 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **10** | **3** | **Squad** | | United States 2016 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **5** | **1** | **0** | **18** | **2** | **Squad** | | Brazil 2019 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 6 | Squad | | Brazil 2021 | **Champions** | **1st** | **7** | **5** | **2** | **0** | **12** | **3** | **Squad** | | United States 2024 | *Qualified* | | Total | 15 Titles | 43/47 | 202 | 127 | 42 | 33 | 474 | 182 | — | ### FIFA Confederations Cup | FIFA Confederations Cup record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Saudi Arabia 1992 | **Champions** | **1st** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **0** | **7** | **1** | **Squad** | | Saudi Arabia 1995 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **1** | **5** | **3** | **Squad** | | Saudi Arabia 1997 | *Did not qualify* | | Mexico 1999 | | South Korea Japan 2001 | | France 2003 | | Germany 2005 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **5** | **2** | **2** | **1** | **10** | **10** | **Squad** | | South Africa 2009 | *Did not qualify* | | Brazil 2013 | | Russia 2017 | | Total | 1 Title | 3/10 | 10 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 22 | 14 | — | ### CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | France 1985 | *Did not qualify* | | Argentina 1993 | **Champions** | **1st** | **1** | **0** | **1** | **0** | **1** | **1** | | England 2022 | **Champions** | **1st** | **1** | **1** | **0** | **0** | **3** | **0** | | Total | 2 Titles | 2/3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | *\*Draws include knockout matches decided on penalty kicks.* ### Olympic Games Notes * 1928: Senior squad * 1928–1988: Amateur (youth) players * 1992–present: U-23 players | Olympic Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Greece 1896 | *No football tournament* | | France 1900 | *Did not participate* | | United States 1904 | | United Kingdom 1908 | | Sweden 1912 | | Belgium 1920 | | France 1924 | | Netherlands 1928 | **Silver medal** | **2nd** | **5** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **25** | **7** | **Squad** | | United States 1932 | *No football tournament* | | Nazi Germany 1936 | *Did not participate* | | United Kingdom 1948 | | Finland 1952 | | Australia 1956 | | Italy 1960 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 4 | Squad | | Japan 1964 | Group stage | 10th | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | Squad | | Mexico 1968 | *Did not qualify* | | West Germany 1972 | | Canada 1976 | | Soviet Union 1980 | *Qualified but withdrew* | | United States 1984 | *Did not qualify* | | Korea 1988 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 5 | Squad | | Total | 5/19 | 0–1–0 | 14 | 6 | 3 | 5 | 38 | 20 | — | Head-to-head record ------------------- Below is a result summary of all matches Argentina has played against FIFA recognised teams. *As of 19 June 2023*   Positive record   Neutral record   Negative record | Opponents | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Win % | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | |  Albania | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100% | |  Algeria | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 3 | +1 | 100% | |  Angola | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100% | |  Australia | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 8 | +8 | 77.7% | |  Austria | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 6 | 2 | +4 | 50% | |  Belarus | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0% | |  Belgium | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 12 | 4 | +8 | 80% | |  Bolivia | 41 | 29 | 5 | 7 | 107 | 36 | +71 | 70.7% | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 1 | +8 | 100% | |  Brazil | 109 | 40 | 26 | 43 | 162 | 166 | –4 | 36.7% | |  Bulgaria | 9 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 18 | 6 | +12 | 88.8% | |  Cameroon | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | –1 | 0% | |  Canada | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100% | |  Chile | 94 | 61 | 27 | 6 | 196 | 74 | +122 | 64.9% | |  China | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | –1 | 0% | |  Colombia | 40 | 20 | 11 | 9 | 71 | 39 | +32 | 50% | |  Costa Rica | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 14 | 5 | +9 | 71.4% | |  Croatia | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 7 | +1 | 50% | |  Curaçao | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | +7 | 100% | |  Czechoslovakia | 6 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 7 | 10 | –3 | 33.3% | |  Denmark | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | –1 | 33.3% | | *East Germany* | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 50% | |  Ecuador | 38 | 22 | 11 | 5 | 96 | 35 | +61 | 57.9% | |  Egypt | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | +8 | 100% | |  El Salvador | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100% | |  England | 15 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 18 | 22 | –4 | 28.5% | |  Estonia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100% | |  France | 13 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 18 | 14 | +4 | 46.1% | |  Germany | 23 | 10 | 6 | 7 | 34 | 33 | +1 | 43.4% | |  Ghana | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100% | |  Greece | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100% | |  Guatemala | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | +13 | 100% | |  Haiti | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 1 | +11 | 100% | |  Honduras | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 1 | +6 | 100% | |  Hong Kong | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 0 | +7 | 100% | |  Hungary | 7 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 6 | +9 | 71.4% | |  Iceland | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0% | |  India | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100% | |  Indonesia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100% | |  Iran | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 50% | |  Iraq | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100% | |  Israel | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 14 | 6 | +8 | 60% | |  Italy | 16 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 18 | 22 | –4 | 31.2% | |  Ivory Coast | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 1 | +5 | 100% | |  Jamaica | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 1 | +10 | 100% | |  Japan | 7 | 6 | 0 | 1 | 15 | 4 | +11 | 85.7% | |  Libya | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100% | |  Lithuania | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0% | |  Mexico | 32 | 16 | 12 | 4 | 53 | 28 | +25 | 50% | |  Morocco | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100% | |  Netherlands | 10 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 8 | 15 | –7 | 10% | |  Nicaragua | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 | 100% | |  Nigeria | 9 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 13 | +2 | 66.6% | |  Northern Ireland | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100% | |  Norway | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | –2 | 0% | |  Panama | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 1 | +9 | 100% | |  Paraguay | 106 | 55 | 35 | 16 | 217 | 111 | +106 | 51.8% | |  Peru | 53 | 34 | 14 | 5 | 105 | 45 | +60 | 64.1% | |  Poland | 12 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 20 | 12 | +8 | 58.3% | |  Portugal | 8 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 7 | +6 | 62.5% | |  Qatar | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100% | |  Republic of Ireland | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 1 | +7 | 83.3% | |  Romania | 9 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 12 | 6 | +6 | 66.6% | |  Russia | 13 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 13 | 11 | +2 | 30.7% | |  Saudi Arabia | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 5 | +3 | 40% | |  Serbia and Montenegro | 10 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 21 | 15 | +6 | 50% | |  Scotland | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | +2 | 50% | |  Singapore | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100% | |  South Africa | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 50% | |  South Korea | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 4 | +6 | 75% | |  Slovakia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100% | |  Slovenia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100% | |  Spain | 14 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 18 | 19 | –1 | 42.8% | |  Sweden | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 6 | 0 | 33.3% | |  Switzerland | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 15 | 3 | +12 | 71.4% | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100% | |  Tunisia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100% | |  United Arab Emirates | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100% | |  United States | 11 | 7 | 2 | 2 | 30 | 9 | +21 | 63.6% | |  Uruguay | 202 | 94 | 49 | 59 | 325 | 234 | +91 | 46.5% | |  Venezuela | 27 | 23 | 2 | 2 | 90 | 18 | +72 | 85.1% | |  Wales | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 50% | | Total (82) | 1067 | 584 | 262 | 220 | 2017 | 1088 | +929 | 54.7% | 1. ↑ Includes matches against  West Germany. 2. ↑ Includes matches against  Soviet Union. 3. ↑ Includes matches against  Yugoslavia. Rivalries --------- ### Brazil Argentina and Brazil have a fierce rivalry which is one of the oldest in South America. Games between the two teams, even those that are only friendly matches, are often marked by notable and controversial incidents. The rivalry has also been referred to as the "Battle of the Americas." FIFA has described it as the "essence of football rivalry". According to CNN, Argentina-Brazil rivalry ranked second on their top 10 list of international football rivalries—only below the ancient England–Scotland football rivalry. The rivalry has extended to comparisons between Pelé and Diego Maradona. Some of their countrymen also feature regularly in such debates. The next most notable pair are perhaps Garrincha (Brazilian) and Alfredo Di Stéfano (Argentine). The most dominant figures from the two countries in the modern game are Neymar (Brazilian) and Lionel Messi (Argentine). Both Pelé and Maradona have declared Neymar and Messi their respective "successors". ### England With a rivalry stemming from the 1966 World Cup and intensified by the Falklands War of 1982, Argentina and England have had numerous confrontations in World Cup tournaments. Among them was the quarter-final match in 1986, where Diego Maradona scored two goals against England. The first was a handball, but was ruled legal by the referee. The second, scored minutes later, saw Maradona passing five England outfield players before scoring, and is often described as one of the greatest goals in football history. The nations were paired together in the Round of 16 at the 1998 FIFA World Cup, won by Argentina on penalties, and again at the group stage in 2002, England winning 1–0 through a penalty by David Beckham who had been sent off in the tie four years earlier. ### Germany Argentina has played Germany in seven FIFA World Cup matches including three FIFA World Cup finals: In 1986 Argentina won 3–2, but in 1990 it was the Germans who were the victors by a 1–0 scoreline. In 1958 they met for the first time in the group stage, where Argentina suffered a 1–3 loss to defending champions West Germany. In 1966 both again faced each other in the group stage which ended in a scoreless draw. In 2006, they met in the quarter-finals; Argentina lost on penalties after a 1–1 draw, which was followed by a brawl on the pitch involving several players. They met again at the same stage in 2010, this time ending with a 4–0 victory for Germany. They played each other for the third consecutive World Cup in the Brazil 2014 event's final, where Argentina was defeated in extra time by a score of 1–0. ### Uruguay Argentina has a long-standing rivalry with its neighbour, that came into existence from the early South American Championships, the 1928 Summer Olympics and the first World Cup final, held in 1930. Argentina and Uruguay hold the record for most international matches played between two countries. The two teams have faced each other 197 times since 1902. The first match between Argentina and Uruguay was also the first official international match to be played outside the United Kingdom. ### Mexico Argentina has a minor rivalry with Mexico, which developed in the 1990s. The rivalry is considered one-sided as a number of Argentines do not consider Mexico as rivals. Although the first official match between both nations came in the 1930 FIFA World Cup where Argentina beat Mexico 6–3 on group stage, the rivalry emerged during the late twentieth century, especially after the 1993 Copa América Final, where Argentina beat Mexico 2–1. That was the first time a non-CONMEBOL nation played in a Copa América final, and the first final played between both sides. The rivalry has continued in club competitions, where Argentine and Mexicans first met in 1968 Copa Interamericana. The rivalry between both nations at club level increased during the late 1990s, when Mexican clubs were invited to participate in Copa Libertadores, where they played memorable matches v Boca Juniors. During the 2022 FIFA World Cup held in Qatar, some Mexican and Argentine fans had a fight in Doha prior to the match between both sides, among great animosity. Both supporters fought again inside Lusail Stadium after the match that Argentina won 2–0, giving Argentina a chance to qualify and forcing Mexico to win against Saudi Arabia to qualify, which ended with Argentina and Poland qualifying and Mexico being eliminated alongside Saudi Arabia. This sense of rivalry is more keenly felt by Mexican supporters and media, since Argentines do not consider Mexico rivals like Brazil, Germany, Uruguay or England. ### Nigeria A recurrent rivalry developed from the 1990s between Argentina and Nigeria, based not on geographical proximity, long-term battles for honours or factors outside football, but due to the frequency of significant matches between them. This has included five World Cup group games, all won by Argentina by a single goal margin: 2–1 in 1994, 1–0 in 2002, 1–0 in 2010, 3–2 in 2014 and 2–1 in 2018. The fixture is the most common in the competition's history involving an African nation, and has occurred in five of the six tournaments for which Nigeria has qualified. The sides also met in the 1995 King Fahd Cup (the predecessor to the Confederations Cup) as champions of their respective continents, drawing 0–0. Below full international level, their Olympic teams also faced off in the gold medal match in 1996 (3–2 to Nigeria), and 2008 (1–0 to Argentina). The final of the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship was also played between them; both Argentina goals in their 2–1 win were scored by Lionel Messi, who would go on to find the net for the senior team in the 2014 and 2018 World Cup fixtures. The sense of rivalry is more keenly felt on the Nigerian side, as Argentina has won almost all of their encounters, so they do not consider Nigeria a rival like Brazil, England, Uruguay or Germany, in contrast to the West Africans who remain keen to finally overcome a more illustrious foe. ### Netherlands Honours ------- ### Official * **FIFA World Cup** + **1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions (3)**: 1978, 1986, 2022 + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up (3): 1930, 1990, 2014 * **South American Championship / Copa América** + **1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions (15)**: 1921, 1925, 1927, 1929, 1937, 1941, 1945, 1946, 1947, 1955, 1957, 1959, 1991, 1993, 2021 + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up (14): 1916, 1917, 1920, 1923, 1924, 1926, 1935, 1942, 1959, 1967, 2004, 2007, 2015, 2016 + 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Third place (5): 1919, 1956, 1963, 1989, 2019 + Fourth place (2): 1922, 1987 * **Panamerican Championship** + **1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions (1)**: 1960 + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up (1): 1956 * **FIFA Confederations Cup** + **1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions (1)**: 1992 + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up (2): 1995, 2005 * **CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions** + **1st place, gold medalist(s) Champions (2)**: 1993, 2022 ### Olympic team * **Olympic Games** + 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Silver medal (1): 1928 ### Friendly * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Newton Cup (17)**: 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1911, 1916, 1918, 1924, 1927, 1928, 1937, 1942, 1945, 1957, 1973, 1975, 1976 **(record)** * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Lipton Cup (18)**: 1906, 1907, 1908, 1909, 1913, 1915, 1916, 1917, 1918, 1928, 1937, 1942, 1945, 1957, 1962, 1968, 1976, 1992 **(record)** * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Premier Honor Argentino (7)**: 1909, 1911, 1913, 1914,1918, 1919, 1980 **(record)** * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Centenario Revolución de Mayo (1)**: 1910 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Premier Honor Uruguayo (5)**: 1915, 1916, 1917, 1923, 1924 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Juan Mignaburu (5)**: 1935, 1936, 1938, 1940, 1943 **(record)** * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Héctor Rivadavia Gómez (3)**: 1935, 1936, 1943 **(record)** * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Roca Cup (4)**: 1923, 1939, 1940, 1971 (shared) * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Superclásico de las Américas (2)**: 2017, 2019 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Nations' Cup (1)**: 1964 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Kirin Cup (2)**: 1992, 2003 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) Copa Times of India (1)**: 2011 * **1st place, gold medalist(s) San Juan Cup (1)**: 2019 ### Chronology of titles | Host nation | Tournament | Year | No. | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1921 | 1st | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1925 | 2nd | | Peru Peru | Copa América | 1927 | 3rd | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1929 | 4th | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1937 | 5th | | Chile Chile | Copa América | 1941 | 6th | | Chile Chile | Copa América | 1945 | 7th | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1946 | 8th | | Ecuador Ecuador | Copa América | 1947 | 9th | | Chile Chile | Copa América | 1955 | 10th | | Peru Peru | Copa América | 1957 | 11th | | Argentina Argentina | Copa América | 1959 | 12th | | Costa Rica Costa Rica | Panamerican Championship | 1960 | 13th | | Argentina Argentina | World Cup | 1978 | 14th | | Mexico Mexico | World Cup | 1986 | 15th | | Chile Chile | Copa América | 1991 | 16th | | Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia | Confederations Cup | 1992 | 17th | | Argentina Argentina | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions | 1993 | 18th | | Ecuador Ecuador | Copa América | 1993 | 19th | | Brazil Brazil | Copa América | 2021 | 20th | | England England | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions | 2022 | 21st | | Qatar Qatar | World Cup | 2022 | 22nd | ### Summary | Senior competition | 1st place, gold medalist(s) | 2nd place, silver medalist(s) | 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | World Cup | 3 | 3 | 0 | 6 | | Copa América | 15 | 14 | 5 | 34 | | Confederations Cup | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | | Olympic Games | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | Panamerican Championship | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | Total | 22 | 21 | 5 | 48 | Notes 1. ↑ Senior squad participations include the 1928–1936 period so only amateur players were allowed from the 1948 Games, and only U-23 players starting in 1992. For further information, see Argentina national under-23 football team. See also -------- * List of Argentina international footballers * Argentina national under-23 football team * Argentina national under-20 football team * Argentina national under-17 football team * *Vamos, vamos, Argentina* Notes and references --------------------

Argentina national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argentina_national_football_team

**Beja** (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈbɛʒɐ] ()) is a city and a municipality in the Alentejo region, Portugal. The population in 2011 was 35,854, in an area of 1,146.44 km2 (442.64 sq mi). The city proper had a population of 21,658 in 2001. The municipality is the capital of the Beja District. The present Mayor is Paulo Arsénio, elected by the Socialist Party with an absolute majority in the 2017 Portuguese Local Elections. The municipal holiday is Ascension Day. The Portuguese Air Force has an airbase in the area – the Air Base No. 11. History ------- Situated on a 277-metre (909 ft) hill, commanding a strategic position over the vast plains of the Baixo Alentejo, Beja was already an important place in antiquity. Already inhabited in Celtic times, the town was later named *Pax Julia* by Julius Caesar in 48 BCE, when he made peace with the Lusitanians. He raised the town to be the capital of the southernmost province of Lusitania (Santarém and Braga were the other capitals of the *conventi*). During the reign of emperor Augustus the thriving town became **Pax Augusta**. It was already then a strategic road junction. When the Visigoths took over the region, they called the town *Paca* (a direct derivation or shortening of the Latin *Pax or Pace-Augusta*) which then became the seat of a bishopric. Saint Aprígio (died in 530) became the first Visigothic bishop of Paca. The town fell to the invading Umayyad army in 713. *Paca*, was then adapted to Arabic *Baja* (Arabic: باجة there's no sound for "p" in Arabic), and eventually became *Beja*. Starting in 910 there were successive attempts of conquest and reconquest by the Christian kings. With the collapse of the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031, Beja became a taifa, an independent Muslim-ruled principality. In 1144 the governor of Beja, Sidray ibn Wazir, helped the rebellion of the *Murīdūn* (disciples) led by Abul-Qasim Ahmad ibn al-Husayn al-Quasi in the Algarve against power of Seville. In 1150 the town was captured by an army of the Almohads, who annexed it to their North African empire. It was retaken in 1162 by Fernão Gonçalves, leading the army of the Portuguese king Afonso I. It must have been abandoned by the Portuguese because in 1172 Gerald the Mercenary captured the town from the Muslims and before departing from it the medieval Arab city was reduced to rubble and left desolate. In 1175 Beja was recaptured again by the Almohads. It stayed under Muslim rule till 1234 when king Sancho II finally recaptured the town from the Moors. All these wars depopulated the town and gradually reduced it to rubble. Only with Manuel I in 1521 did Beja again reach the status of city. It was attacked and occupied by the Portuguese and the Spanish armies during the Portuguese Restoration War (1640–1667). Beja became again the head of a bishopric in 1770, more than a thousand years after the fall of the Visigothic city. In 1808 Napoleonic troops under General Junot sacked the city and massacred the inhabitants. Geography --------- ### Climate Due to its southernmost inland location with the descending winds of the subtropics and low precipitation, especially in summer, the city has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: *Csa*). It is the hottest main city in Portugal and one of the hottest places in Europe during summer. Between 2001 and 2018 it had the hottest summer of any main city in the country. Although mild by European standards, Beja has relatively cool winters, while summers are long and hot. The high in January is around 14 °C (57 °F) while the July and August highs are around 33 °C (91 °F), however in the last few years there has been an increase, to around 34-36°C+. The January low is 5 °C (41 °F) and in July and August is 16 °C (61 °F). The annual mean temperature is around 17 °C (63 °F). The average total rainfall in a year is 558 mm (22.0 in). Snow is rare but may occur on a few occasions in a century, the last major snowfall having happened on January 10, 2009. The year 2005 was particularly dry in Portugal and Beja suffered devastating forest fires in the surrounding rural areas contributing to the desertification that affects Alentejo. | Climate data for Beja (Santiago Maior), elevation: 246 m or 807 ft, 1981-2010 normals, 1981-present extremes | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.0(71.6) | 24.5(76.1) | 30.0(86.0) | 32.6(90.7) | 40.0(104.0) | 45.4(113.7) | 45.2(113.4) | 45.4(113.7) | 43.3(109.9) | 35.0(95.0) | 28.1(82.6) | 22.0(71.6) | 45.4(113.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.0(57.2) | 15.5(59.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 20.4(68.7) | 24.3(75.7) | 29.9(85.8) | 33.3(91.9) | 33.1(91.6) | 29.4(84.9) | 23.5(74.3) | 18.0(64.4) | 14.5(58.1) | 22.9(73.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.7(49.5) | 10.8(51.4) | 13.4(56.1) | 14.6(58.3) | 17.7(63.9) | 22.0(71.6) | 24.6(76.3) | 24.8(76.6) | 22.4(72.3) | 18.2(64.8) | 13.6(56.5) | 10.7(51.3) | 16.9(62.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.4(41.7) | 6.0(42.8) | 7.7(45.9) | 8.7(47.7) | 11.0(51.8) | 14.0(57.2) | 15.8(60.4) | 16.4(61.5) | 15.4(59.7) | 12.9(55.2) | 9.2(48.6) | 6.8(44.2) | 10.8(51.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | −2.7(27.1) | −3.2(26.2) | −3.2(26.2) | 0.3(32.5) | 3.3(37.9) | 7.6(45.7) | 8.7(47.7) | 9.0(48.2) | 7.5(45.5) | 3.8(38.8) | 0.3(32.5) | −0.9(30.4) | −3.2(26.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 65.7(2.59) | 55.0(2.17) | 40.5(1.59) | 58.8(2.31) | 43.3(1.70) | 13.1(0.52) | 2.4(0.09) | 4.0(0.16) | 29.5(1.16) | 71.5(2.81) | 76.5(3.01) | 97.7(3.85) | 558(22.0) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 166.7 | 158.8 | 225.6 | 253.1 | 292.4 | 340.2 | 373.2 | 340.0 | 262.6 | 208.8 | 177.3 | 148.1 | 2,933.3 | | Source 1: IPMA | | Source 2: Météo Climat 1981-2010 (sunshine values) "Moyennes 1981/2010 Beja". *Baseline climate means (1981–2010) from stations all over the world*. Météo Climat. Retrieved 14 July 2020. | | Climate data for Beja (Santiago Maior), elevation: 247 m or 810 ft, 1961-1990 normals and extremes | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 22.0(71.6) | 24.1(75.4) | 28.8(83.8) | 29.8(85.6) | 36.7(98.1) | 43.3(109.9) | 42.7(108.9) | 41.4(106.5) | 42.0(107.6) | 34.3(93.7) | 28.1(82.6) | 21.2(70.2) | 43.3(109.9) | | Average high °C (°F) | 13.8(56.8) | 14.9(58.8) | 17.3(63.1) | 19.4(66.9) | 23.7(74.7) | 28.4(83.1) | 32.5(90.5) | 32.5(90.5) | 29.3(84.7) | 23.2(73.8) | 17.5(63.5) | 14.2(57.6) | 22.2(72.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 9.6(49.3) | 10.4(50.7) | 11.9(53.4) | 13.7(56.7) | 16.9(62.4) | 20.8(69.4) | 23.8(74.8) | 24.0(75.2) | 22.2(72.0) | 17.7(63.9) | 13.0(55.4) | 10.1(50.2) | 16.2(61.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 5.4(41.7) | 5.9(42.6) | 6.6(43.9) | 7.9(46.2) | 10.1(50.2) | 13.2(55.8) | 15.1(59.2) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.1(59.2) | 12.3(54.1) | 8.5(47.3) | 6.0(42.8) | 10.1(50.2) | | Record low °C (°F) | −3.0(26.6) | −4.0(24.8) | −2.8(27.0) | 0.3(32.5) | 2.3(36.1) | 6.2(43.2) | 9.1(48.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 6.4(43.5) | 3.2(37.8) | −0.5(31.1) | −4.9(23.2) | −4.9(23.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 81.0(3.19) | 80.0(3.15) | 54.0(2.13) | 60.0(2.36) | 36.0(1.42) | 23.0(0.91) | 2.0(0.08) | 3.0(0.12) | 22.0(0.87) | 65.0(2.56) | 76.0(2.99) | 83.0(3.27) | 585(23.05) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 9.0 | 10.0 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 3.0 | trace | 1.0 | 2.0 | 6.0 | 8.0 | 9.0 | 68 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 81 | 79 | 72 | 70 | 64 | 56 | 50 | 50 | 56 | 68 | 76 | 81 | 67 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 148.0 | 147.0 | 195.0 | 219.0 | 282.0 | 298.0 | 357.0 | 336.0 | 245.0 | 199.0 | 158.0 | 142.0 | 2,726 | | Source: NOAA | ### Human geography Administratively, the municipality is divided into 11 civil parishes (*freguesias*): * Albernoa e Trindade * Baleizão * Beja (Salvador e Santa Maria da Feira) * Beja (Santiago Maior e São João Baptista) * Beringel * Cabeça Gorda * Nossa Senhora das Neves * Salvada e Quintos * Santa Clara de Louredo * Santa Vitória e Mombeja * São Matias * Trigaches e São Brissos #### International relations Beja is twinned with: | | | --- | | * Tunisia Béja, Tunisia *(1993)* | Architecture ------------ ### Castle The Castle of Beja on top of the hill can be seen from afar and dominates the town. It was built, together with the town walls, under the reign of King Diniz in the 13th century over the remains of a Roman *castellum* that had been fortified by the Moors. It consists of battlement walls with four square corner towers and a central granite and marble keep (*Torre de Menagem*), with its height of 40 m the highest in Portugal. The top of the keep can be accessed via a spiral staircase with 197 steps, passing three stellar-vaulted rooms with Gothic windows. The merlons of the machicolation around the keep are topped with small pyramids. Standing on the battlements, one has a sensational panorama of the surrounding landscape. One can also glimpse the remains of the city walls that once had forty turrets and five gates. The castle now houses a small military museum. The square in front of the castle is named after Gonçalo Mendes da Maia or *O Lidador*, a brave knight killed in the battle against the Moors in 1170. ### Visigothic Museum The whitewashed Latin-Visigothic church of Santo Amaro, dedicated to Saint Amaro, standing next to the castle, is one of just four pre-Romanesque churches left in Portugal. Some parts date from the 6th century and the interior columns and capitals are carved with foliages and geometric designs from the 7th century. Especially the column with birds attacking a snake is of particular note. It houses today a small archaeological museum with Visigothic art. ### Museum of Queen Eleanor This regional museum was set up in 1927 and 1928 in the former Convent of Our Lady of the Conception (*Convento de Nossa Senhora da Conceição*) of the Order of Poor Ladies (dissolved in 1834), gradually expanding its collection. This Franciscan convent had been established in 1459 by Infante Fernando, Duke of Viseu and duke of Beja, next to his ducal palace. The construction continued until 1509. It is an impressive building with a late-Gothic lattice-worked architrave running along the building. This elegant architrave resembles somewhat the architrave of the Monastery of Batalha, even if there are some early-Manueline influences. Above the entrance porch on the western façade is an *ajimez* window (a mullioned window) in Manueline and Moorish style in the room of the abbess, originating from the demolished palace of the dukes of Beja. The entrance door is embedded under an ogee arch. A square bell-tower and a spire with crockets tower above the complex. The convent has been classified as a national monument. The entrance hall leads to the sumptuously gilded Baroque chapel, consisting of a single nave under a semi-circular vault. Three altars (one of the 17th century, dedicated to St. John the Evangelist, and two of the 18th century, dedicated to St. Christopher and St. Bento) are decorated with gilded woodwork (*talha dourada*). The fourth altar, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, was decorated with Florentine mosaics by José Ramalho in 1695. On the wall are three religious azulejos dating from 1741, depicting scenes from the life of St. John the Baptist The refectory and the *claustro* are decorated with exquisite *azulejos*, some dating from Moorish times, others from the 16th to the 18th centuries. One enters the chapter house through a Manueline portal from the *quadra* of St. John the Evangelist. The ribbed vault of this square room was distempered during the renovations of 1727. The walls are covered with Arab-Hispanic azulejos with geometric and vegetal designs that are among the most important ceramic decorations in Portugal. Above the azulejos are some semicircular distempered paintings with religious themes: St. John the Baptist, St. John the Evangelist, St. Christopher, St. Clare and St. Francis of Assisi. The museum houses also an important collection of Flemish, Spanish and Portuguese paintings from the 15th to the 18th centuries, among them: * Flemish paintings: **Virgin with Milk**; Flemish School (c. 1530) and "Christ and His Apostles" (16th century) * Portuguese paintings: *Ecce Homo* (15th century), "St. Vincent by Vicente Gil and Manuel Vicente (16th century), "Virgin with the Rose" by Francisco Campos (16th century), "Mass of St. Gregory" probably by Gregório Lopes (16th century), "Annunciation" (16th century) and four paintings by António Nogueira (16th century), "Last Supper" by Pedro Alexandrino (17th century). * Spanish paintings: *St. Augustine*, *St. Jerome* and "Martyrdom of St. Bartholomew" by José de Ribera (Spanish, 17th century), *Head of Saint John the Baptist* (Spanish School, 17th century) The museum houses also the funeral monuments in late-Gothic style of the first abbess D. Uganda and of the Infante Fernando, Duke of Viseu and his wife Beatriz of Portugal. The archaeological collection of Fernando Nunes Ribeiro, donated to museum in 1987 after forty years of archaeological research, is on display on the upper floors: Visigothic and Roman artefacts, gravestones from the Bronze Age with antique writings of the Iberians and steles from the Iron Age. Among the several other artefacts in its collection, the museum possesses the *Escudela de Pero de Faria*, a unique piece of Chinese porcelain from 1541. Museums and monuments --------------------- * Castle of Beja * Regional Museum (Housed in the Convent of Beja) * Museological Core of Sembrano's Street * Visigotic Core of the Regional Museum (Housed in the Church of Santo Amaro) * Old Stone Pillory * Roman ruins of Pisões * Jorge Vieira's Art Museum Historical churches ------------------- * Cathedral of St. James the Great, Beja * Heritage of Santo André * Church of Santo Amaro / Visigotic Core of the Regional Beja Museum * Church of Mercy * Our Lady of Conception Convent (Convent of Beja) / REGIONAL MUSEUM * S. Francisco Convent (Now a Historical Hotel) * Church of Santa Maria da Feira (Originally Built as a Mosque) * Church of Our Lady of Pleasures * Church of Our Lady at the Foot of the Cross * Church of Our Lady of Peace * Church of the Savior * Church of Our Lady of Carmo * St. Stephen's Chapel * S. Sebastião's Heritage * Convent of Santo António Urban green spaces ------------------ * *Jardim Gago Coutinho e Sacadura Cabra* is a well-kept public park in the centre with several monuments, fountains, a pergola and a pavilion. The park is named after two pilots, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho,, who were the first Portuguese who crossed the South Atlantic by plane in 1922. * City Park * Picnic Park (Close to the City Park) Economy ------- Known as the breadbasket of Portugal, the region's agriculture is a mainstay of the local economy. It produces wheat, wines and olives. Tourism has also importance due to sunny weather, a long history and many cultural attractions including a 13th-century castle and a number of museums. The military airport of Beja, 9 kilometers away, has been converted and was opened for civilian flights in 2011. The Portuguese wet lease airline Hi Fly operated its Airbus A380, purchased second-hand in 2018, from Beja, as well as other airplanes of its fleet. A highway was constructed to link Beja to the deepwater port of Sines about 60 kilometers away. Education --------- ### Higher education * Polytechnic Institute of Beja ### Schools * EB 2,3 Santiago Maior School * EB 2,3 Mário Beirão School * EB 2,3 Santa Maria School * D. Manuel I - High School * Diogo Gouveia - High School * Regional Music Conservatory from Baixo Alentejo Culture ------- ### Cultural places * Beja Public Library * Pax Julia Theater * Casa da Culture (meaning House of Culture) ### Events * Ovibeja * Patrimónios do Sul * Beja Romana (Historical Recreation from Roman Times) * International Comics Festival * Palavras Andarilhas Notable citizens ---------------- * Abu al-Walid al-Baji (c. 1013–c.1081) a goldsmith and Maliki scholar * Al-Mu'tamid ibn Abbad (1040–1095), the third and last ruler of the taifa of Seville in Al-Andalus. * Gonçalo Mendes da Maia (1079–1170) a knight in the service of Afonso Henriques, responsible for border defence of Beja. * Queen Eleanor of Viseu (1458–1525) an *infanta* (princess) and later queen consort of Portugal. * Diogo de Gouveia (c.1471-1557) a teacher, theologian, diplomat and humanist during the Renaissance. * André de Gouveia (1497–1548) a humanist and pedagogue during the Renaissance. * António de Gouveia (c.1505–1566) a humanist and educator during the Renaissance. * Mariana Alcoforado (1640–1723) a nun who wrote the *Letters of a Portuguese Nun* * José Agostinho de Macedo (1761–1831) a Portuguese poet and prose writer * Tomás António Garcia Rosado (1854–1937) an infantry officer, general of the Portuguese Army, Governor of Mozambique, 1902-1905 and Ambassador to the UK, 1926-1934. * António Maria Baptista (1866–1920) a military officer and politician, President of the Ministry in 1920 * Deolinda Lopes Vieira (1888–1993) a teacher, an anarcho-syndicalist activist and feminist * Mário Beirão (1890-1965) a Portuguese poet * Maria Lucília Estanco Louro (1922-2018) a teacher, pacifist and opponent of the Estado Novo regime * Catarina Eufémia (1928-1954) a harvester and political murder victim in Beja * Linda de Suza (born 1948) a singer, actress and best-selling author * Tonicha (born 1946) real name *Antónia de Jesus Montes Tonicha*, a pop-folk singer. * Cândida Branca Flor (1949–2001) an entertainer and traditional singer * Carlos Moedas (born 1970) European Commissioner 2014-2019 * António Zambujo (born 1975) a singer and songwriter ### Sport * Fernando Mamede (born 1951) a former athlete, a long distance running specialist * Quim (born 1967) real name *Joaquim Manuel Aguiar Serafim*, a retired footballer with 436 for Vitória F.C. * Pedro Caixinha (born 1970) a football manager currently with Cruz Azul * Manuel Damião (born 1978) a middle- and long-distance runner * China (born 1982), real name *João Pedro dos Santos Gonçalves*, a footballer with over 350 club caps * João Aurélio (born 1988) a professional footballer with over 300 club caps

Beja, Portugal

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beja,_Portugal

***Illicium verum*** is a medium-sized evergreen tree native to northeast Vietnam and southwest China. A spice commonly called **star anise**, **staranise**, **star anise seed**, **star aniseed**, **star of anise**, **Chinese star anise**, or **badian** that closely resembles anise in flavor is obtained from the star-shaped pericarps of the fruit of *I. verum* which are harvested just before ripening. Star anise oil is a highly fragrant oil used in cooking, perfumery, soaps, toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. Until 2012, when they switched to using a bacterial source, Roche Pharmaceuticals used up to 90% of the world's annual star anise crop to produce shikimic acid, a chemical intermediate used in the synthesis of oseltamivir (Tamiflu). Etymology and nomenclature -------------------------- *Illicium* comes from the Latin *illicio* meaning "entice" or "seduce". *Verum* means "true" or "genuine". The name "badian" appears to derive, via French *badiane*, from the apparently descriptive Chinese name for it, 八角, pinyin: *bājiǎo*, lit. "eight horns". However, a derivation from the Persian بادیان *bādiyān**,* "fennel", exists, with the Oxford English Dictionary indicating that its origin before that is unknown. Description ----------- Leaves are aromatic, simple and lanceolate, obovate-elliptic or elliptic, size of 5–15 cm × 2–5 cm, coriaceous to thickly coriaceous. The leaves are 5–15 cm × 1.5–5 cm, apex acute, lower side pubescent. Flowers are solitary, bisexual, pink to dark red, axillary or subterminal. The perianth has lobes 7–12, arranged spirally; stamens number of 11–20, arranged spirally, with short, thick filaments; carpels usually 8, free, arranged in a single whorl. Flower peduncle size is 1.5–4 cm, tepals number range from seven to twelve, and are broadly elliptic to broadly ovate, anthers size is 1–1.5 mm, pollen grains trisyncolpate. The fruit is a capsule-like follicetum, star-shaped, reddish-brown, consisting of six to eight follicles arranged in a whorl. Each follicle is boat-shaped, 1–2 cm long, rough and rigid, color reddish-brown, with 1 seed, opening along the ventral edge when ripe. carpels size of 10 mm long, boat-shaped; they are hard and wrinkled, containing one seed. Seeds are brown, compressed ovoid, smooth, shiny and brittle with approximate size of 8–9 mm × 6 mm. Differences with similar taxa: *Illicium anisatum* had smaller fruits that does not form a regular star due to the abortion of some carpels. Also fruit follicles are not swollen in the middle and had a more pointed apex. Also usually had more than 8 follicles and the fruit has weaker odour. The seeds in *Illicium anisatum* are flat or almost spherical. Use --- ### Culinary use Star anise contains anethole, the same compound that gives the unrelated anise its flavor. Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking, as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liqueur Galliano. Star anise enhances the flavour of meat. It is used as a spice in preparation of *biryani* and *masala chai* all over the Indian subcontinent. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, and in Malay and Indonesian cuisines. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also a major ingredient in the making of *phở*, a Vietnamese noodle soup. It is also used in the French recipe of mulled wine, called *vin chaud* (hot wine). If allowed to steep in coffee, it deepens and enriches the flavor. The pods can be used in this manner multiple times by the pot-full or cup, as the ease of extraction of the taste components increases with the permeation of hot water. ### Drug precursor Star anise is the major source of the chemical compound shikimic acid, a primary precursor in the pharmaceutical synthesis of the antiinfluenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu). An industrial method for the production of shikimic acid using fermentation of *E. coli* bacteria was discovered in 2005, and applied in the 2009 swine flu pandemic to address Tamiflu shortages, also causing price increases for star anise as a raw material of shikimic acid. As of 2018, fermentation of *E. coli* was the manufacturing process of choice to produce shikimic acid for synthesis of Tamiflu. Study shows star anise can be used as anti quorum sensing and anti-biofilm agent in food matrix. Toxicity of related species --------------------------- *Illicium verum* is not toxic. However, other related species are toxic. Japanese star anise (*Illicium anisatum*), a similar tree, is highly toxic and inedible; in Japan, it has instead been burned as incense. Cases of illness, including "serious neurological effects, such as seizures", reported after using star anise tea may be a result of deliberate economically motivated adulteration with this species. Japanese star anise contains the neurotoxin anisatin, which also causes severe inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis), urinary tract, and digestive organs when ingested. Swamp star anise *Illicium parviflorum* is a similar tree found in the Southern United States, and due to its toxicity, it should not be used for folk remedies or as a cooking ingredient. Standardization of its products and services -------------------------------------------- * ISO 676:1995 – contains the information about the nomenclature of the variety and cultivars ### Identification * Refer to the 4th edition of the *European Pharmacopoeia* (1153) ### Differentiation from other species Joshi *et al.* have used fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography to distinguish the species, while Lederer *et al.* employed thin layer chromatography with HPLC-MS/MS. ### Specifications * ISO 11178:1995 - a specification for its dried fruits

Illicium verum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illicium_verum

A **prison**, also known as a **jail**, **gaol** (dated, British and South African; historically used in Canada and Australia), **penitentiary** (North American English), **detention center** (or **detention centre** outside the US), **correction center**, **correctional facility**, **lock-up**, **hoosegow** or **remand center**, is a facility in which convicted criminals are confined against their will and denied a variety of freedoms under the authority of the state as punishment for various crimes. Prisons are most commonly used within a criminal justice system: people charged with crimes may be imprisoned until their trial; those pleading or being found guilty of crimes at trial may be sentenced to a specified period of imprisonment. In simplest terms, a prison can also be described as a building in which people are legally held as a punishment for a crime they have committed. Prisons can also be used as a tool of political repression by authoritarian regimes. Their perceived opponents may be imprisoned for political crimes, often without trial or other legal due process; this use is illegal under most forms of international law governing fair administration of justice. In times of war, prisoners of war or detainees may be detained in military prisons or prisoner of war camps, and large groups of civilians might be imprisoned in internment camps. Toponymy -------- ### Names In American English, the terms *prison* and *jail* have separate definitions, though this is not always strictly adhered to in casual speech. A *prison* or *penitentiary* holds people for longer periods of time, such as many years, and is operated by a state or federal government. A *jail* holds people for shorter periods of time (e.g. for shorter sentences or pre-trial detention) and is usually operated by a local government, typically the county sheriff. Outside of North America, *prison* and *jail* often have the same meaning. In New Zealand, the terms "jail" and "prison" are commonly used, although the terms "correctional facility" and "prison" among others are in official usage. In Papua New Guinea, "prison" is officially used, although "jail" is also widely understood and more common in usage. #### Australia In Australia, the terms "jail" and "prison" are commonly used and are widely understood. The now-obsolete spelling "gaol" was officially used for prisons in the 18th and 19th centuries, but most of these prisons no longer operate (many of which are now tourist attractions, such as the Maitland Gaol). Prisons in Australia are operated by state and territory governments, which use several different official names. Officially, the term "correctional centre" is used for almost all prisons in New South Wales and Queensland, while other states and territories use a variety of names. "Prison" is officially used for some facilities in South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia. | State/territory | Official terminology | | --- | --- | |  Australian Capital Territory | correctional centre, detention centre | |  New South Wales | correctional centre | |  Northern Territory | correctional centre, detention centre | |  Queensland | correctional centre | |  South Australia | prison, release centre, remand centre, training centre | |  Tasmania | prison, reception centre | |  Victoria | correctional centre, prison, remand centre | |  Western Australia | correctional centre, prison | Youth prisons in Australia are referred to as "youth correctional facilities" or "youth detention centres" among other names, depending on the jurisdiction. ### Spelling In North America, the spelling "jail" is used, while the United Kingdom traditionally uses the spelling "gaol". In Australia, the spelling "jail" has been used since the 20th century, although "gaol" is used in historical contexts. In 1978, the Government Publishing Style Manual made "jail" the preferred spelling. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation also uses the spelling "jail". Similarly, New Zealand uses the spelling "jail". History ------- ### Ancient and medieval The use of prisons can be traced back to the rise of the state as a form of social organization. Some Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, began to develop ideas of using punishment to reform offenders instead of simply using it for its own sake. Imprisonment as a penalty was used initially for those who could not afford to pay their fines. Eventually, since impoverished Athenians could not pay their fines, leading to indefinite periods of imprisonment, time limits were set instead. The prison in ancient Athens was known as the *desmoterion* ("place of chains"). The Romans were among the first to use prisons as a form of punishment rather than simply for detention. A variety of existing structures were used to house prisoners, such as metal cages, basements of public buildings, and quarries. One of the most notable Roman prisons was the Mamertine Prison, established around 640 B.C. by Ancus Marcius. The Mamertine Prison was located within a sewer system beneath ancient Rome and contained a large network of dungeons where prisoners were held in squalid conditions, contaminated with human waste. Forced labor on public works projects was also a common form of punishment. In many cases, citizens were sentenced to slavery, often in ergastula (a primitive form of prison where unruly slaves were chained to workbenches and performed hard labor). In Medieval Songhai, results of a trial could have led to confiscation of merchandise or imprisonment as a form of punishment, since various prisons existed in the empire. During the Middle Ages in Europe, castles, fortresses, and the basements of public buildings were often used as makeshift prisons. The possession of the right and the capability to imprison citizens, however, granted an air of legitimacy to officials at all levels of government, from kings to regional courts to city councils; and the ability to have someone imprisoned or killed served as a signifier of who in society possessed power or authority over others. Another common punishment was sentencing people to galley slavery, which involved chaining prisoners together in the bottoms of ships and forcing them to row on naval or merchant vessels. ### Modern era The influence of French philosopher Michel Foucault, especially his book *Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison* (1975), has energized the historical study of prisons and their role in the overall social system. *Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison* is an analysis of the social and theoretical mechanisms behind the changes that occurred in Western penal systems during the modern age based on historical documents from France. Foucault argues that prison did not become the principal form of punishment just because of the humanitarian concerns of reformists. He traces the cultural shifts that led to the predominance of prison via the body and power. Prison used by the "disciplines" – new technological powers that can also be found, according to Foucault, in places such as schools, hospitals, and military barracks. From the late 17th century and during the 18th century, popular resistance to public execution and torture became more widespread both in Europe and in the United States. Particularly under the Bloody Code, with few sentencing alternatives, imposition of the death penalty for petty crimes, such as theft, was proving increasingly unpopular with the public; many jurors were refusing to convict defendants of petty crimes when they knew the defendants would be sentenced to death. Rulers began looking for means to punish and control their subjects in a way that did not cause people to associate them with spectacles of tyrannical and sadistic violence. They developed systems of mass incarceration, often with hard labor, as a solution. The prison reform movement that arose at this time was heavily influenced by two somewhat contradictory philosophies. The first was based in Enlightenment ideas of utilitarianism and rationalism, and suggested that prisons should simply be used as a more effective substitute for public corporal punishments such as whipping, hanging, etc. This theory, referred to as *deterrence*, claims that the primary purpose of prisons is to be so harsh and terrifying that they deter people from committing crimes out of fear of going to prison. The second theory, which saw prisons as a form of *rehabilitation* or *moral reform*, was based on religious ideas that equated crime with sin, and saw prisons as a place to instruct prisoners in Christian morality, obedience and proper behavior. These later reformers believed that prisons could be constructed as humane institutions of moral instruction, and that prisoners' behavior could be "corrected" so that when they were released, they would be model members of society. The concept of the modern prison was imported to Europe in the early 19th-century.[from where?] Prior forms of punishment were usually physical, including capital punishment, mutilation, flagellation (whipping), branding, and non-physical punishments, such as public shaming rituals (like the stocks). From the Middle Ages up to the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, imprisonment was rarely used as a punishment in its own right, and prisons were mainly to hold those awaiting trial and convicts awaiting punishment. However, an important innovation at the time was the Bridewell House of Corrections, located at Bridewell Palace in London, which resulted in the building of other houses of correction. These houses held mostly petty offenders, vagrants, and the disorderly local poor. In these facilities the inmates were given "prison labor" jobs that were anticipated to shape them into hardworking individuals and prepare them for the real world. By the end of the 17th century, houses of correction were absorbed into local prison facilities under the control of the local justice of the peace. #### Transportation, prison ships and penal colonies England used penal transportation of convicted criminals (and others generally young and poor) for a term of indentured servitude within the general population of British America between the 1610s and 1776. The Transportation Act 1717 made this option available for lesser crimes, or offered it by discretion as a longer-term alternative to the death penalty, which could theoretically be imposed for the growing number of offenses in Britain. The substantial expansion of transportation was the first major innovation in eighteenth-century British penal practice. Transportation to America was abruptly suspended by the Criminal Law Act 1776 (16 Geo. 3 c.43) with the start of the American Rebellion. While sentencing to transportation continued, the act instituted a punishment policy of hard labour instead. The suspension of transport also prompted the use of prisons for punishment and the initial start of a prison building program. Britain would resume transportation to specifically planned penal colonies in Australia between 1788 and 1868. Jails at the time were run as business ventures, and contained both felons and debtors; the latter were often housed with their wives and younger children. The jailers made their money by charging the inmates for food, drink, and other services, and the system was generally corruptible. One reform of the seventeenth century was the establishment of the *London Bridewell* as a house of correction for women and children. It was the first facility to make any medical services available to prisoners. With the widely used alternative of penal transportation halted in the 1770s, the immediate need for additional penal accommodations emerged. Given the undeveloped institutional facilities, old sailing vessels, termed *hulks*, were the most readily available and expandable choice to be used as places of temporary confinement. While conditions on these ships were generally appalling, their use and the labor thus provided set a precedent which persuaded many people that mass incarceration and labor were viable methods of crime prevention and punishment. The turn of the 19th century would see the first movement toward prison reform, and by the 1810s, the first state prisons and correctional facilities were built, thereby inaugurating the modern prison facilities available today. France also sent criminals to overseas penal colonies, including Louisiana, in the early 18th century. Penal colonies in French Guiana operated until 1952, such as the notable Devil's Island (*Île du Diable*). Katorga prisons were harsh work camps established in the 17th century in Russia, in remote underpopulated areas of Siberia and the Russian Far East, that had few towns or food sources. Siberia quickly gained its fearful connotation of punishment. #### Prison reform movement John Howard was one of the most notable early prison reformers. After having visited several hundred prisons across Great Britain and Europe, in his capacity as high sheriff of Bedfordshire, he published *The State of the Prisons* in 1777. He was particularly appalled to discover prisoners who had been acquitted but were still confined because they could not pay the jailer's fees. He proposed wide-ranging reforms to the system, including the housing of each prisoner in a separate cell and the requirements that staff should be professional and paid by the government, that outside inspection of prisons should be imposed, and that prisoners should be provided with a healthy diet and reasonable living conditions. The prison reform charity, the Howard League for Penal Reform, was established in 1866 by his admirers. Following Howard's agitation, the Penitentiary Act was passed in 1779. This introduced solitary confinement, religious instruction, a labor regime, and proposed two state penitentiaries (one for men and one for women). However, these were never built due to disagreements in the committee and pressures from wars with France, and jails remained a local responsibility. But other measures passed in the next few years provided magistrates with the powers to implement many of these reforms, and eventually, in 1815, jail fees were abolished. Quakers were prominent in campaigning against and publicizing the dire state of the prisons at the time. Elizabeth Fry documented the conditions that prevailed at Newgate prison, where the ladies' section was overcrowded with women and children, some of whom had not even received a trial. The inmates did their own cooking and washing in the small cells in which they slept on straw. In 1816, Fry founded a prison school for the children who were imprisoned with their parents. She also began a system of supervision and required the women to sew and to read the Bible. In 1817, she helped to found the Association for the Reformation of the Female Prisoners in Newgate. #### Development of the modern prison The theory of the modern prison system was born in London, influenced by the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. Bentham's panopticon introduced the principle of observation and control that underpins the design of the modern prison. The notion of prisoners being incarcerated as part of their punishment and not simply as a holding state until trial or hanging, was at the time revolutionary. His views influenced the establishment of the first prisons used as criminal rehabilitation centers. At a time when the implementation of capital punishment for a variety of relatively trivial offenses was on the decline, the notion of incarceration as a form of punishment and correction held great appeal to reform-minded thinkers and politicians. In the first half of the 19th century, capital punishment came to be regarded as inappropriate for many crimes that it had previously been carried out for, and by the mid-19th century, imprisonment had replaced the death penalty for the most serious offenses except for murder. The first state prison in England was the Millbank Prison, established in 1816 with a capacity for just under 1,000 inmates. By 1824, 54 prisons had adopted the disciplinary system advocated by the SIPD. By the 1840s, penal transportation to Australia and the use of hulks was on the decline, and the Surveyor-General of convict prisons, Joshua Jebb, set an ambitious program of prison building in the country, with one large prison opening per year. Pentonville prison opened in 1842, beginning a trend of ever increasing incarceration rates and the use of prison as the primary form of crime punishment. Robert Peel's Gaols Act of 1823 introduced regular visits to prisoners by chaplains, provided for the payment of jailers and prohibited the use of irons and manacles. In 1786, the state of Pennsylvania passed a law that mandated that all convicts who had not been sentenced to death would be placed in penal servitude to do public works projects such as building roads, forts, and mines. Besides the economic benefits of providing a free source of hard labor, the proponents of the new penal code also thought that this would deter criminal activity by making a conspicuous public example of consequences of breaking the law. However, what actually ended up happening was frequent spectacles of disorderly conduct by the convict work crews, and the generation of sympathetic feelings from the citizens who witnessed the mistreatment of the convicts. The laws quickly drew criticism from a humanitarian perspective (as cruel, exploitative and degrading) and from a utilitarian perspective (as failing to deter crime and delegitimizing the state in the eyes of the public). Reformers such as Benjamin Rush came up with a solution that would enable the continued use of forced labor while keeping disorderly conduct and abuse out of the eyes of the public. They suggested that prisoners be sent to secluded "houses of repentance" where they would be subjected (out of the view of the public) to "bodily pain, labor, watchfulness, solitude, and silence ... joined with cleanliness and a simple diet". Pennsylvania soon put this theory into practice, and turned its old jail at Walnut Street in Philadelphia into a state prison, in 1790. This prison was modeled on what became known as the "Pennsylvania system" (or "separate system"), and placed all prisoners into solitary cells with nothing other than religious literature, made them wear prison uniforms, and forced them to be completely silent to reflect on their wrongs. New York soon built the Newgate state prison in Greenwich Village, which was modeled on the Pennsylvania system, and other states followed. But, by 1820, faith in the efficacy of legal reform had declined, as statutory changes had no discernible effect on the level of crime, and the prisons, where prisoners shared large rooms and booty including alcohol, had become riotous and prone to escapes. In response, New York developed the Auburn system in which prisoners were confined in separate cells and prohibited from talking when eating and working together, implementing it at Auburn State Prison and Sing Sing at Ossining. The aim of this was rehabilitative: the reformers talked about the penitentiary serving as a model for the family and the school and almost all the states adopted the plan (though Pennsylvania went even further in separating prisoners). The system's fame spread and visitors to the U.S. to see the prisons included de Tocqueville who wrote *Democracy in America* as a result of his visit. The use of prisons in Continental Europe was never as popular as it became in the English-speaking world, although state prison systems were largely in place by the end of the 19th century in most European countries. After the unification of Italy in 1861, the government reformed the repressive and arbitrary prison system they inherited, and modernized and secularized criminal punishment by emphasizing discipline and deterrence. Italy developed an advanced penology under the leadership of Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909). Another prominent prison reformer who made important contributions was Alexander Paterson who advocated for the necessity of humanizing and socializing methods within the prison system in Great Britain and America. Staff ----- Prisons employ people to run and maintain the prison while keeping control of the inmates. Oftentimes, the number of people employed within a prison depends upon factors such as the size of the prison, how many inmates the prison has, and how much funding the prison gets. ### Warden The Warden is the official who is in charge of the prison and heads all the staff. ### Prison guards Security staff, also known as prison guards, are enforcement officials who are in charge of enforcing prison rules among the inmates. Thus they are responsible for the care, custody and control of the prison. ### Teachers Teachers are employed to provide education for inmates to use after their release, in order to reduce the likelihood of the inmates reoffending. ### Case managers Case managers are people who perform correctional casework in an institutional setting; develop, evaluate, and analyze program needs and other data about inmates; evaluate progress of individual offenders in the institution; coordinate and integrate inmate training programs; develop social histories; evaluate positive and negative aspects in each case situation, and develop release. ### Counselors Prison counselors are people who are employed to intervene therapeutically with various clients, the majority of whom happen to be offenders. These interventions include prison adjustment, prerelease and postrelease vocational and marital/family readjustment, and work with adolescent adjustment problems. ### Medical workers The medical workers are doctors and nurses who are tasked with providing the inmates with healthcare. ### Work release supervisors A work release supervisor is someone who is tasked with monitoring inmates outside of the prison during a work release program. ### Contractors In private prisons, contractors are people who paid the prison for the use of prison labor and supplied the prisoners with work. ### Religious workers Prisons also provide religious workers to meet the religious need for inmates. Religious workers are also in charge of the weddings when inmates marry someone outside the prison. ### Work done by inmates In addition to the prison staff, inmates are often tasked with doing work around the jail such as cooking food for the other inmates or providing cleaning services around the prison. Design ------ ### Security Prisons are normally surrounded by fencing, walls, earthworks, geographical features, or other barriers to prevent escape. Multiple barriers, concertina wire, electrified fencing, secured and defensible main gates, armed guard towers, security lighting, motion sensors, dogs and roving patrols may all also be present depending on the level of security. Remotely controlled doors, CCTV monitoring, alarms, cages, restraints, nonlethal and lethal weapons, riot-control gear and physical segregation of units and prisoners may all also be present within a prison to monitor and control the movement and activity of prisoners within the facility. Modern prison designs have increasingly sought to restrict and control the movement of prisoners throughout the facility and also to allow a smaller prison staff to monitor prisoners directly, often using a decentralized "podular" layout. (In comparison, 19th-century prisons had large landings and cell blocks which permitted only intermittent observation of prisoners.) Smaller, separate and self-contained housing units known as "pods" or "modules" are designed to hold 16 to 50 prisoners and are arranged around exercise yards or support facilities in a decentralized "campus" pattern. A small number of prison officers, sometimes a single officer, supervise each pod. The pods contain tiers of cells arranged around a central control station or desk from which a single officer can monitor all the cells and the entire pod, control cell doors and communicate with the rest of the prison. Pods may be designed for high-security "indirect supervision", in which officers in segregated and sealed control booths monitor smaller numbers of prisoners confined to their cells. An alternative is "direct supervision", in which officers work within the pod and directly interact with and supervise prisoners, who may spend the day outside their cells in a central "dayroom" on the floor of the pod. Movement in or out of the pod to and from exercise yards, work assignments or medical appointments can be restricted to individual pods at designated times and is generally centrally controlled. Goods and services, such as meals, laundry, commissary, educational materials, religious services and medical care can increasingly be brought to individual pods or cells as well. Some modern prisons may exclude certain inmates from the general population, usually for safety reasons, such as those within solitary confinement, celebrities, political figures and former law enforcement officers, those convicted of sexual crimes and/or crimes against children, or those on the medical wing or protective custody. #### Inmate security classifications Generally, when an inmate arrives at a prison, they go through a security classification screening and risk assessment that determines where they will be placed within the prison system. Classifications are assigned by assessing the prisoner's personal history and criminal record, and through subjective determinations made by intake personnel (which include mental health workers, counselors, clerical staff, sheriff deputies, prison unit managers, and others). This process will have a major impact on the prisoner's experience, determining their security level, educational and work programs, mental health status (e.g. the determination of whether they will be placed in a mental health unit), and many other factors. This sorting of prisoners is one of the fundamental techniques through which the prison administration maintains control over the inmate population and attempts to reduce risks and liabilities in an attempt to create an orderly and secure prison environment. At some prisons, prisoners are made to wear a prison uniform. The levels of security within a prison system are categorized differently around the world, but tend to follow a distinct pattern. At one end of the spectrum are the most secure facilities ("maximum security"), which typically hold prisoners that are considered dangerous, disruptive or likely to try to escape. Furthermore, in recent times, supermax prisons have been created where the custody level goes beyond maximum security for people such as terrorists or political prisoners deemed a threat to national security, and inmates from other prisons who have a history of violent or other disruptive behavior in prison or are suspected of gang affiliation. These inmates have individual cells and are kept in lockdown, often for more than 23 hours per day. Meals are served through "chuck-holes" in the cell door, and each inmate is allowed one hour of outdoor exercise per day, alone. They are normally permitted no contact with other inmates and are under constant surveillance via closed-circuit television cameras. On the other end are "minimum security" prisons which are most often used to house those for whom more stringent security is deemed unnecessary. For example, prisoners convicted of white-collar crime (which rarely results in incarceration) are almost always sent to minimum-security prisons due to them having committed nonviolent crimes. Lower-security prisons are often designed with less restrictive features, confining prisoners at night in smaller locked dormitories or even cottage or cabin-like housing while permitting them free movement around the grounds to work or partake in activities during the day. Some countries (such as Great Britain) also have "open" prisons where prisoners are allowed home-leave or part-time employment outside of the prison. Suomenlinna Island facility in Finland is an example of one such "open" correctional facility. The prison has been open since 1971 and, as of September 2013, the facility's 95 male prisoners leave the prison grounds on a daily basis to work in the corresponding township or commute to the mainland for either work or study. Prisoners can rent flat-screen televisions, sound systems, and mini-refrigerators with the prison-labor wages that they can earn—wages range between 4.10 and €7.30 per hour. With electronic monitoring, prisoners are also allowed to visit their families in Helsinki and eat together with the prison staff. Prisoners in Scandinavian facilities are permitted to wear their own clothes. There are fundamental differences between the security level of men's prisons and that of women's prisons. Male prisons tend to have higher, or more severe, security levels/classifications than female prisons. This is even noticeable when comparing the construction and design of male prisons which tend to have very tall walls and towers, barbed wire and other serious security measures whereas these types of high level security measures are absent at many female prisons. This is due to multiple factors including females being convicted of less severe offences, and being less likely to be convicted of violent offences, in comparison to males, and due to female prisoners being less likely to be violent than male prisoners. ### Common facilities Modern prisons often hold hundreds or thousands of inmates, and must have facilities onsite to meet most of their needs, including dietary, health, fitness, education, religious practices, entertainment, and many others. Conditions in prisons vary widely around the world, and the types of facilities within prisons depend on many intersecting factors including funding, legal requirements, and cultural beliefs/practices. Nevertheless, in addition to the cell blocks that contain the prisoners, there are also certain auxiliary facilities that are common in prisons throughout the world. #### Kitchen and dining Prisons generally have to provide food for a large number of individuals, and thus are generally equipped with a large institutional kitchen. There are many security considerations, however, that are unique to the prison dining environment. For instance, cutlery equipment must be very carefully monitored and accounted for at all times, and the layout of prison kitchens must be designed in a way that allows staff to observe activity of the kitchen staff (who are usually prisoners). The quality of kitchen equipment varies from prison to prison, depending on when the prison was constructed, and the level of funding available to procure new equipment. Prisoners are often served food in a large cafeteria with rows of tables and benches that are securely attached to the floor. However, inmates that are locked in control units, or prisons that are on "lockdown" (where prisoners are made to remain in their cells all day) have trays of food brought to their cells and served through "chuck-holes" in the cell door. Prison food in many developed countries is nutritionally adequate for most inmates. #### Healthcare Prisons in wealthy, industrialized nations provide medical care for most of their inmates. Additionally, prison medical staff play a major role in monitoring, organizing, and controlling the prison population through the use of psychiatric evaluations and interventions (psychiatric drugs, isolation in mental health units, etc.). Prison populations are largely from poor minority communities that experience greater rates of chronic illness, substance abuse, and mental illness than the general population. This leads to a high demand for medical services, and in countries such as the US that don't provide tax-payer funded healthcare, prison is often the first place that people are able to receive medical treatment (which they couldn't afford outside). Some prison medical facilities include primary care, mental health services, dental care, substance abuse treatment, and other forms of specialized care, depending on the needs of the inmate population and the willingness of the prison to provide for these needs. Health care services in many prisons have long been criticized as inadequate, underfunded, and understaffed, and many prisoners have experienced abuse and mistreatment at the hands of prison medical staff who are entrusted with their care. In the United States, a million incarcerated people suffer from mental illness without any assistance or treatment for their condition. The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend, known as the rate of recidivism, is unusually high for those with the most serious disorders. Analysis of data in 2000 from several forensic hospitals in California, New York and Oregon found that with treatment the rate of recidivism was "much lower" than untreated mentally ill offenders. #### Library and educational facilities Some prisons provide educational programs for inmates that can include basic literacy, secondary education, or even college education. Prisoners seek education for a variety of reasons, including the development of skills for after release, personal enrichment and curiosity, finding something to fill their time, or trying to please prison staff (which can often secure early release for good behavior). However, the educational needs of prisoners often come into conflict with the security concerns of prison staff and with a public that wants to be "tough on crime" (and thus supports denying prisoners access to education). Whatever their reasons for participating in educational programs, prison populations tend to have very low literacy rates and lack of basic mathematical skills, and many have not completed secondary education. This lack of basic education severely limits their employment opportunities outside of prison, leading to high rates of recidivism, and research has shown that prison education can play a significant role in helping prisoners reorient their lives and become successful after reentry. Many prisons also provide a library where prisoners can check out books, or do legal research for their cases. Often these libraries are very small, consisting of a few shelves of books. In some countries, such as the United States, drastic budget cuts have resulted in many prison libraries being shut down. Meanwhile, many nations that have historically lacked prison libraries are starting to develop them. Prison libraries can dramatically improve the quality of life for prisoners, who have large amounts of empty time on their hands that can be occupied with reading. This time spent reading has a variety of benefits including improved literacy, ability to understand rules and regulations (leading to improved behavior), ability to read books that encourage self-reflection and analysis of one's emotional state, consciousness of important real-world events, and education that can lead to successful re-entry into society after release. #### Recreation and fitness Many prisons provide limited recreational and fitness facilities for prisoners. The provision of these services is controversial, with certain elements of society claiming that prisons are being "soft" on inmates, and others claiming that it is cruel and dehumanizing to confine people for years without any recreational opportunities. The tension between these two opinions, coupled with lack of funding, leads to a large variety of different recreational procedures at different prisons. Prison administrators, however, generally find the provision of recreational opportunities to be useful at maintaining order in the prisons, because it keeps prisoners occupied and provides leverage to gain compliance (by depriving prisoners of recreation as punishment). Examples of common facilities/programs that are available in some prisons are: gyms and weightlifting rooms, arts and crafts, games (such as cards, chess, or bingo), television sets, and sports teams. Additionally, many prisons have an outdoor recreation area, commonly referred to as an "exercise yard". #### Control units Most prisoners are part of the "general population" of the prison, members of which are generally able to socialize with each other in common areas of the prison. A *control unit* or *segregation unit* (also called a "block" or "isolation cell") is a highly secure area of the prison, where inmates are placed in solitary confinement to isolate them from the general population. Other prisoners that are often segregated from the general population include those who are in protective custody, or who are on suicide watch, and those whose behavior presents a threat to other prisoners. #### Other facilities In addition to the above facilities, others that are common include prison factories and workshops, visiting areas, mail rooms, telephone and computer rooms, a prison store (often called a "canteen") where prisoners can purchase goods with prison commissary. Some prisons have a death row where prisoners who have been sentenced to death await execution and an execution room, where the death sentence is carried out. In places like Singapore and Malaysia, there is place for corporal punishment (carried out by caning). Special types ------------- ### Youth detention facilities Prisons for juveniles are known by a variety of names, including "youth detention facilities", "juvenile detention centers", and "reformatories". The purpose of youth detention facilities is to keep young offenders away from the public, while working towards rehabilitation. The idea of separately treating youthful and adult offenders is a relatively modern idea. The earliest known use of the term "juvenile delinquency" was in London in 1816, from where it quickly spread to the United States. The first juvenile correctional institution in the United States opened in 1825 in New York City. By 1917, juvenile courts had been established in all but 3 states. It was estimated that in 2011 more than 95,000 juveniles were locked up in prisons and jails in the United States (the largest youth prisoner population in the world). Besides prisons, many other types of residential placement exist within juvenile justice systems, including youth homes, community-based programs, training schools and boot camps. Like adult facilities, youth detention centers in some countries are experiencing overcrowding due to large increases in incarceration rates of young offenders. Crowding can create extremely dangerous environments in juvenile detention centers and juvenile correctional facilities. Overcrowding may also lead to the decrease in availability to provide the youth with much needed and promised programs and services while they are in the facility. Many times the administration is not prepared to handle the large number of residents and therefore the facilities can become unstable and create instability in simple logistics. In addition to overcrowding, juvenile prisons are questioned for their overall effectiveness in rehabilitating youth. Many critics note high juvenile recidivism rates, and the fact that the most of the youths that are incarcerated are those from lower socio-economic classes (who often suffer from broken families, lack of educational/job opportunities, and violence in their communities). ### Women's prisons In the 19th century, a growing awareness that female prisoners had different needs to male prisoners led to the establishment of dedicated prisons for women. In modern times, it is the norm for female inmates to be housed in either a separate prison or a separate wing of a unisex prison. The aim is to protect them from physical and sexual abuse that would otherwise occur. In the Western world, the guards of women's prisons are usually female, though not always. For example, in federal women's correction facilities of the United States, 70% of guards are male. Rape and sexual offenses remain commonplace in many women's prisons, and are usually underreported. Two studies in the late 2000s noted that because a high proportion of female inmates have experienced sexual abuse in the past, they are particularly vulnerable to further abuse. The needs of mothers during pregnancy and childbirth often conflict with the demands of the prison system. The Rebecca Project, a non-profit organization that campaigns for women's rights issues, reports that "In 2007, the Bureau of Justice Statistics stated that, on average, 5% of women who enter into state prisons are pregnant and in jails [local prisons] 6% of women are pregnant". The standard of care that female prisoners receive before and after giving birth is often far worse than the standard expected by the general population, and sometimes almost none is given. In some countries, female prisoners may be restrained while giving birth. In many countries including the United States, mothers will frequently be separated from their baby after giving birth. Research has shown a significant link between females in prison and brain injury which supports research that shows incarcerated females are overwhelmingly victims of domestic violence (mainly male violence against women). ### Military prisons and prisoner-of-war camps Prisons have formed parts of military systems since the French Revolution. France set up its system in 1796. They were modernized in 1852 and since their existence, are used variously to house prisoners of war, unlawful combatants, those whose freedom is deemed a national security risk by military or civilian authorities, and members of the military found guilty of a serious crime. Military prisons in the United States have also been converted to civilian prisons, to include Alcatraz Island. Alcatraz was formerly a military prison for soldiers during the American Civil War. In the American Revolution, British prisoners held by the U.S. were assigned to local farmers as laborers. The British kept American sailors in broken down ship hulks with high death rates. In the Napoleonic wars, the broken down hulks were still in use for naval prisoners. One French surgeon recalled his captivity in Spain, where scurvy, diarrhea, dysentery, and typhus abounded, and prisoners died by the thousands: "These great trunks of ships were immense coffins, in which living men were consigned to a slow death.... [In the hot weather we had] black army bread full of gritty particles, biscuit full of maggots, salt meat that was already decomposing, rancid lard, spoiled cod, [and] stale rice, peas, and beans." In the American Civil War, at first prisoners of war were released, after they promised not to fight again unless formally exchanged. When the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners the system broke down, and each side built large-scale POW camps. Conditions in terms of housing, food, and medical care were bad in the Confederacy, and the Union retaliated by imposing harsh conditions. By 1900 the legal framework of the Geneva and Hague Convention provided considerable protection. In the First World War, millions of prisoners were held on both sides, with no major atrocities. Officers received privileged treatment. There was an increase in the use of forced labor throughout Europe. Food and medical treatment were generally comparable to what active duty soldiers received, and housing was much better than front-line conditions. ### Political prisons and administrative detention Political prisoners are people who have been imprisoned because of their political beliefs, activities and affiliations. There is much debate about who qualifies as a "political prisoner". The category of "political prisoner" is often contested, and many regimes that incarcerate political prisoners often claim that they are merely "criminals". Others who are sometimes classified as "political prisoners" include prisoners who were politicized in prison, and are subsequently punished for their involvement with political causes. Many countries maintain or have in the past had a system of prisons specifically intended for political prisoners. In some countries, dissidents can be detained, tortured, executed, and/or "disappeared" without trial. This can happen either legally, or extralegally (sometimes by falsely accusing people and fabricating evidence against them). *Administrative detention* is a classification of prisons or detention centers where people are held without trial. ### Psychiatric facilities Some psychiatric facilities have characteristics of prisons, particularly when confining patients who have committed a crime and are considered dangerous. In addition, many prisons have psychiatric units dedicated to housing offenders diagnosed with a wide variety of mental disorders. The United States government refers to psychiatric prisons as "Federal Medical Centers (FMC)". Prison population ----------------- Some jurisdictions refer to the prison population (total or per-prison) as the **prison muster**. In 2021, the World Prison Brief reported that at least 11.5 million people were imprisoned worldwide. In 2021 the United States of America had the world's largest prison population, with over 2 million people in American prisons or jails—up from 744,000 in 1985—making 1 in every 200 American adults a prisoner. In 2017, the nonprofit organization Prison Policy Initiative estimated that the United States government spent an estimated US$80.7 billion to maintain prisons. CNBC estimated that the cost of maintaining the US prison system was US$74 billion per year. This increases government spending on prisons. As of 2023[update] the US no longer has the highest incarceration rate in the world, with El Salvador now having the highest. Not all countries have experienced a rise in prison population: Sweden closed four prisons in 2013 due to a significant drop in the number of inmates. The head of Sweden's prison and probation services characterized the decrease in the number of Swedish prisoners as "out-of-the-ordinary", with prison numbers in Sweden falling by around 1% a year since 2004. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime website hosts data regarding prison populations around the world, including "Persons held - by sex, by age group," "Persons held - by status and sex" and "Prison capacity and overcrowding - totals". Economics of the prison industry -------------------------------- In the United States alone, more than $74 billion per year is spent on prisons, with over 800,000 people employed in the prison industry. As the prison population grows, revenues increase for a variety of small and large businesses that construct facilities, and provide equipment (security systems, furniture, clothing), and services (transportation, communications, healthcare, food) for prisons. These parties have a strong interest in the expansion of the prison system since their development and prosperity directly depends on the number of inmates. The prison industry also includes private businesses that benefit from the exploitation of the prison labor. Some scholars, using the term prison-industrial complex, have argued that the trend of "hiring out prisoners" is a continuation of the slavery tradition, pointing out that the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution freed slaves but allowed forced labor for people convicted of crimes. Prisons are very attractive to employers, because prisoners can be made to perform a great array of jobs, under conditions that most free laborers wouldn't accept (and would be illegal outside of prisons): sub-minimum wage payments, no insurance, no collective bargaining, lack of alternative options, etc. Prison labor can soon deprive the free labor of jobs in a number of sectors, since the organized labor turns out to be uncompetitive compared to the prison counterpart. Social effects -------------- ### Internal Prisons can be difficult places to live and work in, even in developed countries in the present day. By their very definition, prisons house individuals who may be prone to violence and rule-breaking. It is also typical that a high proportion of inmates have mental health concerns. A 2014 US report found that this included 64% of local jail inmates, 54% of state prisoners and 45% of federal prisoners. The environment may be worsened by overcrowding, poor sanitation and maintenance, violence by prisoners against other prisoners or staff, staff misconduct, prison gangs, self-harm, and the widespread smuggling of illegal drugs and other contraband. The social system within the prison commonly develops an "inmate code", an informal set of internal values and rules that govern prison life and relationships, but that may be at odds with the interests of prison management or external society, compromising future rehabilitation. In some cases, disorder can escalate into a full-scale prison riot. Academic research has found that poor conditions tend to increase the likelihood of violence within prisons. ### External Prisoners can face difficulty re-integrating back into society upon their release. They often have difficulty finding work, earn less money when they do find work, and experience a wide range of medical and psychological issues. Many countries have a high recidivism rate. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics, 67.8% of released prisoners in the United States are rearrested within three years and 76.6% are rearrested within five years. If the prisoner has a family, they are likely to suffer socially and economically from their absence. If a society has a very high imprisonment rate, these effects become noticeable not just on family units, but also on entire poor communities or communities of color. The expensive cost of maintaining a high imprisonment rate also costs money that must come at the expense of either the taxpayer or other government agencies. Theories of punishment and criminality -------------------------------------- A variety of justifications and explanations are put forth for why people are imprisoned by the state. The most common of these are: * **Rehabilitation**: Theories of rehabilitation argue that the purpose of imprisonment is to change prisoners' lives in a way that will make them productive and law-abiding members of society once they are released. The idea was promoted by 19th century reformers, who promoted prisons as a humane alternative to harsh punishments of the past. Many governments and prison systems have adopted rehabilitation as an official aim. In the United States and Canada, prison agencies are often referred to as "Corrections" services for this reason. * **Deterrence**: Theories of deterrence argue that by sentencing criminals to extremely harsh penalties, other people who might be considering criminal activities will be so terrified of the consequences that they will choose not to commit crimes out of fear. * **Incapacitation**: Theories of incapacitation argue that while prisoners are incarcerated, they will be unable to commit crimes, thus keeping communities safer. * **Retribution**: Theories of retribution argue that the purpose of imprisonment is to cause a sufficient level of misery to the prisoner, in proportion to the perceived seriousness of their crime. These theories do not necessarily focus on whether or not a particular punishment benefits the community, but instead are based upon a belief that some kind of moral balance will be achieved by "paying back" the prisoner for the wrongs they have committed. ### Evaluation Academic studies have been inconclusive as to whether high imprisonment rates reduce crime rates in comparison to low imprisonment rates; only a minority suggest it creates a significant reduction, and others suggest it increases crime. Prisoners are at risk of being drawn further into crime, as they may become acquainted with other criminals, trained in further criminal activity, exposed to further abuse (both from staff and other prisoners) and left with criminal records that make it difficult to find legal employment after release. All of these things can result in a higher likelihood of reoffending upon release. This has resulted in a series of studies that are skeptical towards the idea that prison can rehabilitate offenders. As Morris and Rothman (1995) point out, "It's hard to train for freedom in a cage." A few countries have been able to operate prison systems with a low recidivism rate, including Norway and Sweden. On the other hand, in many countries including the United States, the vast majority of prisoners are rearrested within 3 years of their release. Prison reform organizations such as the Howard League for Penal Reform are not entirely opposed to attempting to rehabilitate offenders, but instead argue that most prisoners would be more likely to be rehabilitated if they received a punishment other than prison. The National Institute of Justice argues that offenders can be deterred by the fear of being caught but are unlikely to be deterred by the fear or experience of the punishment. Like Lawrence W. Sherman, they argue that better policing is a more effective way to reduce crime rates. The argument that prisons can reduce crime through incapacitation is more widely accepted, even among academics who doubt that prisons can rehabilitate or deter offenders. A dissenting argument from Arrigo and Milovanovic, who argue that prisoners will simply continue to victimize people inside of the prison and that this harm has impacts on the society outside. Alternatives ------------ Modern prison reform movements generally seek to reduce prison populations. A key goal is to improve conditions by reducing overcrowding. Prison reformers also argue that alternative methods are often better at rehabilitating offenders and preventing crime in the long term. Among the countries that have sought to actively reduce prison populations include Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands. Alternatives to prison sentences include: * Fines * Community service * Suspended sentence: The offender performs of a period of probation, and only serves a prison sentence if the terms of probation are broken. This is similar to the Canadian concept of a conditional sentence. * House arrest/curfews: Sometimes a condition of a strict suspended/conditional sentence. * Mandatory treatment for drug offenders. * Rehabilitation programs, such as anger management classes. * Mental health treatment for offenders with mental illness. * Conditional discharge: The offender is not punished for the crime if they abide by certain conditions; typically they must not commit any further crimes within a designated period. * Other court orders that take away privileges from the offender, such as banning motoring offenders from driving. * Restorative justice programs, which overlap with the above methods. Restorative justice is based around arranging a mediation between the offender and victim, so that the offenders can take responsibility for their actions, "to repair the harm they've done—by apologizing, returning stolen money, or community service". These alternatives do not eliminate the need for imprisonment altogether. Suspended sentences entail the threat of time in prison, while for others, actual imprisonment may be used as a punishment for noncompliance. The prison abolition movement seeks to eliminate prisons altogether. It is distinct from prison reform, although abolitionists often support reform campaigns, regarding them as incremental steps towards abolishing prisons. The abolition movement is motivated by a belief that prisons are inherently ineffective and discriminatory. The movement is associated with libertarian socialism, anarchism and anti-authoritarianism, with some prison abolitionists arguing that imprisoning people for actions the state designates as crimes is not only inexpedient but also immoral. See also -------- * Decarceration in the United States * For-profit prisons * Immigration detention * Incarceration and health * Incarceration in the United States * Inmate telephone system * Kids for Cash Scandal * LGBT people in prison * Life imprisonment * List of prisons * Military prison * Open prison * Prison gang * Prison pose * Prison sexuality, including homosexuality and sexual abuse * Prison strike * Prisoner abuse * Prisoners' rights * Silent treatment * Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners Further reading --------------- * Andrzejewski, Anna Vemer (2008). *Building Power: Architecture and Surveillance in Victorian America*. University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 978-1-57233-631-5. * Diiulio, John J., *Governing Prisons: A Comparative Study of Correctional Management*, Simon & Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0-02-907883-0. * Dikötter, Frank (2002). *Crime, Punishment and the Prison in Modern China*. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12508-6. * Dow, Mark (2005). *American Gulag: Inside U.S. Immigration Prisons*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93927-1. * Drake, Deborah (2012). *Prisons, Punishment and the Pursuit of Security*. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-00484-0. * Fisher, George. "The birth of the prison retold." *Yale Law Journal* 104.6 (1995): 1235–1324. online free * Garland, David (2001). *Mass Imprisonment: Social Causes and Consequences*. SAGE. ISBN 978-1-84920-823-9. * Gilmore, Ruth Wilson (2007). *Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22256-4. * Hallett, Michael A. (2006). *Private Prisons in America: A Critical Race Perspective*. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252073083. * James, Joy, ed. (2005). *The New Abolitionists: (Neo)slave Narratives And Contemporary Prison Writings*. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-8310-7. * McGrew, Ken (2008). *Education's Prisoners: Schooling, the Political Economy, and the Prison Industrial Complex*. Peter Lang. ISBN 9781433101755. * Moran, Dominique (2015) *Carceral Geography: Spaces and Practices of Incarceration* Routledge ISBN 9781138308466 * Nashif, Esmail (2008). *Palestinian Political Prisoners: Identity and community*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-89561-0. * Neild, James (2011). *The State of Prisons of England, Scotland and Wales: Not for the Debtor Only, But for Felons Also, and Other Less Criminal Offenders*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-03699-3. * Pisciotta, Alexander (2012). *Benevolent Repression: Social Control and the American Reformatory-Prison Movement*. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6797-9. * Rodriguez, Dylan (2006). *Forced Passages: Imprisoned Radical Intellectuals And the U.S. Prison Regime*. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-1-4529-0733-8. * Selman, Donna; Leighton, Paul (2010). *Punishment for Sale: Private Prisons, Big Business, and the Incarceration Binge Issues in crime & justice*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-0173-6. * Sharp, Susan F. & Eriksen, M. Elaine (2003). "Imprisoned Mothers and Their Children". In Zaitzow, Barbara H. & Thomas, Jim (eds.). *Women in Prison: Gender and Social Control*. Lynne Reiner Publishers. ISBN 978-1-58826-228-8. * Skarbek, David. 2020. *The Puzzle of Prison Order: Why Life Behind Bars Varies Around the World*. Oxford University Press. * Sim, Joe (2009). *Punishment and Prisons: Power and the Carceral State*. SAGE. ISBN 978-0-85702-953-9. * Solinger, Rickie (2010). *Interrupted Life: Experiences of Incarcerated Women in the United States*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25249-3. * SpearIt, Economic Interest Convergence in Downsizing Imprisonment (2014). University of Pittsburgh Law Review, Vol. 25, 2014. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2608698 * SpearIt, Shackles Beyond the Sentence: How Legal Financial Obligations Create a Permanent Underclass (July 9, 2015). 1 Impact 46 (2015). Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=2628977 * Thompson, Anthony C. (2008). *Releasing Prisoners, Redeeming Communities: Reentry, Race, and Politics*. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-8316-0. * Throness, Laurie (2008). *A Protestant Purgatory: Theological Origins of the Penitentiary Act, 1779*. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9780754663928. * Walsh, John P. (2013). "Conditions of Confinement: The Social Reality of the Jail Inmate". *The Culture of Urban Control: Jail Overcrowding in the Crime Control Era*. Lexington Books. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-7391-7465-4. * Wortley, Richard (2002). *Situational Prison Control: Crime Prevention in Correctional Institutions*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00940-9. * Yousman, Bill (2009). *Prime Time Prisons on U.S. TV: Representation of Incarceration*. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-1-4331-0477-0.

Prison

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison

**Human history** is the narrative of humankind's past. Humans evolved in Africa c. 300,000 years ago and initially lived as nomadic hunter-gatherers. Humans migrated out of Africa during the Last Glacial Period (Ice Age) and had colonized almost the entire Earth by the time the Ice Age ended 12,000 years ago. The Agricultural Revolution began in fertile river valleys of the Near East around 10,000 BCE: humans began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals, and many humans transitioned from a nomadic life to a sedentary existence as farmers in permanent settlements. As efficient grain husbandry developed, surpluses fostered the development of advanced non-agricultural occupations, division of labor, social stratification, including the rise of a leisured upper class, and urbanization. The growing complexity of human societies necessitated systems of accounting and writing. True writing is first recorded in Sumer at the end of the 4th millennium BCE, followed soon after in other parts of the Near East. During the late Bronze Age, Hinduism developed in the Indian subcontinent, while the Axial Age witnessed the appearance of religions such as Buddhism, Jainism, Judaism, Taoism, and Zoroastrianism. As civilizations flourished, ancient history saw the rise and fall of empires. Subsequent post-classical history (the "Middle Ages", from about 500 to 1500 CE) witnessed the rise of Christianity and Islam, as well as the Renaissance (from around 1300 CE). The 15th-century introduction of movable-type printing in Europe facilitated the dissemination of information, hastening the end of the Middle Ages and eventually enabling the Scientific Revolution. The early modern period, from about 1500 to 1800 CE, saw the Age of Discovery and the Age of Enlightenment. Sikhism also flourished in the Punjab. By the 18th century, the accumulation of knowledge and technology had reached a critical mass that brought about the Industrial Revolution and began the late modern period, which started around 1800 CE and continues. The foregoing historical periodization (antiquity, followed by the post-classical, early-modern, and late-modern periods) applies best to the history of Europe. Elsewhere, including China and India, historical timelines unfolded differently up to the 18th century. By then, however, due to extensive international trade and colonization, the histories of most civilizations had become substantially intertwined. Over the last quarter-millennium, the rates of growth of human populations, agriculture, industry, commerce, scientific knowledge, technology, communications, weapons destructiveness, and environmental degradation have greatly accelerated. Prehistory (c. 3.3 million years ago – c. 3000 BCE) --------------------------------------------------- ### Human evolution Humans evolved in Africa from other primates. Genetic measurements indicate that the ape lineage which would lead to *Homo sapiens* diverged from the lineage that would lead to chimpanzees and bonobos, the closest living relatives of modern humans, somewhere between 13 million and 5 million years ago. The term hominin denotes human ancestors that lived after the split with chimpanzees and bonobos, including many species and at least two distinct genera: *Australopithecus* and *Homo*. Other fossil specimens such as *Paranthropus*, *Kenyanthropus*, and *Orrorin* may represent additional genera, but paleontologists debate their taxonomic status. The early hominins such as *Australopithecus* had the same brain size as apes but were distinguished from apes by walking on two legs, an adaptation perhaps associated with a shift from forest to savanna habitats. Hominins began to use rudimentary stone tools c. 3.3 million years ago, marking the advent of the Paleolithic era. The genus *Homo* evolved from *Australopithecus*. The earliest members of *Homo* share key traits with *Australopithecus*, but tend to have larger brains and smaller teeth. The earliest record of *Homo* is the 2.8 million-year-old specimen LD 350-1 from Ethiopia, and the earliest named species is *Homo habilis* which evolved by 2.3 million years ago. *H. erectus* (the African variant is sometimes called *H. ergaster*) evolved by 2 million years ago and was the first hominin species to leave Africa and disperse across Eurasia. Perhaps as early as 1.5 million years ago, but certainly by 250,000 years ago, humans began to use fire for heat and cooking. Beginning about 500,000 years ago, *Homo* diversified into many new species of archaic humans such as the Neanderthals in Europe, the Denisovans in Siberia, and the diminutive *H. floresiensis* in Indonesia. Human evolution was not a simple linear or branched progression but involved interbreeding between related species. Genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages was common in human evolution. DNA evidence suggests that several genes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day humans. ### Early humans *Homo sapiens* emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago from a species commonly designated as either *H. heidelbergensis* or *H. rhodesiensis*, who had already developed a culture of hunting, as the Schöningen spears show. Humans continued to develop over the succeeding millennia, and by 100,000 years ago, were already using jewellery and ochre to adorn the body. By 50,000 years ago, they exhibited many characteristic behaviors such as burial of the dead, use of projectile weapons, and seafaring. One of the most important changes (the date of which is unknown) was the development of syntactic language, which dramatically improved humans' ability to communicate. Signs of early artistic expression can be found in the form of cave paintings and sculptures made from ivory, stone, and bone, implying a form of spirituality generally interpreted as animism or shamanism. Paleolithic humans lived as hunter-gatherers and were generally nomadic. They inhabited grasslands or sparsely wooded areas and avoided dense forest cover. The migration of anatomically modern humans out of Africa took place in multiple waves beginning 194,000–177,000 years ago. The dominant view among scholars (Southern Dispersal) is that the early waves of migration died out and all modern non-Africans are descended from a single group that left Africa 70,000–50,000 years ago. *H. sapiens* proceeded to colonize all the continents and larger islands, arriving in Australia 65,000 years ago, Europe 45,000 years ago, and the Americas by 21,000 years ago. These migrations occurred during the most recent Ice Age, when temperate regions of today were extremely inhospitable. Nevertheless, by the end of the Ice Age some 12,000 years ago, humans had colonized nearly all ice-free parts of the globe. Human expansion coincided with both the Quaternary extinction event and the extinction of the Neanderthals. These extinctions were probably caused by climate change, human activity, or a combination of the two. ### Rise of agriculture Beginning around 10,000 BCE, the Neolithic Revolution marked the development of agriculture, which fundamentally changed the human lifestyle. Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa, in at least 11 separate centres of origin. Cereal crop cultivation and animal domestication had occurred in Mesopotamia by at least 8500 BCE in the form of wheat, barley, sheep, and goats. The Yangtze River Valley in China domesticated rice around 8000 BCE; the Yellow River Valley may have cultivated millet by 7000 BCE. Pigs were the most important domesticated animal in early China. People in Africa's Sahara cultivated sorghum and several other crops between 8000 and 5000 BCE, while other agricultural centres arose in the Ethiopian Highlands and the West African rainforests. In the Indus River Valley, crops were cultivated by 7000 BCE and cattle were domesticated by 6500 BCE. In the Americas, squash was cultivated by at least 8500 BCE in South America, and domesticated arrowroot appeared in Central America by 7800 BCE. Potatoes were first cultivated in the Andes of South America, where the llama was also domesticated. It is likely that women played a central role in plant domestication throughout these developments. There is no scholarly consensus on why the Neolithic Revolution occurred. For example, in some theories agriculture was the result of an increase in population which led people to seek out new food sources, while in others agriculture was the cause of population growth as the food supply improved. Other proposed factors include climate change, resource scarcity, and ideology. The effects of the transition to agriculture are better understood: it created food surpluses that could support people not directly engaged in food production, permitting far denser populations and the creation of the first cities and states. Cities were centres of trade, manufacturing, and political power. Cities established a symbiosis with their surrounding countrysides, absorbing agricultural products and providing, in return, manufactured goods and varying degrees of political control. Early proto-cities appeared at Jericho and Çatalhöyük around 6000 BCE. Pastoral societies based on nomadic animal herding also developed, mostly in dry areas unsuited for plant cultivation such as the Eurasian Steppe or the African Sahel. Conflict between nomadic herders and sedentary agriculturalists occurred frequently and became a recurring theme in world history. Metalworking was first used in the creation of copper tools and ornaments around 6400 BCE. Gold and silver soon followed, primarily for use in ornaments. The need for metal ores stimulated trade, as many areas of early human settlement lacked the necessary ores. The first signs of bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, date to around 2500 BCE, but the alloy did not become widely used until much later. Neolithic societies usually worshiped ancestors, sacred places, or anthropomorphic deities. Entities such as the Sun, Moon, Earth, sky, and sea were often deified. The vast complex of Göbekli Tepe in Turkey, dated 9500–8000 BCE, is a spectacular example of a Neolithic religious or civic site. It may have been built by hunter-gatherers rather than a sedentary population. Elaborate mortuary practices developed in the Levant during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, in which certain high-status individuals were buried under the floors of houses and the graves were later re-opened for the skulls to be removed. Some of the skulls were then covered in plaster, painted, and displayed in public. Ancient history (c. 3000 BCE – c. 500 CE) ----------------------------------------- ### Cradles of civilization The Bronze Age saw the development of cities and civilizations. Early civilizations arose close to rivers, first in Mesopotamia (3000 BCE) with the Tigris and Euphrates, followed by the Egyptian civilization along the Nile River (3000 BCE), the Indus Valley civilization in Pakistan and northwestern India (2500 BCE), and the Chinese civilization along the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers (2200 BCE). These societies developed a number of unifying characteristics, including a central government, a complex economy and social structure, systems for keeping records, and distinct cultures and religions. These cultures variously invented the wheel, mathematics, bronze-working, sailing boats, the potter's wheel, woven cloth, construction of monumental buildings, and writing. Polytheistic religions developed, centred on temples where priests and priestesses performed sacrificial rites. Writing facilitated the administration of cities, the expression of ideas, and the preservation of information. Scholars recognize that writing may have independently developed in at least four ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia (3300 BCE), Egypt (around 3250 BCE), China (1200 BCE), and lowland Mesoamerica (by 650 BCE). Among the earliest surviving written religious scriptures are the Egyptian *Pyramid Texts*, the oldest of which date to between 2400 and 2300 BCE. Sumer, located in Mesopotamia, is the first known complex civilization, having developed the first city-states in the 4th millennium BCE. It was these cities that produced the earliest known form of writing, cuneiform script. Cuneiform writing began as a system of pictographs, whose pictorial representations eventually became simplified and more abstract. Cuneiform texts were written by using a blunt reed as a stylus to draw symbols upon clay tablets. Transport was facilitated by waterways—by rivers and seas. The Mediterranean Sea, at the juncture of three continents, fostered the projection of military power and the exchange of goods, ideas, and inventions. This era also saw new land technologies, such as horse-based cavalry and chariots, that allowed armies to move faster. Trade increasingly became a source of power as states with access to important resources or controlling important trade routes rose to dominance. The growth of cities was often followed by the establishment of states and empires. In Mesopotamia, there prevailed a pattern of independent warring city-states and of a loose hegemony shifting from one city to another. In Egypt, by contrast, the initial division into Upper and Lower Egypt was followed by unification of all the valley around 3100 BCE. In Crete, the Minoan civilization had entered the Bronze Age by 2700 BCE and is regarded as the first civilization in Europe. Around 2600 BCE, the Indus Valley civilization built major cities at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and developed a writing system of over 400 symbols, which remains undeciphered. China entered the Bronze Age by 2000 BCE. The Shang dynasty (1766–1045 BCE) was the first to use writing, inscribing the results of divination ceremonies on oracle bones – ox shoulder blades and turtle shells. In the 25th–21st centuries BCE, the empires of Akkad and the Neo-Sumerians arose in Mesopotamia. Over the following millennia, civilizations developed across the world. By 1600 BCE, Mycenaean Greece began to develop. It flourished until the Late Bronze Age collapse that affected many Mediterranean civilizations between 1300 and 1000 BCE. In India, this era was the Vedic period (1750–600 BCE), which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 6th century BCE. The Vedas contain the earliest references to India's caste system, which divided society into four hereditary classes: priests, warriors, farmers and traders, and laborers. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the subcontinent. Speakers of the Bantu languages began expanding across Central and Southern Africa as early as 3000 BCE. Their expansion and encounters with other groups resulted in the spread of mixed farming and ironworking throughout sub-Saharan Africa, and produced societies such as the Nok culture in modern Nigeria by 500 BCE. The Lapita culture emerged in the Bismarck Archipelago near New Guinea around 1500 BCE and colonized many uninhabited islands of Remote Oceania, reaching as far as Samoa by 700 BCE. In the Americas, the Norte Chico culture emerged in coastal Peru around 3100 BCE. The Norte Chico built public monumental architecture at the city of Caral, dated 2627–1977 BCE. The later Chavín polity is sometimes described as the first Andean state. It centred on the religious site at Chavín de Huantar, a place of pilgrimage and consumption of psychoactive substances. Other important Andean cultures include the Moche, whose ceramics depict many aspects of daily life, and the Nazca, who created animal-shaped designs in the desert called Nazca lines. The Olmecs of Mesoamerica developed by about 1200 BCE and are known for the colossal stone heads that they carved from basalt. They also devised the Mesoamerican calendar that was used by later cultures such as the Maya and Teotihuacan. Societies in North America were primarily egalitarian hunter-gatherers, supplementing their diet with the plants of the Eastern Agricultural Complex. They came together, seemingly voluntarily, to build earthworks such as Watson Brake (4000 BCE) and Poverty Point (3600 BCE), both in Louisiana. ### Axial Age From 800–200 BCE, the "Axial Age" saw the development of a set of transformative philosophical and religious ideas, mostly independently, in many different places. Chinese Confucianism, Indian Buddhism and Jainism, and Jewish monotheism all developed during this period. Persian Zoroastrianism began earlier, perhaps around 1000 BCE, but was institutionalized by the Achaemenid state during the Axial Age. New philosophies took hold in Greece during the 5th century BCE, epitomized by thinkers such as Plato and Aristotle. Axial Age ideas were tremendously important for subsequent intellectual and religious history. Confucianism was one of the three schools of thought that came to dominate Chinese thinking, along with Taoism and Legalism. The Confucian tradition, which would become particularly influential, looked for political morality not to the force of law but to the power and example of tradition. Confucianism would later spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism reached China during the Han dynasty and spread widely, with 30,000 Buddhist temples in northern China alone by the 7th century CE. Buddhism became the main religion in much of South, Southeast, and East Asia. The Greek philosophical tradition diffused throughout the Mediterranean world and as far as India, starting in the 4th century BCE after the conquests of Alexander the Great of Macedon. The Christian and Muslim religions are both based on the Jewish idea of monotheism. ### Regional empires The millennium from 500 BCE to 500 CE saw a series of empires of unprecedented size develop. Well-trained professional armies, unifying ideologies, and advanced bureaucracies created the possibility for emperors to rule over large domains whose populations could attain numbers upwards of tens of millions of subjects. The great empires depended on military annexation of territory and on the formation of defended settlements to become agricultural centres. International trade expanded, most notably the massive trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea, the maritime trade web in the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road. There were a number of regional empires during this period. The kingdom of the Medes helped to destroy the Assyrian Empire in tandem with the nomadic Scythians and the Babylonians. Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, was sacked by the Medes in 612 BCE. The Median Empire gave way to successive Iranian empires, including the Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BCE), the Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE), and the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE). Several empires began in modern-day Greece. The Delian League, founded in 477 BCE, and the Athenian Empire (454–404 BCE) were two such examples. Later, Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), of Macedon, founded an empire extending from present-day Greece to present-day India. The empire divided shortly after his death, but resulted in the spread of Greek culture throughout conquered regions, a process referred to as Hellenization. The Hellenistic period lasted from 323 to 31 BCE. In Asia, the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) existed in present-day India; in the 3rd century BCE, most of South Asia was united to the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great. From the 4th to 6th centuries, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's Golden Age. The ensuing stability contributed to heralding in an efflorescence of Hindu and Buddhist culture in the 4th and 5th centuries, as well as major advances in science and mathematics. In South India, three prominent Dravidian kingdoms emerged: the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. In Europe, the Roman Empire, centred in present-day Italy, began in the 7th century BCE. In the 3rd century BCE, the Roman Republic began expanding its territory through conquest and alliances. By the time of Augustus (63 BCE–14 CE), the first Roman Emperor, Rome had already established dominion over most of the Mediterranean Sea. The empire would continue to grow, controlling much of the land from England to Mesopotamia, reaching its greatest extent under Trajan (died 117 CE). In the 4th century CE, the empire split into western and eastern regions, with (usually) separate emperors. The Western Roman Empire would fall, in 476 CE, to German influence under Odoacer. The Eastern Roman Empire, now known as the Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, would continue for another thousand years until the city was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1453. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe, and Constantinople is generally considered to be the centre of "Eastern Orthodox civilization". In China, the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), the first imperial dynasty of China, was followed by the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE). The Han dynasty was comparable in power and influence to the Roman Empire that lay at the other end of the Silk Road. Han China developed advanced cartography, shipbuilding, and navigation. The Chinese invented cast iron, and created finely wrought bronze figurines. As with other empires during the classical period, Han China advanced significantly in the areas of government, education, mathematics, astronomy, technology, and many others. In Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum, centred in present-day Ethiopia, established itself by the 1st century CE as a major trading empire, dominating its neighbours in South Arabia and Kush and controlling the Red Sea trade. It minted its own currency and carved enormous monolithic stelae to mark its emperors' graves. Successful regional empires were also established in the Americas, arising from cultures established as early as 2500 BCE. In Mesoamerica, vast pre-Columbian societies were built, the most notable being the Zapotec civilization (700 BCE–1521 CE), and the Maya civilization, which reached its highest state of development during the Mesoamerican classic period (c. 250–900 CE), but continued throughout the post-classic period. The great Maya city-states slowly rose in number and prominence, and Maya culture spread throughout the Yucatán and surrounding areas. The Maya developed a writing system and were the first to use the concept of zero in their mathematics. West of the Maya area, in central Mexico, the city of Teotihuacan grew based on its control of the obsidian trade. Its power peaked around 450 CE, when its 125,000–150,000 inhabitants made it one of the world's largest cities. Technology developed sporadically in the ancient world. There were periods of rapid technological progress, such as the Hellenistic period in the Mediterranean region, during which hundreds of technologies were invented. There were also periods of technological decay, as during the Roman Empire's decline and fall and the ensuing early medieval period. Two of the most important innovations were the stirrup (Central Asia, 1st century CE) and paper (China, 1st and 2nd centuries CE), both of which diffused widely throughout the world. The Chinese also learned to make silk and built massive engineering projects such as the Great Wall of China and the Grand Canal. The Romans were also accomplished builders, inventing concrete and perfecting the use of arches in construction. Most ancient societies had slaves. Slavery was particularly prevalent in Athens and Rome, where slaves made up a large proportion of the population and were foundational to the economy. ### Declines, falls, and resurgence The ancient empires faced common problems associated with maintaining huge armies and supporting a central bureaucracy. These costs fell most heavily on the peasantry, while land-owning magnates increasingly evaded centralized control and its costs. Barbarian pressure on the frontiers hastened internal dissolution. China's Han dynasty fell into civil war in 220 CE, beginning the Three Kingdoms period, while its Roman counterpart became increasingly decentralized and divided about the same time in what is known as the Crisis of the Third Century. From the Eurasian Steppe, horse-based nomads dominated a large part of the continent. The development of the stirrup and the use of horse archers made the nomads a constant threat to sedentary civilizations. The gradual breakup of the Roman Empire coincided with the spread of Christianity outward from West Asia. The Western Roman Empire fell under the domination of Germanic tribes in the 5th century, and these polities gradually developed into a number of warring states, all associated in one way or another with the Catholic Church. The remaining part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern Mediterranean, continued as what came to be called the Byzantine Empire. Centuries later, a limited unity would be restored to Western Europe through the establishment in 962 of a revived "Roman Empire", later called the Holy Roman Empire, comprising a number of states in what is now Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Czechia, Belgium, Italy, and parts of France. In China, dynasties would rise and fall, but, by sharp contrast to the Mediterranean-European world, dynastic unity would be restored. After the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty and the demise of the Three Kingdoms, nomadic tribes from the north began to invade, causing many Chinese people to flee southward. The Sui dynasty successfully reunified the whole of China in 581, and laid the foundations for a Chinese golden age under the Tang dynasty (618–907). China witnessed several collapses but each ended with imperial resurrection. These resurrections were not merely symbolic – as it was in the case of the various self-proclaimed heirs of the Roman Empire—but substantial, as far as political structure is concerned. Post-classical history (c. 500 CE – c. 1500 CE) ----------------------------------------------- The term "post-classical era", though derived from the name of the era of "classical antiquity", takes in a broader geographic sweep. The era is commonly dated from the 5th century fall of the Western Roman Empire, which fragmented into many separate kingdoms, some of which would later be confederated under the Holy Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire survived until late in the post-classical or medieval period. From the 10th to 13th centuries, the Medieval Warm Period in the northern hemisphere aided agriculture and led to population growth in parts of Europe and Asia. It was followed by the Little Ice Age, which, along with the plagues of the 14th century, put downward pressure on the population of Eurasia. Some of the major inventions of the period were gunpowder, printing, and the compass, all of which originated in China. The post-classical period encompasses the early Muslim conquests, the subsequent Islamic Golden Age, and the commencement and expansion of the Arab slave trade, followed by the Mongol invasions and the founding of the Ottoman Empire. South Asia saw a series of middle kingdoms of India, followed by the establishment of Islamic empires in India. In West Africa, the Mali and Songhai Empires rose. On the southeast coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system, bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture. China experienced the successive Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, and early Ming dynasties. Middle Eastern trade routes along the Indian Ocean, and the Silk Road through the Gobi Desert, provided limited economic and cultural contact between Asian and European civilizations. During the same period, civilizations in the Americas, such as the Mississippians, Aztecs, Maya, and Inca reached their zenith. ### Greater Middle East Prior to the advent of Islam in the 7th century, the Middle East was dominated by the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires that frequently fought each other for control of several disputed regions. This was also a cultural battle, with Byzantine Christian culture competing against Persian Zoroastrian traditions. The birth of Islam created a new contender that quickly surpassed both of these empires. The new religion greatly affected the history of the Old World, especially the Middle East. From their centre on the Arabian Peninsula, Muslims began their expansion during the 7th century. By 750 CE, they came to conquer most of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe, ushering in an era of learning, science, and invention known as the Islamic Golden Age. The knowledge and skills of the ancient Middle East, Greece, and Persia were preserved in the post-classical era by Muslims, who also added new and important innovations from outside, such as the manufacture of paper from China and decimal positional numbering from India. Islamic civilization expanded both by conquest and on the basis of its merchant economy. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to China, India, Southeast Asia, and Africa. The crusading movement was a religiously motivated European effort to roll back Muslim territory and regain control of the Holy Land. It was ultimately unsuccessful and served more to weaken the Byzantine Empire, especially with the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Arab domination of the region ended in the mid-11th century with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands. In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the Mongols, swept through the region but were eventually eclipsed by the Turks and the founding of the Ottoman Empire in modern-day Turkey around 1280. North Africa saw the rise of polities established by the Berbers, such as Marinid Morocco, Zayyanid Algeria, and Hafsid Tunisia. The coastal region was known to Europeans as the Barbary Coast. Pirates based in North African ports conducted operations that included capturing merchant ships and raiding coastal settlements. Many European captives were sold in North African markets as part of the Barbary slave trade. Starting with the Sui dynasty (581–618), the Chinese began expanding to the west. They were confronted by Turkic nomads, who were becoming the most dominant ethnic group in Central Asia. Originally the relationship was largely cooperative but in 630, the Tang dynasty began an offensive against the Turks by capturing areas of the Ordos Desert. In the 8th century, Islam began to penetrate the region and soon became the sole faith of most of the population, though Buddhism remained strong in the east. The desert nomads of Arabia could militarily match the nomads of the steppe, and the Umayyad Caliphate gained control over parts of Central Asia. The Hephthalites were the most powerful of the nomad groups in the 5th and 6th centuries, and controlled much of the region. From the 9th to 13th centuries, the region was divided among several powerful states, including the Samanid Empire, the Seljuk Empire, and the Khwarazmian Empire. In 1370, Timur, a Turkic leader in the Mongol military tradition, conquered most of the region and founded the Timurid Empire. However, Timur's large empire collapsed soon after his death, which enabled the Uzbek Khanate to become the preeminent state in Central Asia. In the aftermath of the Byzantine–Sasanian Wars, the Caucasus and its diverse group of peoples gained freedom from foreign suzerainty. As the Byzantines and Sasanians became exhausted due to continuous wars, the Rashidun Caliphate had the opportunity to expand into the Caucasus during the early Muslim conquests. In the 13th century, the arrival of the Mongols resulted in multiple invasions of the region. ### Europe Since at least the 4th century, Christianity, primarily Catholicism, and later Protestantism, has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization. Europe during the Early Middle Ages was characterized by depopulation, deurbanization, and barbarian invasions, all of which had begun in late antiquity. The barbarian invaders formed their own new kingdoms in the remains of the Western Roman Empire. Although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, most of the new kingdoms incorporated existing Roman institutions. Christianity expanded in Western Europe, and monasteries were founded. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty established an empire covering much of Western Europe; it lasted until the 9th century, when it succumbed to pressure from new invaders—the Vikings, Magyars, and Arabs. During the High Middle Ages, which began after 1000, the population of Europe increased as technological and agricultural innovations allowed trade to flourish and crop yields to increase. Manorialism, the organization of peasants into villages that owed rents and labor service to nobles, and feudalism, a political structure whereby knights and lower-status nobles owed military service to their overlords in return for the right to rents from lands and manors, were two of the ways of organizing medieval society that developed during the Middle Ages. Kingdoms became more centralized after the decentralizing effects of the breakup of the Carolingian Empire. In 1054, the Great Schism between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches led to the prominent cultural differences between Western and Eastern Europe. The Crusades were a series of religious wars waged by Christians to wrest control of the Holy Land from the Muslims and succeeded for long enough to establish some Crusader states in the Levant. Italian merchants imported slaves to work in households or in sugar processing. Intellectual life was marked by scholasticism and the founding of universities, while the building of Gothic cathedrals and churches was one of the outstanding artistic achievements of the age. The Mongols reached Europe in 1236 and conquered Russia, along with briefly invading Poland and Hungary. Lithuania cooperated with the Mongols but remained independent. It eventually formed a personal union with Poland in the late 14th century. The Late Middle Ages were marked by difficulties and calamities. Famine, plague, and war devastated the population of Western Europe. The Black Death alone killed approximately 75 to 200 million people between 1347 and 1350. It was one of the deadliest pandemics in human history. Starting in Asia, the disease reached the Mediterranean and Western Europe during the late 1340s, and killed tens of millions of Europeans in six years; between a quarter and a third of the population perished. The Middle Ages witnessed the first sustained urbanization of Northern and Western Europe and it lasted until the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century, marked by the rise of nation states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the birth of humanism in the Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion. ### Sub-Saharan Africa Medieval sub-Saharan Africa was home to many different civilizations. In the Horn of Africa, the Kingdom of Aksum declined in the 7th century. The Zagwe dynasty that later emerged was famed for its rock cut architecture at Lalibela. The Zagwe would then fall to the Solomonic dynasty who claimed descent from the Aksumite emperors and would rule the country well into the 20th century. In the West African Sahel region, many Islamic empires rose, such as the Ghana, Mali, Songhai, and Kanem–Bornu Empires. They controlled the trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, and slaves. West Africa became the world's largest gold exporter by the 14th century. South of the Sahel, civilizations rose in the coastal forests. These include the Yoruba city of Ifẹ, noted for its art, and the Oyo Empire, the Edo Kingdom of Benin centred in Benin City, the Igbo Kingdom of Nri that produced advanced bronze art at Igbo-Ukwu, and the Akan who are noted for their intricate architecture. Central Africa saw the formation of several states, including the Kingdom of Kongo. In what is now modern Southern Africa, native Africans created various kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Mutapa. They flourished through trade with the Swahili on the East African coast. They built large defensive stone structures without mortar such as Great Zimbabwe, capital of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe, Khami, capital of the Kingdom of Butua, and Danangombe (Dhlo-Dhlo), capital of the Rozvi Empire. The Swahili people themselves were the inhabitants of the East African coast from Kenya to Mozambique who traded extensively with Arabs, who introduced them to Islam. They built many port cities such as Mombasa, Mogadishu, and Kilwa, which were known to Islamic geographers. Seafarers from Southeast Asia colonized Madagascar sometime between the 4th and 9th centuries, creating what geographer Jared Diamond called "the single most astonishing fact of human geography". To reach Madagascar, the settlers crossed 6,000 miles of ocean in sailing canoes, probably without maps or compasses. A wave of Bantu-speaking migrants from southeastern Africa also arrived in Madagascar around 1000 CE. ### South Asia After the fall (550 CE) of the Gupta Empire, North India was divided into a complex and fluid network of smaller kingly states. Early Muslim incursions began in the northwest in 711 CE, when the Arab Umayyad Caliphate conquered much of present-day Pakistan. The Arab military advance was largely halted at that point, but Islam still spread in India, largely due to the influence of Arab merchants along the western coast. The 9th century saw a Tripartite Struggle for control of North India, among the Pratihara, Pala, and Rashtrakuta Empires. Post-classical dynasties in South India included those of the Chalukyas, Hoysalas, Cholas, and Mysores. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Some of the other important states that emerged in South India during this time included the Bahmani Sultanate and Vijayanagara Empire. ### Northeast Asia After a period of relative disunity, China was reunified by the Sui dynasty in 589 and under the succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907) China entered a Golden Age. The Sui and Tang instituted the long-lasting imperial examination system, under which administrative positions were open only to those who passed an arduous test on Confucian thought and the Chinese classics. China competed with Tibet (618–842) for control of areas in Inner and Central Asia. The Tang dynasty eventually splintered, however, and after half a century of turmoil the Song dynasty reunified much of China, when it was, according to William McNeill, the "richest, most skilled, and most populous country on earth". Pressure from nomadic empires to the north became increasingly urgent. By 1127, North China had been lost to the Jurchens in the Jin–Song Wars, and the Mongols conquered all of China in 1279. After about a century of Mongol Yuan dynasty rule, the ethnic Chinese reasserted control with the founding of the Ming dynasty in 1368. In Japan, the imperial lineage had been established by this time, and during the Asuka period (538–710) the Yamato Province developed into a clearly centralized state. Buddhism was introduced, and there was an emphasis on the adoption of elements of Chinese culture and Confucianism. The Nara period of the 8th century was characterized by the appearance of a nascent literary culture, as well as the development of Buddhist-inspired artwork and architecture. The Heian period (794 to 1185) saw the peak of imperial power, followed by the rise of militarized clans, and the beginning of Japanese feudalism. The feudal period of Japanese history, dominated by powerful regional lords (daimyos) and the military rule of warlords (shoguns) such as the Ashikaga and Tokugawa shogunates, stretched from 1185 to 1868. The emperor remained, but mostly as a figurehead, and the power of merchants was weak. Postclassical Korea saw the end of the Three Kingdoms era, the three kingdoms being Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. Silla conquered Baekje in 660, and Goguryeo in 668, marking the beginning of the Northern and Southern States period, with Unified Silla in the south and Balhae, a successor state to Goguryeo, in the north. In 892 CE, this arrangement reverted to the Later Three Kingdoms, with Goguryeo (then called Taebong and eventually named Goryeo) emerging as dominant, unifying the entire peninsula by 936. The founding Goryeo dynasty ruled until 1392, succeeded by the Joseon dynasty, which ruled for approximately 500 years. In Mongolia, Genghis Khan united the various tribes under one banner. The Mongol Empire expanded to comprise all of China and Central Asia, as well as large parts of Russia and the Middle East. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Mongol Empire was divided into four successor states. ### Southeast Asia The Southeast Asian polity of Funan, which originated in the 2nd century CE, went into decline in the 6th century as Chinese trade routes shifted away from its ports. It was replaced by the Khmer Empire in 802 CE. The Khmers' capital city, Angkor, was the most extensive city in the world prior to the industrial age and contained Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious monument. The Sukhothai (mid-13th century CE) and Ayutthaya Kingdoms (1351 CE) were major powers of the Thais, who were influenced by the Khmers. Starting in the 9th century, the Pagan Kingdom rose to prominence in modern Myanmar. Its collapse brought about political fragmention that ended with the rise of the Toungoo Empire in the 16th century. Other notable kingdoms of the period include Srivijaya and Lavo (both coming into prominence in the 7th century), Champa and Hariphunchai (both about 750), Đại Việt (968), Lan Na (13th century), Majapahit (1293), Lan Xang (1353), and Ava (1365). This period saw the spread of Islam to present-day Indonesia (beginning in the 13th century) and the emergence of the Malay states, including Brunei and Malacca. In the Philippines, several polities were formed such as Tondo, Cebu, and Butuan. ### Oceania The Polynesians, descendants of the Lapita peoples, colonized vast reaches of Remote Oceania beginning around 1000 CE. They traveled the open ocean in double-hulled canoes up to 37 metres (121 ft) long, each canoe carrying as many as 50 people and their livestock. Their voyages resulted in the colonization of hundreds of islands including the Marquesas, Hawaii, Rapa Nui (Easter Island), and New Zealand. The Tuʻi Tonga Empire was founded in the 10th century CE and expanded between 1250 and 1500. Tongan culture, language, and hegemony spread widely throughout eastern Melanesia, Micronesia, and central Polynesia during this period, influencing east 'Uvea, Rotuma, Futuna, Samoa, and Niue, as well as specific islands and parts of Micronesia (Kiribati, Pohnpei, and miscellaneous outliers), Vanuatu, and New Caledonia (specifically, the Loyalty Islands, with the main island being predominantly populated by the Melanesian Kanaks and their cultures). In Northern Australia, there is evidence that Aboriginal Australians regularly traded with Makassan trepangers from Indonesia before the arrival of Europeans. The question of pre-Columbian contact between Polynesians and Indigenous Americans has long been controversial. In 2020, a genome-wide DNA analysis of Polynesians and Indigenous South Americans shed new light on the debate by reporting evidence of intermingling between Polynesians and pre-Columbian Zenú around 1200 CE. Whether this happened due to Indigenous Americans reaching eastern Polynesia or because the northern coast of South America was visited by Polynesians is not clear. On Rapa Nui, the islanders carved hundreds of *moai*, huge stone monuments that could weigh up to 80 tons. The *moai* are thought to represent high-ranking ancestors. All were pulled down during the chaotic period following European contact. Rapa Nui is also the only Polynesian island to have a writing system, the *rongorongo* script, although the script remains undeciphered and it may be proto-writing rather than true writing. ### Americas In North America, this period saw the rise of the Mississippian culture in the modern-day United States c. 950 CE, marked by the extensive 11th-century urban complex at Cahokia. The Ancestral Puebloans and their predecessors (9th – 13th centuries) built extensive permanent settlements, including stone structures that would remain the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century. In Mesoamerica, the Teotihuacan civilization fell and the classic Maya collapse occurred. The Aztec Empire came to dominate much of Mesoamerica in the 14th and 15th centuries. In South America, the 15th century saw the rise of the Inca. The Inca Empire or *Tawantinsuyu*, with its capital at Cusco, spanned the entire Andes, making it the most extensive pre-Columbian civilization. The Inca were prosperous and advanced, known for an excellent road system and elegant stonework. Early modern period (c. 1500 CE – c. 1800 CE) --------------------------------------------- Martin Luther initiated the Reformation in 1517 with his *Ninety-five Theses*. The "early modern period" was the period between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution—roughly 1500 to 1800. The early Modern period was characterized by the rise of science, and by increasingly rapid technological progress, secularized civic politics, and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, initially in the northern Italian republics. The early modern period saw the rise and dominance of mercantilist economic theory, and the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom, and the power of the Catholic Church. The period included the Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, the Age of Discovery, European colonial expansion, the peak of European witch-hunting, the Scientific Revolution, and the Age of Enlightenment. During the early modern period, Protestantism eventually became the majority faith throughout Northwestern Europe and in England and English-speaking America. ### European expansion During this period, European powers came to dominate most of the world. Though Europe's most developed regions were more urbanized than any other region of the world, European civilization had gone through a long period of gradual decline and collapse. During the early modern period, Europe was able to regain its dominance; historians still debate the causes. The 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries saw the rise of maritime European empires, first the Portuguese and Spanish Empires, later the French, English, and Dutch Empires. In the 17th century, private chartered companies were established, such as the English East India Company (founded 1600) – often described as the first multinational corporation – and the Dutch East India Company (founded 1602). The Age of Discovery was the first period in which Eurasia and Africa engaged in substantial cultural, material, and biologic exchange with the New World. It began in the late 15th century, when the two kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula – Portugal and Castile – sent the first exploratory voyages around the Cape of Good Hope and to the Americas, the latter "discovered" in 1492 by Christopher Columbus. Shortly before the turn of the 16th century, the Portuguese started establishing factories ranging from Africa to Asia and Brazil, for trade in local commodities such as slaves, gold, spices, and lumber. In 1500, Portugal established an international business centre under a royal monopoly, the House of India. Global integration continued as European colonization of the Americas initiated the Columbian exchange: the exchange of plants, animals, foods, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases, and culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. It was one of history's most important global events, involving ecology and agriculture. New crops brought from the Americas by 16th-century European seafarers substantially contributed to world population growth. ### Regional developments #### Greater Middle East After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire quickly came to dominate the Middle East. Persia came under the rule of the Safavids in 1501, succeeded by the Afshars in 1736, the Zands in 1751, and the Qajars in 1794. In North Africa, the Berbers remained in control of independent states until the 16th century. Areas to the north and east in Central Asia were held by the Uzbeks and Pashtuns. At the start of the 19th century, the Russian Empire began its conquest of the Caucasus. #### Europe Europe's Renaissance – the "rebirth" of classical culture, beginning in Italy in the 14th century and extending into the 16th – comprised the rediscovery of the classical world's cultural, scientific, and technological achievements, and the economic and social rise of Europe. The Renaissance engendered a culture of inquisitiveness which ultimately led to humanism and the Scientific Revolution. This period is also celebrated for its artistic and literary attainments. Dante Alighieri's *Divine Comedy*, Geoffrey Chaucer's *Canterbury Tales*, and the paintings and sculptures of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo are some of the great works of the era. In Russia, Ivan the Terrible was crowned in 1547 as the first tsar of Russia, and by annexing the Turkic khanates in the east, transformed Russia into a regional power. The countries of Western Europe, while expanding prodigiously through technological advancement and colonial conquest, competed with each other economically and militarily in a state of almost constant war. Often the wars had a religious dimension, either Catholic versus Protestant (primarily in Western Europe) or Christian versus Muslim (primarily in Eastern Europe), although religious tolerance was in turn encouraged in countries like the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, legally guaranteeing it since the Warsaw Confederation in 1573. Wars of particular note include the Thirty Years' War, the War of the Spanish Succession, the Seven Years' War, and the French Revolutionary Wars. Napoleon Bonaparte came to power in France in 1799, an event foreshadowing the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century. #### Sub-Saharan Africa In Africa, this period saw a decline in many civilizations and an advancement in others. The Swahili Coast declined after coming under the control of the Portuguese and later the Omanis. In West Africa, the Songhai Empire fell after an invasion by the Moroccans. Bonoman gave birth to numerous Akan states such as Akwamu, Akyem, Fante, and Adansi, among others. The Kingdom of Zimbabwe gave way to smaller kingdoms such as Mutapa, Butua, and Rozvi. The Ethiopian Empire suffered from the 1531 invasion by the neighboring Muslim Adal Sultanate, and in 1769 entered the Zemene Mesafint (Age of Princes) during which the Emperor became a figurehead and the country was ruled by warlords, though the royal line later would recover under Emperor Tewodros II. In the Horn of Africa, the Ajuran Sultanate began to decline in the 17th century, and was succeeded by the Geledi Sultanate. Other civilizations in Africa advanced during this period. The Oyo Empire experienced its golden age, as did the Kingdom of Benin. The Ashanti Empire rose to power in what is modern day Ghana in 1670. The Kingdom of Kongo also thrived during this period. #### South Asia In the Indian subcontinent, the Mughal Empire began under Babur in 1526 and lasted for two centuries. Starting in the northwest, the Mughal Empire would come to rule the entire subcontinent by the late 17th century, except for the southernmost Indian provinces, which would remain independent. Against the Muslim Mughal Empire, the Hindu Maratha Empire was founded by Shivaji on the western coast in 1674. The Marathas gradually gained territory from the Mughals over several decades, particularly in the Mughal–Maratha Wars (1680–1707). The Maratha Empire would fall under the control of the British East India Company in 1818, with all former Maratha and Mughal authority devolving to the British Raj in 1858. During the same period, Sikhism developed from the spiritual teachings of ten gurus. In 1799, Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire in the Punjab. The Sikh Empire would be annexed by the British East India Company in 1849. #### Northeast Asia In 1644, the Ming gave way to the Qing, the last Chinese imperial dynasty, which would rule until 1912. Japan experienced its Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600), followed by the Edo period (1600–1868). The Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1910) ruled throughout this period, successfully repelling invasions from Japan and China in the 16th and 17th centuries. Expanded maritime trade with Europe significantly affected China and Japan during this period, particularly by the Portuguese who had a presence in Macau and Nagasaki. However, China and Japan would later pursue isolationist policies designed to eliminate foreign influences. #### Southeast Asia In 1511, the Portuguese overthrew the Malacca Sultanate in present-day Malaysia and Indonesian Sumatra. The Portuguese held this important trading territory (and the valuable associated navigational strait) until overthrown by the Dutch in 1641. The Johor Sultanate, centred on the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, became the dominant trading power in the region. European colonization expanded with the Dutch in Indonesia, the Portuguese in Timor, and the Spanish in the Philippines. Into the 19th century, European expansion would affect the whole of Southeast Asia, with the British in Myanmar and Malaysia, and the French in Indochina. Only Thailand would successfully resist colonization. #### Oceania The Pacific islands of Oceania would also be affected by European contact, starting with the circumnavigational voyage of Ferdinand Magellan (1519–1522), who landed in the Marianas and other islands. Abel Tasman (1642–1644) sailed to present-day Australia, New Zealand, and nearby islands. James Cook (1768–1779) made the first recorded European contact with Hawaii. In 1788, Britain founded its first colony in Australia. #### Americas In the Americas, several European powers vigorously colonized the newly discovered continents, largely displacing the native populations and destroying the advanced civilizations of the Aztecs and Inca. Diseases introduced by Europeans devastated American societies, killing 60–90 million people by 1600 and reducing the population by 90–95%. Spain, Portugal, Britain, and France all made extensive territorial claims, and undertook large-scale settlement, including the importation of large numbers of African slaves. Portugal claimed Brazil. Spain claimed the rest of South America, Mesoamerica, and southern North America. The Spanish mined and exported prodigious amounts of silver from the Americas. This American silver boom, along with an increase in Japanese silver mining, caused a surge in inflation known as the price revolution in the 16th and 17th centuries. Britain colonized the east coast of North America, and France colonized the central region of North America. Russia made incursions onto the northwest coast of North America, with a first colony in present-day Alaska in 1784, and the outpost of Fort Ross in present-day California in 1812. In 1762, in the midst of the Seven Years' War, France secretly ceded most of its North American claims to Spain in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. Thirteen of the British colonies declared independence as the United States of America in 1776, ratified by the Treaty of Paris in 1783, ending the American Revolutionary War. Napoleon won France's claims back from Spain in 1800, but sold them to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Late modern period (c. 1800 CE – present) ----------------------------------------- ### 19th century The Scientific Revolution changed humanity's understanding of the world and was followed by the Industrial Revolution, a major transformation of the world's economies. The Scientific Revolution in the 17th century had little immediate effect on industrial technology; only in the second half of the 19th century did scientific advances begin to be applied substantially to practical invention. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and used new modes of production—the factory, mass production, and mechanization—to manufacture a wide array of goods faster and using less labor than previously required. European empires lost territory in Latin America, which won independence by the 1820s, but expanded elsewhere. Britain gained control of the Indian subcontinent, Burma, and the Malay Peninsula; the French took Indochina; while the Dutch cemented their control over the Dutch East Indies. The British also colonized Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa with large numbers of British colonists emigrating to these colonies. Russia colonized large pre-agricultural areas of Siberia. In the late 19th century, the European powers divided the remaining areas of Africa. Only Ethiopia and Liberia remained independent. Within Europe, economic and military challenges created a system of nation states, and ethno-cultural groupings began to identify themselves as distinctive nations with aspirations for cultural and political autonomy. This nationalism would become important to peoples across the world in the 20th century. In response to the encroachment of European powers, several countries undertook programs of industrialization and political reform along Western lines. The Meiji Restoration in Japan was successful and led to the establishment of a colonial empire, while the *tanzimat* reforms in the Ottoman Empire did little to slow Ottoman decline. China achieved some success with its Self-Strengthening Movement, but was devastated by the Taiping Rebellion, history's bloodiest civil war, which killed 20–30 million people between 1850 and 1864. The United States developed to become the world's largest economy by the end of the century, and acquired an empire of its own. During the Second Industrial Revolution, a new set of technological advances including electrical power, the internal combustion engine, and assembly line manufacturing increased productivity once again. Meanwhile, industrial pollution and environmental damage, present since the discovery of fire and the beginning of civilization, accelerated drastically. ### 20th century The 20th century opened with Europe at an apex of wealth and power, and with much of the world under its direct colonial control or its indirect domination. Much of the rest of the world was influenced by heavily Europeanized nations: the United States and Japan. As the century unfolded, however, the global system dominated by rival powers was subjected to severe strains, and ultimately yielded to a more fluid structure of independent nation states. This transformation was catalyzed by wars of unparalleled scope and devastation. World War I led to the collapse of four empires – the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires – and weakened the United Kingdom and France. The Armenian, Assyrian, and Greek genocides were the systematic destruction, mass murder, and expulsion during World War I of the Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks in the Ottoman Empire, spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP). In the war's aftermath, powerful ideologies rose to prominence. The Russian Revolution of 1917 created the first communist state, while the 1920s and 1930s saw militaristic fascist dictatorships gain control in Italy, Germany, Spain, and elsewhere. From 1918 to 1920, the Spanish flu caused the deaths of at least 25 million people. Ongoing national rivalries, exacerbated by the economic turmoil of the Great Depression, helped precipitate World War II. In the war, the vast majority of the world's countries, including all of the great powers, fought as part of two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. The leading Axis powers were Germany, Japan, and Italy; while the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the Republic of China were the "Big Four" Allied powers. The militaristic dictatorships of Europe and Japan pursued an ultimately doomed course of imperialist expansionism, in the course of which Germany, under Adolf Hitler, orchestrated the genocide of six million Jews in the Holocaust, while Japan murdered millions of Chinese. The defeat of the Axis by the Allies in World War II opened the way for the advance of communism into Eastern Europe, China, North Korea, North Vietnam, and Cuba. When World War II ended in 1945, the United Nations was founded in the hope of preventing future wars, as the League of Nations had been formed following World War I. World War II had left two countries, the United States and the Soviet Union, with principal power to influence international affairs. Each was suspicious of the other and feared a global spread of the other's, respectively capitalist and communist, political-economic model. This led to the Cold War, a 45-year stand-off and arms race between the United States and its allies, on one hand, and the Soviet Union and its allies on the other. With the development of nuclear weapons during World War II and their subsequent proliferation, all of humanity was put at risk of nuclear war between the two superpowers, as demonstrated by many incidents, most prominently the October 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. Such war being viewed as impractical, the superpowers instead waged proxy wars in non-nuclear-armed Third World countries. Between 1969 and 1972, as part of the Cold War Space Race, twelve American astronauts landed on the Moon and safely returned to Earth. In China, Mao Zedong implemented industrialization and collectivization reforms as part of the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962), leading to the starvation deaths (1959–1961) of 30–40 million people. After Mao's death, China entered a period of economic liberalization and rapid growth, with the economy expanding by 6.6% per year from 1978 to 2003. The Cold War ended peacefully in 1991 after the Soviet Union collapsed, partly due to its inability to compete economically with the United States and Western Europe. The United States likewise began to show signs of slippage in its geopolitical influence, and its economic inequality increased. In the early postwar decades, the colonies in Asia and Africa of the Belgian, British, Dutch, French, and other European empires won their formal independence. Most Western European and Central European countries gradually formed a political and economic community, the European Union, which expanded eastward to include former Soviet satellite states. Cold War preparations to deter or to fight a third world war accelerated advances in technologies that, though conceptualized before World War II, had been implemented for that war's exigencies, such as jet aircraft, rocketry, and computers. In the decades after World War II, these advances led to jet travel; artificial satellites with innumerable applications, including GPS; and the Internet, which in the 1990s began to gain traction as a form of communication. These inventions have revolutionized the movement of people, ideas, and information. However, not all scientific and technological advances in the second half of the 20th century required an initial military impetus. That period also saw ground-breaking developments such as the discovery of the structure of DNA and DNA sequencing, the worldwide eradication of smallpox, the Green Revolution in agriculture, the introduction of the portable cellular phone, the discovery of plate tectonics, crewed and uncrewed exploration of space, and foundational discoveries in physics phenomena ranging from the smallest entities (particle physics) to the greatest entity (physical cosmology). ### 21st century The 21st century has seen the expansion of communications with smartphones becoming ubiquitous since the late 2000s and the Internet, which have caused fundamental societal changes in business, politics, and individuals' personal lives. This period has been marked by growing economic globalization and integration, with consequent increased risk to interlinked economies, as exemplified by the Great Recession of the late 2000s and early 2010s. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic substantially disrupted global trading and caused recessions in the global economy. As of 2023, more than six million people have died from COVID-19. Humankind's adverse effects on the Earth have risen due to growing human populations and industrialization. The increased demands on Earth's resources – and failure to implement large-scale use of renewable energy, chiefly via solar panels and wind turbines – are contributing to environmental degradation, including mass extinctions of plant and animal species, and climate change, which threatens the long-term survival of humankind. References ---------- ### Explanatory notes 1. ↑ This date comes from the 2015 discovery of stone tools at the Lomekwi site in Kenya. Some palaeontologists propose an earlier date of 3.39 million years ago based on bones found with butchery marks on them in Dikika, Ethiopia, while others dispute both the Dikika and Lomekwi findings. 2. ↑ Or perhaps earlier; the 2018 discovery of stone tools from 2.1 million years ago in Shangchen, China predates the earliest known *H. erectus* fossils. 3. ↑ These dates come from a 2018 study of an upper jawbone from Misliya Cave, Israel. Researchers studying a fossil skull from Apidima Cave, Greece in 2019 proposed an earlier date of 210,000 years ago. The Apidima Cave study has been challenged by other scholars. 4. ↑ This occurred during the African humid period, when the Sahara was much wetter than it is today. 5. ↑ "Early Modern", historically speaking, refers to Western European history from 1501 (after the widely accepted end of the Late Middle Ages; the transition period was the 15th century) to either 1750 or c. 1790–1800, by whichever epoch is favoured by a school of scholars defining the period—which, in many cases of periodization, differs as well within a discipline such as art, philosophy, or history. 6. ↑ The Age of Enlightenment has also been referred to as the Age of Reason. Historians also include the late 17th century, which is typically known as the Age of Reason or Age of Rationalism, as part of the Enlightenment; however, contemporary historians have considered the Age of Reason distinct to the ideas developed in the Enlightenment. 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Human history

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_history