Datasets:

RyokoExtra

/

SuperWIKI-Cleaned

like 4

The **Andes** (/ˈændiːz/ *AN-deez*), **Andes Mountains** or **Andean Mountain Range** (Spanish: *Cordillera de los Andes*; Quechua: *Anti*) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 8,900 km (5,530 mi) long, 200 to 700 km (124 to 435 mi) wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S latitude), and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,123 ft). The Andes extend from north to south through seven South American countries: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate depressions. The Andes are the location of several high plateaus—some of which host major cities such as Quito, Bogotá, Cali, Arequipa, Medellín, Bucaramanga, Sucre, Mérida, El Alto and La Paz. The Altiplano Plateau is the world's second-highest after the Tibetan Plateau. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the Tropical Andes, the Dry Andes, and the Wet Andes. The Andes Mountains are the highest mountain range outside Asia. The highest mountain outside Asia, Argentina's Mount Aconcagua, rises to an elevation of about 6,961 m (22,838 ft) above sea level. The peak of Chimborazo in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the equatorial bulge resulting from the Earth's rotation. The world's highest volcanoes are in the Andes, including Ojos del Salado on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to 6,893 m (22,615 ft). The Andes are also part of the American Cordillera, a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the Americas and Antarctica. Etymology --------- The etymology of the word *Andes* has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the Quechua word *anti* 'east' as in *Antisuyu* (Quechua for 'east region'), one of the four regions of the Inca Empire. The term *cordillera* comes from the Spanish word *cordel* 'rope' and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined mountain chain along the western part of the North and South American continents. Geography --------- The Andes can be divided into three sections: The Southern Andesin Argentina and Chile, south of Llullaillaco. The Central Andesin Peru and Bolivia. The Northern Andesin Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador. In the northern part of the Andes, the separate Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta range is often treated as part of the Northern Andes. The Leeward Antilles islands Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, which lie in the Caribbean Sea off the coast of Venezuela, were formerly thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the South American and Caribbean plates. Geology ------- The Andes are a Mesozoic–Tertiary orogenic belt of mountains along the Pacific Ring of Fire, a zone of volcanic activity that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the Asia-Pacific region. The Andes are the result of tectonic plate processes, caused by the subduction of oceanic crust beneath the South American Plate as the Nazca Plate and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of Chile, ocean currents and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the Chilean coast. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment starved, causing excess friction and an increased rate of compressed coastal uplift. The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the compression of the western rim of the South American Plate due to the subduction of the Nazca Plate and the Antarctic Plate. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several sedimentary basins, such as Orinoco, Amazon Basin, Madre de Dios and Gran Chaco, that separate the Andes from the ancient cratons in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former Patagonia Terrane. To the west, the Andes end at the Pacific Ocean, although the Peru-Chile trench can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less rugged topography. The Andes Mountains also contain large quantities of iron ore located in many mountains within the range. The Andean orogen has a series of bends or oroclines. The Bolivian Orocline is a seaward concave bending in the coast of South America and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S. At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from Northwest in Peru to South in Chile and Argentina. The Andean segment north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° to 20° counter-clockwise and clockwise respectively. The Bolivian Orocline area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the Altiplano Plateau and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to crustal shortening. The specific point at 18° S where the coastline bends is known as the "Arica Elbow". Further south lies the Maipo Orocline a more subtle Orocline between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in trend at 33° S. Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline. ### Orogeny The western rim of the South American Plate has been the place of several pre-Andean orogenies since at least the late Proterozoic and early Paleozoic, when several terranes and microcontinents collided and amalgamated with the ancient cratons of eastern South America, by then the South American part of Gondwana. The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the Triassic when Pangaea began the break up that resulted in developing several rifts. The development continued through the Jurassic Period. It was during the Cretaceous Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, faulting and folding of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and erosion. Tectonic forces above the subduction zone along the entire west coast of South America where the Nazca Plate and a part of the Antarctic Plate are sliding beneath the South American Plate continue to produce an ongoing orogenic event resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south, a major transform fault separates Tierra del Fuego from the small Scotia Plate. Across the 1,000 km (620 mi) wide Drake Passage lie the mountains of the Antarctic Peninsula south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the Sunsás Orogen in Amazonian craton disappeared from the surface of the earth being overridden by the Andes. The Sierras de Córdoba, where the effects of the ancient Pampean orogeny can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the Andean orogeny in the Tertiary. Further south in southern Patagonia the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the Magallanes Basin to evolve from being an extensional back-arc basin in the Mesozoic to being a compressional foreland basin in the Cenozoic. ### Volcanism The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the subduction of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products and morphology. While some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighbouring volcanoes. Despite being a typical location for calc-alkalic and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems and extensional zones, transpressional faults, subduction of mid-ocean ridges and seamount chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and magma ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations. ### Ore deposits and evaporates The Andes Mountains host large ore and salt deposits and some of their eastern fold and thrust belt acts as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of hydrocarbons. In the forelands of the Atacama Desert some of the largest porphyry copper mineralizations occur making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of copper in the world. Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by hydrothermal fluids (mostly water) during the cooling of plutons or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that let them largely out of the disturbing actions of meteoric water. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive saltpeter deposits which were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic nitrates. Yet another result of the dry climate are the salars of Atacama and Uyuni, the first one being the largest source of lithium today and the second the world's largest reserve of the element. Early Mesozoic and Neogene plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the Bolivian tin belt as well as the famous, now depleted, deposits of Cerro Rico de Potosí. History ------- The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by hunter-gatherers, experienced the development of agriculture and the rise of politically centralised civilizations, which culminated in the establishment of the century-long Inca Empire. This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish conquistadors colonized the mountains in advance of the mining economy. In the tide of anti-imperialist nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a series of independence wars in the 19th century when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow Spanish colonial rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states. Climate and hydrology --------------------- The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F) in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. Rainforests exist just kilometres away from the snow-covered peak of Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The snow line depends on the location. It is at between 4,500 and 4,800 m (14,764 and 15,748 ft) in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800–5,200 m (15,748–17,060 ft) in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S before descending to 4,500 m (14,760 ft) on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000 m (6,600 ft) at 40°S, 500 m (1,640 ft) at 50°S, and only 300 m (980 ft) in Tierra del Fuego at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level. The Andes of Chile and Argentina can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the Atacama Desert to the area of the Maule River, precipitation is more sporadic and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the ablation area or in the accumulation area. In the high Andes of Central Chile and Mendoza Province, rock glaciers are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to solar radiation. In these regions glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers. The lowest active rock glacier occur at 900 m a.s.l. in Aconcagua. Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly 7,000-metre (22,966 ft) highest mountains of the Andes. This dry steppe climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example, the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach 10 km (6.2 mi) in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, c. 20,000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to 2,060 m (6,759 ft) and on the west side to about 1,220 m (4,003 ft) above sea level. The massifs of Cerro Aconcagua (6,961 m (22,838 ft)), Cerro Tupungato (6,550 m (21,490 ft)) and Nevado Juncal (6,110 m (20,046 ft)) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, i.e. components of valley glaciers, were up to 112.5 km (69.9 mi) long, over 1,250 m (4,101 ft) thick and overspanned a vertical distance of 5,150 m (16,896 ft). The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from 4,600 m (15,092 ft) to 3,200 m (10,499 ft) at glacial times. Flora ----- The Andean region cuts across several natural and floristic regions, due to its extension, from Caribbean Venezuela to cold, windy and wet Cape Horn passing through the hyperarid Atacama Desert. Rainforests and tropical dry forests used to encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly diminished, especially in the Chocó and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite of the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile and Argentina. Along with several Interandean Valles, they are typically dominated by deciduous woodland, shrub and xeric vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert. About 30,000 species of vascular plants live in the Andes, with roughly half being endemic to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other hotspot. The small tree *Cinchona pubescens*, a source of quinine which is used to treat malaria, is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are tobacco and potatoes. The high-altitude *Polylepis* forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual and other names, can be found at altitudes of 4,500 m (14,760 ft) above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing which began during the Incan period. Regardless, in modern times the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered to be highly endangered, with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains. Fauna ----- The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are endemic to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for amphibians. The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of mammals (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of reptile (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic). The vicuña and guanaco can be found living in the Altiplano, while the closely related domesticated llama and alpaca are widely kept by locals as pack animals and for their meat and wool. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) chinchillas, two threatened members of the rodent order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions. The Andean condor, the largest bird of its kind in the Western Hemisphere, occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities. Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the huemul, cougar, foxes in the genus *Pseudalopex*, and, for birds, certain species of tinamous (notably members of the genus *Nothoprocta*), Andean goose, giant coot, flamingos (mainly associated with hypersaline lakes), lesser rhea, Andean flicker, diademed sandpiper-plover, miners, sierra-finches and diuca-finches. Lake Titicaca hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered Titicaca flightless grebe and Titicaca water frog. A few species of hummingbirds, notably some hillstars, can be seen at altitudes above 4,000 m (13,100 ft), but far higher diversities can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("cloud forests") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and far northwestern Argentina. These forest-types, which includes the Yungas and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened mountain tapir, spectacled bear and yellow-tailed woolly monkey. Birds of humid Andean forests include mountain toucans, quetzals and the Andean cock-of-the-rock, while mixed species flocks dominated by tanagers and furnariids commonly are seen – in contrast to several vocal but typically cryptic species of wrens, tapaculos and antpittas. A number of species such as the royal cinclodes and white-browed tit-spinetail are associated with *Polylepis*, and consequently also threatened. Human activity -------------- The Andes Mountains form a north-south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through imperialistic militarism as well as careful and meticulous governmental management. The government sponsored the construction of aqueducts and roads in addition to preexisting installations. Some of these constructions are still in existence today. Devastated by European diseases and by civil war, the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. Huancas, Chachapoyas, Cañaris) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by Francisco Pizarro. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was Machu Picchu, which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the Quechua and Aymara language families. Woodbine Parish and Joseph Barclay Pentland surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827. ### Cities In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are Bogotá, with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and Santiago, Medellín, Cali, and Quito. Lima is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the Andean Community of Nations. La Paz, Bolivia's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately 3,650 m (11,975 ft). Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of El Alto, extend up to 4,200 m (13,780 ft). Other cities in or near the Andes include Bariloche, Catamarca, Jujuy, Mendoza, Salta, San Juan, Tucumán, and Ushuaia in Argentina; Calama and Rancagua in Chile; Cochabamba, Oruro, Potosí, Sucre, Sacaba, Tarija, and Yacuiba in Bolivia; Arequipa, Cajamarca, Cusco, Huancayo, Huánuco, Huaraz, Juliaca, and Puno in Peru; Ambato, Cuenca, Ibarra, Latacunga, Loja, Riobamba and Tulcán in Ecuador; Armenia, Cúcuta, Bucaramanga, Duitama, Ibagué, Ipiales, Manizales, Palmira, Pasto, Pereira, Popayán, Sogamoso, Tunja, and Villavicencio in Colombia; and Barquisimeto, La Grita, Mérida, San Cristóbal, Tovar, Trujillo, and Valera in Venezuela. The cities of Caracas, Valencia, and Maracay are in the Venezuelan Coastal Range, which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America. * La Paz, Bolivia is the highest capital city in the worldLa Paz, Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world * Santiago de ChileSantiago de Chile * BogotáBogotá * QuitoQuito * View of Mérida, VenezuelaView of Mérida, Venezuela ### Transportation Cities and large towns are connected with asphalt-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a four-wheel-drive vehicle. The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building highways and railroads that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern civil engineering practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the Paso Internacional Los Libertadores. Only recently the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west have been connected. Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft. However, there is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia. See railroad maps of that region. There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a period of war between Bolivia and Paraguay, in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay. For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. However, these claims were given up in about 1870 during the War of the Pacific between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The Chilean Army and Chilean Navy defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been a completely landlocked country ever since. It mostly uses seaports in eastern Argentina and Uruguay for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978. Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via motorized vehicles is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador. Locally, the relatives of the camel, the llama, and the alpaca continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. Donkeys, mules, and horses are also useful. ### Agriculture The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. Maize was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of chicha, important to Andean native people. Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops. Coca, despite eradication programmes in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating herbal tea, and, both controversially and illegally, for the production of cocaine. ### Irrigation In unirrigated land, pasture is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans and wheat). Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops which guarantees an early yield in the period of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to 3,800 m (12,500 ft)). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like onion and carrot. ### Mining The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the Spanish conquest of South America. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the mineralizations of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. Potosí in present-day Bolivia and Cerro de Pasco in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. Río de la Plata and Argentina derive their names from the silver of Potosí. Currently, mining in the Andes of Chile and Peru places these countries as the first and second major producers of copper in the world. Peru also contains the 4th largest goldmine in the world: the Yanacocha. The Bolivian Andes produce principally tin although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the economy of 17th-century Europe. There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish silver mines in Potosí in the 16th century to the vast current porphyry copper deposits of Chuquicamata and Escondida in Chile and Toquepala in Peru. Other metals including iron, gold, and tin in addition to non-metallic resources are important. The Andes also have a vast supply of lithium unmatched by any other region in the world. as they are home to Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile which have the 3 largest reserves in the world respectively Peaks ----- This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina (see below). ### Argentina * Aconcagua, 6,961 m (22,838 ft) * Cerro Bonete, 6,759 m (22,175 ft) * Galán, 5,912 m (19,396 ft) * Mercedario, 6,720 m (22,047 ft) * Pissis, 6,795 m (22,293 ft) ### The border between Argentina and Chile * Cerro Bayo, 5,401 m (17,720 ft) * Cerro Fitz Roy, 3,375 m (11,073 ft) or 3,405 m, Patagonia, also known as Cerro Chaltén * Cerro Escorial, 5,447 m (17,871 ft) * Cordón del Azufre, 5,463 m (17,923 ft) * Falso Azufre, 5,890 m (19,324 ft) * Incahuasi, 6,620 m (21,719 ft) * Lastarria, 5,697 m (18,691 ft) * Llullaillaco, 6,739 m (22,110 ft) * Maipo, 5,264 m (17,270 ft) * Marmolejo, 6,110 m (20,046 ft) * Ojos del Salado, 6,893 m (22,615 ft) * Olca, 5,407 m (17,740 ft) * Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas, 6,127 m (20,102 ft) * Socompa, 6,051 m (19,852 ft) * Nevado Tres Cruces, 6,749 m (22,142 ft) (south summit) (III Region) * Tronador, 3,491 m (11,453 ft) * Tupungato, 6,570 m (21,555 ft) * Nacimiento, 6,492 m (21,299 ft) ### Bolivia * Janq'u Uma, 6,427 m (21,086 ft) * Cabaraya, 5,860 m (19,226 ft) * Chacaltaya, 5,422 m (17,789 ft) * Wayna Potosí, 6,088 m (19,974 ft) * Illampu, 6,368 m (20,892 ft) * Illimani, 6,438 m (21,122 ft) * Laram Q'awa, 5,182 m (17,001 ft) * Macizo de Pacuni, 5,400 m (17,720 ft) * Nevado Anallajsi, 5,750 m (18,865 ft) * Nevado Sajama, 6,542 m (21,463 ft) * Patilla Pata, 5,300 m (17,390 ft) * Tata Sabaya, 5,430 m (17,815 ft) ### Border between Bolivia and Chile * Acotango, 6,052 m (19,856 ft) * Michincha, 5,305 m (17,405 ft) * Iru Phutunqu, 5,163 m (16,939 ft) * Licancabur, 5,920 m (19,423 ft) * Olca, 5,407 m (17,740 ft) * Parinacota, 6,348 m (20,827 ft) * Paruma, 5,420 m (17,782 ft) * Pomerape, 6,282 m (20,610 ft) ### Chile * Monte San Valentin, 4,058 m (13,314 ft) * Cerro Paine Grande, 2,884 m (9,462 ft) * Cerro Macá, c.2,300 m (7,546 ft) * Monte Darwin, c.2,500 m (8,202 ft) * Volcan Hudson, c.1,900 m (6,234 ft) * Cerro Castillo Dynevor, c.1,100 m (3,609 ft) * Mount Tarn, c.825 m (2,707 ft) * Polleras, c.5,993 m (19,662 ft) * Acamarachi, c.6,046 m (19,836 ft) ### Colombia * Nevado del Huila, 5,365 m (17,602 ft) * Nevado del Ruiz, 5,321 m (17,457 ft) * Nevado del Tolima, 5,205 m (17,077 ft) * Pico Pan de Azúcar, 5,200 m (17,060 ft) * Ritacuba Negro, 5,320 m (17,454 ft) * Nevado del Cumbal, 4,764 m (15,630 ft) * Cerro Negro de Mayasquer, 4,445 m (14,583 ft) * Ritacuba Blanco, 5,410 m (17,749 ft) * Nevado del Quindío, 5,215 m (17,110 ft) * Puracé, 4,655 m (15,272 ft) * Santa Isabel, 4,955 m (16,257 ft) * Doña Juana, 4,150 m (13,615 ft) * Galeras, 4,276 m (14,029 ft) * Azufral, 4,070 m (13,353 ft) ### Ecuador * Antisana, 5,752 m (18,871 ft) * Cayambe, 5,790 m (18,996 ft) * Chiles, 4,723 m (15,495 ft) * Chimborazo, 6,268 m (20,564 ft) * Corazón, 4,790 m (15,715 ft) * Cotopaxi, 5,897 m (19,347 ft) * El Altar, 5,320 m (17,454 ft) * Illiniza, 5,248 m (17,218 ft) * Pichincha, 4,784 m (15,696 ft) * Quilotoa, 3,914 m (12,841 ft) * Reventador, 3,562 m (11,686 ft) * Sangay, 5,230 m (17,159 ft) * Tungurahua, 5,023 m (16,480 ft) ### Peru * Alpamayo, 5,947 m (19,511 ft) * Artesonraju, 6,025 m (19,767 ft) * Carnicero, 5,960 m (19,554 ft) * Chumpe, 6,106 m (20,033 ft) * Coropuna, 6,377 m (20,922 ft) * El Misti, 5,822 m (19,101 ft) * El Toro, 5,830 m (19,127 ft) * Huandoy, 6,395 m (20,981 ft) * Huascarán, 6,768 m (22,205 ft) * Jirishanca, 6,094 m (19,993 ft) * Pumasillo, 5,991 m (19,656 ft) * Rasac, 6,040 m (19,816 ft) * Rondoy, 5,870 m (19,259 ft) * Sarapo, 6,127 m (20,102 ft) * Salcantay, 6,271 m (20,574 ft) * Seria Norte, 5,860 m (19,226 ft) * Siula Grande, 6,344 m (20,814 ft) * Huaytapallana, 5,557 m (18,232 ft) * Yerupaja, 6,635 m (21,768 ft) * Yerupaja Chico, 6,089 m (19,977 ft) ### Venezuela * Pico Bolívar, 4,978 m (16,332 ft) * Pico Humboldt, 4,940 m (16,207 ft) * Pico Bonpland, 4,880 m (16,010 ft) * Pico La Concha, 4,920 m (16,142 ft) * Pico Piedras Blancas, 4,740 m (15,551 ft) * Pico El Águila, 4,180 m (13,714 ft) * Pico El Toro 4,729 m (15,515 ft) * Pico El León 4,740 m (15,551 ft) * Pico Mucuñuque 4,609 m (15,121 ft) See also -------- * *Andean Geology*—a scientific journal * Andesite line * Apu (god) * Mountain passes of the Andes * List of mountain ranges References ---------- * Oncken, Onno; et al. (2006). *The Andes*. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8. ISBN 978-3-540-24329-8. * Biggar, J. (2005). *The Andes: A Guide For Climbers*. 3rd. edition. Andes: Kirkcudbrightshire. ISBN 0-9536087-2-7 * de Roy, T. (2005). *The Andes: As the Condor Flies.* Firefly books: Richmond Hill. ISBN 1-55407-070-8 * Fjeldså, J. & N. Krabbe (1990). *The Birds of the High Andes.* Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen: ISBN 87-88757-16-1 * Fjeldså, J. & M. Kessler (1996). *Conserving the biological diversity of Polylepis woodlands of the highlands on Peru and Bolivia, a contribution to sustainable natural resource management in the Andes.* NORDECO: Copenhagen. ISBN 978-87-986168-0-1

Andes

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes

A **multinational corporation** (**MNC**), also referred to as a **multinational enterprise** (**MNE**), a **transnational enterprise** (**TNE**), a **transnational corporation** (**TNC**), an **international corporation** or a **stateless corporation** with subtle but contrasting senses, is a corporate organization that owns and controls the production of goods or services in at least one country other than its home country. Control is considered an important aspect of an MNC, to distinguish it from international portfolio investment organizations, such as some international mutual funds that invest in corporations abroad simply to diversify financial risks. Black's Law Dictionary suggests that a company or group should be considered a multinational corporation "if it derives 25% or more of its revenue from out-of-home-country operations". Most of the largest and most influential companies of the modern age are publicly traded multinational corporations, including *Forbes Global 2000* companies. History ------- ### Colonialism The history of multinational corporations began with the history of colonialism. The first multinational corporations were founded to build set up colonial "factories" or port cities. In addition to carrying on trade between the mother country and the colonies, the British East India Company became a quasi-government in its own right, with local government officials and its own army in India . The two main examples were the British East India Company, and the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Others included the Swedish Africa Company, and the Hudson's Bay Company. These early corporations engaged in international trade and exploration, and set up trading posts. The Dutch government took over the VOC in 1799 and during the 19th century, other governments increasingly took over the private companies, most notable in British India. During the process of decolonization, the European colonial charter companies were disbanded, with the final colonial corporation, the Mozambique Company, dissolving in 1972. ### Mining Mining of gold, silver, copper, and oil was a major activity early on and remains so today. International mining companies became prominent in Britain in the 19th century, such as the Rio Tinto company founded in 1873, which started with the purchase of sulfur and copper mines from the Spanish government. Rio Tinto, now based in London and Melbourne Australia, has made many acquisitions and expanded globally to mine aluminum, iron ore, copper, uranium, and diamonds. European mines in South Africa began opening in the late 19th century, producing gold and other minerals for the world market, jobs for locals, and business and profits for companies. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902) was one of the few businessmen in the era who became Prime Minister (of South Africa 1890–1896). His mining enterprises included the British South Africa Company and De Beers. The latter company practically controlled the global diamond market from his base in southern Africa. ### Oil The "Seven Sisters" was a common term for the seven multinational companies which dominated the global petroleum industry from the mid-1940s to the mid-1970s. * Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (originally Anglo-Persian; now BP) * Royal Dutch Shell * Standard Oil Company of California (SoCal, later Chevron) * Gulf Oil (now merged into Chevron) * Texaco (now merged into Chevron) * Standard Oil Company of New Jersey (Esso, later Exxon, now part of ExxonMobil) * Standard Oil Company of New York (Socony, later Mobil, now part of ExxonMobil) Preceding the 1973 oil crisis, the Seven Sisters controlled around 85 percent of the world's petroleum reserves. In the 1970s most countries with large reserves nationalized their reserves that had been owned by major oil companies. Since then, industry dominance has shifted to the OPEC cartel and state-owned oil and gas companies, such as Saudi Aramco, Gazprom (Russia), China National Petroleum Corporation, National Iranian Oil Company, PDVSA (Venezuela), Petrobras (Brazil), and Petronas (Malaysia). By 2012 only 7% of the world's known oil reserves were in countries that allowed private international companies free rein. Fully 65% were in the hands of state-owned companies that operated in one country and sold oil to multinationals such as BP, Shell, ExxonMobil and Chevron. ### Manufacturing Down through the 1930s about 4/5 of the international investments by the multinational corporations was concentrated in the primary sector, especially mining (especially oil) and agriculture (rubber, tobacco, sugar, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, tropical fruits). Most went to the Third World colonies. That changed dramatically after 1945 as the investors turn to industrialized countries, and invested in manufacturing (especially high-tech electronics, chemicals, drugs and vehicles) as well as trade. Sweden's leading manufacturing concern was SKF, a leading maker of bearings for machinery. In order to expand its international business, it decided in 1966 it needed to use the English language. Senior officials, although mostly still Swedish, all learned English in all major internal documents were in English, the lingua franca of multinational corporations. #### Unilever A prominent multinational manufacturer is Unilever, a consumer goods company headquartered in London. Its products include many foods, as well as vitamins, supplements, tea, coffee, cleaning agents, water and air purifiers, pet food, and cosmetics. Unilever is the largest producer of soap in the world. Unilever's products are sold in 190 countries. Unilever owns over 400 brands, with a turnover in 2020 of 51 billion euros. The company is organized into three main divisions: Foods and Refreshments; Home Care; and Beauty & Personal Care. It has research and development facilities in China, India, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Unilever was founded in 1929 by the merger of a Dutch margarine producer Margarine Unie and the British soap maker Lever Brothers. After 1950, it increasingly diversified its products and expanded its operations worldwide. Its numerous acquisitions included Lipton (1971), Brooke Bond (1984), Chesebrough-Ponds (1987), Best Foods (2000), Ben & Jerry's (2000), Alberto-Culver (2010), Dollar Shave Club (2016) and Pukka Herbs (2017). ### After World War II After the war, the number of businesses having at least one foreign country operation rose drastically from a few thousand to 78,411 in 2007. Meanwhile, 74% of parent companies are located in economically advanced countries. Developing and former communist countries such as China, India, and Brazil being the largest receipients. However, 70% of foreign direct investment went into developed countries in the form os stocks and cash flows. The rise of the number of multinational companies could be due to a stable political environment that encourages cooperation, advances in technology that enables management of faraway regions, and favorable organizational development that encourages business expansion into other countries. Current status -------------- A multinational corporation (MNC) is usually a large corporation incorporated in one country which produces or sells goods or services in various countries. Two common characteristics shared by MNCs are their large size and centrally controlled worldwide activities. * Importing and exporting goods and services * Making significant investments in a foreign country * Buying and selling licenses in foreign markets * Engaging in contract manufacturing — permitting a local manufacturer in a foreign country to produce its products * Opening manufacturing facilities or assembly operations in foreign countries MNCs may gain from their global presence in a variety of ways. First of all, MNCs can benefit from the economy of scale by spreading R&D expenditures and advertising costs over their global sales, pooling global purchasing power over suppliers, and utilizing their technological and managerial experience globally with minimal additional costs. Furthermore, MNCs can use their global presence to take advantage of underpriced labor services available in certain developing countries, and gain access to special R&D capabilities residing in advanced foreign countries. The problem of moral and legal constraints upon the behavior of multinational corporations, given that they are effectively "stateless" actors, is one of several urgent global socioeconomic problems that has emerged during the late twentieth century. Potentially, the best concept for analyzing society's governance limitations over modern corporations is the concept of "stateless corporations". Coined at least as early as 1991 in *Business Week*, the conception was theoretically clarified in 1993: that an empirical strategy for defining a stateless corporation is with analytical tools at the intersection between demographic analysis and transportation research. This intersection is known as logistics management, and it describes the importance of rapidly increasing global mobility of resources. In a long history of analysis of multinational corporations, we are some quarter-century into an era of stateless corporations - corporations that meet the realities of the needs of source materials on a worldwide basis and to produce and customize products for individual countries. One of the first multinational business organizations, the East India Company, was established in 1601. After the East India Company, came the Dutch East India Company, founded on March 20, 1603, which would become the largest company in the world for nearly 200 years. The main characteristics of multinational companies are: * In general, there is a national strength of large companies as the main body, in the way of foreign direct investment or acquiring local enterprises, established subsidiaries or branches in many countries; * It usually has a complete decision-making system and the highest decision-making center, each subsidiary or branch has its own decision-making body, according to its different features and operations to make decisions, but its decision must be subordinated to the highest decision-making centre; * MNCs seek markets in worldwide and rational production layout, professional fixed-point production, and fixed-point sales products, in order to achieve maximum profit; * Due to strong economic and technical strength, with fast information transmission, as well as funding for rapid cross-border transfers, the multinational has stronger competitiveness in the world; * Many large multinational companies have varying degrees of monopoly in some area, due to economic and technical strength or production advantages. Foreign direct investment ------------------------- When a corporation invests in a country which it is not domiciled, it is called foreign direct investment (FDI). Countries may place restrictions on direct investment; for example, China has historically required partnerships with local firms or special approval for certain types of investments by foreigners, although some of these restrictions were eased in 2019. Similarly, the United States Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States scrutinizes foreign investments. In addition, corporations may be prohibited from various business transactions by international sanctions or domestic laws. For example, Chinese domestic corporations or citizens have limitations on their ability to make foreign investments outside China, in part to reduce capital outflow. Countries can impose extraterritorial sanctions on foreign corporations even for doing business with other foreign corporations, which occurred in 2019 with the United States sanctions against Iran; European companies faced with the possibility of losing access to the U.S. market by trading with Iran. International investment agreements also facilitate direct investment between two countries, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and most favored nation status. Legal domicile -------------- Raymond Vernon reported in 1977 that of the largest multinationals focused on manufacturing, 250 were headquartered in the United States, 115 in Western Europe, 70 in Japan, and 20 in the rest of the world. The multinationals in banking numbered 20 headquartered in the United States, 13 in Europe, nine in Japan and three in Canada. Today multinationals can select from a variety of jurisdictions for various subsidiaries, but the ultimate parent company can select a single legal domicile; *The Economist* suggests that the Netherlands has become a popular choice, as its company laws have fewer requirements for meetings, compensation, and audit committees, and Great Britain had advantages due to laws on withholding dividends and a double-taxation treaty with the United States. Corporations can legally engage in tax avoidance through their choice of jurisdiction, but must be careful to avoid illegal tax evasion. ### Stateless or transnational Corporations that are broadly active across the world without a concentration in one area have been called stateless or "transnational" (although "transnational corporation" is also used synonymously with "multinational corporation"), but as of 1992, a corporation must be legally domiciled in a particular country and engage in other countries through foreign direct investment and the creation of foreign subsidiaries. Geographic diversification can be measured across various domains, including ownership and control, workforce, sales, and regulation and taxation. Regulation and taxation ----------------------- Multinational corporations may be subject to the laws and regulations of both their domicile and the additional jurisdictions where they are engaged in business. In some cases, the jurisdiction can help to avoid burdensome laws, but regulatory statutes often target the "enterprise" with statutory language around "control". As of 1992[update], the United States and most OECD countries have the legal authority to tax a domiciled parent corporation on its worldwide revenue, including subsidiaries. As of 2019[update], the U.S. applies its corporate taxation "extraterritorially", which has motivated tax inversions to change the home state. By 2019, most OECD nations, with the notable exception of the U.S., had moved to territorial tax in which only revenue inside the border was taxed; however, these nations typically scrutinize foreign income with controlled foreign corporation (CFC) rules to avoid base erosion and profit shifting. In practice, even under an extraterritorial system, taxes may be deferred until remittance, with possible repatriation tax holidays, and subject to foreign tax credits. Countries generally cannot tax the worldwide revenue of a foreign subsidiary, and taxation is complicated by transfer pricing arrangements with parent corporations. Alternatives and arrangements ----------------------------- For small corporations, registering a foreign subsidiary can be expensive and complex, involving fees, signatures, and forms; a professional employer organization (PEO) is sometimes advertised as a cheaper and simpler alternative, but not all jurisdictions have laws accepting these types of arrangements. Dispute resolution and arbitration ---------------------------------- Disputes between corporations in different nations is often handled through international arbitration. Theoretical background ---------------------- The actions of multinational corporations are strongly supported by economic liberalism and free market system in a globalized international society. According to the economic realist view, individuals act in rational ways to maximize their self-interest and therefore, when individuals act rationally, markets are created and they function best in a free market system where there is little government interference. As a result, international wealth is maximized with free exchange of goods and services. To many economic liberals, multinational corporations are the vanguard of the liberal order. They are the embodiment par excellence of the liberal ideal of an interdependent world economy. They have taken the integration of national economies beyond trade and money to the internationalization of production. For the first time in history, production, marketing, and investment are being organized on a global scale rather than in terms of isolated national economies. International business is also a specialist field of academic research. Economic theories of the multinational corporation include internalization theory and the eclectic paradigm. The latter is also known as the OLI framework. The other theoretical dimension of the role of multinational corporations concerns the relationship between the globalization of economic engagement and the culture of national and local responses. This has a history of self-conscious cultural management going back at least to the 60s. For example: > Ernest Dichter, architect, of Exxon's international campaign, writing in the Harvard Business Review in 1963, was fully aware that the means to overcoming cultural resistance depended on an "understanding" of the countries in which a corporation operated. He observed that companies with "foresight to capitalize on international opportunities" must recognize that "cultural anthropology will be an important tool for competitive marketing". However, the projected outcome of this was not the assimilation of international firms into national cultures, but the creation of a "world customer". The idea of a global corporate village entailed the management and reconstitution of parochial attachments to one's nation. It involved not a denial of the naturalness of national attachments, but an internationalization of the way a nation defines itself. > > Multinational enterprise ------------------------ "Multinational enterprise" (MNE) is the term used by international economist and similarly defined with the multinational corporation (MNC) as an enterprise that controls and manages production establishments, known as plants located in at least two countries. The multinational enterprise (MNE) will engage in foreign direct investment (FDI) as the firm makes direct investments in host country plants for equity ownership and managerial control to avoid some transaction costs. Criticism --------- Sanjaya Lall in 1974 proposed a spectrum of scholarly analysis of multinational corporations, from the political right to the left. He put the business school how-to-do-it writers at the extreme right, followed by the liberal laissez-faire economists, and the neoliberals (they remain right of center but do allow for occasional mistakes of the marketplace such as externalities). Moving to the left side of the line are nationalists, who prioritize national interests over corporate profits, then the "dependencia" school in Latin America that focuses on the evils of imperialism, and on the far left the Marxists. The range is so broad that scholarly consensus is hard to discern. Anti-corporate advocates criticize multinational corporations for being without a basis in a national ethos, being ultimate without a specific nationhood, and that this lack of an ethos appears in their ways of operating as they enter into contracts with countries that have low human rights or environmental standards. In the world economy facilitated by multinational corporations, capital will increasingly be able to play workers, communities, and nations off against one another as they demand tax, regulation and wage concessions while threatening to move. In other words, increased mobility of multinational corporations benefits capital while workers and communities lose. Some negative outcomes generated by multinational corporations include increased inequality, unemployment, and wage stagnation. For the debate from a neo-liberal perspective see Raymond Vernon, *Storm over the Multinationals* (1977).</ref> The aggressive use of tax avoidance schemes, and multinational tax havens, allows multinational corporations to gain competitive advantages over small and medium-sized enterprises. Organizations such as the Tax Justice Network criticize governments for allowing multinational organizations to escape tax, particularly by using base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS) tax tools, since less money can be spent for public services. See also -------- * Financial risk management § Corporate finance * Globalization * Global workforce * List of multinational corporations * Transnational Corporations Observatory * World economy * Multinational tax haven Further reading --------------- * Cameron, Rondo, V. I. Bovykin, et al. eds. *International banking, 1870–1914* (1991) * Chandler, Alfred D. and Bruce Mazlish, eds. *Leviathans: Multinational Corporations and the New Global History* (2005). online * Chandler, Alfred D. et al. eds. *Big Business and the Wealth of Nations* (Cambridge University Press, 1999) excerpt * Chernow, Ron. *The House of Morgan: An American Banking Dynasty and the Rise of Modern Finance* (2010) excerpt * Davenport-Hines, R. P. T., and Geoffrey Jones, eds. *British Business in Asia since 1860* (2003) excerpt * Dunning. John H. and Sarianna M. Lundan. *Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy* (2nd ed. 2008), major textbook 1993 edition online * Habib-Mintz, Nazia. "Multinational corporations’ role in improving labour standards in developing countries." *Journal of International Business and Economy* 10.2 (2009): 1–20. online[*dead link*] * Hunt, Michael H. "Americans in the China Market: Economic Opportunities and Economic Nationalism, 1890s–1931." *Business History Review* 51.3 (1977): 277–307. online * Jones, Geoffrey. *Multinationals and Global Capitalism: From the Nineteenth to the Twenty-first Century* (2005) * Jones, Geoffrey. *Merchants to multinationals : British trading companies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries* (2000) online * Jones, Geoffrey, and Jonathan Zeitlin, eds. *The Oxford Handbook of Business History* (2008) * Jones, Geoffrey, et al. *The History of the British Bank of the Middle East: Vol. 2, Banking and Oil* (1987) * Jones, Geoffrey. *The Evolution of International Business* (1995) online * Lumby, Anthony. "Economic history and theories of the multinational corporation." *South African journal of economic history* 3.2 (1988): 104–124. * Martin, Lisa, ed. *The Oxford Handbook of the Political Economy of International Trade* (2015) excerpt * Munjal, Surender, Pawan Budhwar, and Vijay Pereira. "A perspective on multinational enterprise’s national identity dilemma." *Social Identities* 24.5 (2018): 548–563. online * Stopford, John M. "The origins of British-based multinational manufacturing enterprises." *Business History Review* 48.3 (1974): 303–335. * Tugendhat, Christopher. *The multinationals* (Penguin, 1973) online. * Vernon, Raymond. *Storm over the Multinationals: The Real Issues* (Harvard UP, 1977). online * Wells, Louis T. *Third world multinationals: The rise of foreign investments from developing countries* (MIT Press, 1983) on companies based in Third World * Wilkins, Mira. "The history of multinational enterprise." in *The Oxford handbook of international business* vol 2 (2009). online * Wilkins, Mira. *The Emergence of Multinational Enterprise: American Business Abroad from the Colonial Era to 1914* (1970) + Wilkins, Mira. *Maturing of Multinational Enterprise : American Business Abroad from 1914 to 1970* (1974) * Wilkins, Mira. *American business abroad: Ford on six continents* (1964) online ### Corporate histories * Ciafone, Amanda. *Counter-Cola: A Multinational History of the Global Corporation* (U of California Press, 2019) on Coca-Cola. * Fritz, Martin and Karlsson, Birgit. *SKF: A Global Story, 1907–2007* (2006). ISBN 978-91-7736-576-1 * Scheiber, Harry N. "World War I as Entrepreneurial Opportunity: Willard Straight and the American International Corporation." *Political Science Quarterly* 84.3 (1969): 486–511. online ### Historiography * Hernes, Helga. *The Multinational Corporation: A Guide to Information Sources* (Gale, 1977). online

Multinational corporation

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation

The **Etruscan civilization** (/ɪˈtrʌskən/ *ih-TRUSK-ən*) was developed by a people of Etruria in ancient Italy with a common language and culture who formed a federation of city-states. After conquering adjacent lands, its territory covered, at its greatest extent, roughly what is now Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio, as well as what are now the Po Valley, Emilia-Romagna, south-eastern Lombardy, southern Veneto, and western Campania. The earliest evidence of a culture that is identifiably Etruscan dates from about 900 BC. This is the period of the Iron Age Villanovan culture, considered to be the earliest phase of Etruscan civilization, which itself developed from the previous late Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture in the same region. Etruscan civilization endured until it was assimilated into Roman society. Assimilation began in the late 4th century BC as a result of the Roman–Etruscan Wars; it accelerated with the grant of Roman citizenship in 90 BC, and became complete in 27 BC, when the Etruscans' territory was incorporated into the newly established Roman Empire. The territorial extent of Etruscan civilization reached its maximum around 750 BC, during the foundational period of the Roman Kingdom. Its culture flourished in three confederacies of cities: that of Etruria (Tuscany, Latium and Umbria), that of the Po Valley with the eastern Alps, and that of Campania. The league in northern Italy is mentioned in Livy. The reduction in Etruscan territory was gradual, but after 500 BC, the political balance of power on the Italian peninsula shifted away from the Etruscans in favor of the rising Roman Republic. The earliest known examples of Etruscan writing are inscriptions found in southern Etruria that date to around 700 BC. The Etruscans developed a system of writing derived from the Euboean alphabet, which was used in the Magna Graecia (coastal areas located in Southern Italy). The Etruscan language remains only partly understood, making modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. In the Etruscan political system, authority resided in its individual small cities, and probably in its prominent individual families. At the height of Etruscan power, elite Etruscan families grew very rich through trade with the Celtic world to the north and the Greeks to the south, and they filled their large family tombs with imported luxuries. Legend and history ------------------ ### Ethnonym and etymology The Etruscans called themselves *Rasenna*, which was shortened to *Rasna* or *Raśna* (Neo-Etruscan), with both etymologies unknown. In Attic Greek, the Etruscans were known as Tyrrhenians (Τυρρηνοί, *Tyrrhēnoi*, earlier Τυρσηνοί *Tyrsēnoi*), from which the Romans derived the names *Tyrrhēnī*, *Tyrrhēnia* (Etruria), and *Mare Tyrrhēnum* (Tyrrhenian Sea),[*full citation needed*] prompting some to associate them with the *Teresh* (one of the Sea Peoples named by the Egyptians). The ancient Romans referred to the Etruscans as the *Tuscī* or *Etruscī* (singular *Tuscus*). Their Roman name is the origin of the terms "Toscana", which refers to their heartland, and "Etruria", which can refer to their wider region. The term *Tusci* is thought by linguists to have been the Umbrian word for "Etruscan", based on an inscription on an ancient bronze tablet from a nearby region. The inscription contains the phrase *turskum ... nomen*, literally "the Tuscan name". Based on a knowledge of Umbrian grammar, linguists can infer that the base form of the word turskum is \*Tursci, which would, through metathesis and a word-initial epenthesis, be likely to lead to the form, *E-trus-ci*. As for the original meaning of the root, \*Turs-, a widely cited hypothesis is that it, like the word Latin *turris*, means "tower", and comes from the Greek word for tower: τύρσις. On this hypothesis, the Tusci were called the "people who build towers" or "the tower builders". This proposed etymology is made the more plausible because the Etruscans preferred to build their towns on high precipices reinforced by walls. Alternatively, Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante have speculated that Etruscan houses may have seemed like towers to the simple Latins. The proposed etymology has a long history, Dionysius of Halicarnassus having observed in the first century B. C., "[T]here is no reason that the Greeks should not have called [the Etruscans] by this name, both from their living in towers and from the name of one of their rulers." In his recent *Etymological Dictionary of Greek*, Robert Beekes claims the Greek word is a "loanword from a Mediterranean language," a hypothesis that goes back to an article by Paul Kretschmer in *Glotta* from 1934. ### Origins #### Ancient sources Literary and historical texts in the Etruscan language have not survived, and the language itself is only partially understood by modern scholars. This makes modern understanding of their society and culture heavily dependent on much later and generally disapproving Roman and Greek sources. These ancient writers differed in their theories about the origin of the Etruscan people. Some suggested they were Pelasgians who had migrated there from Greece. Others maintained that they were indigenous to central Italy and were not from Greece. The first Greek author to mention the Etruscans, whom the Ancient Greeks called Tyrrhenians, was the 8th-century BC poet Hesiod, in his work, the Theogony. He mentioned them as residing in central Italy alongside the Latins. The 7th-century BC *Homeric Hymn* to Dionysus referred to them as pirates. Unlike later Greek authors, these authors did not suggest that Etruscans had migrated to Italy from the east, and did not associate them with the Pelasgians. It was only in the 5th century BC, when the Etruscan civilization had been established for several centuries, that Greek writers started associating the name "Tyrrhenians" with the "Pelasgians", and even then, some did so in a way that suggests they were meant only as generic, descriptive labels for "non-Greek" and "indigenous ancestors of Greeks", respectively. The 5th-century BC historians Thucydides and Herodotus, and the 1st-century BC historian Strabo, did seem to suggest that the Tyrrhenians were originally Pelasgians who migrated to Italy from Lydia by way of the Greek island of Lemnos. They all described Lemnos as having been settled by Pelasgians, whom Thucydides identified as "belonging to the Tyrrhenians" (τὸ δὲ πλεῖστον Πελασγικόν, τῶν καὶ Λῆμνόν ποτε καὶ Ἀθήνας Τυρσηνῶν). As Strabo and Herodotus told it, the migration to Lemnos was led by Tyrrhenus / Tyrsenos, the son of Atys (who was king of Lydia). Strabo added that the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros then followed Tyrrhenus to the Italian Peninsula. And, according to the logographer Hellanicus of Lesbos, there was a Pelasgian migration from Thessaly in Greece to the Italian peninsula, as part of which the Pelasgians colonized the area he called Tyrrhenia, and they then came to be called Tyrrhenians. There is some evidence suggesting a link between the island of Lemnos and the Tyrrhenians. The Lemnos Stele bears inscriptions in a language with strong structural resemblances to the language of the Etruscans. The discovery of these inscriptions in modern times has led to the suggestion of a "Tyrrhenian language group" comprising Etruscan, Lemnian, and the Raetic spoken in the Alps. However, the 1st-century BC historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Greek living in Rome, dismissed many of the ancient theories of other Greek historians and postulated that the Etruscans were indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria and were different from both the Pelasgians and the Lydians. Dionysius noted that the 5th-century historian Xanthus of Lydia, who was originally from Sardis and was regarded as an important source and authority for the history of Lydia, never suggested a Lydian origin of the Etruscans and never named Tyrrhenus as a ruler of the Lydians. > For this reason, therefore, I am persuaded that the Pelasgians are a different people from the Tyrrhenians. And I do not believe, either, that the Tyrrhenians were a colony of the Lydians; for they do not use the same language as the latter, nor can it be alleged that, though they no longer speak a similar tongue, they still retain some other indications of their mother country. For they neither worship the same gods as the Lydians nor make use of similar laws or institutions, but in these very respects they differ more from the Lydians than from the Pelasgians. Indeed, those probably come nearest to the truth who declare that the nation migrated from nowhere else, but was native to the country, since it is found to be a very ancient nation and to agree with no other either in its language or in its manner of living. > > The credibility of Dionysius of Halicarnassus is arguably bolstered by the fact that he was the first ancient writer to report the endonym of the Etruscans: Rasenna. > The Romans, however, give them other names: from the country they once inhabited, named Etruria, they call them Etruscans, and from their knowledge of the ceremonies relating to divine worship, in which they excel others, they now call them, rather inaccurately, Tusci, but formerly, with the same accuracy as the Greeks, they called them Thyrscoï [an earlier form of Tusci]. Their own name for themselves, however, is the same as that of one of their leaders, Rasenna. > > Similarly, the 1st-century BC historian Livy, in his *Ab Urbe Condita Libri*, said that the Rhaetians were Etruscans who had been driven into the mountains by the invading Gauls; and he asserted that the inhabitants of Raetia were of Etruscan origin. > The Alpine tribes have also, no doubt, the same origin (of the Etruscans), especially the Raetians; who have been rendered so savage by the very nature of the country as to retain nothing of their ancient character save the sound of their speech, and even that is corrupted. > > First-century historian Pliny the Elder also put the Etruscans in the context of the Rhaetian people to the north, and wrote in his *Natural History* (AD 79): > Adjoining these the (Alpine) Noricans are the Raeti and Vindelici. All are divided into a number of states. The Raeti are believed to be people of Tuscan race driven out by the Gauls, their leader was named Raetus. > > #### Archeological evidence and modern etruscology The question of Etruscan origins has long been a subject of interest and debate among historians. In modern times, all the evidence gathered so far by prehistoric and protohistoric archaeologists, anthropologists, and etruscologists points to an indigenous origin of the Etruscans. There is no archaeological or linguistic evidence of a migration of the Lydians or Pelasgians into Etruria. Modern etruscologists and archeologists, such as Massimo Pallottino (1947), have shown that early historians' assumptions and assertions on the subject were groundless. In 2000, the etruscologist Dominique Briquel explained in detail why he believes that ancient Greek historians' writings on Etruscan origins should not even count as historical documents. He argues that the ancient story of the Etruscans' 'Lydian origins' was a deliberate, politically motivated fabrication, and that ancient Greeks inferred a connection between the Tyrrhenians and the Pelasgians solely on the basis of certain Greek and local traditions and on the mere fact that there had been trade between the Etruscans and Greeks. He noted that, even if these stories include historical facts suggesting contact, such contact is more plausibly traceable to cultural exchange than to migration. Several archaeologists specializing in Prehistory and Protohistory, who have analyzed Bronze Age and Iron Age remains that were excavated in the territory of historical Etruria have pointed out that no evidence has been found, related either to material culture or to social practices, that can support a migration theory. The most marked and radical change that has been archaeologically attested in the area is the adoption, starting in about the 12th century BC, of the funeral rite of incineration in terracotta urns, which is a Continental European practice, derived from the Urnfield culture; there is nothing about it that suggests an ethnic contribution from Asia Minor or the Near East. A 2012 survey of the previous 30 years' archaeological findings, based on excavations of the major Etruscan cities, showed a continuity of culture from the last phase of the Bronze Age (13th–11th century BC) to the Iron Age (10th–9th century BC). This is evidence that the Etruscan civilization, which emerged around 900 BC, was built by people whose ancestors had inhabited that region for at least the previous 200 years. Based on this cultural continuity, there is now a consensus among archeologists that Proto-Etruscan culture developed, during the last phase of the Bronze Age, from the indigenous Proto-Villanovan culture, and that the subsequent Iron Age Villanovan culture is most accurately described as an early phase of the Etruscan civilization. It is possible that there were contacts between northern-central Italy and the Mycenaean world at the end of the Bronze Age. However contacts between the inhabitants of Etruria and inhabitants of Greece, Aegean Sea Islands, Asia Minor, and the Near East are attested only centuries later, when Etruscan civilization was already flourishing and Etruscan ethnogenesis was well established. The first of these attested contacts relate to the Greek colonies in Southern Italy and Phoenician-Punic colonies in Sardinia, and the consequent orientalizing period. One of the most common mistakes for a long time, even among some scholars of the past, has been to associate the later Orientalizing period of Etruscan civilization with the question of its origins. Orientalization was an artistic and cultural phenomenon that spread among the Greeks themselves, and throughout much of the central and western Mediterranean, not only in Etruria. Orientalizing period in the Etruscans was due, as has been amply demonstrated by archeologists, to contacts with the Greeks and the Eastern Mediterranean and not to mass migrations. The facial features (the profile, almond-shaped eyes, large nose) in the frescoes and sculptures, and the depiction of reddish-brown men and light-skinned women, influenced by archaic Greek art, followed the artistic traditions from the Eastern Mediterranean, that had spread even among the Greeks themselves, and to a lesser extent also to other several civilizations in the central and western Mediterranean up to the Iberian Peninsula. Actually, many of the tombs of the Late Orientalizing and Archaic periods, such as the Tomb of the Augurs, the Tomb of the Triclinium or the Tomb of the Leopards, as well as other tombs from the archaic period in the Monterozzi necropolis in Tarquinia, were painted by Greek painters or, in any case, foreigner artists. These images have, therefore, a very limited value for a realistic representation of the Etruscan population. It was only from the end of the 4th century B.C. that evidence of physiognomic portraits began to be found in Etruscan art and Etruscan portraiture became more realistic. #### Genetic research An mtDNA study in 2004, based on Etruscan samples from Veneto, Tuscany, Lazio, and Campania, stated that the Etruscans had no significant heterogeneity, and that all mitochondrial lineages observed among the Etruscan samples appear typically European, but only a few haplotypes were shared with modern populations. Allele sharing between the Etruscans and modern populations is highest among Germans (seven haplotypes in common), the Cornish from the South West of Britain (five haplotypes in common), the Turks (four haplotypes in common), and the Tuscans (two haplotypes in common). A couple of mitochondrial DNA studies, published in 2013 in the journals PLOS One and American Journal of Physical Anthropology, based on Etruscan samples from Tuscany and Latium, concluded that the Etruscans were an indigenous population, showing that Etruscan mtDNA appears to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe (Germany, Austria, Hungary) and to other Tuscan populations, strongly suggesting that the Etruscan civilization developed locally from the Villanovan culture, as already supported by archaeological evidence and anthropological research, and that genetic links between Tuscany and western Anatolia date back to at least 5,000 years ago during the Neolithic and the "most likely separation time between Tuscany and Western Anatolia falls around 7,600 years ago", at the time of the migrations of Early European Farmers (EEF) from Anatolia to Europe in the early Neolithic. The ancient Etruscan samples had mitochondrial DNA haplogroups (mtDNA) JT (subclades of J and T) and U5, with a minority of mtDNA H1b. In the collective volume *Etruscology* published in 2017, British archeologist Phil Perkins provides an analysis of the state of DNA studies and writes that "none of the DNA studies to date conclusively prove that Etruscans were an intrusive population in Italy that originated in the Eastern Mediterranean or Anatolia" and "there are indications that the evidence of DNA can support the theory that Etruscan people are autochthonous in central Italy". A 2019 genetic study published in the journal *Science* analyzed the remains of eleven Iron Age individuals from the areas around Rome, of which four were Etruscan individuals, one buried in Veio Grotta Gramiccia from the Villanovan era (900-800 BC) and three buried in La Mattonara Necropolis near Civitavecchia from the Orientalizing period (700-600 BC). The study concluded that Etruscans (900–600 BC) and the Latins (900–500 BC) from Latium vetus were genetically similar, with genetic differences between the examined Etruscans and Latins found to be insignificant. The Etruscan individuals and contemporary Latins were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by the presence of ca. 30% steppe ancestry. Their DNA was a mixture of two-thirds Copper Age ancestry (EEF + WHG; Etruscans ~66–72%, Latins ~62–75%), and one-third Steppe-related ancestry (Etruscans ~27–33%, Latins ~24–37%). The only sample of Y-DNA extracted belonged to haplogroup J-M12 (J2b-L283), found in an individual dated 700-600 BC, and carried exactly the M314 derived allele also found in a Middle Bronze Age individual from Croatia (1631-1531 calBCE). While the four samples of mtDNA extracted belonged to haplogroups U5a1, H, T2b32, K1a4. Therefore, Etruscans had also Steppe-related ancestry despite speaking a non-Indo-European language. A 2021 genetic study, published in the journal Science Advances, analyzed the autosomal DNA of 48 Iron Age individuals from Tuscany and Lazio, spanning from 800 to 1 BC, and confirmed that in the Etruscan individuals the ancestral component Steppe was present in the same percentages found in the previously analyzed Iron Age Latins, and in the Etruscan DNA was completely absent a signal of recent admixture with Anatolia and the Eastern Mediterranean, concluding that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster, west of modern Italians. The Etruscan cluster is a mixture of WHG, EEF, and Steppe ancestry; 75% of the Etruscan male individuals were found to belong to haplogroup R1b, especially R1b-P312 and its derivative R1b-L2 whose direct ancestor is R1b-U152, while the most common mitochondrial DNA haplogroup among the Etruscans was H. In his 2021 book, *A Short History of Humanity*, German geneticist Johannes Krause, co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Jena, concludes that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, and Minoan) "developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution". ### Periodization of Etruscan civilization The Etruscan civilization begins with the Villanovan culture, regarded as the oldest phase. The Etruscans themselves dated the origin of the Etruscan nation to a date corresponding to the 11th or 10th century BC. The Villanovan culture emerges with the phenomenon of regionalization from the late Bronze Age culture called "Proto-Villanovan", part of the central European Urnfield culture system. In the last Villanovan phase, called the recent phase (about 770–730 BC), the Etruscans established relations of a certain consistency with the first Greek immigrants in southern Italy (in Pithecusa and then in Cuma), so much so as to initially absorb techniques and figurative models and soon more properly cultural models, with the introduction, for example, of writing, of a new way of banqueting, of a heroic funerary ideology, that is, a new aristocratic way of life, such as to profoundly change the physiognomy of Etruscan society. Thus, thanks to the growing number of contacts with the Greeks, the Etruscans entered what is called the Orientalizing phase. In this phase, there was a heavy influence in Greece, most of Italy and some areas of Spain, from the most advanced areas of the eastern Mediterranean and the ancient Near East. Also directly Phoenician, or otherwise Near Eastern, craftsmen, merchants and artists contributed to the spread in southern Europe of Near Eastern cultural and artistic motifs. The last three phases of Etruscan civilization are called, respectively, Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic, which roughly correspond to the homonymous phases of the ancient Greek civilization. #### Chronology | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Etruscan civilization**(900–27 BC) | Villanovan period(900–720 BC) | Villanovan I | 900–800 BC | | Villanovan II | 800–720 BC | | Villanovan III (Bologna area) | 720–680 BC | | Villanovan IV (Bologna area) | 680–540 BC | | Orientalizing period(720–580 BC) | Early Orientalizing | 720–680 BC | | Middle Orientalizing | 680–625 BC | | Late Orientalizing | 625–580 BC | | Archaic period(580–480 BC) | Archaic | 580–480 BC | | Classical period(480–320 BC) | Classical | 480–320 BC | | Hellenistic period(320–27 BC) | Hellenistic | 320–27 BC | | ### Expansion Etruscan expansion was focused both to the north beyond the Apennine Mountains and into Campania. Some small towns in the sixth century BC disappeared during this time, ostensibly subsumed by greater, more powerful neighbours. However, it is certain that the political structure of the Etruscan culture was similar to, albeit more aristocratic than, Magna Graecia in the south. The mining and commerce of metal, especially copper and iron, led to an enrichment of the Etruscans and to the expansion of their influence in the Italian peninsula and the western Mediterranean Sea. Here, their interests collided with those of the Greeks, especially in the sixth century BC, when Phocaeans of Italy founded colonies along the coast of Sardinia, Spain and Corsica. This led the Etruscans to ally themselves with Carthage, whose interests also collided with the Greeks. Around 540 BC, the Battle of Alalia led to a new distribution of power in the western Mediterranean. Though the battle had no clear winner, Carthage managed to expand its sphere of influence at the expense of the Greeks, and Etruria saw itself relegated to the northern Tyrrhenian Sea with full ownership of Corsica. From the first half of the 5th century BC, the new political situation meant the beginning of the Etruscan decline after losing their southern provinces. In 480 BC, Etruria's ally Carthage was defeated by a coalition of Magna Graecia cities led by Syracuse, Sicily. A few years later, in 474 BC, Syracuse's tyrant Hiero defeated the Etruscans at the Battle of Cumae. Etruria's influence over the cities of Latium and Campania weakened, and the area was taken over by Romans and Samnites. In the 4th century BC, Etruria saw a Gallic invasion end its influence over the Po Valley and the Adriatic coast. Meanwhile, Rome had started annexing Etruscan cities. This led to the loss of the northern Etruscan provinces. During the Roman–Etruscan Wars, Etruria was conquered by Rome in the 3rd century BC. ### Etruscan League According to legend, there was a period between 600 BC and 500 BC in which an alliance was formed among twelve Etruscan settlements, known today as the *Etruscan League*, *Etruscan Federation*, or *Dodecapolis* (in Greek Δωδεκάπολις). According to a legend, the Etruscan League of twelve cities was founded by Tarchon and his brother Tyrrhenus. Tarchon lent his name to the city of Tarchna, or Tarquinnii, as it was known by the Romans. Tyrrhenus gave his name to the Tyrrhenians, the alternative name for the Etruscans. Although there is no consensus on which cities were in the league, the following list may be close to the mark: Arretium, Caisra, Clevsin, Curtun, Perusna, Pupluna, Veii, Tarchna, Vetluna, Volterra, Velzna, and Velch. Some modern authors include Rusellae. The league was mostly an economic and religious league, or a loose confederation, similar to the Greek states. During the later imperial times, when Etruria was just one of many regions controlled by Rome, the number of cities in the league increased by three. This is noted on many later grave stones from the 2nd century BC onwards. According to Livy, the twelve city-states met once a year at the Fanum Voltumnae at Volsinii, where a leader was chosen to represent the league. There were two other Etruscan leagues ("Lega dei popoli"): that of Campania, the main city of which was Capua, and the Po Valley city-states in northern Italy, which included Bologna, Spina and Adria. ### Possible founding of Rome Those who subscribe to a Latin foundation of Rome followed by an Etruscan invasion typically speak of an Etruscan "influence" on Roman culture – that is, cultural objects which were adopted by Rome from neighbouring Etruria. The prevailing view is that Rome was founded by Latins who later merged with Etruscans. In this interpretation, Etruscan cultural objects are considered influences rather than part of a heritage. Rome was probably a small settlement until the arrival of the Etruscans, who constructed the first elements of its urban infrastructure such as the drainage system. The main criterion for deciding whether an object originated at Rome and traveled by influence to the Etruscans, or descended to the Romans from the Etruscans, is date. Many, if not most, of the Etruscan cities were older than Rome. If one finds that a given feature was there first, it cannot have originated at Rome. A second criterion is the opinion of the ancient sources. These would indicate that certain institutions and customs came directly from the Etruscans. Rome is located on the edge of what was Etruscan territory. When Etruscan settlements turned up south of the border, it was presumed that the Etruscans spread there after the foundation of Rome, but the settlements are now known to have preceded Rome. Etruscan settlements were frequently built on hills – the steeper the better – and surrounded by thick walls. According to Roman mythology, when Romulus and Remus founded Rome, they did so on the Palatine Hill according to Etruscan ritual; that is, they began with a *pomerium* or sacred ditch. Then, they proceeded to the walls. Romulus was required to kill Remus when the latter jumped over the wall, breaking its magic spell (see also under Pons Sublicius). The name of Rome is attested in Etruscan in the form *Ruma-χ* meaning 'Roman', a form that mirrors other attested ethnonyms in that language with the same suffix *-χ*: *Velzna-χ* '(someone) from Volsinii' and *Sveama-χ* '(someone) from Sovana'. This in itself, however, is not enough to prove Etruscan origin conclusively. If Tiberius is from *θefarie*, then Ruma would have been placed on the *Thefar* (Tiber) river. A heavily discussed topic among scholars is who was the founding population of Rome. In 390 BC, the city of Rome was attacked by the Gauls, and as a result may have lost many – though not all – of its earlier records. Later history relates that some Etruscans lived in the *Vicus Tuscus*, the "Etruscan quarter", and that there was an Etruscan line of kings (albeit ones descended from a Greek, Demaratus of Corinth) that succeeded kings of Latin and Sabine origin. Etruscophile historians would argue that this, together with evidence for institutions, religious elements and other cultural elements, proves that Rome was founded by Etruscans. The true picture is rather more complicated, not least because the Etruscan cities were separate entities which never came together to form a single Etruscan state. Furthermore, there were strong Latin and Italic elements to Roman culture, and later Romans proudly celebrated these multiple, 'multicultural' influences on the city. Under Romulus and Numa Pompilius, the people were said to have been divided into thirty curiae and three tribes. Few Etruscan words entered Latin, but the names of at least two of the tribes – *Ramnes* and *Luceres* – seem to be Etruscan. The last kings may have borne the Etruscan title *lucumo*, while the regalia were traditionally considered of Etruscan origin – the golden crown, the sceptre, the *toga palmata* (a special robe), the *sella curulis* (curule chair), and above all the primary symbol of state power: the *fasces*. The latter was a bundle of whipping rods surrounding a double-bladed axe, carried by the king's lictors. An example of the fasces are the remains of bronze rods and the axe from a tomb in Etruscan Vetulonia. This allowed archaeologists to identify the depiction of a fasces on the grave stele of Avele Feluske, who is shown as a warrior wielding the fasces. The most telling Etruscan feature is the word *populus*, which appears as an Etruscan deity, Fufluns. ### Roman families of Etruscan origin * Ancharia gens * Arruntia gens * Caecinia gens * Caelia gens * Caesennia gens * Ceionia gens * Cilnia gens * Herminia gens – Patrician * Erucia gens * Lartia gens – Patrician * Perpernia gens * Persia gens * Rasinia gens * Sanquinia gens * Spurinnia gens * Tapsennia gens * Tarquinia gens – Patrician (?) * Tarquitia gens – Patrician * Urgulania gens * Verginia gens – Patrician * Volumnia gens – Patrician Society ------- ### Government The historical Etruscans had achieved a state system of society, with remnants of the chiefdom and tribal forms. Rome was in a sense the first Italic state, but it began as an Etruscan one. It is believed that the Etruscan government style changed from total monarchy to oligarchic republic (as the Roman Republic) in the 6th century BC. The government was viewed as being a central authority, ruling over all tribal and clan organizations. It retained the power of life and death; in fact, the gorgon, an ancient symbol of that power, appears as a motif in Etruscan decoration. The adherents to this state power were united by a common religion. Political unity in Etruscan society was the city-state, which was probably the referent of *methlum*, "district". Etruscan texts name quite a number of magistrates, without much of a hint as to their function: The *camthi*, the *parnich*, the *purth*, the *tamera*, the *macstrev*, and so on. The people were the *mech*. ### Family The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the *gens* at Rome and perhaps even its model. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre of the society was the married couple, *tusurthir*. The Etruscans were a monogamous society that emphasized pairing. Similarly, the behaviour of some wealthy women is not uniquely Etruscan. The apparent promiscuous revelry has a spiritual explanation. Swaddling and Bonfante (among others) explain that depictions of the nude embrace, or symplegma, "had the power to ward off evil", as did baring the breast, which was adopted by western culture as an apotropaic device, appearing finally on the figureheads of sailing ships as a nude female upper torso. It is also possible that Greek and Roman attitudes to the Etruscans were based on a misunderstanding of the place of women within their society. In both Greece and the earliest Republican Rome, respectable women were confined to the house and mixed-sex socialising did not occur. Thus, the freedom of women within Etruscan society could have been misunderstood as implying their sexual availability. It is worth noting that a number of Etruscan tombs carry funerary inscriptions in the form "X son of (father) and (mother)", indicating the importance of the mother's side of the family. ### Military The Etruscans, like the contemporary cultures of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, had a significant military tradition. In addition to marking the rank and power of certain individuals, warfare was a considerable economic advantage to Etruscan civilization. Like many ancient societies, the Etruscans conducted campaigns during summer months, raiding neighboring areas, attempting to gain territory and combating piracy as a means of acquiring valuable resources, such as land, prestige, goods, and slaves. It is likely that individuals taken in battle would be ransomed back to their families and clans at high cost. Prisoners could also potentially be sacrificed on tombs as an honor to fallen leaders of Etruscan society, not unlike the sacrifices made by Achilles for Patrocles. ### Cities The range of Etruscan civilization is marked by its cities. They were entirely assimilated by Italic, Celtic, or Roman ethnic groups, but the names survive from inscriptions and their ruins are of aesthetic and historic interest in most of the cities of central Italy. Etruscan cities flourished over most of Italy during the Roman Iron Age, marking the farthest extent of Etruscan civilization. They were gradually assimilated first by Italics in the south, then by Celts in the north and finally in Etruria itself by the growing Roman Republic. That many Roman cities were formerly Etruscan was well known to all the Roman authors. Some cities were founded by Etruscans in prehistoric times, and bore entirely Etruscan names. Others were colonized by Etruscans who Etruscanized the name, usually Italic. Culture ------- ### Religion Chimera of ArezzoInscription of Tinia on the Chimera's leg The Etruscan system of belief was an immanent polytheism; that is, all visible phenomena were considered to be a manifestation of divine power and that power was subdivided into deities that acted continually on the world of man and could be dissuaded or persuaded in favour of human affairs. How to understand the will of deities, and how to behave, had been revealed to the Etruscans by two initiators, Tages, a childlike figure born from tilled land and immediately gifted with prescience, and Vegoia, a female figure. Their teachings were kept in a series of sacred books. Three layers of deities are evident in the extensive Etruscan art motifs. One appears to be divinities of an indigenous nature: Catha and Usil, the sun; *Tivr*, the moon; Selvans, a civil god; Turan, the goddess of love; Laran, the god of war; Leinth, the goddess of death; Maris; Thalna; Turms; and the ever-popular Fufluns, whose name is related in some way to the city of Populonia and the populus Romanus, possibly, the god of the people. Ruling over this pantheon of lesser deities were higher ones that seem to reflect the Indo-European system: Tin or Tinia, the sky, Uni his wife (Juno), and Cel, the earth goddess. In addition, some Greek and Roman gods were taken into the Etruscan system: Aritimi (Artemis), Menrva (Minerva), Pacha (Dionysus). The Greek heroes taken from Homer also appear extensively in art motifs. ### Architecture Relatively little is known about the architecture of the ancient Etruscans. They adapted the native Italic styles with influence from the external appearance of Greek architecture. In turn, ancient Roman architecture began with Etruscan styles, and then accepted still further Greek influence. Roman temples show many of the same differences in form to Greek ones that Etruscan temples do, but like the Greeks, use stone, in which they closely copy Greek conventions. The houses of the wealthy were evidently often large and comfortable, but the burial chambers of tombs, often filled with grave-goods, are the nearest approach to them to survive. In the southern Etruscan area, tombs have large rock-cut chambers under a tumulus in large necropoleis, and these, together with some city walls, are the only Etruscan constructions to survive. Etruscan architecture is not generally considered as part of the body of Greco-Roman classical architecture. ### Art and music Etruscan art was produced by the Etruscan civilization between the 9th and 2nd centuries BC. Particularly strong in this tradition were figurative sculpture in terracotta (particularly lifesize on sarcophagi or temples), wall-painting and metalworking (especially engraved bronze mirrors). Etruscan sculpture in cast bronze was famous and widely exported, but few large examples have survived (the material was too valuable, and recycled later). In contrast to terracotta and bronze, there was apparently little Etruscan sculpture in stone, despite the Etruscans controlling fine sources of marble, including Carrara marble, which seems not to have been exploited until the Romans. Most surviving Etruscan art comes from tombs, including all the fresco wall-paintings, a minority of which show scenes of feasting and some narrative mythological subjects. Bucchero wares in black were the early and native styles of fine Etruscan pottery. There was also a tradition of elaborate Etruscan vase painting, which sprung from its Greek equivalent; the Etruscans were the main export market for Greek vases. Etruscan temples were heavily decorated with colourfully painted terracotta antefixes and other fittings, which survive in large numbers where the wooden superstructure has vanished. Etruscan art was strongly connected to religion; the afterlife was of major importance in Etruscan art. The Etruscan musical instruments seen in frescoes and bas-reliefs are different types of pipes, such as the plagiaulos (the pipes of Pan or Syrinx), the alabaster pipe and the famous double pipes, accompanied on percussion instruments such as the tintinnabulum, tympanum and crotales, and later by stringed instruments like the lyre and kithara. ### Language Etruscans left around 13,000 inscriptions which have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study. The Etruscans are believed to have spoken a Pre-Indo-European and Paleo-European language, and the majority consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the Tyrsenian language family, which in itself is an isolate family, that is unrelated directly to other known language groups. Since Rix (1998), it is widely accepted that the Tyrsenian family groups Raetic and Lemnian are related to Etruscan. ### Literature Etruscan texts, written in a space of seven centuries, use a form of the Greek alphabet due to close contact between the Etruscans and the Greek colonies at Pithecusae and Cumae in the 8th century BC (until it was no longer used, at the beginning of the 1st century AD). Etruscan inscriptions disappeared from Chiusi, Perugia and Arezzo around this time. Only a few fragments survive, religious and especially funeral texts most of which are late (from the 4th century BC). In addition to the original texts that have survived to this day, there are a large number of quotations and allusions from classical authors. In the 1st century BC, Diodorus Siculus wrote that literary culture was one of the great achievements of the Etruscans. Little is known of it and even what is known of their language is due to the repetition of the same few words in the many inscriptions found (by way of the modern epitaphs) contrasted in bilingual or trilingual texts with Latin and Punic. Out of the aforementioned genres, is just one such Volnio (Volnius) cited in classical sources mention. With a few exceptions, such as the Liber Linteus, the only written records in the Etruscan language that remain are inscriptions, mainly funerary. The language is written in the Etruscan alphabet, a script related to the early Euboean Greek alphabet. Many thousand inscriptions in Etruscan are known, mostly epitaphs, and a few very short texts have survived, which are mainly religious. Etruscan imaginative literature is evidenced only in references by later Roman authors, but it is evident from their visual art that the Greek myths were well-known. Sources ------- * Antonio, Margaret L.; et al. (November 8, 2019). "Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean". *Science*. American Association for the Advancement of Science. **366** (6466): 708–714. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..708A. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826. PMC 7093155. PMID 31699931. Further reading --------------- * Bartoloni, Gilda (ed). *Introduzione all'Etruscologia* (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli, 2012. * Sinclair Bell and Carpino A. Alexandra (eds). *A Companion to the Etruscans*, Oxford; Chichester; Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2016. * Bonfante, Giuliano and Bonfante Larissa. *The Etruscan Language: An Introduction*. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002. * Bonfante, Larissa. *Out of Etruria: Etruscan Influence North and South*. Oxford: B.A.R., 1981. * Bonfante, Larissa. *Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies*. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986. * Bonfante, Larissa. *Etruscan Myths*. London: British Museum Press, 2006. * Briquel, Dominique. *Les Étrusques, peuple de la différence*, series Civilisations U, éditions Armand Colin, Paris, 1993. * Briquel, Dominique. *La civilisation étrusque*, éditions Fayard, Paris, 1999. * De Grummond, Nancy T. (2014). *Ethnicity and the Etruscans*. In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). *A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean*. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 405–422. * Haynes, Sybille. *Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural History.* Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000. * Izzet, Vedia. *The Archaeology of Etruscan Society*. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007. * Naso, Alessandro (ed). *Etruscology*, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017. * Pallottino, Massimo. *Etruscologia*. Milan: Hoepli, 1942 (English ed., *The Etruscans*. David Ridgway, editor. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975). * Shipley, Lucy. *The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations*, London: Reaktion Books, 2017. * Smith, C. *The Etruscans: a very short introduction* , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. * Spivey, Nigel. *Etruscan Art*. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. * Swaddling, Judith and Philip Perkins. *Etruscan by Definition: The Culture, Regional, and Personal Identity of the Etruscans: Papers in Honor of Sybille Haynes*. London: British Museum, 2009. * \* Torelli, M. (ed.) (2001) *The Etruscans*. London. * Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (ed). *The Etruscan World*. London: Routledge, 2013. * Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. *The Etruscans*. In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). *The Peoples of Ancient Italy*. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672. ### Cities and sites * (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Umbria) "The Cai Cutu Etruscan tomb" An undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reused between the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembled in the National Archeological Museum of Perugia * Hypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership

Etruscan civilization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_civilization

The **Christian Democratic Union of Germany** (German: *Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands* [ˈkʁɪstlɪç demoˈkʁaːtɪʃə ʔuˈni̯oːn ˈdɔʏtʃlants]; **CDU** German pronunciation: [ˌtseːdeːˈʔuː] ()) is a Christian democratic and liberal conservative political party in Germany. It is the major catch-all party of the centre-right in German politics. Friedrich Merz has been federal chairman of the CDU since 31 January 2022. The CDU is the second largest party in the Bundestag, the German federal legislature, with 152 out of 736 seats, having won 18.9% of votes in the 2021 federal election. It forms the CDU/CSU Bundestag faction, also known as the Union, with its Bavarian counterpart, the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU). The group's parliamentary leader is also Friedrich Merz. Founded in 1945 as an interdenominational Christian party, the CDU effectively succeeded the pre-war Catholic Centre Party, with many former members joining the party, including its first leader Konrad Adenauer. The party also included politicians of other backgrounds, including liberals and conservatives. As a result, the party claims to represent "Christian-social, liberal and conservative" elements. The CDU is generally pro-European in outlook. Black is the party's customary and historical electoral colour. Other colours include red for the logo, orange for the flag, and black-red-gold for the corporate design. The CDU is currently in opposition at federal/governmental level. It previously led the federal government from 1949 to 1969, 1982 to 1998, and 2005 to 2021. Germany's three longest-serving post-war Chancellors have all come from the CDU, more specifically: Helmut Kohl (1982–1998), Angela Merkel (2005–2021), and Konrad Adenauer (1949–1963). Therefore, it has been called the natural governing party of Germany. The party also leads the governments of six of Germany's sixteen states. The CDU is a member of the Centrist Democrat International, the International Democrat Union, and the European People's Party (EPP). It is the largest party in the EPP with 23 MEPs. Ursula von der Leyen, the current President of the European Commission, is also a member of the CDU. History ------- ### Founding period 1949 election poster of the CDU reading "We cannot do magic — but we can work/do our job. Help us. Vote for CDU. It's about Germany!"1949 election poster of the CDU reading "The Rescue: CDU" Immediately following the end of World War II and the foreign occupation of Germany, simultaneous yet unrelated meetings began occurring throughout the country, each with the intention of planning a Christian-democratic party. Consequently, the CDU was established in Berlin on 26 June 1945 and in Rheinland and Westfalen in September of the same year. The founding members of the CDU consisted primarily of former members of the Centre Party, the German Democratic Party, the German National People's Party, and the German People's Party. Many of these individuals, including CDU-Berlin founder Andreas Hermes, were imprisoned for the involvement in the German Resistance during the Nazi dictatorship. In the Cold War, years after World War II up to the 1960s (see *Vergangenheitsbewältigung*), the CDU also attracted conservative, anti-communist, former Nazis as well as Nazi collaborators into its higher ranks (like Hans Globke and Theodor Oberländer but also future CDU chairman and West German chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger). A prominent anti-Nazi member was theologian Eugen Gerstenmaier, who became Acting Chairman of the Foreign Board (1949–1969). The result of these meetings was the establishment of an inter-confessional (Catholic and Protestant alike) party influenced heavily by the political tradition of liberal conservatism. The CDU experienced considerable success gaining widespread support from the time of its creation in Berlin on 26 June 1945 until its first convention on 21 October 1950, at which future West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer (who was imprisoned during the Nazi dictatorship) was named the first Chairman of the party. ### Adenauer era (1949–1963) In the beginning, it was not clear which party would be favored by the victors of World War II, but by the end of the 1940s the governments of the United States and of the United Kingdom began to lean more toward the CDU and significantly away from the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), especially due to geopolitical reasons. The latter was more nationalist and sought German reunification even at the expense of concessions to the Soviet Union (USSR), depicting Adenauer as an instrument of both the Americans and the Vatican. The Western powers appreciated the CDU's moderation, its economic flexibility, and its value as a pivotal oppositional force to the communists, thereby consistently keeping up with US/UK foreign policy. In addition, Adenauer was also trusted by the British. However, the party was split over issues of rearmament within the Western alliance and German unification as a neutral state. Adenauer staunchly defended his pro-Western position and outmaneuvered some of his opponents. He also refused to consider the SPD as a party of the coalition until he felt sure that they shared his anti-communist position. The principled rejection of a reunification that would alienate Germany from the Western alliance made it harder to attract Protestant voters to the party, as most refugees from the former German territories east of the Oder river were of that faith, as were the majority of the inhabitants of East Germany. Therefore, the CDU was the dominant political party for the first two decades following the establishment of West Germany in 1949. The durable alliance that the party had established with the liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP) as the leading tandem of several federal governments, and, implicitly, the strong partnership between Chancellor Adenauer and President Theodor Heuss enabled West Germany to thoroughly rebuild itself in the wake of World War II. Adenauer remained the party's leader until 1963, when former Minister of Economics Ludwig Erhard replaced him. As the Free Democratic Party (FDP) withdrew from the governing coalition in 1966 due to disagreements over fiscal and economic policy, Erhard was forced to resign. Consequently, a grand coalition with the SPD took over government under CDU Chancellor Kurt Georg Kiesinger. ### Opposition against social-liberal governments (1969–1982) The SPD quickly gained popularity and succeeded in forming a social-liberal coalition with the FDP following the 1969 federal election, forcing the CDU out of power for the first time in its history. The CDU and CSU were highly critical of Chancellor Willy Brandt's "change through rapprochement" policy towards the Eastern bloc *(Ostpolitik)* and protested sharply against the 1970 treaties of Moscow and Warsaw that renounced claims to the former eastern territories of Germany and recognised the Oder–Neisse line as Germany's eastern border. The Union parties had close ties with the *Heimatvertriebene* associations (Germans who fled or were expelled from the eastern territories) who hoped for a return of or in these territories. Seven Bundestag members, including former vice chancellor Erich Mende, defected from the FDP and SPD to the CDU in protest against these treaties, depriving Brandt of his majority, and providing a thin majority for the CDU and CSU. In April 1972, the CDU saw its chance to return to power, calling a constructive vote of no confidence. CDU chairman Rainer Barzel was almost certain to become the new Chancellor. But not all parliamentarians voted as expected (it was later revealed that two CDU/CSU deputies had been bribed by the East German Stasi): Brandt won the vote and stayed in office. Thus, the CDU continued its role as opposition for a total of thirteen years. In 1982, the FDP withdrew from the coalition with the SPD and allowed the CDU to regain power. ### Kohl era (1982–1998) CDU Chairman Helmut Kohl became the new Chancellor of West Germany and his CDU/CSU–FDP coalition was confirmed in the 1983 federal election. After the collapse of the East German government in 1989, Kohl—supported by the governments of the United States and reluctantly by those of France and the United Kingdom—called for German reunification. On 3 October 1990, the government of East Germany was abolished and its territory acceded to the territory of the Basic Law already in place in West Germany. The East German CDU merged with its West German counterpart and elections were held for the reunified country. Public support for the coalition's work in the process of German reunification was reiterated in the 1990 federal election in which the CDU–FDP governing coalition experienced a clear victory. Although Kohl was re-elected, the party began losing much of its popularity because of an economic recession in the former GDR and increased taxes in the west. The CDU was nonetheless able to win the 1994 federal election by a narrow margin thanks to an economic recovery. Kohl served as chairman until the party's electoral defeat in 1998, when he was succeeded by Wolfgang Schäuble. In the 1998 federal election, the CDU polled 28.4% and the CSU 6.7% of the national vote, the lowest result for those parties since 1949; a red–green coalition under the leadership of Gerhard Schröder took power until 2005. ### Merkel era (2000–2018) Schäuble resigned in early 2000 as a result of a party financing scandal and was replaced by Angela Merkel, the first woman and the first person from East Germany to lead the federal party. She remained the leader of the CDU for more than eighteen years. In the 2002 federal election, Merkel ceded the position of CDU/CSU's joint candidate for the chancellor's office to the leader of the sister party, Bavarian minister-president Edmund Stoiber. CDU and CSU polled slightly higher (29.5% and 9.0%, respectively), but still lacked the majority needed for a CDU–FDP coalition government and stayed in opposition. In 2005, early elections were called after the CDU dealt the governing SPD a major blow, winning more than ten state elections, most of which were landslide victories. The resulting grand coalition between the CDU/CSU and the SPD faced a serious challenge stemming from both parties' demand for the chancellorship. After three weeks of negotiations, the two parties reached a deal whereby CDU received the chancellorship while the SPD retained 8 of the 16 seats in the cabinet and a majority of the most prestigious cabinet posts. The coalition deal was approved by both parties at party conferences on 14 November. Merkel was confirmed as the first female Chancellor of Germany by the majority of delegates (397 to 217) in the newly assembled Bundestag on 22 November. Since her first term in office, from 2005 to 2009, there have been discussions if the CDU was still "sufficiently conservative" or if it was "social-democratising". In March 2009, Merkel answered with the statement "Sometimes I am liberal, sometimes I am conservative, sometimes I am Christian-social—and this is what defines the CDU." Although the CDU/CSU lost support in the 2009 federal elections, their "desired partner" the FDP experienced the best election cycle in its history, thereby enabling a CDU/CSU–FDP coalition. This marked the first change of coalition partner by a Chancellor in German history and the first centre-right coalition government since 1998. CDU candidate Christian Wulff won the 2010 presidential election in the third ballot, while opposition candidate Joachim Gauck (a Protestant pastor and former anti-communist activist in East Germany, who was favoured even by some CDU members) received a number of "faithless" votes from the government camp. The decisions to suspend conscription (late 2010) and to phase out nuclear energy (shortly after the Fukushima disaster in 2011) broke with long-term principles of the CDU, moving the party into a more socially liberal direction and alienating some of its more conservative members and voters. At its November 2011 conference the party proposed a "wage floor", after having expressly rejected minimum wages during the previous years. Psephologist and Merkel advisor Matthias Jung coined the term "asymmetric demobilisation" for the CDU's strategy (practised in the 2009, 2013 and 2017 campaigns) of adopting issues and positions close to its rivals, e.g. regarding social justice (SPD) and ecology (Greens), thus avoiding conflicts that might mobilise their potential supporters. Some of the promises in the CDU's 2013 election platform were seen as "overtaking the SPD on the left". While this strategy proved to be quite successful in elections, it also raised warnings that the CDU's profile would become "random", the party would lose its "essence" and it might even be dangerous for democracy in general if parties became indistinguishable and voters demotivated. President Wulff resigned in February 2012 due to allegations of corruption, triggering an early presidential election. This time the CDU supported, reluctantly, nonpartisan candidate Joachim Gauck. The CDU/CSU–FDP coalition lasted until the 2013 federal election, when the FDP lost all its seats in the Bundestag while the CDU and CSU won their best result since 1990, only a few seats short of an absolute majority. This was partly due to the CDU's expansion of voter base to all socio-structural groups (class, age or gender), partly due to the personal popularity of Chancellor Merkel. After talks with the Greens had failed, the CDU/CSU formed a new grand coalition with the SPD. Despite their long-cherished slogan of "There must be no democratically legitimised party to the right of CDU/CSU", the Union has had a serious competitor to its right since 2013. The right-wing populist Alternative for Germany (AfD) was founded with the involvement of disgruntled CDU members. It drew on the discontent of some conservatives with the Merkel administration's handling of the European debt crisis (2009–14) and later the 2015 refugee crisis, lamenting a purported loss of sovereignty and control or even "state failure". Nearly 10 percent of early AfD members were defectors from the CDU. In 2017 the Bundestag voted to legalise same-sex marriage. Merkel had allowed the conscience vote to happen despite her personal objections. While she herself and the majority of the party's representatives voted against the proposal, a number of CDU deputies supported it. In the 2017 election, the CDU and CSU lost a large portion of their voteshare: With 26.8 percent of party list votes, the CDU received its worst result since 1949, losing more than fifty seats in the Bundestag (despite an enlargement of the parliament). After failing to negotiate a coalition with the FDP and Greens, they continued their grand coalition with the SPD. In October 2018, Merkel announced that she would step down as leader of the CDU that December and not seek reelection, but wanted to remain as Chancellor until 2021. ### Post-Merkel (2018–present) On 7 December 2018, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer was elected as federal chairwoman of the CDU. Kramp-Karrenbauer was considered Merkel's ideological successor, though holding more socially conservative positions, such as opposition to same-sex marriage. Kramp-Karrenbauer's election saw a rise in support for the CDU in national polling, and her personal popularity was initially high. However, she suffered a sharp decline in popularity in the lead-up to the 2019 European Parliament election, in which the CDU/CSU suffered its worst ever result in a national election with just 29%. Kramp-Karrenbauer thereafter remained one of the least popular politicians nationally. The CSU's Manfred Weber was the *Spitzenkandidat* for the European People's Party in the 2019 European Parliament election. However, the EPP group ultimately nominated the CDU's Ursula von der Leyen as their candidate for President of the European Commission; she was elected in July 2019, becoming the first woman to hold the office. Kramp-Karrenbauer resigned as party chair on 10 February 2020, in the midst of the 2020 Thuringian government crisis. The Thuringian CDU had been perceived as cooperating with the Alternative for Germany (AfD) to prevent the election of a left-wing government, breaching the long-standing taboo in Germany surrounding cooperation with the far-right. Kramp-Karrenbauer was perceived as unable to enforce discipline within the party during the crisis, which she claimed was complicated by unclear positions within the party regarding cooperation with the AfD and The Left, which party statute holds to be equally unacceptable. While the Thuringia crisis was the immediate trigger for Kramp-Karrenbauer's resignation, she stated the decision had "matured some time ago", and media attributed it to the troubled development of her brief leadership. Kramp-Karrenbauer remained in office as Minister of Defence and interim party leader from February until the leadership election was held in January 2021. Originally scheduled for April 2020, it was delayed multiple times due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and was ultimately held online. Minister-President of North Rhine-Westphalia Armin Laschet won the election with 52.8% of delegate votes. His main opponent Friedrich Merz, was seen as more right-wing, who won 47.2% of vote; Merz had also run against Kramp-Karrenbauer in 2018 and been defeated. Laschet's election was seen as an affirmation of Merkel's leadership and the CDU's centrist orientation. On 7 October 2021, Armin Laschet, signaled that he would step down after a disastrous general election result, with the CDU suffering its worst general election result since the 1949 West German federal election. A new leadership election was called in December and Friedrich Merz, of the right-wing faction of the CDU, was elected by a large majority of 62,1% of voters, defeating pro-Merkel candidates Norbert Röttgen and Helge Braun. The Congress of the CDU officially elected Merz as new party Chairman on 22 January 2022, and he assumed office on 31 January 2022. Voter base ---------- While Adenauer and Erhard co-operated with non-Nazi parties to their right, the CDU has later worked to marginalize its right-wing opposition. The loss of anti-communism as a political theme, secularization and the cultural revolutions in West Germany occurring since the 1960s have challenged the viability of the CDU. In her 2005 campaign, Angela Merkel was unwilling to express explicitly Christian views while maintaining that her party had never lost its concept of values. Merkel and Bundestag President Norbert Lammert have been keen to clarify that CDU references to the "dominant culture" imply "tolerance and living together". According to party analyst Stephan Eisel, her avoiding the values-issue may have had the opposite effect as she failed to mobilize the party's core constituency. The CDU applies the principles of Christian democracy and emphasizes the "Christian understanding of humans and their responsibility toward God". However, CDU membership consists of people adhering to a variety of religions as well as non-religious individuals. The CDU's policies derive from political Catholicism, Catholic social teaching and political Protestantism as well as economic liberalism and national conservatism. The party has adopted more liberal economic policies since Helmut Kohl's term in office as the Chancellor of Germany (1982–1998). As a conservative party, the CDU supports stronger punishments of crimes and involvement on the part of the Bundeswehr in cases of domestic anti-terrorism offensives. In terms of immigrants, the CDU supports initiatives to integrate immigrants through language courses and aims to further control immigration. Dual citizenship should only be allowed in exceptional cases. In terms of foreign policy, the CDU commits itself to European integration and a strong relation with the United States. In the European Union, the party opposes the entry of Turkey, preferring instead a privileged partnership. In addition to citing various human rights violations, the CDU also believes that Turkey's unwillingness to recognise Cyprus as an independent sovereign state contradicts the European Union policy that its members must recognise the existence of one another. The CDU has governed in four federal-level and numerous state-level Grand Coalitions with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) as well as in state and local-level coalitions with the Alliance 90/The Greens. The CDU has an official party congress adjudication that prohibits coalitions and any sort of cooperation with either The Left or the Alternative for Germany. Internal structure ------------------ ### Party congress The party congress is the highest organ of the CDU. It meets at least every two years, determines the basic lines of CDU policy, approves the party program and decides on the statutes of the CDU. The CDU party congress consists of the delegates of the CDU regional associations, the foreign associations and the honorary chairmen. The state associations send exactly 1,000 delegates who have to be elected by the state or district conventions. The number of delegates that a regional association can send depends on the number of members of the association six months before the party congress and the result of the last federal election in the respective federal state. The foreign associations recognized by the federal executive committee each send a delegate to the party congress, regardless of their number of members. ### Federal committee The federal committee is the second highest body and deals with all political and organizational matters that are not expressly reserved for the federal party congress. For this reason it is often called a *small party congress*. ### Federal executive board and presidium The CDU federal executive heads the federal party. It implements the resolutions of the federal party congress and the federal committee and convenes the federal party congress. The CDU Presidium is responsible for executing the resolutions of the federal executive committee and handling current and urgent business. It consists of the leading members of the federal executive board and is not an organ of the CDU in Germany. ### Members Before 1966, membership totals in CDU organisation were only estimated. The numbers after 1966 are based on the total from 31 December of the previous year. In 2018, the CDU had 420,240 members. In 2012, the members' average age was 59 years. 6% of the Christian Democrats were under 30 years old. A 2007 study by the Konrad Adenauer Foundation showed that 25.4% of members were female and 74.6% male. Female participation was higher in the former East German states with 29.2% compared to 24.8% in the former West German states. | State group | Chairman | Members | | --- | --- | --- | | Baden-Württemberg | Thomas Strobl | 74,669 | | Berlin | Kai Wegner | 12,568 | | Brandenburg | Michael Stübgen | 6,797 | | Bremen | Carsten Meyer-Heder | 3,246 | | Hamburg | Christoph Ploß | 9,697 | | Hesse | Boris Rhein | 47,789 | | Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | Franz-Robert Liskow | 6,038 | | Lower Saxony | Bernd Althusmann | 72,813 | | North Rhine-Westphalia | Henrik Wüst | 165,273 | | Rhineland-Palatinate | Christian Baldauf | 49,856 | | Saarland | Stephan Toscani | 20,651 | | Saxony | Michael Kretschmer | 13,148 | | Saxony-Anhalt | Sven Schulze | 8,410 | | Schleswig-Holstein | Daniel Günther | 26,674 | | Thuringia | Mario Voigt | 12,035 | ### Relationship with the CSU Both the CDU and the Christian Social Union in Bavaria (CSU) originated after World War II, sharing a concern for the Christian worldview. In the Bundestag, the CDU is represented in a common faction with the CSU. This faction is called CDU/CSU, or informally the Union. Its basis is a binding agreement known as a *Fraktionsvertrag* between the two parties. The CDU and CSU share a common youth organisation, the Junge Union, a common pupil organisation, the Schüler Union Deutschlands [de], a common student organisation, the Ring Christlich-Demokratischer Studenten and a common *Mittelstand* organisation, the Mittelstands- und Wirtschaftsvereinigung [de]. The CDU and CSU are legally and organisationally separate parties; their ideological differences are sometimes a source of conflict. The most notable and serious such incident was in 1976, when the CSU under Franz Josef Strauß ended the alliance with the CDU at a party conference in Wildbad Kreuth. This decision was reversed shortly thereafter when the CDU threatened to run candidates against the CSU in Bavaria. The relationship of CDU to the CSU has historic parallels to previous Christian-democratic parties in Germany, with the Catholic Centre Party having served as a national Catholic party throughout the German Empire and the Weimar Republic while the Bavarian People's Party functioning as the Bavarian variant. Since its formation, the CSU has been more conservative than the CDU. The CSU and the state of Bavaria decided not to sign the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany as they insisted on more autonomy for the individual states. The CSU has actively participated in all political affairs of the Bundestag, the German government, the Bundesrat, the parliamentary elections of the German President, the European Parliament and meetings with Mikhail Gorbachev in Russia. ### Konrad Adenauer Foundation The Konrad Adenauer Foundation is the think-tank of the CDU. It is named after the first Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany and first president of the CDU. The foundation offers political education, conducts scientific fact-finding research for political projects, grants scholarships to gifted individuals, researches the history of Christian democracy and supports and encourages European unification, international understanding and development-policy cooperation. Its annual budget amounts to around 120 million euro and is mostly funded by taxpayer money. ### Special organizations Notable suborganisations of the CDU are the following: * Junge Union (JU), the common youth organisation of the CDU and the CSU. * Christian Democratic Employees' Association (CDA), an association in the tradition of Christian traded unionism, representing Christian-democratic wage earners. * Evangelical Working Group of the CDU/CSU (EAK, together with the CSU), representing the Protestant minority in the party. * Association of Christian Democratic Students (RCDS), the student organisation of the party. * Lesbian and Gay Members of the Union [de] (LSU), neither an organization within the party (Vereinigung) nor an officially affiliated group (Sondergruppe) there of, as of Dec. 2020 party caucus vote still listed as "other" (Sonstige Gruppen), representing LGBT+ members of the CDU. Leadership ---------- ### Leader of the CDU, 1946–present | Leader | Year | | --- | --- | | 1 | Konrad Adenauer | 1946–1966 | | 2 | Ludwig Erhard | 1966–1967 | | 3 | Kurt Georg Kiesinger | 1967–1971 | | 4 | Rainer Barzel | 1971–1973 | | 5 | Helmut Kohl | 1973–1998 | | 6 | Wolfgang Schäuble | 1998–2000 | | 7 | Angela Merkel | 2000–2018 | | 8 | Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer | 2018–2021 | | 9 | Armin Laschet | 2021–2022 | | 10 | Friedrich Merz | 2022–present | ### Leader of the CDU/CSU Group in the Bundestag | Leader in the Bundestag | Year | | --- | --- | | 1 | Heinrich von Brentano(First term) | 1949–1955 | | 2 | Heinrich Krone | 1955–1961 | | (1) | Heinrich von Brentano(Second term) | 1961–1964 | | 3 | Rainer Barzel | 1964–1973 | | 4 | Karl Carstens | 1973–1976 | | 5 | Helmut Kohl | 1976–1982 | | 6 | Alfred Dregger | 1982–1991 | | 7 | Wolfgang Schäuble | 1991–2000 | | 8 | Friedrich Merz(First term) | 2000–2002 | | 9 | Angela Merkel | 2002–2005 | | 10 | Volker Kauder | 2005–2018 | | 11 | Ralph Brinkhaus | 2018–2022 | | (8) | Friedrich Merz(Second term) | 2022–present | Federal Presidents from the CDU ------------------------------- | President of Germany | Time in office | | --- | --- | | Heinrich Lübke | 1959–1969 | | Karl Carstens | 1979–1984 | | Richard von Weizsäcker | 1984–1994 | | Roman Herzog | 1994–1999 | | Horst Köhler | 2004–2010 | | Christian Wulff | 2010–2012 | | German Chancellors from the CDU ------------------------------- | Chancellor of Germany | Time in office | | --- | --- | | Konrad Adenauer | 1949–1963 | | Ludwig Erhard | 1963–1966 | | Kurt Georg Kiesinger | 1966–1969 | | Helmut Kohl | 1982–1998 | | Angela Merkel | 2005–2021 | | Vice-Chancellors from the CDU ----------------------------- | Vice-Chancellor of Germany | Time in office | | --- | --- | | Ludwig Erhard | 1957–1963 | | Hans-Christoph Seebohm | 1966 | | Election results ---------------- ### Federal Parliament (*Bundestag*) | Election | Leader | Constituency | Party list | Seats | +/– | Government | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Votes |  % | Votes |  % | | 1949 | Konrad Adenauer | | 5,978,636 | 25.2 (#1) | 115 / 402 | | CDU/CSU–FDP–DP | | 1953 | 9,577,659 | 34.8 (#1) | 10,016,594 | 36.4 (#1) | 197 / 509 | Increase 82 | CDU/CSU–FDP–DP | | 1957 | 11,975,400 | 39.7 (#1) | 11,875,339 | 39.7 (#1) | 222 / 519 | Increase 25 | CDU/CSU–DP | | 1961 | 11,622,995 | 36.3 (#2) | 11,283,901 | 35.8 (#2) | 201 / 521 | Decrease 21 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 1965 | 12,631,319 | 38.9 (#2) | 12,387,562 | 38.0 (#2) | 202 / 518 | Increase 1 | CDU/CSU–FDP (1965–66) | | CDU/CSU–SPD (1966–69) | | 1969 | Kurt Georg Kiesinger | 12,137,148 | 37.1 (#2) | 12,079,535 | 36.6 (#2) | 201 / 518 | Decrease 1 | Opposition | | 1972 | Rainer Barzel | 13,304,813 | 35.7 (#2) | 13,190,837 | 35.2 (#2) | 186 / 518 | Decrease 15 | Opposition | | 1976 | Helmut Kohl | 14,423,157 | 38.3 (#2) | 14,367,302 | 38.0 (#2) | 201 / 518 | Increase 15 | Opposition | | 1980 | 13,467,207 | 35.6 (#2) | 12,989,200 | 34.2 (#2) | 185 / 519 | Decrease 16 | Opposition (1980–82) | | CDU/CSU–FDP (1982–83) | | 1983 | 15,943,460 | 41.0 (#1) | 14,857,680 | 38.1 (#2) | 202 / 520 | Increase 17 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 1987 | 14,168,527 | 37.5 (#2) | 13,045,745 | 34.4 (#2) | 185 / 519 | Decrease 17 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 1990 | 17,707,574 | 38.3 (#1) | 17,055,116 | 36.7 (#1) | 268 / 662 | Increase 83 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 1994 | 17,473,325 | 37.2 (#2) | 16,089,960 | 34.2 (#2) | 244 / 672 | Decrease 24 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 1998 | 15,854,215 | 32.2 (#2) | 14,004,908 | 28.4 (#2) | 198 / 669 | Decrease 46 | Opposition | | 2002 | Angela Merkel | 15,336,512 | 32.1 (#2) | 14,167,561 | 29.5 (#2) | 190 / 603 | Decrease 8 | Opposition | | 2005 | 15,390,950 | 32.6 (#2) | 13,136,740 | 27.8 (#2) | 180 / 614 | Decrease 10 | CDU/CSU–SPD | | 2009 | 13,856,674 | 32.0 (#1) | 11,828,277 | 27.3 (#1) | 194 / 622 | Increase 14 | CDU/CSU–FDP | | 2013 | 16,233,642 | 37.2 (#1) | 14,921,877 | 34.1 (#1) | 254 / 630 | Increase 61 | CDU/CSU–SPD | | 2017 | 14,027,804 | 30.2 (#1) | 12,445,832 | 26.8 (#1) | 200 / 709 | Decrease 54 | CDU/CSU–SPD | | 2021 | Armin Laschet | 10,445,571 | 22.5 (#2) | 8,770,980 | 18.9 (#2) | 151 / 735 | Decrease 49 | Opposition | ### European Parliament | Election | Votes |  % | Seats | +/– | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1979 | 10,883,085 | 39.0 (#2) | 33 / 81 | | | 1984 | 9,308,411 | 37.5 (#1) | 32 / 81 | Increase 1 | | 1989 | 8,332,846 | 29.5 (#2) | 24 / 81 | Decrease 8 | | 1994 | 11,346,073 | 32.0 (#2) | 39 / 99 | Increase 15 | | 1999 | 10,628,224 | 39.2 (#1) | 43 / 99 | Increase 4 | | 2004 | 9,412,009 | 36.5 (#1) | 40 / 99 | Decrease 3 | | 2009 | 8,071,391 | 30.6 (#1) | 34 / 99 | Decrease 6 | | 2014 | 8,807,500 | 30.0 (#1) | 29 / 96 | Decrease 5 | | 2019 | 8,437,093 | 22.6 (#1) | 23 / 96 | Decrease 6 | ### State parliaments (*Länder*) The CDU does not contest elections in Bavaria due to the alliance with Bavarian sister party, the Christian Social Union in Bavaria. | State parliament | Election | Votes |  % | Seats | +/– | Government | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Baden-Württemberg | 2021 | 1,168,745 | 24.1 (#2) | 42 / 154 | Steady 0 | Greens–CDU | | Berlin | 2023 | 428,100 | 28.2 (#1) | 52 / 147 | Increase 22 | CDU–SPD | | Brandenburg | 2019 | 196,988 | 15.6 (#3) | 15 / 88 | Decrease 6 | SPD–CDU–Greens | | Bremen | 2019 | 390,414 | 26.7 (#2) | 24 / 84 | Increase 4 | Opposition | | Hamburg | 2020 | 445,631 | 11.2 (#3) | 15 / 123 | Decrease 5 | Opposition | | Hesse | 2018 | 776,254 | 27.0 (#1) | 40 / 137 | Decrease 7 | CDU–Greens | | Lower Saxony | 2022 | 1,017,276 | 28.1 (#2) | 47 / 146 | Decrease 3 | Opposition | | Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 2021 | 121,566 | 13.3 (#3) | 12 / 79 | Decrease 4 | Opposition | | North Rhine-Westphalia | 2022 | 2,552,276 | 35.7 (#1) | 76 / 195 | Increase 4 | CDU–Greens | | Rhineland-Palatinate | 2021 | 535,345 | 27.7 (#2) | 31 / 101 | Decrease 4 | Opposition | | Saarland | 2022 | 129,156 | 28.5 (#2) | 19 / 51 | Decrease 5 | Opposition | | Saxony | 2019 | 695,560 | 32.1 (#1) | 45 / 119 | Decrease 14 | CDU–Greens–SPD | | Saxony-Anhalt | 2021 | 394,810 | 37.1 (#1) | 40 / 97 | Increase 10 | CDU–SPD–FDP | | Schleswig-Holstein | 2022 | 601,943 | 43.4 (#1) | 34 / 69 | Increase 9 | CDU–Greens | | Thuringia | 2019 | 241,103 | 21.8 (#3) | 21 / 90 | Decrease 13 | Opposition | **Best historic results for state parties**| State | Seats / Total |  % | Position/Gov. | Year | Lead Candidate | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Baden-Württemberg | 71 / 121 | 56.7 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1976 | Hans Filbinger (Minister‑President 1966–1978) | | Berlin | 65 / 132 | 48.0 (#1) | CDU minority*with FDP confidence and supply* | 1981 | Richard von Weizsäcker (Governing Mayor 1981–1984) | | Brandenburg | 25 / 89 | 26.5 (#2) | SPD–CDU | 1999 | Jörg Schönbohm (Deputy Minister‑President 1999–2009) | | Bremen | 42 / 100 | 37.1 (#2) | SPD–CDU | 1999 | Hartmut Perschau (Deputy Mayor 1997–2004) | | Hamburg | 63 / 121 | 47.2 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 2004 | Ole von Beust (First Mayor 2001–2010) | | Hesse | 56 / 110 | 48.8 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 2003 | Roland Koch (Minister‑President 1999–2010) | | Lower Saxony | 87 / 171 | 50.7 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1982 | Ernst Albrecht (Minister‑President 1976–1990) | | Mecklenburg-Vorpommern | 29 / 66 | 38.3 (#1) | CDU-FDP | 1990 | Alfred Gomolka (Minister‑President 1990–1992) | | North Rhine-Westphalia | 104 / 200 | 50.5 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1958 | Karl Arnold† (Minister‑President 1947–1956) | | Rhineland-Palatinate | 57 / 100 | 51.9 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1983 | Bernhard Vogel (Minister‑President 1976–1988) | | Saarland | 25 / 50 | 49.1 (#1) | CDU-FDP/DPS | 1975 | Franz-Josef Röder (Minister‑President 1959–1979) | | Saxony | 77 / 120 | 58.1 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1994 | Kurt Biedenkopf (Minister‑President 1990–2002) | | Saxony-Anhalt | 48 / 106 | 39.0 (#1) | CDU-FDP | 1990 | Gerd Gies (Minister‑President 1990–1991) | | Schleswig-Holstein | 40 / 73 | 51.9 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1971 | Gerhard Stoltenberg (Minister‑President 1971–1982) | | Thuringia | 49 / 88 | 51.0 (#1) | CDU absolute majority | 1999 | Bernhard Vogel (Minister‑President 1992–2003) | See also -------- * Archive for Christian Democratic Policy * List of Christian democratic parties * List of political parties in Germany * *Merkel-Raute*, the signature gesture of Angela Merkel which is prominently featured in the CDU's campaign for the 2013 German federal election * Party finance in Germany Further reading --------------- * Bösch, Frank (2004). Steven Van Hecke; Emmanuel Gerard (eds.). *Two Crises, Two Consolidations? Christian Democracy in Germany*. *Christian Democratic Parties in Europe Since the End of the Cold War*. Leuven University Press. pp. 55–78. ISBN 90-5867-377-4. * Cary, Noel D. (1996). *The Path to Christian Democracy: German Catholics and the Party System from Windthorst to Adenauer*. Harvard University Press. * Green, Simon; Turner, Ed, eds. (2015). *Understanding the Transformation of Germany's CDU*. Routledge. * Kleinmann, Hans-Otto (1993). *Geschichte der CDU: 1945–1982*. Stuttgart. ISBN 3-421-06541-1. * Lappenküper, Ulrich (2004). Michael Gehler; Wolfram Kaiser (eds.). *Between Concentration Movement and People's Party: The Christian Democratic Union of Germany*. *Christian Democracy in Europe since 1945*. Routledge. pp. 21–32. ISBN 0-7146-5662-3. * Mitchell, Maria (2012). *The Origins of Christian Democracy: Politics and Confession in Modern Germany*. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11841-0. * Wiliarty, Sarah Elise (2010). *The CDU and the Politics of Gender in Germany: Bringing Women to the Party*. Cambridge University Press.

Christian Democratic Union of Germany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Democratic_Union_of_Germany

The **Gila monster** (***Heloderma suspectum***, /ˈhiːlə/ *HEE-lə*) is a species of venomous lizard native to the Southwestern United States and the northwestern Mexican state of Sonora. It is a heavy, typically slow-moving reptile, up to 56 centimetres (22 in) long, and it is the only venomous lizard native to the United States. Its venomous close relatives, the four beaded lizards (all former subspecies of *Heloderma horridum*) inhabit Mexico and Guatemala. The Gila monster is sluggish in nature, so it is not generally dangerous and very rarely poses a real threat to humans. However, it has a fearsome reputation and is sometimes killed in spite of the species being protected by state law in Arizona. History ------- The name "Gila" refers to the Gila River Basin in the U.S. states of Arizona and New Mexico, where the Gila monster was once plentiful. *Heloderma* means "studded skin", from the Ancient Greek words *helos* (ἧλος), "the head of a nail or stud", and *derma* (δέρμα), "skin". *Suspectum* comes from the describer, paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope. At first, this new specimen of *Heloderma* was misidentified and considered to be a northern variation of the beaded lizard already known to live in Mexico. He suspected that the lizard might be venomous due to the grooves in the teeth. The Gila monster is the largest extant lizard species native to North America north of the Mexican border. Its snout-to-vent length ranges from 26 to 36 cm (10 to 14 in). The tail is about 20% of the body size, and the largest specimens may reach 51 to 56 cm (20 to 22 in) in total length. Body mass is typically in the range of 550 to 800 g (1.21 to 1.76 lb). They appear strong in their body structure with a stout snout, massive head, and "little"-appearing eyes, which can be protected by a nictitating membrane. The Gila monster has four close living relatives, all of which are beaded lizards. There are three species in Mexico: *Heloderma exasperatum*, *Heloderma horridum* and *Heloderma alvarezi*, as well as another species in Guatemala: *Heloderma charlesbogerti*. The evolutionary history of the Helodermatidae may be traced back to the Cretaceous period (145 to 166 million years ago), when *Gobiderma pulchrum* and *Estesia mongolensis* were present. The genus *Heloderma* has existed since the Miocene, when *H. texana* lived. Fragments of osteoderms from the Gila monster have been found in Late Pleistocene (10,000 to 8,000 years ago) deposits near Las Vegas, Nevada. Because the helodermatids have remained relatively unchanged morphologically, they are occasionally regarded as living fossils. Although the Gila monster appears closely related to the monitor lizards (varanids) of Africa, Asia, and Australia, their wide geographical separation and distinct features indicate that *Heloderma* is better placed in a separate family. Skin ---- The scales of the head, back, and tail contain little pearl-shaped bones (osteoderms) similar to those found in the beaded lizards from further south. The scales of the belly are free from osteoderms. Female Gila monsters go through a total shed lasting about 2 weeks before depositing their eggs. The dorsal part is often shed in one large piece. Adult males normally shed in smaller segments in August. The young seem to be in constant shed. Adults have more or less yellow to pink colors on a black surface. Hatchlings have a uniform, simple, and less colorful pattern. This drastically changes within the first 6 months of their lives. Hatchlings from the northern area of the species' distribution have a tendency to retain most of their juvenile pattern. The heads of males are very often larger and more triangular-shaped than in females. The length of the tail of the two sexes is statistically very similar, so it does not help in differentiation of the sexes. Individuals with stout tail ends occur in both nature and under human breeding. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ The Gila monster is found in the Southwestern United States and Mexico, across a range including Sonora, Arizona, and parts of California, Nevada, Utah, and New Mexico. No records have been given from Baja California. They inhabit scrubland, succulent desert, and oak woodland, seeking shelter in burrows, thickets, and under rocks in locations with a favorable microclimate and adequate humidity. Gila monsters rely heavily on the use of shelters and spend much of their time dwelling here. Often times these shelters are in rocky areas in Navajo Sandstone and basaltic lava flows. Gila monsters depend on water resources and can be observed in puddles of water after a summer rain. They avoid living in open areas, such as flats and open grasslands. Ecology ------- Gila monsters spend 90% of their lifetime underground in burrows or rocky shelters. They are active in the morning during the dry season (spring and early summer). The lizards move to different shelters every 4–5 days up to the beginning of the summer season. By doing so, they optimize for a suitable microhabitat. Later in the summer, they may be active on warm nights or after a thunderstorm. They maintain a surface body temperature of about 30 °C (86 °F). Close to 37 °C (99 °F), they are able to decrease their body temperature by up to 2 °C (3.6 °F) by an activated, limited evaporation via the cloaca. One study investigating a population of Gila monsters in southwestern Utah noted that the lizard's activity peaked from late April to mid June. The average distance traveled during their bouts of activity was 210 metres (690 ft), but on occasion some lizards would travel distances greater than 1 kilometre (0.62 mi). During the Gila monster's active season of approximately 90 days, only ten days were spent active. Gila monsters are slow sprinters, but they have relatively high endurance and maximal aerobic capacity (VO2 max) compared to other lizards. They are preyed upon by coyotes, badgers and raptors. Hatchlings are preyed on by snakes, such as kingsnakes (*Lampropeltis* sp.). Diet ---- The Gila monster's diet consists of a variety of food items – small mammals (such as young rabbits, hares, mice, ground squirrels, and other rodents), small birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, insects, other invertebrates, carrion, and the eggs of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises. Three to four extensive meals in spring are claimed to give them enough energy for a whole season. They can store fat in their tails and therefore do not need to eat often. Nevertheless, they feed whenever they come across suitable prey. Young Gila monsters can swallow up to 50% of their body weight in a single meal. Adults may eat up to one third of their body weight in one meal. The Gila monster uses its extremely acute sense of smell to locate prey. The strong, two-ended tipped tongue, which is pigmented in black-blue colors, picks up scent molecules to be transferred to the opening of the Jacobson organ around the middle of the upper mouth cavern. Prey may be crushed to death if large, or eaten alive, most of the time head first, and helped down by muscular contractions and neck flexing. After food has been swallowed, the Gila monster may immediately resume tongue flicking and search behavior for identifying more prey such as eggs or young in nests. Gila monsters are able to climb trees, cacti, and even fairly straight, rough-surfaced walls. Venom ----- > > "I have never been called to attend a case of Gila monster bite, and I don't want to be. I think a man who is fool enough to get bitten by a Gila monster ought to die. The creature is so sluggish and slow of movement that the victim of its bite is compelled to help largely in order to get bitten." > > > —Dr. Ward, *Arizona Graphic*, September 23, 1899 ### Pioneer beliefs In the Old West, the pioneers believed a number of myths about the Gila monster, including that the lizard had foul or toxic breath and that its bite was fatal. *The Tombstone Epitaph* of Tombstone, Arizona, wrote about a Gila monster that a local person caught on May 14, 1881: > This is a monster, and no baby at that, it being probably the largest specimen ever captured in Arizona. It is 27 inches long and weighs 35 lb. It was caught by H. C. Hiatt on the road between Tombstone and Grand Central Mill, and was purchased by Messrs. Ed Baker and Charles Eastman, who now have it on exhibition at Kelley's Wine House, next door above Grand Hotel, Allen Street. Eastern people who have never seen one of these monsters should not fail to inspect his Aztecship, for they might accidentally stumble upon one some fine day and get badly frightened, except they know what it is. > > On May 8, 1890, southeast of Tucson, Arizona Territory, Empire Ranch owner Walter Vail captured and thought he had killed a Gila monster. He tied it to his saddle and it bit the middle finger of his right hand and would not let go. A ranch hand pried open the lizard's mouth with a pocket knife, cut open his finger to stimulate bleeding, and then tied saddle strings around his finger and wrist. They summoned Dr. John C. Handy of Tucson, who took Vail back to Tucson for treatment, but Vail experienced swollen and bleeding glands in his throat for sometime afterward. Dr. Handy's friend, Dr. George Goodfellow of Tombstone, was among the first to research the actual effects of Gila monster venom. *Scientific American* reported in 1890, "The breath is very fetid, and its odor can be detected at some little distance from the lizard. It is supposed that this is one way in which the monster catches the insects and small animals which form a part of its food supply – the foul gas overcoming them." Goodfellow offered to pay local residents $5.00 for Gila monster specimens. He bought several and collected more on his own. In 1891, he purposely provoked one of his captive lizards into biting him on his finger. The bite made him ill and he spent the next five days in bed, but he completely recovered. When *Scientific American* ran another ill-founded report on the lizard's ability to kill people, he wrote in reply and described his own studies and personal experience. He wrote that he knew several people who had been bitten by Gila monsters, but had not died from the bite. ### Venom delivery The Gila monster produces venom in modified salivary glands at the end of its lower jaws, unlike snakes, whose venom is produced in glands behind the eyes. The Gila monster lacks strong musculature in glands above the eyes; instead, in *Heloderma*, the venom is propelled from the gland via a tubing to the base of the lower teeth and then by capillary forces into two grooves of the tooth and then chewed into the victim. The teeth are tightly anchored to the jaw (pleurodont). Broken and regular replacement teeth have to wait every time to go into position in a determinate "wavelike" sequence. They change/replace their teeth during their entire life. The Gila monster's bright colors might be suitable to teach predators not to bother this "painful" creature. Because the Gila monster's prey consists mainly of eggs, small animals, and otherwise "helpless" prey, the Gila monster's venom is thought to have evolved for defensive rather than for hunting use. ### Toxicity The venom of a Gila monster is normally not fatal to healthy adult humans. No reports of fatalities have been confirmed after 1930, and the rare fatalities recorded before that time occurred in adults who were intoxicated by alcohol or had mismanaged the treatment of the bite. The Gila monster can bite quickly, and may not release the victim without intervention. If bitten, the victim may attempt to fully submerge the lizard in water, pry the jaws open with a knife or stick, or physically yank the lizard free. While pulling the lizard directly increases risk of severe lacerations from the lizard's sharp teeth, it may also mitigate envenomation. Symptoms of the bite include excruciating pain, edema, and weakness associated with a rapid drop in blood pressure. YouTuber and wildlife educator Coyote Peterson described the bite as "like hot lava coursing through your veins" and claimed it was "the worst pain [he] had ever experienced." It is generally regarded as the most painful venom produced by any vertebrate. More than a dozen peptides and other substances have been isolated from the Gila monster's venom, including hyaluronidase, serotonin, phospholipase A2, and several kallikrein-like glycoproteins responsible for the pain and edema caused by a bite, without producing a compartment syndrome. Four potentially lethal toxins have been isolated from the Gila monster's venom, which cause hemorrhage in internal organs and exophthalmos (bulging of the eyes), and helothermine, which causes lethargy, partial paralysis of the limbs, and hypothermia in rats. Some are similar in action of the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), which relaxes smooth muscle and regulates water and electrolyte secretion between the small and large intestines. These bioactive peptides are able to bind to VIP receptors in many different human tissues. One of these, helodermin, has been shown to inhibit the growth of lung cancer. ### Toxins and drug research The constituents of *H. suspectum* venom that have received the most attention from researchers are the bioactive peptides, including helodermin, helospectin, exendin-3, and exendin-4. Exendin-4, which is specific for *H. suspectum*, has formed the basis of a class of medications for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, known as Glucagon-like peptide-1 agonists. In 2005, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the drug exenatide (marketed as Byetta) for the management of type 2 diabetes. It is a synthetic blueprint of the protein exendin-4, isolated from the Gila monster's venom. In a 3-year study with people with type 2 diabetes, exenatide showed healthy sustained glucose levels. The effectiveness is because the lizard protein is 53% identical to glucagon-like peptide-1 analog (GLP-1), a hormone released from the human digestive tract that helps to regulate insulin and glucagon. Using a sophisticated injection formula with sustained release of the drug, the lizard protein remains effective much longer than the human hormone. This helps diabetics keep their blood glucose levels under control for a week by a single injection. Exenatide also slows the emptying of the stomach and causes a decrease in appetite, contributing to weight loss. The antidiabetic exenatide (Byetta) from the venomous Gila monster is also an example of a medical value of venom peptides, targeting G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Life cycle ---------- The Gila monster emerges from brumation in early March. Gila monsters sexually mature at 4–5 years old. It mates in April and May. The male initiates courtship by flicking his tongue to search for the female's scent. If the female rejects his advances, she will bite him and chase him away. When successful, copulation has been observed in captivity to last from 15 minutes to two and a half hours. There is only a single record of attempted mating outside of a shelter. The female lays eggs at the end of May into June. A clutch may consist of up to six (rarely up to eight) eggs. The incubation in captivity lasts about 5 months, depending on the incubation temperature. The hatchlings are about 16 cm (6.3 in) long and can bite and inject venom as soon as they are hatched. The egg development and hatching time of young in the wild has been a subject of ongoing speculation. The first model stated that youngsters hatch in fall and stay underground. The second theory postulated a nearly developed embryo remains inside the egg over winter and hatches in spring. Hatchlings (weight about 35 g (1.2 oz)) are observed at the end of April to early June. Discussions of the exact egg development and hatching cycle of the Gila monster came to an abrupt and unexpected end on October 28, 2016, when a backhoe was digging at the outer walls of a house in a suburb of northern Tucson. The backhoe extracted a nest of a female Gila monster with five eggs in the process of hatching. The Gila monster is now known to hatch near the end of October and immediately proceed into hibernation without surfacing. They then appear on the surface from May through June the following year when prey should be abundant. In summer, Gila monsters gradually spend less time on the surface to avoid the hottest part of the season; occasionally, they may be active at night. Females that have laid eggs are exhausted and thin, fighting for survival, and have to spend extra effort to "reconstitute". The brumation of Gila monsters begins in October. Gila monsters can live up to 40 years in captivity, though rarely. Little is known about the social behavior of Gila monster, but it has been observed engaging in male to male combat, in which the dominant male lies on top of the subordinate one and pins it with its front and hind limbs. While fighting, both lizards arch their bodies, pushing against each other and twisting around in an effort to gain the dominant position. A “wrestling match” ends when the pressure exerts their forces, although bouts may be repeated. These bouts are typically observed in the mating season. Males with greater strength and endurance are thought to enjoy greater reproductive success. Although the Gila monster has a low metabolism and one of the lowest lizard sprint speeds, it has one of the highest aerobic scope values (the increase in oxygen consumption from rest to maximum metabolic exertion) among lizards, allowing it to engage in intense aerobic activity for a sustained period of time. Conservation status ------------------- Gila monsters are listed as near threatened by the IUCN. They are listed as "Apparently Secure" by NatureServe. In 1952, the Gila monster became the first venomous animal to be given legal protection. They are now protected in all states of their distribution. International trade in the species is regulated under Appendix II of CITES. ### Relocation "Possibly the greatest threat to the continued existence of helodermatids is the man-made destruction of their habitat as the land is developed for construction or to create more cultivable land." Gila monsters found in these situations and relocated – with best intentions – up to 1.2 km (0.75 mi)  away, return to where they were found within 2 months and at great effort. This is up to five times the normal energy use than if they had not been removed, which uses up their energy stores unnecessarily. The same is true for animals relocated to appropriate habitats. Besides this, they also become more exposed to predators. Therefore, the process of simple relocation is "naïve" and potentially dangerous for both the relocated animals and existing populations and for the inhabitants of the region where the resettlement is taking place. If relocating the lizards further away, they might be totally disoriented, thus their survival is still very questionable. A more successful strategy would be, for example, if the new "settlers" were offered intensive education about this species (e.g., limited toxicity, lifestyle) with the aim of tolerating the reptile or even being proud of having this unique "roommate" in one's own neighborhood. In 1963, the San Diego Zoo became the first zoo to successfully breed Gila monsters in captivity. In the last two decades, experienced breeders have shared their knowledge and expertise to give advice to other herpetologists on overcoming the difficulties in *Heloderma* reproduction under human care. Relationship with humans ------------------------ Though the Gila monster is venomous, it poses little threat to humans due to its sluggish nature. Nevertheless, it has a fearsome reputation and is often killed by humans. Myths that have formed about the Gila monster include that the animal's breath is toxic enough to kill humans, that it can spit venom like a spitting cobra, that it can leap several feet in the air to attack, and that the Gila monster did not have an anus and therefore expelled waste from its mouth, the source of its venom and "fetid breath" (likely stemming from the fact that its venom in fact has an intense, specific smell). Among Native American tribes, the Gila monster had a mixed standing. The Apache believed its breath could kill a man, and the Tohono O'Odham and the Pima believed it possessed a spiritual power that could cause sickness. In contrast, the Seri and the Yaqui believed the Gila monster's hide had healing properties. ### In popular culture The Gila monster starred as a monster in the film *The Giant Gila Monster* (though the titular monster was actually portrayed by a Mexican beaded lizard). It played a minor role in the motion picture *The Treasure of the Sierra Madre*. In Brock Brower's 1971 novel *The Late Great Creature*, fictional horror movie star Simon Moro is presented as famous for playing the reptilian werewolf-like Gila Man. The 2011 animated film *Rango* featured a Gila monster as an Old West outlaw named Bad Bill, voiced by Ray Winstone. The Gila monster has also seen usage as a mascot and state symbol. The official mascot of Eastern Arizona College located in Thatcher, Arizona, is Gila Hank, a gun-toting, cowboy hat-wearing Gila monster. In 2017, the Vegas Golden Knights selected a Gila monster named Chance as their official mascot. In 2019, the state of Utah made the Gila monster its official state reptile. In 2023, Australian band King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard released a single titled "Gila Monster" from their upcoming album. Gallery ------- * Illustration in Animaux venimeux et venins, 1922Illustration in *Animaux venimeux et venins*, 1922 * Tank setup offering nearly natural environment with hiding bowlTank setup offering nearly natural environment with hiding bowl * Pattern variations of female Helderma suspectumPattern variations of female *H. suspectum* * Egg deposit in captivityEgg deposit in captivity * End of hatching processEnd of hatching process * Absorbed yolk in the abdomenAbsorbed yolk in the abdomen * Group of Gila monster hatchlingsGroup of Gila monster hatchlings * Gila monster twins hatchingGila monster twins hatching Further reading --------------- * Beck, Daniel D. (2005). *Biology of Gila Monsters and Beaded Lizards*. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24357-9. * Bogert, Charles M.; Rafael Martin del Campo (1956). *The Gila Monster and its allies: the relationships, habits, and behavior of the lizards of the Family Helodermatidae*. New York: Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur. Hist. 109:1–238. p. 238. Online .pdf * Capula, Massimo; Behler (1989). *Simon & Schuster's Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the World*. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69098-1. * Carmony, Neil B.; Brown, David (1991). *Gila Monster: Facts and Folklore of America's Aztec Lizard*. Silver City, NM: High-Lonesome Books. ISBN 0-944383-18-1. * Cogger, Harold; Zweifel, Richard (1992). *Reptiles & Amphibians*. Sydney, Australia: Weldon Owen. ISBN 0-8317-2786-1. * Ditmars, Raymond L (1933). *Reptiles of the World: The Crocodilians, Lizards, Snakes, Turtles and Tortoises of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres*. New York: Macmillan. p. 321. * Freiberg, Dr. Marcos; Walls, Jerry (1984). *The World of Venomous Animals*. New Jersey: TFH Publications. ISBN 0-87666-567-9. * Roever, J. M.; Hiser, Iona Seibert (1972). *The Gila Monster*. Austin, Tex: Steck-Vaughn Co. ISBN 0-8114-7739-8. * Schwandt, Hans-Joachim (2019). heloderma.net *The Gila Monster Heloderma suspectum*, Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt/Main, ISBN 978-3-89973-441-6 * Stebbins, Robert (2003). *Western Reptiles and Amphibians*. New York: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-98272-3. * Stephan F. K. Schaal; Krister T. Smith; Jörg Habersetzer (2018). *Messel – An Ancient Greenhouse Ecosystem*. Frankfurt am Main: Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut. ISBN 978-3-510-61411-0.

Gila monster

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gila_monster

**International Men's Day** (**IMD**) is a global awareness day for many issues that men face, including parental alienation, abuse, homelessness, suicide, and violence, celebrated annually on November 19. The objectives of celebrating an International Men's Day are set out in 'All The Six Pillars of International Men's Day'. It is also an occasion to celebrate boys' and men's lives, achievements and contributions, in particular for their contributions to nation, union, society, community, family, marriage, and childcare. History ------- Inaugurated on 7 February 1992 by Thomas Oaster, the project of International Men's Day was conceived one year earlier, on 8 February 1991. The project was re-initialised in 1999 in Trinidad and Tobago. The longest running celebration of International Men's Day is Malta, where events have occurred since 7 February 1994. As Malta was the only country that observed the February date of celebrating Men and their contribution to the society, the Maltese AMR Committee voted in 2009 to shift the date for IMD to 19 November. Jerome Teelucksingh, who revived the event, chose 19 November to honour his father's birthday and also to celebrate how on that date in 1989 Trinidad and Tobago's football team had united the country with their endeavours to qualify for the World Cup. Teelucksingh has promoted International Men's Day as not just a gendered day but a day where all issues affecting men and boys can be addressed. He has said of IMD and its grass roots activists, "They are striving for gender equality and patiently attempt to remove the negative images and the stigma associated with men in our society". Unlike International Women's Day, (8 March) International Men's Day is not officially recognised by the United Nations. ### Early background Calls for an International Men's Day have been noted since at least the 1960s, when many men were reported to "have been agitating privately to make 23 February International Men's Day, the equivalent of 8 March, which is International Women's Day". In the Soviet Union this day was The Red Army and Navy Day since 1922, which in 2002 was renamed to Defender of the Fatherland Day. The date was informally viewed a male counterpart of Women's Day (8 March) in some territories of the union, however due to the day's limited focus to historical events some countries of the former union have moved to adopt the more 'male specific' 19 November as International Men's Day, including Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Russia and Georgia. In 1968, the American journalist John P. Harris wrote an editorial in the *Salina Journal* highlighting a lack of balance in the Soviet system, which promoted an International Women's Day for the female workers without promoting a corresponding day for male workers. Harris stated that although he did not begrudge Soviet women their March day of glory, its resulting gender inequality clearly exhibited a serious flaw in the communist system, which, "makes much of the equal rights it has given the sexes, but as it turns out, the women are much more equal than the men". Harris stated that while the men toiled along in their grooves doing what their government and womenfolk tell them to do, there was no day when males are recognised for their service, leading Harris to conclude that "This strikes me as unwarranted discrimination and rank injustice". Similar questions about the inequality of observing women's day without a corresponding men's day occurred in media publications from the 1960s through to the 1990s, at which time the first attempts at inaugurating international Men's Day are recorded. In the early 1990s, organizations in the United States, Australia and Malta held small events in February at the invitation of Thomas Oaster who directed the Missouri Center for Men's Studies at the University of Missouri–Kansas City. Oaster successfully promoted the event in 1993 and 1994, but his following attempt in 1995 was poorly attended and he ceased plans to continue the event in subsequent years. Australians also ceased to observe the event (until they re-established it on 19 November 2003) whilst the Maltese Association for Men's Rights continued as the only country that continued to observe the event each year in February. Formerly being the only country still observing the original February date, the Maltese AMR Committee voted in 2009 to begin observing the day on 19 November in order to be synchronised with the rest of the world. Although International Men's and Women's Day are considered to be 'gender-focused' events, they are not ideological mirror images because they highlight issues that are considered unique to men or to women. The history of IMD primarily concerns celebrating issues that are considered unique to the experiences of men and boys, along with an emphasis on positive role models, which is especially "deemed necessary in a social context which is often fascinated with images of males behaving badly... In highlighting positive male role models IMD attempts to show that males of all ages respond much more energetically to positive role models than they do to negative stereotyping." Six pillars ----------- The IMD objectives are given as: 1. To promote positive male role models: not just movie stars and sports men but everyday, working-class men who are living decent, honest lives. 2. To celebrate men's positive contributions to society, community, family, marriage, child care, and the environment. 3. To focus on men's health and wellbeing: social, emotional, physical, and spiritual. 4. To highlight discrimination against men in areas of social services, social attitudes and expectations, and law. 5. To improve gender relations and promote gender equality. 6. To create a safer, better world, where people can be safe and grow to reach their full potential. Yearly themes ------------- As well as the six pillars, an optional secondary theme for IMD has usually been suggested by world coordinators, such as peace in 2002, men's health in 2003, healing and forgiveness in 2007, positive male role models in 2009 and 'our children's future' in 2010. * 2011: "Giving Boys the Best Possible Start in Life" * 2012: "Helping Men and Boys Live Longer, Happier and Healthier Lives" * 2013: "Keeping Men and Boys Safe" * 2014: "Working Together for Men and Boys" * 2015: "Working to Expand Reproductive Options for Men" * 2016: "Stop Male Suicide". In every country except China, the rate of suicide in men is higher than that of women, in some cases as high as six men for every one woman, and life expectancy is routinely less for men than women in all countries. To this end, "Global Action on Men's Health (GAMH) wants the World Health Organization and other international public health bodies, as well as individual governments, to acknowledge the scale of the problems facing men and boys and to take sustained action to tackle them. This work should sit alongside continuing action to improve the health of women and girls." * 2017: "Celebrating Men And Boys In All Their Diversity". The emphasis on "...A Call To Action for individuals, institutions, and organizations to innovate the manner in which they design and deliver resources and support services which speak to the unique needs and issues of men and boys". * 2018: "Positive Male Role Models" * 2019: "Making a Difference for Men and Boys" * 2020: "Better Health for Men and Boys" * 2021: "Better relations between men and women" * 2022: "Helping men and boys". In Australia, "Celebrating mateship" (#MakeTime4Mates). "Men Leading by Example". * 2023: "Zero Male Suicide". Regions ------- ### Africa #### Botswana International Men's Day was inaugurated in Botswana in 2011 by coordinator Geneuvieve Twala. One of the International Men's Day themes promoted was to help foster youth to unlock their creative identities to allow them to share their gifts with peers, family and the community, and to be seen and heard for who they are and not how they are perceived. The primary event was a gala dinner titled "One moment for Change" to highlight men's potential and the increasing capabilities of men as innovators of society. The dinner was held to raise funds to cover six months music tuition fees for a group of 20 children from the SOS Children's Village whom IMD ambassadors have adopted as part of a mentoring programme for children. Standard Chartered Bank sponsored the dinner, which included a range of iconic speakers who shared their experience and insights with the audience. Standard Chartered Bank Acting CEO Mr Michael Wiegand opened the event by sharing best practices that Standard Chartered Bank uses to address legitimate issues faced by male employees, including the fact that Standard Chartered Bank is the first company in Botswana to offer paternity leave which, he stated, made their male employees feel valued and that they were working for a 21st-century organisation. Mr Tebogo Sebego, senior partner at Sebego & Sharma Attorneys and former chairperson of the Law Society of Botswana gave a keynote speech where he emphasised how the child protection laws should be improved, how the society play a role in creating a safe environment for the future generation of men. Mrs Tjipo Mothobi, director, GBC Health South Africa gave an address on business collective effort. The District Commissioner in his closing remarks made an announcement that by end of December he was convening a meeting with men in the City where they will engage in dialogue on how they can collectively address the issues and challenges men and boys face. The inaugural event was a success, with radio stations subsequently airing programmes that call for debate on men's issues since IMD. All the businesses and stakeholders involved gave a commitment to be part and parcel of the next IMD and we are already working on the strategy for 2012. #### Burundi On 19 November 2012, Burundi joined the world for the first time in celebrating the International Men's Day, as Association for the Protection of the Man in Distress (APHD Burundi) denounced violence inflicted to men by their wives. Vincent Bukuru, chairman of the APHD-Burundi said, "Violence on men rises when the man loses his job, during the end of year festivities (Christmas and New Year) and at the International Women's Day (8 March)." Bukuru called on the Burundian government to conduct a national investigation on types and origins of violence that men are facing, their consequences and their gravity which he stated is a violation of human rights. #### Ghana Ghana Fatherhood Initiative Foundation hosted an inaugural IMD celebration in 2009. The occasion was marked by a formal event with speakers, and included a ceremony of donating of books to several schools in the Ablekuma sub-district in Accra. The event was chaired by George Odame, the advisory board chairman of Ghana Fatherhood Initiative Foundation, who encouraged all fathers to read to their children as part of responsible fatherhood. The special guest of honour was Maxwell Mac. Ocloo who delivered a speech entitled 'Men – let us be instruments of positive influence' in which he encouraged men to lead by example. #### Nigeria Though there have been fragmented independent actions by some individuals and organisations to commemorate International Men's Day (IMD) over the years, there has been no properly coordinated commemorative event in Nigeria. However, ahead of the 2022 International Men's Day (IMD) event with the theme, Men Leading by Example, Sanmi Falobi, IMD 2022 Nigeria Coordinator and IMD Ambassador for West Africa, through initiatives by Innate Communications and other partners implored corporate organisations, governments, institutions, businesses, religious bodies, public/private sector enterprises, NGOs and the media, to initiate clusters of independent activities at highlighting the positive values of men to their families, communities and the society at large, in relation to the context of their careers, families, health & mental wellness, socio-economic sustainability as well as in the area of organisational or political leadership, as applicable, in commemorating 2022 International Men's Day. The IMD Nigeria Local Organising Committee (LOC) also held pre-IMD activities to complement other independent initiatives by other organisations to commemorate IMD in Nigeria. In fostering increased participation in commemorative activities in Nigeria, the IMD local Organising Committee embarked on strategic alliance for greater commitments. #### Seychelles On 19 November 2012, Seychelles Government Minister Vincent Meriton declared this year the first that IMD has been celebrated at a National Government level. Minister Meriton said, "The time has come for us to adopt a new approach, instead of reinforcing negative stereotyping of males behaving badly, e.g. media portrayals of males as violent, power-hungry, irresponsible and so on. Such negative images are frequently used in an attempt to shame males into behaving more positively." Meriton stated that the practice of negative stereotyping ignores the fact that such negative behaviours do not apply to the vast majority of men and boys, or that such negativity may detrimentally impact the self-image and self-esteem of boys, which in turn impacts their willingness to contribute to building better relationships and communities as they grow into adults. In conclusion he stated that "International Men's Day calls for and promotes positive masculinity which we in Seychelles can strongly identify with as it forms part of the social renaissance campaign launched at the beginning of the year by President James Michel." #### South Africa Positive Men's Movement of South Africa (POMESA) in partnership with South African Network of People Living with HIV and AIDS (NAPWA) organised the first Annual International Men's Day event. The event was held on 6 December 2008, and involved a Men's March for peace and justice from taxi rank to the national men's rally venue which is Rabasotho hall in Thembisa township, Ekurhuleni, Gauteng. Between three and five thousand men attended from all provinces of South Africa. Speakers in the event included the national government officials, national leadership of POMESA and NAPWA, and civil society, and included an Annual Men's Awards event to honour three outstanding men who have or and continue to contribute positively in the creation of peaceful and just society. In 2008, POMESA and NAPWA celebrated IMD on 6 December. As the December date was not celebrated by other participating countries, discussions were undertaken within both organisations and in May 2009 the secretary general of NAPWA and POMESA Nkululeko Nxesi announced that the National Boards of both organisations have agreed to celebrate the Men's day on the same dates with other countries beginning on 19 November 2009 and in each year thereafter on the same date. On 19 November 2009, five thousand men from across Africa converged on the Orlando Communal Hall in Soweto to celebrate the second annual International Men's Day, where they promoted gender equality, positive male role models and emphasised that 'not all men are bad people'. Deputy President of South Africa Kgalema Motlanthe delivered the keynote address at what was termed "a ground-breaking event". The meeting was organised and led by the National Association of People Living With HIV and AIDS (NAPWA) to highlight the need for treatment access to medication and prevention. #### Tanzania On Saturday 19 November 2011, Youth Challenge International (YCI), in partnership with local and international organisations celebrated International Men's Day for the first time in Arusha and Morogoro, Tanzania. In Arusha, YCI, The Umoja Centre, Support for International Change, UMATI, Initiative for Youth Organization and Global Service Corps hosted the event at the Mbauda Open Market Ground. This event was aimed to promote men and boys as positive role models and to educate the community on the role of males and females in health, education, family life, violence and life choices. The event included performances, games, and educational activities. Over 500 youth and other community members came together to acknowledge the roles and responsibilities of men and boys in creating a brighter future for all Tanzanians. To celebrate the event in Morogoro, volunteers, along with partner organisation Faraja Trust Fund, held a soccer tournament on with 8 local teams. To qualify to participate in the tournament each team had to come to two information sessions on male sexual and reproductive health, HIV/AIDS, gender roles and good governance. YCI and Faraja provided an on-site HIV testing centre, a disc jockey with music and dancing throughout the day, and drama group performances on the key objectives of International Men's Day. Plans exist for the Tanzanian Men's Rights Organisation (TAMRA) to celebrate International men's day in 2013. #### Zimbabwe International Men's Day was inaugurated in Zimbabwe on 19 November 2011. The commemorations were held at Chibuku Stadium in Chitungwiza under the theme Giving The Boy Child The Best Possible Start In Life. Fred Misi, the chairman of Men's Forum Varume Svinurai/Vhukhani said the commemorations came at a time when attention was being given to the girl child at the expense of boys, and noted, "Whilst it is important to focus on the specific needs of the girl child, we are creating a crisis by ignoring the specific needs of the boy child," Misi highlighted the growing trend that many boys were dropping out of school and were hooked on hard drugs as well as abusing alcohol, while a significant number of those who were completed secondary and tertiary education were roaming the streets because of unemployment. He added the government and Zimbabweans needed to act immediately. A number of prominent persons attended and gave papers on the need to give the boy child assistance. There was drama and poetry from various groups and individual high school students in line with the theme of the celebrations, and the Zimbabwe Minister of Women Affairs, Gender and Community Development, Olivia Muchena gave a key note address in which she said, "It is an occasion for men to celebrate their achievements and contributions, in particular their contributions to community, family, marriage and child care while highlighting the discrimination against them... International Men's Day is an opportunity for people everywhere of good will to appreciate and celebrate the men in their life and the contributions they make to society for the greater good of all hence it being important for us to celebrate this day equally as we did with The International Women's Day." ### Americas #### Antigua and Barbuda In 2010, the Government of Antigua and Barbuda announced its official inauguration of International Men's Day. The day was celebrated with a public observation, speeches and TV interviews. In the keynote speech C. W. Roberts defined the purpose of International Men's Day as, "A global occasion to celebrate the positive contributions and variegated experience of being male. On this day we celebrate men's and boys' strengths whilst taking time to acknowledge their vulnerabilities and their needs." Roberts added that the day intended to transcend negative stereotyping and to encourage and embrace greater options for men and for all people. #### Canada Groups in three cities in Canada are known to have marked this occasion at least once: * On 19 November 2009, directors of the Vancouver Manology Program held an all day event to mark the beginning of the Vancouver Men's Centre. As a feature of this event organisers announced their official endorsement of International Men's Day and held forums introducing attendees to the history, goals and values of the international event, including discussions toward planning larger IMD events in 2010. This marks the first Canadian 19 Nov IMD observation. In 2010 Canada IMD Coordinator David Hatfield organised a large event at the Roundhouse in Vancouver for numerous male and family-friendly organisations to display their social work to the general public. Entertainment and various speakers were included. * The Council of the Corporation of the City of Oshawa issued a 2010 Proclamation that 19 November be designated Oshawa International Men's Day with the Proclamation, "And further take notice and let it be known that the Council of the Corporation of the City of Oshawa hereby urges all citizens to take cognisance of this event and fittingly join in its observance". * The Laurel Centre in Winnipeg celebrated IMD with a public open house on 19 November announcing a new shelter program to help men and their children who are fleeing intimate partner violence. On 1 July 2010, the Men's Resource Centre (MRC) officially became a program of The Laurel Centre, and staff and volunteers said they were pleased with the new partnership which will provide a solid foundation of leadership and expertise from which to grow and develop services for men in Manitoba. The official IMD launch of this initiative was attended by several speakers including The Honorable Gord Mackintosh – Minister of Family Services; Mr. Justin Swandel – deputy mayor and The City of Winnipeg. #### Cayman Islands In 2011, the Department of Counselling Services' Family Resource Centre organised Cayman Islands' first IMD observation consisting of two events; The 1st Annual International Men's Day Football Tournament & Expo open to the public, and secondly a "Give Boys the Best Possible Start in Life" Roundtable Discussion as a featured broadcast. Miriam Foster, Acting Programme Coordinator of the Family Resource Centre said, "We feel it is important that boy's issues are highlighted and we give them an opportunity to express themselves." On 19 November 2014, the Cayman Family Resource Centre (FRC) highlighted men's contribution to society, and asking them to make pledges for their futures. A short film was also shown to the public featuring local boys talking about serious issues that affect their lives. The Davenport Development International Men's Day Football Tournament took place on Saturday, 22 November 2014 at the Camana Bay Sports Complex, and Premier Alden McLaughlin delivered an International Men's Day Message. These events marked the fourth consecutive celebration of International Men's Day in Cayman. #### Colombia In Colombia, Men's Day is celebrated on March 19, the same day that Spain celebrates Father's Day. Men's Day is not internationally recognized nor does it have a confirmed date on the calendar. #### Cuba Cuba held its inaugural IMD observations on 19 November 2011. In 2012, the Sculpture Workshop Gallery of Rita Longa was nominated as a weekend space for reflections on the International Day of Man and on the subject of gender equality. The event was attended by members of the Cuban Association of Agricultural and Forestry Technicians (ACTAF) and the Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba (UNEAC), along with nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) who decided to pool efforts with the two major social programs offices. Othoniel Morffis Valera, director of the main institution hosting the event and cultural project coordinator Alley Ceiba, offered their reflections about observing the date for the second time, both in this city and in the capital Havana. #### Grenada In 2010, during Plenary of the Thirty-Fifth assembly of the Inter-American Commission of Women (CIM), Ambassador Gillian Bristol presented a national report reiterating Grenada's commitment to gender equality and its decision to celebrate International Men's Day with various activities which include an address to the nation by Prime Minister Tillman Thomas on 19 November 2010. #### Jamaica Jamaicans held an inaugural IMD observation on 19 November 2001, with a church service at Northgate Family Church in Ocho Rios, an educational session with male students at Ferncourt High School, and public forum at Brown's Town Community College. Keynote speaker at the event was Luciano who talked on the theme of 'Today's Man, Tomorrow's Future'. A special theme of the event was discussions on *men's sexual health and reproduction*. Nurse Bunnaman of the Beth Jacobs Family Planning Clinic in Saint Ann's Bay told The Jamaica Star newspaper "This is the first time that Jamaica will be observing International Men's Day. It was started in Trinidad in 1999. This year it will be observed in Kenya, Tanzania, Norway, Brazil, Germany, Britain and the United States of America as well". Educational sessions about men's sexual health and reproduction were held by the Beth Jacobs Clinic, where medical check-ups and testicular checks were given free of charge. #### Trinidad and Tobago Citizens in Trinidad and Tobago were the first to observe IMD on 19 November 1999. The event was conceived and coordinated by Dr Jerome Teelucksingh from The University of the West Indies at the Families in Action headquarters in Newtown. As his rationale for creating the event Dr Teelucksingh stated, "I realized there was no day for men... some have said that there is Father's Day, but what about young boys, teenagers and men who are not fathers?" Dr Teelucksingh, understanding the importance of celebrating good male role models, felt that his own father had been an example of an excellent role model and so chose 19 November partly because this was his father's birthday, and also because it was the date on which a local sporting team in his country created a level of unity with transcended gender, religious and ethnic divisions. The idea of celebrating an International Men's Day received written support from officials in UNESCO and the event has continued to be celebrated annually in Trinidad and Tobago and other countries since its beginning. #### Saint Kitts and Nevis International Men's Day was inaugurated in St. Kitts and Nevis on 19 November 2010. The Ministry of Community Development, Culture and Gender Affairs is using the occasion of International Men's Day to highlight issues affecting and involving men. International Men's Day was observed on Friday and a few activities, such as a health fair, a church service and a panel discussion on general men's issues were organised by the ministry. Sharon Rattan, acting permanent secretary in the Ministry of Gender Affairs said the Gender Affairs Department wants to reach out more to men as previously they focused mostly on women issues. Rattan told WINN FM that it was their hope to use the opportunity to gather more information about the issues affecting men to guide their plan of action in the future. "We are trying to get men together and engage their minds on the issues that affect them so that we can go forward and support them," Rattan said, adding that the programs would also cater to young boys. #### Saint Lucia In 2011, the St Lucia Crisis Center organised an IMD awareness campaign. Organisers disseminated information about the event and its objectives to media and within educational facilities. In 2014, the Government of St Lucia held an IMD event at the auditorium of the Wellness Centre on the Millennium Highway where men of all ages were invited to attend. The event was geared at recognising and celebrating the achievements of men and boys, and was titled "Appreciating Men's Leadership and Sacrifice for Family and Country." It was organised by the Division of Gender Relations in the Ministry of Health, included a focus on men's and boy's health, improving gender relations, promoting gender equality and developing positive male role models, and highlighted discriminations against men. #### United States The following states have recognised International Men's Day: Pennsylvania, New York, Iowa, Illinois, Virginia, Hawaii, Florida, California, Arizona, Alabama, and Michigan. In addition, the following cities have also recognized the holiday: Washington, D.C.; Dallas, Texas; Atlanta, Georgia. 2012 International Men's Day was celebrated during the weeks before the observance of 2012 International Men's Day on 12 October 2012. ### Asia #### China In 2003, a Chinese fashion magazine proposed 3 August as the International Men's day, corresponding to the International Women's day held on 8 March. The magazine claimed to have submitted a proposal to UNESCO. Ever since then, the topic about "Men's Day" has been discussed every August on the Internet. In Hong Kong in 2010 special observances of International Men's Day occurred on 19 November, with the theme "Blessed Are The Men". All men were invited to ride for free in the city's Ngong Ping 360 Tung Chung cable cars for a round-trip on 19 November. In the same year an article in *China Daily* on 3 August asked whether men in China needed their own special day, citing the fact that on International Women's Day all women in China, who accounted for 45 percent of the workforce, get a mandatory half day off by their employer while men had no such day. The article reported on an online survey done by Shanghai Hotline asking "Do men need a holiday for themselves?" – to which 80.24 percent of respondents said "yes" with many insisting that Shanghai men are tired and deserve a holiday. #### India The inaugural celebration of IMD in India was organised by the leading Indian Men's rights organisation Indian Family on 19 November 2007. The date of 19 November was accepted based on the fact that Australia and the West Indies (Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago) were already observing IMD on that date. The event was again celebrated in India in 2008, and plans were made to continue the celebration annually. In 2009, India received the first corporate sponsorship of the International Men's Day with menswear brand Allen Solly deciding to create promotional offers on IMD, and HBO deciding to screen male-positive movies in its "Men in Black" series on 19 November. In 2014, Confidare Education Consultancy hosted an International Men's Day art gallery in New Delhi, while in Kolkata protests were held to highlight men's rights and abuse of the elderly. Other men's rights activists posed questions on the occasion of IMD, questioning the lack of gender neutrality in laws about domestic violence and child custody. The Chennai chapter of All India Men's Welfare Association (AIMWA) submitted a memorandum to the government on IMD 2014, demanding the establishment of a Men's Welfare Ministry, National Commission for Men, and making all laws gender neutral. In 2018, Avijan, a welfare and charitable trust for men, organised a protest in Kolkata to demand gender neutrality in law, a men's commission in India, repealing of Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code, and strong action against misuse of the rape law. Save Indian Family – Karnataka (SIF Karnataka), an NGO working for Men's Rights in India under Save Indian Family Movement, celebrates International Men's Day every year. In 2019, in association with two major hospitals of Bangalore, Aster Hospitals and Regal Hospital, it ran a #HealthyHim campaign on prostate cancer awareness. In 2017 and 2018, among many other awareness activities, the volunteers organised a bike rally to Nandi Hills, India and celebrated International Men's Day with more than 40,000 people present. Daaman Welfare Society & Trust, another prominent NGO working on the same principals under the Save Indian Family Movement, also celebrates International Men's Day every year. In 2019, it hosted a day long grand event at Rave 3 Mall in Kanpur and created awareness on International Men's Day. The need for National Men's Commission was also discussed. #### Pakistan Pakistani Human Rights organisation 'Rights and Rights' inaugurated International Men's Day in Muzaffargarh in 2010. Rights and Rights Founder Yousaf Jamal reported that around 100 people attended, with many lawyers, educationists, social activists and representatives of Women's organisations attending the seminar. Special tributes were paid to prominent male role models. Jamal was under the impression that in Pakistan over the last few years a lot of feminist organisations paint the whole male gender as cruel, and likewise in some prevailing laws there are discriminatory clauses against men, particularly in Family Law and Harassment in the Work Place Act. Jamal paid reference to the steady decline of male participation at Higher Education and University level, citing student numbers in Karachi University as 90% female, in Punjab University 70% female, and in BZ University 52% female. Mr Jamal spoke of the importance of gender cooperation in tackling various problems faced by males and females and cautioned that we should avoid the "Each gender for itself" approach and instead promote better gender relationships. He proposed that all people should celebrate both Men's Day and Women's Day and asked everyone to join with Rights and Rights International for the elimination of Gender Based Discrimination. #### Singapore In 2008, a 19–21 November IMD event was organised in Singapore. The Adam Association organised a forum – Definition of a Man – which identified various problems men face at home such as communication issues, and how to overcome them. Held in Malay, speakers included Maliki Osman, Parliamentary Secretary for National Development, and staff members from the Registry of Marriages. The forum was open to the public for free and was held at the Darussalam mosque along Commonwealth Avenue West. Another event, also part of International Men's Day, was the Admiralty Baby Genius and Kids' Fashion contest, held on Sunday at Woodlands. Jointly organised by Adam Association and Ace the Place Community Club Management Committee, activities included a diaper-changing contest for fathers. In 2009, the National Family Council launched the Singapore Dads for Life movement to support a man's role in co-parenting. As part of the event volunteers distributed men's 'toolkits' at more than 30 locations to mark International Men's Day. Another organisation, the Father's Action Network (FAN) also handed out "Dads for Life" toolkits and asked people to share personal stories of fatherhood which were placed online. ### Europe #### Bosnia and Herzegovina In 2011, The Society Development Association "Kap" initiated an inaugural International Men's Day programme for Bosnia-Herzegovina on 19 November. The goal of the public media campaign was to raise awareness about the health of men and boys, with other goals being the promotion of gender equality through a dialogue and common marking of this date, and noting positive male role models using examples from different areas of society. #### Denmark Men in Denmark formed a group which planned to hold their own International Men's Day celebration on 19 November 2010. The group's spokesman Martin Pavón said that IMD is not a political counterpart of Women's Day, nor in opposition to women. He stated, "We want to take this opportunity to promote everyday ordinary men who live clean and honest lives and contribute positively to society." #### France In France, Discovery Channel launched a moustache-growing competition for 2010 International Men's Day, with prizes given to the winners on 19 November. The competition winners are decided by popular public vote. #### Hungary In November 2009, writer Marie Clarence organised the inaugural IMD celebration for Hungary. Clarence organised the event to promote gender balance and gender equity. The celebration was held in Budapest and the UNESCO Cultural Committee Chairman of Hungary Michael Hoppal gave the opening speech. The event included celebration of local culture, including dancing and forum discussions which highlighted men's achievements and contributions to the world. #### Ireland To celebrate International Men's Day on Thursday 19 November 2009, Irish broadcaster Newstalk devoted a day-long show to men. The show was hosted by Tom Dunne and was Ireland's first ever observation of the event. Topics included discussion of how 'Men Sheds' contribute to improving men's health, and of their popularity in Ireland. In 2011 Men in Childcare Network Ireland and Men in Childcare Europe, a European network made up of Men in Childcare networks from individual EU member countries, hosted a European conference on "Reimagining Childhood Care & Education" A celebration of Universal Children's Day, and International Men's Day. The event called 'Reimagining Childhood Care and Education' took place in Ireland on Saturday 19 November 2011 at the City West Hotel, Dublin. Also in 2011 the Raphoe Family Resource Centre hosted an event with different groups in order to focus on the value of, and highlighting the positive contribution that men make. Children were invited to offer poems or stories about their fathers, grandfathers, uncles or big brothers which were put on display all week to show the men in families how important they are to others. #### Isle of Man The Isle of Man celebrated its inaugural celebration in 2012 at the Isle of Man College of Higher education on 19 November 2012. The organisation emphasised the 2012 theme which highlighted World Health Organization figures showing that every year over half a million people die from violence and 83% of them are men and boys, and that a similar proportion of the global burden of disease (ill-health, disability or early death) from violence is borne by males. On 19 November 2014, a total of 110 men took part in an all-male class at the National Sports Centre in Douglas, which set the new world record for the Largest male yoga class, according to the World Record Academy. #### Italy In November 2009, lawyer Giorgio Ceccarelli announced that International Men's Day was formally recognised in all Italian organisations to which he is President: Children Denied Association, Daddy's Pride, Army Fathers and Cultural Association "I Love Alatri". On 19 November, several activists also rallied outside the Colosseum as part of their IMD celebration. This was the very first observation of 19 November IMD in Italy. #### Malta International Men's Day has been celebrated in Malta by the Association for Men's Rights since 1994. AMR founder and director John Zammit conceived the event which has been held yearly in the form of a dinner, lunch or reception for AMR members and public. On this occasion awards are given to individuals who have made distinctive contributions men's rights such as, for example, efforts made by committee members, "for the removal of the impediment of departure which we had on men in separation/divorce cases. Before 1995 all men who had problems with their wives in Malta, be it Maltese or foreigners, could not leave the island while their case was still in court and so were imprisoned in Malta." The Malta event has traditionally been observed on 7 February since 1994, making it the longest running local IMD observation in the world. As the February date is not celebrated by other participating countries and did not qualify as an *internationally* observed date, discussions were undertaken within the Maltese Association for Men's Rights, and on 17 January 2009, the committee voted unanimously to shift their celebrations to 19 November to coincide with all the others around the world. #### Poland Poland celebrates the International Man's Day on March 10. That date is related to the feast commemorating the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste. #### Romania As of 19 November 2016, Romania will officially celebrate the "national men's day". The law declaring 19 November as the national men's day was passed on 2 February 2016 by the Romanian parliament. Romania is the first country to officially recognise and celebrate this as a national day. National women's day is also held on 8 March. #### Ukraine On 16 November 2012, the Ukrainian News Agency held a 'Meet the Press' event entitled "International Men's Day: Aspects Of Health And Longevity". The event was Ukraine's inaugural recognition of the global occasion. The panelists were S. P. Pasechnikov, a professor, doctor of medical sciences, an Honored Scientist of Ukraine, the chief urologist of the Health Ministry of Ukraine, and the head of the department of urology at the Bohomolets National Medical University; O. V. Shvets, an associate professor, a doctor of medical sciences, the president of the Ukrainian Association of Dietitians, and the chief nutritionist of the Health Ministry of Ukraine; Denys Sylantyev, an honored master of sports in swimming, a world champion, a European champion, a public activist, and the founder of the Foundation for Support of Youth and Olympic Swimming; and A. E. Markov, a doctor of medical sciences and GlaxoSmithKline's regional medical director for Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Caucasus. Themes discussed included healthy lifestyle as the basis for good health; Healthy eating and complete diet; The particulars and maintenance of health and quality of life from the viewpoint of urology; The role of the environment and social initiatives; and The expansion of the Orange Card social program – new opportunities for Ukrainian men. #### United Kingdom In the UK, the responsibility for the International Men's Day platform resides with the Men and Boys Coalition charity, who run the International Men's Day website. It has grown from an event marked by 12 organisations in 2013 to one now marked by over 200. In 2014, over 25 organisations held events across the UK – including two in the House of Commons. This was continued in 2015 where Philip Davies MP introduced a debate in the Palace of Westminster about men's issues on 19 November. The day was endorsed by the then prime minister Theresa May. In 2016, over 60 events were held. 2018 was the biggest International Men's Day to date in the UK, with more than 200 events, campaigns and celebrations held. In 2019, the themes encouraged people and organised to "Make A Difference" and "Give men and boys better life chances" and again, over 200 events took place. In 2020, the three themes became: (1) Making a positive difference to the wellbeing and lives of men and boys (2) Raising awareness and/or funds for charities supporting men and boys' wellbeing, and (3) Promoting a positive conversation about men, manhood and masculinity. England In England (and the UK) the event was inaugurated in 2008 by University of Kent students, who celebrated International Men's Day on the university campus on 19 November 2008. In November 2010, the Brighton Men's Network organised an IMD conference event for the city of Brighton for professionals, experts and people interested in helping the city in improving services for men and boys. In Hartlepool, Rossmere Youth Centre hosted an IMD evening for boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 19 focused on health, gender equality and promoting male role models. Organisations Springboard, Nacro and Jobsmart attended to give information and advice on training opportunities. On 19 November 2010, Tiemo Entertainment sponsored a 'Celebration of Men Dinner' in London's Hotel Ibis in Euston, with keynote speaker Damion Queva, publisher of *Fathers Quarterly* magazine. Discussions were conducted on the topic, "What is the purpose of International Men's Day?". Planned events to mark IMD at the University of York in 2015 were cancelled by the university, after pressure from about 200 members of staff, students, and alumni, who signed an open letter on 13 November. The letter argued that "A day that celebrates men's issues... does not combat inequality, but merely amplifies existing, structurally imposed, inequalities", characterising a statement from the university's equality and diversity committee in support of the event as "particularly crass in view of the fact that of the 12-strong university senior management group, three-quarters are male". Subsequently, the university made no plans to mark the event in 2016, despite a counter-petition which attracted 4,261 supporters. Northern Ireland In Northern Ireland, the Deputy Mayor of Newry and Mourne Council, Cllr Karen McKevitt, launched the Magnet Young Men's Health Event, on Friday 19 November 2010. The event was attended by men from across the district and representatives from local statutory, voluntary and community organisations were organised to celebrate 19 November as International Men's Day. Deputy Mayor, Cllr McKevitt said, 'It is a great idea to give an issue that has an international perspective a local focus. All men need to look after their health and take advantage of the services and help that is out there, as we all do. But it is particularly good to see an event that looks at the barriers that young men may be facing and brings together people from all organisations across the district to look at what can be done to work together to make things better.' The event offered opportunities for men to have health checks with experienced staff from Action Cancer, and speakers shared insight into the choices young men make and the opportunities that are out there for young men today. Also in attendance was Jerome Burns, Assistant Director, Department for Social Development. Scotland IMD was inaugurated in Scotland in 2010. The event was endorsed by the Government of Scotland and by the Men's Health Forum of Scotland (MHFS). The MHFS celebrated the day with a roundtable event to promote the health and wellbeing of men and boys by bringing together key people and organisations. The focus of the event was to discuss the rationale for developing a national men's health policy in Scotland. The event took place at Elliot House, the office of NHS Quality Improvement Scotland (QIS) in Edinburgh, where there were representations from Scottish Government, NHS leads and directors in the Voluntary Health Sector who discussed the issues and set up a short-term task group to take this work forward. Jim Leishman, men's health coordinator, NHS Forth Valley said: "This event was a huge opportunity to drive through improvements in men's health in Scotland." Wales In 2011, the Welsh Government was accused by Tory councillor Peter Davies (father of MP Philip Davies) of sex discrimination for supporting International Women's Day with grants totalling £30,000 while ignoring International Men's Day. Davies stated, "I don't particularly object to the Welsh Government spending money on International Women's Day, but I would have thought that with its commitment to equality it would also be happy to recognise International Men's Day, which will be celebrated this Saturday." ### Oceania #### Australia Some Australians have celebrated IMD on 19 November since 2003, when Phil Gouldson of Men's Health and Wellbeing Association ACT (MHWA) launched the inaugural event after receiving an invitation by Trinidad and Tobago's Harrack Balramsingh to join in the event. In Canberra, 2004, Gouldson asked men in Australia to wear a red rose for IMD and for women and families to buy the men in their life flowers. He said a red rose is worn by men on IMD as a symbol of strength of character and courage, and as it is unusual to see men being given flowers so it is a good way to highlight the occasion. In 2004, Michael Flood, an academic, criticised the basis of the 'Men's Health and Wellbeing Association' (MHWA)'s IMD celebration which focused on men's health, arguing that there were already enough opportunities to work on men's health and fatherhood (citing Father's Day and Men's Health Week). Gouldson responded, reminding that "Not all men and boys are fathers, while Men's Health Week focuses on claimed inadequacies of men in not better managing their health". Teelucksingh independently highlighted the need to address the needs of young boys, teenagers and men who are not fathers, which was one of his primary purposes for establishing International Men's Day. In 2008, Dads4Kids Organisation highlighted the theme 'honour and sacrifice', pointing to the sinking of the cruiser HMAS *Sydney* on 19 November during the Second World War which resulted in the death of 645 men off the coast of Geraldton in Western Australia. Organisers said, "men make sacrifices every day in their place of work, in their role as husbands and fathers, for their families, for their friends, for their communities and for their nation". In 2009, a number of events were held throughout Australia including IMD initiatives organised by four local governments: Maitland City Council in NSW, Greater Hume Shire Council in Victoria, Ipswich City Council in Queensland, and Forbes Shire Council in NSW each of whom funded local observations. These were the first government bodies in Australia to fund and host community IMD events. In the State Parliament of Western Australia Minister Nick Goiran gave a speech introducing International Men's Day and its objectives to the parliament, focussing on the promotion of gender equality and the importance of highlighting positive male role models. There was also an event held in the Federal Australian Parliament House with several notable speakers. Numerous other organisations hosted observations including the Men's Shed Steering Committee in Rockhampton, the Community Resource center in Ulladulla, the Regional Health Service in Koo Wee Rup, and *Dads on the Air* radio programme in Sydney which hosted an hour-long programme discussing IMD with a panel of international coordinators of the event. In honour of men and boys on the occasion of IMD 2014, Liz Behjat addressed the Western Australian Legislative Council on the topic of men's lives and issues. #### New Zealand In 2018, a small group promoted men's day in New Zealand. However, there is no official support from the New Zealand government. The International Men's Day New Zealand website states "International Men's Day encourages people to make the world a better place by supporting men. It reinforces and supports other efforts to make society fairer, safer, and improve wellbeing for everyone." See also -------- * International Men's Health Week * Tango no Sekku, formerly celebrated as Boys' Day in Japan * International Women's Day, March 8 * White Ribbon Day, November 25, male role-modelling to end male violence against women and girls

International Men's Day

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Men%27s_Day

In geography, the **temperate climates** of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout the year and more distinct seasonal changes compared to tropical climates, where such variations are often small and usually only have precipitation changes. In temperate climates, not only do latitudinal positions influence temperature changes, but sea currents, prevailing wind direction, continentality (how large a landmass is) and altitude also shape temperate climates. The Köppen climate classification defines a climate as "temperate" **C**, when the mean temperature is above −3 °C (26.6 °F) but below 18 °C (64.4 °F) in the coldest month to account for the persistency of frost. However, some adaptations of Köppen set the minimum at 0 °C (32.0 °F). Continental climates, classified separately as "continental" **D** according to Köppen, are considered as a variety of temperate climates but have more severe temperatures, with mean temperatures of the coldest month usually being below −3 °C (26.6 °F). Zones and climates ------------------ The **north temperate zone** extends from the Tropic of Cancer (approximately 23.5° north latitude) to the Arctic Circle (approximately 66.5° north latitude). The **south temperate zone** extends from the Tropic of Capricorn (approximately 23.5° south latitude) to the Antarctic Circle (at approximately 66.5° south latitude). In some climate classifications, the temperate zone may be divided into several smaller climate zones, based on monthly temperatures, the coldest month, and rainfall. These can include the subtropical zone (humid subtropical and Mediterranean climate), and the cool temperate zone (oceanic and continental climates). ### Subtropical zone These are the climates that are typically found toward the more equatorial portion of the temperate zone between 23.5° and 35° north or south, and thus are far more influenced by the tropics than any other temperate climate type, usually having warmer temperatures over the year, longer and hot summers and mild, short winters. Freezing precipitation is uncommon in this portion of the temperate zone. #### Humid subtropical (Cfa) and monsoon subtropical (Cwa) climates Humid subtropical climates generally have long, hot and humid summers with convective showers in summer and a peak seasonal rainfall in the hottest months. Winters are normally mild and not freezing in the humid subtropics, and warm ocean currents normally are found in coastal areas with humid subtropical climates. This type of climate is normally located along leeward lower east coasts of continents such as in southeast and central Argentina, Uruguay and south of Brazil, the southeast portions of East Asia, southern and portions of the northeast and midwestern United States and portions of, South Africa, Ethiopia, and eastern Australia. In some areas with a humid subtropical climate (most notably southeast China and North India), there is an even sharper wet-dry season, called a monsoon subtropical climate or subtropical monsoon (Cwa). In these regions, winters are quite chilly and dry and summers have very heavy rainfall. Some Cwa areas in southern China report more than 80% of annual precipitation in the 5 warmest months (southwest monsoon). #### Mediterranean climates (Csa, Csb) Mediterranean climates have the opposite rainfall pattern to the humid subtropical and monsoonal climates, with a dry summer and wet winter. This climate occurs mostly at the western edges and coasts of the continents and are bounded by arid deserts on their equatorward sides that brings dry winds causing the dry season of summer, and oceanic climates to the poleward sides that are influenced by cool ocean currents and air masses that bring the rainfall of winter. The five main Mediterranean regions of the world are the Mediterranean Basin in northwestern Afro-Eurasia, coastal California in the United States, the southwest of Australia, the Western Cape of South Africa and the south and southwestern coast of Chile. #### Subtropical highland climates (Cwb, Cfb) Subtropical highland climates are subtropical variants of the oceanic climates found in some mountainous areas of either the tropics or subtropics. They have characteristically mild temperatures year-round, featuring the four seasons in the subtropics and no marked seasons in the tropics, the latter usually remaining mild to cool through most of the year. However, there is significant monsoon influence in climates under the Cwb classification, usually having dry winters and wet summers. ### Middle latitude zone These climates occur in the middle latitudes, between approximately 35° and 66.5° north and south of the equator. There is an equal climatic influence from both the polar and tropical zones in this climate region. Two types of climates are in this zone, a milder oceanic one and more severe seasonal continental one. Most prototypical temperate climates have a distinct four-season pattern, especially in the continental climate sector. #### Oceanic and continental climates Oceanic climates are created by the on-shore flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have mild summers and cool (but not cold) winters, and relative humidity and precipitation evenly distributed throughout the year. These climates are frequently cloudy and cool, and winters are milder than those in the continental climate. Regions with oceanic climates include northwestern Europe, northwestern North America, southeastern and southwestern South America, southeastern Australia and most of New Zealand. Continental climates are considered as a variety of temperate climates due to lying in the temperate zones, although they are classified separately from other temperate climates in the Köppen climate classification. In contrast to oceanic climates, they are created by large land masses and seasonal changes in wind direction. This causes continental climates to have severe temperatures for the season compared to other temperate climates, meaning a hot summer and cold winter. Precipitation may be evenly distributed throughout the year, while in some locations there is a summer accent on rainfall. Regions with continental climates include southeastern Canada, the upper portions of the eastern United States, portions of eastern Europe, parts of China, Japan and the Korean Peninsula. ### Subpolar zone These are temperate climates that compared to the subtropics are on the poleward edge of the temperate zone. Therefore, they still have four marked seasons including a warmer one, but are far more influenced by the polar zones than any other but the very polar climates (tundra and ice cap climate). #### Subpolar oceanic (Cfc, Cwc, Csc) Areas with subpolar oceanic climates feature an oceanic climate but are usually located closer to polar regions. As a result of their location, these regions tend to be on the cool end of oceanic climates. Snowfall tends to be more common here than in other oceanic climates. Subpolar oceanic climates are less prone to temperature extremes than subarctic climates or continental climates, featuring milder winters than these climates but still with similar summers. This variant of an oceanic climate is found in parts of coastal Iceland, the Faroe Islands, parts of Scotland, northwestern coastal areas of Norway such as Lofoten and reaching to 70° north on some islands, uplands near the coast of southwestern Norway, the Aleutian Islands of Alaska and northern parts of the Alaskan Panhandle, some parts of Southern Argentina and Chile (though most regions are still classified as continental subantarctic), and a few highland areas of Tasmania, the Australian Alps and Southern Alps / Kā Tiritiri o te Moana of New Zealand. This type of climate is even found in tropical areas such as the Papuan Highlands in Indonesia. Cfc is the categorization for this regime. Even in the middle of summer, temperatures exceeding 20°C (68 °F) are exceptional weather events in the most maritime of those locations impacted by this regime. In some parts of this climate, temperatures as high as 30°C (86°F) have been recorded on rare occasions, while temperatures as low as −15 °C (5 °F) have still been recorded on rare occasions. Human aspects ------------- ### Demography, fauna and flora The vast majority of the world's human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land and lack of extreme temperatures. The biggest described number of taxa in a temperate region is found in southern Africa, where some 24,000 taxa (species and infraspecific taxa) have been described. ### Agriculture Farming is a large-scale practice in the temperate regions (except for boreal/subarctic regions) due to the plentiful rainfall and warm summers, because most agricultural activity occurs in the spring and summer, cold winters have a small effect on agricultural production. Extreme winters or summers have a huge impact on the productivity of agriculture which is less common. ### Urbanization Temperate regions have the majority of the world's population, which leads to large cities. There are a couple of factors why the climate of large city landscapes differs from the climate of rural areas. One factor is the strength of the absorption rate of buildings and asphalt, which is higher than that of natural land. The other large factor is the burning of fossil fuels from buildings and vehicles. These factors have led to the average climate of cities to be warmer than surrounding areas. See also -------- * Geographical zone * Habitat * Köppen climate classification * Middle latitudes * Polar circle * Subtropics * Tropics * Subarctic * Highland temperate climate * Humid temperate climate * Subhumid temperate climate

Temperate climate

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_climate

48°00′N 3°00′W / 48.000°N 3.000°W / 48.000; -3.000 **Brittany** (/ˈbrɪtəni/; French: *Bretagne* [bʁətaɲ] (); Breton: *Breizh*, pronounced [bʁɛjs] or [bʁɛx]; Gallo: *Bertaèyn* [bəʁtaɛɲ]) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica during the period of Roman occupation. It became an independent kingdom and then a duchy before being united with the Kingdom of France in 1532 as a province governed as a separate nation under the crown. Brittany has also been referred to as Little Britain (as opposed to Great Britain, with which it shares an etymology). It is bordered by the English Channel to the north, Normandy to the northeast, eastern Pays de la Loire to the southeast, the Bay of Biscay to the south, and the Celtic Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Its land area is 34,023 km2 (13,136 sq mi). Brittany is the site of some of the world's oldest standing architecture, home to the Cairn of Barnenez, the Tumulus Saint-Michel and others, which date to the early 5th millennium BC. Today, the historical province of Brittany is split among five French departments: Finistère in the west, Côtes-d'Armor in the north, Ille-et-Vilaine in the northeast, Morbihan in the south and Loire-Atlantique in the southeast. Loire-Atlantique now belongs to the Pays de la Loire region while the other four departments make up the Brittany region. At the 2010 census, the population of historic Brittany was estimated to be 4,475,295. In 2017, the largest metropolitan areas were Nantes (934,165 inhabitants), Rennes (733,320 inhabitants), and Brest (321,364 inhabitants). Brittany is the traditional homeland of the Breton people and is one of the six Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. A nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the French Republic, or independence from it. Etymology --------- The word *Brittany*, along with its French, Breton and Gallo equivalents *Bretagne*, *Breizh* and *Bertaèyn*, derive from the Latin *Britannia*, which means "land of the Britons". This word had been used by the Romans since the 1st century to refer to Great Britain, and more specifically the Roman province of Britain. This word derives from a Greek word, Πρεττανικη (Prettanike) or Βρεττανίαι (Brettaniai), used by Pytheas, an explorer from Massalia who visited the British Isles around 320 BC. The Greek word itself comes from the common Brythonic ethnonym reconstructed as *\*Pritanī*, itself from Proto-Celtic *\*kʷritanoi* (ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *\*kʷer-* 'to cut, make'). The Romans called Brittany *Armorica*. It was a quite indefinite region that extended along the English Channel coast from the Seine estuary, then along the Atlantic coast to the Loire estuary and, according to several sources, maybe to the Garonne estuary. This term probably comes from a Gallic word, *aremorica*, which means "close to the sea". Another name, *Letauia* (in English "Litavis"), was used until the 12th century. It possibly means "wide and flat" or "to expand" and it gave the Welsh name for Brittany: *Llydaw*. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, many Cornish Britons settled in western Armorica to escape the Saxons and the region started to be called *Britannia*, although this name only replaced *Armorica* in the sixth century or perhaps by the end of the fifth. Breton-speaking people may pronounce the word *Breizh* in two different ways, according to their region of origin. Breton can be divided into two main dialects: the *KLT* (Kerne-Leon-Tregor) and the dialect of Vannes. KLT speakers pronounce it [brɛjs] and would write it *Breiz*, while the Vannetais speakers pronounce it [brɛχ] and would write it *Breih*. The official spelling is a compromise between both variants, with a *z* and an *h* together. In 1941, efforts to unify the dialects led to the creation of the so-called *Breton zh*, a standard which has never been widely accepted. On its side, Gallo has never had a widely accepted writing system and several ones coexist. For instance, the name of the region in that language can be written *Bertaèyn* in *ELG* script, or *Bertègn* in *MOGA*, and a couple of other scripts also exist. History ------- ### Prehistoric origins Brittany has been inhabited by humans since the Lower Palaeolithic. This population was scarce and very similar to the other Neanderthals found in the whole of Western Europe. Their only original feature was a distinct culture, called "Colombanian". One of the oldest hearths in the world has been found in Plouhinec, Finistère. Homo sapiens settled in Brittany around 35,000 years ago. They replaced or absorbed the Neanderthals and developed local industries, similar to the Châtelperronian or to the Magdalenian. After the last glacial period, the warmer climate allowed the area to become heavily wooded. At that time, Brittany was populated by relatively large communities who started to change their lifestyles from a life of hunting and gathering, to become settled farmers. Agriculture was introduced during the 5th millennium BC by migrants from the south and east. However, the Neolithic Revolution in Brittany did not happen due to a radical change of population, but by slow immigration and exchange of skills. Neolithic Brittany is characterised by important megalithic production and sites such as Quelfénnec, it is sometimes designated as the "core area" of megalithic culture. The oldest monuments, cairns, were followed by princely tombs and stone rows. The Morbihan *département*, on the southern coast, comprises a large share of these structures, including the Carnac stones and the Broken Menhir of Er Grah in the Locmariaquer megaliths, the largest single stone erected by Neolithic people. ### Gallic era During the protohistorical period, Brittany was inhabited by five Celtic tribes: * The Curiosolitae, who lived around the present town of Corseul. Their territory encompassed parts of Côtes-d'Armor, Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan *départements*. * The Namnetes, who lived in the current Loire-Atlantique *département* (in today's administrative *région* of Pays de la Loire), north of the Loire. They gave their name to the city of Nantes. The south bank of the river was occupied by an allied tribe, the Ambilatres, whose existence and territory remain unsure. * The Osismii, who lived in the western part of Brittany. Their territory comprised the Finistère *département* and the western extremity of Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan. * The Redones (or *Rhedones*), who lived in the eastern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine *département*. They gave their name to the city of Rennes (*Roazhon* in Breton language, in the center of the département) and to the town of Redon (in the south of the *département*, bordering the *département* of Loire-Atlantique in the administrative *région* of Pays de la Loire, where its suburb town of Saint-Nicolas-de-Redon is located; however the city of Redon was founded around AD 832 under the initial name of *Riedones*, long after the *Redones* people were assimilated to Bretons; the cultural link between *Riedones* and the former *Redones* people is highly probable but difficult to recover and the name of *Riedones* may have been written from a local usage preserving the name of the former people in the vernacular oral language from a reading of an ancient Greek orthography). * The Veneti, who lived in the present Morbihan *département* and gave their name to the city of Vannes. Despite confusion by the classical scholar Strabo, they were unrelated to the Adriatic Veneti. Those people had strong economic ties to the Insular Celts, especially for the tin trade . Several tribes also belonged to an "Armorican confederation" which, according to Julius Caesar, gathered the Curiosolitae, the Redones, the Osismii, the Unelli, the Caletes, the Lemovices and the Ambibarii. The Unelli, Caletes, and Lemovices were respectively located in Cotentin (Lower-Normandy), pays de Caux (Upper-Normandy), and Limousin (Aquitaine); the location of the Ambibarii is unknown. The Caletes are sometimes also considered Belgians, and *Lemovices* is probably a mistake for *Lexovii* (Lower-Normandy). ### Gallo-Roman era The region became part of the Roman Republic in 51 BC. It was included in the province of Gallia Lugdunensis in 13 BC. Gallic towns and villages were redeveloped according to Roman standards, and several cities were created. These cities are Condate (Rennes), Vorgium (Carhaix), Darioritum (Vannes) and Condevincum or Condevicnum (Nantes). Together with Fanum Martis (Corseul), they were the capitals of the local civitates. They all had a grid plan and a forum, and sometimes a temple, a basilica, thermae or an aqueduct, like Carhaix. The Romans also built three major roads through the region. However, most of the population remained rural. The free peasants lived in small huts, whereas the landowners and their employees lived in proper villae rusticae. The Gallic deities continued to be worshiped, and were often assimilated to the Roman gods. Only a small number of statues depicting Roman gods were found in Brittany, and most of the time they combine Celtic elements. During the 3rd century AD, the region was attacked several times by Franks, Alamanni and pirates. At the same time, the local economy collapsed and many farming estates were abandoned. To face the invasions, many towns and cities were fortified, like Nantes, Rennes and Vannes. ### Immigration of the Britons Toward the end of the 4th century, the Britons of what is now Cornwall on the South-Western peninsula of Great Britain began to emigrate to Armorica, which is why the Breton language is more closely related to Cornish. #### The Romano-Britons The history behind such an establishment is unclear, but medieval Breton, Angevin and Welsh sources connect it to a figure known as Conan Meriadoc. Welsh literary sources assert that Conan came to Armorica on the orders of the Roman usurper Magnus Maximus, who sent some of his British troops to Gaul to enforce his claims and settled them in Armorica. This account was supported by the Counts of Anjou, who claimed descent from a Roman soldier expelled from Lower Brittany by Conan on Magnus's orders. #### Battle of the Catalaunian Plains The army recruited for Flavius Aetius to combat Attila the Hun at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains included Romans, Visigoths, Franks, Alans and Armoricans, amongst others. The Alans were placed front and centre, opposite the Huns. The Armoricans supplied archers who attacked the Huns' front lines during the main battle and thwarted Attila's night assault on the Roman camp with a hail of arrows "like rain". After the battle was won, Aetius sent the Alans to Armorica and Galicia. #### Riothamus The late 5th century Brittonic leader Riothamus received correspondence from the eminent Roman jurist Sidonius Apollinaris and was called "King of the Britons" by Jordanes. Some suggest that he was a Breton, though others believe that he was from Britain, pointing to the passage that he arrived in the land of the Biturges "by way of Ocean", which would hardly have been efficient or required for a Breton. Both historians describe Riothamus's losing battle against King Euric of the Visigoths at Déols around the year 470. In response to a plea from the Roman Emperor Anthemius, Riothamus had led twelve thousand men to establish a military presence in Bourges in central Gaul, but was betrayed by Arvandus, the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and subsequently ambushed by Euric's army. After a long battle, the Armorican survivors escaped to Avallon in Burgundy, after which they are lost to history. According to Breton king-lists, Riotham survived and reigned as Prince of Domnonia until his death sometime between 500 and 520, though this may have been a different person. #### Additional waves of Britons Regardless of the truth of this story, Brythonic (British Celtic) settlement probably increased during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain in the 5th and 6th centuries. Scholars such as Léon Fleuriot have suggested a two-wave model of migration from Britain which saw the emergence of an independent Breton people and established the dominance of the Brythonic Breton language in Armorica. Their petty kingdoms are now known by the names of the counties that succeeded them—Domnonée (Devon), Cornouaille (Cornwall), Léon (Caerleon); but these names in Breton and Latin are in most cases identical to their British homelands. (In Breton and French, however, Gwened or Vannetais continued the name of the indigenous Veneti.) Although the details remain confused, these colonies consisted of related and intermarried dynasties which repeatedly unified (as by the 7th-century Saint Judicaël) before splintering again according to Celtic inheritance practices. ### Middle Ages #### The Kingdom of Brittany At the beginning of the medieval era, Brittany was divided among three kingdoms, Domnonea, Cornouaille and Broërec. These realms eventually merged into a single state during the 9th century. The unification of Brittany was carried out by Nominoe, king between 845 and 851 and considered as the Breton *Pater Patriae*. Among the immigrant Britons, there were some clergymen who helped the evangelisation of the region, which was still pagan, particularly in rural areas. His son Erispoe secured the independence of the new kingdom of Brittany and won the Battle of Jengland against Charles the Bald. The Bretons won another war in 867, and the kingdom reached then its maximum extent: It received parts of Normandy, Maine and Anjou and the Channel Islands. #### Viking occupation Brittany was heavily attacked by the Vikings at the beginning of the 10th century. The kingdom lost its eastern territories, including Normandy and Anjou, and the county of Nantes was given to Fulk I of Anjou in 909. However, Nantes was seized by the Vikings in 914. At this time Brittany was also called Lydwiccum. #### The Duchy of Brittany Nantes was eventually liberated by Alan II of Brittany in 937 with the support of his godbrother King Æthelstan of England. Alan II totally expelled the Vikings from Brittany and recreated a strong Breton state. For aiding in removing the problem, Alan paid homage to Louis IV of France (who was Æthelstan's nephew and had returned from England in the same year as Alan II) and thus Brittany ceased to be a kingdom and became a duchy. #### Norman allies Several Breton lords helped William the Conqueror to invade England and the Bretons formed over a third of the landing force in 1066. They received large estates there (e.g. William's double-second cousin Alan Rufus and the latter's brother Brian of Brittany). The Bretons helped to liberate the Cornish, replacing Anglo-Saxon land owners. Some of these lords were powerful rivals. #### Internal disputes Medieval Brittany was far from being a united nation. The French king maintained envoys in Brittany, alliances contracted by local lords often overlapped and there was no specific Breton unity. For example, Brittany replaced Latin with French as its official language in the 13th century, 300 years before France did so, and the Breton language didn't have formal status. The foreign policy of the Duchy changed many times; the Dukes were usually independent, but they often contracted alliances with England or France depending on who was threatening them at that point. Their support for each nation became very important during the 14th century because the English kings had started to claim the French throne. The Breton War of Succession, a local episode of the Hundred Years' War, saw the House of Blois, backed by the French, fighting with the House of Montfort, backed by the English. The Montforts won in 1364 and enjoyed a period of total independence until the end of the Hundred Years' War, because France was weakened and stopped sending royal envoys to the Court of Brittany. English diplomatic failures led to the Breton cavalry commanders Arthur, Comte de Richemont (later to become Arthur III, Duke of Brittany) and his nephew Peter II, Duke of Brittany playing key roles on the French side during the deciding stages of the war (including the battles of Patay, Formigny and Castillon and the Treaty of Arras). Brittany importantly lost the Mad War against France in 1488, mostly because of its internal divisions that were exacerbated by the corruption at the court of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Indeed, some rebel Breton lords were fighting on the French side. ### Union with the French Crown and modern period As a result of the Mad War, the Duke Francis II could not have his daughter Anne married without the king of France's consent. Nonetheless, she married the Holy Roman Emperor in 1490, leading to a crisis with France. Charles VIII of France besieged Rennes and had the marriage cancelled. He eventually married Anne of Brittany. After he died childless, the duchess had to marry his heir and cousin Louis XII. Anne unsuccessfully tried to preserve Breton independence, but she died in 1514, and the union between the two crowns was formally carried out by Francis I in 1532. He granted several privileges to Brittany, such as exemption from the gabelle, a tax on salt that was very unpopular in France. Under the Ancien Régime, Brittany and France were governed as separate countries but under the same crown, so Breton aristocrats in the French royal court were classed as Princes étrangers (foreign princes). From the 15th to the 18th century, Brittany reached an economic golden age. The region was located on the seaways near Spain, England and the Netherlands and it greatly benefited from the creation of a French colonial empire. Local seaports like Brest and Saint-Brieuc quickly expanded, and Lorient, first spelled "L'Orient", was founded in the 17th century. Saint-Malo then was known for its corsairs, Brest was a major base for the French Navy and Nantes flourished with the Atlantic slave trade. On its side, the inland provided hemp ropes and canvas and linen sheets. However, Colbertism, which encouraged the creation of many factories, did not favour the Breton industry because most of the royal factories were opened in other provinces. Moreover, several conflicts between France and England led the latter to restrain its trade, and the Breton economy went into recession during the 18th century. #### The centralisation problem Two significant revolts occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries: the Revolt of the papier timbré (1675) and the Pontcallec conspiracy (1719). Both arose from attempts to resist centralisation and assert Breton constitutional exceptions to tax. #### Breton exodus Many Bretons crossed the Atlantic to support the American War of Independence. These included many sailors such as Armand de Kersaint and soldiers such as Charles Armand Tuffin, marquis de la Rouërie. ### The French Revolution of 1789 – Division of Brittany into five departments The Duchy was legally abolished with the French Revolution that began in 1789 - and in 1790 the province of Brittany was divided into five departments: Côtes-du-Nord (later Côtes-d'Armor), Finistère, Ille-et-Vilaine, Loire-Inférieure (later Loire-Atlantique) and Morbihan. Brittany essentially lost all its special privileges that existed under the Duchy. Three years later, the area became a centre of royalist and Catholic resistance to the Revolution during the Chouannerie. During the 19th century, Brittany remained in economic recession, and many Bretons emigrated to other French regions, particularly to Paris. This trend remained strong until the beginning of the 20th century. Nonetheless, the region was also modernising, with new roads and railways being built, and some places being industrialised. Nantes specialised in shipbuilding and food processing (sugar, exotic fruits and vegetables, fish...), Fougères in glass and shoe production, and metallurgy was practised in small towns such as Châteaubriant and Lochrist, known for its labour movements. The region remained deeply Catholic, and during the Second Empire, the conservative values were strongly reasserted. When the Republic was re-established in 1871, there were rumours that Breton troops were mistrusted and mistreated at Camp Conlie during the Franco-Prussian War because of fears that they were a threat to the Republic. During the 19th century, the Breton language started to decline precipitously, mainly because of the Francization policy conducted under the Third Republic. On one hand, children were not allowed to speak Breton at school, and were punished by teachers if they did. Famously, signs in schools read: "It is forbidden to speak Breton and to spit on the floor" ("Il est interdit de parler Breton et de cracher par terre"). At the same time, the Celtic Revival led to the foundation of the Breton Regionalist Union (URB) and later to independence movements linked to Irish, Welsh, and Scottish and Cornish independence parties in the UK, and to pan-Celticism. However, the audience of these movements remained very low and their ideas did not reach a large public until the 20th century. The Seiz Breur movement, created in 1923, permitted a Breton artistic revival but its ties with Nazism and the collaborationism of the Breton National Party during World War II weakened Breton nationalism in the post-war period. Brittany lost 240,000 men during the First World War. The Second World War was also catastrophic for the region. It was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1940 and freed after Operation Cobra in August 1944. However, the areas around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient only surrendered on 10 and 11 May 1945, several days after the German capitulation. The two port towns had been virtually destroyed by Allied air raids, like Brest and Saint-Malo, and other towns, such as Nantes and Rennes, had also suffered. In 1956, Brittany was legally reconstituted as the Region of Brittany, although the region excluded the ducal capital of Nantes and the surrounding area. Nevertheless, Brittany retained its cultural distinctiveness, and a new cultural revival emerged during the 1960s and 1970s. Bilingual schools were opened, singers started to write songs in Breton, and ecological catastrophes such as the Amoco Cadiz oil spill or the Erika oil spill and water pollution from intensive pig farming favoured new movements to protect the natural heritage. Government and politics ----------------------- ### Traditional subdivisions Brittany as a political entity disappeared in 1790, when it was divided into five départements. The Breton départements more or less correspond to the nine Catholic dioceses that appeared at the beginning of the Middle Ages. They were often called "pays" or "bro" ("country" in French and Breton) and they also served as fiscal and military districts. Brittany is also divided between *Lower Brittany* ("Basse Bretagne" and "Breizh Izel"), corresponding to the western half, where Breton is traditionally spoken, and *Upper Brittany* ("Haute Bretagne" and "Breizh Uhel"), corresponding to the eastern half, where Gallo is traditionally spoken. The historical Breton dioceses were: * Upper Brittany: + The *Pays nantais*, around Nantes, corresponding to the Loire-Atlantique *département*. + The *Pays rennais*, around Rennes, forming part of the Ille-et-Vilaine *département*. + The *Pays de Dol*, around Dol-de-Bretagne, corresponding to the northern part of the Ille-et-Vilaine *département*. + The *Pays de Saint-Brieuc*, around Saint-Brieuc, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor *département*. + The *Pays de Saint-Malo*, around Saint-Malo, divided between Ille-et-Vilaine, Côtes-d'Armor and Morbihan. * Lower Brittany: + The *Pays vannetais*, around Vannes, corresponding to the Morbihan *département*. + The *Cornouaille*, around Quimper, divided between Finistère and Côtes-d'Armor. + The *Léon*, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, corresponding to the northern part of the Finistère *département*. + The *Trégor*, around Tréguier, forming part of the Côtes-d'Armor *département*. During the French Revolution, four dioceses were suppressed and the five remaining ones were modified to have the same administrative borders as the départements. ### Capital cities Brittany has several historical capital cities. When it was an independent duchy, the Estates of Brittany, which can be compared to a parliament, met in various towns: Dinan, Ploërmel, Redon, Rennes, Vitré, Guérande, and, most of all, Vannes, where they met 19 times, and Nantes, 17 times. The Court and the government were also very mobile, and each dynasty favoured its own castles and estates. The dukes mostly lived in Nantes, Vannes, Redon, Rennes, Fougères, Dol-de-Bretagne, Dinan and Guérande. All these towns except Vannes are located in Upper Brittany, thus not in the Breton speaking area. Among all these towns, only Nantes, Rennes and Vannes, which were the biggest ones, could really pretend to the capital status. The dukes were crowned in Rennes and they had a large castle there; it was however destroyed during the 15th century. Vannes, on its side, was the seat of the Chamber of Accounts and of the Parliament until the union with France. The Parliament was then transferred to Rennes, and the Chamber of Accounts to Nantes. Nantes, nicknamed "the city of the Dukes of Brittany", was also the permanent residence of the last dukes. The Château des ducs de Bretagne still stands in the city centre. Nowadays, Rennes is the only official capital of the region of Brittany. It is also the seat of an ecclesiastical province encompassing Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. ### Present subdivisions During the French Revolution, Brittany was divided into five *départements*, each made up of three or four *arrondissements*. The arrondissements are further divided in cantons, which are themselves made up of one or several communes. The communes and the départements have a local council elected by their citizens, but arrondissements and cantons are not run by elected officials. The cantons serve as an electoral district for the election of the département councils and arrondissements are run by a subprefect appointed by the French president. The president also appoints a prefect in each département. Because the départements are small and numerous, the French government tried to create wider regions during the 20th century. For the Breton nationalists, it was an occasion to recreate Brittany as a political and administrative entity, but the new region had to be economically efficient. Nantes and its *département*, Loire-Atlantique, raised concerns because they were off-centered, more integrated with the Loire Valley than with the Breton peninsula. The French government and local politicians also feared that Nantes, because of its population and its former Breton capital status, would have maintained a harmful competition with Rennes to get the regional institutions and investments. Several drafts for French regions had been proposed since the 1920s, and the definitive regions were drawn in 1956. The new Brittany had four départements, and Loire-Atlantique formed the Pays de la Loire region together with parts of Anjou, Maine and Poitou. In 1972, the regions received their present competencies, with an elected regional council. Since then, the region of Brittany has had its own council and administrative bodies. ### Reunification When the region of Brittany was created, several local politicians opposed the exclusion of Loire-Atlantique, and the question still remains. The obstacles to reunification are the same as in 1956: having Nantes in Brittany could harm the position of Rennes and create an economic imbalance between Lower and Upper Brittany. Moreover, the Pays de la Loire region could not exist without Loire-Atlantique, because it would lose its political and economic capital. Without Loire-Atlantique, the other départements would not form an efficient region any more, and would have to integrate neighbouring regions such as the Centre-Val de Loire and Nouvelle-Aquitaine. However, several institutions have backed the reunification, such as the regional council of Brittany since 2008 and the Loire-Atlantique council since 2001. Some politicians like Jean-Marc Ayrault, the former French prime minister and former mayor of Nantes, favour instead the creation of a "Greater West region", which would encompass Brittany and the Pays de la Loire region. Polls show that 58% of the Bretons and 62% of the inhabitants in Loire-Atlantique favour the reunification. ### Political tendencies Until the end of the 20th century, Brittany had been characterised by a strong Catholic and conservative influence. However, some areas such as the industrial region around Saint-Nazaire and Lorient and the surroundings of Tréguier are traditional Socialist and Communist strongholds. Left-wing parties, mainly the Socialist party and the Greens, have become more powerful after the 1970s and they have formed a majority in the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004. The Loire-Atlantique and Ille-et-Vilaine councils have also been held by the left since 2004. The Socialist party has held the Côtes-d'Armor council since 1976, and the Finistère council since 1998. On its side, Morbihan remains a right-wing stronghold. The local parties have a very small audience, except the Union Démocratique Bretonne which has seats at the Regional Council and in other local assemblies. It advocates more autonomy for the region and its positions are very close to the Socialist parties. It also has a strong ecological orientation. The audience of far-right parties is lower in Brittany than in the rest of France. Geography and natural history ----------------------------- Brittany is the largest French peninsula. It is around 34,030 km2 (13,140 sq mi) and stretches toward the northwest and the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered to the north by the English Channel, to the south by the Bay of Biscay and the waters located between the western coast and Ushant Island form the Iroise Sea. The Breton coast is very indented, with many cliffs, rias and capes. The Gulf of Morbihan is a vast natural harbour with some forty islands that is almost a closed sea. In total, around 800 islands lie off the mainland; the largest being Belle Île, in the south. Brittany has over 2,860 km (1,780 mi) of coastline; it represents a third of the total French coastline. The region is generally hilly because it corresponds to the western end of the Armorican Massif, a very old range that also extends in Normandy and the Pays de la Loire region. Because of this continuity, the Breton border with the rest of France is not marked by any strong geographical landmark, apart from the river Couesnon, which separates Brittany from Normandy. The Armorican Massif reaches its maximum elevation outside of Brittany, in neighbouring Mayenne, at 417 m, and slopes towards the west before straightening on its western extremity, with the Montagnes Noires and the Monts d'Arrée. The highest hill in Brittany is the *Roc'h Ruz* in the Monts d'Arrée, at 385 m (1,263 ft). It is closely followed by several neighbouring hills culminating at around 384 m above sea level. Coastal areas are usually named *Armor* or *Arvor* ("by the sea" in Breton), and the inland is called *Argoat* ("by the forest"). The best soils were primitively covered by large forests which had been progressively replaced by bocage during the Middle Ages. The Breton bocage, with its small fields enclosed by thick hedgerows, has almost disappeared since the 1960s to fit the modern agricultural needs and methods, particularly mechanisation. Several forests still exist, such as the Paimpont forest, sometimes said to be the Arthurian Brocéliande. The poor and rocky areas are covered by large heathland and moorlands, and Brittany has several marshes, like the Brière, included in a regional natural park. Another regional park encompasses the Monts d'Arrée and the Iroise seacoast. The Iroise Sea is also a UNESCO biosphere reserve. ### Geology The Breton peninsula appeared during the Cadomian Orogeny, which formed its northern coastline, between Guingamp and Fougères. The southern part emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. At the same time, an intense volcanic activity left large quantities of granite. Between the Cadomian and Hercynian periods, the region was submerged several times and the sea left fossils and sedimentary rocks, mostly schist and sandstone. Because of the absence of limestone, soils in Brittany are usually acid. The Armorican massif straightened and flattened several times during the formation of the Pyrenees and the Alps. Changes in sea levels and climate led to a strong erosion and to the formation of more sedimentary rocks. Metamorphism is responsible for the distinctive local blue schist and for the rich subsoil of the Groix island, which comprises glaucophane and epidote. During the Quaternary glaciations, Brittany was covered by loess and rivers started to fill the valleys with alluvial deposits. The valleys themselves were a result of a strong tectonic activity between the African and the Eurasian plate. The present Breton landscape did not acquire its final shape before one million years ago. The Breton subsoil is characterised by a huge amount of fractures that form a large aquifer containing several millions square meters of water. ### Climate Brittany lies within the north temperate zone. It has a changeable, maritime climate, similar to Cornwall. Rainfall occurs regularly but sunny, cloudless days are also common. In the summer months, temperatures in the region can reach 30 °C (86 °F), yet the climate remains comfortable, especially when compared to the French regions located south of the Loire. The temperature difference between summer and winter is about 15 degrees, but it varies depending on the proximity of the sea. The weather is generally milder on the seacoast than inland but rainfall occurs with the same intensity on both. The Monts d'Arrée, despite their low elevation, have much more rainfall than the rest of the region. The south coast, between Lorient and Pornic, enjoys more than 2,000 hours of sunshine per year. ### Flora and fauna Brittany's wildlife is typical of France with several distinctions. On one hand, the region, due to its long coastline, has a rich oceanic fauna, and some birds cannot be seen in other French regions. On the other hand, the species found in the inland are usually common for France, and because Brittany is a peninsula, the number of species is lower in its western extremity than in the eastern part. A variety of seabirds can be seen close to the seaside, which is home to colonies of cormorants, gulls, razorbills, northern gannets, common murres and Atlantic puffins. Most of these birds breed on isolated islands and rocks and thus are hard to observe. The inland is home to common European species including pheasants, barn swallows, woodcocks, common swifts, and partridges. Like Cornwall, Wales and Ireland, the waters of Brittany attract marine animals including basking sharks, grey seals, leatherback turtles, dolphins, porpoises, jellyfish, crabs and lobsters. Bass is common along the coast, small-spotted catsharks live on the continental shelf, rattails and anglerfish populate the deep waters. River fish of note include trout, Atlantic salmon, pikes, shades and lampreys. The Breton rivers are also home to beavers and otters and to some invasive American species, such as the coypu which destroys the ecosystem and accelerated the extinction of the European mink. Among the invertebrates, Brittany is notably home to the escargot de Quimper, the freshwater pearl mussel and the white-clawed crayfish. The larger Breton mammals died out during the modern period, including the wolf. Today, mammals of note include roe deer, wild boar, foxes, hares and several species of bat. Brittany is widely known for the Breton horse, a local breed of draft horse, and for the Brittany gun dog. The region also has its own breeds of cattle, some of which are on the brink of extinction: the Bretonne Pie Noir, the Froment du Léon, the Armorican and the Nantaise. The Breton forests, dunes, moorlands and marshes are home to several iconic plants, such as endemic cistus, aster and linaria varieties, the horseshoe vetch and the lotus maritimus. Education --------- Brittany has the same education system as the rest of France. As in other French regions, formal education before the 19th century was the preserve of the elite. Before 1460, Brittany did not have a university, and Breton students had to go to Angers, Poitiers or Caen. The University of Nantes was founded under the duke Francis II, who wanted to affirm the Breton independence from France. All the traditional disciplines were taught here: arts, theology, law and medicine. During the 17th century, it had around 1,500 students. It declined during the 18th century, mostly because Nantes was flourishing with the Atlantic slave trade and paid no attention to its cultural institutions. A mayor eventually asked the university to be relocated to Rennes, more devoted to culture and science, and the faculties progressively moved there after 1735. The transfer was interrupted by the French Revolution, and all the French universities were dissolved in 1793. Napoleon reorganised the French education system in 1808. He created new universities and invented two secondary education institutions: the "collèges" and the "lycées" which were opened in numerous towns to educate boys and form a new elite. A new University of Rennes was progressively recreated during the 19th century. In the meantime, several laws were promoted to open schools, notably for girls. In 1882, Jules Ferry succeeded in passing a law which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. Thus, free schools were opened in almost every villages of Brittany. ### Language of humiliation Jules Ferry also promoted education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic, and mandatory education was a mean to eradicate regional languages and dialects. In Brittany, it was forbidden for the pupils to speak Breton or Gallo, and the two were strongly depreciated. Humiliating practices aimed at stamping out the Breton language and culture prevailed in state schools until the late 1960s. In response, the Diwan schools were founded in 1977 to teach Breton by immersion. They have taught a few thousand young people from elementary school to high school, and they have gained more fame owing to their high level of results in school exams. A bilingual approach has also been implemented in some state schools after 1979, and some Catholic schools have done the same after 1990. Besides, Brittany, with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region, remains a stronghold for Catholic private education with around 1,400 schools. ### Other Institutes of Learning During the 20th century, tertiary education was developed with the creation of the École centrale de Nantes in 1919, the University of Nantes in 1961, the ESC Bretagne Brest in 1962, the University of Western Brittany in 1971, the École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne in 1977 and the University of Southern Brittany in 1995. The Catholic University of the West, based in Angers, also opened classes in several Breton towns. In 1969, the University of Rennes was divided between the University of Rennes 1 and the University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany. After the Second World War, the Ecole Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr, the foremost French military academy, settled in Coëtquidan. Economy ------- Brittany, apart from some areas such as Lorient, Nantes and Saint-Nazaire, has never been heavily industrialised. Today, fishing and agriculture remain important activities. Brittany has more than 40,000 farms, mostly oriented towards cattle, pig and poultry breeding, as well as cereal and vegetable production. The number of farms tends to diminish, but as a result, they are merged into very large estates. Brittany is the first producer in France for vegetables (green beans, onions, artichokes, potatoes, tomatoes...). Cereals are mostly grown for cattle feeding. Wine, especially muscadet, is made in a small region south of Nantes. Brittany is the first region in France for fishing. The activity employs around 15,000 people, and more than 2500 firms work in fish and seafood processing. Although relatively new, the Breton industry has been constantly growing since 1980. Food processing (meat, vegetables...) represents a third of the industrial jobs, but other activities are also important for the local economy. Shipbuilding, both commercial and military, is implanted in Saint-Nazaire (Chantiers de l'Atlantique), Lorient and Brest; Airbus has plants in Saint-Nazaire and Nantes; and Peugeot has a large factory in Rennes. Brittany is the second French region for telecommunication and the fifth for electronics, two activities mainly developed in Rennes, Lannion and Brest. Tourism is particularly important for the seacoast and Brittany is one of the most visited regions in France. In April 2019, The Guardian's travel section included two Brittany locations in its list of *20 of the most beautiful villages in France*. The two were Rochefort-en-Terre with "its covered market, 12th-century church, medieval castle, 19th-century chateau, and 16th- and 17th-century mansions" and Locronan, where "East India Company's offices still stand on the village square, as well as 17th-century merchants' dwellings". The unemployment rate in Brittany is lower than in other French regions and it is usually around 6 or 7% of the active population. Because of the global financial crisis started in 2007, unemployment rose to 8.7% in the Region Brittany and 8.4% in Loire-Atlantique in late 2012. However, these figures remain under the French national rate (9.9% at the same period). Some industries, such as construction, industry, catering or transport, usually have difficulties finding employees. In 2018, Region Brittany's gross domestic product reached 99 billion euros. It was the ninth richest region in France and it produced 4% of the national GDP. The Breton GDP per capita was around 29,694 euros in 2018. It was lower than the French result, 30,266 euros, below the European one, 30,900 euros. The GDP of the Loire-Atlantique *département* is around 26 billion euros, and the GDP of the five historical Breton départements would be at around 108 billion euros. Demographics ------------ In 2017, the population in Region Brittany was estimated to 3,318,904 and Loire-Atlantique had around 1,394,909 inhabitants, thus historical Brittany's population can be estimated at 4,713,813, the highest in its history. The population in Region Brittany had grown by 0.9% between 1999 and 2000, and the growth rate reached more than 1% in Ille-et-Vilaine and Morbihan. The region around Rennes and the south are the more attractive areas, whereas the population is declining in the centre and in the westernmost parts. While most of the metropolitan areas are growing, the cities themselves tend to stagnate or regress, such as for Brest, Lorient, Saint-Brieuc and Saint-Malo. In 2017, Ille-et-Vilaine had 1,060,199 inhabitants, it was followed by Finistère 909,028 inhabitants, Morbihan 750,863 inhabitants, and Côtes-d'Armor, with 598,814 inhabitants. The largest cities in Region Brittany as of 2017 were Rennes, with 216,815 inhabitants, Brest 140,064, Quimper 62,985, Lorient 57,149, Vannes 53,352, Saint-Malo 46,097 and Saint-Brieuc 44,372. All the other communes had under 25,000 inhabitants. Brittany is also characterised by a great number of small towns, such as Vitré, Concarneau, Morlaix or Auray. Loire-Atlantique has two major cities, Nantes, with 309,346 inhabitants and an urban area encompassing 972,828, and Saint-Nazaire, with 69,993 inhabitants. Loire-Atlantique's population is more rapidly growing than Region Brittany's and it is the 12th most populated French département. Nevertheless, since the 1990s, Rennes has consistently ranked as one of France's fastest growing metropolitan areas. In 1851, Brittany had around 2.7 million inhabitants and the demographic growth stayed low until the second half of the 20th century, mainly because of an important emigration. Brittany had 3.2 million inhabitants in 1962 and the growth was mainly due to Loire-Atlantique and the steady growth of Nantes. Without the Loire-Atlantique's figures, the Breton population only numbered 2.4 million in 1962, nearly unchanged from its population of 2.3 million in 1851. After the 1960s, the whole region has had a strong demographic growth because of the decline of the traditional emigration to richer French regions. Instead, Brittany has become attractive, particularly for families, young retired persons and active people over 35 years old. ### Regional identity Breton political parties do not have wide support and their electoral success is small. However, Bretons have a strong cultural identity. According to a poll made in 2008, 50% of the inhabitants of the Region Brittany consider themselves as much Breton as French, 22.5% feel more Breton than French, and 15.4% more French than Breton. A minority, 1.5%, considers themselves Breton but not French, while 9.3% do not consider themselves to be Breton at all. 51.9% of the poll respondents agreed that Brittany should have more political power, and 31.1% thought that it should stay the same. Only 4.6% favoured independence, and 9.4% were undecided. A 2012 poll taken in the five departments of historical Brittany showed that 48% of the respondents considered themselves belonging first to France, 37% to Brittany, and 10% to Europe. It also showed that Breton identity is stronger among people younger than 35. 53% of them considering themselves to belong first to Brittany. 50% of the older respondents considered themselves belonging first to France. Primary Breton identity is at its lowest among the respondents over 65: 58% consider themselves to belong first to France, with European identify secondary. 21% of the respondents over 65 considering themselves to be European first. Breton self-identification is stronger among people who vote left-wing. It is stronger among employees than employers. ### Regional languages French, the only official language of the French Republic, is spoken today by the vast majority in Brittany, and it is the mother tongue of most people. Nonetheless, French was not widely known before the 19th century, and two regional languages exist in Brittany: Breton and Gallo. They are separated by a language border that has constantly moved back since the Middle Ages. The current border runs from Plouha on the English Channel to the Rhuys Peninsula on the Bay of Biscay. Because of their origins and practice, Breton and Gallo can be compared to Scottish Gaelic and Scots language in Scotland. Both have been recognised as "Langues de Bretagne" (languages of Brittany) by the Regional Council of Brittany since 2004. #### Breton Breton is a Celtic language derived from the historical Common Brittonic language, and is most closely related to Cornish and Welsh. It was imported to Western Armorica during the 5th century by Britons fleeing the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain. Breton remained the language of the rural population, but since the Middle Ages the bourgeoisie, the nobility, and the higher clergy have spoken French. Government policies in the 19th and 20th centuries made education compulsory and, at the same time, forbade the use of Breton in schools to push non-French speakers into adopting the French language. Nevertheless, until the 1960s Breton was spoken or understood by many of the inhabitants of western Brittany. During the 1970s, Breton schools were opened and the local authorities started to promote the language, which was on the brink of extinction because parents had stopped teaching it to their children. Having declined from more than one million speakers around 1950 to about 200,000 in the first decade of the 21st century, of whom 61% are more than 60 years old, Breton is classified as "severely endangered" by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger. However, the number of children attending bilingual classes has risen 33% between 2006 and 2012 to 14,709. The Breton language has several dialects which have no precise limits but rather form a continuum. Most of them are very similar to each other, with only some phonetic and lexical differences. The three main dialects spoken in the western end of Brittany are: * the *Cornouillais*, around Quimper, * the *Léonard*, around Saint-Pol-de-Léon, and * the *Trégorrois*, around Tréguier, are grouped into the *KLT group* (Kerne-Leon-Treger), in opposition to the *Vannetais*, spoken around Vannes, which is the most differentiated Breton dialect. According to a 1999 INSEE survey, 12% of the adults of Brittany speak Breton. #### Gallo Gallo is spoken on the eastern half of Brittany. It is not itself a Celtic language. Like French, it is also descended from Latin (and is classified in the Langues d'oïl branch), but has some Celtic influences, particularly in its vocabulary, whereas French has influences from both Celtic (Gaulish) and Frankish (the Germanic language which arrived after Latin in much of the rest of France). Unlike Breton, Gallo does not have a long promotion history and it is still often perceived as a poor rural dialect. Moreover, because of its linguistic relationship with Gallo, French imposed itself more easily as the main language in Upper Brittany than in Breton speaking areas. Gallo was simply felt to be an incorrect way of speaking French rather than a separate language. Gallo transmission from parents to children is extremely low and efforts to standardise and publish books in Gallo did not reverse the decline of the language and its lack of prestige. Gallo is also threatened by the Breton language revival, because Breton is gaining ground in territories that were not previously part of the main Breton-speaking area, and most of all because Breton appears as the national language of Brittany, thus leaving no place for Gallo. Gallo had never been written before the 20th century, and several writing systems were created. They are however rarely known by the population and signs in Gallo are often unreadable, even for fluent speakers. In Loire-Atlantique, where Gallo is not promoted at all by the local authorities, many people do not even know the word "Gallo" and have no idea that it has writing systems and publications. The Gallo community is estimated at between 28,300 and 200,000 speakers. The language is taught on a non-compulsory basis in some schools, high-schools and universities, particularly in Ille-et-Vilaine. ### Religion Bretons are mainly Catholic and the Christianisation occurred during the Roman Gaul and Frank era. During the Briton emigration to Brittany, several Christian missionaries, mostly Welsh, came in the region and founded dioceses. They are known as the "Seven founder saints": * Paol Aoreliann in Saint-Pol-de-Léon, * Tudwal in Tréguier, * Brieg in Saint-Brieuc, * Maloù in Saint-Malo, * Samsun of Dol in Dol-de-Bretagne, * Padarn in Vannes, * Kaourintin in Quimper. Other notable early missionaries are Gildas and the Irish saint Columbanus. Bretons recognize more than 300 local "saints," though only a few are officially accepted by the Catholic Church. Since the 19th century at least, Brittany has been known as one of the most devoutly Catholic regions in France, together with the neighbouring Pays de la Loire region. The proportion of students attending Catholic private schools is the highest in France. The patron saint of Brittany is Saint Anne, the Virgin's mother, but Ivo of Kermartin, a 13th-century priest, called Saint-Yves in French and Sant-Erwan in Breton, can also be considered as a patron saint. His feast, 19 May, is Brittany's national day. Many distinctive traditions and customs have also been preserved in Brittany. Among them, the "Pardons" are one of the most traditional demonstrations of popular Catholicism. These penitential ceremonies occur in some villages in Lower Brittany on the feast day of the parish's saint. The penitents form a procession and they walk together to a shrine, a church or any sacred place. Some Pardons are reputed for their length, and they all finish by large meals and popular feasts. There is a very old pilgrimage called the *Tro Breizh* (tour of Brittany), where the pilgrims walk around Brittany from the grave of one of the seven founder saints to another. Historically, the pilgrimage was made in one trip (a total distance of around 600 km) for all seven saints. Nowadays, however, pilgrims complete the circuit over the course of several years. In 2002, the Tro Breizh included a special pilgrimage to Wales, symbolically making the reverse journey of the Welshmen Sant Paol, Sant Brieg, and Sant Samzun. The most powerful folk figure is the Ankou or the "Reaper of Death". Sometimes a skeleton wrapped in a shroud with the Breton flat hat, sometimes described as a real human being (the last dead of the year, devoted to bring the dead to Death), he makes his journeys by night carrying an upturned scythe which he throws before him to reap his harvest. Sometimes he is on foot but mostly he travels with a cart, the *Karrig an Ankou*, drawn by two oxen and a lean horse. Two servants dressed in the same shroud and hat as the Ankou pile the dead into the cart, and to hear it creaking at night means you have little time left to live. As official religious statistics are forbidden in France, there are no official figures about religious practices in Brittany. However, successive polls show that the region has grown more nonreligious over time. Catholicism started to decline after the Second World War, during the urbanisation of Brittany. A poll conducted in 2006 showed that Morbihan was the only *département* to have a strong Catholic population, around 70% of its inhabitants belonging to that religion. Loire-Atlantique and Côtes-d'Armor were among the least Catholic French *départements*, with only 50% of the population practicing Catholics, while Ille-et-Vilaine and Finistère were at around 65%. Other religions are almost non-existent, apart from Islam which is practiced by between 1 and 3% of the inhabitants in Ille-et-Vilaine and Loire-Atlantique. Culture ------- ### Architecture Brittany is home to many megalithic monuments; the words *menhir* and *dolmen* come from the Breton language. The largest menhir alignments are the Carnac stones. Other major sites include the Barnenez cairn, the Locmariaquer megaliths, the Menhir de Champ-Dolent, the Mane Braz tumulus and the Gavrinis tomb. Monuments from the Roman period are rare, but include a large temple in Corseul and scarce ruins of villas and city walls in Rennes and Nantes. Brittany has a large number of medieval buildings. They include numerous Romanesque and French Gothic churches, usually built in local sandstone and granite, castles and half-timbered houses visible in villages, towns and cities. Several Breton towns still have their medieval walls, such as Guérande, Concarneau, Saint-Malo, Vannes, Fougères and Dinan. Major churches include Saint-Pol-de-Léon Cathedral, Tréguier Cathedral, Dol Cathedral, Nantes Cathedral and the Kreisker chapel. Most of the Breton castles were rebuilt between the 13th and the 15th century, such as the Château de Suscinio, the Château de Dinan, the Château de Combourg, the Château de Largoët, the Château de Tonquédec, the Josselin Castle and the Château de Trécesson. The most impressive castles can be seen along the border with France, where stand the Château de Fougères, the Château de Vitré, the Château de Châteaubriant and the Château de Clisson. The French Renaissance occurred when Brittany lost its independence. The Renaissance architecture is almost absent in the region, except in Upper Brittany, close to the border with France. Major sites include the Château des ducs de Bretagne, the last permanent residence of the dukes, which displays the transition from late Gothic to Renaissance style. The Château de Châteaubriant, a former fortress, was transformed into a vast palace in the Italian style. In Lower Brittany, the medieval style never totally disappeared. However, local innovations permitted some changes and the birth of a particular style. Its most distinctive feature is the parish close, which displays an elaborately decorated church surrounded by an entirely walled churchyard. Many villages still have their closes, they date from the 16th and 17th centuries and sometimes include an elaborately carved calvary sculpture. During the 17th and the 18th centuries, the main seaports and towns obtained a typical French look, with baroque and neoclassical buildings. Nantes, which was at the time the biggest French harbour, received a theatre, large avenues and quays, and Rennes was redesigned after a fire in 1720. At the same period, the wealthy ship-owners from Saint-Malo built many mansions called "Malouinières" around their town. Along the coast, Vauban and other French architects designed several citadels, such as in Le Palais and Port-Louis. In rural areas, Breton houses remained simple, with a single floor and a longhouse pattern. They were built with local materials: mostly granite in Lower Brittany and schist in Upper Brittany. Slates and reeds were usually used for roofing. During the 19th century, the Breton architecture was mainly characterised by the Gothic Revival and Eclecticism. Clisson, the southernmost Breton town, was rebuilt in an Italian Romantic style around 1820. The Breton lighthouses were mostly built during the 19th century. The most famous are Ar Men, Phare d'Eckmühl, La Vieille and La Jument. The lighthouse on the Île Vierge is, with 77 meters, the highest in Europe. At the end of the 19th century, several seaside resorts were created along the coast and villas and hotels were built in historicist, Art Nouveau, and later in the Art Deco styles. These architectures are particularly present in Dinard, La Baule and Bénodet. Architecture from the 20th century can be seen in Saint-Nazaire, Brest and Lorient, three cities destroyed during the Second World War and rebuilt afterwards, and in the works of the Breton nationalist architects like James Bouillé and Olier Mordrel. ### Fine arts Until the 19th century, Catholicism had been the main inspiration for Breton artists. The region has a great number of baroque retables, made between the 17th and the 19th century. Breton sculptors were also famous for their ship models that served as ex-votos and for their richly decorated furniture, which features naïve Breton characters and traditional patterns. The box-bed is the most famous Breton piece of furniture. The Breton style had a strong revival between 1900 and the Second World War and it was used by the Seiz Breur movement. The Seiz Breur artists also tried to invent a modern Breton art by rejecting French standards and mixing traditional techniques with new materials. The leading artists of that period were the designer René-Yves Creston, the illustrators Jeanne Malivel and Xavier Haas, and the sculptors Raffig Tullou, Francis Renaud, Georges Robin, Joseph Savina, Jules-Charles Le Bozec and Jean Fréour. Brittany is also known for its needlework, which can be seen on its numerous headdress models, and for its faience production, which started at the beginning of the 18th century. Quimper faience is known worldwide for its bowls and plates painted by hand, and other towns, such as Pornic, also maintain a similar tradition. The potteries usually feature naïve Breton characters in traditional clothing and daily scenes. The designs have a strong traditional Breton influence, but Orientalism and Art Deco have also been used. Because of its distinct culture and natural landscape, Brittany has inspired many French artists since the 19th century. The Pont-Aven School, which started to emerge in the 1850s and lasted until the beginning of the 20th century, had a decisive influence on modern painting. The artists who settled in Pont-Aven wanted to break away from the Academic style of the École des Beaux-Arts and later from Impressionism when it began to decline. Among them were Paul Gauguin, Paul Signac, Marc Chagall, Paul Sérusier and Raymond Wintz. Before them, Brittany had also been visited by Academic and Romantic painters like Jean Antoine Théodore de Gudin and Jules Achille Noël who were looking for dramatic seascapes and storms. ### Music Since the early 1970s, Brittany has experienced a tremendous revival of its folk music. Numerous festivals were created, along with smaller *fest-noz* (popular feasts). The *bagadoù*, bands composed of bagpipes, bombards and drums (including snare), are also a modern creation, inspired by the Scottish pipe bands. The Lann-Bihoué bagad, one of the most well-known, belongs to the French Navy. It is the only one that does not take part to the annual bagadoù competitions. Celtic harp is also common, as are vocals and dances. The Kan ha diskan is the most common type of singing. The performers sing calls and responses while dancing. Breton dances usually imply circles, chains or couples and they are different in every region. The oldest dances seem to be the passepied and the gavotte, and the newest ones derive from the quadrille and French Renaissance dances. In the 1960s, several Breton artists started to use contemporary patterns to create a Breton pop music. Among them, Alan Stivell contributed most in popularising the Celtic harp and Breton music in the world. He also used American rock and roll in his works and influenced 1970s Breton bands such as Kornog, Gwerz (band) [fr] and Tri Yann, who revived traditional songs and made them popular across France. Soldat Louis is the main Breton rock band, and Breton singers include Gilles Servat, Glenmor, Dan Ar Braz, Yann-Fañch Kemener, Denez Prigent, Nolwenn Korbell and Nolwenn Leroy. The Manau Hip hop group from Paris has strong Breton and Celtic inspirations. Yann Tiersen, who composed the soundtrack for *Amélie*, the Electro band Yelle and the avant-garde singer Brigitte Fontaine are also from Brittany. The 19th-century composer Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray was one of the first western European composers to be influenced by what is now known as world music. In 2022, Alvan and Ahez have been selected to represent France in the Eurovision Song Contest 2022. Their song, Fulenn, is sung entirely in Breton and is about the legend of Katel Kollet, a lady who dances with the devil. ### Legends and literature Brittany is closely associated with the Matter of Britain and King Arthur. According to Wace, Brocéliande is located in Brittany and it is nowadays considered to be Paimpont forest. There, ruins of a castle surrounded by a lake are associated with the Lady of the Lake, a dolmen is said to be Merlin's tomb and a path is presented as Morgan le Fay's Val sans Retour. Tristan and Iseult are also said to have lived in Brittany. Another major Breton legend is the story about Ys, a city swallowed by the ocean. Breton literature before the 19th century was mostly oral. The oral tradition entertained by medieval poets died out during the 15th century and books in Breton were very rare before 1850. At that time, local writers started to collect and publish local tales and legends and wrote original works. Published between 1925 and the Second World War, the literary journal Gwalarn favoured a modern Breton literature and helped translating widely known novels into Breton. After the war, the journal *Al Liamm* pursued that mission. Among the authors writing in Breton are Auguste Brizeux, a Romantic poet, the neo-Druidic bard Erwan Berthou, Théodore Hersart de La Villemarqué, who collected the local legends about King Arthur, Roparz Hemon, founder of Gwalarn, Pêr-Jakez Helias, Glenmor, Pêr Denez and Meavenn. Breton literature includes 19th-century historical novels by Émile Souvestre, travel journals by Anatole Le Braz, poems and novels by Charles Le Goffic, the works of the singer-songwriter Théodore Botrel and of the maritime writer Henri Queffélec. Brittany is also the birthplace of many writers like François-René de Chateaubriand, Jules Verne, Ernest Renan, Félicité Robert de Lamennais and Pierre Abélard Max Jacob, Alfred Jarry, Victor Segalen, Xavier Grall, Jean Rouaud, Irène Frain, Herve Jaouen, Alain Robbe-Grillet, Pierre-Jakez Hélias, Tristan Corbière, Paul Féval, Jean Guéhenno, Arthur Bernède, André Breton, Patrick Poivre d'Arvor The *Asterix* comics, set during the time of Julius Caesar and written in the second half of the twentieth century, are set in Armorica, now Brittany. ### Museums The Museum of Brittany, located in Rennes, was founded in 1856. Its collections are mainly dedicated to the history of the region. Museums dedicated to Prehistory and local megaliths are located in Carnac and Penmarch, while several towns like Vannes and Nantes have a museum presenting their own history. The Museum of Fine Arts of Rennes owns a large collection of Egyptian, Greek and Roman antiquities as well as drawings and engravings by Domenico Ghirlandaio, Parmigianino, Albrecht Dürer and Rembrandt. Its French art collection gathers works by Georges de La Tour, François Boucher, Paul Gauguin, Auguste Rodin, Camille Corot and Robert Delaunay. It has also works by Pablo Picasso, Rubens, Peter Lely and Paolo Veronese. The collections of the Museum of Fine Arts of Nantes are more dedicated to modern and contemporary art and contain works by Edward Burne-Jones, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, Gustave Courbet, Paul Signac, Tamara de Lempicka, Wassily Kandinsky, Max Ernst, Pierre Soulages and Piero Manzoni. The Museums of Fine Arts of Brest and Quimper offer similar collections, with large quantities of French painting together with the works of some Italian and Dutch artists. The Museum of Fine Arts Pont-Aven is dedicated to the School of Pont-Aven. Contemporary sculptures can be seen in the park around the Château de Kerguéhennec, in Bignan. Museums in Saint-Malo, Lorient and Douarnenez are dedicated to ships and maritime traditions and history. The Musée national de la Marine has a large annex in Brest and a submarine is opened to visitors in Lorient. In the same town, it is also possible to visit the Keroman Submarine Museum, and the *Cité de la voile Éric Tabarly*, a museum dedicated to sailing. In Saint-Nazaire, where many transatlantic ships were built, including SS *Normandie* and SS *France*, a museum showing transatlantic interiors was installed in a Second World War base. Nantes has a museum dedicated to Jules Verne, a Natural History Museum and a museum of archaeology and design, the Musée Dobrée. ### Festivals Brittany has a vibrant calendar of festivals and events. It hosts some of France's biggest contemporary music festivals, such as La Route du Rock in Saint-Malo, the Vieilles Charrues in Carhaix, the Rencontres Trans Musicales in Rennes, the Festival du Bout du Monde in Crozon, the Hellfest in Clisson and the Astropolis in Brest. The Festival Interceltique de Lorient welcomes each year participants all the Celtic nations and their diasporas. La Folle Journée, in Nantes, is the largest classical music festival in France. The Breton culture is highlighted during the *Fête de la Bretagne*, which occurs in many places around Saint-Yves's day (19 May), and during the Festival de Cornouaille in Quimper. Several towns also organise historical re-enactments and events celebrating local traditions, such as the Filets Bleus in Concarneau which celebrates fishing. Brittany also has some film festivals like the Three Continents Festival in Nantes. The Utopiales international science fiction festival is held in the same city. Brest and Douarnenez both organise large tall ship meetings (See Brest Maritime Festival). ### Sport Football, cycling and sailing are the three most popular sports in Brittany. Major football teams are the FC Nantes, the Stade Rennais F.C., the FC Lorient, the Stade Brestois 29, the Vannes OC and the En Avant de Guingamp. Professional footballers coming from the region also form the Brittany national football team which sometimes plays with national teams. Several Bretons have won the Tour de France: Bernard Hinault, Louison Bobet, Jean Robic and Lucien Petit-Breton as riders, and Cyrille Guimard as a *directeur sportif*. Sailing is particularly important for sea-resorts like La Trinité-sur-Mer, Pornichet, Concarneau, Lorient and the îles de Glénan, where a prestigious school is located. A great number of Bretons have become acclaimed sailors, such as: Éric Tabarly, Loïck Peyron, Jean Le Cam, Michel Desjoyeaux, Olivier de Kersauson, Thomas Coville, Vincent Riou and Marc Pajot. The Route du Rhum, the Transat Québec-Saint-Malo, the Jules Verne Trophy are the main Breton sailing competitions. The Solitaire du Figaro stages often start in Brittany. Gouren, a style of folk wrestling, is the most popular Breton sport. The Boule bretonne is related to pétanque. The *Palets*, common in Upper Brittany and in other French regions, is also related to pétanque, but players use iron disks instead of balls and they have to throw them on a wooden board. Gaelic football is also a growing sport in the region, with club teams and a 'county' GAA team representing Brittany against other European 'counties' such as Galicia. ### Cuisine Although Muscadet and Gros Plant white wines are produced south of the Loire, the traditional drink of Brittany is cider. Brittany is the second-largest cider-producing region in France. Breton cider is traditionally served in a bowl or a cup. Brittany also has a long beer-brewing tradition, tracing its roots back to the 17th century. Young artisanal brewers are keeping a variety of beer types alive, such as *Coreff de Morlaix*, *Tri Martolod* and *Britt*. Stronger alcohols include the *chouchen*, a sort of mead made with wild honey, and an apple eau de vie called *lambig*. Crêpes and galettes are the two most well-known Breton dishes. The crêpes, made and served with butter, are eaten for dessert and the galettes are usually salty and made with buckwheat. They traditionally replaced bread as basic food and they can be served with cheese, sausages, bacon, mushrooms or eggs. They can be accompanied by Breton buttermilk called *lait ribot*. Brittany also has a dish similar to the pot-au-feu known as the kig ha farz, which consists of stewed pork or beef with buckwheat dumplings. Surrounded by the sea, Brittany offers a wide range of fresh seafood and fish, especially mussels and oysters. Among the seafood specialities is a fish stew called cotriade. The beurre blanc sauce, invented in Saint-Julien-de-Concelles, close to Nantes, is often served with fish. Brittany is also known for its salt, mainly harvested around Guérande and used in butter and milk caramels. The region is notable for its biscuit factories, many towns having their own: Quimper, Lorient, Pont-Aven, Saint-Brieuc, BN and LU in Nantes, La Trinitaine in La Trinité-sur-Mer, and Galettes Saint-Michel in Saint-Michel-Chef-Chef. They usually make their biscuits with salted butter and sell them in iron boxes. Famous Breton pastries include the *kouign amann* ("butter cake" in Breton) made with bread dough and high quantities of butter and sugar, and the *far*, a sort of sweet Yorkshire pudding usually made with plums. Transport --------- ### Road Until the 1970s, the Breton road network was poor because maritime and rail transport prevailed. The French president Charles de Gaulle implemented a major road construction plan in the 1970 and Brittany received over 10 billion francs of investments during 25 years. More than 10,000 km of motorways were built, permitting Breton road transport to multiply by four. The Breton motorways are not toll roads, contrarily to the usual French highways. The main road artery linking cities and other settlements along the north coast is the Route nationale 12 which connects the cities of Rennes, Saint-Brieuc, Morlaix and Brest. It also provides a link to southern Normandy, terminating in Paris. In south Brittany the Route nationale 165 performs a similar role along the south coast providing connections between Nantes, Vannes, Lorient, Quimper and Brest. The Route nationale 164 crosses the centre of the peninsula and connects Rennes to Loudéac, Carhaix and Châteaulin, and the Route nationale 166 links Rennes to Vannes. The Route nationale 137 provides connections between Saint-Malo, Rennes and Nantes and terminates in Bordeaux. Nantes is linked to Paris by the A11 autoroute, and Rennes is both on the A81 autoroute to Paris and the A84 autoroute to Caen. These highways are standard French toll roads. ### Air The biggest Breton airport is Nantes Atlantique Airport. Destination served include the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, Ireland and Morocco. The Brest Bretagne Airport is the second airport in Brittany. It is followed by Rennes – Saint-Jacques, Lorient South Brittany and Dinard – Saint-Malo. The Saint-Brieuc – Armor airport serves flights between Brittany and the Channel Islands. Others smaller airport operates domestic flights in Quimper, and Lannion. ### Rail Brittany is on two major TGV lines, one linking Paris to Nantes and Le Croisic, on the south coast, and another linking Paris to Rennes and Brest. An extension of the LGV Atlantique, which stops at Le Mans, was completed in 2017, bringing the line to Rennes. This extension is known as the LGV Bretagne-Pays de la Loire. TGV services also link the region with major cities in France such as Lyon, Strasbourg, Marseille, and Lille. Regional services are operated by TER Bretagne providing connections between small towns such as Vannes, Carhaix, Roscoff and Paimpol. TER Bretagne also manages coach lines and connections between Rennes and Nantes. TER Pays de la Loire operates trains between Nantes and smaller towns in Loire-Atlantique. ### Sea There are ferry services that take passengers, vehicles and freight to Ireland, the United Kingdom and the Channel Islands. The main companies are Brittany Ferries which operates lines between Plymouth and Roscoff, Portsmouth and Saint-Malo, and Roscoff and Cork. Irish Ferries operates the route Rosslare-Roscoff and Condor Ferries link Saint-Malo with Jersey. ### Cycling Cycling has always been one of the main sports of Brittany, but leisure cycling and the infrastructure to support it have been growing extremely rapidly. An extensive network of cycle paths and recommended cycle routes has opened up all over the region. Some of these are routes using mainly smaller roads and both signposted and maintained by communes individually, but many are based on dedicated cycle paths often formed by converting disused railway tracks. These help form routes such as 'Vélodyssée' from Roscoff to Nantes and several major routes under the 'V' label (following signs V1, V2 etc.). The old tow-path of the Nantes-Brest canal is now open to cyclists along its entire 385 km length though in places (unlike rail-based cycle paths) it is very meandering and leaving the path will both shorten the distance and provide variety. As a general rule cyclists are very well respected in the region and many larger towns have cycle-lanes – however traffic is 'cycle-friendly' even in their absence. Symbols ------- The modern flag of Brittany was designed in 1923. It is called *Gwenn ha Du* ("white and black" in Breton) and it features eleven ermine spots (their number may vary) and nine stripes, the black ones represent the Breton speaking historical dioceses, and the white ones symbolise the gallo speaking dioceses. The flag was created to replace the traditional ermine plain standard, considered too aristocratic and royalist. It was inspired by the American flag and the British Red Ensign. Since the 1920s, the flag has become very popular and it is flown from a large number of institutions. Apart from the ermine flag, Breton historic banners include the Kroaz Du, a white flag with a black cross, the perfect negative of the Cornish flag. The coat of arms of Brittany, *ermine plain*, was adopted by John III in 1316. Ermine had been used in Brittany long before, and there is no clue to its origin. It was probably chosen by the dukes because of its similarity with the French fleur-de-lis. The ermine, or stoat, as an animal became the badge of John IV at the end of the 14th century. It appeared later on numerous locations, including churches and castles. According to popular traditions, Anne of Brittany was hunting with her court when she saw a white ermine who preferred to die than to cross a dirty marsh. This episode would have inspired the duchess' motto : *"Potius mori quam foedari"* ("rather death than dishonour"). The motto has later been reused by Breton regiments, local World War II Resistants and cultural movements. The Breton anthem, although not official, is *Bro Gozh ma Zadoù* – ("Old Land of My Fathers"). It re-employs both the Welsh anthem's music and that of "Bro Goth agan Tasow" (the national anthem of Cornwall; its lyrics were written at the end of the 19th century). Colloquial Breton emblems include the Celtic triskelion, the menhirs and dolmens, local dishes such as the galettes, the Bigouden headdress and the traditional black round hat, the fisherman and his yellow raincoat, etc. *BZH* is a common abbreviation for "Breizh" ("Brittany" in Breton) and people often put BZH stickers on their car-plates, although it is forbidden under French laws. *.bzh* is an approved Internet top level domain for the Breton culture and languages. Gallery ------- * Merlin's tomb in the Brocéliande forest, PaimpontMerlin's tomb in the Brocéliande forest, Paimpont * A dolmen in PlouharnelA dolmen in Plouharnel * The city wall of GuérandeThe city wall of Guérande * Castle of Saint-Malo, Qui Qu'en Grogne TowerCastle of Saint-Malo, *Qui Qu'en Grogne* Tower * Château de SuscinioChâteau de Suscinio * Île Vierge lighthouseÎle Vierge lighthouse * Parlement of Brittany in RennesParlement of Brittany in Rennes * Abbey and lighthouse of Saint-MathieuAbbey and lighthouse of Saint-Mathieu * Ar Meilhoù Glaz, a Bagad from Quimper*Ar Meilhoù Glaz*, a Bagad from Quimper * Festival du chant de marin, sea songs festival in Paimpol*Festival du chant de marin*, sea songs festival in Paimpol * A Breton headdress from Batz-sur-MerA Breton headdress from Batz-sur-Mer * Modern Brittany - Illustration from Legends & Romances of Brittany by Lewis Spence, illustrated by W. Otway Cannell.Modern Brittany - Illustration from Legends & Romances of Brittany by Lewis Spence, illustrated by W. Otway Cannell. * Men Ruz lighthouse, Ploumanac'hMen Ruz lighthouse, Ploumanac'h See also -------- * Brigantes, Breton Celtic tribe associated with Northern England * Politics of Brittany * Great Britain in French as *Grande-Bretagne*

Brittany

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittany

**Molasses** (/məˈlæsɪz, moʊ-/) is a viscous substance resulting from refining sugarcane or sugar beets into sugar. Molasses varies in the amount of sugar, method of extraction and age of the plant. Sugarcane molasses is primarily used to sweeten and flavour foods. Molasses is a major constituent of fine commercial brown sugar. It is also one of the primary ingredients used to distill rum. Sweet sorghum syrup is colloquially called *sorghum molasses* in the southern United States. Molasses has a stronger flavour and is more viscous than most alternative syrups. Etymology --------- The word molasses comes from *melaço* in Portuguese, a derivative (intensifier) of *mel* (honey) with Latinate roots. Cognates include Ancient Greek μέλι (*méli*) (honey), Latin *mel*, Spanish *melaza* (molasses), Romanian *miere* or *melasă*, and French *mélasse* (molasses). Cane molasses ------------- Cane molasses is an ingredient used in baking and cooking. It was popular in the Americas before the 20th century, when it was plentiful and commonly used as a sweetener in foods and an ingredient in brewing beer in the colonies. George Washington had a notebook that contains a molasses beer recipe. To produce molasses, sugar cane is harvested and stripped of leaves. Its juice is then extracted, usually by cutting, crushing or mashing. The juice is boiled to produce a concentrate and encourage sugar crystallization. The result of this first boiling is called *first syrup ('A' Molasses*) and has the highest sugar content. First syrup is usually referred to in the Southern United States as *cane syrup* rather than molasses. *Second molasses ('B' Molasses*) is produced by a second boiling and sugar extraction and has a slightly bitter taste. Boiling the sugar syrup a third time yields dark, viscous *blackstrap molasses* (*'C' Molasses*), known for its robust flavour. During this process, the majority of sucrose from the original juice is crystallized and removed. The caloric content of blackstrap molasses is mostly a result of the small amount of remaining sugar content. Unlike highly refined sugars, molasses contains significant amounts of vitamin B6 and minerals, including calcium, magnesium, iron and manganese; one tablespoon provides up to 20% of the recommended daily value of each of those nutrients. Blackstrap is also a good source of potassium. The bitterness of blackstrap molasses is much greater than in the regular form of molasses. It is sometimes used in baking or to produce ethanol, as an ingredient in cattle feed, or as a fertilizer. The exaggerated health benefits sometimes claimed for blackstrap molasses were the theme of the 1951 novelty song *Black Strap Molasses*, recorded by Groucho Marx, Jimmy Durante, Jane Wyman and Danny Kaye. ### Madeira Island In Madeira Island cane molasses is a big part of the traditional cuisine, where it is known as *mel-de-cana* (Portuguese for "sugarcane honey"). Its origin on the Autonomous Regions dates back its origins to the golden age of sugar production in the archipelago. Sugar beet molasses ------------------- Molasses made from sugar beet differs from sugarcane molasses. Only the syrup remaining from the final crystallization stage is referred to as molasses. Intermediate syrups are referred to as high green and low green molasses, and these are recycled at crystallization plants to maximize extraction. Beet molasses is 50% sugar by dry weight, predominantly sucrose, but contains significant amounts of glucose and fructose. Beet molasses is limited in biotin (vitamin H or B7) for cell growth and hence may be supplemented with a biotin source. The non-sugar content includes many salts, including calcium, potassium, oxalate and chloride. It contains betaine and the trisaccharide raffinose. These result from the concentration of the original plant material or other chemicals in processing and are unpalatable to humans. It is therefore mainly used as an animal feed additive (known as *molassed* *sugar beet feed*) or a fermentation feedstock. Additional sugar can also be extracted from beet molasses in a process known as desugarization. The process employs industrial-scale chromatography to separate sucrose from non-sugar components. The technique is economically viable in trade-protected areas, where the price of sugar is supported above market price. As such, it is practised in the U.S. and parts of Europe. Sugar beet molasses is widely consumed in Europe (for example Germany, where it is known as *Zuckerrübensirup*). Molasses is also used in yeast production. Fruit molasses -------------- ### Pomegranate molasses Pomegranate molasses is a traditional ingredient in Middle Eastern cooking. It is made by simmering a mixture of pomegranate juice, sugar and lemon juice and reducing the mixture for about an hour until the consistency of syrup is achieved. Unsulfured molasses ------------------- Many types of molasses on the market are branded *unsulfured*. In the past, many foods, including molasses, were treated with a sulfur dioxide preservative, helping to kill off moulds and bacteria. Sulfur dioxide is also used as a bleaching agent to help lighten the colour of molasses. Most brands have abandoned the use of sulfur dioxide in molasses because untreated molasses already has a relatively stable natural shelf life. Poor flavour and the trace toxicity of low doses of sulfur dioxide are also factors that have led to its removal. Nutrition --------- Molasses is composed of 22% water, 75% carbohydrates and very small amounts (0.1%) of fat (table). It contains no protein. In a reference amount of 100 grams, molasses is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin B6 and several dietary minerals, including manganese, magnesium, iron, potassium and calcium (table). The sugars in molasses are sucrose (29% of total carbohydrates), glucose (12%) and fructose (13%) (data from USDA nutrition table). Other uses ---------- ### Food products and additives The uses of molasses in food production may include: * Principal ingredient in the distillation of rum * Production of dark rye bread * Production of gingerbread (particularly in the Americas) * Production of barbecue sauces * Some brown sugar is made by combining molasses with white sugar * In some beer styles of stouts and porters * Stabilization of emulsifiers in home-made vinaigrette * Additive in mu'assel (also known as *shisha*), the tobacco smoked in a *hookah* ### Industrial * As a minor component of mortar for brickwork * Mixed with gelatin glue and glycerine in casting composition ink rollers on early printing presses ### Horticultural * As a soil additive to promote microbial activity, resulting in increased production of succinic acid, malic acid, butyric acid and mannitol. Production of these common plant defensive chemicals by microbes is believed to aid in suppressing plant disease. See also -------- * Anadama bread * Caramelization * Corn syrup * Great Molasses Flood * Inverted sugar syrup * Jaggery * Kuromitsu * Maillard reaction * Maple syrup * Muscovado * Pekmez * Shoofly pie

Molasses

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasses

**Herefordshire** (/ˈhɛrɪfərdʃɪər, -ʃər/ *HERR-if-ərd-sheer, -⁠shər*) is a ceremonial county in the West Midlands, England. It borders Shropshire to the north, Worcestershire to the east, Gloucestershire to the south-east, and the Welsh counties of Monmouthshire and Powys to the west. The city of Hereford is the largest settlement and county town. The county is one of the most rural in England, with an area of 2,180 square kilometres (840 sq mi) and a population of 187,034, giving a density of 88/km2 (228/sq mi). After Hereford (53,112) the largest settlements are Leominster (10,938), Ross-on-Wye (10,582), and Ledbury (8,862). The county is governed by Herefordshire Council, a unitary authority. The centre of Herefordshire is comparatively flat, and bisected by the River Wye and its tributary, the Lugg. To the east is the Malvern Hills AONB, which straddles the boundary with Worcestershire, and the south of the county contains the northern part of the Wye Valley AONB, which stretches into Wales. In the west the ground rises to the Black Mountains range; this contains the Black Mountain (*Twyn Llech*), which lies on the Powys border and is the highest point in the county at 703.6 metres (2,308 ft), The county is situated in the historic Welsh Marches. The land use is mostly agricultural, and the county is known for its fruit and cider production, and for the Hereford cattle breed. Constitution ------------ From 1974 to 1998, Herefordshire was part of the former non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester. Herefordshire was reconstituted both as a new district as "**County of Herefordshire**" (effective 19 July 1996) and as a new county (coextensive with the area of the aforementioned district) (effective 1 April 1998) by Statutory Instrument as defined in *The Hereford and Worcester (Structural, Boundary and Electoral Changes) Order 1996*. This Order established Herefordshire as a unitary authority on 1 April 1998, combining county and district functions into a single council. Herefordshire is also commonly called a *unitary district*, but this is not official nomenclature. Herefordshire is officially known as a unitary authority for local government purposes. It is governed by Herefordshire Council which was created in 1998 with the new unitary district that absorbed the previous administrative areas of Hereford City Council, South Herefordshire District Council, most of Leominster District Council, and part of Malvern Hills District Council, all within the previous non-metropolitan county of Hereford and Worcester, whose functions the new authority inherited within its area. The remainder of Malvern Hills district absorbed the Worcestershire part of Leominster district (the area around Tenbury Wells) and continued to constitute a (smaller) district within the new two-tier county of Worcestershire. The Lieutenancies Act 1997 made Herefordshire a ceremonial county, covering the exact area of the unitary district. For Eurostat purposes it is a NUTS 3 region (code UKG11) and is one of three counties that comprise the "Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Warwickshire" NUTS 2 region. Physical geography ------------------ The River Wye, which at 135 miles (217 km) is the fifth-longest in the United Kingdom, enters the county after briefly being its border with Powys. It flows through both Hereford and Ross-on-Wye before returning to Wales. Leominster is situated on the River Lugg, a tributary of the Wye. There are two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in the county. The Wye Valley is located in the river's valleys south of Hereford, while the Malvern Hills are in the east of the county, along its border with Worcestershire. History ------- Herefordshire is one of the 39 historic counties of England. Herefordshire County Council was created in 1889. In 1974, the administrative county formed in 1889 was merged with that of neighbouring Worcestershire to form Hereford and Worcester. Within this, Herefordshire was covered by the local government districts of South Herefordshire, Hereford, and part of Malvern Hills and Leominster districts. However, the county was dissolved in 1998, resulting in the return of Herefordshire and Worcestershire as counties. The current ceremonial county and unitary district have broadly the same borders as the historic county. Demographics ------------ ### Population growth Herefordshire's growth rate has, in recent decades, been higher than the national average, with the population increasing by 14.4% between 1991 and 2011; the population of England as a whole increased by only 10.0%. However, this has been from a lower base, with only Northumberland and Cumbria having lower population densities than Herefordshire. | Year | Population |  % Change | | --- | --- | --- | | 1991 | 160,400 | | | 2001 | 174,871 | 9.0% | | 2011 | 183,477 | 4.9% | In the late 19th and early 20th century the population of the county declined steadily. | Year | Population | | --- | --- | | 1871 | 125,426 | | 1931 | 111,767 | ### Travellers Gypsies and Travellers have historically been Herefordshire's largest minority ethnic group. They are made up of three main groups: * Romanichal or Romany "Gypsies" * Irish Travellers * New Travellers or New Age Travellers Romany Gypsies and Irish Travellers fall within the definition of a minority ethnic group under the Race Relations Amendment Act (2000). There were approximately 400 people (0.2%) within this minority group in the county at the 2011 Census. Cities, towns and villages -------------------------- The major settlements in the county include Hereford, which is the county town and Herefordshire's only city, as well as the towns of Leominster, Ledbury, Ross-on-Wye, Kington and Bromyard. Economy ------- This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Herefordshire at current basic prices published by the Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. | Year | Regional Gross Value Added | Agriculture | Industry | Services | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1995 | **1,622** | 218 | 567 | 836 | | 2000 | **1,885** | 155 | 643 | 1,087 | | 2003 | **2,216** | 185 | 708 | 1,323 | **^** includes hunting and forestry **^** includes energy and construction **^** includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured **^** Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Many well-known cider producers are based in Herefordshire. These include Weston's cider of Much Marcle, and Bulmer's cider, from Hereford, which produces the UK market leader Strongbow. Employment ---------- Most employment in Herefordshire is in agriculture, manufacturing and services. According to Herefordshire Council's online document "worklessness", 10% of people are unemployed in Herefordshire including out-of-work, homeless, ill and disabled and their carers. Cargill Meats and H. P. Bulmers are two of the largest private sector employers, with the Council and NHS being the largest public sector employers. Politics -------- ### Westminster Parliamentary There are two parliamentary constituencies in Herefordshire. As of February 2021[update], Bill Wiggin represents North Herefordshire and Jesse Norman represents Hereford and South Herefordshire. Both politicians are members of the Conservative Party. ### Council The council operates a cabinet-style council and has been independently controlled since 2019. The chairman is Sebastian Bowen and the leader of the council is David Hitchiner. The cabinet leader is appointed yearly by the full council of 53 councillors. The cabinet leader then picks their deputy and up to eight other councillors to form the executive cabinet. Each cabinet member makes the decisions about the portfolio that they are allocated. Elections to the council are held every four years. Elections are conducted under the FPTP system with the 53 wards returning one councillor each. Elections have been held in 2000, 2003, 2007, 2011, 2015 and 2019, with the next election due in 2023. In the 2019 election, the Conservatives lost control of Herefordshire Council. Education --------- Herefordshire has a comprehensive education system that also includes several independent schools. Most state secondary schools are for ages 11–16. Colleges of further and higher education in the county include Hereford College of Arts, Hereford College of Education, Hereford Sixth Form College, Herefordshire and Ludlow College and the Royal National College for the Blind. Agriculture ----------- The agricultural economy has changed greatly in recent years within the county. The county is on the western edge of England which has been historically pastoral as opposed to the east which was more arable. ### Beef Probably Hereford's most famous export is its Hereford beef cattle. Herefords are docile but extremely hardy creatures and these attributes have led to their proliferation across the world, particularly the US, Canada, South America and Australia. The breed is so gentle that a Hereford bull was used as the mascot for Hereford United Football Club for many years, led around the club's Edgar Street ground before major matches. ### Fruit The county is famous for its apple and pear orchards, and its cider. There are many orchards around the county but not as many as there once were. In the last few years, soft fruits such as strawberries have become a new and rapidly expanding area of the agricultural economy of the county. One of the main reasons for this was the introduction of the polytunnel or French tunnel. This allows the strawberries to be grown for a far longer season and with a higher quality (with no blemishes from the rain). The strawberries are mainly picked by Eastern European workers who come over for the season and often earn more money, more than they could working in their own country and with the bonus, for many of them, of learning or improving their English. The polytunnels have been a major issue in the county, as some people see them as a "blot on the landscape". Although some polytunnel sites are illegal, Herefordshire Council has turned a blind eye in the belief that agriculture must be allowed to innovate; otherwise it will stagnate and the county will suffer. ### Dairy Previously, most farms in the county had dairy cattle. Due to the cost of investing in new equipment, long hours[*clarification needed*], BSE, foot-and-mouth disease and mainly falling milk prices, the county's milk production has drastically reduced, with only a few farms still in dairy farming. ### Potatoes The county is historically pastoral. The soils are mostly clay, meaning that large scale potato production was very difficult, as tractors were not powerful enough to pull the large machinery required to harvest the crop. Around the early 1990s new technology and more powerful machines overcame this problem. Potato production started to increase, fuelled by a few other key factors: The previously pastoral soils had not had potatoes grown in them; consequently they were not infected with eelworm (*Heterodera rostochiensis* and *Heterodera pallida*), which in the east of England had to be sprayed against weekly (a large cost). Also, the clay soil produced an unblemished potato of the highest grade. The intensive nature of the crop meant that potatoes could be grown viably on a given field in only one of every five years. Because potato growers always needed more land than they owned, they rented extra. This demand for rental fields came at a time when the rest of the industry was struggling and in serious decline. The potato farmers' rents of £300–500 per acre (as opposed to normally £80 per acre) were very helpful to many farmers in a difficult period. Emblems ------- ### Coat of arms Herefordshire County Council was granted a coat of arms on 28 February 1946. The arms became obsolete in 1974 on the abolition of the council, but were transferred to the present Herefordshire Council by Order in Council in 1997. The arms are blazoned as follows: *Gules on a fesse wavy between in chief a lion passant guardant argent and in base a Herefordshire bull's head caboshed proper, a bar wavy azure; and for a Crest on a wreath of the colours a demi lion rampant gules holding in the sinister claw a fleece or; and for Supporters, on the dexter side a lion guardant or gorged with a wreath of hops fructed proper and on the sinister a talbot argent gorged with a collar or charged with three apples proper.* The red colouring ("gules") of the shield is taken from the arms of the City of Hereford. The red colour also represents the red earth of Herefordshire. The silver and blue wave across the centre of the shield represents the River Wye. The lions that form parts of the arms, crest and supporters are also taken from Hereford's arms. The agricultural produce of Herefordshire is represented by the bull's head, fleece, hops and apples. The talbot dog comes from the heraldry of the Talbot family, Marcher Lords of Shrewsbury and also from that of Viscount Hereford. The Latin motto is: *Pulchra terra Dei donum* ("This fair land is the gift of God"). ### County flower As part of a competition organised by the charity Plantlife to raise awareness of conservation issues, the public were asked to vote for "county flowers" that they felt best represented their county. Mistletoe was announced as the winning choice for Herefordshire in 2004. The emblem has no official status and has not been widely adopted. Herefordshire Council uses a logo consisting of a green apple. Sport ----- Perhaps the most famous sporting team in Herefordshire is Hereford United football club, who were members of the Football League and played at Edgar Street stadium in the city of Hereford. The club was founded in 1924 on the merger of two local teams – St Martin's and RAOC – and became members of the Birmingham Combination League. The club then made its way upwards to the Southern Football League, finally gaining election to the Football League in 1972 – the same year that the club famously defeated First Division side Newcastle United in an FA Cup tie. Two successive promotions saw the club reach the Second Division in 1978, but two successive relegations followed and saw the club side back into the Fourth Division. Despite being situated within England, the club has competed in the Welsh Cup on a number of occasions, winning the trophy in 1990. The club suffered relegation from the Football League in 1997 and fell into the Football Conference, not regaining its Football League status until 2006. The club then played in Football League Two – the fourth tier of English football – for six years before once again being relegated out of the Football League at the end of the 2011–12 season. The club was wound up in 2014. A new phoenix club, Hereford F.C. was set up competing in the Midland Football League Premier Division (9th tier) for its first season, 2015–16. The club lost to Morpeth Town at Wembley Stadium on 22 May 2016 in the final of the FA Vase. Cricket is widely played within the county, and Herefordshire County Cricket Club compete in the Minor Counties Championship, having been elected in 1992 to take Durham's place, when that county joined the First-class structure. The leading club sides in Herefordshire are Brockhampton CC and Eastnor CC, who both compete in the Birmingham and District Premier League, the ECB accredited Premier League for cricket clubs in the West Midlands, and one of the strongest cricket leagues in England. Below that in the cricketing pyramid system 7 other leading Herefordshire clubs compete in the Worcestershire County Cricket League, with the remaining 25 or so cricket clubs within the county competing in the Marches League, or just playing Sunday or mid-week 'friendly' matches. Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * Abbey Dore Court * Arthur's Stone * Berrington Hall * Brockhampton Estate * Courtyard Centre for the Arts – Hereford's main theatre and art performance centre * Croft Castle * Dore Abbey * Eastnor Castle * Edgar Street (Football Stadium Home to Hereford F.C.) * Eye Manor * Goodrich Castle * Hampton Court * Hellens Manor * Hereford Cathedral * Kilpeck Church * Malvern Hills * Herefordshire Beacon * Priory Church, Leominster * Sutton Walls Hill Fort * Wigmore Castle * Welsh Newton Transport --------- ### Road The M50, one of the first motorways to be built in the United Kingdom, runs through the south of the county and, with the A40 dual carriageway, forms part of the major route linking South Wales with the West Midlands and the north of England. The A49 runs north–south through the county and is a strategic route between North and South Wales as well as catering for local traffic. ### Railways The Welsh Marches Line also runs north–south with passenger trains operated by Transport for Wales offering links to Manchester as well as to North and South Wales. Hereford is the western end of the Cotswold Line which runs via Worcester with through services to Oxford and London Paddington (operated by Great Western Railway) and to Birmingham (operated by West Midlands Trains). The rural Heart of Wales Line linking Craven Arms in Shropshire to Llanelli in southwest Wales passes through the extreme north west of Herefordshire with stations at Knighton and Bucknell near the meeting point of the boundaries of Herefordshire, Shropshire and Powys. The majority of passengers between North and South Wales use the Marches line. Former lines which are now closed were the Ledbury and Gloucester Railway; Ross & Monmouth Railway; Hereford to Hay-on-Wye; Pontrilas to Hay-on-Wye; Hay-on-Wye to Brecon; Leominster to New Radnor; Eardisley to Presteigne; and Leominster to Worcester via Bromyard. Part of the Titley Spur is opened annually by enthusiasts and a steam train is run along the track. There has long been talk of a new station at Rotherwas, in the south of Hereford. ### Air There are no airports with Scheduled air transport in Herefordshire. Birmingham Airport, Cardiff Airport and Bristol Airport are the nearest. The RailAir RailAir coach operated by First Berkshire & The Thames Valley provides connections to Heathrow Airport via Reading station or passengers can change at Reading station and then go all the way by train via Hayes & Harlington to Heathrow Airport. Shobdon Aerodrome near Leominster is a centre for general aviation and gliding. Hot air ballooning is also popular with Eastnor Castle being one of the favourite launch sites in the area. ### Waterways Historically, the rivers Wye, Teme and Lugg were navigable but the wide seasonal variations in water levels mean that few craft larger than canoes and coracles are now used. There are canoe centres at The Boat House, Glasbury-on-Wye (in Powys, Wales), the Hereford Youth Service and Kerne Bridge in Ross-on-Wye, as well as rowing clubs in Hereford and Ross-on-Wye. The early 19th century saw the construction of two canals, The Herefordshire & Gloucestershire Canal and The Leominster & Stourport Canal but these were never successful and there are now few remains to be seen. The Herefordshire & Gloucestershire Canal is currently the subject a restoration project, which includes the construction of a new canal basin in Hereford city centre as part of the regeneration of the Edgar Street Grid. The project, however, is being undertaken by a small voluntary group and there is no expected date for any part of the canal to re-open for boating. Notable people -------------- * Jarrod Bowen, footballer * Simon Carr, cyclist * Frank Oz, Actor and voice actor, producer, director * Matthew Hall, writer * Dennis Potter, writer * Elizabeth Barrett Browning, poet * Richard Hammond, *Top Gear* and *The Grand Tour* presenter * Mary Duggan, cricketer * Noele Gordon, actress * Mike Oldfield, musician * Mick Ralphs, Mott the Hoople and Bad Company guitarist * Richard Ashcroft, songwriter and lead singer of The Verve * Thomas Britten, 19th-century footballer * Monty Don, BBC TV presenter * Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, favourite of Queen Elizabeth I * Conroy Maddox, artist * Beryl Reid, actress * Jessica Raine, actress * Sir Edward Elgar, composer * Sir Roy Strong, art historian * David Garrick, renowned actor of the 18th century * Lady Godiva, wife of Leofric, Earl of Mercia * Harold Godwinson, Earl of Hereford and last Anglo-Saxon King of England * Ellie Goulding, musician * Nell Gwynne, mistress of King Charles II of England * Terry Jenkins, professional darts player * St. John Kemble (martyr) Catholic priest * Francis Kilvert, 19th century diarist and Church of England clergyman * Mark Labbett, one of five Chasers on *The Chase* as well as its Australian counterpart * Albert Lee, guitarist * Peter Mandelson, politician and former resident of Foy * John Masefield, poet laureate * Sidney Nolan, Australian artist * John Oldcastle, Lollard leader and basis for Shakespeare's character Falstaff * Blanche Parry, lady-in-waiting to Queen Elizabeth I * Peter Scudamore, jockey * James Honeyman-Scott, guitarist The Pretenders * Pete Farndon, bass guitarist The Pretenders * Martin Chambers, drummer The Pretenders * Tom Spring, bare-knuckle boxer, champion of England in the 19th century * Thomas Traherne, 17th century poet * Alfred Watkins, pioneering archaeologist and photographer * Richard Johnson, jockey * Sir Walter Roper Lawrence, author * Allan Leonard Lewis Posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross, Died 21 September 1918, commemorated on Vis-En-Artois Memorial, France * Richard Hakluyt Elizabethan writer and geographer who recorded contemporary voyages of exploration and promoted the settlement of North America * Ronald Pennell, artist, engraver and sculptor * Geoffrey Wood, botanist See also -------- * Healthcare in Herefordshire * Custos Rotulorum of Herefordshire – Keeper of the Rolls * Herefordshire (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for Herefordshire constituency * List of High Sheriffs of Herefordshire * List of schools in Herefordshire * List of Lord Lieutenants of Herefordshire

Herefordshire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herefordshire

**Bochum** (/ˈboʊxʊm/ *BOHKH-uum*, also US: /-əm/ *-⁠əm*, German: [ˈboːxʊm] (); Westphalian: *Baukem*) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia. With a population of 372,348 (April 2023), it is the sixth largest city (after Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg) of the most populous German federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the 16th largest city of Germany. On the Ruhr Heights (*Ruhrhöhen*) hill chain, between the rivers Ruhr to the south and Emscher to the north (tributaries of the Rhine), it is the second largest city of Westphalia after Dortmund, and the fourth largest city of the Ruhr after Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg. It lies at the centre of the Ruhr, Germany's largest urban area, in the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region, and belongs to the region of Arnsberg. Bochum is the sixth largest and one of the southernmost cities in the Low German dialect area. There are nine institutions of higher education in the city, most notably the Ruhr University Bochum (*Ruhr-Universität Bochum*), one of the ten largest universities in Germany, and the Bochum University of Applied Sciences (*Hochschule Bochum*). Geography --------- ### Geographical position The city lies on the low rolling hills of Bochum land ridge (Bochumer Landrücken), part of the Ruhrhöhen (highest elevations) between the Ruhr and Emscher rivers at the border of the southern and northern Ruhr coal region. The highest point of the city is at Kemnader Straße (Kemnader Street) in Stiepel at 196 metres (643 ft) above sea level; the lowest point is 43 metres (141 ft) at the Blumenkamp in Hordel. The terrain of Bochum is characterised by rolling hills that rarely have more than three per cent graduation. Steeper graduation can be found at the Harpener Hellweg near the Berghofer Holz nature reserve (3.4%), at Westenfelder Straße in the borough of Wattenscheid (3.47%), or at Kemnader Straße, which begins at the banks of the Ruhr in Stiepel (71 m, 233 ft), and rises to its highest point in the centre of Stiepel (196 m, 643 ft, a 5.1% increase). The city extends north to south 13.0 km (8.1 mi) and 17.1 km (10.6 mi) east to west. The perimeter of the city limits is 67.2 km (41.8 mi). It is surrounded by the cities of (in clockwise direction) Herne, Castrop-Rauxel, Dortmund, Witten, Hattingen, Essen and Gelsenkirchen. ### Geology There is sedimentary rock of carbon and chalk. The geological strata can be visited in the former quarry of Klosterbusch in Querenburg and at the Geological Gardens in Wiemelhausen. ### Waterways The urban area is divided into the river Ruhr catchment in the south and the Emscher catchment in the north. The Ruhr's tributaries are the Oelbach (where as well a waste water treatment plant is established), Gerther Mühlenbach, Harpener Bach, Langendreer Bach, Lottenbach, Hörsterholzer Bach and the Knöselbach. The Ruhr in combination with upstream reservoirs is also used for drinking water abstraction. The Emscher's tributaries are Hüller Bach with Dorneburger Mühlenbach, Hofsteder Bach, Marbach, Ahbach, Kabeisemannsbach and Goldhammer Bach. The industrial developments in the region since the 19th century were leading to a kind of division of labour between the two river catchments, pumping drinking water from the Ruhr into the municipal supply system and discharging waste water mainly into the Emscher system. Today approximately 10% of the waste water in the Emscher catchment is discharged via the Hüller Bach. and treated in the centralized waste water treatment plant of the Emschergenossenschaft in Bottrop. The ecological restoration of the Emscher tributaries initiated by the Emschergenossenschaft started with the Internationale Bauausstellung Emscher Park in 1989. ### Vegetation The south of the city has woods, the best known of which are the Weitmarer Holz [de]. These are generally mixed forests of oak and beech. The occurrence of holly gives evidence of Bochum's temperate climate. 844 species of plants can be found within the city limts ### Climate Bochum features an Oceanic climate (Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb) characterized by cool winters and short warm summers. Extreme temperatures are uncommon. However, temperatures rising above 30 °C (86 °F) are to be expected on multiple days in summer and the climate station closest to the City did record a peak temperature of 40 °C (104 °F) on July 25, 2019. On the other extreme, freezing temperatures are common between mid-November and late March. In some years, however, frosts may occur as late as early May. Temperatures below −10 °C are, especially in recent years, only seen on rare occasions. The city lies within the warmer extent of the 8a USDA plant hardiness zone (−12.2 to −9.4 °C or 10 to 15 °F). Some winters may pass without a frost below −5 °C (data from the nearest active climate station). These comparably mild conditions in Winter permit the planting of plants that would either not be reliably hardy or not able to bloom throughout Germany like *Trachycarpus* palms, Summer lilac, *Paulownia tomentosa* and Rosemary. However, winters can be unpredictable with strong fluctuations in temperatures: In mid-February 2021, the city was affected by a severe cold spell bringing temperatures down to –15 degrees Celsius (5 °F) accompanied by heavy snowfall which hindered traffic for multiple days. A week later, a temperature of 17 °C (63 °F) was recorded, an increase of 32K. The total precipitation of 815mm is distributed relatively even throughout most the year but has a peak in winter and two minima in late spring and July, respectively. June shows a second peak in precipitation due to the return of the westerlies which leads to more thunderstorms being generated along frontal boundaries of atlantic low-pressure systems. In recent years, the city was affected by summer and spring droughts. Thunderstorms are not uncommon in the warm season and can generate intense downpours and sporadically hail. The city experiences little sunshine in winter with a minimum of 1,3h per day in December and a lot more in early summer and late spring with May featuring 7,5h per day. The total amount of sunshine per year is 1689h. Due to the cities northern latitude of 51°N, seasonal daylength variation is significant. The longest day of the year, June 21, features 16 h 38 min. of daylight while the shortest day of the year which is December 21 is only 7 h and 50 min. long. | Climate data for Essen (Bredeney), elevation: 161 m, 2016-2021 normals (source 1), all-time records (source 1+2) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.4(61.5) | — | — | — | 31.5(88.7) | 34.6(94.3) | 40.0(104.0) | — | — | — | 20.0(68.0) | 16.8(62.2) | 40.0(104.0) | | Average high °C (°F) | 5.2(41.4) | 7.5(45.5) | 10.3(50.5) | 15.4(59.7) | 19.2(66.6) | 23.0(73.4) | 24.3(75.7) | 24.0(75.2) | 20.3(68.5) | 14.7(58.5) | 9.5(49.1) | 6.9(44.4) | 15.0(59.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 3.1(37.6) | 4.5(40.1) | 6.7(44.1) | 10.8(51.4) | 14.4(57.9) | 18.3(64.9) | 19.4(66.9) | 19.3(66.7) | 15.8(60.4) | 11.6(52.9) | 6.7(44.1) | 5.0(41.0) | 11.3(52.3) | | Average low °C (°F) | 0.9(33.6) | 1.7(35.1) | 3.3(37.9) | 6.1(43.0) | 9.4(48.9) | 13.7(56.7) | 14.3(57.7) | 14.6(58.3) | 11.6(52.9) | 8.8(47.8) | 4.1(39.4) | 2.9(37.2) | 7.6(45.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −17.1(1.2) | −15.9(3.4) | −11.1(12.0) | −4.6(23.7) | −0.6(30.9) | 1.0(33.8) | 4.4(39.9) | 6.0(42.8) | 3.2(37.8) | −2.3(27.9) | −6.7(19.9) | −16.7(1.9) | −17.1(1.2) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 91.0(3.58) | 84.0(3.31) | 71.0(2.80) | 42.0(1.65) | 45.0(1.77) | 76.0(2.99) | 50.0(1.97) | 61.0(2.40) | 68.0(2.68) | 65.0(2.56) | 70.0(2.76) | 95.0(3.74) | 818(32.21) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 21.0 | 16.0 | 17.0 | 13.0 | 11.0 | 14.0 | 12.0 | 16.0 | 13.0 | 18.0 | 17.0 | 21.0 | 189 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 42 | 86 | 132 | 195 | 234 | 217 | 221 | 185 | 177 | 91 | 67 | 42 | 1,689 | | Source 1: | | Source 2: NOAA | ### Districts Bochum is divided into six administrative districts with a total of 362,213 inhabitants living in an urban area of 145.4 km2 (56.1 sq mi). * **Bochum-Mitte** includes Innenstadt, Hamme (including Goldhamme, and Stahlhausen), Hordel, Hofstede, Riemke, Grumme and Altenbochum There are 102,145 inhabitants living in an area of 32.60 km2 (12.59 sq mi). * **Wattenscheid** includes Wattenscheid-Mitte, Leithe, Günnigfeld, Westenfeld, Sevinghausen, Höntrop, Munscheid and Eppendorf (which includes Engelsburg and Heide). There are 74,602 inhabitants living in an area of 23.87 km2 (9.22 sq mi). * **North** includes Bergen, Gerthe, Harpen (including Rosenberg), Kornharpen, Hiltrop and Voede-Abzweig. There are 37,004 inhabitants living in an area of 18.86 km2 (7.28 sq mi). * **East** includes Laer, Werne, and Langendreer (including Ümmingen and Kaltehardt). There are 55,193 inhabitants living in an area of 23.46 km2 (9.06 sq mi). * **South** includes Wiemelhausen (which includes Brenschede, and Ehrenfeld), Stiepel (which includes Haar, Brockhausen and Schrick) and Querenburg (which includes Hustadt and Steinkuhl). There are 50,866 inhabitants living in an area of 27.11 km2 (10.47 sq mi). * **Southwest** includes Weitmar (which includes Bärendorf, Mark, and Neuling), Sundern, Linden and Dahlhausen. There are 56,510 inhabitants living in an area of 19.50 km2 (7.53 sq mi). Politics -------- ### Mayor The current Mayor of Bochum is Thomas Eiskirch of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who was elected in 2015 and re-elected in 2020. The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: | Candidate | Party | Votes |  % | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Thomas Eiskirch | Social Democratic Party | 85,397 | 61.8 | | | Christian Haardt | Christian Democratic Union | 28,125 | 20.3 | | | Amid Rabieh | The Left | 8,335 | 6.0 | | | Jens Lücking | UWG: Free Citizens | 3,937 | 2.8 | | | Felix Haltt | Free Democratic Party | 3,441 | 2.5 | | | Nils-Frederick Brandt | Die PARTEI | 3,357 | 2.4 | | | Ariane Meise | National Democratic Party | 2,546 | 1.8 | | | Volker Steude | The Citymakers | 2,351 | 1.7 | | | Günter Gleising | Social List Bochum | 790 | 0.6 | | Valid votes | 138,279 | 99.0 | | Invalid votes | 1,438 | 1.0 | | Total | 139,717 | 100.0 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 287,216 | 48.6 | | Source: State Returning Officer | ### City council The Bochum city council governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows: | Party | Votes |  % | +/- | Seats | +/- | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | Social Democratic Party (SPD) | 46,626 | 33.7 | Decrease 4.9 | 29 | Decrease 3 | | | Alliance 90/The Greens (Grüne) | 30,658 | 22.2 | Increase 9.3 | 19 | Increase 8 | | | Christian Democratic Union (CDU) | 28,799 | 20.8 | Decrease 4.9 | 18 | Decrease 4 | | | The Left (Die Linke) | 8,434 | 6.1 | Decrease 0.1 | 5 | ±0 | | | Alternative for Germany (AfD) | 7,774 | 5.6 | Increase 2.1 | 5 | Increase 2 | | | UWG: Free Citizens (UWG) | 4,673 | 3.4 | Increase 0.9 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Free Democratic Party (FDP) | 4,517 | 3.3 | Increase 0.4 | 3 | Increase 1 | | | Die PARTEI (PARTEI) | 3,223 | 2.3 | New | 2 | New | | | The Citymakers (Die Stadtgestalter) | 2,387 | 1.7 | Increase 0.6 | 2 | Increase 1 | | | | | Social List Bochum (SLB) | 814 | 0.6 | Decrease 0.2 | 0 | Decrease 1 | | | National Democratic Party (NPD) | 429 | 0.3 | Decrease 0.6 | 0 | Decrease 1 | | Valid votes | 138,334 | 99.0 | | | | | Invalid votes | 1,447 | 1.0 | | | | | Total | 139,781 | 100.0 | | 86 | Increase 2 | | Electorate/voter turnout | 287,203 | 48.7 | Increase 0.2 | | | | Source: State Returning Officer | History ------- Bochum dates from the 9th century, when Charlemagne set up a royal court at the junction of two important trade routes. It was first officially mentioned in 1041 as *Cofbuokheim* in a document of the archbishops of Cologne. In 1321, Count Engelbert II von der Marck granted Bochum a town charter, but the town remained insignificant until the 19th century, when the coal mining and steel industries emerged in the Ruhr area, leading to the growth of the entire region. In the early 19th century it was part of the Grand Duchy of Berg, a client state of France, then it passed to Prussia following the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, and in 1871 it became part of the German Empire. The population of Bochum increased from about 4,500 in 1850 to 100,000 in 1904. Bochum acquired city status, incorporating neighbouring towns and villages. Additional population gains came from immigration, primarily from Poland. Bochum was the main center of the Polish community of the Ruhr, being the seat of various Polish organizations and enterprises. The Poles were subjected to anti-Polish policies aimed at Germanisation, and the Central Office for Monitoring the Polish Movement in the Rhine-Westphalian Industrial District (*Zentralstelle fur Uberwachung der Polenbewegung im Rheinisch-Westfalischen Industriebezirke*) was established by the German authorities in Bochum in 1909. ### The Nazi era and World War II On 28 October 1938, 250 Polish or stateless Jews were expelled from Bochum to Poland. On 9 November 1938, Kristallnacht, the Bochum synagogue was set on fire and there was rioting against Jewish citizens. The first Jews from Bochum were deported to Nazi concentration camps and many Jewish institutions and homes were destroyed. Some 500 Jewish citizens are known by name to have been killed in the Holocaust, including 19 who were younger than 16 years old. Joseph Klirsfeld was Bochum's rabbi at this time. He and his wife fled to Palestine. In December 1938, the Jewish elementary school teacher Else Hirsch began organising groups of children and adolescents to be sent to the Netherlands and England, sending ten groups in all. Many Jewish children and those from other persecuted groups were taken in by Dutch families and thereby saved from abduction or deportation and death. On 15 July 1939, the Gestapo entered the headquarters of the Union of Poles in Germany in Bochum, searched it and interrogated its chief Michał Wesołowski, however, it did not obtain the desired lists of Polish activists, which had been previously hidden by Poles. Increased Nazi terror and persecutions of Poles followed, and in response, many Poles from the region came to Bochum for organizational and information meetings. During the German invasion of Poland, which started World War II in September 1939, the Nazis carried out mass arrests of local Polish activists, who were then sent to concentration camps. Local Polish premises and seats of organizations were looted and expropriated by Nazi Germany. During the war, Germany operated a prison in the city with three forced labour subcamps within present-day city limits, an additional detention center, a camp for Romani people in the present-day Wattenscheid district, and three subcamps of the Buchenwald concentration camp. A report from July 1943 listed 100 forced labour camps in Bochum. Because the Ruhr region was an area of high residential density and a centre for the manufacture of weapons, it was a major target in the war. Women with young children, school children and the homeless fled or were evacuated to safer areas, leaving cities largely deserted to the arms industry, coal mines and steel plants and those unable to leave. Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1500 | 1,000 | —     | | 1750 | 1,449 | +44.9% | | 1871 | 21,192 | +1362.5% | | 1900 | 65,554 | +209.3% | | 1910 | 136,931 | +108.9% | | 1919 | 142,760 | +4.3% | | 1925 | 156,762 | +9.8% | | 1933 | 314,546 | +100.7% | | 1939 | 305,485 | −2.9% | | 1950 | 289,804 | −5.1% | | 1961 | 367,338 | +26.8% | | 1970 | 343,968 | −6.4% | | 1987 | 386,271 | +12.3% | | 2011 | 362,286 | −6.2% | | 2017 | 365,529 | +0.9% | | 2018 | 364,628 | −0.2% | | source: | During the Holocaust, in 1942–1943, local Jews were deported to German-occupied Czechoslovakia, Latvia and Poland. Bochum was first bombed heavily in May and June 1943. On 13 May 1943, the city hall was hit, destroying the top floor, and leaving the next two floors in flames. On 4 November 1944, in an attack involving 700 British bombers, the steel plant, Bochumer Verein, was hit. One of the largest steel plants in Germany, more than 10,000 high-explosive and 130,000 incendiary bombs were stored there, setting off a conflagration that destroyed the surrounding neighbourhoods. An aerial photo shows the devastation. The town centre of Bochum was a strategic target during the Oil Campaign. In 150 air raids on Bochum, over 1,300 bombs were dropped on Bochum and Gelsenkirchen. By the end of the war, 38% of Bochum had been destroyed. 70,000 citizens were homeless and at least 4,095 dead. Of Bochum's more than 90,000 homes, only 25,000 remained for the 170,000 citizens who survived the war, many by fleeing to other areas. Most of the remaining buildings were damaged, many with only one usable room. Only 1,000 houses in Bochum remained undamaged after the war. Only two of 122 schools remained unscathed; others were totally destroyed. Hunger was rampant. A resident of neighbouring Essen was quoted on 23 April 1945 as saying, "Today, I used up my last potato... it will be a difficult time till the new [autumn] potatoes are ready to be picked – if they're not stolen." The US army ground advance into Germany reached Bochum in April 1945. Encountering desultory resistance, the US 79th Infantry Division captured the city on 10 April 1945. After the war, Bochum was occupied by the British, who established two camps to house people displaced by the war. The majority of them were former Polish *Zwangsarbeiter*, forced labourers, many of them from the Bochumer Verein. Allied bombing destroyed 83% of the built up area of Bochum during World War II. More than sixty years after the war, bombs continue to be found in the region, usually by construction workers. One found in October 2008 in Bochum town centre led to the evacuation of 400 and involved hundreds of emergency workers. A month earlier, a buried bomb exploded in neighbouring Hattingen, injuring 17 people. ### Post-war period After the war, Bochum was part of West Germany and the newly established state of North Rhine-Westphalia, consisting of the Rhineland and Westphalia. In the postwar period, Bochum began developing as a cultural centre of the Ruhr area. In 1965, the Ruhr University was opened, the first modern university in the Ruhr area and the first to be founded in Germany since World War II. Since the seventies, Bochum's industry has moved from heavy industry to the service sector. Between 1960 and 1980, the coal mines all closed. Other industries, such as automotive, compensated for the loss of jobs. The Opel Astra was assembled at the Opel Bochum plant; however, by 2009, the factory was in serious financial difficulties and in December 2012, Opel announced that it would stop vehicle production at the Bochum plant in 2016. In the course of a comprehensive community reform in 1975, Wattenscheid, a formerly independent city, was integrated into the city of Bochum. A local referendum against the integration failed. In 2007, the new synagogue of the Jewish community of Bochum, Herne und Hattingen was opened. In 2008, Nokia closed down its production plant, causing the loss of thousands of jobs, both at the plant and at local suppliers. 20,000 people showed up to protest against the closing. Within months, the Canadian high-tech company, Research in Motion, announced plans to open a research facility, its first outside Canada, adding several hundred jobs. Places of interest ------------------ ### Architecture * **Bochum City Hall** was built from 1927 to 1931 and was designed by architect Karl Roth as a modern office building, but in the Renaissance style, reflecting the industrial era's middle class, inventions and discoveries. There were statues of bronze and stone, and in the city council chambers, a bell tower. The ornate décor gave the Nazis an excuse to hound the then-mayor, who was of Jewish descent, driving him to suicide in 1933. Most of the bronze statues were melted down for the war effort and the stone carvings were damaged by the war, save for some small lion's heads over the entrance. Also left undamaged are two themed courtyard fountains made by August Vogel, the "Fountain of Beauty" and the "Fountain of Happiness", as well as Augusto Vasaris' florentine main entrance, which displays the motto, *In Labore Honos* (In labour lies honour). In 1951, a set of 28 chimes was installed, manufactured in Bochum. Known for their clarity of tone, they are the first cast steel chimes in the world. In front of the city hall is a large bell that was made by the Bochum "Verein für Bergbau und Gusstahlfabrikation AG" (Association for Mining and Cast Steel Manufacturing). Displayed at the 1867 Paris World's Fair, it has a diameter of 3.13 metres (10.3 ft) and weighs 15 tonnes (15 long tons; 17 short tons). It was damaged during World War II and can no longer be rung. * **Altes Brauhaus Rietkötter**, the Old Rietkötter Brewing House is one of the oldest houses in Bochum, dating from 1630. Originally a private home, it became a brewery in 1777. After nearly being torn down after the war, it now has preservation status and today houses a restaurant, where they still brew their own beer. * The **Kaufhaus Kortum** department store dates from 1913 and was built as one of the nearly 20 regional stores owned by Alsberg Bros. (Gebr. Alsberg, AG) of Cologne. During the Nazi era, these stores were taken away from their Jewish owners and put into non-Jewish hands. Today, the "Kaufhaus Kortum" building has preservation status and houses an electronics store. * The **Friedrich Lueg Haus** was built in 1924–1925 as the first high-rise building in Bochum. Contracted by the Lueg Company, the seven-story building was designed by the architect Emil Pohle. It suffered a fire during a bombing raid in 1944 and was renovated after the war. Today, the upper floors are small offices and internet companies. The seven-theatre Bochum Union Cinema rents the ground floor, showing a variety of domestic and international films. * **Mutter Wittig** is a baroque-style building in the town centre, originally opened as a bakery and inn in 1870. Damaged in World War II, its façade is protected by preservation status. It houses a restaurant and its windows are decorated with displays of old Bochum. * **Sparkasse Bochum** (Bochum Savings Bank) is a town landmark designed by the architect Wilhelm Kreis. It opened in 1928 and was emblematic of the modern era. It was heavily damaged during the war, but was afterwards restored to its former appearance. * The **Schlegel Tower** is the only remaining structure of the once-important Schlegel brewery, which closed in 1980. * The **Jahrhunderthalle** (Hall of the Century) is the former gas and power station of a steel mill built at the turn of the 20th century. With the closing of the mill, the plant was renovated and turned into a three-hall concert and event site with an industrial ambiance. * **Dahlhauser Heide** is an example of social welfare provided by wealthy German industrialists for their workers. Built in the early 1900s by the Krupp family for their coal mine workers, the modest and tastefully designed two-family houses were to enable self-sufficiency by providing gardens and a stall for a pig or a goat, "the miner's cow". The estate, which has the appearance of a small, rural town, gained preservation status in the 1970s. * **Blankenstein Castle** was built in the 13th century by Count Adolf I of the Mark. Though located in Hattingen, it is owned by Bochum and has a significant history. On 8 June 1321, Count Engelbert II of the Mark granted Bochum its town charter there. Today, only the gate and one tower remain. * **Haus Kemnade** is a moated castle. Though located in the town of Hattingen, the castle is property of the city of Bochum in 1921. Documents regarding its earliest dates of construction have been lost; it is first mentioned in 1393. Parts of the castle were built during the Renaissance and baroque periods. The castle's location on the banks of the Ruhr river was changed when the flood of 1486 receded on the opposite side, cutting the castle off from the neighbouring village. The castle remained in private hands till 1921, when it was deeded to the city of Bochum. In 1961, a museum of local history was installed, including a large collection of 16th to 20th century musical instruments. A collection of East Asian objects is also now located there, as well as a satellite of the Bochum Museum and an art exhibition space. There is also a restaurant on site. Behind the castle is a timber-framed farmhouse from 1800, now a museum exhibiting farm life from the past. * The **Exzenterhaus** is a commercial office building which is the tallest building in Bochum at 90.5 metres. It was constructed on top of World War II era bunker, with the more modern section of the building rising 15 storeys above the top of the bunker. The top 15 floors are split into three, five storey sections, each which cantilever up to 4.5 metres, giving the impression of twisting structure. #### Religious architecture * **Propsteikirche St. Peter und Paul** is the oldest church in Bochum, built between 785 and 800 by Charlemagne. It was rebuilt in the 11th century, but was severely damaged by fire in 1517. In 1547, it was again rebuilt, this time in the late Gothic style. The 68-metre (223 ft) high bell tower is one of the landmarks of Bochum. The interior includes a baptismal font from 1175, the reliquary shrine of St. Perpetua and her slave Felicitas, and a high altar with a crucifix from 1352. * **Pauluskirche** is the main Protestant church of the city. After the Reformation, both Catholics and Lutherans shared the Propsteikirche, often contentiously. In 1655, the Lutherans began to build their own church with the help of donations from the Dutch Republic, Sweden, Courland and Denmark. The church was heavily damaged in a bombing raid on 12 June 1943 and was later rebuilt after the war. Next to the church is a monument to peace. A statue of an old woman searching for a loved one, it is also a memorial to the 4 November 1944 bombing raid on Bochum. Hans Ehrenberg served as minister here, until he was arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen by the Nazis. * The **Christuskirche**, built in the neo-Gothic style, opened in 1879 and was among the most beautiful churches in Europe. In 1931, the room in the steeple was extended to a cenotaph for those killed in World War I. During an air raid in 1943, the church was destroyed, except for the steeple. After the war, the ruins were integrated into a new, modern structure and the steeple became a memorial dedicated to peace and understanding among nations. * The neo-Gothic **Marienkirche**, built between 1868 and 1872, was heavily damaged in World War II (see photo above), but was rebuilt after the war. It is now closed and scheduled for demolition. The stained glass windows have been removed and it has fallen victim to vandalism. * **Stiepeler Dorfkirche** is over 1000 years old and was commemorated by a stamp in 2008. A small church consisting of one room was built by Countess Imma von Stiepel. Between 1130 and 1170, the old church was replaced by a Romanesque basilica. Today, the steeple and transept remain. Between 1150 and 1200, the interior walls and ceiling were decorated with a number of Romanesque paintings. * The **new synagogue**, which opened in 2007, consists of a white cube and stands in contrast to the round shape of the planetarium next door. The façade shows overall a variation on the Solomon's Seal achieved by relocated brickstones. The interior is graced with a gold-coloured canopy. ### Parks and gardens Bochum has a municipal zoo, a large municipal park and a number of other gardens and parks. The Ruhr University Botanical Gardens has thousands of plants from all over the world. Among others there is a tropical garden, a cactus garden, and a Chinese garden designed in the southern Chinese style, the only one of its kind in Germany. The Geological Garden was the first of its kind in Germany. The nearly 4-acre (16,000 m2) park is the site of an old coal mine, the Zeche Friederika, which operated from 1750 to 1907. In 1962, the property came under environmental protection and a decade later was turned into a geological garden. Other scenic areas include the West Park, Lake Kemnade, Lake Ümmingen and the municipal forest, Weitmarer Holz. Society and culture ------------------- ### Leisure and entertainment Bochum is a cultural centre of the Ruhr region. There is a municipal theatre, the Schauspielhaus Bochum, and about 20 smaller theatres and stages. The musical *Starlight Express*, which opened in 1988, is the longest-running musical in Germany. #### Bermudadreieck The Bermudadreieck (Bermuda Triangle), in the city center of Bochum, functions as the town's nightlife hub. Around sixty different bars and restaurants are located there, serving multicultural cuisine such as Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Italian, Spanish and German gastronomic specialties. Close to the Bermudadreieck is the Anneliese Brost Musikforum Ruhr, opened in 2016. #### Annual events * *Jumble Sale* – on the third Saturday of the month, in front of city hall * April/May: *Maiabendfest* – local festival, hundreds of years old * May: Steam Festival (every other year [even or odd?]) * June events: *Rubissimo*, Ruhr University's summer festival *Kemnade International* *Extraschicht* – Night of Industrial Heritage (many locations all over the Ruhr area) * June/July: *VfL for Fun* – summer festival for Bochum's football (soccer) team, VfL Bochum 1848 * July: *Bochum Total* (Rock Music Festival) – starts on the first weekend after school lets out * July or August: *Bochum kulinarisch* – culinary treats from various cuisines, held the last weekend of summer vacation * August: *Bochumer Musiksommer*, Bochum's Summer of Music * September: *Open Flair* – international cabaret and street theatre * October: *Oktobermarkt* – October Market * October/November: *Bochumer Bachtage* – music of composer Johann Sebastian Bach * October/November: *Ruhrgebiets-Antiquariatstag* – used and antique book sale * November: Children's and Teenagers' Theatre * December: *Weihnachtsmarkt* – Christmas Market – month-long open air market spread over the heart of downtown Bochum, includes performance stages ### Museums * The German Mining Museum is a museum about mining technology, complete with pithead tower. * *Railway Museum* and *Station Dahlhausen* in the borough of Dahlhausen. Dr.-C.-Otto-Straße 191 * Zeiss Planetarium * At the city's border with Herne-(Röhlinghausen), is the former mine *Zeche Hannover* with the Malakow Tower and engine hall. There is a steam-powered winding engine, which is operated at events. * *Zeche Knirps* ("Small Boy Mine") located on the ground of Mine Hannover. It gives children the opportunity to experience the processes in a mine. * Museum of local history *Helf's Farm*, Address: In den Höfen 37 * *Farmhouse Museum* located on the grounds of moated Kemnade Castle * *Museum of historic medical tools* in the Malokos-Tower of former Mine Julius-Philipp from 1875. Address: Malakowturm, Markstraße 258a, 44799 Bochum * *Telefonmuseum*, Karl-Lange-Str. 17 * *Kunstmuseum Bochum*, Kortumstraße 147, 44787 Bochum ### Art galleries * **Museum of Art**: The collection's focus is central and eastern European avant garde art, German expressionism, surrealism and outsider art. Kortumstraße 147, Bochum * **Ruhr University art collection**: Modern art meets the classical. Marble and bronze portraits of Greek and Roman emperors, collection of antique Greek vases from the 9th to 4th century, B.C. Universitätsstraße 150, Bochum * **Schlieker House**: In the former apartment and studio of German painter Hans-Jürgen Schlieker (1924–2004); changing exhibitions. Paracelsusweg 16, 44801 Bochum * **Situation Kunst**: (Situation Art) Located at "Haus Weitmar" park. Indoor permanent exhibition with works by Gianni Colombo, Dan Flavin, Gotthard Graupner, Norbert Kricke, Lee Ufan, François Morellet, Maria Nordman, David Rabinowitch, Arnulf Rainer, Dirk Reinartz, Ad Reinhardt, Robert Ryman, Richard Serra, Jan J. Schoonhoven; also the Africa and Asia Room. Nevelstraße 29c, 44795 Bochum * **Musical Instrument Collection, Hans and Hede Grumbt**: Large collection of musical instruments, also the clarinet collection of Johan van Kalker. An der Kemnade 10, 45527 Hattingen * **Ostasiatika Collection Ehrich**: Kurt Ehrich's east Asian collection of Japanese *netsuke*, belt buckles, a display of the seven "lucky gods" and other additional objects. An der Kemnade 10, 45527 Hattingen, * **ER MindArts**: Contemporary Art online Gallery was established in Bochum in 2014. www.ermindarts.com ### Public art * Richard Serra's sculpture, "Terminal" is located in the town centre, near the central station. It consists of four 12-metre (over 39 feet) tall steel plates. * Ulrich Rückriem's sculpture, "Ohne Titel" (titled "Untitled"), in front of the Kunstmuseum Bochum (Museum of Art). * Memorial of the herdsman at Massenberg-Boulevard: Memorial for "the good old times", when Bochum was a farmers town. The herdsmans of the town guided until 1870 the cattle of the citizens to the "Vöde", a grassland outside the town limits, a part of it is today the municipal park. Local legends say it is "the last herdsman Fritz Kortebusch". But he died 1866, nevertheless he done this job for a long time. * Engelbert statue in the front of the Propsteikirche. In former times it was a fountain with statue at the Kortumstrasse. It is for memory of Earl Engelbert III, who founded the so-called Maiabendfest. It is often assumed that the statue shows his grandfather Engelbert II, who granted extended market rights to Bochum in 1321. * Jobsiade-fountain at Husemann-Square. Shown is a scene of the examination of Hieronymus Jobs, the main character of the "Jobsiade", a comical poem of the poet Carl Armold Kortum. * "The envolvement of the City", sculpture of Karl-Henning Seemann [de] at Schützenbahn street. * Collection of sculptures inside the municipal park. * The bell in front of the city hall serves as a reminder of the improvement of steel-casting in Bochum. The bell was built in 1867 for the Paris World's Fair. * Stolpersteine (literally, "stumbling stones") are small, cobblestone-sized, brass commemorative plaques which are set in sidewalks all over Europe, marking the homes or work places of Jews and others who were arrested and murdered during the Nazi era. There are 38 stolpersteine in Bochum. * Cenotaph for the victims of the mine disaster at "Vereinigte Präsident" in 1936 at the graveyard in Bochum-Hamme. The sculpture was created by Wilhelm Wulff. Strict guidelines for artwork were in effect during the Nazi dictatorship, yet the sculpture follows only a few of them. The inscription also avoids typical Nazi phraseology. ### Sports * The football club VfL Bochum played in the first Division from 1971 to 1992, and from 1992 to 2010 was alternating almost every year between first and second Division, but mostly first. From 2010 to 2021 it played in the second Division (2. Bundesliga) before being promoted back to the first Division for the 2021–2022 season. * Sparkassen Giro Bochum – annual road bike race. Located companies ----------------- * ARAL AG (Head Office), an enterprise of the Deutsche BP AG * Bochumer Eisenhütte Heintzmann GmbH & Co. KG – Mining, tunnelling and heat treatment * Bochumer Verein – formerly the "Inoxum" part of the ThyssenKrupp enterprise, now Outokumpu Nirosta * Bogestra (Head Office) – Bochum-Gelsenkirchener Straßenbahnen AG, local traffic firm * Sparkasse Bochum – public-law bank * Vonovia – Germany's largest residential property company (headquarters) * Dr. C. Otto & Comp. – fire-proof materials * Faber Lotto-Service GmbH * G Data CyberDefense AG (Head Office) – contractor of IT security solutions. well-known product: G Data AntiVirus * GEA Group AG founded in Bochum, headquarter moved to Düsseldorf in 2011 * Gebr. Eickhoff Maschinenfabrik und Eisengießerei GmbH * GLS Bank * I.S.T. Services * Johnson Controls, just-in-time industry supplier for parts of the car, especially for Opel * Meteomedia GmbH (Head Office) – private weather service, German subsidiary of the Swiss Meteomedia ag * Möbel Hardeck – furniture shop * Office Jack- home and office furniture shop * Privatbrauerei Moritz Fiege, middle-large regional beer brewery * QVC – call centre * Roeser Medical * ThyssenKrupp * United Cinemas International * USB Umweltservice Bochum GmbH – municipal disposal firm (100% subsidiary of the Bochumer Stadtwerke) * Wollschläger Gruppe (Head Office) – trading house in the sector tooling equipment and machines (bankrupt) Transport --------- ### Roads Bochum is connected to the Autobahn network by the A 40, A 43 and A 44 autobahns. In addition, Bochum has a ring road, built to expressway standards, consisting of four segments; the Donezk, Oviedo, Nordhausen and Sheffield-Ring roads. It serves as a three-quarter loop around central Bochum and begins and ends at Autobahn A40. Ruhr University Bochum is also served by an expressway running from the Nordhausen-Ring to Autobahn A43. Until 2012, a new interchange (Dreieck Bochum-West) between the Donezk-Ring and Autobahn A40 is being constructed within tight parameters due to the existence of a nearby factory. Apart from the autobahns and expressways, there is also a small ring road around the centre of Bochum, where most roads radiating out of Bochum begin. Most main roads in Bochum are multi-lane roads with traffic lights. Bochum is also served by the Bundesstraße 51 and Bundesstraße 226. B51 runs to Herne and Hattingen, and B226 runs to Gelsenkirchen and Witten. ### Railways Bochum has a central station situated on the line from Duisburg to Dortmund, connecting the city to the long-distance network of Deutsche Bahn as well as to the Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn network. ### Bus, tram, underground Local service is supplied mainly by BOGESTRA, a joint venture handling transportation between the cities of Bochum and Gelsenkirchen. The Bochum Stadtbahn is a single underground line connecting the University of Bochum to Herne, and the Bochum/Gelsenkirchen tramway network is made up of several lines, partially underground, connecting to Gelsenkirchen, Hattingen and Witten. Public transport in the city is priced according to the fare system of the VRR transport association. ### Waterways As one of the few Ruhr area cities, Bochum is not directly connected with the German waterway net; the closest link is in the more northern located Herne at the Rhine-Herne Canal. In the south the border of Bochum is marked by the Ruhr. Up to the first half of the 19th century it was one of the most-travelled rivers in Europe and was mainly used for coal departure. Aside from cruise ships, it is no longer used for commercial navigation. ### Air The closest airports are Essen/Mülheim Airport (27 km), Dortmund Airport (31 km) and Düsseldorf Airport (47 km). To reach the airport in Düsseldorf, there are ICE, InterCity, RE and S railway lines. Other reachable airports are the Cologne Bonn Airport, the Weeze Airport, the Münster International Airport and the Paderborn Lippstadt Airport. Education --------- ### Higher education * Ruhr University Bochum, founded 1965 * Bochum University of Applied Sciences (Hochschule Bochum, formerly *Fachhochschule Bochum*) * Georg Agricola University of Applied Sciences (TH Georg Agricola) * Protestant University of Applied Sciences, Rheinland-Westphalia-Lippe (Evangelische FH Rheinland-Westfalen-Lippe) * Schauspielschule Bochum (Bochum drama school) * College of the Federal Social Security, Department of Social Insurance for Seafarers (Fachhochschule des Bundes der Sozialversicherung, Abteilung Knappschaft-Bahn-See) * University of Health Sciences (Hochschule für Gesundheit) ### Elementary and secondary schools There are 61 primary schools, 9 Hauptschulen ("general schools") and 14 special schools. In addition, there are 11 preparatory (British: grammar) schools ("Gymnasien"), 5 comprehensive schools ("Gesamtschulen"), 8 Realschulen and 2 private Waldorf schools. "Gymnasien" – preparatory schools (British: grammar school): * Goethe-Schule Bochum * Graf-Engelbert-Schule * Heinrich-von-Kleist-Schule * Hellweg-Schule * Hildegardis-Schule * Lessing-Schule * Märkische Schule * Neues Gymnasium Bochum (school formed by merger of the former Albert-Einstein-Schule and Gymnasium am Ostring) * Schiller-Schule * Theodor-Körner-Schule "Gesamtschulen" – comprehensive schools: * Erich Kästner-Gesamtschule Schule * Heinrich-Böll-Gesamtschule * Maria Sibylla Merian-Gesamtschule * Willy-Brandt-Gesamtschule * Matthias-Claudius-Schulen Realschulen – high schools: * Anne-Frank-Schule * Annette-von-Droste-Hülshoff-Schule * Franz-Dinnendahl-Schule * Hans-Böckler-Schule * Helene-Lange-Schule * Hugo-Schultz-Schule * Pestalozzi-Schule * Realschule Höntrop * Freie-Schule Bochum (with elementary school) Waldorf schools: * Rudolf Steiner Schule Bochum * Widar Schule Wattenscheid Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Bochum is twinned with: * England Sheffield, England, United Kingdom (1950) * Spain Oviedo, Spain (1980) * Ukraine Donetsk, Ukraine (1987) * Germany Nordhausen, Germany (1990) * Japan Tsukuba, Japan (2019) There is a major road in Bochum named Sheffield-Ring after its sister city Sheffield, England. There is also a long section of dual carriageway on the south-western edge of Sheffield, between the suburbs of Meadowhead and Gleadless, named Bochum Parkway. Notable people -------------- * Lore Agnes (1876–1953), politician and women's rights activist * Kurt Biedenkopf (1930–2021), politician (CDU), 1967–1969 Rector of the Ruhr University * Jochen Borchert (born 1940), politician (CDU), 1993–1998 Federal Minister of Food, Agriculture and Forestry * Willi Brokmeier (born 1928), operatic tenor * Elmar Budde (born 1935), musicologist * Wolfgang Clement (1940–2020), politician (SPD), former Minister of Economy and Labour * Hans Ehrenberg (1883–1958), theologian, Nazi critic, and co-founder of the Confessing Church * Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), 1967 Nobel Prize winner in chemistry * Tommy Finke (born 1981), songwriter and composer * Josef Franke (1876–1944), architect * Kuno Gonschior (1935–2010), painter and university professor * Frank Goosen (born 1966), cabaret artist and author, wrote *Learning to Lie* * Herbert Grönemeyer (born 1956), actor (*Das Boot*), singer, songwriter of the song *"Bochum"* * Claus Holm (1918–1996), actor, born in Bochum * Else Hirsch (1889–1943), Jewish teacher who organised 10 Kindertransports to England and the Netherlands * Max Imdahl (1925–1988), art historian * Rolf Kanies (born 1957), actor, studied at Schauspielschule Bochum and performed at Schauspielhaus Bochum * Heinz Kaminski (1921–2002), chemical engineer and space scientist * Alfred Keller (1882–1974), general in the Luftwaffe during the Second World War * Gershon Kingsley (1922–2019), Broadway musical director and composer, most notably of the electronic hit *Popcorn* * Thomas Köner (born 1965), multimedia artist * Carl Arnold Kortum (1745–1824), physician and writer * Christine Lang (born 1957), German microbiologist * Norbert Lammert (born 1948), politician (CDU), president (Speaker) of the Bundestag (German parliament) * Karl-Heinz von Liebezeit (born 1960), actor, went to grammar and drama schools in Bochum * Hans Matthöfer (1925–2009), politician (SPD) * Ingo Naujoks (born 1962), actor * Hans Werner Olm (born 1955), comedian * Andrei Osterman (1686–1747), Bochum-born Russian statesman. * Bastian Pastewka (born 1972), actor and comedian * Konrad Raiser (born 1938), former General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, taught theology in Bochum * Christian Redl (born 1948), actor, studied at Schauspielschule Bochum * Armin Rohde (born 1955), actor * Gerhard Charles Rump (born 1947), art historian and art dealer * Otto Schily (born 1932), lawyer, politician (first The Greens, now SPD), former Minister of the Interior * Hans-Jürgen Schlieker (1924–2004), painter * Peter Scholl-Latour (1924–2014), German-French journalist and writer * Paul Sethe (1901–1967), journalist * André Tanneberger (born 1973), also known as "ATB", electronic music producer, began his career in Wattenscheid * Jing Xiang (born 1993), actress at Schauspielhaus Bochum ### Sport * Albert Bollmann (1889–1959), football player * Hermann Gerland (born 1954), football player and coach * Leon Goretzka (born 1995), football player, Olympic silver medalist * Joël Matip (born 1991), German-born Cameroonian football player * Tim Sandtler (born 1987), racing driver * Mark Warnecke (born 1970), breaststroke swimmer, won the world title at the age of 35 * Lirim Zendeli (born 1999), racing driver See also -------- * VfL Bochum: personnel and celebrities * Kruppwerke, part of the city of Bochum * Südinnenstadt, part of the city of Bochum

Bochum

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bochum

In Christian eschatology, the **Antichrist** refers to people prophesied by the Bible to oppose Jesus Christ and substitute themselves in Christ's place before the Second Coming. The term Antichrist (including one plural form) is found four times in the New Testament, solely in the First and Second Epistle of John. The Antichrist is announced as the one "who denies the Father and the Son." The similar term *pseudokhristos* or "false Christ" is also found in the Gospels. In Matthew (chapter 24) and Mark (chapter 13), Jesus alerts his disciples not to be deceived by the false prophets, who will claim themselves to be the Christ, performing "great signs and wonders". Three other images often associated with the singular Antichrist are the "little horn" in Daniel's final vision, the "man of sin" in Paul the Apostle's Second Epistle to the Thessalonians, and the Beast of the Sea in the Book of Revelation. Etymology --------- *Antichrist* is translated from the combination of two ancient Greek words ἀντί + Χριστός (anti + Christos). In Greek, Χριστός means "anointed one" and the word Christ derives from it. "Ἀντί" means not only anti in the sense of "against" and "opposite of", but also "in place of". History ------- ### New Testament Whether the New Testament contains an individual Antichrist is disputed. The Greek term *antikhristos* originates in 1 John. The similar term *pseudokhristos* ("False Messiah") is also first found in the New Testament, but never used by Josephus in his accounts of various false messiahs. The concept of an *antikhristos* is not found in Jewish writings in the period 500 BC–50 AD. However, Bernard McGinn conjectures that the concept may have been generated by the frustration of Jews subject to often-capricious Seleucid or Roman rule, who found the nebulous Jewish idea of a Satan who is more of an opposing angel of God in the heavenly court insufficiently humanised and personalised to be a satisfactory incarnation of evil and threat.[*unreliable source?*] The five uses of the term "antichrist" or "antichrists" in the Johannine epistles do not clearly present a single latter-day individual Antichrist. The articles "the deceiver" or "the antichrist" are usually seen as marking out a certain category of persons, rather than an individual. > Little children, it is the last hour: and as you have heard that Antichrist cometh, even now there are become many Antichrists: whereby we know that it is the last hour. > > — 1 John 2:18 Douay-Rheims > Who is the liar but the one who denies that Jesus is the Christ? This is the antichrist, the one who denies the Father and the Son. > > — 1 John 2:22 NRSV (1989) > By this you know the Spirit of God: every spirit that confesses that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh is from God, and every spirit that does not confess Jesus is not from God. And this is the spirit of the antichrist, of which you have heard that it is coming; and now it is already in the world. > > — 1 John 4:2–3 NRSV (1989) > Many deceivers have gone out into the world, those who do not confess that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh; any such person is the deceiver and the antichrist! > > — 2 John 1:7 NRSV (1989) Consequently, attention for an individual Antichrist figure focuses on the second chapter of 2 Thessalonians. However, the term "antichrist" is never used in this passage: > As to the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered together to him, we beg you, brothers and sisters, not to be quickly shaken in mind or alarmed, either by spirit or by word or by letter, as though from us, to the effect that the day of the Lord is already here. Let no one deceive you in any way; for that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first and the lawless one is revealed, the one destined for destruction. He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God. > > — 2 Thessalonians 2:1–4 NRSV (1989) > For the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed. And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord Jesus will destroy with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. The coming of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders, and every kind of wicked deception for those who are perishing, because they refused to love the truth and so be saved. > > — 2 Thessalonians 2:7–10 NRSV (1989) Although the word "antichrist" (Greek *antikhristos*) is used only in the Epistles of John, the similar word "pseudochrist" (Greek *pseudokhristos*, meaning "false messiah") is used by Jesus in the Gospels: > For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and produce great signs and omens, to lead astray, if possible, even the elect. > > — Matthew 24:24 and Mark 13:22 NRSV (1989) ### Early Church The second or first century book, Odes of Solomon, written by an Essene convert into Christianity, makes mention of the Antichrist in figurative terms, where the redeemer overcomes the monstrous dragon. The only one of the late 1st/early 2nd century Apostolic Fathers to use the term is Polycarp (c. 69 – c. 155) who warned the Philippians that everyone who preached false doctrine was an antichrist. His use of the term *Antichrist* follows that of the New Testament in not identifying a single personal Antichrist, but a class of people. Irenaeus (2nd century AD – c. 202) wrote *Against Heresies* to refute the teachings of the Gnostics. In Book V of *Against Heresies* he addresses the figure of the Antichrist referring to him as the "recapitulation of apostasy and rebellion." He uses "666", the Number of the Beast from Revelation 13:18, to numerologically decode several possible names. Some names that he loosely proposed were "Evanthos", "Lateinos" ("Latin" or pertaining to the Roman Empire). In his exegesis of Daniel 7:21, he stated that the ten horns of the beast will be the Roman Empire divided into ten kingdoms before the Antichrist's arrival. Additionally, he stated that the antichrist would be of the tribe of Dan, evoking Jeremiah 8:16. This would correlate to the Talmudic view of the Jewish Messiah coming from the tribe of Dan on his maternal line. However, his readings of the Antichrist were more in broader theological terms rather than within a historical context. The non-canonical Ascension of Isaiah presents a detailed exposition of the Antichrist as Belial and Nero. Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220 AD) held that the Roman Empire was the restraining force written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7–8. The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the disintegration of the ten provinces of the Roman Empire into ten kingdoms were to make way for the Antichrist. > By, "For that day will not come unless the rebellion comes first," he [Paul] means indeed this present empire, "and the man of lawlessness is revealed"—that is to say, the Antichrist, "the son of destruction, who opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or religion, so that he takes his seat in the temple of God, declaring himself to be God. Do you not remember that I told you these things when I was still with you? And you know what is now restraining him, so that he may be revealed when his time comes. For the mystery of lawlessness is already at work, but only until the one who now restrains it is removed." What obstacles are there but the Roman state, the rebellion of which, by being scattered into the ten kingdoms, will introduce the Antichrist upon its own ruins? "And then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the Lord will destroy with the breath of his mouth, annihilating him by the manifestation of his coming. The coming of the lawless one is apparent in the working of Satan, who uses all power, signs, lying wonders, and every kind of wicked deception for those who are perishing." > > Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – c. 236) held that the Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan and would rebuild the Jewish temple on the Temple Mount in order to reign from it. He identified the Antichrist with the Beast out of the Earth from the book of Revelation. > By the beast, then, coming up out of the earth, he means the kingdom of Antichrist; and by the two horns he means him and the false prophet after him. And in speaking of "horns like a lamb," he means that he will make himself like the Son of God, and set himself forward as king. And the terms, "it spoke like a dragon," mean that he is a deceiver, and not truthful. > > Origen (185–254) refuted Celsus' view of the Antichrist. Origen utilized scriptural citations from Daniel, Paul, and the Gospels. He argued: > Where is the absurdity, then, in holding that there exist among men, so to speak, two extremes—the one of virtue, and the other of its opposite; so that the perfection of virtue dwells in the man who realizes the ideal given in Jesus, from whom there flowed to the human race so great a conversion, and healing, and amelioration, while the opposite extreme is in the man who embodies the notion of him that is named Antichrist?... one of these extremes, and the best of the two, should be styled the Son of God, on account of His pre-eminence; and the other, who is diametrically opposite, be termed the son of the wicked demon, and of Satan, and of the devil. And, in the next place, since evil is specially characterized by its diffusion, and attains its greatest height when it simulates the appearance of the good, for that reason are signs, and marvels, and lying miracles found to accompany evil, through the cooperation of its father the devil. > > ### Post-Nicene Christianity Cyril of Jerusalem, in the mid-4th century, delivered his 15th catechetical lecture about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, in which he also lectures about the Antichrist, who will reign as the ruler of the world for three and a half years, before he is killed by Jesus Christ right at the end of his three-and-a-half-year reign, shortly after which the Second Coming of Jesus Christ will happen. Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 298–373) wrote that Arius of Alexandria is to be associated with the Antichrist, saying, "And ever since [the Council of Nicaea] has Arius's error been reckoned for a heresy more than ordinary, being known as Christ's foe, and harbinger of Antichrist." John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) warned against speculating about the Antichrist, saying, "Let us not therefore enquire into these things". He preached that by knowing Paul's description of the Antichrist in 2 Thessalonians, Christians would avoid deception. Jerome (c. 347–420) warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of scripture belonged to the "synagogue of the Antichrist". "He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist", he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that "the mystery of lawlessness" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when "every one chatters about his views." To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of lawlessness was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: > He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ "shall consume with the spirit of his mouth." "Woe unto them," he cries, "that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days."... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Alemanni, and—alas for the commonweal!—even Pannonians. > > In his *Commentary on Daniel*, Jerome noted, "Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form." Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made "himself out to be like God." He refuted Porphyry's idea that the "little horn" mentioned in Daniel chapter 7 was Antiochus IV Epiphanes by noting that the "little horn" is defeated by an eternal, universal ruler, right before the final judgment. Instead, he advocated that the "little horn" was the Antichrist: > We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings... after they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor. > > Circa 380, an apocalyptic pseudo-prophecy falsely attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl describes Constantine as victorious over Gog and Magog. Later on, it predicts: > When the Roman empire shall have ceased, then the Antichrist will be openly revealed and will sit in the House of the Lord in Jerusalem. While he is reigning, two very famous men, Elijah and Enoch, will go forth to announce the coming of the Lord. Antichrist will kill them and after three days they will be raised up by the Lord. Then there will be a great persecution, such as has not been before nor shall be thereafter. The Lord will shorten those days for the sake of the elect, and the Antichrist will be slain by the power of God through Michael the Archangel on the Mount of Olives. > > Augustine of Hippo (354–430) wrote "it is uncertain in what temple [the Antichrist] shall sit, whether in that ruin of the temple which was built by Solomon, or in the Church." Gregory of Tours claimed that the antichrist would place his image to be worshipped in the temple in Jerusalem, he would assert himself to be Christ and would call for Christians to undergo circumcision. Pope Gregory I wrote to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice in A.D. 597, concerning the titles of bishops, "I say with confidence that whoever calls or desires to call himself 'universal priest' in self-exaltation of himself is a precursor of the Antichrist." By the end of the tenth century, Adso of Montier-en-Der, a Benedictine monk, compiled a biography of Antichrist based on a variety of exegetical and Sibylline sources; his account became one of the best-known descriptions of Antichrist in the Middle Ages. *De Antichristo libri undecim*, published by Tomàs Maluenda in 1604, is still considered the most complete treatise on the subject. ### Pre-Reformation Western Church accusers Arnulf (bishop of Orléans) disagreed with the policies and morals of Pope John XV. He expressed his views while presiding over the Council of Reims in A.D. 991. Arnulf accused John XV of being the Antichrist while also using the 2 Thessalonians passage about the "man of lawlessness" (or "lawless one"), saying: "Surely, if he is empty of charity and filled with vain knowledge and lifted up, he is Antichrist sitting in God's temple and showing himself as God." This incident is history's earliest record of anyone identifying a pope with the Antichrist (see Christian Historicism). Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015 or 1029 – 1085), struggled against, in his own words, "a robber of temples, a perjurer against the Holy Roman Church, notorious throughout the whole Roman world for the basest of crimes, namely, Wilbert, plunderer of the holy church of Ravenna, Antichrist, and arch-heretic." Cardinal Benno, on the opposite side of the Investiture Controversy, wrote long descriptions of abuses committed by Gregory VII, including necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and even burning it. Benno held that Gregory VII was "either a member of Antichrist, or Antichrist himself." Eberhard II von Truchsees, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1241, denounced Pope Gregory IX at the Council of Regensburg as "that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot err." He argued that the ten kingdoms that the Antichrist is involved with were the "Turks, Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, French, English, Germans, Sicilians, and Italians who now occupy the provinces of Rome." He held that the papacy was the "little horn" of Daniel 7:8: > "A little horn has grown up" with "eyes and mouth speaking great things", which is reducing three of these kingdoms (i.e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany) to subserviency, is persecuting the people of Christ and the saints of God with intolerable opposition, is confounding things human and divine, and is attempting things unutterable, execrable. > > ### Protestant Reformation Protestant Reformers, including John Wycliffe, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, John Thomas, John Knox, Roger Williams, Cotton Mather, and John Wesley, as well as most Protestants of the 16th–18th centuries, felt that the Early Church had been led into the Great Apostasy by the Papacy and identified the Pope with the Antichrist. Luther declared that not just a pope from time to time was Antichrist, but the Papacy was Antichrist because they were "the representatives of an institution opposed to Christ". The Centuriators of Magdeburg, a group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg headed by Matthias Flacius, wrote the 12-volume *Magdeburg Centuries* to discredit the Catholic Church and lead other Christians to recognize the Pope as the Antichrist. So, rather than expecting a single Antichrist to rule the earth during a future Tribulation period, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers saw the Antichrist as a present feature in the world of their time, fulfilled in the Papacy. Among the others who interpreted the biblical prophecy historically there were many Church Fathers; Justin Martyr wrote about the Antichrist: "He Whom Daniel foretells would have dominion for a time and times and a half, is even now at the door". Irenaeus wrote in *Against Heresies* about the coming of the Antichrist: "This Antichrist shall ... devastate all things ... But then, the Lord will come from Heaven on the clouds ... for the righteous". Tertullian looking to the Antichrist wrote: "He is to sit in the temple of God, and boast himself as being god. In our view, he is Antichrist as taught us in both the ancient and the new prophecies; and especially by the Apostle John, who says that 'already many false-prophets are gone out into the world' as the fore-runners of Antichrist". Hippolytus of Rome in his *Treatise on Christ and Antichrist* wrote: "As Daniel also says (in the words) 'I considered the Beast, and look! There were ten horns behind it—among which shall rise another (horn), an offshoot, and shall pluck up by the roots the three (that were) before it.' And under this, was signified none other than Antichrist." Athanasius of Alexandria clearly hold to the historical view in his many writings; in *The Deposition of Arius*, he wrote: "I addressed the letter to Arius and his fellows, exhorting them to renounce his impiety.... There have gone forth in this diocese at this time certain lawless men—enemies of Christ—teaching an apostasy which one may justly suspect and designate as a forerunner of Antichrist". Jerome wrote: "Says the apostle [Paul in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians], 'Unless the Roman Empire should first be desolated, and antichrist proceed, Christ will not come.'" He also identifies the little horn of Daniel 7:8 and 7:24–25 which "He shall speak as if he were God." Some Franciscans had considered the Emperor Frederick II a positive Antichrist who would purify the Catholic Church from opulence, riches and clergy. Historicist interpretations of Book of Revelation usually included the identification of one or more of the following: * the Antichrist (1 and 2 John); * the Beast of Revelation 13; * the Man of Sin, or Man of Lawlessness, of 2 Thessalonians 2 (2:1–12); * the "Little horn" of Daniel 7 and 8; * The Abomination of desolation of Daniel 9, 11, and 12; and * the Whore of Babylon of Revelation 17. The Protestant Reformers tended to hold the belief that the Antichrist power would be revealed so that everyone would comprehend and recognize that the Pope is the real, true Antichrist and not the vicar of Christ. Doctrinal works of literature published by the Lutherans, the Reformed Churches, the Presbyterians, the Baptists, the Anabaptists, and the Methodists contain references to the Pope as the Antichrist, including the Smalcald Articles, Article 4 (1537), the *Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope* written by Philip Melanchthon (1537), the Westminster Confession, Article 25.6 (1646), and the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, Article 26.4. In 1754, John Wesley published his *Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament*, which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church. In his notes on the Book of Revelation (chapter 13), he commented: "The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII are undoubtedly Antichrists. Yet this hinders not, but that the last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the Antichrist, the Man of Sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit." The identification of the Pope with the Antichrist was so ingrained in the Reformation Era, that Luther himself stated it repeatedly: > "This teaching [of the supremacy of the pope] shows forcefully that the Pope is the very Antichrist, who has exalted himself above, and opposed himself against Christ, because he will not permit Christians to be saved without his power, which, nevertheless, is nothing, and is neither ordained nor commanded by God". > > and, > "nothing else than the kingdom of Babylon and of the very Antichrist. For who is the man of sin and the son of perdition, but he who by his teaching and his ordinances increases the sin and perdition of souls in the church; while he yet sits in the church as if he were God? All these conditions have now for many ages been fulfilled by the papal tyranny." > > John Calvin similarly wrote: > "Though it be admitted that Rome was once the mother of all Churches, yet from the time when it began to be the seat of Antichrist it has ceased to be what it was before. Some persons think us too severe and censorious when we call the Roman Pontiff Antichrist. But those who are of this opinion do not consider that they bring the same charge of presumption against Paul himself, after whom we speak and whose language we adopt ... I shall briefly show that (Paul's words in II Thess. 2) are not capable of any other interpretation than that which applies them to the Papacy." > > John Knox wrote on the Pope: > "Yea, to speak it in plain words; lest that we submit ourselves to Satan, thinking that we submit ourselves to Jesus Christ, for, as for your Roman kirk, as it is now corrupted, and the authority thereof, whereon stands the hope of your victory, I no more doubt but that it is the synagogue of Satan, and the head thereof, called the pope, to be that man of sin, of whom the apostle speaks." > > Thomas Cranmer on the Antichrist wrote: > "Whereof it followeth Rome to be the seat of Antichrist, and the pope to be very antichrist himself. I could prove the same by many other scriptures, old writers, and strong reasons." > > John Wesley, speaking of the identity given in the Bible of the Antichrist, wrote: > "In many respects, the Pope has an indisputable claim to those titles. He is, in an emphatical sense, the man of sin, as he increases all manner of sin above measure. And he is, too, properly styled, the son of perdition, as he has caused the death of numberless multitudes, both of his opposers and followers, destroyed innumerable souls, and will himself perish everlastingly. He it is that opposeth himself to the emperor, once his rightful sovereign; and that exalteth himself above all that is called God, or that is worshipped—Commanding angels, and putting kings under his feet, both of whom are called gods in scripture; claiming the highest power, the highest honour; suffering himself, not once only, to be styled God or vice-God. Indeed no less is implied in his ordinary title, "Most Holy Lord," or, "Most Holy Father." So that he sitteth—Enthroned. In the temple of God—Mentioned Rev. xi, 1. Declaring himself that he is God—Claiming the prerogatives which belong to God alone." > > Roger Williams wrote about the Pope: > "the pretended Vicar of Christ on earth, who sits as God over the Temple of God, exalting himself not only above all that is called God, but over the souls and consciences of all his vassals, yea over the Spirit of Christ, over the Holy Spirit, yea, and God himself ... speaking against the God of heaven, thinking to change times and laws; but he is the Son of Perdition." > > The identification of the Roman Catholic Church as the apostate power written of in the Bible as the Antichrist became evident to many as the Reformation began, including John Wycliffe, who was well known throughout Europe for his opposition to the doctrine and practices of the Catholic Church, which he believed had clearly deviated from the original teachings of the early Church and to be contrary to the Bible. Wycliffe himself tells (*Sermones*, III. 199) how he concluded that there was a great contrast between what the Church was and what it ought to be, and saw the necessity for reform. Along with John Hus, they had started the inclination toward ecclesiastical reforms of the Catholic Church. When the Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich (1518) he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. Zwingli, who was a Catholic priest before he became a Reformer, often referred to the Pope as the Antichrist. He wrote: "I know that in it works the might and power of the Devil, that is, of the Antichrist". The English Reformer William Tyndale held that while the Roman Catholic realms of that age were the empire of Antichrist, any religious organization that distorted the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments also showed the work of Antichrist. In his treatise *The Parable of the Wicked Mammon*, he expressly rejected the established Church teaching that looked to the future for an Antichrist to rise up, and he taught that Antichrist is a present spiritual force that will be with us until the end of the age under different religious disguises from time to time. Tyndale's translation of 2 Thessalonians, chapter 2, concerning the "Man of Lawlessness" reflected his understanding, but was significantly amended by later revisers, including the King James Bible committee, which followed the Vulgate more closely. In 1973, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' Committee on Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs and the USA National Committee of the Lutheran World Federation in the official Catholic–Lutheran dialogue officially signed an agreement on *Papal Primacy and the Universal Church,* including this passage: > In calling the pope the "Antichrist", the early Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back into the eleventh century. Not only dissidents and heretics but even saints had called the bishop of Rome the "Antichrist" when they wished to castigate his abuse of power. What Lutherans understood as a papal claim to unlimited authority over everything and everyone reminded them of the apocalyptic imagery of Daniel 11, a passage that even prior to the Reformation had been applied to the pope as the Antichrist of the last days. > > In 1988 Ian Paisley, Evangelical minister and founder of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, made headlines in an infamous manner by accusing Pope John Paul II as the Antichrist during one of the pope's speeches before the European Parliament, which at the time Paisley was member of. His accusation, and the reactions of both Pope John Paul II and other members of the European Parliament, was recorded on video. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states about the Pope and the Catholic Church: > There are two principles that mark the papacy as the Antichrist. One is that the pope takes to himself the right to rule the church that belongs only to Christ. He can make laws forbidding the marriage of priests, eating or not eating meat on Friday, birth control, divorce and remarriage, even where there are not such laws in the Bible. The second is that he teaches that salvation is not by faith alone but by faith and works. The present pope upholds and practices these principles. This marks his rule as antichristian rule in the church. All popes hold the same office over the church and promote the same antichristian belief so they all are part of the reign of the Antichrist. The Bible does not present the Antichrist as one man for one short time, but as an office held by a man through successive generations. It is a title like King of England. > > Currently, many Protestant and Restorationist denominations still officially maintain that the Papacy is the Antichrist, such as the conservative Lutheran Churches and the Seventh-day Adventists. ### Counter Reformation In the Counter-Reformation, the views of Preterism and Futurism were advanced by Catholic Jesuits beginning in the 16th century in response to the identification of the Papacy as Antichrist. These were rival methods of prophetic interpretation: the futurist and the preterist systems both are in conflict with the historicist method of interpretation. Historically, preterists and non-preterists have agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy—*Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi* (published in 1614)—during the Counter-Reformation. Christian views --------------- ### Roman Catholicism From the Fifth Council of the Lateran, the Catholic Church teaches that priests may not "preach or declare a fixed time for...the coming of antichrist..." The church also teaches that it must undergo trials before the Second Coming, and that the church's ultimate trial will be the mystery of iniquity. In Judaism, iniquity is a sin done out of moral failing. The mystery of iniquity, according to the church, will be a religious deception: Christians receiving alleged solutions to their problems at the cost of apostasy. The supreme religious deception, according to the church, will be the Antichrist's messianism: mankind glorifying himself rather than God and Jesus. The church teaches that this supreme deception is committed by people who claim to fulfill Israel's messianic hopes, such as millenarianism and secular messianicism. #### Popes Pope Pius IX in the encyclical *Quartus Supra*, quoting Cyprian, said Satan disguises the Antichrist with the title of Christ. Pope Pius X in the encyclical *E Supremi* said that the distinguishing mark of the Antichrist is claiming to be God and taking his place. Pope John Paul II, in his August 18, 1985 address on his apostolic journey to Africa, said 1 John 4:3 ("Every spirit which does not confess Jesus is not of God. This is the spirit of antichrist") evokes the danger of theology divorced from holiness and theological culture divorced from serving Christ. Pope Benedict XVI said in the Sunday Angelus of March 11, 2012 that violence is the tool of the Antichrist. In the General Audience of November 12, 2008, Benedict XVI said Christian tradition had come to identify the son of perdition as the Antichrist. Pope Francis, in his morning meditation of February 2, 2014, said that Christian faith is not an ideology, but that "the Apostle James says that ideologues of the faith are the Antichrist." In his morning meditation of September 19, 2014, Francis said the Antichrist must come before the final resurrection. In his morning meditation of January 7, 2016, he said the evil spirit spoken of in 1 John 4:6 is the Antichrist. In his morning meditation on November 11, 2016, Francis said whoever says the criteria of Christian love is not the Incarnation is the Antichrist. #### Speculation The *Prophecy of the Popes* claims Rome will be destroyed during the pontificate of the last Pope, implying a connection to the Antichrist. Fulton J. Sheen, a Catholic bishop, wrote in 1951: > The Antichrist will not be so called; otherwise he would have no followers... he will come disguised as the Great Humanitarian; he will talk peace, prosperity and plenty not as means to lead us to God, but as ends in themselves... He will tempt Christians with the same three temptations with which he tempted Christ... He will have one great secret which he will tell to no one: he will not believe in God. Because his religion will be brotherhood without the fatherhood of God, he will deceive even the elect. He will set up a counterchurch... It will have all the notes and characteristics of the Church, but in reverse and emptied of its divine content. It will be a mystical body of the Antichrist that will in all externals resemble the mystical body of Christ. > > #### Catechism of the Catholic Church The Catechism of the Catholic Church, which John Paul II said is a "sure norm for teaching the faith," puts the doctrine on the Antichrist under a subsection entitled "The Church's Ultimate Trial," equating it with "the supreme religious deception" and "pseudo-messianism" of human "self-glorification": > Before Christ's second coming the Church must pass through a final trial that will shake the faith of many believers. The persecution that accompanies her pilgrimage on earth will unveil the "mystery of iniquity" in the form of a religious deception offering men an apparent solution to their problems at the price of apostasy from the truth. The supreme religious deception is that of the Antichrist, a pseudo-messianism by which man glorifies himself in place of God and of his Messiah come in the flesh. (CCC 675) > > > The Antichrist's deception already begins to take shape in the world every time the claim is made to realize within history that messianic hope which can only be realized beyond history through the eschatological judgment. The Church has rejected even modified forms of this falsification of the kingdom to come under the name of millenarianism, especially the "intrinsically perverse" political form of a secular messianism. (CCC 676) > > ### Eastern Orthodox Throughout history, various ecclesiastics of the Eastern Orthodox Church have identified the office of the Roman Catholic papacy with the antichrist. Russian Orthodox Metropolitan Anthony Khrapovitsky, in explaining the necessity of rebaptism for Roman Catholics, Protestants and Nestorians, declared: > It is clear that by this regulation the Church does not recognize in heretics and schismatics either the priesthood or the other mysteries, and considers them subject to ecclesiastical baptism in the nature of things ... the Church by receiving Latins into communion in the same way as Nestorians (Council of Trullo, 95) does not make any distinction between old heresies and the Latin one. I think that the Latins are considerably further from the Church and they are worse than Monophysites and Monophelites, because they created a second Christ, i.e., the antichrist in the person of the Pope, who is supposedly infallible... > > In a Christmas 2018 interview on Russian state television, Patriarch Kirill of Moscow warned that "The Antichrist is the person that will be at the head of the world wide web controlling all of humanity. That means that the structure itself poses a danger. There shouldn't be a single centre, at least not in the foreseeable future, if we don't want to bring on the apocalypse." He exhorted listeners not to "fall into slavery to what's in your hands"..."You should remain free inside and not fall under any addiction, not to alcohol, not to narcotics, not to gadgets." ### Old Believers After Patriarch Nikon of Moscow reformed the Russian Orthodox Church during the second half of the 17th century, a large number of Old Believers held that Peter the Great, the Tsar of the Russian Empire until his death in 1725, was the Antichrist because of his treatment of the Orthodox Church, namely subordinating the church to the state, requiring clergymen to conform to the standards of all Russian civilians (shaved beards, being fluent in French), and requiring them to pay state taxes. There are two conceptions of the Antichrist among the Old Believers: the spiritual Antichrist and the sensual Antichrist. The sensual means a particular person who will rule at the end of times for literal 3,5 years. The priested Old believers mostly adhere to this conception. The spiritual Antichrist is said to rule in the heretical church and state as a spirit through many people – since 1000 in the West and since 1666 in Russia. The true priesthood is considered to be lacking in the world due to 'abomination of desolation', which is synonimous with the rule of Antichrist. Most non-priested Old believers adhere to this conception (except the so called "Chasovennye"). ### Age of Enlightenment Bernard McGinn noted that complete denial of the Antichrist was rare until the Age of Enlightenment. Following frequent use of "Antichrist" laden rhetoric during religious controversies in the 17th century, the use of the concept declined during the 18th century due to the rule of enlightened absolutists, who as European rulers of the time wielded significant influence over official state churches. These efforts[*further explanation needed*] to cleanse Christianity of "legendary" or "folk" accretions effectively removed the Antichrist from discussion in mainstream Western churches. ### Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the "Antichrist" is anyone or anything that counterfeits the true gospel or plan of salvation and that openly or secretly is set up in opposition to Christ. The great antichrist is Lucifer, but he has many assistants both as spirit beings and as mortals." Latter-day Saints use the New Testament scriptures, 1 John 2:18, 22; 1 John 4:3–6; 2 John 1:7 and the Book of Mormon, Jacob 7:1–23, Alma 1:2–16, Alma 30:6–60, in their exegesis or interpretation of the Antichrist. ### Seventh-day Adventists Seventh-day Adventists teach that the "Little Horn Power", which (as predicted in the Book of Daniel) rose after the break-up of the Roman Empire, is the Papacy. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. In 533, Justinian I, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (which historians have labelled the Byzantine Empire), legally recognized the bishop (pope) of Rome as the head of all the Christian churches. Because of the Arian domination of some of the Roman Empire by barbarian tribes, the bishop of Rome could not fully exercise such authority. In 538, Belisarius, one of Justinian's generals, succeeded in withstanding a siege of the city of Rome by Arian Ostrogoth besiegers, and the bishop of Rome could begin establishing universal civil authority. So, by the military intervention of the Eastern Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome became all-powerful throughout the area of the old Roman Empire. The Ostrogoths promptly re-captured the city of Rome eight years later in 546, and again in 550. Seventh-day Adventists understand the 1260 years as lasting AD 538 to 1798 as the (supposed) duration of the papacy's domination over Rome. This period is seen as starting from one of the defeats of the Ostrogoths by the general Belisarius and as ending with the successes of French general Napoleon Bonaparte, specifically, with the capture of Pope Pius VI by general Louis Alexandre Berthier in 1798. Like many Reformation-era Protestant leaders, the Adventist pioneer Ellen G. White (1827–1915) spoke of the Catholic Church as a fallen church in preparation for its nefarious eschatological role as the antagonist against God's true church; she saw the pope as the Antichrist. Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther, John Knox, William Tyndale and others held similar beliefs about the Catholic Church and the papacy when they broke away from the Catholic Church during the Reformation. Ellen White writes, > His word has given warning of the impending danger; let this be unheeded, and the Protestant world will learn what the purposes of Rome really are, only when it is too late to escape the snare. She is silently growing into power. Her doctrines are exerting their influence in legislative halls, in the churches, and in the hearts of men. She is piling up her lofty and massive structures in the secret recesses of which her former persecutions will be repeated. Stealthily and unsuspectedly she is strengthening her forces to further her own ends when the time shall come for her to strike. All that she desires is vantage ground, and this is already being given her. We shall soon see and shall feel what the purpose of the Roman element is. Whoever shall believe and obey the word of God will thereby incur reproach and persecution. > > Seventh-day Adventists view the length of time the apostate church's unbridled power was permitted to rule as shown in Daniel 7:25: "The little horn would rule a time and times and half a time" – or 1,260 years. They regard papal rule as supreme in Europe from 538 (when the Arian Ostrogoths retreated from Rome into temporary oblivion) until 1798 (when the French general Louis-Alexandre Berthier took Pope Pius VI captive) – a period of 1,260 years – including the 67 years of the Avignon Captivity (1309–1376). ### Other Christian interpretations #### Martin Wight The devout Christian and political theorist Martin Wight, writing immediately after World War II, favoured the revival of the Antichrist doctrine not as a person, but as a recurrent situation featuring "demonic concentrations of power." #### As "man of lawlessness" The Antichrist has been equated with the "man of lawlessness" or "lawless one" of 2 Thessalonians 2:3, though commentaries on the identity of the "man of lawlessness" greatly vary. The "man of lawlessness" has been identified with Caligula, Nero, and the end times Antichrist. Some scholars believe that the passage contains no genuine prediction, but represents a speculation of the apostle's own, based on contemporary ideas of the Antichrist. #### As "being in league with other figures" Several American evangelical and fundamentalist theologians, including Cyrus Scofield, have identified the Antichrist as being in league with (or the same as) several figures in the Book of Revelation including the Dragon (or Serpent), the Beast, the False Prophet, and the Whore of Babylon. #### As Satan Bernard McGinn described multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan. In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just as God became incarnate in Jesus. However, in orthodox Christian thought, this view was problematic because it was too similar to Christ's incarnation and suggested dualism. Instead, the "indwelling" view became more accepted. It stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan, since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's. Luca Signorelli's fresco, *The Sermon and Deeds of the Antichrist* (see above), depicts the indwelling view. Satan whispers in the ear of this Christlike figure and his left arm is slipped through the Antichrist's garment as if he is manipulating him. Non-Christian views ------------------- ### Judaism There are warnings against false prophets in the Old Testament of the bible. An anti-Messiah figure known as Armilus, said to be the offspring of Satan and a virgin, appears in some schools of Jewish eschatology, such as the 7th century CE Sefer Zerubbabel and 11th century CE Midrash Vayosha. He is stated to be the God and Messiah of the Christians, making him identical to Jesus. He is described as "a monstrosity, bald-headed, with one large and one small eye, deaf in the right ear and maimed in the right arm, while the left arm is two and one-half ells long." Being considered similar to, or even identical with Gog, his believed destruction by a "Messiah ben Joseph" (Messiah, of the tribe of Joseph) symbolizes the ultimate victory of the Jewish Messiah in the Messianic Age. ### Islam Al-Masih ad-Dajjal (Arabic: المسيح الدجّال, romanized: *Al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl*, lit. 'Deceitful Messiah'), or in short Ad-Dajjal (الدجّال), is an evil figure in Islamic eschatology, who will appear after the coming of the Mahdi. The Dajjal is never mentioned in the Quran but he is mentioned and described in the *ḥadīth* literature. The Dajjal is described as one eyed (blind in the right eye) and the blind eye looks like a bulging out grape. Like in Christianity, the Dajjal is said to emerge out in the east, although the specific location varies among the various sources. He will imitate the miracles performed by ʿĪsā (Jesus), such as healing the sick and raising the dead, the latter done with the aid of demons (*Shayāṭīn*). He will deceive many people, such as weavers, magicians, half-castes, children of prostitutes, and non believers but the majority of his followers will be Jews. According to the Islamic eschatological narrative, the events related to the final battle before the Day of Judgment will proceed in the following order: > 11 *Hadith* also report on the “Greater Signs” of the end, which include the appearance of the Antichrist (Dajjal) and the reappearance of the prophet Jesus to join in battle with him at Dabbiq in Syria, as well as the arrival of the Mahdi, the “guided one.” As another *hadith* attributed to Alī ibn Abī Talib puts it, “Most of the Dajjal’s followers are Jews and children of fornication; God will kill him in Syria, at a pass called the Pass of Afiq, after three hours are gone from the day, at the hand of Jesus". > > Imam Mahdi (Arabic: ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, romanized: *al-Mahdī*, meaning "the rightly guided one") is the redeemer according to Islam. Just like the Dajjal, the Mahdi is never mentioned in the Quran but his description can be found in the *ḥadīth* literature; according to the Islamic eschatological narrative, he will appear on Earth before the Day of Judgment. At the time of the Second Coming of Christ, the prophet ʿĪsā shall return to defeat and kill al-Masih ad-Dajjal. Muslims believe that both ʿĪsā and the Mahdi will rid the world of wrongdoing, injustice, and tyranny, ensuring peace and tranquility. Eventually, the Dajjal will be killed by theʿĪsā at the gate of Lud, who upon seeing Dajjal will cause him to slowly dissolve (like salt in water). #### Ahmadiyya Prophecies concerning the emergence of the Antichrist (*Al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl*) are interpreted in Ahmadiyya teachings as designating a specific group of nations centred upon a false theology (or Christology) instead of an individual, with the reference to the Antichrist as an individual indicating its unity as a class or system rather than its personal individuality. As such, Ahmadis identify the Antichrist collectively with the missionary expansion and colonial dominance of European Christianity throughout the world that was propelled by the Industrial Revolution. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad wrote extensively on this topic, identifying the Antichrist principally with colonial missionaries who, according to him, were to be countered through argumentation rather than by physical warfare and whose power and influence was to gradually disintegrate, ultimately allowing for the recognition and worship of God along Islamic ideals to prevail throughout the world in a period similar to the period of time it took for nascent Christianity to rise through the Roman Empire. The teaching that Jesus was a mortal man who survived crucifixion and died a natural death, as propounded by Ghulam Ahmad, has been seen by some scholars in this regard as a move to neutralise Christian soteriologies of Jesus and to project the superior rationality of Islam. ### Baha'i The Antichrist is considered to subvert the religion of God from the inner reality of man as 'Abdu'l-Baha narrates: "Christ was a divine Center of unity and love. Whenever discord prevails instead of unity, wherever hatred and antagonism take the place of love and spiritual fellowship, Antichrist reigns instead of Christ." In popular culture ------------------ In February 1900, the Christian Russian philosopher and mystic Vladimir Solovyov published the apocalyptic *A Short Tale of the Antichrist*, showing his prophetic vision about the oncoming 20th century and the end of the human history. It is prophesied that the antichrist will present himself to the whole of humanity like a pacifist, ecologist and ecumenist, and "will convoke an ecumenical council and will seek the consensus of all the Christian confessions, granting something to each one." The enthronement of the Antichrist is associated with conspiracy theories, particularly a Satanic plot to destroy the Christian faith in St. Nicholas. See also -------- * Armageddon * Bible prophecy * Christendom * Glossary of Christianity * Lake of fire * New World Order (conspiracy theory) * Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament * References to the Antichrist in ecclesiastical writings * *The Omen* * Two witnesses References ---------- ### Bibliography * Berry, Rev. Elwood (1921). "Part 2.2: The Reign and Condemnation of Antichrist". *The Apocalypse of St. John*. The Catholic Church Supply House. * Froom, Le Roy Edwin (1948). *Pre-Reformation and Reformation Restoration, and Second Departure* (PDF). The Prophetic Faith of our Fathers: The Historical Development of Prophetic Interpretation. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: The Review and Herald Publishing Association. * Robert, Yarbrough (2008). *1–3 John*. Baker Academic. ISBN 978-0801026874. * Maas, Anthony John (1907). "Antichrist". In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). *Catholic Encyclopedia*. Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company. * Lietaert Peerbolte, L.J. (1966). *The Antecedents of Antichrist: A Traditio-Historical Study of the Earliest Christian Views on Eschatological Opponents*. Brill. ISBN 9004104550. * Foxe, John (1583). *The Acts and Monuments, Book II*. R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside, sold by L. & G. Seeley. p. 121. Retrieved June 6, 2010. * Jerome (1893) [347–420]. "Letter to Pope Damasus". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). *A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church*. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 19. Retrieved June 7, 2010. * Jerome (1893b) [347–420]. "The Dialogue against the Luciferians". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). *A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church*. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 334. Retrieved June 7, 2010. * Jerome (1893c) [347–420]. "Against the Pelagians, Book I". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). *A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church*. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. p. 449. Retrieved June 7, 2010. * Jerome (1893d) [347–420]. "Letter to Ageruchia". In Schaff, Philip (ed.). *A Select Library of Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church*. 2nd series. Vol. VI. Henry Wace. New York: The Christian Literature Company. pp. 236–237. Retrieved June 8, 2010. * Jerome (1958) [347–420]. Archer, Gleason L. (ed.). *Jerome's Commentary of Daniel* (Translation). Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House. Archived from the original on May 26, 2010. Retrieved June 7, 2010. * McGinn, Bernard (1994). *Antichrist: Two Thousand Years of the Human Fascination With Evil*. New York: HarperCollins. * Cabinet, Kristofer Widholm and Bernard McGinn (2001). "Antichrist: An Interview with Bernard McGinn". *Cabinet Magazine*. Issue 5 Evil Winter. Cabinet Magazine. Archived from the original on August 8, 2019. Retrieved October 27, 2010. * Origen (1872) [185–254]. "Writings of Origen, vol 2". In Roberts, Rev. Alexander (ed.). *Ante-Nicene Christian Library* [*Writings of the Fathers*]. Vol. XXIII. James Donaldson. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 385–388. Retrieved June 6, 2010. * Schaff, Philip; Schley Schaff, David (1885). *History of the Christian Church*. Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved January 18, 2009. * Cohn, Norman (1970). *The Pursuit of the Millennium* (Rev. and expanded. ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195004564. Norman Cohn. * Schneemelcher, Wilhelm; Wilson, Robert McLachlan (trans.) (2003). *New Testament Apocrypha: Writings relating to the Apostles; Apocalypses and related subjects, Vol. 2* (sixth German edition 1989, 1992, 2003 ed.). [S.l.]: Westminster John Knox. ISBN 978-0664227227.

Antichrist

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antichrist

**Savannah** (/səˈvænə/ *sə-VAN-ə*) is the oldest city in the U.S. state of Georgia and is the county seat of Chatham County. Established in 1733 on the Savannah River, the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. A strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War, Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It is Georgia's fifth-largest city, with a 2020 U.S. Census population of 147,780. The Savannah metropolitan area, Georgia's third-largest, had a 2020 population of 404,798. Each year, Savannah attracts millions of visitors to its cobblestone streets, parks, and notable historic buildings. These buildings include the birthplace of Juliette Gordon Low (founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA), the Georgia Historical Society (the oldest continually operating historical society in the South), the Telfair Academy of Arts and Sciences (one of the South's first public museums), the First African Baptist Church (one of the oldest African-American Baptist congregations in the United States), Temple Mickve Israel (the third-oldest synagogue in the U.S.), and the Central of Georgia Railway roundhouse complex (the oldest standing antebellum rail facility in the U.S. and now a museum and visitor center). Savannah's downtown area, which includes the Savannah Historic District, its 22 parklike squares, and the Savannah Victorian Historic District, is one of the largest National Historic Landmark Districts in the United States (designated by the federal government in 1966). Downtown Savannah largely retains the founder James Oglethorpe's original town plan, a design now known as the Oglethorpe Plan. During the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted by Atlanta, Savannah held sailing competitions in the nearby Wassaw Sound. History ------- On February 12, 1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship *Anne* landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi, the Yamacraws, and Indian traders John and Mary Musgrove. Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah was founded on that date, along with the colony of Georgia. In 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony and Savannah was made the colonial capital of Georgia. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port in the Thirteen Colonies. British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year a combined force of American and French soldiers, including Haitians, failed to rout the British at the Siege of Savannah. The British did not leave the city until July 1782. In December 1804 the state legislature declared Milledgeville the new capital of Georgia. Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacy's sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Sherman's March to the Sea. Early on December 21, 1864, local authorities negotiated a peaceful surrender to save Savannah from destruction, and Union troops marched into the city at dawn. Savannah was named for the Savannah River, which probably derives from variant names for the Shawnee, a Native American people who migrated to the river in the 1680s. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo, and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah River's navigation on the fall line, near present-day Augusta. These Shawnee, whose Native name was *Ša·wano·ki* (literally, "southerners"), were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Another theory is that the name Savannah refers to the extensive marshlands surrounding the river for miles inland, and is derived from the English term "savanna," a kind of tropical grassland, which was borrowed by the English from Spanish *sabana* and used in the Southern Colonies. (The Spanish word comes from the Taino word *zabana*.) Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only "southerners" but perhaps "salt." Geography --------- Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi (32 km) upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), the city has a total area of 108.7 square miles (281.5 km2), of which 103.1 square miles (267.0 km2) is land and 5.6 square miles (15 km2) is water (5.15%). Savannah is the primary port on the Savannah River and the largest port in the state of Georgia. It is also located near the U.S. Intracoastal Waterway. Georgia's Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles (26 km) south of downtown Savannah, and forms the southern city limit. Savannah is prone to flooding, due to abundant rainfall, an elevation at just above sea level, and the shape of the coastline, which poses a greater surge risk during hurricanes. The city currently uses five canals. In addition, several pumping stations have been built to help reduce the effects of flash flooding. ### Climate Savannah's climate is classified as humid subtropical (Köppen *Cfa*). In the Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records few days of freezing temperatures each year (and has rare snowfall). Due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgia's interior. Nevertheless, the extreme temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F (41 °C), on July 20, 1986 and July 12, 1879, down to 3 °F (−16 °C) during the January 1985 Arctic outbreak. Seasonally, Savannah tends to have hot and humid summers with frequent (but brief) thunderstorms that develop in the warm and tropical air masses, which are common. Although summers in Savannah are frequently sunny, half of Savannah's annual precipitation falls during the months of June through September. Average dewpoints in summer range from 67.8 to 71.6 °F (20 to 22 °C). Winters in Savannah are mild and sunny with average daily high temperatures of 61.4 °F (16 °C) in January. November and December are the driest months recorded at Savannah–Hilton Head International Airport. Each year Savannah reports 21 days on average with low temperatures below freezing, though in some years fewer than 10 nights will fall below freezing, and the city has even gone an entire winter season (that of 1879-80) without recording a freeze. Although decades might pass between snowfall events, Savannah has experienced snow on rare occasions, most notably in December 1989, when up to 3.9 inches (9.9 cm) was recorded in one day in parts of the city. Savannah is at risk for hurricanes, particularly of the Cape Verde type of storms that take place during the peak of the season. Because of its location in the Georgia Bight (the arc of the Atlantic coastline in Georgia and northern Florida) as well as the tendency for hurricanes to re-curve up the coast, Savannah has a lower risk of hurricanes than some other coastal cities such as Charleston, South Carolina. Savannah was seldom affected by hurricanes during the 20th century, with one exception of being hit by Hurricane David in 1979. However, the historical record shows that the city was frequently affected during the second half of the 19th century. The most prominent of these storms was the 1893 Sea Islands hurricane, which killed at least 2,000 people. (This estimate may be low, as deaths among the many impoverished rural African Americans living on Georgia's barrier islands may not have been reported.) Savannah was most recently affected by an active 2016 hurricane season, including Hurricane Matthew (which made a partial eyewall landfall), and was brushed by Hurricane Irma in 2017. | Climate data for Savannah, Georgia (Savannah/Hilton Head Int'l), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1871–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °F (°C) | 84(29) | 87(31) | 94(34) | 95(35) | 102(39) | 104(40) | 105(41) | 104(40) | 102(39) | 97(36) | 89(32) | 83(28) | 105(41) | | Mean maximum °F (°C) | 77.5(25.3) | 80.9(27.2) | 84.9(29.4) | 89.1(31.7) | 94.0(34.4) | 97.5(36.4) | 98.8(37.1) | 97.6(36.4) | 94.0(34.4) | 88.6(31.4) | 83.3(28.5) | 78.2(25.7) | 99.7(37.6) | | Average high °F (°C) | 61.4(16.3) | 65.1(18.4) | 71.4(21.9) | 78.2(25.7) | 84.7(29.3) | 89.6(32.0) | 92.3(33.5) | 90.8(32.7) | 86.4(30.2) | 79.0(26.1) | 70.2(21.2) | 63.7(17.6) | 77.7(25.4) | | Daily mean °F (°C) | 50.7(10.4) | 54.0(12.2) | 60.0(15.6) | 66.7(19.3) | 74.1(23.4) | 80.1(26.7) | 83.0(28.3) | 82.1(27.8) | 77.7(25.4) | 68.8(20.4) | 59.1(15.1) | 53.2(11.8) | 67.5(19.7) | | Average low °F (°C) | 40.0(4.4) | 42.9(6.1) | 48.6(9.2) | 55.2(12.9) | 63.4(17.4) | 70.7(21.5) | 73.7(23.2) | 73.3(22.9) | 69.0(20.6) | 58.6(14.8) | 48.0(8.9) | 42.6(5.9) | 57.2(14.0) | | Mean minimum °F (°C) | 23.3(−4.8) | 26.5(−3.1) | 31.2(−0.4) | 39.4(4.1) | 49.8(9.9) | 62.7(17.1) | 68.6(20.3) | 67.2(19.6) | 57.1(13.9) | 42.1(5.6) | 31.4(−0.3) | 26.9(−2.8) | 21.6(−5.8) | | Record low °F (°C) | 3(−16) | 8(−13) | 20(−7) | 28(−2) | 39(4) | 49(9) | 61(16) | 57(14) | 43(6) | 28(−2) | 15(−9) | 9(−13) | 3(−16) | | Average precipitation inches (mm) | 3.28(83) | 2.80(71) | 3.50(89) | 3.39(86) | 3.62(92) | 6.65(169) | 5.75(146) | 5.46(139) | 4.35(110) | 3.72(94) | 2.39(61) | 3.21(82) | 48.12(1,222) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.01 in) | 8.5 | 7.8 | 7.9 | 6.7 | 7.3 | 12.3 | 12.4 | 12.8 | 9.9 | 6.8 | 6.8 | 8.4 | 107.6 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 69.6 | 67.0 | 66.8 | 65.4 | 70.1 | 73.6 | 76.0 | 78.6 | 77.7 | 72.9 | 72.3 | 70.8 | 71.7 | | Average dew point °F (°C) | 37.0(2.8) | 38.8(3.8) | 45.7(7.6) | 51.6(10.9) | 60.8(16.0) | 67.8(19.9) | 71.2(21.8) | 71.6(22.0) | 67.5(19.7) | 56.5(13.6) | 48.0(8.9) | 40.5(4.7) | 54.8(12.6) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 175.5 | 181.0 | 232.0 | 275.6 | 288.9 | 276.0 | 271.3 | 245.8 | 214.3 | 228.6 | 193.5 | 174.2 | 2,756.7 | | Percent possible sunshine | 55 | 59 | 62 | 71 | 67 | 65 | 62 | 60 | 58 | 65 | 61 | 56 | 62 | | Source: NOAA (relative humidity, dew point and sun 1961–1990) | The first meteorological observations in Savannah probably occurred at Oglethorpe Barracks circa 1827, continuing intermittently until 1850 and resuming in 1866. The Signal Service began observations in 1874, and the National Weather Service has kept records of most data continually since then; since 1948, Savannah-Hilton Head International Airport has served as Savannah's official meteorological station. Annual records (dating back to 1950) from the airport's weather station are available on the web. ### Urban Panorama of the River Street district at night #### Neighborhoods Savannah is a city of diverse neighborhoods. More than 100 distinct neighborhoods can be identified in six principal areas of the city: Downtown (Landmark Historic District and Victorian District), Midtown, Southside, Eastside, Westside, and Southwest/West Chatham (recently annexed suburban neighborhoods). #### Historic districts Besides the Savannah Historic District, one of the nation's largest, five other historic districts have been formally demarcated: * Savannah Victorian Historic District * Cuyler–Brownsville District * Thomas Square Historic District * Pin Point Historic District * Ardsley Park–Chatham Crescent Historic District Demographics ------------ Historical population| Census | Pop. | Note | %± | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1800 | 5,146 | | — | | 1810 | 5,215 | | 1.3% | | 1820 | 7,523 | | 44.3% | | 1830 | 7,303 | | −2.9% | | 1840 | 11,214 | | 53.6% | | 1850 | 15,312 | | 36.5% | | 1860 | 22,292 | | 45.6% | | 1870 | 28,235 | | 26.7% | | 1880 | 30,709 | | 8.8% | | 1890 | 43,189 | | 40.6% | | 1900 | 54,244 | | 25.6% | | 1910 | 65,064 | | 19.9% | | 1920 | 83,252 | | 28.0% | | 1930 | 85,024 | | 2.1% | | 1940 | 95,996 | | 12.9% | | 1950 | 119,638 | | 24.6% | | 1960 | 149,245 | | 24.7% | | 1970 | 118,349 | | −20.7% | | 1980 | 141,654 | | 19.7% | | 1990 | 137,560 | | −2.9% | | 2000 | 131,510 | | −4.4% | | 2010 | 136,286 | | 3.6% | | 2020 | 147,780 | | 8.4% | | 2022 (est.) | 148,004 | | 0.2% | | 1910–2022 | According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Savannah's official 2020 population was 147,780, up from the official 2010 count of 136,286 residents. The Census Bureau's official 2020 population of the Savannah metropolitan area—defined by the Census Bureau as Bryan, Chatham, and Effingham counties—was 404,798, up 16.45% from the 2010 Census population of 347,611. Savannah is also the largest principal city of the Savannah–Hinesville–Statesboro–Jesup Combined Statistical Area, a larger trading area that includes the Savannah and Hinesville Metropolitan Statistical Areas as well as the Statesboro and Jesup Micropolitan Statistical Areas. The official 2020 population of this area was 597,465, up from 525,844 at the 2010 Census. ### 2020 census **Savannah city, Georgia – Demographic Profile** (*NH = Non-Hispanic*) *Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.*| Race / Ethnicity | Pop 2010 | Pop 2020 | % 2010 | % 2020 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | White alone (NH) | 49,381 | 54,082 | 36.23% | 36.60% | | Black or African American alone (NH) | 74,782 | 71,845 | 54.87% | 48.62% | | Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) | 315 | 311 | 0.23% | 0.21% | | Asian alone (NH) | 2,697 | 5,610 | 1.98% | 3.80% | | Pacific Islander alone (NH) | 130 | 238 | 0.10% | 0.16% | | Some Other Race alone (NH) | 242 | 692 | 0.18% | 0.47% | | Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH) | 2,347 | 5,213 | 1.72% | 3.53% | | Hispanic or Latino (any race) | 6,392 | 9,789 | 4.69% | 6.62% | | **Total** | **136,286** | **147,780** | **100.00%** | **100.00%** | As of the 2020 United States census, there were 147,780 people, 53,371 households, and 29,496 families residing in the city. ### 2010 census In the official 2010 census of Savannah, there were 136,286 people, 52,615 households, and 31,390 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,759.5 inhabitants per square mile (679.3/km2). There were 57,437 dwelling units at an average density of 768.5 per square mile (296.7/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 55.04% Black, 38.03% White, 2.00% Asian, 0.03% Native American, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.93% from other races, and 2.01% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.07% of the population. Non-Hispanic Whites were 32.6% of the population in 2010, compared to 46.2% in 1990. There were 51,375 households, out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.2% were married couples living together, 21.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.9% were non-families. 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.13. In the city, the age distribution was as follows: 25.6% were under the age of 18, 13.2% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.6 males. The median income for a household in the city was $29,038, and the median income for a family was $36,410. Males had a median income of $28,545 versus $22,309 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,921. About 17.7% of families and 21.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 31.4% of those under age 18 and 15.1% of those age 65 or over. Government ---------- Savannah adopted a council-manager form of government in 1954. The city council consists of the mayor and eight aldermen, six of whom are elected from one of six aldermanic districts, with each district electing one member. The other two members and the mayor are elected at-large. The council levies taxes, enacts ordinances, adopts the annual budget, and appoints the City Manager. The City Manager enacts the policies and programs established by council, recommends an annual budget and work programs, appoints bureau and department heads, and exercises general supervision and control over all employees of the city. ### Police and fire departments In 2003 Savannah and Chatham County voted to merge their city and county police departments. The Savannah-Chatham Metropolitan Police Department was established on January 1, 2005, after the Savannah Police Department and Chatham County Police Department merged. In February 2018, the city and county governments ended the police department merger. This reestablished both the Savannah Police Department and the Chatham County Police Department, and they now operate as two separate agencies. The departments have a number of specialty units, including K-9, SWAT, Bomb Squad, Marine Patrol, Dive, Air Support and Mounted Patrol. The 9-1-1 Communications Dispatch Center handles all 9-1-1 calls for service within the county and city, including fire and EMS. The Savannah Fire Department serves the City of Savannah, and there are separate municipal firefighting organizations elsewhere in Chatham County. ### State representation Derek Mallow (D) and Ben Watson (R) represent the Savannah area in the Georgia State Senate. Carl Gilliard (D), Anne Allen Westbrook (D), Ron Stephens (R), Edna Jackson (D) and Jesse Petrea (R) represent the area in the Georgia House of Representatives. ### Prisons The Georgia Department of Corrections operates the Coastal State Prison in Savannah. Economy ------- Agriculture was essential to Savannah's economy during its first two centuries. Silk and indigo production, both in demand in England, were early export commodities. By 1767, almost a ton of silk per year was exported to England. Georgia's mild climate offered perfect conditions for growing cotton, which became the dominant commodity after the American Revolution. Its production under the plantation system and shipment through the Port of Savannah helped the city's European immigrants to achieve wealth and prosperity. In the nineteenth century, the Port of Savannah became one of the most active in the United States, and Savannahians had the opportunity to consume some of the world's finest goods, imported by foreign merchants. Savannah's port has always been a mainstay of the city's economy. In the early years of the United States, goods produced in the New World had to pass through Atlantic ports such as Savannah's before they could be shipped to England. Savannah's first hotel, City Hotel, was completed in 1821. It also housed the city's first United States Post Office branch. Between 1912 and 1968, the Savannah Machine & Foundry Company was a shipbuilder in Savannah. The Port of Savannah, manufacturing, the military, and tourism have become Savannah's four major economic drivers in the twenty-first century. In 2006, the Savannah Area Convention & Visitors Bureau reported over 6.85 million tourists to the city during the year. By 2011, the Bureau reported that the number of tourists the city attracted increased to 12.1 million. Lodging, dining, entertainment, and tourist-related transportation account for over $2 billion in tourist spending per year and employ over 17,000. For years, Savannah was the home of Union Camp, which housed the world's largest paper mill. The plant is now owned by International Paper, and it remains one of Savannah's largest employers. Savannah is also home to the Gulfstream Aerospace company, maker of private jets, as well as various other large industrial interests. TitleMax is headquartered in Savannah. Morris Multimedia, a newspaper and television company, is also based in Savannah. In 2000, JCB, the third-largest producer of construction equipment in the world and the leading manufacturer of backhoes and telescopic handlers, built its North American headquarters in Chatham County near Savannah in Pooler on I-95 near Savannah-Hilton Head International Airport. Between 2009 and 2017, Savannah was North America's fourth-largest port for shipping container traffic. In 2019, the port continues to see record growth with a reported 4.5 million, 20-foot equivalent container units being moved in the fiscal year. Arts and culture ---------------- Beyond its architectural significance as being the nation's largest, historically restored urban area, the city of Savannah has a rich and growing performing arts scene, offering cultural events throughout the year. ### Books and literature * The Savannah Book Festival – an annual book fair held on Presidents' Day weekend in the vicinity of historic Telfair and Wright squares, includes free presentations by more than 35 contemporary authors. Special events with featured writers are offered at nominal cost throughout the year. * Flannery O'Connor Childhood Home – a museum house dedicated to the work and life of the acclaimed fiction writer Flannery O'Connor, who was born in Savannah and lived in the city until the age of fifteen. In addition to its museum, the house offers literary programming, including the annual Ursrey Lecture honoring American fiction writers. * Other notable authors with ties to Savannah include Conrad Aiken, Mary Kay Andrews, and James Alan McPherson. The songwriter Johnny Mercer was a native Savannahian. ### Dance * Savannah Ballet Theatre – established in 1998 as a nonprofit organization, it has grown to become the city's largest dance company. ### Music * The Coastal Jazz Association – presents a variety of jazz performances throughout the year in addition to hosting the annual Savannah Jazz Festival. * Savannah Children's Choir – non-profit, auditioned choir for children in 2nd through 8th grades that performs throughout the community and in annual holiday and spring concerts. * Savannah Concert Association – presents a variety of guest artists for chamber music performances each season. Performances are generally held in the Lucas Theatre for the Arts. * Savannah Music Festival – an annual music festival of diverse artists which is Georgia's largest musical arts festival and is nationally recognized as one of the best music festivals in the world. * The Savannah Orchestra – Savannah's professional orchestra, which presents an annual season of classical and popular concert performances. * The Savannah Philharmonic – professional orchestral and choral organization presenting year round concerts (classical, pops, education). * The Savannah Winds – amateur concert band hosted by the music department of Georgia Southern University. * The Armstrong Youth Orchestra – Savannah's professional orchestra for elementary, middle school, high school and some college students. * Annual Haitian Flag Day  – an annual festival of diverse artists, music, and various festivities. ### Theater and performance * The American Traditions Vocal Competition – an annual vocal competition that desires to foster and preserve traditions of musical expression significant in the culture of the United States in the past and present. The Competition includes the Johnny Mercer Award. * Savannah Children's Theatre – a nonprofit, year-round drama theater company geared toward offering elementary through high school students (and adults) opportunities for participation in dramatic and musical productions. * Savannah Community Theatre – a full theater season with a diverse programming schedule, featuring some of Savannah's finest actors in an intimate, three-quarter-round space. * Little Theatre of Savannah – founded in 1950, The Little Theatre of Savannah, Inc., is a nonprofit, volunteer-based community organization dedicated to the celebration of the theater arts. Recognizing the unique social value, expressive fulfillment and opportunity for personal growth that theater provides its participants, the Little Theatre of Savannah invites all members of the community to participate both on- and off-stage. * The Savannah Theatre – Savannah's only fully professional resident theater, producing music revues with live singers, dancers and the most rockin' band in town. Performances happen year-round, with several different titles and a holiday show. * The Savannah Repertory Theatre – part of the cultural fabric of Savannah since 2016 and the city's only nonprofit professional theater. * Lucas Theatre for the Arts – founded in December 1921, the Lucas Theatre is one of several theaters owned by the Savannah College of Art and Design. It hosts the annual Savannah Film Festival. * Trustees Theater – once known as the Weis Theater, which opened February 14, 1946, this theater reopened as the Trustees Theater on May 9, 1998, and hosts a variety of performances and concerts sponsored by the Savannah College of Art and Design. SCAD also owns the building. * Odd Lot Improv – founded in 2010, a family-friendly improv comedy troupe performing weekly shows on Mondays and Fridays. * House of Gunt – alternative drag collective founded in 2013 with monthly shows at Club One on top of other performances around the city throughout the year. ### Visual and community arts * Art Rise Savannah, Inc. – a local community nonprofit devoted to increasing access to the arts and improving opportunities for artists in the city. Points of interest ------------------ Savannah's architecture, history, and reputation for Southern charm and hospitality are internationally known. The city's former promotional name was "Hostess City of the South," a phrase still used by the city government. An earlier nickname was "the Forest City", in reference to the large population of live oak trees that flourish in the Savannah area. These trees were especially valuable in shipbuilding during the 19th century. In 2019, Savannah attracted 14.8 million tourists from across the country and around the world. Savannah's downtown area is one of the largest National Historic Landmark Districts in the United States. The city's location offers tourists access to the coastal islands and the Savannah Riverfront, both popular tourist destinations. Tybee Island, formerly known as "Savannah Beach", is the site of the Tybee Island Light Station, the first lighthouse on the southern Atlantic coast. Other picturesque towns adjacent to Savannah include the shrimping village of Thunderbolt and three residential areas that began as summer resort communities for Savannahians: Beaulieu, Vernonburg, and the Isle of Hope. The Savannah International Trade & Convention Center is located on Hutchinson Island, across from downtown Savannah and surrounded by the Savannah River. The Belles Ferry connects the island with the mainland, as does the Eugene Talmadge Memorial Bridge. The Georgia Historical Society, an independent educational and research institution, has a research center in Savannah. The research center's library and archives hold the oldest collection of materials related to Georgia history. The Savannah Civic Center on Montgomery Street is host to more than nine hundred events each year. Savannah has consistently been named one of "America's Favorite Cities" by **Travel + Leisure*.* In 2012, the magazine rated Savannah highest in "Quality of Life and Visitor Experience." Savannah was also ranked first for "Public Parks and Outdoor Access," visiting in the Fall, and as a romantic escape. Savannah was also named as America's second-best city for "Cool Buildings and Architecture," behind only Chicago. The mile-long Jones Street has been described as one of the most charming streets in America. ### Squares Savannah is noted for its 22 squares, small parks arranged along five historic streets running north to south. Each street has from three to five squares. The squares vary in size and character, from the formal fountain and monuments of the largest, Johnson, to the playgrounds of the smallest, Crawford. Elbert, Ellis, and Liberty Squares are classified as the three "lost squares," destroyed in the course of urban development during the 1950s. Elbert and Liberty Squares were paved over to make way for a realignment of U.S. highway 17, while Ellis Square was demolished to build the City Market parking garage. The city restored Ellis Square after razing the parking garage. The garage has been rebuilt as an underground facility, the Whitaker Street Parking Garage, and it opened in January 2009. The restored Ellis Square opened in March 2010. Separate efforts are now under way to revive Elbert and Liberty Squares. Franklin Square is the site of Savannah's Haitian Monument, which commemorates the heroic efforts of the Chasseurs-Volontaires de Saint-Domingue in the 1779 Siege of Savannah and for an independent America. One of the few black regiments to fight for the American side in the Revolutionary War, the soldiers were recruited from present-day Haiti, until 1804 the French colony of Saint-Domingue. Chippewa Square honors the Battle of Chippawa during the War of 1812. It features a large statue of James Oglethorpe, the city's founder. In popular culture, the square is the location of the park bench seen in the 1994 film *Forrest Gump* from which the title character dispenses wisdom to others waiting for a bus. Because both Calhoun Square (the official name until 2022) and Whitefield Square were named for prominent slaveholders, a movement was begun in 2021 to rename them Sankofa Square and Jubilee Square, respectively. ### Historic churches and synagogues Savannah has numerous historic houses of worship. Founded in 1733, with the establishment of the Georgia colony, Christ Church (Episcopal) is the longest continuous Christian congregation in Georgia. Early rectors include the Methodist evangelists John Wesley and George Whitefield. Located on the original site on Johnson Square, Christ Church continues as an active congregation. The Independent Presbyterian Church, which was founded in 1755, is located near Chippewa Square. The church's current sanctuary (its third) dates from the early 1890s. The First Bryan Baptist Church is an African American church that was organized by Andrew Bryan in 1788. The site was purchased in 1793 by Bryan, a former slave who had also purchased his freedom. The first structure was erected there in 1794. By 1800, the congregation was large enough to split: those at Bryan Street took the name of First African Baptist Church, and Second and Third African Baptist churches were also established. The current sanctuary of First Bryan Baptist Church was constructed in 1873. In 1832, a controversy over doctrine caused the First African Baptist congregation at Bryan Street to split. Some members left, taking with them the name of First African Baptist Church. In 1859, the members of this new congregation (most of whom were slaves) built their current church building on Franklin Square. In 1874, the St. Benedict the Moor Church was founded in Savannah, the first African-American Catholic church in Georgia, and one of the oldest in the Southeast. The oldest standing house of worship is First Baptist Church (1833), located on Chippewa Square. Other historic houses of worship in Savannah include: Cathedral of St. John the Baptist (Roman Catholic), Temple Mickve Israel (the third oldest synagogue in the U.S.), and St. John's Church (Episcopal). ### Historic homes Among the historic homes that have been preserved are: the Olde Pink House, the Sorrel–Weed House, Juliette Gordon Low's birthplace, the Davenport House Museum, the Green–Meldrim House, the Owens–Thomas House, the William Scarbrough House, and the Wormsloe plantation of Noble Jones. Mercer Williams House, the former home of Jim Williams in Monterey Square, is the main location of *Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil*. Opulent buildings that succumbed to fire include the mansions at Bonaventure Plantation and Greenwich Plantation. ### Historic cemeteries Colonial Park Cemetery was the city's principal burial ground for much of the eighteenth century, when Georgia was a British colony. Laurel Grove Cemetery, with the graves of many Confederate soldiers and African American slaves, was Savannah's chief municipal cemetery during the nineteenth century. Bonaventure Cemetery is a former plantation and the final resting place for some illustrious Savannahians. Also located in Savannah are the Mordecai Sheftall Cemetery and the Levi Sheftall Family Cemetery, which both date back to the second half of the eighteenth century. ### Historic forts Fort Jackson (named for the Georgia politician James Jackson, not Andrew Jackson) lies on the Savannah River, one mile east of Savannah's Historic District. Built between 1808 and 1812 to protect the city from attack by sea, it was one of several Confederate forts defending Savannah from Union forces during the Civil War. Fort Pulaski National Monument, located on Cockspur Island, 17 miles (27 km) east of Savannah, preserves the largest fort protecting the city during the war. The Union Army bombarded Fort Pulaski in April 1862 with the aid of a new rifled cannon. Confederate troops soon surrendered, and the cannon effectively rendered all brick fortifications obsolete. ### Other registered historic sites * Savannah Historic District (buildings) and the Savannah Victorian Historic District * Forsyth Park * Juliette Gordon Low Historic District * Central of Georgia Railroad: Savannah Shops and Terminal Facilities and Central of Georgia Depot and Trainshed – a 33.2-acre (134,000 m2) historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978. * John P. Rousakis Riverfront Plaza and Factors Walk – River Street's pedestrian promenade, restored nineteenth-century cotton warehouses and passageways include shops, bars and restaurants. * City Market – Savannah's restored central market and popular nightlife destination features antiques, souvenirs, small eateries, as well as two large outdoor plazas. * Savannah State University campus and Walter Bernard Hill Hall – The Georgia Historical Commission and the Georgia Department of Natural Resources have recognized both the Savannah State campus and Hill Hall as a part of the Georgia Historical Marker Program. Hill Hall, which was built in 1901, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1981. * Telfair Museum of Art and Telfair Academy of Arts of Sciences – the South's first public art museum. * Wormsloe Plantation – the partially restored house and grounds of an 18th-century Georgia plantation. ### Shopping Various centers for shopping exist about the city including Abercorn Common, Savannah Historic District, Oglethorpe Mall, Savannah Mall and Abercorn Walk. ### Other attractions * American Prohibition Museum – Located in Savannah's City Market, this unique museum displays the history of prohibition in America from 1907 to 1933. It also traces the roots of NASCAR, which developed from the era's bootlegging operations. * Clary's Cafe – featured in both the 1994 book and 1997 film *Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil*. * Club One – former home of The Lady Chablis and also featured in *Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil*. * Coastal Georgia Botanical Gardens – a developing botanical garden located at Bamboo Farm, a former USDA plant-introduction station south of Savannah that began operations in 1919. * Crystal Beer Parlor, the city's oldest restaurant. * Oatland Island Wildlife Center – located east of Savannah, a facility owned and operated by the Savannah-Chatham County Board of Education and featuring wildlife from surrounding coastal Georgia and South Carolina. * Leopold's Ice Cream, a popular ice cream parlor. * Ossabaw Island – an environmentally protected and commercially undeveloped barrier island south of Savannah. * Pinkie Masters Bar – a popular Savannah watering hole and the site of presidential visits and political campaigns. Pinkie Masters was a local political figure and a friend of President Jimmy Carter, who made several visits to the bar and the city. * Pirates' House – historic restaurant and tavern located in downtown Savannah. * Ralph Mark Gilbert Civil Rights Museum – a museum dedicated to African-American history in Savannah. * Skidaway Island – an affluent suburban community south of Savannah that hosts Skidaway Island State Park, the University of Georgia Aquarium and the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography. * Tybee Island – popular Atlantic resort town 17 mi (27 km) east of Savannah, with public beaches, a lighthouse, and other attractions. * *Waving Girl* statue, honoring Florence Martus. Sports and recreation --------------------- Portions of the East Coast Greenway, a 3,000-mile-long (5,000 kilometer) system of trails from Maine to Florida, run through Savannah. ### Professional sport teams | Club | Sport | League | Venue | Championships | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Savannah Ghost Pirates | Ice hockey | East Coast Hockey League | Enmarket Arena | 0 | 2022–present | | Savannah Braves | Baseball | Southern League | Grayson Stadium | 0 | 1971–1983 | | Savannah Cardinals | Baseball | South Atlantic League | Grayson Stadium | 2 (1993, 1994) | 1984–1995 | | Savannah Sand Gnats | Baseball | South Atlantic League | Grayson Stadium | 2 (1996, 2013) | 1996–2015 | | Savannah Bananas | Baseball | Coastal Plain League (exhibition only) | Grayson Stadium | 3 (2016, 2021, 2022) | 2016–present | | Savannah Spirits | Basketball | Continental Basketball Association | Savannah Civic Center | 0 | 1986–1988 | | Savannah Wildcats | Basketball | Continental Basketball League | Georgia Southern University-Armstrong Campus | 1 (2010) | 2010–present | | C-Port Trojans | Basketball | East Coast Basketball League | Savannah High School | | 2014–present | | Savannah Steam | American football | American Indoor Football | Tiger Arena | | 2015–2016 | ### College teams | Club | Affiliation | Conference | Venues | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Savannah College of Art and Design Bees | NAIA | Florida Sun Conference | SCAD Athletic Complex, Ronald C. Waranch Equestrian Center | | | Savannah State Tigers | NCAA Division II | Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference | Tiger Arena, Ted Wright Stadium | | Education --------- Savannah hosts four colleges and universities offering bachelor's, master's, and professional or doctoral degree programs: Georgia Southern University-Armstrong Campus, Savannah College of Art and Design (SCAD), Savannah State University, and South University. In addition, Georgia Tech Savannah offers certificate programs, and Georgia Southern University has a satellite campus in the downtown area. Savannah Technical College, a two-year institution, and the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography, a marine science research institute of the University of Georgia located on the northern end of Skidaway Island, offer educational programs as well. Savannah is also the location of Ralston College, a liberal arts college founded in 2010. Mercer University began a four-year doctor of medicine program in August 2008 at Memorial University Medical Center. Mercer, with its main campus in Macon, received additional state funding in 2007 to expand its existing partnership with Memorial by establishing a four-year medical school in Savannah (the first in southern Georgia). Third- and fourth-year Mercer students have completed two-year clinical rotations at Memorial since 1996; approximately 100 residents are trained each year in a number of medical practices. The expanded program opened in August 2008 with 30 first-year students. Savannah Law School, which opened in 2012 in the historic Candler building on Forsyth Park, ceased operations in 2018. Savannah is also home to most of the schools in the Chatham County school district, the Savannah-Chatham County Public Schools. Notable secondary schools in Savannah-Chatham County include the following. (Public schools are indicated with an asterisk.) * Beach High School**\*** * Benedictine Military School * Calvary Day School * Groves High School**\*** * Islands High School**\*** * Jenkins High School**\*** * Johnson High School**\*** * New Hampstead High School**\*** * Saint Andrew's School * St. Vincent's Academy * Savannah Arts Academy**\*** * Savannah Christian Preparatory School * Savannah Country Day School * Savannah High School**\*** * Windsor Forest High School**\*** Oatland Island Wildlife Center of Savannah is also a part of the Savannah-Chatham County Public Schools. An environmental education center, it serves thousands of students from throughout the Southeastern United States. Located east of Savannah on a marsh island, it features a 2-mile (3.2 km) Native Animal Nature Trail that winds through maritime forest, salt marsh, and freshwater wetlands. Along the trail, visitors can observe native animals such as Florida panthers, Eastern timber wolves, and alligators in their natural habitat. Media ----- Savannah's major television stations are WSAV-TV, channel 3 (NBC); WTOC-TV, channel 11 (CBS); WJCL, channel 22 (ABC); and WTGS, channel 28 (Fox). Two PBS member stations serve the city: WVAN (channel 9), part of Georgia Public Broadcasting; and WJWJ-TV (channel 16), part of SCETV. Other stations include channel 3.2 (The CW). *The Georgia Gazette* was the Georgia colony's first newspaper and was published in Savannah beginning April 7, 1763. Today the *Savannah Morning News* is Savannah's only remaining daily newspaper. It first appeared on January 15, 1850 as the *Daily Morning News*. Both the *Savannah Tribune* and the *Savannah Herald* are weekly newspapers with a focus on the city's African-American community. *Connect Savannah* is a free weekly newspaper focused on local news, culture and music. *The Coastal Buzz* is the metro area's only media company dedicated to "positive news." It is owned by Positive Life Media. Infrastructure -------------- ### Transportation Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport is located off Interstate 95 west of Savannah. The airlines serving this airport year-round are Allegiant Air, American Airlines, American Eagle, Delta, Delta Connection, JetBlue, Silver Airways, Southwest Airlines and United Express. Air Canada Express, Frontier Airlines, Sun County Airlines and United Airlines offer seasonal services only. Amtrak operates a passenger terminal at Savannah for its *Palmetto* and *Silver Service* trains, which run between New York City and Miami. (Three southbound and three northbound trains make daily stops at the Savannah terminal). Public transit throughout the region is assured by Chatham Area Transit (CAT). There are 17 fixed routes, plus the CAT's dot (**do**wntown **t**ransportation) system, which provides fare-free bus service on the Forsyth Loop and Downtown Loop, as well as free passage to and from Hutchinson Island via the Savannah Belles Ferry. #### Interstates and major highways * I-95 Interstate 95 — Runs north–south just west of the city; provides access to Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport and intersects with Interstate 16, which leads into the city's center. * I-16 Interstate 16 — Terminates in downtown Savannah at Liberty and Montgomery streets, and intersects with Interstate 95 and Interstate 516. * I-516 Interstate 516 — An urban perimeter highway connecting southside Savannah, at DeRenne Avenue, with the industrialized port area of the city to the north; intersects with the Veterans Parkway and Interstate 16 as well. Also known as Lynes Parkway. * U.S. Route 80 U.S. Route 80 (Victory Drive) — Runs east–west through midtown Savannah and connects the city with the town of Thunderbolt and the islands of Whitemarsh, Talahi, Wilmington and Tybee. Merges with the Islands Expressway and serves as the only means of reaching the Atlantic Ocean by automobile. * U.S. Route 17 U.S. Route 17 (Ocean Highway) — Runs north–south from Richmond Hill, through southside Savannah, into Garden City, back into west Savannah with a spur onto I-516, then I-16, and finally continuing over the Talmadge Memorial Bridge into South Carolina. * Harry S. Truman Parkway — Runs through eastside Savannah, connecting the east end of downtown with southside neighborhoods. Construction began in 1990 and opened in phases (the last phase, connecting with Abercorn Street, was completed in 2014). * Veterans Parkway — Links Interstate 516 and southside/midtown Savannah with southside Savannah, and is intended to move traffic quicker from north–south by avoiding high-volume Abercorn Street. Also known as the Southwest Bypass. * Islands Expressway — An extension of President Street to facilitate traffic moving between downtown Savannah, the barrier islands and the beaches of Tybee Island. Crime ----- The total number of violent crimes in the Savannah-Chatham County reporting area ran just above 1,000 per year from 2003 through 2006. In 2007, however, the total number of violent crimes jumped to 1,163. Savannah-Chatham has recorded between 20 and 25 homicides each year since 2005. In 2007, Savannah-Chatham recorded a sharp increase in home burglaries but a sharp decrease in larcenies from parked automobiles. During the same year, statistics show a 29 percent increase in arrests for Part 1 crimes. An additional increase in burglaries occurred in 2008 with 2,429 residential burglaries reported to Savannah-Chatham police that year. That reflects an increase of 668 incidents from 2007. In 2007, there were 1,761 burglaries, according to metro police data. Savannah-Chatham police report that crimes reported in 2009 came in down 6 percent from 2008. In 2009, 11,782 crimes were reported to metro police — 753 fewer than in 2008. Within that 2009 number is a 12.2 percent decrease in violent crimes when compared with 2008. Property crimes saw a 5.3 percent decline, which included a 5.2 percent reduction in residential burglary. In 2008, residential burglary was up by almost 40 percent. While some violent crimes increased in 2009, crimes like street robbery went down significantly. In 2009, 30 homicides were reported, four more than the year before. Also, 46 rapes were reported, nine more than the year before. In the meantime, street robbery decreased by 23 percent. In 2008, metro police achieved a 90 percent clearance rate for homicide cases, which was described as exceptional by violent crimes unit supervisors. In 2009, the department had a clearance rate of 53 percent, which police attributed to outstanding warrants and grand jury presentations. The SCMPD provide the public with up-to-date crime report information through an online mapping service. This information can be found here. 2015 saw a dramatic increase in the number of violent crimes, including at least 54 deaths due to gun violence, a number not seen since the early 1990s. The first quarter of 2018 saw crime trending downward, compared to 2017. Sister cities ------------- Savannah's sister cities are: * Batumi, Georgia * Halle, Germany * Jiujiang, China * Kaya, Burkina Faso * Patras, Greece Unincorporated suburbs of Savannah ---------------------------------- Savannah's unincorporated suburbs within Chatham County include several located on urbanized barrier islands east of the city. * Dutch Island * Georgetown * Henderson * Isle of Hope * Montgomery * Skidaway Island * Talahi Island * Whitemarsh Island * Wilmington Island Notable people -------------- See also -------- * USS *Savannah*, 6 ships Further reading --------------- * Coffey, Thomas F., Jr. (1994). *Only in Savannah: Stories and Insights on Georgia's Mother City.* Savannah: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 0-913720-84-4. * Coffey, Thomas F. Jr. (1997). *Savannah Lore and More*. Savannah: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 0-913720-92-5. OCLC 37238907. * Dick, Susan (2001). *Savannah, Georgia*. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. ISBN 0-7385-0688-5. LCCN 2001087664. OCLC 47253807. * Elmore, Charles (2002). *Savannah, Georgia*. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Pub. ISBN 0-7385-1408-X. LCCN 2001095826. OCLC 54852532. * Felton, Ariel (November 26, 2020). "For Black tour guides in Savannah, the historical is personal". *Washington Post*. * Russell, Preston, and Barbara Hines (1992). *Savannah: A History of Her People Since 1733*. Savannah: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 0-913720-80-1. OCLC 613303710. * Smith, Derek (1997). *Civil War Savannah*. Savannah: Frederic C. Beil. ISBN 0-913720-93-3. OCLC 37221004.

Savannah, Georgia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia

The **Tuareg people** (/ˈtwɑːrɛɡ/; also spelled **Twareg** or **Touareg**; endonym: *Imuhaɣ/Imušaɣ/Imašeɣăn/Imajeɣăn*) are a large Berber ethnic group that principally inhabit the Sahara in a vast area stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso. Traditionally nomadic pastoralists, small groups of Tuareg are also found in northern Nigeria. The Tuareg speak languages of the same name (also known as *Tamasheq*), which belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family. They are a semi-nomadic people who practice Islam, and are descended from the indigenous Berber communities of Northern Africa, which have been described as a mosaic of local Northern African (Taforalt), Middle Eastern, European (Early European Farmers), and Sub-Saharan African-related ancestries, prior to the Arab expansion. Tuareg people are credited with the spreading of Islam in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. The Tuareg have controlled several trans-Saharan trade routes and have been an important party to the conflicts in the Saharan region during the colonial and post-colonial era. Some researchers have tied the ethnogenesis of the Tuareg with the fall of the Garamantes who inhabited the Fezzan (Libya) from the 1st millennium BC to 5th century AD. Names ----- The origins and meanings of the name *Tuareg* have long been debated. It would appear that *Twārəg* is derived from the broken plural of *Tārgi*, a name whose former meaning was "inhabitant of *Targa*", the Tuareg name of the Libyan region commonly known as Fezzan. *Targa* in Berber means "(drainage) channel". Another theory is that Tuareg is derived from *Tuwariq*, the plural of the Arabic exonym *Tariqi*. The term for a Tuareg man is *Amajagh* (variants: *Amashegh*, *Amahagh*), the term for a woman *Tamajaq* (variants: *Tamasheq*, *Tamahaq*, *Timajaghen*). Spellings of the appellation vary by Tuareg dialect. However, they all reflect the same linguistic root, expressing the notion of "freemen". As such, the endonym strictly refers only to the Tuareg nobility, not the artisanal client castes and the slaves. Two other Tuareg self-designations are *Kel Tamasheq* (Neo-Tifinagh: *Kel Tamasheq*), meaning "speakers of Tamasheq", and *Kel Tagelmust*, meaning "veiled people" in allusion to the tagelmust garment that is traditionally worn by Tuareg men. The English exonym "Blue People" is similarly derived from the indigo color of the tagelmust veils and other clothing, which sometimes stains the skin underneath giving it a blueish tint. Another term for the Tuareg is *Imuhagh* or *Imushagh*, a cognate to the northern Berber self-name *Imazighen*. Demography and languages ------------------------ The Tuareg today inhabit a vast area in the Sahara, stretching from far southwestern Libya to southern Algeria, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso, and the far north of Nigeria. Their combined population in these territories exceeds 2.5 million, with an estimated population in Niger of around 2 million (11% of inhabitants) and in Mali of another 0.5 million (3% of inhabitants). The Tuareg are the majority ethnic group in the Kidal Region of northeastern Mali. The Tuareg traditionally speak the Tuareg languages, also known as *Tamasheq*, *Tamachen*, *Tamashekin*, *Tomacheck* and *Kidal*. These languages belong to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family. According to *Ethnologue*, there are an estimated 1.2 million Tuareg speakers. Around half of this number consists of speakers of the eastern dialect (*Tamajaq*, *Tawallammat*). The exact number of Tuareg speakers per territory is uncertain. The CIA estimates that the Tuareg population in Mali constitutes approximately 0.9% of the national population (~150,000), whereas about 3.5% of local inhabitants speak Tuareg (Tamacheq) as a primary language. In contrast, Imperato (2008) estimates that the Tuareg represent around 3% of Mali's population. History ------- ### Early history In antiquity, the Tuareg moved southward from the Tafilalt region into the Sahel under the Tuareg founding queen Tin Hinan, who is believed to have lived between the 4th and 5th centuries. The matriarch's 1,500-year-old monumental Tin Hinan tomb is located in the Sahara at Abalessa in the Hoggar Mountains of southern Algeria. Vestiges of an inscription in Tifinagh, the Tuareg's traditional Libyco-Berber writing script, have been found on one of the ancient sepulchre's walls. External accounts of interaction with the Tuareg are available from at least the 10th century onwards. Ibn Hawkal (10th century), El-Bekri (11th century), Edrisi (12th century), Ibn Batutah (14th century), and Leo Africanus (16th century) all documented the Tuareg in some form, usually as Mulatthamin or "the veiled ones." Of the early historians, fourteenth century scholar, Ibn Khaldûn probably has some of the most detailed commentary on the life and people of the Sahara, though he apparently never actually met them. ### Colonial era At the turn of the 19th century, the Tuareg territory was organised into confederations, each ruled by a supreme Chief (*Amenokal*), along with a council of elders from each tribe. These confederations were sometimes called "*Drum Groups*" after the Amenokal's symbol of authority, a drum. Clan (*Tewsit*) elders, called Imegharan (wisemen), were chosen to assist the chief of the confederation. Historically, there have been seven major confederations. * *Kel Ajjer* or Azjar: centre is the oasis of Aghat (Ghat). * *Kel Ahaggar*, in Ahaggar mountains. * *Kel Adagh*, or *Kel Assuk*: Kidal, and Tin Buktu * *Iwillimmidan Kel Ataram*, or *Western Iwillimmidan*: Ménaka, and Azawagh region (Mali) * *Iwillimmidan Kel Denneg*, or *Eastern Iwillimmidan*: Tchin-Tabaraden, Abalagh, Teliya Azawagh (Niger). * *Kel Ayr*: Assodé, Agadez, In Gal, Timia and Ifrwan. * *Kel Gres*: Zinder and Tanut (Tanout) and south into northern Nigeria. * *Kel Owey*: Aïr Massif, seasonally south to Tessaoua (Niger) In the mid-19th century descriptions of the Tuareg and their way of life were made by the English traveller James Richardson in his journeys across the Libyan Sahara in 1845–1846. In the late 19th century, the Tuareg resisted the French colonial invasion of their Central Saharan homelands and annihilated a French expedition led by Paul Flatters in 1881. However, in the long run Tuareg broadswords were no match for the more advanced weapons of French troops. After numerous massacres on both sides, the Tuareg were subdued and required to sign treaties in Mali 1905 and Niger 1917. In southern Algeria, the French met some of the strongest resistance from the Ahaggar Tuareg. Their *Amenokal*, traditional chief Moussa ag Amastan, fought numerous battles in defence of the region. Finally, Tuareg territories were taken under French governance. French colonial administration of the Tuareg was largely based on supporting the existing social hierarchy. The French came to the conclusion that Tuareg rebellions were largely the result of the implementation of policies that undermined the authority of traditional chiefs. The French wished to create a protectorate operating, ideally, through single chieftains. It was proposed that French support for the chieftains would result in them becoming loyal adherents of the colonial authority, and the authority would interact with the Tuareg only through the chieftains. One of the consequences of this policy was that the French authorities did little or nothing to improve the status of the servile portion of Tuareg society, believing that the noble caste, on whom their policy relied, would not survive without slaves. ### Post-colonial era When African countries achieved widespread independence in the 1960s, the traditional Tuareg territory was divided among a number of modern states: Niger, Mali, Algeria, Libya, and Burkina Faso. Competition for resources in the Sahel has since led to conflicts between the Tuareg and neighboring African groups, especially after political disruption following French colonization and independence. There have been tight restrictions placed on nomadization because of high population growth. Desertification is exacerbated by human activity i.e.; exploitation of resources and the increased firewood needs of growing cities. Some Tuareg are therefore experimenting with farming; some have been forced to abandon herding and seek jobs in towns and cities. In Mali, a Tuareg uprising resurfaced in the Adrar N'Fughas mountains in the 1960s, following Mali's independence. Several Tuareg joined, including some from the Adrar des Iforas in northeastern Mali. The 1960s' rebellion was a fight between a group of Tuareg and the newly independent state of Mali. The Malian Army suppressed the revolt. Resentment among the Tuareg fueled the second uprising. This second (or third) uprising was in May 1990. At this time, in the aftermath of a clash between government soldiers and Tuareg outside a prison in Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger, Tuareg in both Mali and Niger claimed autonomy for their traditional homeland: (Ténéré, capital Agadez, in Niger and the Azawad and Kidal regions of Mali). Deadly clashes between Tuareg fighters (with leaders such as Mano Dayak) and the military of both countries followed, with deaths numbering well into the thousands. Negotiations initiated by France and Algeria led to peace agreements (11 January 1992 in Mali and 1995 in Niger). Both agreements called for decentralization of national power and guaranteed the integration of Tuareg resistance fighters into the countries' respective national armies. Major fighting between the Tuareg resistance and government security forces ended after the 1995 and 1996 agreements. As of 2004, sporadic fighting continued in Niger between government forces and Tuareg groups struggling for independence. In 2007, a new surge in violence occurred. Since the development of Berberism in North Africa in the 1990s, there has also been a Tuareg ethnic revival. Since 1998, three different flags have been designed to represent the Tuareg. In Niger, the Tuareg people remain diplomatically and economically marginalized, remaining poor and not being represented in Niger's central government. Religion -------- The Tuareg traditionally adhered to the Berber mythology. Archaeological excavations of prehistoric tombs in the Maghreb have yielded skeletal remains that were painted with ochre. Although this ritual practice was known to the Iberomaurusians, the custom seems instead to have been primarily derived from the ensuing Capsian culture. Megalithic tombs, such as the jedar sepulchres, were erected for religious and funerary practices. In 1926, one such tomb was discovered south of Casablanca. The monument was engraved with funerary inscriptions in the ancient Libyco-Berber writing script known as Tifinagh, which the Tuareg still use. During the medieval period, the Tuareg adopted Islam after its arrival with the Umayyad Caliphate in the 7th century. In the 16th century, under the tutelage of El Maghili, the Tuareg embraced the Maliki school of the Sunni, which they now primarily follow. The Tuareg helped spread Islam further into the Western Sudan. While Islam is the religion of the contemporary Tuareg, historical documents suggest that they initially resisted the Islamization efforts in their traditional strongholds. According to the anthropologist Susan Rasmussen, after the Tuareg had adopted the religion, they were reputedly lax in their prayers and observances of other Muslim precepts. Some of their ancient beliefs still exist today subtly within their culture and tradition, such as elements of pre-Islamic cosmology and rituals, particularly among Tuareg women, or the widespread "cult of the dead", which is a form of ancestor veneration. For example, Tuareg religious ceremonies contain allusions to matrilineal spirits, as well as to fertility, menstruation, the earth and ancestresses. Norris (1976) suggests that this apparent syncretism may stem from the influence of Sufi Muslim preachers on the Tuareg. The Tuaregs have been one of the influential ethnic groups who have helped spread Islam and its legacy in North Africa and the adjacent Sahel region. Timbuktu, an important Islamic center famed for its ulama, was established by Imasheghen Tuareg at the start of the 12th century. It flourished under the protection and rule of a Tuareg confederation. In 1449, a Tuareg ruling house founded the Tenere Sultanate of Aïr (Sultanate of Agadez) in the city of Agadez in the Aïr Mountains. 18th century Tuareg Islamic scholars, such as Jibril ibn 'Umar, later preached the value of revolutionary jihad. Inspired by these teachings, Ibn 'Umar's student Usman dan Fodio would go on to lead the Fulani jihads and establish the Sokoto Caliphate. Society ------- The Tuareg society has traditionally featured clan membership, social status and caste hierarchies within each political confederation. ### Clans Clans have been a historic part of the Tuaregs. The 7th century invasion of North Africa from the Middle East triggered an extensive migration of Tuaregs such as the Lemta and the Zarawa, along with other fellow pastoral Berbers. Further invasions of Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym Arab tribes into Tuareg regions in the 11th century moved the Tuareg southward into seven clans, which the oral tradition of Tuaregs claims to be descendants of the same mother. Each Tuareg clan (*tawshet*) is made up of family groups constituting a tribe, each led by its chief, the *amghar*. A series of *tawsheten* (plural of *tawshet*) may bond together under an *Amenokal*, forming a *Kel* clan confederation. Tuareg self-identification is related only to their specific *Kel*, which means "those of". For example, *Kel Dinnig* (those of the east), *Kel Ataram* (those of the west). The position of *amghar* is hereditary through a matrilineal principle, it is usual for the son of a sister of the incumbent chieftain to succeed to his position. The *amenokal* is elected in a ritual which differs between groups, the individual amghar who lead the clans making up the confederation usually have the deciding voice. The matrilineal inheritance and mythology among Tuareg clans, states Susan Rasmussen, is a cultural vestige from the pre-Islamic era of the Tuareg society. According to Rasmussen, Tuareg society exhibits a blend of pre-Islamic and Islamic practices. As such, patrilineal Muslim values are believed to have been superimposed upon the Tuareg's traditional matrilineal society. Other, apparently newer customs include the practice of close-cousin endogamous marriages and polygyny in conformity with Islamic tenets. Polygyny, which has been witnessed among Tuareg chiefs and Islamic scholars, is in turn thought to be contrary to the pre-Islamic monogamous tradition of the nomadic Tuareg. ### Social stratification Tuareg society has featured caste hierarchies within each clan and political confederation. These hierarchical systems have included nobles, clerics, craftsmen and unfree strata of people including widespread slavery. #### Nobility, vassals and clerics Traditionally, Tuareg society is hierarchical, with nobility and vassals. The linguist Karl-Gottfried Prasse (1995) indicates that the nobles constitute the highest caste. They are known in the Tuareg language as *imúšaɣ* (approximately pronounced 'imohar' with a French 'r' – also known as *Imajaghan*, "the proud and free"). The nobles originally had a monopoly on carrying arms and owning camels, and were the warriors of the Tuareg regions. They may have achieved their social status by subjugating other Tuareg castes, keeping arms to defend their properties and vassals. They have collected tribute from their vassals. This warrior nobility has traditionally married within their caste, not to individuals in strata below their own. A collection of tribes, each led by a noble, forms a confederation called *amanokal*, whose chieftain is elected from among the nobles by the tribal chiefs. The chieftain is the overlord during times of war, and receives tribute and taxes from tribes as a sign of their submission to his authority. The vassal-herdsmen are the second free stratum within Tuareg society, occupying a position just below that of the nobles. They are known as *ímɣad* (*Imghad*, singular *Amghid*) in the Tuareg language. Although the vassals were free, they did not own camels but instead kept donkeys and herds of goats, sheep and oxen. They pastured and tended their own herds as well those owned by the nobles of the confederation. The vassal strata have traditionally paid an annual *tiwse*, or tribute to the nobles as a part of their status obligations, and hosted any noble who was traveling through their territory. In the late Medieval era, states Prasse, the previously existing weapon monopoly of the nobility broke down after regional wars took a heavy toll on the noble warrior strata, and thereafter the vassals carried weapons as well and were recruited as warriors. After the start of the French colonial rule, which deprived the nobles of their powers over war and taxation, the Tuaregs belonging to the noble strata disdained tending cattle and tilling the land, seeking instead soldiering or intellectual work. A semi-noble stratum of the Tuareg people has been the endogamous religious clerics, the *marabouts* (Tuareg: *Ineslemen*, a loan word that means Muslim in Arabic). After the adoption of Islam, they became integral to the Tuareg social structure. According to Norris (1976), this stratum of Muslim clerics has been a sacerdotal caste, which propagated Islam in North Africa and the Sahel between the 7th and 17th centuries. Adherence to the faith was initially centered around this caste, but later spread to the wider Tuareg community. The marabouts have traditionally been the judges (*qadi*) and religious leaders (*imam*) of a Tuareg community. #### Castes According to the anthropologist Jeffrey Heath, Tuareg artisans belong to separate endogamous castes known as the *Inhædˤæn* (*Inadan*). These have included the blacksmith, jewelers, wood workers and leather artisan castes. They produced and repaired the saddles, tools, household items and other items for the Tuareg community. In Niger and Mali, where the largest Tuareg populations are found, the artisan castes were attached as clients to a family of nobles or vassals, carried messages over distances for their patron family, and traditionally sacrificed animals during Islamic festivals. These social strata, like caste systems found in many parts of West Africa, included singers, musicians and story tellers of the Tuareg, who kept their oral traditions. They are called *Agguta* by Tuareg, have been called upon to sing during ceremonies such as weddings or funerals. The origins of the artisanal castes are unclear. One theory posits a Jewish derivation, a proposal that Prasse calls "a much vexed question". Their association with fire, iron and precious metals and their reputation for being cunning tradesmen has led others to treat them with a mix of admiration and distrust. According to Rasmussen, the Tuareg castes are not only hierarchical, as each caste differs in mutual perception, food and eating behaviors. For example, she relates an explanation by a smith on why there is endogamy among Tuareg castes in Niger. The smith explained, "nobles are like rice, smiths are like millet, slaves are like corn". The people who farm oases in some Tuareg-dominated areas form a distinct group known as *izeggaghan* (or *hartani* in Arabic). Their origins are unclear but they often speak both Tuareg dialects and Arabic, though a few communities are Songhay speakers. Traditionally, these local peasants were subservient to the warrior nobles who owned the oasis and the land. The peasants tilled these fields, whose output they gave to the nobles after keeping a fifth part of the produce. Their Tuareg patrons were usually responsible for supplying agricultural tools, seed and clothing. The peasants' origins are also unclear. One theory postulates that they are descendants of ancient people who lived in the Sahara before they were dominated by invading groups. In contemporary times, these peasant strata have blended in with freed slaves and farm arable lands together. #### Slaves *Bellah* constitute the historic slave stratum within Tuareg society. The Tuareg confederations acquired slaves (often of Nilotic origin) as well as tribute paying states by conducting raids on surrounding communities. They also secured captives as war booty or purchased slaves in markets. The slaves or servile communities are locally called *Ikelan* (or *Iklan*, *Eklan*), and slavery was inherited, with the descendants of the slaves known as *irewelen*. They often live in communities separated from other castes. The Ikelan's Nilotic extraction is denoted via the Ahaggar Berber word *Ibenheren* (sing. *Ébenher*). The word *ikelan* itself is plural form of "slave", an allusion to most of the slaves. In the post-colonial literature, the alternate terms for *Ikelan* include "Bellah-iklan" or just "Bellah" derived from a Songhay word. According to the historian Starratt (1981), the Tuareg evolved a system of slavery that was highly differentiated. They established strata among their slaves, which determined rules as to the slave's expected behavior, marriageability, inheritance rights if any, and occupation. The *Ikelan* later became a bonded caste within Tuareg society, and they now speak the same Tamasheq language as the Tuareg nobles and share many customs. According to Heath, the *Bella* in the Tuareg society were the slave caste whose occupation was rearing and herding livestock such as sheep and goats. When French colonial governments were established, they stopped acquisition of new slaves and slave trading in markets, but they did not remove or free domestic slaves from the Tuareg owners who had acquired their slaves before the French rule started. In the Tuareg society, like with many other ethnic groups in West Africa, slave status was inherited, and the upper strata used slave children for domestic work, at camps and as a dowry gift of servants to the newlyweds. According to Bernus (1972), Brusberg (1985) and Mortimore (1972), French colonial interests in the Tuareg region were primarily economic, with no intention of ending the slave-owning institution. The historian Martin A. Klein (1998) states instead that, although French colonial rule indeed did not end domestic slavery within Tuareg society, the French reportedly attempted to impress upon the nobles the equality of the Imrad and Bella and to encourage the slaves to claim their rights. He suggests that there was a large scale attempt by French West African authorities to liberate slaves and other bonded castes in Tuareg areas following the 1914–1916 Firouan revolt. Despite this, French officials following the Second World War reported that there were some 50,000 "*Bella*" under direct control of Tuareg masters in the Gao–Timbuktu areas of French Soudan alone. This was at least four decades after French declarations of mass freedom had happened in other areas of the colony. In 1946, a series of mass desertions of Tuareg slaves and bonded communities began in Nioro and later in Menaka, quickly spreading along the Niger River valley. In the first decade of the 20th century, French administrators in southern Tuareg areas of the French Sudan estimated that "free" to "servile" groups within Tuareg society existed at ratios of 1 to 8 or 9. At the same time, the servile "*rimaibe*" population of the Masina Fulbe, roughly equivalent to the *Bella*, constituted between 70% and 80% of the Fulbe population, while servile Songhay groups around Gao made up some 2/3 to 3/4 of the total Songhay population. Klein concludes that approximately 50% of the population of French Soudan at the beginning of the 20th century was in some servile or slave relationship. While post-independence states have sought to outlaw slavery, results have been mixed. Certain Tuareg communities still uphold the institution. Traditional caste relationships have continued in many places, including slaveholding. In Niger, where the practice of slavery was outlawed in 2003, according to the ABC News, almost 8% of the population are still enslaved. The Washington Post reported that many slaves held by the Tuareg in Mali were liberated during 2013-14 when French troops intervened on behalf of the Malian government against Islamic radicals allied to the Tuareg. #### Chronology The Tuareg social stratification involving noble, clerical and artisanal castes likely emerged after the 10th century, as a corollary of the rising slavery system. Similar caste institutions are found among various other communities in Africa. According to the anthropologist Tal Tamari, linguistic evidence suggests that the Tuareg blacksmith and bard endogamous castes evolved under foreign contact with Sudanic peoples since the Tuareg terms for blacksmith and bard are of non-Berber origin. Correspondingly, the designation for the endogamous blacksmiths among the southern Tuareg is *gargassa* (a cognate of the Songhay *garaasa* and Fulani *garkasaa6e*), whereas it is *enaden* among the northern Tuareg (meaning "the other"). Archaeological work by Rod McIntosh and Susan Keech McIntosh indicates that long-distance trade and specialized economies existed in the Western Sudan at an early date. During the 9th and 10th centuries, Berbers and Arabs built upon these pre-existing trade routes and quickly developed trans-Saharan and sub-Saharan transport networks. The successive local Muslim kingdoms developed increasing sophistication as states, their martial capacity, slave raiding, holding and trading systems. Among these Islamic states were the Ghana Empire (11th century), the Mali Empire (13th and 14th centuries), and the Songhay Empire (16th century). Slavery created a template for servile relationships, which developed into more complex castes and social stratification. Culture ------- Tuareg culture is largely matrilineal. Other distinctive aspects of Tuareg culture include clothing, food, language, religion, arts, astronomy, nomadic architecture, traditional weapons, music, films, games, and economic activities. ### Clothing In Tuareg society women do not traditionally wear the veil, whereas men do. The most famous Tuareg symbol is the *tagelmust* (also called éghéwed and, in Arabic, *litham*), sometimes referred to as a cheche (pronounced "shesh"), a combined turban and veil, often indigo-blue colored. The men's facial covering originates from the belief that such action wards off evil spirits. It may have related instrumentally from the need for protection from the harsh desert sands as well. It is a firmly established tradition, as is the wearing of amulets containing sacred objects and, recently, verses from the *Qur'an*. Taking on the veil is associated with the rite of passage to manhood; men begin wearing a veil when they reach maturity. The veil usually conceals their face, excluding their eyes and the top of the nose. Names for traditional clothing include: * *tagelmust*: turban – men * *bukar*: black cotton turban – men * *tasuwart*: women's veil * *takatkat*: shirt – women and men * *takarbast*: short shirt – women and men * *akarbey*: pants worn by men * *afetek*: loose shirt worn by women * *afer*: women's pagne * *tari*: large black pagne for winter season * *bernuz*: long woolen cloth for winter * *akhebay*: loose bright green or blue cloth for women * *ighateman*: shoes * *iragazan*: red leather sandals * *ibuzagan*: leather shoes The traditional indigo turban is still preferred for celebrations, and generally Tuareg wear clothing and turbans in a variety of colors. ### Food Taguella is a flatbread made from wheat flour and cooked on a charcoal fire; the flat disk-shaped bread is buried under the hot sand. The bread is broken into small pieces and eaten with a meat sauce. Millet porridge called *a cink* or *a liwa* is a staple much like ugali and fufu. Millet is boiled with water to make a pap and eaten with milk or a heavy sauce. Common dairy foods are goat's and camel's milk called *akh*, as well as cheese *ta komart* and *Tona* a thick yogurt made from them. Eghajira is a beverage drunk with a ladle. It is made by pounding millet, goat cheese, dates, milk and sugar and is served on festivals. Just like in Morocco, the local popular tea, called *atay* or *ashay*, is made from Gunpowder Green Tea with much sugar added. After steeping, it is poured three times in and out of the teapot over the tea, mint leaves and sugar and served by pouring from a height of over a foot into small tea glasses with a froth on top. ### Language The Tuareg natively speak the Tuareg languages. A dialect cluster, it belongs to the Berber branch of the Afroasiatic family. Tuareg is known as *Tamasheq* by western Tuareg in Mali, as *Tamahaq* among Algerian and Libyan Tuareg, and as *Tamajeq* in the Azawagh and Aïr regions of Niger. French missionary Charles de Foucauld compiled perhaps the earliest dictionary of the Tuareg language. The Tuaregs compose a great deal of poetry often elegiac, epigrammatic, and amatory. Charles de Foucauld, and other ethnographers, have preserved thousands of these poems, many of which Foucauld translated into French. ### Arts Similar to other rural Berber traditions, jewellery made of silver, coloured glass or iron is also a special artform of the Tuareg people. While jewellery of other Berber cultures in the Maghreb was mainly worn by women, Tuareg men also use necklaces, amulets, rings and other jewellery. These traditional handicrafts are made by the *inadan wan-tizol* (makers of weapons and jewelry). Among their products are tanaghilt or zakkat (the 'Agadez Cross' or 'Croix d'Agadez'); the Tuareg sword (takoba), gold and silver-made necklaces called 'takaza' as well as earrings called 'tizabaten'. Pilgrimage boxes have intricate iron and brass decorations and are used for carrying items. Tahatint are made of goat skin. Other such artifacts are made of leather and include metalwork for saddle decorations, called *trik*. Most forms of the Cross of Agadez are worn as pendants with varied shapes that either resemble a cross or have the shape of a plate or shield. Historically, the oldest known specimens were made of stone or copper, but subsequently the Tuareg blacksmiths also used iron and silver made in the lost-wax casting technique. According to the article "*The cross of Agadez*" by Seligman and Loughran (2006), this piece has become a national and African symbol for Tuareg culture and political rights. Today, these pieces of jewellery are often made for tourists or as items of ethnic-style fashion for customers in other countries, with certain modern changes. ### Astronomy The clear desert skies allowed the Tuareg to be keen observers. Tuareg celestial objects include: * Azzag Willi (Venus), which indicates the time for milking the goats * Shet Ahad (Pleiades), the seven sisters of the night * Amanar (Orion), the warrior of the desert * Talemt (Ursa Major), the she-camel wakes up * Awara (Ursa Minor), the baby camel goes to sleep ### Nomadic architecture While living quarters are progressively changing to adapt to a more sedentary lifestyle, Tuareg groups are well known for their nomadic architecture (tents). There are several documented styles, some covered with animal skin, some with mats. The style tends to vary by location or subgroup. The tent is traditionally constructed for the first time during the marriage ceremony and is considered an extension of the union, to the extent that the phrase "making a tent" is a metaphor for becoming married. Because the tent is considered to be under the ownership of a married woman, sedentary dwellings generally belong to men, reflecting a patriarchal shift in power dynamics. Current documentation suggests a negotiation of common practice in which a woman's tent is set up in the courtyard of her husband's house. It has been suggested that the traditional tent construction and arrangement of living space within it represent a microcosm of the greater world as an aide in the organization of lived experiences so much so that movement away from the tent can cause changes in character for both men and women as its stabilizing force becomes faint. An old legend says the Tuareg once lived in grottoes, *akazam*, and they lived in foliage beds on the top acacia trees, *tasagesaget*. Other kinds of traditional housing include: *ahaket* (Tuareg goatskin red tent), *tafala* (a shade made of millet sticks), *akarban* also called *takabart* (temporary hut for winter), *ategham* (summer hut), *taghazamt* (adobe house for long stay), and *ahaket* (a dome-shaped house made of mats for the dry season and square shaped roof with holes to prevent hot air). ### Traditional weapons * *takoba*: 1 meter long straight sword * *sheru*: long dagger * *telek*: short dagger kept in a sheath attached to the left forearm. * *allagh*: 2 meter long lance * *tagheda*: small and sharp assegai * *taganze*: leather covered-wooden bow * *amur*: wooden arrow * *taburek*: wooden stick * *alakkud* or *abartak*: riding crop * *agher*: 1.50 meter high shield In 2007, Stanford's Cantor Arts Center opened an exhibition, "Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World", the first such exhibit in the United States. It was curated by Tom Seligman, director of the center. He had first spent time with the Tuareg in 1971 when he traveled through the Sahara after serving in the Peace Corps. The exhibition included crafted and adorned functional objects such as camel saddles, tents, bags, swords, amulets, cushions, dresses, earrings, spoons and drums. The exhibition also was shown at the University of California, Los Angeles Fowler Museum in Angeles and the Smithsonian's National Museum of African Art in Washington, D.C. Throughout history, the Tuareg were renowned and respected warriors. Their decline as a military might came with the introduction of firearms, weapons which the Tuareg did not possess. The Tuareg warrior equipment consisted of a *takoba* (sword), *allagh* (lance) and *aghar* (shield) made of antelope hide. ### Music Traditional Tuareg music has two major components: the monochord violin *anzad* played often during night parties and a small *tambour* covered with goatskin called *tende*, performed during camel and horse races, and other festivities. Traditional songs called *Asak* and *Tisiway* (poems) are sung by women and men during feasts and social occasions. Another popular Tuareg musical genre is *Takamba*, characteristic for its Afro percussions. **Vocal music** * *tisiway*: poems * *tasikisikit*: songs performed by women, accompanied by tende (drum); the men, on camel-back, circle the women as they sing. * *asak*: songs accompanied by anzad monocord violin. * *tahengemmit*: slow songs sung by elder men **Children and youth music** * *Bellulla* songs made by children playing with the lips * *Fadangama* small monocord instrument for children * *Odili* flute made from trunk of sorghum * *Gidga* small wooden instrument with irons sticks to make strident sounds **Dance** * tagest: dance made while seated, moving the head, the hands and the shoulders. * ewegh: strong dance performed by men, in couples and groups. * agabas: dance for modern ishumar guitars: women and men in groups. In the 1980s rebel fighters founded Tinariwen, a Tuareg band that fuses electric guitars and indigenous musical styles. Especially in areas that were cut off during the Tuareg rebellion (e.g., Adrar des Iforas), they were practically the only music available, which helped them to regional success. They released their first CD in 2000, and toured in Europe and the United States in 2004. Tuareg guitar groups that followed in their path include Group Inerane and Group Bombino. The Niger-based band *Etran Finatawa* combines Tuareg and *Wodaabe* members, playing a combination of traditional instruments and electric guitars. #### Music genres, groups and artists **Traditional music** * Majila Ag Khamed Ahmad: asak singer, of Aduk, Niger * Almuntaha: anzad player, of Aduk, Niger * Ajju: anzad player, of Agadez, Niger * Islaman: asak singer, of Abalagh, Niger * Tambatan: asak singer, of Tchin-Tabaraden, Niger * Alghadawiat: anzad player, of Akoubounou, Niger * Taghdu: anzad player, of Aduk, Niger **Ishumar music** also known as **Teshumara** or **al guitarra** music style * Abdallah Oumbadougou, the "godfather" of the *ishumar* genre * In Tayaden, singer and guitar player, Adagh * Abareybon, singer and guitar player, Tinariwen group, Adagh * Kiddu Ag Hossad, singer and guitar player, Adagh * Baly Othmani singer, luth player, Djanet, Azjar * Abdalla Ag Umbadugu, singer, Takrist N'Akal group, Ayr * Hasso Ag Akotey, singer, Ayr **World Music** * Tinariwen, exemplar of the tishoumaren genre * Bombino, guitarist * Imarhan * Les Filles de Illighadad, Niger #### Music and culture festivals The Desert Festival in Mali's Timbuktu provides one opportunity to see Tuareg culture and dance and hear their music. Other festivals include: * *Cure Salee* Festival in the oasis of In-Gall, Niger * Sabeiba Festival in Ganat (Djanet), Algeria * Shiriken Festival in Akabinu (Akoubounou), Niger * Takubelt Tuareg Festival in Mali * Ghat Festival in Aghat (Ghat), Libya * Le Festival au Désert in Mali * Ghadames Tuareg Festival in Libya ### Films * *A Love Apart*, was released in 2004 by Bettina Haasen. * *Akounak Tedalat Taha Tazoughai*, was released in 2014 and stars the musician Mdou Moctar. * *Zerzura* is a Tamashek-language film released in 2017 by Sahel Sounds based on the Northern African fable of Zerzura ### Games Tuareg traditional games and plays include: * *Tiddas*, played with small stones and sticks. * *Kelmutan*: consists of singing and touching each person's leg, where the ends, that person is out: the last person loses the game. * *Temse*: comic game try to make the other team laugh and you win. * *Izagag*, played with small stones or dried fruits. * *Iswa*, played by picking up stones while throwing another stone. * *Melghas*, children hide themselves and another tries to find and touch them before they reach the well and drink. * *Tabillant*, traditional Tuareg wrestling * *Alamom*, wrestling while running * *Solagh*, another type of wrestling * *Tammazaga* or Tammalagha, race on camel back * *Takket*, singing and playing all night. * *Sellenduq* one person to be a jackal and try to touch the others who escape running (tag). * *Takadant*, children try to imagine what the others are thinking. * *Tabakoni*: clown with a goatskin mask to amuse children. * *Abarad Iqquran*: small dressed wooden puppet that tells stories and makes people laugh. * *Maja Gel Gel*: one person tries to touch all people standing, to avoid this sit down. * *Bellus*: everyone runs not to be touched by the one who plays (tag). * *Tamammalt*: pass a burning stick, when its blown off in ones hands tells who's the lover. * *Ideblan*: game with girls, prepare food and go search for water and milk and fruits. * *Seqqetu*: play with girls to learn how to build tents, look after babies made of clay. * *Mifa Mifa*: beauty contest, girls and boys best dressed. * *Taghmart*: children pass from house to house singing to get presents: dates, sugar, etc. * *Melan Melan*: try to find a riddle * *Tawaya*: play with the round fruit calotropis or a piece of cloth. * *Abanaban*: try to find people while eyes are shut. (blind man's bluff) * *Shishagheren*, writing the name of one's lover to see if this person brings good luck. * *Taqqanen*, telling *devinettes* and enigmas. * *Maru Maru*, young people mime how the tribe works. ### Economy Tuareg are distinguished in their native language as the *Imouhar*, meaning the free people; the overlap of meaning has increased local cultural nationalism. Many Tuareg today are either settled agriculturalists or nomadic cattle breeders, while others are blacksmiths or caravan leaders. The Tuareg are a pastoral people, having an economy based on livestock breeding, trading, and agriculture. #### Caravan trade Since prehistoric times, Tuareg peoples have been organising caravans for trading across the Sahara desert. The caravan in Niger from around Agadez to Fachi and Bilma is called *Tarakaft* or *Taghlamt* in Tamashek, and that in Mali from Timbuktu to Taoudenni, *Azalay*. These caravans used first oxen, horses and later camels as a means of transportation. Salt mines or *salines* in the desert. * Tin Garaban near Ghat in Azjar, Libya * Amadghor in Ahaggar, Algeria * Taoudenni in far northern Mali * Tagidda N Tesemt in Azawagh, Niger * Fachi in Ténéré desert, Niger * Bilma in Kawar, eastern Niger A contemporary variant is occurring in northern Niger, in a traditionally Tuareg territory that comprises most of the uranium-rich land of the country. The central government in Niamey has shown itself unwilling to cede control of the highly profitable mining to indigenous clans. The Tuareg are determined not to relinquish the prospect of substantial economic benefit. The French government has independently tried to defend a French firm, Areva, established in Niger for fifty years and now mining the massive uranium deposit. Additional complaints against Areva are that it is: "...plundering...the natural resources and [draining] the fossil deposits. It is undoubtedly an ecological catastrophe". These mines yield uranium ores, which are then processed to produce *yellowcake*, crucial to the nuclear power industry (as well as aspirational nuclear powers). In 2007, some Tuareg people in Niger allied themselves with the Niger Movement for Justice (MNJ), a rebel group operating in the north of the country. During 2004–2007, U.S. Special Forces teams trained Tuareg units of the Nigerien Army in the Sahel region as part of the Trans-Sahara Counter-Terrorism Partnership. Some of these trainees are reported to have fought in the 2007 rebellion within the MNJ. The goal of these Tuareg appears to be economic and political control of ancestral lands, rather than operating from religious and political ideologies. Despite the Sahara's erratic and unpredictable rainfall patterns, the Tuareg have managed to survive in the hostile desert environment for centuries. Over recent years however, depletion of water by the uranium exploitation process combined with the effects of climate change are threatening their ability to subsist. Uranium mining has diminished and degraded Tuareg grazing lands. Not only does the mining industry produce radioactive waste that can contaminate crucial sources of ground water resulting in cancer, stillbirths, and genetic defects but it also uses up huge quantities of water in a region where water is already scarce. This is exacerbated by the increased rate of desertification thought to be the result of global warming. Lack of water forces the Tuareg to compete with southern farming communities for scarce resources and this has led to tensions and clashes between these communities. The precise levels of environmental and social impact of the mining industry have proved difficult to monitor due to governmental obstruction. Genetics -------- ### Y-chromosome DNA Y-Dna haplogroups, passed on exclusively through the paternal line, were found at the following frequencies in Tuaregs: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Population** | **Nb** | **A/B** | **E1b1a** | **E-M35** | **E-M78** | **E-M81** | **E-M123** | **F** | **K-M9** | **G** | **I** | **J1** | **J2** | **R1a** | **R1b** | **Other** | **Study** | | Tuareg (Libya) | 47 | 0 | 43% | 0 | 0 | 49% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 6% | 2% | Ottoni et al. (2011) | | Al Awaynat Tuareg (Libya) | 47 | 0 | 50% | 0 | 0 | 39% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8% | 3% | Ottoni et al. (2011) | | Tahala Tuareg (Libya) | 47 | 0 | 11% | 0 | 0 | 89% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Ottoni et al. (2011) | | Tuareg (Mali) | 11 | 0 | 9.1% | 0 | 9.1% | 81.8% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Pereira et al. (2011) | | Tuareg (Burkina Faso) | 18 | 0 | 16.7% | 0 | 0 | 77.8% | 0 | 0 | 5.6% | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Pereira et al. (2011) | | Tuareg (Niger) | 18 | 5.6% | 44.4% | 0 | 5.6% | 11.1% | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 33.3% | 0 | Pereira et al. (2011) | | E1b1b is the most common paternal haplogroup among the Tuareg. Most belong to its E1b1b1b (E-M81) subclade, which is colloquially referred to as the *Berber marker* due to its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas, Kabyle and other Berber groups. It reaches frequencies of up to 100 percent in some parts of the Maghreb, and is dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. M81 is thought to have originated in North Africa up to 14,000 years ago, but a single 2200-year-old branch M183-PF2546 dominates Northern and Eastern Berbers. Its parent haplogroup E1b1b is associated with Afro-Asiatic-speaking populations, and is thought to have arisen in the Horn of Africa. Besides E1b1b, Pereira et al. (2011) and Ottoni et al. (2011) observed that certain Tuareg inhabiting Niger and Libya carry the E1b1a1-M2 haplogroup (see table above). This clade is today primarily found among Niger-Congo-speaking populations, which suggests that some Tuareg tribes in parts of Libya and Niger may have assimilated many persons of West African origin into their communities. To wit, around 50% of individuals among the Al Awaynat Tuareg in Libya are E1b1a carriers compared to only 11% of the adjacent Tahala Tuareg. 89% of the Tahala belong instead to the E1b1b-M81 Berber founding lineage. ### mtDNA According to mtDNA analysis by Ottoni et al. (2010) in a study of 47 individuals, the Tuareg inhabiting the Fezzan region in Libya predominantly carry the H1 haplogroup (61%). This is the highest global frequency found so far of the maternal clade. The haplogroup peaks among Berber populations. The remaining Libyan Tuareg mainly belong to two other West Eurasian mtDNA lineages, M1 and V. M1 is today most common among other Afro-Asiatic speakers inhabiting East Africa, and is believed to have arrived on the continent along with the U6 haplogroup from the Near East around 40,000 years ago. In 2009, based on 129 individuals, Libyan Tuareg were shown to have a maternal genetic pool with a "European" component similar to other Berbers, as well as a south Saharan contribution linked to Eastern Africa and Near Eastern populations. Pereira et al. (2010) in a study of 90 unrelated individuals observed greater matrilineal heterogeneity among the Tuareg inhabiting more southerly areas in the Sahel. The Tuareg in the Gossi environs in Mali largely bear the H1 haplogroup (52%), with the M1 lineage (19%) and various Sub-Saharan L2 subclades (19%) next most common. Similarly, most of the Tuareg inhabiting Gorom-Gorom in Burkina Faso carry the H1 haplogroup (24%), followed by various L2 subclades (24%), the V lineage (21%), and haplogroup M1 (18%). The Tuareg in the vicinity of Tanout in Maradi Region and westward to villages of Loube and Djibale in Tahoua Region in Niger are different from the other Tuareg populations in that a majority carry Sub-Saharan mtDNA lineages. In fact, the name for these mixed Tuareg-Haussa people is "Djibalawaa" named after the village of Djibale in Bouza Department, Tahoua Region of Niger. This points to significant assimilation of local West African females into this community. The most common maternal haplogroups found among the Tanout Tuareg are various L2 subclades (39%), followed by L3 (26%), various L1 sublineages (13%), V (10%), H1 (3%), M1 (3%), U3a (3%), and L0a1a (3%). ### Autosomal DNA Based on classical genetic markers, according to Cavalli-Sforza LL, Menozzi P, Piazza A. (1994), the Tuareg have genetic affinities with the Beja people, a minority ethnic group inhabiting parts of Sudan, Egypt, and Eritrea. The inferred ethnogenesis of the Tuareg people happened within a time period of 9,000 to 3,000 years ago, and most likely took place somewhere in Northern Africa. A 2017 study by Arauna et al. which analyzed existing genetic data obtained from Northern African populations, such as Berbers, described them as a mosaic of local Northern African (Taforalt), Middle Eastern, European (Early European Farmers), and Sub-Saharan African-related ancestries. ### Bibliography * Heath Jeffrey 2005: *A Grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali)*. New York: Mouton de Gruyer. Mouton Grammar Library, 35. ISBN 3-11-018484-2 * Hourst, Lieutenant (1898) (translated from the French by Mrs. Arthur Bell) *French Enterprise in Africa: The Exploration of the Niger.* Chapman Hall, London. * Loughran, Kristyne (2006). "Tuareg women and their jewelry". In Seligman, Thomas K.; Loughran, Kristyne (eds.). *Art of being Tuareg: Sahara nomads in a modern world*. Los Angeles: Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts at Stanford University UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. pp. 167–212. ISBN 978-0-9748729-4-0. OCLC 61859773. * Karl G. Prasse (1995). *The Tuaregs: The Blue People*. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-313-6. * Karl Prasse; Ghoubeid Alojaly; Ghabdouane Mohamed (2003). Dictionnaire touareg-français. Copenhague, Museum Tusculanum. ISBN 978-87-7289-844-5. * Rando et al. (1998) "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, near-eastern, and sub-Saharan populations". *Annals of Human Genetics* 62(6): 531–50; Watson et al. (1996) mtDNA sequence diversity in Africa. *American Journal of Human Genetics* 59(2): 437–44; Salas et al. (2002) "The Making of the African mtDNA Landscape". *American Journal of Human Genetics* 71: 1082–1111. These are good sources for information on the genetic heritage of the Tuareg and their relatedness to other populations. * Rasmussen, Susan (September 2021). Jain, Andrea R. (ed.). "Re-Thinking a Matrilineal Myth of Healing: Tuareg Medicine Women, Islam, and the Market in Niger". *Journal of the American Academy of Religion*. Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion. **89** (3): 909–930. doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfab076. eISSN 1477-4585. JSTOR 00027189. LCCN sc76000837. * Francis James Rennell Rodd, *People of the veil. Being an account of the habits, organisation and history of the wandering Tuareg tribes which inhabit the mountains of Aïr or Asben in the Central Sahara*, London, MacMillan & Co., 1926 (repr. Oosterhout, N.B., Anthropological Publications, 1966) Further reading --------------- * Edmond Bernus, "Les Touareg", pp. 162–171 in *Vallées du Niger*, Paris: Éditions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1993. * Andre Bourgeot, *Les Sociétés Touarègues, Nomadisme, Identité, Résistances*, Paris: Karthala, 1995. * Hélène Claudot-Hawad, ed., "Touaregs, exil et résistance". *Revue du monde musulman et de la Méditerranée*, No. 57, Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1990. * Claudot-Hawad, *Touaregs, Portrait en Fragments*, Aix-en-Provence: Edisud, 1993. * Hélène Claudot-Hawad and Hawad, "Touaregs: Voix Solitaires sous l'Horizon Confisque", *Ethnies-Documents* No. 20–21, Hiver, 1996. * Mano Dayak, *Touareg: La Tragedie*, Paris: Éditions Lattes, 1992. * Sylvie Ramir, *Les Pistes de l'Oubli: Touaregs au Niger*, Paris: éditions du Felin, 1991.

Tuareg people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuareg_people

**Titus Livius** (Latin: [ˈtɪtʊs ˈliːwiʊs]; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as **Livy** (/ˈlɪvi/ *LIV-ee*), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled *Ab Urbe Condita*, ''From the Founding of the City'', covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own lifetime. He was on good terms with members of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and was a friend of Augustus, whose young grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, he encouraged to take up the writing of history. Life ---- Livy was born in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua, probably in 59 BC. At the time of his birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest on the Italian peninsula, and the largest in the province of Cisalpine Gaul (northern Italy). Cisalpine Gaul was merged in Italy proper during his lifetime and its inhabitants were given Roman citizenship by Julius Caesar. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics. "He was by nature a recluse, mild in temperament and averse to violence; the restorative peace of his time gave him the opportunity to turn all his imaginative passion to the legendary and historical past of the country he loved." Livy's teenage years were during the 40s BC, a period of civil wars throughout the Roman world. The governor of Cisalpine Gaul at the time, Asinius Pollio, tried to sway Patavium[*when?*] into supporting Marcus Antonius (Mark Antony), the leader of one of the warring factions. The wealthy citizens of Patavium refused to contribute money and arms to Asinius Pollio, and went into hiding. Pollio then attempted to bribe the slaves of those wealthy citizens to expose the whereabouts of their masters; his bribery did not work, and the citizens instead pledged their allegiance to the Senate. It is therefore likely that the Roman civil wars prevented Livy from pursuing a higher education in Rome or going on a tour of Greece, which was common for adolescent males of the nobility at the time. Many years later, Asinius Pollio derisively commented on Livy's "patavinity", saying that Livy's Latin showed certain "provincialisms" frowned on at Rome. Pollio's dig may have been the result of bad feelings he harboured toward the city of Patavium from his experiences there during the civil wars. Livy probably went to Rome in the 30s BC, and it is likely that he spent a large amount of time in the city after this, although it may not have been his primary home. During his time in Rome, he was never a senator nor held a government position. His writings contain elementary mistakes on military matters, indicating that he probably never served in the Roman army. However, he was educated in philosophy and rhetoric. It seems that Livy had the financial resources and means to live an independent life, though the origin of that wealth is unknown. He devoted a large part of his life to his writings, which he was able to do because of his financial freedom. Livy was known to give recitations to small audiences, but he was not heard of to engage in declamation, then a common pastime. He was familiar with the emperor Augustus and the imperial family. Augustus was considered by later Romans to have been the greatest Roman emperor, benefiting Livy's reputation long after his death. Suetonius described how Livy encouraged the future emperor Claudius, who was born in 10 BC, to write historiographical works during his childhood. Livy's most famous work was his history of Rome. In it he narrates a complete history of the city of Rome, from its foundation to the death of Augustus. Because he was writing under the reign of Augustus, Livy's history emphasizes the great triumphs of Rome. He wrote his history with embellished accounts of Roman heroism in order to promote the new type of government implemented by Augustus when he became emperor. In Livy's preface to his history, he said that he did not care whether his personal fame remained in darkness, as long as his work helped to "preserve the memory of the deeds of the world’s preeminent nation." Because Livy was mostly writing about events that had occurred hundreds of years earlier, the historical value of his work was questionable, although many Romans came to believe his account to be true. Livy was married and had at least one daughter and one son. He also produced other works, including an essay in the form of a letter to his son, and numerous dialogues, most likely modelled on similar works by Cicero. Titus Livius died at his home city of Patavium in AD 17. Works ----- Livy's only surviving work is commonly known as *History of Rome* (or *Ab Urbe Condita*, 'From the Founding of the City'). Together with Polybius it is considered one of the main accounts of the Second Punic War. When he began this work he was already past his youth, probably 32; presumably, events in his life prior to that time had led to his intense activity as a historian. He continued working on it until he left Rome for Padua in his old age, probably in the reign of Tiberius after the death of Augustus. Seneca the Younger says he was an orator and philosopher and had written some historical treatises in those fields. *History of Rome* also served as the driving force behind the "northern theory" regarding the Etruscans' origins. This is because in the book Livy states, "The Greeks also call them the 'Tyrrhene' and the 'Adriatic ... The Alpine tribes are undoubtedly of the same kind, especially the Raetii, who had through the nature of their country become so uncivilized that they retained no trace of their original condition except their language, and even this was not free from corruption". Thus, many scholars, like Karl Otfried Müller, utilized this statement as evidence that the Etruscans or the Tyrrhenians migrated from the north and were descendants of an Alpine tribe known as the Raeti. Reception --------- ### Imperial era Livy's *History of Rome* was in high demand from the time it was published and remained so during the early years of the empire. Pliny the Younger reported that Livy's celebrity was so widespread, a man from Cádiz travelled to Rome and back for the sole purpose of meeting him. Livy's work was a source for the later works of Aurelius Victor, Cassiodorus, Eutropius, Festus, Florus, Granius Licinianus and Orosius. Julius Obsequens used Livy, or a source with access to Livy, to compose his *De Prodigiis*, an account of supernatural events in Rome from the consulship of Scipio and Laelius to that of Paulus Fabius and Quintus Aelius. Livy wrote during the reign of Augustus, who came to power after a civil war with generals and consuls claiming to be defending the Roman Republic, such as Pompey. Patavium had been pro-Pompey. To clarify his status, the victor of the civil war, Octavian Caesar, had wanted to take the title *Romulus* (the first king of Rome) but in the end accepted the senate proposal of *Augustus*. Rather than abolishing the republic, he adapted it and its institutions to imperial rule. The historian Tacitus, writing about a century after Livy's time, described the Emperor Augustus as his friend. Describing the trial of Cremutius Cordus, Tacitus represents him as defending himself face-to-face with the frowning Tiberius as follows: > I am said to have praised Brutus and Cassius, whose careers many have described and no one mentioned without eulogy. Titus Livius, pre-eminently famous for eloquence and truthfulness, extolled Cn. Pompeius in such a panegyric that Augustus called him Pompeianus, and yet this was no obstacle to their friendship. > > Livy's reasons for returning to Padua after the death of Augustus (if he did) are unclear, but the circumstances of Tiberius' reign certainly allow for speculation. ### Later During the Middle Ages, due to the length of the work, the literate class was already reading summaries rather than the work itself, which was tedious to copy, expensive, and required a lot of storage space. It must have been during this period, if not before, that manuscripts began to be lost without replacement. The Renaissance was a time of intense revival; the population discovered that Livy's work was being lost and large amounts of money changed hands in the rush to collect Livian manuscripts. The poet Beccadelli sold a country home for funding to purchase one manuscript copied by Poggio. Petrarch and Pope Nicholas V launched a search for the now missing books. Laurentius Valla published an amended text initiating the field of Livy scholarship. Dante speaks highly of him in his poetry, and Francis I of France commissioned extensive artwork treating Livian themes; Niccolò Machiavelli's work on republics, the *Discourses on Livy*, is presented as a commentary on the *History of Rome*. Respect for Livy rose to lofty heights. Walter Scott reports in *Waverley* (1814) as an historical fact that a Scotchman involved in the first Jacobite uprising of 1715 was recaptured (and executed) because, having escaped, he yet lingered near the place of his captivity in "the hope of recovering his favourite *Titus Livius*". Dates ----- The authority supplying information from which possible vital data on Livy can be deduced is Eusebius of Caesarea, a bishop of the early Christian Church. One of his works was a summary of world history in ancient Greek, termed the *Chronikon,* dating from the early 4th century AD. This work was lost except for fragments (mainly excerpts), but not before it had been translated in whole and in part by various authors such as St. Jerome. The entire work survives in two separate manuscripts, Armenian and Greek (Christesen and Martirosova-Torlone 2006). St. Jerome wrote in Latin. Fragments in Syriac exist. Eusebius' work consists of two books: the *Chronographia*, a summary of history in annalist form, and the *Chronikoi Kanones*, tables of years and events. St. Jerome translated the tables into Latin as the *Chronicon*, probably adding some information of his own from unknown sources. Livy's dates appear in *Jerome's Chronicon.* The main problem with the information given in the manuscripts is that, between them, they often give different dates for the same events or different events, do not include the same material entirely, and reformat what they do include. A date may be in *Ab Urbe Condita* or in Olympiads or in some other form, such as age. These variations may have occurred through scribal error or scribal license. Some material has been inserted under the aegis of Eusebius. The topic of manuscript variants is a large and specialized one, on which authors of works on Livy seldom care to linger. As a result, standard information in a standard rendition is used, which gives the impression of a standard set of dates for Livy. There are no such dates. A typical presumption is of a birth in the 2nd year of the 180th Olympiad and a death in the first year of the 199th Olympiad, which are coded 180.2 and 199.1 respectively. All sources use the same first Olympiad, 776/775–773/772 BC by the modern calendar. By a complex formula (made so by the 0 reference point not falling on the border of an Olympiad), these codes correspond to 59 BC for the birth, 17 AD for the death. In another manuscript the birth is in 180.4, or 57 BC. Further reading --------------- * Chaplin, Janes D. (2000). *Livy's Exemplary History*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-815274-3. * Damon, Cynthia (1997). "From Source to Sermo: Narrative Technique in Livy 34.54.4-8". *The American Journal of Philology*. **118** (2): 251–266. doi:10.1353/ajp.1997.0026. S2CID 162297951. * Davies, Jason P. (2004). *Rome's Religious History: Livy, Tacitus and Ammianus on their Gods*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Dorey, Thomas Allen, ed. (1971). *Livy*. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780710068767. * Feldherr, Andrew (1998). *Spectacle and Society in Livy's History*. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony, eds. (2003). *The Oxford Classical Dictionary*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860641-3. * Klindienst, Patricia (1990). "'Ritual Work on Human Flesh': Livy's Lucretia and the Rape of the Body Politic". *Helios*. **17** (1): 51–70. * Kraus, C. S.; Woodman, A. J. (1997). *Latin Historians*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 51–81. ISBN 9780199222933. * Levene, D. S. (2010). *Livy on the Hannibalic War*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Linderski, Jerzy. "Roman Religion in Livy". In Wolfgang Schuller (ed.). *Livius: Aspekte senes Werkes*. Konstanz: Universitätsverlag Konstanz. pp. 53–70. * Miles, Gary B. (1995). *Livy: Reconstructing Early Rome*. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 9780801430602. * Moore, Timothy J. (1989). *Artistry and Ideology: Livy's Vocabulary of Virtue*. Frankfurt: Athenäum. * Rossi, Andreola (2004). "Parallel Lives: Hannibal and Scipio in Livy's Third Decade". *Transactions of the American Philological Association*. **134** (2): 359–381. doi:10.1353/apa.2004.0017. S2CID 154240047. * Syme, Ronald (1959). "Livy and Augustus". *Harvard Studies in Classical Philology*. **64**: 27–78. doi:10.2307/310937. JSTOR 310937. * Vandiver, Elizabeth (1999). "The Founding Mothers of Livy's Rome: The Sabine Women and Lucretia". In Titchener, Frances B.; Moorton, Richard F. Jr. (eds.). *The Eye Expanded: Life and the Arts in Greco-Roman Antiquity*. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 206–232. * Walsh, Patrick G. (1961). *Livy: His Historical Aims and Methods*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Livy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livy

**Bergen op Zoom** (Dutch pronunciation: [ˌbɛrɣə(n) ɔp ˈsoːm] (); called *Berrege* [ˈbɛrəɣə] in the local dialect) is a city and municipality in the Southwestern Netherlands. It is located in the province of North Brabant, at the provincial border with Zeeland. In January 2021, the municipality had a population of 67,514. Etymology --------- The city was built on a place where two types of soil meet: sandy soil and marine clay. The sandy soil pushed against the marine clay, accumulating and forming hills over several centuries. People called those hills the *Brabantse Wal*, literally meaning "ramparts of Brabant". *Zoom* refers to the border of these ramparts and *bergen* in Dutch means mountains or hills. The name has nothing to do with the little channel, the Zoom, which was later built through Bergen op Zoom. History ------- Bergen op Zoom was granted city status probably in 1212. In 1287 the city and its surroundings became a lordship as it was separated from the lordship of Breda. The lordship was elevated to a margraviate in 1559. Several noble families, including the House of Glymes, ruled Bergen op Zoom in succession until 1795, although the title was only nominal since at least the seventeenth century. During the early modern period, Bergen op Zoom was a very strong fortress and one of the main armories and arsenals of the United Provinces. It had a remarkable natural defensive site, surrounded as it was by marshes and easily flooded polders. Furthermore, it could receive reinforcements and supplies by sea, if the besieging army did not have a fleet to blockade its port. Due to these features, the city was one of the strategic points held by the Dutch during their revolt in the Eighty Years War, beginning in the late sixteenth century. It was at that time besieged by Alessandro Farnese first in 1588, and by Ambrosio Spinola a second time in 1622. Both sieges were unsuccessful, and Bergen op Zoom got the nickname *La Pucelle* or *The Virgin* as it was never successfully taken in a siege. In 1747, during the War of the Austrian Succession, the French army laid siege to the city. Bergen op Zoom had been fortified by new works built at the beginning of the 17th century by Menno van Coehoorn, with three forts surrounding the city and a canalized diversion of the Scheldt acting as a ditch around its walls. However, it had no second line of fortifications, nor any fortress. After seventy days of siege, the city was taken and thoroughly sacked; the garrison was slaughtered. During the War of the Sixth Coalition, the town was again besieged by the British in March 1814 in a failed attempt to dislodge the French garrison. ### Trading town During the reign of Jan II van Glymes (1417–1494), nicknamed "Jan metten Lippen" (meaning "Jan with the big lips", probably caused by an infection), a surge in economic growth occurred in the city. Large fairs were held twice a year, in spring and fall, that were known both nationally and internationally. Merchants from all over Europe came to Bergen op Zoom to sell their goods. Because of this major economic growth, the Sint-Gertrudischurch was enlarged. The enlargement was called the *Nieuw Werck* but was never finished, because of the economic recession of the mid-16th century. It fell into ruin. The economic recession was largely caused by the poor accessibility of the port, due to a number of floods in Zeeland and West-Brabant. Because of the great reliance on the port, the economic growth received a major blow. In addition, the modernization of trade techniques, such as establishing of a permanent stock exchange instead of the fairs, which took place twice a year, also damaged the local economy. The fairs continued until 1910. Despite the end of the two big fairs, Bergen op Zoom still hosts all kinds of smaller fairs and events. ### Religion During the Eighty Years' War, Bergen op Zoom chose the side of the Dutch Republic, and, simultaneously, for Protestantism. The Catholics of the city either adapted or moved to the surrounding countryside, which remained largely Catholic. The inhabitants who chose to stay Catholic went to church in secret barns and houses, since the local Sint-Getrudischurch was assigned to the Protestant community. Slowly, most of the city council members of Bergen op Zoom became Protestant. Protestants dominated the council until the 18th century. After that, the number of Catholics in Bergen op Zoom increased and, during the second part of the 18th century, a majority of Bergen op Zoom's population was Catholic again. Although the Catholics enjoyed religious freedom during the French period in 1795–1814, their emancipation did not take place until later. In 1832, a Catholic parish, the ‘Heilige Maagd ten Ophemeling’, was allowed to have its own church. In the same period, the Jewish community built a synagogue for their use. In 1972, the Protestant community, after the loss of many members, gave the Sint-Getrudischurch to the Catholic parish. Since the return of the Church, Catholic services have been held here again. Population centres ------------------ * **Bergen op Zoom** (population: 65,691, July 2006) + Heimolen + Halsteren (11,410) + Lepelstraat (2,070) + Kladde City of Bergen op Zoom ---------------------- * Gevangenpoort, the oldest monument in Bergen op ZoomGevangenpoort, the oldest monument in Bergen op Zoom * Grote MarktGrote Markt * GertrudiskerkGertrudiskerk * Bergen op Zoom, fountain and bridge in parkBergen op Zoom, fountain and bridge in park * The Marketplace at Bergen op Zoom. Attributed to Abel Grimmer, 1590s. National Gallery of Art, Washington.*The Marketplace at Bergen op Zoom*. Attributed to Abel Grimmer, 1590s. National Gallery of Art, Washington. The Markiezenhof Palace, built in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, houses a cultural centre and a museum with a picturesque courtyard, paintings, period rooms, and temporary exhibitions. SABIC Innovative Plastics operates a major manufacturing facility in Bergen op Zoom. Philip Morris was another major employer until it closed its plant in 2014. Transport --------- * Bergen op Zoom railway station Notable people -------------- ### The arts * Jacob Obrecht (1457–1505) composer, mainly of sacred music * Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) humanist, philosopher, author * Abel Grimmer (1570–1619) a Flemish late Renaissance painter, mainly of landscapes * Gerrit Houckgeest (1600–1661) a Dutch Golden Age painter of architectural scenes and church interiors * Bartram de Fouchier (1609–1673) a Dutch Golden Age painter * Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn (1612–1653) historian, author and scholar * Thomas Willeboirts Bosschaert (1613–1654) a Flemish Baroque painter * Pieter van der Willigen (1634–1694) a Flemish Baroque painter * Govert-Marinus Augustijn (1871–1963) a Dutch Art Nouveau potter * Kees Smout (1876–1961) a Dutch sculptor * Anton van Duinkerken (1903–1968) a Dutch poet, essayist and academic * Louis Boekhout (1919–2012) a Dutch painter who emigrated to Québec, Canada * Pleuni Touw (born 1938) a Dutch film, television and theatre actress * Adriaan Ditvoorst (1940–1987) a Dutch film director, screenwriter * Cornald Maas (born 1967) a Dutch television presenter * Martin Fondse (born 1967) a Dutch pianist and composer who plays the vibrandoneon * Bob van Luijt (born 1985) a Dutch technology entrepreneur, technologist and new media artist ### Public thinking and public service * Pieter Gerardus van Overstraten (1755–1801) last Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies * Gerrit Verdooren van Asperen (1757–1824) vice-admiral of the Royal Netherlands Navy * Gillis Pieter de Neve (1823-1883) commander of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army * Albert Vogel (1874–1933) a Dutch Army officer and teacher * Peter Sitsen (1885–1945) a military officer, building contractor and public servant in colonial Indonesia * Ed Nijpels (born 1950) a retired Dutch politician * Virginie Korte-van Hemel (1929–2014) a Dutch politician * Bernard de Wit (born 1945) a Dutch theoretical physicist and academic * Paul Schnabel (born 1948) a Dutch sociologist, academic and politician * Wim Crusio (born 1954) a Dutch behavioral neurogeneticist and academic * Fatma Koşer Kaya (born 1968) a Dutch lawyer and politician of Turkish origin ### Sports * Reindert de Favauge (1872–1949) sport shooter, competed at the 1908 & 1920 Summer Olympics * Henk Kersken (1880–1967) a sailor who competed at the 1928 Summer Olympics * Barent Momma (1897–1936) a Dutch modern pentathlete, competed at the 1924 Summer Olympics * Willem van Rhijn (1903–1979) a Dutch modern pentathlete, competed at the 1928 and 1932 Summer Olympics * Janus van der Zande (1924–2016) a Dutch marathon runner, competed in the 1952 Summer Olympics * Maarten Sikking (1948–2009) a field hockey goalkeeper, competed at the 1972 and 1976 Summer Olympics * Rico Verhoeven (born 1989) a Dutch kickboxer * Jacob Van Braam (1729-1792) a soldier of fortune, swordmaster and mercenary ### Music * Julia Boschman (born 2002) a Dutch singer in famous girl group K3 International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns — sister cities Bergen op Zoom is twinned with: | | | --- | | * Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Canada * Belgium Oudenaarde, Belgium * Poland Szczecinek, Poland | See also -------- * 12709 Bergen op Zoom * Fort de Roovere * Black Death * Crusio (ice cream parlor) * Merck toch hoe sterck Further reading --------------- * *A Ballad on the Taking of Bergen-Op Zoom*. London: M. Cooper, 1747. * *Merck toch hoe sterck*. The anthem of the city: A. Valerius, 1626. * Bot, Marie-Louise, and Gouke J. Bonsel. *The Bergen Op Zoom-Quality of Life Survey: A Dutch Contribution to the Collaborative Study of the European Common Core Group*. Rotterdam: Dept. of Public Health and Social Medicine/Institute for Medical Technology Assessment, Erasmus University Rotterdam, 1989. ISBN 90-72245-45-8 * Edler, Florence. *Attendance at the Fairs of Bergen-Op-Zoom 1538–1544*. Bergen op Zoom: [s.n.], 1936. * Smyth, James Carmichael. *Plans of the Attacks Upon Antwerp, Bergen-Op-Zoom, Cambray, Peronne, Maubeuge, Landrecy, Marienbourg, Philippeville and Rocroy, By the British and Prussian Armies in the Campaigns of 1814 and of 1815*. 1817. * *1939–1945 The War Dead of the Commonwealth: The Register of the Names of Those Who Fell and Are Buried in Cemeteries in the Netherlands: Bergen Op Zoom Canadian War Cemetery*. Maidenhead: Commonwealth War Graves Commission, 1994. * Official website

Bergen op Zoom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergen_op_Zoom

**Antisemitism** (also spelled **anti-semitism** or **anti-Semitism**) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an **antisemite**. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antisemitism has historically been manifested in many ways, ranging from expressions of hatred of or discrimination against individual Jews to organized pogroms by mobs, police forces, or genocide. Although the term did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents. Notable instances of persecution include the Rhineland massacres preceding the First Crusade in 1096, the Edict of Expulsion from England in 1290, the 1348–1351 persecution of Jews during the Black Death, the massacres of Spanish Jews in 1391, the persecutions of the Spanish Inquisition, the expulsion from Spain in 1492, the Cossack massacres in Ukraine from 1648 to 1657, various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire between 1821 and 1906, the 1894–1906 Dreyfus affair in France, the Holocaust in German-occupied Europe during World War II and Soviet anti-Jewish policies. Though historically most manifestations of antisemitism have taken place in Christian Europe, since the early 20th century antisemitism has increased in the Middle East. The root word *Semite* gives the false impression that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic people, e.g., including Arabs, Assyrians, and Arameans. The compound word *Antisemitismus* ('antisemitism') was first used in print in Germany in 1879 as a scientific-sounding term for *Judenhass* ('Jew-hatred'), and this has been its common use since then. Origin and usage ---------------- ### Etymology The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of Moritz Steinschneider to the views of Ernest Renan. As Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]." Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word **antisemitisch** was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase *antisemitische Vorurteile* (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races'". Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis. According to Avner Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples, based generally on linguistic criteria. According to Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism." In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, *Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet* (*The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective*) in which he used the word *Semitismus* interchangeably with the word *Judentum* to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit). This use of *Semitismus* was followed by a coining of "Antisemitismus" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture. His next pamphlet, *Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum* (*The Way to Victory of the Germanic Spirit over the Jewish Spirit*, 1880), presents a development of Marr's ideas further and may present the first published use of the German word **Antisemitismus**, "antisemitism". The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the *Antisemiten-Liga* (League of Antisemites), apparently named to follow the "Anti-Kanzler-Liga" (Anti-Chancellor League). The league was the first German organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published *Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte*, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term *Antisemiten* in the January issue of *Neue Freie Presse*. The *Jewish Encyclopedia* reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the *Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums* speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p. 138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.'" The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. *Oxford English Dictionary* editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!" The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881. ### Usage From the outset the term "anti-Semitism" bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews. The term is confusing, for in modern usage 'Semitic' designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g. Arabs, Ethiopians, and Arameans) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though 'antisemitism' could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used. The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form. Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful ... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that." Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes." Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance, historian Deborah Lipstadt, Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism'", "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism". ### Definition Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews", a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defines it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews." Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character." For Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to 'science' to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism. Bernard Lewis defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil." Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism. There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. The United States Department of State states that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity." In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now the Fundamental Rights Agency), then an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which states: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic." It provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel. The definition has been adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism, in 2010 it was adopted by the United States Department of State, in 2014 it was adopted in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing and was also adopted by the Campaign Against Antisemitism. In 2016, the definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance. The Working Definition of Antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel. ### Evolution of usage In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the *Antisemiten-Liga* (Anti-Semitic League). Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage. In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, *The New York Times* notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria. In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the *Alliance Anti-semitique Universelle* in Bucharest. In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic. The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term *Judeophobia* to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word *Judeophobia* first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews. According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition. > Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition. > > In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race." After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term *antisemitism* acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term. Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world ... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion." ### Eternalism–contextualism debate The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism. The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust. Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility." Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge. Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means. The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges. Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon. Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination. Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection. Manifestations -------------- Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism." These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism. William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political. The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism: * political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero and Charles Lindbergh; * theological or religious antisemitism, sometimes known as anti-Judaism; * nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat; * and racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust by the Nazis. > > Europe has blamed the Jews for an encyclopedia of sins. > The Church blamed the Jews for killing Jesus; Voltaire blamed the Jews for inventing Christianity. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were usurers and well-poisoners and spreaders of disease. Jews were the creators of both communism and capitalism; they were clannish but also cosmopolitan; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture. > Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection. > > > Jeffrey Goldberg, 2015. Louis Harap separates "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism". * religious (Jew as Christ-killer), * economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed), * social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact), * racist (Jews as an inferior "race"), * ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary), * cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization). ### Cultural antisemitism Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture." Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation." Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live." An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion. ### Religious antisemitism Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of *Marranos* (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs. Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like." William Nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the *Protocols*, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity." The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism. Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France. ### Economic antisemitism The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews. Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards. Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and later repeated by Henry Ford and his Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as *The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews* published by the Nation of Islam, and on the internet. Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards: a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor" b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination" Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards: 1. All Jews are wealthy 2. Jews are stingy and greedy 3. Powerful Jews control the business world 4. Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism 5. It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews 6. Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind" Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world". Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers. During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]". Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued". An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well." ### Racial antisemitism Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion. Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion. Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism. According to William Nichols, religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds. "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion... a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." However, with racial antisemitism, "Now the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism... From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews... Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear." In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries. The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his *Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race* of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race. Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews. ### Political antisemitism > > The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading. > > > Friedrich Nietzsche, 1886, [MA 1 475] William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national and/or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms." Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity." According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation. ### Conspiracy theories Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism. Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage. ### New antisemitism Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel, and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism. Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews". It is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel. Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. History ------- Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism: 1. Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature 2. Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times 3. Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class 4. Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism 5. Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century 6. Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries." ### Ancient world The first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria, the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus. Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the *Shabbat*. One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea. In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices". The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died. The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes. Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the *poleis*. Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians. Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers. Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho, an Egyptian historian, wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods." Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings." There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE. The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE. Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman-Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE. However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened. James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million." ### Persecutions during the Middle Ages In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days. Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments", ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death. From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as *dhimmis*, and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century. It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066. Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147, were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the *dhimmis* harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated. Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands, while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade. This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel. In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394, and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland. In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals. As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city. ### Reformation Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet *On the Jews and their Lies*, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust." ### 17th century During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3 million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called *jasyr*. European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe. In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile. ### Enlightenment In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as *malke-geld* ("queen's money" in Yiddish). In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his *Toleranzpatent*, on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled. Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution." ### Voltaire According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative". Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France." Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's *Dictionnaire Philosophique* concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways. ### Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution. Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews. Bonald's article *Sur les juifs* (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel. Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them. Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians. Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows. Gougenot des Mousseaux's *Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens* (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg. ### Imperial Russia Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement – which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus – and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns. A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism. Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II (r. 1855–1881). However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity". ### Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan." In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…." In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought. At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors". ### Secular or racial antisemitism In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism" – published *Das Judenthum in der Musik* (roughly "Jewishness in Music") under a pseudonym in the *Neue Zeitschrift für Musik*. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy: > According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force. > > Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it. Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("*Der gute Handel"*) and "The Jew Among Thorns" (*"Der Jude im Dorn"*). The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense. Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light. The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period. Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party. This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party. Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings. These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites. Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it. Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism. Iain Hamphsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation." David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret *On the Jewish Question* in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of *The Jewish Question*, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians". According to McLellan, Marx used the word *Judentum* colloquially, as meaning *commerce*, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense". ### 20th century Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75 million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. Before 1900 American Jews had always amounted to less than 1% of America's total population, but by 1930 Jews formed about 3.5%. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States. The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms. Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper *The Dearborn Independent* (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money". In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights. In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as *Rassenschande* ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state"). It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed *Kristallnacht*, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched. Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions. In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany. Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings – his letters and diary – to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to *Kristallnacht* by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem". An article by Jonathan Marwil in *Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution* claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech. In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom. After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust. Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed. Contemporary antisemitism ------------------------- ### Post-WWII antisemitism There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism has been used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested. This culminated in the so-called Doctors' Plot in 1952. Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country. After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours. ### 21st-century European antisemitism Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death. A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism." This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008. This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews. In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)". He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group." Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue, the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999, the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009. According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed. While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews. ### 21st-century Arab antisemitism Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times". In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably. According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda. According to Josef Joffe of *Newsweek*, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic." Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians. According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism. ### Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential". Black Hebrew Israelite followers have sought out and attacked Jewish people in the United States on more than one occasion. Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders. Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity. Black Hebrew Israelites promote the Khazar theory about Ashkenazi Jewish origins. In 2019, 4% of African-Americans self-identified as being Black Hebrew Israelites. Causes ------ Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, and the search for a scapegoat. Some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of Jewish people as unsociable. Such a perception may have arisen by many Jews having strictly kept to their own communities, with their own practices and laws. It has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews), and this perception has probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews. Factors contributing to this situation included that Jews were restricted from other professions, while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury". Prevention through education ---------------------------- Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination. However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities. Geographical variation ---------------------- A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist. A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism. In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled *Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism*, which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him". See also -------- * 1968 Polish political crisis * Anti-antisemitism * Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946 * Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment * Anti-Semite and Jew * Antisemitism around the world * Antisemitism in the anti-globalization movement * Antisemitism in the Arab world * Antisemitism in Japan * Antisemitism in the United States + History of antisemitism in the United States * Criticism of Judaism * Farhud, 1941 Baghdad pogrom * Host desecration * Jacob Barnet affair * Jewish deicide [Christ killers] * Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory * Martyrdom in Judaism * Universities and Antisemitism * Secondary antisemitism * Stab-in-the-back legend * Timeline of antisemitism * Xenophobia References ---------- ### Sources * "Adoption of the Working Definition". *American Jewish Committee*. 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022. * Bein, Alex (1990). *The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem*. Translated by Harry Zohn. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9. * Consonni, Manuela (2022). "'Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism'". *Society*. **59** (1): 25–33. doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4. S2CID 247172627. * Chanes, Jerome A. (2004). *Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-209-7. * Falk, Avner (2008). *Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred*. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0. * Flannery, Edward H. (1985). *The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism*. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5. * Flannery, Edward H. (2004). *The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism*. Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5. * Foxman, Abraham (2010). *Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype*. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-230-11225-4. * Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver (2003). *The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65574-9. * Harzig, Christiane; Hoerder, Dirk; Shubert, Adrian (2003). *The historical practice of diversity : transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world*. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-377-2. * Johnson, Paul (1987). *A History of the Jews*. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-091533-9. * Johnston, William (1983). *The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04955-0. * Judaken, Jonathan (2018). "Introduction". *The American Historical Review*. **123** (4): 1122–1138. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhy024. * Laqueur, Walter (2006). *The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day* (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9. * Levy, Richard S., ed. (2005). *Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution*. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4. * Lewis, Bernard (1999). *Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice*. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31839-5. * Lipstadt, Deborah (2019). *Antisemitism: Here and Now*. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-80524337-6. * Lipstadt, Deborah (1994). *Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory*. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-452-27274-3. * Laurens, Henry (2002). *La Question de Palestine*. Vol. II. Fayard. * Majer, Diemut (2014). *"Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945*. Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 978-0896728370. * McLellan, David (1980). *Marx before Marxism* (PDF) (2d ed.). London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-27883-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. * Michael, Robert (2008). *A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church*. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61117-7. Retrieved 15 March 2021. * Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2002). *Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present*. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1. * Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2005). *Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present*. New York, NY: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1. * Poliakov, Léon. *The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews*, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 * Poliakov, Léon. *The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos*, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 * Poliakov, Léon. *The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 3: From Voltaire to Wagner*, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 * Poliakov, Léon. *The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933*, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003 * Poliakov, Léon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". *Encyclopaedia Judaica* (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8 * Prager, Dennis; Telushkin, Joseph (2003) [1985]. *Why the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism* (reprint ed.). Touchstone. ISBN 978-0-7432-4620-0. * Rattansi, Ali (2007). *Racism: A Very Short Introduction*. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280590-4. * Rubenstein, Richard L.; Roth, John K. (2003). *Approaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy*. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22353-3. * Sachar, Howard Morley (1961). *Aliyah: The People of Israel*. World Publishing Company. * Tausch, Arno (2018). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data (17 November 2018). Available at SSRN * Tausch, Arno (2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data (14 August 2015). Available at SSRN Archived 20 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine or Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data Archived 17 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine * Tausch, Arno (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (14 January 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at SSRN or The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data Archived 17 November 2022 at the Wayback Machine * Ury, Scott (2018). "Strange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews"". *The American Historical Review*. **123** (4): 1151–1171. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhy030. * Anti-semitism Archived 21 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed. Attribution * This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from *Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers​*, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. Further reading --------------- * Brustein, William I., and Ryan D. King. "Anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust." *International Political Science Review* 25.1 (2004): 35–53. online Archived 7 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine * Carr, Steven Alan. *Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II*, Cambridge University Press 2001. * Cohn, Norman. *Warrant for Genocide*, Eyre & Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996. * Fischer, Klaus P. *The History of an Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust*, The Continuum Publishing Company, 1998. * Freudmann, Lillian C. *Antisemitism in the New Testament*, University Press of America, 1994. * Gerber, Jane S. (1986). "Anti-Semitism and the Muslim World". In *History and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism*, ed. David Berger. Jewish Publications Society. ISBN 0-8276-0267-7 * Goldberg, Sol; Ury, Scott; Weiser, Kalman (eds.). *Key Concepts in the Study of Antisemitism* (Palgrave Macmillan, 2021) online review Archived 5 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine * Hanebrink, Paul. *A Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism*, Harvard University Press, 2018. ISBN 9780674047686. * Hilberg, Raul. *The Destruction of the European Jews*. Holmes & Meier, 1985. 3 volumes. * Isser, Natalie. *Antisemitism during the French Second Empire* (1991) * Kertzer, David I. (2014). *The Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198716167. * McKain, Mark. *Anti-Semitism: At Issue*, Greenhaven Press, 2005. * Marcus, Kenneth L. The Definition of Anti-Semitism, 2015, Oxford University Press * Michael, Robert and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of Antisemitism Archived 20 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2007 * Michael, Robert. *Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust* * Nirenberg, David. *Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition* (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. ISBN 978-0-393-05824-6 * Richardson, Peter (1986). *Anti-Judaism in Early Christianity*. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-167-5. * Roth, Philip. The Plot Against America, 2004 * Selzer, Michael (ed.). *"Kike!" : A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America*, New York 1972. * Small, Charles Asher ed. *The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective* (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). online Archived 3 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, scholarly studies. * Stav, Arieh (1999). *Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery*. Gefen Publishing House. ISBN 965-229-215-X. * Steinweis, Alan E. *Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany*. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 0-674-02205-X. * Stillman, Norman. *The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book*. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). ISBN 0-8276-0198-0 * Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". *Encyclopaedia of Islam*. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online * Tausch, Arno (2018). "The Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council". SSRN 3098079. * Tausch, Arno (14 January 2015). "The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data". *Middle East Review of International Affairs*. **18** (3 (Fall 2014)). doi:10.2139/ssrn.2549654. S2CID 59022284. SSRN 2549654. * "Contemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress" (PDF). (7.4 MB), United States Department of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See HTML version Archived 4 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine. * Vital, David. *People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789-1939* (1999); 930pp highly detailed Bibliographies, calendars, etc. * *Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles*, "Experts explore effects of Ahmadinejad anti-Semitism", 9 March 2007 * Lazare, Bernard, *Antisemitism: Its History and Causes* Archived 14 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine * Anti-Defamation League Arab Antisemitism Archived 20 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine * Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism Archived 20 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine * Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism Archived 25 August 2009 at the Wayback Machine (with up to date calendar of antisemitism today) * Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA) * Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports * Porat, Dina. "What makes an anti-Semite?", *Haaretz*, 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010. * Yehoshua, A.B., An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Azure Archived 7 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Spring 2008. * Antisemitism in modern Ukraine * Antisemitism and Special Relativity Archived 26 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine External links --------------

Antisemitism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism

**Darius I** (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁 *Dārayavaʰuš*; Greek: Δαρεῖος *Dareios*; c. 550 – 486 BCE), commonly known as **Darius the Great**, was a Persian ruler who served as the third King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire, reigning from 522 BCE until his death in 486 BCE. He ruled the empire at its territorial peak, when it included much of Western Asia, parts of the Balkans (Thrace–Macedonia and Paeonia) and the Caucasus, most of the Black Sea's coastal regions, Central Asia, the Indus Valley in the far east, and portions of North Africa and Northeast Africa including Egypt (*Mudrâya*), eastern Libya, and coastal Sudan. Darius ascended the throne by overthrowing the legitimate Achaemenid monarch Bardiya, whom he later fabricated to be an imposter named Gaumata. The new king met with rebellions throughout his kingdom and quelled them each time; a major event in Darius' life was his expedition to subjugate Greece and punish Athens and Eretria for their participation in the Ionian Revolt. Although his campaign ultimately resulted in failure at the Battle of Marathon, he succeeded in the re-subjugation of Thrace and expanded the Achaemenid Empire through his conquests of Macedon, the Cyclades and the island of Naxos as well as the sacked Greek city of Eretria. Darius organized the empire by dividing it into administrative provinces that were governed by satraps. He organized Achaemenid coinage as a new uniform monetary system, and made Aramaic a co-official language of the empire alongside Persian. He also put the empire in better standing by building roads and introducing standard weighing and measuring systems. Through these changes, the Achaemenid Empire became centralized and unified. Darius worked on other construction projects throughout the empire, primarily focusing on Susa, Pasargadae, Persepolis, Babylon, and Egypt. He had the cliff-face Behistun Inscription carved at Mount Behistun to record his conquests, which would later become an important testimony of the Old Persian language. Darius is mentioned in the books of Haggai, Zechariah, and Ezra–Nehemiah of the Hebrew Bible. Etymology --------- *Dārīus* and *Dārēus* are the Latin forms of the Greek *Dareîos* (Δαρεῖος), itself from Old Persian *Dārayauš* (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎢𐏁, *d-a-r-y-uš*), which is a shortened form of *Dārayavaʰuš* (𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, *d-a-r-y-v-u-š*). The longer form is also seen to have been reflected in the Elamite *Da-ri-(y)a-ma-u-iš*, Babylonian *Da-(a-)ri-ia-(a-)muš*, Aramaic *drywhwš* (𐡃𐡓𐡉𐡅𐡄𐡅𐡔), and possibly the longer Greek form *Dareiaîos* (Δαρειαῖος). The name is a nominative form meaning "he who holds firm the good(ness)", which can be seen by the first part *dāraya*, meaning "holder", and the adverb *vau*, meaning "goodness". Primary sources --------------- Apadana foundation tablets of Darius the GreatGold foundation tablets of Darius I for the Apadana Palace, in their original stone box. The Apadana coin hoard had been deposited underneath (c. 510 BC).One of the two gold deposition plates. Two more were in silver. They all had the same trilingual inscription (DPh inscription). At some time between his coronation and his death, Darius left a tri-lingual monumental relief on Mount Behistun, which was written in Elamite, Old Persian and Babylonian. The inscription begins with a brief autobiography including his ancestry and lineage. To aid the presentation of his ancestry, Darius wrote down the sequence of events that occurred after the death of Cyrus the Great. Darius mentions several times that he is the rightful king by the grace of the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. In addition, further texts and monuments from Persepolis have been found, as well as a clay tablet containing an Old Persian cuneiform of Darius from Gherla, Romania (Harmatta) and a letter from Darius to Gadates, preserved in a Greek text of the Roman period. In the foundation tablets of Apadana Palace, Darius described in Old Persian cuneiform the extent of his Empire in broad geographical terms: > *Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Kush, and from Sind (Old Persian: 𐏃𐎡𐎭𐎢𐎺, "Hidauv", locative of "Hiduš", i.e. "Indus valley") to Lydia (Old Persian: "Spardâ") – [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!* > > — DPh inscription of Darius I in the foundations of the Apadana Palace Herodotus, a Greek historian and author of *The Histories*, provided an account of many Persian kings and the Greco-Persian Wars. He wrote extensively on Darius, spanning half of Book 3 along with Books 4, 5 and 6. It begins with the removal of the alleged usurper Gaumata and continues to the end of Darius's reign. Early life ---------- The predecessor of Darius: Dariya/ Gaumata"Gaumata" being trampled upon by Darius the Great, Behistun inscription. The Old Persian inscription reads "This is Gaumâta, the Magian. He lied, saying *"I am Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, I am king"*."Portrait of Achaemenid King Bardiya, or "Gaumata", from the reliefs at Behistun (detail).Darius toppled the previous Achaemenid ruler (here depicted in the reliefs of the Behistun inscription) to acquire the throne. Darius was the eldest of five sons to Hystaspes. The identity of his mother is uncertain. According to the modern historian Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1994), Darius' mother was a certain Rhodogune. However, according to Lloyd Llewellyn-Jones (2013), recently uncovered texts in Persepolis indicate that his mother was Irdabama, an affluent landowner descended from a family of local Elamite rulers. Richard Stoneman likewise refers to Irdabama as the mother of Darius. The Behistun Inscription of Darius states that his father was satrap of Bactria in 522 BCE. According to Herodotus (III.139), Darius, prior to seizing power and "of no consequence at the time", had served as a spearman (*doryphoros*) in the Egyptian campaign (528–525 BCE) of Cambyses II, then the Persian Great King; this is often interpreted to mean he was the king's personal spear-carrier, an important role. Hystaspes was an officer in Cyrus' army and a noble of his court. Before Cyrus and his army crossed the river Araxes to battle with the Armenians, he installed his son Cambyses II as king in case he should not return from battle. However, once Cyrus had crossed the Aras River, he had a vision in which Darius had wings atop his shoulders and stood upon the confines of Europe and Asia (the known world). When Cyrus awoke from the dream, he inferred it as a great danger to the future security of the empire, as it meant that Darius would one day rule the whole world. However, his son Cambyses was the heir to the throne, not Darius, causing Cyrus to wonder if Darius was forming treasonable and ambitious designs. This led Cyrus to order Hystaspes to go back to Persis and watch over his son strictly, until Cyrus himself returned. ### Accession There are different accounts of the rise of Darius to the throne from both Darius himself and Greek historians. The oldest records report a convoluted sequence of events in which Cambyses II lost his mind, murdered his brother Bardiya, and was killed by an infected leg wound. After this, Darius and a group of six nobles traveled to Sikayauvati to kill an usurper, Gaumata, who had taken the throne by pretending to be Bardiya during the true king's absence. Darius's account, written at the Behistun Inscription, states that Cambyses II killed his own brother Bardiya, but that this murder was not known among the Iranian people. A would-be usurper named Gaumata came and lied to the people, stating he was Bardiya. The Iranians had grown rebellious against Cambyses's rule and on 11 March 522 BCE a revolt against Cambyses broke out in his absence. On 1 July, the Iranian people chose to be under the leadership of Gaumata, as "Bardiya". No member of the Achaemenid family would rise against Gaumata for the safety of their own life. Darius, who had served Cambyses as his lance-bearer until the deposed ruler's death, prayed for aid and in September 522 BCE, along with Otanes, Intaphrenes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus and Aspathines, killed Gaumata in the fortress of Sikayauvati. Cylinder seal of Darius the GreatImpression of a cylinder seal of King Darius the Great hunting in a chariot, reading "I am Darius, the Great King" in Old Persian (𐎠𐎭𐎶𐏐𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁𐎴 𐏋, "*adam Dārayavaʰuš xšāyaθiya*"), Elamite and Babylonian. The word 'great' only appears in Babylonian. British Museum, excavated in Thebes, Egypt. Herodotus provides a dubious account of Darius's ascension: Several days after Gaumata had been assassinated, Darius and the other six nobles discussed the fate of the empire. At first, the seven discussed the form of government; a democratic republic (*Isonomia*) was strongly pushed by Otanes, an oligarchy was pushed by Megabyzus, while Darius pushed for a monarchy. After stating that a republic would lead to corruption and internal fighting, while a monarchy would be led with a single-mindedness not possible in other governments, Darius was able to convince the other nobles. To decide who would become the monarch, six of them decided on a test, with Otanes abstaining, as he had no interest in being king. They were to gather outside the palace, mounted on their horses at sunrise, and the man whose horse neighed first in recognition of the rising sun would become king. According to Herodotus, Darius had a slave, Oebares, who rubbed his hand over the genitals of a mare that Darius's horse favored. When the six gathered, Oebares placed his hands beside the nostrils of Darius' horse, who became excited at the scent and neighed. This was followed by lightning and thunder, leading the others to dismount and kneel before Darius in recognition of his apparent divine providence. In this account, Darius himself claimed that he achieved the throne not through fraud, but cunning, even erecting a statue of himself mounted on his neighing horse with the inscription: "Darius, son of Hystaspes, obtained the sovereignty of Persia by the sagacity of his horse and the ingenious contrivance of Oebares, his groom." According to the accounts of Greek historians, Cambyses II had left Patizeithes in charge of the kingdom when he headed for Egypt. He later sent Prexaspes to murder Bardiya. After the killing, Patizeithes put his brother Gaumata, a Magian who resembled Bardiya, on the throne and declared him the Great King. Otanes discovered that Gaumata was an impostor, and along with six other Iranian nobles including Darius, created a plan to oust the pseudo-Bardiya. After killing the impostor along with his brother Patizeithes and other Magians, Darius was crowned king the following morning. The details regarding Darius' rise to power is generally acknowledged as forgery and was in reality used as a concealment of his overthrow and murder of Cyrus' rightful successor, Bardiya. To legitimize his rule, Darius had a common origin fabricated between himself and Cyrus by designating Achaemenes as the eponymous founder of their dynasty. In reality, Darius was not from the same house as Cyrus and his forebears, the rulers of Anshan. Early reign ----------- ### Early revolts Following his coronation at Pasargadae, Darius moved to Ecbatana. He soon learned that support for Bardiya was strong, and revolts in Elam and Babylonia had broken out. Darius ended the Elamite revolt when the revolutionary leader Aschina was captured and executed in Susa. After three months the revolt in Babylonia had ended. While in Babylonia, Darius learned a revolution had broken out in Bactria, a satrapy which had always been in favour of Darius, and had initially volunteered an army of soldiers to quell revolts. Following this, revolts broke out in Persis, the homeland of the Persians and Darius and then in Elam and Babylonia, followed by in Media, Parthia, Assyria, and Egypt. By 522 BCE, there were revolts against Darius in most parts of the Achaemenid Empire leaving the empire in turmoil. Even though Darius did not seem to have the support of the populace, Darius had a loyal army, led by close confidants and nobles (including the six nobles who had helped him remove Gaumata). With their support, Darius was able to suppress and quell all revolts within a year. In Darius's words, he had killed a total of nine "lying kings" through the quelling of revolutions. Darius left a detailed account of these revolutions in the Behistun Inscription. ### Elimination of Intaphernes One of the significant events of Darius's early reign was the slaying of Intaphernes, one of the seven noblemen who had deposed the previous ruler and installed Darius as the new monarch. The seven had made an agreement that they could all visit the new king whenever they pleased, except when he was with a woman. One evening, Intaphernes went to the palace to meet Darius, but was stopped by two officers who stated that Darius was with a woman. Becoming enraged and insulted, Intaphernes drew his sword and cut off the ears and noses of the two officers. While leaving the palace, he took the bridle from his horse, and tied the two officers together. The officers went to the king and showed him what Intaphernes had done to them. Darius began to fear for his own safety; he thought that all seven noblemen had banded together to rebel against him and that the attack against his officers was the first sign of revolt. He sent a messenger to each of the noblemen, asking them if they approved of Intaphernes's actions. They denied and disavowed any connection with Intaphernes's actions, stating that they stood by their decision to appoint Darius as King of Kings. Darius' choice to ask the noblemen indicates that he was not yet completely sure of his authority. Taking precautions against further resistance, Darius sent soldiers to seize Intaphernes, along with his son, family members, relatives and any friends who were capable of arming themselves. Darius believed that Intaphernes was planning a rebellion, but when he was brought to the court, there was no proof of any such plan. Nonetheless, Darius killed Intaphernes's entire family, excluding his wife's brother and son. She was asked to choose between her brother and son. She chose her brother to live. Her reasoning for doing so was that she could have another husband and another son, but she would always have but one brother. Darius was impressed by her response and spared both her brother's and her son's life. Military campaigns ------------------ Egyptian alabaster vase of Darius I with quadrilingual hieroglyphic and cuneiform inscriptions. The hieroglyph on the vase reads: "King of Upper and Lower Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands, Darius, living forever, year 36". ### Egyptian campaign After securing his authority over the entire empire, Darius embarked on a campaign to Egypt where he defeated the armies of the Pharaoh and secured the lands that Cambyses had conquered while incorporating a large portion of Egypt into the Achaemenid Empire. Through another series of campaigns, Darius I would eventually reign over the territorial apex of the empire, when it stretched from parts of the Balkans (Thrace-Macedonia, Bulgaria-Paeonia) in the west, to the Indus Valley in the east. ### Invasion of the Indus Valley In 516 BCE, Darius embarked on a campaign to Central Asia, Aria and Bactria and then marched into Afghanistan to Taxila in modern-day Pakistan. Darius spent the winter of 516–515 BCE in Gandhara, preparing to conquer the Indus Valley. Darius conquered the lands surrounding the Indus River in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to Suez. Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia. ### Babylonian revolt After Bardiya was murdered, widespread revolts occurred throughout the empire, especially on the eastern side. Darius asserted his position as king by force, taking his armies throughout the empire, suppressing each revolt individually. The most notable of all these revolts was the Babylonian revolt which was led by Nebuchadnezzar III. This revolt occurred when Otanes withdrew much of the army from Babylon to aid Darius in suppressing other revolts. Darius felt that the Babylonian people had taken advantage of him and deceived him, which resulted in Darius gathering a large army and marching to Babylon. At Babylon, Darius was met with closed gates and a series of defences to keep him and his armies out. Darius encountered mockery and taunting from the rebels, including the famous saying "Oh yes, you will capture our city, when mules shall have foals." For a year and a half, Darius and his armies were unable to retake the city, though he attempted many tricks and strategies—even copying that which Cyrus the Great had employed when he captured Babylon. However, the situation changed in Darius's favour when, according to the story, a mule owned by Zopyrus, a high-ranking soldier, foaled. Following this, a plan was hatched for Zopyrus to pretend to be a deserter, enter the Babylonian camp, and gain the trust of the Babylonians. The plan was successful and Darius's army eventually surrounded the city and overcame the rebels. During this revolt, Scythian nomads took advantage of the disorder and chaos and invaded Persia. Darius first finished defeating the rebels in Elam, Assyria, and Babylon and then attacked the Scythian invaders. He pursued the invaders, who led him to a marsh; there he found no known enemies but an enigmatic Scythian tribe. ### European Scythian campaign The Scythians were a group of north Iranian nomadic tribes, speaking an Eastern Iranian language (Scythian languages) who had invaded Media, killed Cyrus in battle, revolted against Darius and threatened to disrupt trade between Central Asia and the shores of the Black Sea as they lived between the Danube River, River Don and the Black Sea. Darius crossed the Black Sea at the Bosphorus Straits using a bridge of boats. Darius conquered large portions of Eastern Europe, even crossing the Danube to wage war on the Scythians. Darius invaded European Scythia in 513 BC, where the Scythians evaded Darius's army, using feints and retreating eastwards while laying waste to the countryside, by blocking wells, intercepting convoys, destroying pastures and continuous skirmishes against Darius's army. Seeking to fight with the Scythians, Darius's army chased the Scythian army deep into Scythian lands, where there were no cities to conquer and no supplies to forage. In frustration Darius sent a letter to the Scythian ruler Idanthyrsus to fight or surrender. The ruler replied that he would not stand and fight with Darius until they found the graves of their fathers and tried to destroy them. Until then, they would continue their strategy as they had no cities or cultivated lands to lose. Despite the evading tactics of the Scythians, Darius' campaign was so far relatively successful. As presented by Herodotus, the tactics used by the Scythians resulted in the loss of their best lands and of damage to their loyal allies. This gave Darius the initiative. As he moved eastwards in the cultivated lands of the Scythians in Eastern Europe proper, he remained resupplied by his fleet and lived to an extent off the land. While moving eastwards in the European Scythian lands, he captured the large fortified city of the Budini, one of the allies of the Scythians, and burnt it. Darius eventually ordered a halt at the banks of Oarus, where he built "eight great forts, some eight miles [13 km] distant from each other", no doubt as a frontier defence. In his *Histories*, Herodotus states that the ruins of the forts were still standing in his day. After chasing the Scythians for a month, Darius's army was suffering losses due to fatigue, privation and sickness. Concerned about losing more of his troops, Darius halted the march at the banks of the Volga River and headed towards Thrace. He had conquered enough Scythian territory to force the Scythians to respect the Persian forces. ### Persian invasion of Greece Darius's European expedition was a major event in his reign, which began with the invasion of Thrace. Darius also conquered many cities of the northern Aegean, Paeonia, while Macedonia submitted voluntarily, after the demand of earth and water, becoming a vassal kingdom. He then left Megabyzus to conquer Thrace, returning to Sardis to spend the winter. The Greeks living in Asia Minor and some of the Greek islands had submitted to Persian rule already by 510 BCE. Nonetheless, there were certain Greeks who were pro-Persian, although these were largely based in Athens. To improve Greek-Persian relations, Darius opened his court and treasuries to those Greeks who wanted to serve him. These Greeks served as soldiers, artisans, statesmen and mariners for Darius. However, the increasing concerns amongst the Greeks over the strength of Darius's kingdom along with the constant interference by the Greeks in Ionia and Lydia were stepping stones towards the conflict that was yet to come between Persia and certain of the leading Greek city states. The "Darius Vase" at the Achaeological Museum of Naples. Circa 340–320 BC.Detail of Darius, with a label in Greek (ΔΑΡΕΙΟΣ, top right) giving his name. When Aristagoras organized the Ionian Revolt, Eretria and Athens supported him by sending ships and troops to Ionia and by burning Sardis. Persian military and naval operations to quell the revolt ended in the Persian reoccupation of Ionian and Greek islands, as well as the re-subjugation of Thrace and the conquering of Macedonia in 492 BCE under Mardonius. Macedon had been a vassal kingdom of the Persians since the late 6th century BC, but retained autonomy. Mardonius' 492 campaign made it a fully subordinate part of the Persian kingdom. These military actions, coming as a direct response to the revolt in Ionia, were the beginning of the First Persian invasion of (mainland) Greece. At the same time, anti-Persian parties gained more power in Athens, and pro-Persian aristocrats were exiled from Athens and Sparta. Darius responded by sending troops led by his son-in-law across the Hellespont. However, a violent storm and harassment by the Thracians forced the troops to return to Persia. Seeking revenge on Athens and Eretria, Darius assembled another army of 20,000 men under his Admiral, Datis, and his nephew Artaphernes, who met success when they captured Eretria and advanced to Marathon. In 490 BCE, at the Battle of Marathon, the Persian army was defeated by a heavily armed Athenian army, with 9,000 men who were supported by 600 Plataeans and 10,000 lightly armed soldiers led by Miltiades. The defeat at Marathon marked the end of the first Persian invasion of Greece. Darius began preparations for a second force which he would command, instead of his generals; however, before the preparations were complete, Darius died, thus leaving the task to his son Xerxes. Family ------ Darius was the son of Hystaspes and the grandson of Arsames. Darius married Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had four sons: Xerxes, Achaemenes, Masistes and Hystaspes. He also married Artystone, another daughter of Cyrus, with whom he had two sons, Arsames and Gobryas. Darius married Parmys, the daughter of Bardiya, with whom he had a son, Ariomardus. Furthermore, Darius married his niece Phratagune, with whom he had two sons, Abrokomas and Hyperantes. He also married another woman of the nobility, Phaidyme, the daughter of Otanes. It is unknown if he had any children with her. Before these royal marriages, Darius had married an unknown daughter of his good friend and lance carrier Gobryas from an early marriage, with whom he had three sons, Artobazanes, Ariabignes and Arsamenes. Any daughters he had with her are not known. Although Artobazanes was Darius's first-born, Xerxes became heir and the next king through the influence of Atossa; she had great authority in the kingdom as Darius loved her the most of all his wives. Death and succession -------------------- After becoming aware of the Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon, Darius began planning another expedition against the Greek-city states; this time, he, not Datis, would command the imperial armies. Darius had spent three years preparing men and ships for war when a revolt broke out in Egypt. This revolt in Egypt worsened his failing health and prevented the possibility of his leading another army. Soon afterwards, Darius died. In October 486 BCE, his body was embalmed and entombed in the rock-cut tomb at Naqsh-e Rostam, which he had been preparing. An inscription on his tomb introduces him as "Great King, King of Kings, King of countries containing all kinds of men, King in this great earth far and wide, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, a Persian, son of a Persian, an Aryan [Iranian], having Aryan lineage." A relief under his tomb portraying an equestrian combat was later carved during the reign of the Sasanian King of Kings, Bahram II (r. 274–293 CE). Xerxes, the eldest son of Darius and Atossa, succeeded to the throne as Xerxes I; before his accession, he had contested the succession with his elder half-brother Artobarzanes, Darius's eldest son, who was born to his first wife before Darius rose to power. With Xerxes' accession, the empire was again ruled by a member of the house of Cyrus. Government ---------- ### Organization Early in his reign, Darius wanted to reorganize the structure of the empire and reform the system of taxation he inherited from Cyrus and Cambyses. To do this, Darius created twenty provinces called satrapies (or *archi*) which were each assigned to a satrap (*archon*) and specified fixed tributes that the satrapies were required to pay. A complete list is preserved in the catalogue of Herodotus, beginning with Ionia and listing the other satrapies from west to east excluding Persis, which was the land of the Persians and the only province which was not a conquered land. Tributes were paid in both silver and gold talents. Tributes in silver from each satrap were measured with the Babylonian talent. Those paid in gold were measured with the Euboic talent. The total tribute from the satraps came to an amount less than 15,000 silver talents. The majority of the satraps were of Persian origin and were members of the royal house or the six great noble families. These satraps were personally picked by Darius to monitor these provinces. Each of the provinces was divided into sub-provinces, each having its own governor, who was chosen either by the royal court or by the satrap. To assess tributes, a commission evaluated the expenses and revenues of each satrap. To ensure that one person did not gain too much power, each satrap had a secretary, who observed the affairs of the state and communicated with Darius; a treasurer, who safeguarded provincial revenues; and a garrison commander, who was responsible for the troops. Additionally, royal inspectors, who were the "eyes and ears" of Darius, completed further checks on each satrap. The imperial administration was coordinated by the chancery with headquarters at Persepolis, Susa, and Babylon with Bactria, Ecbatana, Sardis, Dascylium and Memphis having branches. Darius kept Aramaic as the common language, which soon spread throughout the empire. However, Darius gathered a group of scholars to create a separate language system only used for Persis and the Persians, which was called Aryan script and was only used for official inscriptions. Before this, the accomplishments of the king were addressed in Persian solely through narration and hymns and through the "masters of memory". Indeed, oral history continued to play an important role throughout the history of Iran. ### Economy Darius introduced a new universal currency, the daric, sometime before 500 BCE. Darius used the coinage system as a transnational currency to regulate trade and commerce throughout his empire. The Daric was also recognized beyond the borders of the empire, in places such as Celtic Central Europe and Eastern Europe. There were two types of darics, a gold daric and a silver daric. Only the king could mint gold darics. Important generals and satraps minted silver darics, the latter usually to recruit Greek mercenaries in Anatolia. The daric was a major boost to international trade. Trade goods such as textiles, carpets, tools and metal objects began to travel throughout Asia, Europe and Africa. To further improve trade, Darius built the Royal Road, a postal system and Phoenician-based commercial shipping. The daric also improved government revenues as the introduction of the daric made it easier to collect new taxes on land, livestock and marketplaces. This led to the registration of land which was measured and then taxed. The increased government revenues helped maintain and improve existing infrastructure and helped fund irrigation projects in dry lands. This new tax system also led to the formation of state banking and the creation of banking firms. One of the most famous banking firms was Murashu Sons, based in the Babylonian city of Nippur. These banking firms provided loans and credit to clients. In an effort to further improve trade, Darius built canals, underground waterways and a powerful navy. He further improved and expanded the network of roads and way stations throughout the empire, so that there was a system of travel authorization for the King, satraps and other high officials, which entitled the traveller to draw provisions at daily stopping places. ### Religion > > "By the grace of Ahuramazda am I king; Ahuramazda has granted me the kingdom." > — Darius, on the Behistun Inscription > > > Darius at BehistunDarius on the Behistun Inscription reliefs.Crowned head of Darius at Behistun. While there is no general consensus in scholarship whether Darius and his predecessors had been influenced by Zoroastrianism, it is well established that Darius was a firm believer in Ahura Mazda, whom he saw as the supreme deity. However, Ahura Mazda was also worshipped by adherents of the (Indo-)Iranian religious tradition. As can be seen at the Behistun Inscription, Darius believed that Ahura Mazda had appointed him to rule the Achaemenid Empire. Darius had dualistic philosophical convictions and believed that each rebellion in his kingdom was the work of druj, the enemy of Asha. Darius believed that because he lived righteously by Asha, Ahura Mazda supported him. In many cuneiform inscriptions denoting his achievements, he presents himself as a devout believer, perhaps even convinced that he had a divine right to rule over the world. In the lands that were conquered by his empire, Darius followed the same Achaemenid tolerance that Cyrus had shown and later Achaemenid kings would show. He supported faiths and religions that were "alien" as long as the adherents were "submissive and peaceable", sometimes giving them grants from his treasury for their purposes. He had funded the restoration of the Israelite temple which had originally been decreed by Cyrus, was supportive towards Greek cults which can be seen in his letter to Gadatas, and supported Elamite priests. He had also observed Egyptian religious rites related to kingship and had built the temple for the Egyptian god, Amun. ### Building projects During Darius's Greek expedition, he had begun construction projects in Susa, Egypt and Persepolis. He had linked the Red Sea to the river Nile by building a canal (Darius Canal) which ran from modern Zaqāzīq to modern Suez. To open this canal, he travelled to Egypt in 497 BCE, where the inauguration was carried out with great fanfare and celebration. Darius also built a canal to connect the Red Sea and Mediterranean. On this visit to Egypt he erected monuments and executed Aryandes on the charge of treason. When Darius returned to Persis, he found that the codification of Egyptian law had been finished. Additionally, Darius sponsored large construction projects in Susa, Babylon, Egypt, and Persepolis. In Susa, Darius built a new palace complex in the north of the city. An inscription states that the palace was destroyed during the reign of Artaxerxes I, but was rebuilt. Today only glazed bricks of the palace remain, the majority of them in the Louvre. In Pasargadae Darius finished all incomplete construction projects from the reign of Cyrus the Great. A palace was also built during the reign of Darius, with an inscription in the name of Cyrus the Great. It was previously believed that Cyrus had constructed this building, however due to the cuneiform script being used, the palace is believed to have been constructed by Darius. In Egypt Darius built many temples and restored those that had previously been destroyed. Even though Darius was a believer of Ahura Mazda, he built temples dedicated to the Gods of the Ancient Egyptian religion. Several temples found were dedicated to Ptah and Nekhbet. Darius also created several roads and routes in Egypt. The monuments that Darius built were often inscribed in the official languages of the Persian Empire, Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian and Egyptian hieroglyphs. To construct these monuments Darius employed a large number of workers and artisans of diverse nationalities. Several of these workers were deportees who had been employed specifically for these projects. These deportees enhanced the empire's economy and improved inter-cultural relations. At the time of Darius's death construction projects were still under way. Xerxes completed these works and in some cases expanded his father's projects by erecting new buildings of his own. * Egyptian statue of Darius I, as Pharaoh of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt; 522–486 BC; greywacke; height: 2.46 m; National Museum of Iran (Teheran)Egyptian statue of Darius I, as Pharaoh of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt; 522–486 BC; greywacke; height: 2.46 m; National Museum of Iran (Teheran) * Darius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of HibisDarius as Pharaoh of Egypt at the Temple of Hibis * Relief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of HibisRelief showing Darius I offering lettuces to the Egyptian deity Amun-Ra Kamutef, Temple of Hibis See also -------- * Dariush * Darius the Mede * List of biblical figures identified in extra-biblical sources Bibliography ------------ * Abbott, Jacob (2009), *History of Darius the Great: Makers of History*, Cosimo, Inc., ISBN 978-1-60520-835-0 * Abbott, Jacob (1850), *History of Darius the Great*, New York: Harper & Bros * Balentine, Samuel (1999), *The Torah's vision of worship*, Minneapolis: Fortress Press, ISBN 978-0-8006-3155-0 * Beckwith, Christopher (2009), *Empires of the Silk Road: a history of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the present* (illustrated ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13589-2 * Bedford, Peter (2001), *Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah* (illustrated ed.), Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-11509-5 * Bennett, Deb (1998), *Conquerors: The Roots of New World horsemanship*, Solvang, CA: Amigo Publications, Inc., ISBN 978-0-9658533-0-9 * Boardman, John (1988), *The Cambridge Ancient History*, vol. IV (II ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6 * Boardman, John, ed. (1982). *The Cambridge Ancient History*. Vol. 10: Persia, Greece, and the Western Mediterranean. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 239–243. ISBN 978-0-521-22804-6. * Boyce, Mary (1979). *Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices*. Psychology Press. pp. 1–252. ISBN 978-0-415-23902-8. * Boyce, M. (1984). "Ahura Mazdā". *Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7*. pp. 684–687. * Briant, Pierre (2002). *From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire*. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 978-1-57506-120-7. * Chaliand, Gérard (2004), *Nomadic empires: from Mongolia to the Danube* (illustrated, annotated ed.), Transaction Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7658-0204-0 * Cook, J. M. (1985), "The Rise of the Achaemenids and Establishment of their Empire", *The Median and Achaemenian Periods*, Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 2, London: Cambridge University Press * Del Testa, David (2001), *Government leaders, military rulers, and political activists* (illustrated ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-57356-153-2 * Duncker, Max (1882), Evelyn Abbott (ed.), *The history of antiquity* (Volume 6 ed.), R. Bentley & son * Egerton, George (1994), *Political memoir: essays on the politics of memory*, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7146-3471-5 * Frye, Richard Nelson (1984). *The History of Ancient Iran*. C.H.Beck. pp. 1–411. ISBN 978-3-406-09397-5. * Farrokh, Kaveh (2007), *Shadows in the desert: ancient Persia at war*, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3 * Grousset, René (1970). *The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia*. Rutgers University Press. pp. 1–687. ISBN 978-0-8135-1304-1. * Herodotus, ed. (2015). *The Histories*. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-375-71271-5. * Konecky, Sean (2008), Gidley, Chuck (ed.), *The Chronicle of World History*, Old Saybrook, CT: Grange Books, ISBN 978-1-56852-680-5 * Kuhrt, A. (2013). *The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-01694-3. * Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2013). *King and Court in Ancient Persia 559 to 331 BCE*. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 978-0-7486-7711-5. * Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). *King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE)*. UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 978-0-692-86440-1. * Malandra, William W. (2005). "Zoroastrianism i. Historical review up to the Arab conquest". *Encyclopaedia Iranica*. * Moulton, James (2005), *Early Zoroastrianism*, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-7400-9 * Poolos, J (2008), *Darius the Great* (illustrated ed.), Infobase Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7910-9633-8 * Ross, William; Wells, H. G. (2004), *The Outline of History: Volume 1 (Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading): Prehistory to the Roman Republic* (illustrated ed.), Barnes & Noble Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7607-5866-3, retrieved 28 July 2011 * Safra, Jacob (2002), *The New Encyclopædia Britannica*, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc, ISBN 978-0-85229-787-2 * Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "DARIUS i. The Name". *Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1*. p. 40. * Sélincourt, Aubrey (2002), *The Histories*, London: Penguin Classics, ISBN 978-0-14-044908-2 * Shahbazi, A. Shapur (1988). "Bahrām II". *Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 5*. pp. 514–522. * Shahbazi, Shapur (1994), "Darius I the Great", *Encyclopedia Iranica*, vol. 7, New York: Columbia University, pp. 41–50 * Siliotti, Alberto (2006), *Hidden Treasures of Antiquity*, Vercelli, Italy: VMB Publishers, ISBN 978-88-540-0497-9 * Spielvogel, Jackson (2009), *Western Civilization: Seventh edition*, Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-50285-2 * Stoneman, Richard (2015). *Xerxes: A Persian Life*. Yale University Press. pp. 1–288. ISBN 978-1-57506-120-7. * Tropea, Judith (2006), *Classic Biblical Baby Names: Timeless Names for Modern Parents*, New York: Bantam Books, ISBN 978-0-553-38393-5 * Van De Mieroop, Marc (2003), *A History of the Ancient Near East: Ca. 3000–323 BC*, "Blackwell History of the Ancient World" series, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2 * Waters, Matt (1996). "Darius and the Achaemenid Line". *The Ancient History Bulletin*. London. **10** (1): 11–18. * Waters, Matt (2014). *Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE*. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 978-1-107-65272-9. * Woolf, Alex; Maddocks, Steven; Balkwill, Richard; McCarthy, Thomas (2004), *Exploring Ancient Civilizations* (illustrated ed.), Marshall Cavendish, ISBN 978-0-7614-7456-2 Further reading --------------- * Burn, A.R. (1984). *Persia and the Greeks : the defence of the West, c. 546–478 B.C* (2nd ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1235-4. * Ghirshman, Roman (1964). *The Arts of Ancient Iran from Its Origins to the Time of Alexander the Great*. New York: Golden Press. * Hyland, John O. (2014). "The Casualty Figures in Darius' Bisitun Inscription". *Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History*. **1** (2): 173–199. doi:10.1515/janeh-2013-0001. S2CID 180763595. * Klotz, David (2015). "Darius I and the Sabaeans: Ancient Partners in Red Sea Navigation". *Journal of Near Eastern Studies*. **74** (2): 267–280. doi:10.1086/682344. S2CID 163013181. * Olmstead, Albert T. (1948). *History of the Persian Empire, Achaemenid Period*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Vogelsang, W.J. (1992). *The rise and organisation of the Achaemenid Empire : the eastern Iranian evidence*. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-09682-0. * Warner, Arthur G. (1905). *The Shahnama of Firdausi*. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. * Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996). *Ancient Persia : from 550 BC to 650 AD*. Azizeh Azodi, trans. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-85043-999-8. * Wilber, Donald N. (1989). *Persepolis : the archaeology of Parsa, seat of the Persian kings* (Rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press. ISBN 978-0-87850-062-8. External links -------------- | | | --- | | Darius the Great **Achaemenid dynasty****Born:** c. 550 BCE **Died:** 486 BCE | | Preceded byBardiya | **King of Kings of Persia** 522–486 BCE | Succeeded byXerxes I | | **Pharaoh of Egypt** *XXVII Dynasty*522–486 BCE |

Darius the Great

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darius_the_Great

**Novaya Zemlya** (/ˌnoʊvəjə ˈzɛmliə/, also UK: /ˌnɒv-, -aɪ.ə -/, US: /- zɛmˈl(j)ɑː/; Russian: Но́вая Земля́, IPA: [ˈnovəjə zʲɪmˈlʲa], lit. 'New Land') is an archipelago in northern Russia. It is situated in the Arctic Ocean, in the extreme northeast of Europe, with Cape Flissingsky, on the northern island, considered the easternmost point of Europe. To Novaya Zemlya's west lies the Barents Sea and to the east is the Kara Sea. Novaya Zemlya consists of two main islands, the northern Severny Island and the southern Yuzhny Island, which are separated by the Matochkin Strait. Administratively, it is incorporated as **Novaya Zemlya District**, one of the twenty-one in Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. Municipally, it is incorporated as **Novaya Zemlya Urban Okrug**. The population of Novaya Zemlya as of the 2010 Census was about 2,429, of whom 1,972 resided in Belushya Guba, an urban settlement that is the administrative center of Novaya Zemlya District. The indigenous population (from 1872 to the 1950s when it was resettled to the mainland) consisted of about 50–300 Nenets who subsisted mainly on fishing, trapping, reindeer herding, polar bear hunting and seal hunting. Natural resources include copper, lead, and zinc. Novaya Zemlya was a sensitive military area during the Cold War, and parts of it are still used for airfields today. The Soviet Air Force maintained a presence at Rogachevo on the southern part of the southern island, on the westernmost peninsula (71°37′04″N 52°28′44″E / 71.61787°N 52.47884°E / 71.61787; 52.47884). It was used primarily for interceptor aircraft operations, but also provided logistical support for the nearby nuclear test area. Novaya Zemlya was one of the two major nuclear test sites managed by the USSR; it was used for air drops and underground testing of the largest of Soviet nuclear bombs, in particular the October 30, 1961 air burst explosion of Tsar Bomba, the largest, most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. History ------- The Russian people knew of Novaya Zemlya from the 11th century, when hunters from Novgorod visited the area. For Western Europeans, the search for the Northern Sea Route in the 16th century led to its exploration. The first visit from a Western European was by Hugh Willoughby in 1553. Dutch explorer Willem Barentsz reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya in 1594, and in a subsequent expedition of 1596, he rounded the northern cape and wintered on the northeastern coast. (Barentsz died during the expedition, and may have been buried on Severny Island.) During a later voyage by Fyodor Litke in 1821–1824, the western coast was mapped. Henry Hudson was another explorer who passed through Novaya Zemlya while searching for the Northeast Passage. The islands were systematically surveyed by Pyotr Pakhtusov and Avgust Tsivolko during the early 1830s. The first permanent settlement was established in 1870 at Malye Karmakuly, which served as capital of Novaya Zemlya until 1924. Later, the administrative center was transferred to Belushya Guba, in 1935 to Lagernoe, but then returned to Belushya Guba. Small numbers of Nenets were resettled to Novaya Zemlya in the 1870s in a bid by Russia to keep out the Norwegians. This population, then numbering 298, was transferred to the mainland in 1957 before nuclear testing began. * Willem Barentsz' ship among the Arctic ice.Willem Barentsz' ship among the Arctic ice. * 1599–1601 map of Novaya Zemlya.1599–1601 map of Novaya Zemlya. * Map of Novaya Zemlya from 1720.Map of Novaya Zemlya from 1720. ### World War II In the months following Hitler's June 1941 invasion of the Soviet Union, the United States and Great Britain organized convoys of merchant ships under naval escort to deliver Lend-Lease supplies to northern Soviet seaports. The Allied convoys up to PQ 12 arrived unscathed but German aircraft, ships and U-boats were sent to northern Norway and Finland to oppose the convoys. #### Convoy PQ 17 Convoy PQ 17 consisted of thirty-six merchant ships containing 297 aircraft, 596 tanks, 4,286 other vehicles and more than 150,000 long tons (152,407 t) of other cargo, six destroyer escorts, fifteen additional armed ships (among which were two Free-French corvettes) and three small rescue craft. The convoy departed Iceland on June 27, 1942, one ship running aground and dropping out of the convoy. The convoy was able to sail north of Bear Island but encountered ice floes on June 30; a ship was damaged too badly to carry on and broke radio silence. On the following morning, the convoy was detected by German U-boats and German reconnaissance aircraft and torpedo bomber attacks began on July 2. On the night of July 2/3, the German battleship *Tirpitz* and the heavy cruiser *Admiral Hipper*, sortied from Trondheim with four destroyers and two smaller vessels. The pocket battleships *Admiral Scheer* and *Lutzow* and six destroyers sailed from Narvik, but *Lutzow* and three destroyers ran aground. The British Admiralty responded on July 4 by diverting the escort vessels to the west to rendezvous with the Home Fleet and ordered the merchant vessels to scatter. Seeking safety in the Matochkin Strait, several ships headed toward Novaya Zemlya. S.A. Kerslake, a crew-member aboard the British trawler *Northern Gem*, recorded in his diary: > …we were making all haste for Novaya Zemlya, hoping that no German ships had arrived there before us. If they had, and it was thought that escape by sea was impossible, then the three trawlers would be run ashore on one of these God-forsaken islands. We could then salvage what we could from them and try to make our way overland and the sea ice, until we found a settlement, or until we reach the Russian mainland…not a very charming or happy prospect to look forward to. > > When the *Northern Gem* approached Novaya Zemlya and neared the entrance to Matochkin Strait, it quickly reduced speed. Kerslake wrote: > All eyes were hypnotized by the sight of the strait opening up like a page of a picture book. From behind the port side promontory appeared the bows of a ship, and as the angle of our approach opened up the straits more of the vessel came into view. In those first few minutes we thought that the enemy had got there before us, and were waiting to blast us out of the water, but to our intense relief…we saw that it was a corvette… > > Another seaman described the strait as "very barren and uninviting, but almost with 'Welcome' written along it." On July 7 at 4:00 p.m., Captain J. H. Jauncey, the commander of the British anti-aircraft ship *Palomares*, called a meeting of the commanders of the other ships which had reached the strait. At first, they discussed breaking into the Kara Sea from the east end of the Strait. An officer familiar with the region raised the possibility that the strait, navigable on the west end, might, at the other end, be ice-locked. A seaplane was dispatched which found that the eastern entrance was blocked. Other officers suggested that the ships remain in the strait until "the hue and cry had died down", adding that "the high cliffs on either side would afford some protection from dive-bombing". The ships were painted white and positioned with its armament facing the west entrance. The French corvettes *Lotus* and *La Malouine* were dispatched to patrol the entrance to watch for German submarines. At 7:00 p.m., the ships re-entered the Barents Sea and headed south. Anticipating the breakout, Rear Admiral Hubert Schmundt had positioned several U-boats near the west end of the strait. Six of the seventeen Allied ships exiting the strait were sunk. The badly-damaged American freighter *Alcoa Ranger* was beached on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya; the crew found shelter and were eventually rescued by a Russian vessel which took them to Belushya Bay. The Germans also damaged the Soviet tankers *Donbass* and *Azerbaijan* which reached the sanctuary of Archangel. Of the thirty-four merchant ships in PQ 17, twenty-four were sunk. The American contingent alone lost more than three-fourths of the merchant ships committed to the convoy — more than one fourth of the losses to American shipping in all convoys to northern Russia. The PQ 17 delivered 896 vehicles and 3,350 were lost, 164 tanks arrived and 430 did not, 87 aircraft reached the USSR and 210 were lost; 57,176 long tons (58,093 t) of cargo were delivered and 99,316 long tons (100,910 t) was sunk at a cost to the Germans of five aircraft. Karlo Štajner, a Gulag prisoner in Norilsk in 1942, wrote "the German cruiser’s attack on Novaya Zemlya and the sinking of the food transports had catastrophic consequences… the population was left without provisions… supplies in the warehouses of Norilsk [were] distributed among the NKVD, the guards, and the few free civilians that lived in the town". Štajner and his fellow prisoners received nothing. Between July and August 1942, German U-boats destroyed the *Maliyye Karmakuly* polar station and damaged the station at *Mys Zhelaniya*. German warships also destroyed two Soviet seaplanes and staged an attack on ships in Belushya Bay. #### Operation Wunderland In August 1942, the German Navy commenced Operation Wunderland, to enter the Kara Sea and sink as many Soviet ships as possible. *Admiral Scheer* and other warships rounded Cape Desire, entered the Kara Sea and attacked a shore station on Dikson Island, badly damaging the Soviet ships *Dezhnev* and *Revolutionist*. Later that year, Karlo Štajner made the acquaintance of a new prisoner, a Captain Menshikov, who told him that: > "In August 1942, another…transport arrived in Novaya Zemlya. The escort ships turned around and went back. Just a few hours later, the watchman in the tower announced that a ship was in sight. Everyone assumed it was one of the Allied warships and didn’t give the matter any importance. Shortly after, the watchman announced that the ship was nearing the bay. I went outside…to see for myself. As soon as I had climbed the tower, I realized to my horror that this was a German warship. I gave the alarm, but it was too late… the German cruiser was coming closer. One of the Allied freighters — the first ship we managed to get moving — steered its way out of the bay. That’s all the Germans were waiting for. At the moment when the ship reached the narrowest part of the bay, the German guns sent off their first salvo — a direct hit… our coastal batteries opened fire… but the guns didn’t reach far enough… [they] came closer and destroyed all the ships in the bay, as well as a large part of the harbor [and] left a hundred dead and wounded." > > Whether the attack on Menshikov's battery occurred on Dikson Island or on Novaya Zemlya, Stajner's account illuminated the fate of a Soviet officer imprisoned by his countrymen for the "crime" of suffering defeat at the hands of the enemy. Not surprisingly, Menshikov's arrest was never announced in the Soviet press. #### 1943 operations In August 1943, a German U-boat sank the Soviet research ship *Akademic Shokalskiy* near *Mys Sporyy Navolok* but the Soviet Navy, now on the offensive, destroyed the German submarine U-639 near *Mys Zhelaniya*. In 1943, Novaya Zemlya briefly served as a secret seaplane base for Nazi Germany's *Kriegsmarine*, to provide German surveillance of Allied shipping en route to Siberia. The seaplane base was established by U-255 and U-711, which were operating along the northern coast of Soviet Russia as part of *13th U-boat Flotilla*. Seaplane sorties were flown in August and September 1943. ### Nuclear testing In July 1954, Novaya Zemlya was designated as the nuclear weapons testing venue, construction of which began in October and existed during much of the Cold War. "Zone A", Chyornaya Guba (70°42′N 54°36′E / 70.7°N 54.6°E / 70.7; 54.6), was used in 1955–1962 and 1972–1975. "Zone B", Matochkin Shar (73°24′N 54°54′E / 73.4°N 54.9°E / 73.4; 54.9), was used for underground tests in 1964–1990. "Zone C", Sukhoy Nos (73°42′N 54°00′E / 73.7°N 54.0°E / 73.7; 54.0), was used in 1958–1961 and was the site of the 1961 test of the Tsar Bomba, the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated. Other tests occurred elsewhere throughout the islands, with an official testing range covering over half of the landmass. In September 1961, two propelled thermonuclear warheads were launched from Vorkuta Sovetsky and Salekhard to target areas on Novaya Zemlya. The launch rocket was subsequently deployed to Cuba. 1963 saw the implementation of the Limited Test Ban Treaty which banned most atmospheric nuclear tests. The largest underground test in Novaya Zemlya took place on September 12, 1973, involving four nuclear devices of 4.2 megatons total yield. Although far smaller in blast power than the Tsar Bomba and other atmospheric tests, the confinement of the blasts underground led to pressures rivaling natural earthquakes. In the case of the September 12, 1973 test, a seismic magnitude of 6.97 on the Richter Scale was reached, setting off an 80 million ton avalanche that blocked two glacial streams and created a lake 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) in length. Over its history as a nuclear test site, Novaya Zemlya hosted 224 nuclear detonations with a total explosive energy equivalent to 265 megatons of TNT. For comparison, all explosives used in World War II, including the detonations of two US nuclear bombs, amounted to only two megatons. In 1988–1989, *glasnost* helped make the Novaya Zemlya testing activities public knowledge, and in 1990 Greenpeace activists staged a protest at the site. The last nuclear test explosion was in 1990 (also the last for the entire Soviet Union and Russia). The Ministry for Atomic Energy has performed a series of subcritical underwater nuclear experiments near Matochkin Shar each autumn since 1998. These tests reportedly involve up to 100 grams (3.5 oz) of weapons-grade plutonium. In October 2012, it was reported that Russia would resume subcritical nuclear testing at "Zone B". In Spring 2013, construction of what would become a new tunnel and four buildings was initiated near the *Severny* settlement, 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) west-northwest to the Mount Lazarev. Geography and geology --------------------- Novaya Zemlya is an extension of the northern part of the Ural Mountains, and the interior is mountainous throughout. It is separated from the mainland by the Kara Strait. Novaya Zemlya consists of two major islands, separated by the narrow Matochkin Strait, as well as a number of smaller islands. The two main islands are: * Severny (Northern), which has a large ice cap, the Severny Island ice cap, as well as many active glaciers. * Yuzhny (Southern), which is largely unglaciated and has a tundra landscape. The coast of Novaya Zemlya is very indented, and it is the area with the largest number of fjords in the Russian Federation. Novaya Zemlya separates the Barents Sea from the Kara Sea. The total area is about 90,650 square kilometers (35,000 sq mi). The highest mountain is located on the Northern island and is 1,547 meters (5,075 ft) high. Compared to other regions that were under large ice sheets during the last glacial period, Novaya Zemlya shows relatively little isostatic rebound. Possibly this is indebted to a counter-effect created by the growth of glaciers during the last few thousand years. ### Geology The geology of Novaya Zemlya is dominated by a large anticlinal structure that forms an extension of the Ural Mountains. The geology is primarily formed of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, including both carbonate and siliciclastic rocks spanning the Cambrian to Permian, ranging from deep marine turbidites and flysch to shallow marine and terrestrial sandstones and reef limestones. Small areas of late Neoproterozoic (~600 mya) granite and associated metasedimentary rocks are also exposed. * Natural-color satellite image of the Nordenskiöld Glacier group. East coast, SevernyNatural-color satellite image of the Nordenskiöld Glacier group. East coast, Severny * Wide shot of Novaya ZemlyaWide shot of Novaya Zemlya * Barents Bay (Willem Barents' gravesite; .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}76°27′N 68°42′E / 76.450°N 68.700°E / 76.450; 68.700)Barents Bay (Willem Barents' gravesite; 76°27′N 68°42′E / 76.450°N 68.700°E / 76.450; 68.700) * Inostrantsev Glacier terminus (.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}76°28′N 66°5′E / 76.467°N 66.083°E / 76.467; 66.083)Inostrantsev Glacier terminus (76°28′N 66°5′E / 76.467°N 66.083°E / 76.467; 66.083) * Cape Zhelaniya (Northernmost cape of Severny; .mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}76°57′N 68°35′E / 76.950°N 68.583°E / 76.950; 68.583)Cape Zhelaniya (Northernmost cape of Severny; 76°57′N 68°35′E / 76.950°N 68.583°E / 76.950; 68.583) Environment ----------- The ecology of Novaya Zemlya is influenced by its severe climate, but the region nevertheless supports a diversity of biota. One of the most notable species present is the polar bear, whose population in the Barents Sea region is genetically distinct from other polar bear subpopulations. ### Climate Novaya Zemlya has a maritime-influenced variety of a tundra climate (Köppen *ET*). Due to some effect from the Gulf Stream and its offshore position, winters are a lot less severe than in inland areas on a lot lower latitudes in Siberia, but instead last up to eight months a year. The milder waters to its west delays the onset of sea ice and causes vast seasonal lag in shoulder seasons. Due to latitudinal differences, the temperatures and daylight varies quite a bit throughout the archipelago, with the Malye Karmakuly station being located in the southern part. Novaya Zemlya is cloudy in general, but snowfall and rainfall is relatively scarce for being a maritime location. Even so, glaciers dominate the northern interior and there is strong snow accumulation each winter due to the length of the season. | Climate data for Malye Karmakuly, Novaya Zemlya | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 2.6(36.7) | 1.7(35.1) | 2.0(35.6) | 7.8(46.0) | 17.6(63.7) | 22.2(72.0) | 28.3(82.9) | 23.8(74.8) | 16.5(61.7) | 9.7(49.5) | 4.5(40.1) | 2.5(36.5) | 28.3(82.9) | | Average high °C (°F) | −10.9(12.4) | −11.5(11.3) | −9.1(15.6) | −6.7(19.9) | −1.4(29.5) | 4.9(40.8) | 10.3(50.5) | 9.0(48.2) | 5.5(41.9) | −0.1(31.8) | −4.8(23.4) | −8.1(17.4) | −1.9(28.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −14.1(6.6) | −14.7(5.5) | −12.2(10.0) | −9.9(14.2) | −3.7(25.3) | 2.5(36.5) | 7.3(45.1) | 6.8(44.2) | 3.7(38.7) | −1.8(28.8) | −7.1(19.2) | −11.1(12.0) | −4.5(23.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −17.3(0.9) | −17.9(−0.2) | −15.2(4.6) | −13.0(8.6) | −5.8(21.6) | 0.7(33.3) | 5.1(41.2) | 4.9(40.8) | 2.1(35.8) | −4.0(24.8) | −9.9(14.2) | −14.1(6.6) | −7.0(19.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | −36.0(−32.8) | −37.4(−35.3) | −40.0(−40.0) | −29.9(−21.8) | −25.9(−14.6) | −9.6(14.7) | −2.8(27.0) | −1.7(28.9) | −9.9(14.2) | −21.1(−6.0) | −29.1(−20.4) | −36.2(−33.2) | −40.0(−40.0) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 30(1.2) | 26(1.0) | 24(0.9) | 20(0.8) | 15(0.6) | 23(0.9) | 36(1.4) | 31(1.2) | 39(1.5) | 35(1.4) | 24(0.9) | 33(1.3) | 336(13.2) | | Average rainy days | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 10 | 15 | 17 | 19 | 9 | 3 | 2 | 82 | | Average snowy days | 18 | 18 | 19 | 17 | 17 | 10 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 17 | 19 | 20 | 163 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 78 | 77 | 77 | 76 | 78 | 81 | 83 | 83 | 85 | 82 | 79 | 78 | 80 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 0 | 25 | 107 | 215 | 189 | 173 | 229 | 143 | 73 | 40 | 3 | 0 | 1,197 | | Source 1: Pogoda.ru.net | | Source 2: NOAA (sun 1961–1990) | Polar bears enter human-inhabited areas more frequently than previously, which has been attributed to climate change. Global warming reduces sea ice, forcing the bears to come inland to find food. In February 2019, a mass migration occurred in the northeastern portion of Novaya Zemlya. Dozens of polar bears were seen entering homes, public buildings, and inhabited areas, so Arkhangelsk region authorities declared a state of emergency on Saturday, February 16, 2019. ### In creative works * In *Pale Fire* (1962), Kinbote's home country is named Zembla, and references to Novaya Zemlya are made throughout the novel. See also -------- * List of fjords of Russia * List of islands of Russia * Novaya Zemlya effect * Gusinaya Zemlya * *Novaya Zemlya* (2008 film) * *Nova Zembla* (2011 film) * Tsar Bomba * Gora Severny Nunatak * Mezhdusharsky Island Further reading --------------- * Serebryanny, Leonid (June 1997). "The Colonization and Peoples of Novaya Zemlya then and now". *Nationalities Papers*. **25** (2): 301–309. doi:10.1080/00905999708408505. S2CID 129588062.

Novaya Zemlya

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novaya_Zemlya

The **FISU World University Games**, formerly the **Universiade**, is an international multi-sport event, organized for university athletes by the International University Sports Federation (FISU). The former name is a portmanteau of the words "University" and "Olympiad". The Universiade is referred to in English as the **World University Games** or **World Student Games**; however, this latter term can also refer to competitions for sub-University grades students. In July 2020 as part of a new branding system by the FISU, it was stated that the Universiade will be officially branded as the **FISU World University Games**. The most recent summer event was the 2019 Summer Universiade in Naples, Italy. The most recent winter event was the 2023 Winter World University Games held in Lake Placid, United States from 11–21 January 2023, after the 2021 edition scheduled to be held in Lucerne, Switzerland was cancelled due the COVID-19 pandemic. The 2021 Summer World University Games were scheduled to be held in Chengdu, China, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic has been postponed three times and will now be held in 2023, after the 2023 Summer World University Games, set to be held in Yekaterinburg, Russia, were postponed after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. At this moment the 2023 Summer World University Games has the postponed status according to the official FISU website. Precursors ---------- The idea of a global international sports competition between student-athletes pre-dates the 1949 formation of the International University Sports Federation (FISU), which now hosts the Universiade, and even the very first World University Games held in 1923. English peace campaigner Hodgson Pratt was an early advocate of such an event, proposing (and passing) a motion at the 1891 Universal Peace Congress in Rome to create a series of international student conferences in rotating host capital cities, with activities including art and sport. This did not come to pass, but a similar event was created in Germany in 1909 in the form of the Academic Olympia. Five editions were held from 1909 to 1913, all of which were hosted in Germany following the cancellation of an Italy-based event. At the start of the 20th century, Jean Petitjean of France began attempting to organise a "University Olympic Games". After discussion with Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic Games, Petitjean was convinced not to use the word "Olympic" in the tournament's name. Petitjean, and later the Confederation Internationale des Etudiants (CIE), was the first to build a series of international events, beginning with the 1923 International Universities Championships. This was followed by the renamed 1924 Summer Student World Championships a year later and two further editions were held in 1927 and 1928. Another name change resulted in the 1930 International University Games. The CIE's International University Games was held four more times in the 1930s before having its final edition in 1947. A separate group organised an alternative university games in 1939 in Vienna, in post-Anschluss Germany. The onset of World War II ceased all major international student sport activities and the aftermath also led to division among the movement, as the CIE was disbanded and rival organisations emerged. The *Union Internationale des Étudiants* (UIE) incorporated a university sports games into the World Festival of Youth and Students from 1947 to 1962, including one separate, unofficial games in 1954. This event principally catered for Eastern European countries. After the closure of the CIE and the creation of the first UIE-organised games, FISU came into being in 1949 and held its own first major student sport event the same year in the form of the 1949 Summer International University Sports Week. The Sports Week was held biennially until 1955. Like the CIE's games before it, the FISU events were initially Western-led sports competitions. Division between the largely Western European FISU and Eastern European UIE eventually began to dissipate among broadened participation at the 1957 World University Games. This event was not directly organised by either group, instead being organised by Jean Petitjean in France (which remained neutral to the split), but all respective nations from the groups took part. The FISU-organised Universiade became the direct successor to this competition, maintaining the biennial format into the inaugural 1959 Universiade. It was not until the 1957 World University Games that the Soviet Union began to compete in FISU events. That same year, what had previously been a European competition became a truly global one, with the inclusion of Brazil, Japan and the United States among the competing nations. The increased participation ultimately led to the establishment of the Universiade as the primary global student sport championship. ### Precursor events Not recognized by FISU as Universide: Precursor events| # | Year | Event | Body | Host city | Host country | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1923 | International Universities Championships | CIE | Paris |  France | | 2 | 1924 | Summer Student World Championships | CIE | Warsaw |  Poland | | 3 | 1927 | Summer Student World Championships | CIE | Rome |  Italy | | 4 | 1928 | Summer Student World Championships | CIE | Paris |  France | | 5 | 1930 | International University Games | CIE | Darmstadt |  Germany | | 6 | 1933 | International University Games | CIE | Turin |  Italy | | 7 | 1935 | International University Games | CIE | Budapest |  Hungary | | 8 | 1937 | International University Games | CIE | Paris |  France | | 9 | 1939 | International University Games | CIE | Monte Carlo |  Monaco | | 10 | 1939 | International University Games | CIE | Vienna |  Germany | | 11 | 1947 | International University Games | CIE | Paris |  France | | 12 | 1947 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Prague |  Czechoslovakia | | 13 | 1949 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Budapest |  Hungary | | 14 | 1949 | Summer International University Sports Week | FISU | Merano |  Italy | | 15 | 1951 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | East Berlin |  East Germany | | 16 | 1951 | Summer International University Sports Week | FISU | Luxembourg |  Luxembourg | | 17 | 1953 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Bucharest |  Romania | | 18 | 1953 | Summer International University Sports Week | FISU | Dortmund |  West Germany | | 19 | 1955 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Warsaw |  Poland | | 20 | 1955 | Summer International University Sports Week | FISU | San Sebastián |  Spain | | 21 | 1957 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Moscow |  Soviet Union | | 22 | 1957 | World University Games | CIE | Paris |  France | | 23 | 1959 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Vienna |  Austria | | 24 | 1962 | World Festival of Youth and Students | UIE | Helsinki |  Finland | Summer World University Games ----------------------------- ### Location map FISU World University Games is located in Earth1963**1963**1967**1967**1979**1979**1983**1983**1985**1985**1993**1993**1995**1995**2001**2001**2003**2003**2007**2007**2011**2011**2013**2013**2015**2015**2017**2017**2023**2023**2027**2027**2029**2029**class=notpageimage| Locations of host cities excluding those in Europe. FISU World University Games is located in Europe1959,1970**1959,1970**1961, 1977**1961, 1977**1965**1965**1973**1973**1975**1975**1981**1981**1987**1987**1989**1989**2025**2025**1991**1991**1997**1997**1999**1999**2005**2005**2009**2009**2013**2013**2019**2019**class=notpageimage| Locations of host cities in Europe. ### Editions Overview of summer Universiade events| Games | Year | Host country | Host city | Opened by | Dates | Nations | Competitors | Sports | Events | Top nation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1959 |  Italy | Turin | Giovanni Gronchi | 26 August – 7 September | 45 | 985 | 7 | 60 |  Italy | | 2 | 1961 |  Bulgaria | Sofia | Dimitar Ganev | 25 August – 3 September | 32 | 1270 | 9 | 68 |  Soviet Union | | 3 | 1963 |  Brazil | Porto Alegre | Paulo de Tarso Santos | 30 August – 8 September | 27 | 917 | 9 | 70 |  Soviet Union | | 4 | 1965 |  Hungary | Budapest | István Dobi | 20–30 August | 32 | 1729 | 9 | 74 |  Hungary | | 5 | 1967 |  Japan | Tokyo | Hirohito | 27 August – 4 September | 30 | 937 | 10 | 83 |  United States | | 6 | 1970 |  Italy | Turin | Giuseppe Saragat | 26 August – 6 September | 40 | 2080 | 9 | 82 |  Soviet Union | | 7 | 1973 |  Soviet Union | Moscow | Leonid Brezhnev | 15–25 August | 72 | 2765 | 10 | 111 |  Soviet Union | | 8 | 1975 |  Italy | Rome | Giovanni Leone | 18–21 August | 38 | 450 | 1 | 38 |  Soviet Union | | 9 | 1977 |  Bulgaria | Sofia | Todor Zhivkov | 17–28 August | 78 | 2939 | 10 | 101 |  Soviet Union | | 10 | 1979 |  Mexico | Mexico City | José López Portillo | 2–13 September | 85 | 2974 | 10 | 97 |  Soviet Union | | 11 | 1981 |  Romania | Bucharest | Nicolae Ceaușescu | 19–30 July | 86 | 2912 | 10 | 133 |  Soviet Union | | 12 | 1983 |  Canada | Edmonton | Prince Charles | 1–12 July | 73 | 2400 | 10 | 118 |  Soviet Union | | 13 | 1985 |  Japan | Kobe | Akihito | 24 August – 4 September | 106 | 3949 | 11 | 123 |  Soviet Union | | 14 | 1987 |  Yugoslavia | Zagreb | Lazar Mojsov | 8–19 July | 122 | 6423 | 12 | 139 |  United States | | 15 | 1989 |  West Germany | Duisburg | Helmut Kohl | 22–30 August | 79 | 1785 | 4 | 66 |  Soviet Union | | 16 | 1991 |  United Kingdom | Sheffield | Anne, Princess Royal | 14–25 July | 101 | 3346 | 11 | 119 |  United States | | 17 | 1993 |  United States | Buffalo | Primo Nebiolo | 8–18 July | 118 | 3582 | 12 | 135 |  United States | | 18 | 1995 |  Japan | Fukuoka | Naruhito | 23 August – 3 September | 118 | 3949 | 12 | 144 |  United States | | 19 | 1997 |  Italy | Sicily | Oscar Luigi Scalfaro | 20–31 August | 122 | 3582 | 10 | 129 |  United States | | 20 | 1999 |  Spain | Palma de Mallorca | Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo | 3–13 July | 114 | 4076 | 12 | 142 |  United States | | 21 | 2001 |  China | Beijing | Jiang Zemin | 22 August – 1 September | 165 | 6757 | 12 | 170 |  China | | 22 | 2003 |  South Korea | Daegu | Roh Moo-hyun | 21–31 August | 174 | 7180 | 13 | 189 |  China | | 23 | 2005 |  Turkey | Izmir | Ahmet Necdet Sezer | 11–22 August | 133 | 7816 | 15 | 195 |  Russia | | 24 | 2007 |  Thailand | Bangkok | Vajiralongkorn | 8–18 August | 150 | 12000 | 15 | 236 |  China | | 25 | 2009 |  Serbia | Belgrade | Mirko Cvetković | 1–12 July | 145 | 5379 | 15 | 203 |  Russia | | 26 | 2011 |  China | Shenzhen | Hu Jintao | 12–23 August | 165 | 7999 | 24 | 306 |  China | | 27 | 2013 |  Russia | Kazan | Vladimir Putin | 6–17 July | 162 | 10442 | 27 | 351 |  Russia | | 28 | 2015 |  South Korea | Gwangju | Park Geun-hye | 3–14 July | 142 | 12885 | 21 | 274 |  South Korea | | 29 | 2017 |  Chinese Taipei | Taipei | Tsai Ing-wen | 19–30 August | 145 | 11397 | 22 | 272 |  Japan | | 30 | 2019 |  Italy | Naples | Sergio Mattarella | 3–14 July | 112 | 5971 | 18 | 220 |  Japan | | 31 | 2023 |  China | Chengdu | | 28 July – 8 August,2023 | | | 18 | 268 | | | 32 | 2025 |  Germany | Rhine-Ruhr region | | 16–27 July | | | 18 | 225 | | | 33 | 2027 |  South Korea | Chungcheong Province | | | | | 17 | | | | 34 | 2029 |  United States | Research Triangle | | | | | 18 | | 1. ↑ Originally scheduled for Lisbon, Portugal in 1969. 2. ↑ Originally scheduled for Belgrade, Yugoslavia. 3. ↑ Originally scheduled for São Paulo City, Brazil. 4. ↑ The Taiwan Republic of China (Taiwan) is recognised as Chinese Taipei by the FISU and the majority of international organisations it participates in due to political considerations and Cross-Strait relations with the People's Republic of China. 5. ↑ Originally scheduled for Brasília, Brazil. 6. ↑ Originally scheduled to be held on 15–27 August 2021 and 25 June – 7 July 2022, but was postponed twice due to the COVID-19 pandemic. With the eventual cancellation of the 2023 Games in Yekaterinburg due to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, this edition will replace the 2023 event. ### Medal table | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  United States | 503 | 433 | 418 | 1354 | | 2 |  China | 447 | 406 | 254 | 1107 | | 3 |  Russia | 432 | 364 | 418 | 1214 | | 4 |  Soviet Union | 406 | 308 | 273 | 987 | | 5 |  Japan | 343 | 338 | 388 | 1069 | | 6 |  South Korea | 245 | 201 | 237 | 683 | | 7 |  Italy | 184 | 198 | 260 | 642 | | 8 |  Ukraine | 178 | 182 | 177 | 537 | | 9 |  Romania | 149 | 130 | 147 | 426 | | 10 |  Hungary | 117 | 96 | 107 | 320 | | Totals (10 entries) | 3004 | 2656 | 2679 | 8339 | Winter World University Games ----------------------------- ### Location map FISU World University Games is located in Earth2017**2017**2019**2019**1972, 2023**1972, 2023**1991**1991**1997**1997**2009**2009**class=notpageimage| Locations of host cities excluding Europe. FISU World University Games is located in Europe1960**1960**1962**1962**1964, 1978**1964, 1978**1966**1966**1968, 2005**1968, 2005**1970**1970**1975**1975**1985**1985**1987, 2015**1987, 2015**1981, 1995**1981, 1995**1983,1989**1983,1989**1993, 2001**1993, 2001**1999**1999**2003**2003**2005**2005**2007, 2025**2007, 2025**2011**2011**2013**2013**2015**2015**2015**2015**2021**2021**class=notpageimage| Locations of host cities in Europe. ### Editions Winter World University Games editions| Games | Year | Host country | Host city | Opened by | Dates | Nations | Competitors | Sports | Events | Top nation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1960 |  France | Chamonix | Charles de Gaulle | 28 February – 6 March | 16 | 151 | 5 | 13 |  France | | 2 | 1962 |  Switzerland | Villars | Paul Chaudet | 6–12 March | 22 | 273 | 6 | 12 |  West Germany | | 3 | 1964 |  Czechoslovakia | Špindlerův Mlýn | Antonín Novotný | 11–17 February | 21 | 285 | 5 | 15 |  West Germany | | 4 | 1966 |  Italy | Sestriere | Giuseppe Saragat | 5–13 February | 29 | 434 | 6 | 19 |  Soviet Union | | 5 | 1968 |  Austria | Innsbruck | Franz Jonas | 21–28 January | 26 | 424 | 7 | 23 |  Soviet Union | | 6 | 1970 |  Finland | Rovaniemi | Urho Kekkonen | 3–9 April | 25 | 421 | 7 | 24 |  Soviet Union | | 7 | 1972 |  United States | Lake Placid | Richard Nixon | 26 February – 5 March | 23 | 351 | 7 | 25 |  Soviet Union | | 8 | 1975 |  Italy | Livigno | Giovanni Leone | 6–13 April | 15 | 143 | 2 | 13 |  Soviet Union | | 9 | 1978 |  Czechoslovakia | Špindlerův Mlýn | Gustáv Husák | 5–12 February | 21 | 260 | 7 | 16 |  Soviet Union | | 10 | 1981 |  Spain | Jaca | Juan Carlos I | 25 February – 4 March | 28 | 394 | 7 | 19 |  Soviet Union | | 11 | 1983 |  Bulgaria | Sofia | Todor Zhivkov | 17–27 February | 28 | 535 | 7 | 21 |  Soviet Union | | 12 | 1985 |  Italy | Belluno | Sandro Pertini | 16–24 February | 34 | 538 | 7 | 30 |  Soviet Union | | 13 | 1987 |  Czechoslovakia | Štrbské Pleso | Gustáv Husák | 21–28 February | 21 | 596 | 6 | 25 |  Czechoslovakia | | 14 | 1989 |  Bulgaria | Sofia | Todor Zhivkov | 2–12 March | 21 | 681 | 8 | 40 |  Soviet Union | | 15 | 1991 |  Japan | Sapporo | Naruhito | 2–10 March | 34 | 668 | 8 | 40 |  Japan | | 16 | 1993 |  Poland | Zakopane | Lech Wałęsa | 6–14 February | 41 | 668 | 8 | 36 |  Japan | | 17 | 1995 |  Spain | Jaca | Juan Carlos I | 18–28 February | 41 | 765 | 9 | 35 |  South Korea | | 18 | 1997 |  South Korea | Muju-Jeonju | Kim Young-sam | 24 January – 2 February | 48 | 877 | 9 | 51 |  Japan | | 19 | 1999 |  Slovakia | Poprad-Vysoké Tatry | Rudolf Schuster | 22–30 January | 40 | 926 | 8 | 52 |  Russia | | 20 | 2001 |  Poland | Zakopane | Aleksander Kwaśniewski | 7–17 February | 41 | 1,007 | 9 | 52 |  Russia | | 21 | 2003 |  Italy | Tarvisio | Renzo Tondo | 16–26 January | 46 | 1,266 | 10 | 59 |  Russia | | 22 | 2005 |  Austria | Innsbruck-Seefeld | Heinz Fischer | 12–22 January | 50 | 1,449 | 11 | 68 |  Austria | | 23 | 2007 |  Italy | Turin | George Killian | 17–27 January | 48 | 1,638 | 11 | 72 |  South Korea | | 24 | 2009 |  China | Harbin | Liu Yandong | 18–28 February | 44 | 1,545 | 12 | 81 |  China | | 25 | 2011 |  Turkey | Erzurum | Abdullah Gül | 27 January – 6 February | 52 | 1,593 | 11 | 66 |  Russia | | 26 | 2013 |  Italy | Trentino | Ugo Rossi | 11–21 December | 50 | 1,698 | 12 | 79 |  Russia | | 27 | 2015 |  Slovakia | Štrbské Pleso–Osrblie | Andrej Kiska | 24 January – 1 February | 43 | 1,546 | 11 | 68 |  Russia | |  Spain | Granada | Felipe VI | 4–14 February | | 28 | 2017 |  Kazakhstan | Almaty | Nursultan Nazarbayev | 29 January – 8 February | 57 | 1,604 | 12 | 85 |  Russia | | 29 | 2019 |  Russia | Krasnoyarsk | Vladimir Putin | 2–12 March | 58 | 3,000 | 11 | 76 |  Russia | | 30 | 2021 |  Switzerland | Lucerne | *Cancelled, due to the COVID-19 pandemic* | | 31 | 2023 |  United States | Lake Placid | Kathy Hochul | 12–22 January | 47 | 1443 | 12 | 85 |  Japan | | 32 | 2025 |  Italy | Turin | | 13-23 January | | | 12 | | | | 33 | 2027 | bid submissions accepted until 31 January 2022 | | | | | | | | 34 | 2029 | bid submissions accepted until 31 January 2022 | | | | | | | | 1. ↑ Originally scheduled for Maribor, Slovenia. 2. ↑ Due to environmental problems in Granada, the Nordic skiing events were transferred to Slovakia. ### Medal table | Rank | NUSF | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  Russia (RUS) | 207 | 188 | 180 | 575 | | 2 |  South Korea (KOR) | 121 | 86 | 78 | 285 | | 3 |  Japan (JPN) | 112 | 119 | 107 | 338 | | 4 |  Soviet Union (URS)\* | 103 | 92 | 67 | 262 | | 5 |  China (CHN) | 73 | 65 | 76 | 214 | | 6 |  France (FRA) | 59 | 59 | 61 | 179 | | 7 |  Poland (POL) | 56 | 64 | 62 | 182 | | 8 |  Italy (ITA) | 55 | 59 | 66 | 180 | | 9 |  Czechoslovakia (TCH)\* | 54 | 40 | 25 | 119 | | 10 |  Austria (AUT) | 50 | 54 | 56 | 160 | | Totals (10 entries) | 890 | 826 | 778 | 2494 | See also -------- * International University Sports Federation * FISU World University Championships * FISU America Games * ASEAN University Games * International Children's Games

FISU World University Games

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FISU_World_University_Games

**Shawarma** (/ʃəˈwɑːrmə/; Arabic: شاورما) is a popular Middle Eastern dish that originated in the Ottoman Empire, consisting of meat cut into thin slices, stacked in an inverted cone, and roasted on a slowly turning vertical rotisserie or spit. Traditionally made with lamb or mutton, it may also be made with chicken, turkey, beef, or veal. Thin slices are shaved off the cooked surface as it continuously rotates. Shawarma is a popular street food in the greater Middle East, including Lebanon, Egypt, Kuwait, Iraq, and the Levant, also served widely in Saudi Arabia. It is also widely popular in South Asia, mainly Pakistan and Afghanistan. Etymology --------- *Shawarma* is an Arabic rendering of the Ottoman Turkish *çevirme* (چيويرمى) ([tʃeviɾˈme], "turning"), referring to the turning rotisserie. History ------- Although the roasting of meat on horizontal spits has an ancient history, the shawarma technique—grilling a vertical stack of meat slices and cutting it off as it cooks—first appeared in the 19th-century Ottoman Empire, in what is now Turkey, in the form of doner kebab, which both the Greek gyros and shawarma are derived from. Shawarma, in turn, led to the development during the early 20th century of the contemporary Mexican dish *tacos al pastor* when it was brought there by Lebanese immigrants. Preparations ------------ Shawarma is prepared from thin cuts of seasoned and marinated lamb, mutton, veal, beef, chicken, or turkey. The slices are stacked on a skewer about 60 cm (20 in) high. Pieces of fat may be added to the stack to provide extra juiciness and flavor. A motorized spit slowly turns the stack of meat in front of an electric or gas-fired heating element, continuously roasting the outer layer. Shavings are cut off the rotating stack for serving, customarily with a long, flat knife. Spices may include cumin, cardamom, cinnamon, turmeric or paprika, and in some areas *baharat*. Shawarma is commonly served as a sandwich or wrap, in a flatbread such as pita or laffa. In the Middle East, chicken shawarma is typically served with garlic sauce, fries, and pickles. The garlic sauce served with the sandwich depends on the meat. *Toum* or *toumie* sauce is made from garlic, vegetable oil, lemon, and egg white or starch, and is usually served with chicken shawarma. *Tarator* sauce is made from garlic, tahini sauce, lemon, and water, and is served with beef shawarma. In Israel, most shawarma is made with dark-meat turkey and is commonly served with tahina sauce because yogurt sauce with meat would violate the Jewish dietary prohibition on eating milk and meat together. It is often garnished with diced tomatoes, cucumbers, onions, pickled vegetables, hummus, tahina sauce, sumac, or *amba* mango sauce. Some restaurants offer additional toppings, including grilled peppers, eggplant, or french fries. In Bahrain, there is a popular variant of the shawarma, referred to as a malgoum, which is a traditional shawarma, but with the addition of french fries and cheese. Gallery ------- * Shawarma in pitaShawarma in pita * Shawarma on lavashShawarma on lavash * Shawarma in "cheese" (top) and "regular" (bottom) lavashShawarma in "cheese" (top) and "regular" (bottom) lavash * Mixed shawarma with rice and tomatoesMixed shawarma with rice and tomatoes * Slicing and preparationSlicing and preparation See also -------- * Kati roll

Shawarma

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawarma

**Political philosophy** or **political theory** is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships between them. Its topics include politics, liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and the enforcement of laws by authority: what they are, if they are needed, what makes a government legitimate, what rights and freedoms it should protect, what form it should take, what the law is, and what duties citizens owe to a legitimate government, if any, and when it may be legitimately overthrown, if ever. Political theory also engages questions of a broader scope, tackling the political nature of phenomena and categories such as identity, culture, sexuality, race, wealth, human-nonhuman relations, ethics, religion, and more. Political science, the scientific study of politics, is generally used in the singular, but in French and Spanish the plural (*sciences politiques* and *ciencias políticas*, respectively) is used, perhaps a reflection of the discipline's eclectic nature. Political philosophy is a branch of philosophy, but it has also played a major part of political science, within which a strong focus has historically been placed on both the history of political thought and contemporary political theory (from normative political theory to various critical approaches). In the *Oxford Handbook of Political Theory* (2009), the field is described as: "[...] an interdisciplinary endeavor whose center of gravity lies at the humanities end of the happily still undisciplined discipline of political science ... For a long time, the challenge for the identity of political theory has been how to position itself productively in three sorts of location: in relation to the academic disciplines of political science, history, and philosophy; between the world of politics and the more abstract, ruminative register of theory; between canonical political theory and the newer resources (such as feminist and critical theory, discourse analysis, film and film theory, popular and political culture, mass media studies, neuroscience, environmental studies, behavioral science, and economics) on which political theorists increasingly draw." History ------- ### Ancient traditions #### Ancient India Indian political philosophy in ancient times demarcated a clear distinction between (1) nation and state (2) religion and state. The constitutions of Hindu states evolved over time and were based on political and legal treatises and prevalent social institutions. The institutions of state were broadly divided into governance, diplomacy, administration, defense, law and order. *Mantranga*, the principal governing body of these states, consisted of the King, Prime Minister, Commander in chief of army, Chief Priest of the King. The Prime Minister headed the committee of ministers along with head of executive (Maha Amatya). Chanakya was a 4th-century BC Indian political philosopher. The *Arthashastra* provides an account of the science of politics for a wise ruler, policies for foreign affairs and wars, the system of a spy state and surveillance and economic stability of the state. Chanakya quotes several authorities including Bruhaspati, Ushanas, Prachetasa Manu, Parasara, and Ambi, and described himself as a descendant of a lineage of political philosophers, with his father Chanaka being his immediate predecessor. Another influential extant Indian treatise on political philosophy is the Sukra Neeti. An example of a code of law in ancient India is the Manusmṛti or Laws of Manu. #### Ancient China Chinese political philosophy dates back to the Spring and Autumn period, specifically with Confucius in the 6th century BC. Chinese political philosophy was developed as a response to the social and political breakdown of the country characteristic of the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. The major philosophies during the period, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, Agrarianism and Taoism, each had a political aspect to their philosophical schools. Philosophers such as Confucius, Mencius, and Mozi, focused on political unity and political stability as the basis of their political philosophies. Confucianism advocated a hierarchical, meritocratic government based on empathy, loyalty, and interpersonal relationships. Legalism advocated a highly authoritarian government. Mohism advocated a communal, decentralized government centered on frugality and asceticism. The Agrarians advocated a peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. Taoism advocated a proto-anarchism. Legalism was the dominant political philosophy of the Qin Dynasty, but was replaced by State Confucianism in the Han Dynasty. Each had religious or mythic aspects as well that played into how they viewed fairness in governance. Prior to China's adoption of communism, State Confucianism remained the dominant political philosophy of China up to the 20th century. #### Ancient Greece Western political philosophy originates in the philosophy of ancient Greece, where political philosophy dates back to at least Plato. Ancient Greece was dominated by city-states, which experimented with various forms of political organization. Plato grouped forms of government into five categories of descending stability and morality: republic, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy and tyranny. One of the first, extremely important classical works of political philosophy is Plato's *Republic*, which was followed by Aristotle's *Nicomachean Ethics* and *Politics*. Roman political philosophy was influenced by the Stoics and the Roman statesman Cicero. ### Medieval Christianity Augustine of HippoThomas Aquinas #### Saint Augustine The early Christian philosophy of Augustine of Hippo was heavily influenced by Plato. A key change brought about by Christian thought was the moderation of the Stoicism and theory of justice of the Roman world, as well emphasis on the role of the state in applying mercy as a moral example. Augustine also preached that one was not a member of his or her city, but was either a citizen of the City of God (Civitas Dei) or the Earthly City (Civitas Terrena). Augustine's *City of God* is an influential work of this period that attacked the thesis, held by many Christian Romans, that the Christian view could be realized on Earth. #### St. Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas meticulously dealt with the varieties of philosophy of law. According to Aquinas, there are four kinds of law: 1. Eternal law ("the divine government of everything") 2. Divine positive law (having been "posited" by God; external to human nature) 3. Natural law (the right way of living discoverable by natural reason; what cannot-not be known; internal to human nature) 4. Human law (what we commonly call "law"—including customary law; the law of the *Communitas Perfecta*) Aquinas never discusses the nature or categorization of canon law. There is scholarly debate surrounding the place of canon law within the Thomistic jurisprudential framework. Aquinas was an incredibly influential thinker in the Natural Law tradition. ### Islamic Political Evolution #### Mutazilite vs. Asharite Al FarabiIbn Sina The rise of Islam, based on both the Qur'an and Muhammad strongly altered the power balances and perceptions of origin of power in the Mediterranean region. Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth—in effect *all* philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. This view was challenged by the "rationalist" Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more Hellenic view, reason above revelation, and as such are known to modern scholars as the first speculative theologians of Islam; they were supported by a secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the Caliphate. By the late ancient period, however, the "traditionalist" Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. According to the Asharites, reason must be subordinate to the Quran and the Sunna. Ibn RushdIbn Khaldun Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam—i.e., the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad—thus making it essentially theocratic. However, in Western thought, it is generally supposed that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Abunaser), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes). The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah (power), sultan, ummah, cemaa (obligation)-and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an—i.e., ibadah (worship), din (religion), rab (master) and ilah (deity)—is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. Political thought was not purely rooted in theism, however. Aristotleanism flourished as the Islamic Golden Age saw rise to a continuation of the peripatetic philosophers who implemented the ideas of Aristotle in the context of the Islamic world. Abunaser, Avicenna and Ibn Rushd where part of this philosophical school who claimed that human reason surpassed mere coincidence and revelation. They believed, for example, that natural phenomena occur because of certain rules (made by god), not because god interfered directly (unlike Al-Ghazali and his followers). Other notable political philosophers of the time include Nizam al-Mulk, a Persian scholar and vizier of the Seljuq Empire who composed the *Siyasatnama*, or the "Book of Government" in English. In it, he details the role of the state in terms of political affairs (i.e. how to deal with political opponents without ruining the government's image), as well as its duty to protect the poor and reward the worthy. In his other work, he explains how the state should deal with other issues such as supplying jobs to immigrants like the Turkmens who were coming from the north (present day southern Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan). #### Ibn Khaldun The 14th-century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "...an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself," the best in the history of political theory. For Ibn Khaldun, government should be restrained to a minimum for as a necessary evil, it is the constraint of men by other men. ### Medieval Europe Medieval political philosophy in Europe was heavily influenced by Christian thinking. It had much in common with the Mutazilite Islamic thinking in that the Roman Catholics thought subordinating philosophy to theology did not subject reason to revelation but in the case of contradictions, subordinated reason to faith as the Asharite of Islam. The Scholastics by combining the philosophy of Aristotle with the Christianity of St. Augustine emphasized the potential harmony inherent in reason and revelation. Perhaps the most influential political philosopher of medieval Europe was St. Thomas Aquinas who helped reintroduce Aristotle's works, which had only been transmitted to Catholic Europe through Muslim Spain, along with the commentaries of Averroes. Aquinas's use of them set the agenda, for scholastic political philosophy dominated European thought for centuries even unto the Renaissance. Some medieval political philosophers, such as Aquinas in his *Summa Theologica*, developed the idea that a king who is a tyrant is no king at all and could be overthrown. Others, like Nicole Oresme in his *Livre de Politiques*, categorically denied this right to overthrow an unjust ruler. The Magna Carta, viewed by many as a cornerstone of Anglo-American political liberty, explicitly proposes the right to revolt against the ruler for justice's sake. Other documents similar to Magna Carta are found in other European countries such as Spain and Hungary. ### European Renaissance During the Renaissance secular political philosophy began to emerge after about a century of theological political thought in Europe. While the Middle Ages did see secular politics in practice under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, the academic field was wholly scholastic and therefore Christian in nature. #### Niccolò Machiavelli One of the most influential works during this burgeoning period was Niccolò Machiavelli's *The Prince*, written between 1511–12 and published in 1532, after Machiavelli's death. That work, as well as *The Discourses*, a rigorous analysis of classical antiquity, did much to influence modern political thought in the West. A minority (including Jean-Jacques Rousseau) interpreted The Prince as a satire meant to be given to the Medici after their recapture of Florence and their subsequent expulsion of Machiavelli from Florence. Though the work was written for the di Medici family in order to perhaps influence them to free him from exile, Machiavelli supported the Republic of Florence rather than the oligarchy of the Medici family. At any rate, Machiavelli presents a pragmatic and somewhat consequentialist view of politics, whereby good and evil are mere means used to bring about an end—i.e., the acquisition and maintenance of absolute power. Thomas Hobbes, well known for his theory of the social contract, goes on to expand this view at the start of the 17th century during the English Renaissance. Although neither Machiavelli nor Hobbes believed in the divine right of kings, they both believed in the inherent selfishness of the individual. It was necessarily this belief that led them to adopt a strong central power as the only means of preventing the disintegration of the social order. ### European Enlightenment During the Enlightenment period, new theories emerged about what the human was and is and about the definition of reality and the way it was perceived, along with the discovery of other societies in the Americas, and the changing needs of political societies (especially in the wake of the English Civil War, the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Haitian Revolution). These new theories led to new questions and insights by such thinkers as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Benjamin Constant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. These theorists were driven by two basic questions: one, by what right or need do people form states; and two, what the best form for a state could be. These fundamental questions involved a conceptual distinction between the concepts of "state" and "government." It was decided that "state" would refer to a set of enduring institutions through which power would be distributed and its use justified. The term "government" would refer to a specific group of people who occupied the institutions of the state, and create the laws and ordinances by which the people, themselves included, would be bound. This conceptual distinction continues to operate in political science, although some political scientists, philosophers, historians and cultural anthropologists have argued that most political action in any given society occurs outside of its state, and that there are societies that are not organized into states that nevertheless must be considered in political terms. As long as the concept of natural order was not introduced, the social sciences could not evolve independently of theistic thinking. Since the cultural revolution of the 17th century in England, which spread to France and the rest of Europe, society has been considered subject to natural laws akin to the physical world. Political and economic relations were drastically influenced by these theories as the concept of the guild was subordinated to the theory of free trade, and Roman Catholic dominance of theology was increasingly challenged by Protestant churches subordinate to each nation-state, which also (in a fashion the Roman Catholic Church often decried angrily) preached in the vulgar or native language of each region. Free trade, as opposed to these religious theories, is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. It can also be understood as the free market idea applied to international trade. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold liberal economic positions while economically left-wing and nationalist political parties generally support protectionism, the opposite of free trade. However, the enlightenment was an outright attack on religion, particularly Christianity. The most outspoken critic of the church in France was François Marie Arouet de Voltaire, a representative figure of the enlightenment. Historians have described Voltaire's description of the history of Christianity as "propagandistic". Voltaire is partially responsible for the misattribution of the expression *Credo quia absurdum* to the Church Fathers. In a letter to Frederick II, King of Prussia, dated 5 January 1767, he wrote about Christianity: La nôtre [religion] est sans contredit la plus ridicule, la plus absurde, et la plus sanguinaire qui ait jamais infecté le monde. "Ours [i.e., the Christian religion] is assuredly the most ridiculous, the most absurd and the most bloody religion which has ever infected this world. Your Majesty will do the human race an eternal service by extirpating this infamous superstition, I do not say among the rabble, who are not worthy of being enlightened and who are apt for every yoke; I say among honest people, among men who think, among those who wish to think. ... My one regret in dying is that I cannot aid you in this noble enterprise, the finest and most respectable which the human mind can point out." After Voltaire, religion would never be the same again in France. As well, there was no spread of this doctrine within the New World and the advanced civilizations of the Aztec, Maya, Inca, Mohican, Delaware, Huron and especially the Iroquois. The Iroquois philosophy, in particular, gave much to Christian thought of the time and in many cases actually inspired some of the institutions adopted in the United States: for example, Benjamin Franklin was a great admirer of some of the methods of the Iroquois Confederacy, and much of early American literature emphasized the political philosophy of the natives. The Iroquois (/ˈɪrəkwɔɪ/ or /ˈɪrəkwɑː/) or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy in North America. They were known during the colonial years to the French as the Iroquois League, and later as the Iroquois Confederacy, and to the English as the Five Nations, comprising the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. After 1722, they accepted the Tuscarora people from the Southeast into their confederacy, as they were also Iroquoian-speaking, and became known as the Six Nations. #### John Locke John Locke in particular exemplified this new age of political theory with his work *Two Treatises of Government*. In it, Locke proposes a state of nature theory that directly complements his conception of how political development occurs and how it can be founded through contractual obligation. Locke stood to refute Sir Robert Filmer's paternally founded political theory in favor of a natural system based on nature in a particular given system. The theory of the divine right of kings became a passing fancy, exposed to the type of ridicule with which John Locke treated it. Unlike Machiavelli and Hobbes but like Aquinas, Locke would accept Aristotle's dictum that man seeks to be happy in a state of social harmony as a social animal. Unlike Aquinas's preponderant view on the salvation of the soul from original sin, Locke believes man's mind comes into this world as tabula rasa. For Locke, knowledge is neither innate, revealed nor based on authority but subject to uncertainty tempered by reason, tolerance and moderation. According to Locke, an absolute ruler as proposed by Hobbes is unnecessary, for natural law is based on reason and seeking peace and survival for man. #### John Stuart Mill John Stuart Mill's work on political philosophy begins in *On Liberty*. *On Liberty* is the most influential statement of his liberal principles. He begins by distinguishing old and new threats to liberty. The old threat to liberty is found in traditional societies in which there is rule by one (a monarchy) or a few (an aristocracy). Though one could be worried about restrictions on liberty by benevolent monarchs or aristocrats, the traditional worry is that when rulers are politically unaccountable to the governed they will rule in their own interests, rather than the interests of the governed. Mill's explicit theory of rights is introduced in Chapter V of *Utilitarianism* in the context of his sanction theory of duty, which is an indirect form of utilitarianism that identifies wrong actions as actions that it is useful to sanction. Mill then introduces justice as a proper part of the duty. Justice involves duties that are perfect duties—that is, duties that are correlated with rights. Justice implies something which it is not only right to do, and wrong not to do, but which some individual person can claim from us as a matter of right. These perfect duties will thus create liberty and collective freedom within a state. He uses, *On Liberty* to discuss gender equality in society. To Mill, Utilitarianism was the perfect tool to justify gender equality in The Subjection of Women, referring to the political, lawful and social subjection of women. When a woman was married, she entered legally binding coverture with her husband; once she married her legal existence as an individual was suspended under "marital unity". While it is easy to presume that a woman would not marry under these circumstances, being unmarried had social consequences. A woman could only advance in social stature and wealth if she had a rich husband to do the groundwork. Mill uses his Utilitarian ethics to assess how gender equality would be the best way to achieve "the greatest good for the greatest number" : "The principle that regulates the existing social relations between the two sexes … and is now one of the chief obstacles to human improvement…" The ‘chief obstacle’ to Mill relates to women's intellectual capability. The Subjection of Women looks at this in the women of society and argues that diminishing their intellectual potential wastes the knowledge and skill of half of the population; such knowledge lost could formulate ideas that could maximize pleasure for society. #### Benjamin Constant One of the first thinkers to go by the name of "liberal", Constant looked to Britain rather than to ancient Rome for a practical model of freedom in a large, commercial society. He drew a distinction between the "Liberty of the Ancients" and the "Liberty of the Moderns". The Liberty of the Ancients was participatory republican liberty, which gave the citizens the right to directly influence politics through debates and votes in the public assembly. In order to support this degree of participation, citizenship was a burdensome moral obligation requiring a considerable investment of time and energy. Generally, this required a sub-society of slaves to do much of the productive work, leaving the citizens free to deliberate on public affairs. Ancient Liberty was also limited to relatively small and homogenous societies, in which the people could be conveniently gathered together in one place to transact public affairs. The Liberty of the Moderns, in contrast, was based on the possession of civil liberties, the rule of law, and freedom from excessive state interference. Direct participation would be limited: a necessary consequence of the size of modern states, and also the inevitable result of having created a commercial society in which there are no slaves but almost everybody must earn a living through work. Instead, the voters would elect representatives, who would deliberate in Parliament on behalf of the people and would save citizens from the necessity of daily political involvement. Moreover, Constant believed that, in the modern world, commerce was superior to war. He attacked Napoleon's martial appetite, on the grounds that it was illiberal and no longer suited to modern commercial social organization. Ancient Liberty tended to be warlike, whereas a state organized on the principles of Modern Liberty would be at peace with all peaceful nations. #### Thomas Hobbes The main practical conclusion of Hobbes' political theory is that state or society can not be secure unless at the disposal of an absolute sovereign. From this follows the view that no individual can hold rights of property against the sovereign, and that the sovereign may therefore take the goods of its subjects without their consent. In *Leviathan*, Hobbes set out his doctrine of the foundation of states and legitimate governments and creating an objective science of morality. Much of the book is occupied with demonstrating the necessity of a strong central authority to avoid the evil of discord and civil war. Beginning from a mechanistic understanding of human beings and their passions, Hobbes postulates what life would be like without government, a condition which he calls the state of nature. In that state, each person would have a right, or license, to everything in the world. This, Hobbes argues, would lead to a "war of all against all". #### Jean-Jacques Rousseau *The Social Contract* outlines the basis for a legitimate political order within a framework of classical republicanism. Published in 1762, it became one of the most influential works of political philosophy in the Western tradition. It developed some of the ideas mentioned in earlier work, the article *Discours sur l'oeconomie politique* (*Discourse on Political Economy*), featured in Diderot's Encyclopédie. The treatise begins with the dramatic opening lines, "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains. Those who think themselves the masters of others are indeed greater slaves than they." Rousseau claimed that the state of nature was a primitive condition without law or morality, which human beings left for the benefits and necessity of cooperation. As society developed, the division of labor and private property required the human race to adopt institutions of law. In the degenerate phase of society, man is prone to be in frequent competition with his fellow men while also becoming increasingly dependent on them. This double pressure threatens both his survival and his freedom. ### Industrialization and the modern era The Marxist critique of capitalism—developed with Friedrich Engels—was, alongside liberalism and fascism, one of the defining ideological movements of the twentieth century. The industrial revolution produced a parallel revolution in political thought. Urbanization and capitalism greatly reshaped society. During this same period, the socialist movement began to form. In the mid-19th century, Marxism was developed, and socialism in general gained increasing popular support, mostly from the urban working class. Without breaking entirely from the past, Marx established principles that would be used by future revolutionaries of the 20th century namely Vladimir Lenin, Mao Zedong, Ho Chi Minh, and Fidel Castro. Though Hegel's philosophy of history is similar to Immanuel Kant's, and Karl Marx's theory of revolution towards the common good is partly based on Kant's view of history—Marx declared that he was turning Hegel's dialectic, which was "standing on its head", "the right side up again". Unlike Marx who believed in historical materialism, Hegel believed in the *Phenomenology of Spirit*. By the late 19th century, socialism and trade unions were established members of the political landscape. In addition, the various branches of anarchism, with thinkers such as Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon or Peter Kropotkin, and syndicalism also gained some prominence. In the Anglo-American world, anti-imperialism and pluralism began gaining currency at the turn of the 20th century. World War I was a watershed event in human history, changing views of governments and politics. The Russian Revolution of 1917 (and similar, albeit less successful, revolutions in many other European countries) brought communism—and in particular the political theory of Leninism, but also on a smaller level Luxemburgism (gradually)—on the world stage. At the same time, social democratic parties won elections and formed governments for the first time, often as a result of the introduction of universal suffrage. Contemporary ------------ In a 1956 *American Political Science Review* report authored by Harry Eckstein, political philosophy as a discipline had utility in two ways: > the utility of political philosophy might be found either in the intrinsic ability of the best of past political thought to sharpen the wits of contemporary political thinkers, much as any difficult intellectual exercise sharpens the mind and deepens the imagination, or in the ability of political philosophy to serve as a thought-saving device by providing the political scientist with a rich source of concepts, models, insights, theories, and methods. > > From the end of World War II until 1971, when John Rawls published *A Theory of Justice*, political philosophy declined in the Anglo-American academic world, as analytic philosophers expressed skepticism about the possibility that normative judgments had cognitive content, and political science turned toward statistical methods and behavioralism. In continental Europe, on the other hand, the postwar decades saw a huge blossoming of political philosophy, with Marxism dominating the field. This was the time of Jean-Paul Sartre and Louis Althusser; and the victories of Mao Zedong in China and Fidel Castro in Cuba, as well as the events of May 1968, led to increased interest in revolutionary ideology, especially by the New Left. A number of continental European émigrés to Britain and the United States—including Karl Popper, Friedrich Hayek, Leo Strauss, Hannah Arendt, Isaiah Berlin, Eric Voegelin and Judith Shklar—encouraged continued study in political philosophy in the Anglo-American world, but in the 1950s and 1960s, they and their students remained at odds with the analytic establishment. Communism remained an important focus especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Colonialism and racism were important issues that arose. In general, there was a marked trend towards a pragmatic approach to political issues, rather than a philosophical one. Much academic debate regarded one or both of two pragmatic topics: how (or whether) to apply utilitarianism to problems of political policy, or how (or whether) to apply economic models (such as rational choice theory) to political issues. The rise of feminism, LGBT social movements and the end of colonial rule and of the political exclusion of such minorities as African Americans and sexual minorities in the developed world has led to feminist, postcolonial, and multicultural thought becoming significant. This led to a challenge to the social contract by philosophers Charles W. Mills in his book *The Racial Contract* and Carole Pateman in her book *The Sexual Contract* that the social contract excluded persons of colour and women respectively. In Anglo-American academic political philosophy, the publication of John Rawls's *A Theory of Justice* in 1971 is considered a milestone. Rawls used a thought experiment, the original position, in which representative parties choose principles of justice for the basic structure of society from behind a veil of ignorance. Rawls also offered a criticism of utilitarian approaches to questions of political justice. Robert Nozick's 1974 book *Anarchy, State, and Utopia*, which won a National Book Award, responded to Rawls from a libertarian perspective and gained academic respectability for libertarian viewpoints. Contemporaneously with the rise of analytic ethics in Anglo-American thought, in Europe, several new lines of philosophy directed at the critique of existing societies arose between the 1950s and 1980s. Most of these took elements of Marxist economic analysis but combined them with a more cultural or ideological emphasis. Out of the Frankfurt School, thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Max Horkheimer, and Jürgen Habermas combined Marxian and Freudian perspectives. Along somewhat different lines, a number of other continental thinkers—still largely influenced by Marxism—put new emphases on structuralism and on a "return to Hegel". Within the (post-) structuralist line (though mostly not taking that label) are thinkers such as Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Claude Lefort, and Jean Baudrillard. The Situationists were more influenced by Hegel; Guy Debord, in particular, moved a Marxist analysis of commodity fetishism to the realm of consumption, and looked at the relation between consumerism and dominant ideology formation. Another debate developed around the (distinct) criticisms of liberal political theory made by Michael Walzer, Michael Sandel and Charles Taylor. The liberal-communitarian debate is often considered valuable for generating a new set of philosophical problems, rather than a profound and illuminating clash of perspective. These and other communitarians (such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Daniel A. Bell) argue that, contra liberalism, communities are prior to individuals and therefore should be the center of political focus. Communitarians tend to support greater local control as well as economic and social policies which encourage the growth of social capital. A prominent subject in recent political philosophy is the theory of deliberative democracy. The seminal work was done by Jurgen Habermas in Germany, but the most extensive literature has been in English, led by theorists such as Jane Mansbridge, Joshua Cohen, Amy Gutmann and Dennis Thompson. A pair of overlapping political perspectives arising toward the end of the 20th century are republicanism (or neo- or civic-republicanism) and the capability approach. The resurgent republican movement aims to provide an alternate definition of liberty from Isaiah Berlin's positive and negative forms of liberty, namely "liberty as non-domination." Unlike the American liberal movement which understands liberty as "non-interference," "non-domination" entails individuals not being subject to the arbitrary will of any other person. To a republican the mere status as a slave, regardless of how that slave is treated, is objectionable. Prominent republicans include historian Quentin Skinner, jurist Cass Sunstein, and political philosopher Philip Pettit. The capability approach, pioneered by economists Mahbub ul Haq and Amartya Sen and further developed by legal scholar Martha Nussbaum, understands freedom under allied lines: the real-world ability to act. Both the capability approach and republicanism treat choice as something which must be resourced. In other words, it is not enough to be legally able to do something, but to have the real option of doing it. Another important strand of contemporary political theory in North America draws on thinkers such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Gilles Deleuze, among others, to develop critiques and articulate alternatives to the sufficiency of the liberal-communitarian debate and republicanism discourse. Since the 1990s, these political theorists, broadly engaging the "genealogical approach", "deconstruction", and "weak ontology", have expanded the scope of political theory and issued a variety of arguments on topics such as pluralism, agonism, gender performativity, secularism, and more recently the Anthropocene and the non-human turn. The works of Judith Butler, William E. Connolly, Wendy Brown, Jane Bennett, Bonnie Honig and Chantal Mouffe have been highly pertinent in this regard. Influential political philosophers[*List entry too long*] --------------------------------------------------------- A larger list of political philosophers is intended to be closer to exhaustive. Listed below are some of the most canonical or important thinkers, and especially philosophers whose central focus was in political philosophy and/or who are good representatives of a particular school of thought. * Thomas Aquinas: In synthesizing Christian theology and Peripatetic (Aristotelian) teaching in his *Treatise on Law*, Aquinas contends that God's gift of higher reason—manifest in human law by way of the divine virtues—gives way to the assembly of righteous government. * Aristotle: Wrote his *Politics* as an extension of his *Nicomachean Ethics*. Notable for the theories that humans are social animals, and that the polis (Ancient Greek city state) existed to bring about the good life appropriate to such animals. His political theory is based upon an ethics of perfectionism (as is Marx's, on some readings). * Mikhail Bakunin: After Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Bakunin became the most important political philosopher of anarchism. His specific version of anarchism is called collectivist anarchism. * Jeremy Bentham: The first thinker to analyze social justice in terms of maximization of aggregate individual benefits. Founded the philosophical/ethical school of thought known as utilitarianism. * Isaiah Berlin: Developed the distinction between positive and negative liberty. * Edmund Burke: Irish member of the British parliament, Burke is credited with the creation of conservative thought. Burke's *Reflections on the Revolution in France* is the most popular of his writings where he denounced the French revolution. Burke was one of the biggest supporters of the American Revolution. * Chanakya: Wrote influential text Arthashastra, some of earliest political thinkers in Asian history. * Noam Chomsky: He is widely recognized as having helped to spark the cognitive revolution in the human sciences, contributing to the development of a new cognitivistic framework for the study of language and the mind. Chomsky is a leading critic of U.S. foreign policy, neoliberalism and contemporary state capitalism, the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and mainstream news media. His ideas have proven highly influential in the anti-capitalist and anti-imperialist movements, and aligns with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism. * Confucius: The first thinker to relate ethics to the political order. * William E. Connolly: Helped introduce postmodern philosophy into political theory, and promoted new theories of Pluralism and agonistic democracy. * John Dewey: Co-founder of pragmatism and analyzed the essential role of education in the maintenance of democratic government. * Han Feizi: The major figure of the Chinese Fajia (Legalist) school, advocated government that adhered to laws and a strict method of administration. * Michel Foucault: Critiqued the modern conception of power on the basis of the prison complex and other prohibitive institutions, such as those that designate sexuality, madness and knowledge as the roots of their infrastructure, a critique that demonstrated that subjection is the power formation of subjects in any linguistic forum and that revolution cannot just be thought as the reversal of power between classes. * Antonio Gramsci: Instigated the concept of *hegemony*. Argued that the state and the ruling class use culture and ideology to gain the consent of the classes they rule over. * Thomas Hill Green: Modern liberal thinker and early supporter of positive freedom. * Jürgen Habermas: Philosopher and social critic. He has pioneered such concepts as the public sphere, communicative action, and deliberative democracy. His early work was heavily influenced by the Frankfurt School. * Friedrich Hayek: He argued that central planning was inefficient because members of central bodies could not know enough to match the preferences of consumers and workers with existing conditions. Hayek further argued that central economic planning—a mainstay of socialism—would lead to a "total" state with dangerous power. He advocated free-market capitalism in which the main role of the state is to maintain the rule of law and let spontaneous order develop. * G. W. F. Hegel: Emphasized the "cunning" of history, arguing that it followed a rational trajectory, even while embodying seemingly irrational forces; influenced Marx, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Oakeshott. * Thomas Hobbes: Generally considered to have first articulated how the concept of a social contract that justifies the actions of rulers (even where contrary to the individual desires of governed citizens), can be reconciled with a conception of sovereignty. * David Hume: Hume criticized the social contract theory of John Locke and others as resting on a myth of some actual agreement. Hume was a realist in recognizing the role of force to forge the existence of states and that consent of the governed was merely hypothetical. He also introduced the concept of utility, later picked up on and developed by Jeremy Bentham. Hume also coined the 'is/ought' problem i.e. the idea that just because something is does not mean that is how it ought to be. This was very influential on normative politics * Thomas Jefferson: Politician and political theorist during the American Enlightenment. Expanded on the philosophy of Thomas Paine by instrumenting republicanism in the United States. Most famous for the United States Declaration of Independence. * Immanuel Kant: Argued that participation in civil society is undertaken not for self-preservation, as per Thomas Hobbes, but as a moral duty. First modern thinker who fully analyzed structure and meaning of obligation. Argued that an international organization was needed to preserve world peace. * Peter Kropotkin: One of the classic anarchist thinkers and the most influential theorist of anarcho-communism. * John Locke: Like Hobbes, described a social contract theory based on citizens' fundamental rights in the state of nature. He departed from Hobbes in that, based on the assumption of a society in which moral values are independent of governmental authority and widely shared, he argued for a government with power limited to the protection of personal property. His arguments may have been deeply influential to the formation of the United States Constitution. * György Lukács: Hungarian Marxist theorist, aesthetician, literary historian, and critic. One of the founders of Western Marxism. In his *magnum opus* *History and Class Consciousness*, he developed the Marxist theory of class consciousness and introduced the concept of "reification". * Niccolò Machiavelli: First systematic analysis of how politics necessitates expedient and evil actions. Gave an account of statecraft in a realistic point of view instead of relying on idealism. Machiavelli also relays recommendations on how to run a well ordered republican state, as he viewed them to be better forms of government than autocracies. * James Madison: American politician and protege of Jefferson considered to be "Father of the Constitution" and "Father of the Bill of Rights" of the United States. As a political theorist, he believed in separation of powers and proposed a comprehensive set of checks and balances that are necessary to protect the rights of an individual from the tyranny of the majority. * Herbert Marcuse: Called the father of the new left. One of the principal thinkers within the Frankfurt School, and generally important in efforts to fuse the thought of Sigmund Freud and Karl Marx. Introduced the concept of "repressive desublimation", in which social control can operate not only by direct control, but also by manipulation of desire. His work Eros and Civilization and notion of a non-repressive society was influential on the 1960s and its counter-cultural social movements. * Karl Marx: In large part, added the historical dimension to an understanding of society, culture and economics. Created the concept of *ideology* in the sense of (true or false) beliefs that shape and control social actions. Analyzed the fundamental nature of class as a mechanism of governance and social interaction. Profoundly influenced world politics with his theory of communism. * Mencius: One of the most important thinkers in the Confucian school, he is the first theorist to make a coherent argument for an obligation of rulers to the ruled. * John Stuart Mill: A utilitarian, and the person who named the system; he goes further than Bentham by laying the foundation for liberal democratic thought in general and modern, as opposed to classical, liberalism in particular. Articulated the place of individual liberty in an otherwise utilitarian framework. * Montesquieu: Analyzed protection of the people by a "balance of powers" in the divisions of a state. * Mozi: Eponymous founder of the Mohist school, advocated a form of consequentialism. * Friedrich Nietzsche: Philosopher who became a powerful influence on a broad spectrum of 20th-century political currents in Marxism, anarchism, fascism, socialism, libertarianism, and conservatism. His interpreters have debated the content of his political philosophy. * Robert Nozick: Criticized Rawls, and argued for libertarianism, by appeal to a hypothetical history of the state and of property. * Thomas Paine: Enlightenment writer who defended liberal democracy, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution in *Common Sense* and The *Rights of Man*. * Plato: Wrote a lengthy dialogue *The Republic* in which he laid out his political philosophy: citizens should be divided into three categories. One category of people are the rulers: they should be philosophers, according to Plato, this idea is based on his Theory of Forms. * Pierre-Joseph Proudhon: Commonly considered the father of modern anarchism, specifically mutualism. * Ayn Rand: Founder of Objectivism and prime mover of the Objectivist and Libertarian movements in mid-twentieth-century America. Advocated a complete, laissez-faire capitalism. Rand held that the proper role of government was exclusively the protection of individual rights without economic interference. The government was to be separated from economics the same way and for the same reasons it was separated from religion. Any governmental action not directed at the defense of individual rights would constitute the initiation of force (or threat of force), and therefore a violation not only of rights but also of the legitimate function of government. * John Rawls: Revitalized the study of normative political philosophy in Anglo-American universities with his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, which uses a version of social contract theory to answer fundamental questions about justice and to criticise utilitarianism. * Murray Rothbard: The central theorist of anarcho-capitalism and an Austrian School economist. * Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Analyzed the social contract as an expression of the general will, and controversially argued in favor of absolute democracy where the people at large would act as sovereign. * Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar: Known for the socio-economic and political philosophy Progressive Utilization Theory. * Carl Schmitt: German political theorist, tied to the Nazis, who developed the concepts of the Friend/Enemy Distinction and the State of exception. Though his most influential books were written in the 1920s, he continued to write prolifically until his death (in academic quasi-exile) in 1985. He heavily influenced 20th-century political philosophy both within the Frankfurt School and among others, not all of whom are philosophers, such as Jacques Derrida, Hannah Arendt, and Giorgio Agamben. * Adam Smith: Often said to have founded modern economics; explained emergence of economic benefits from the self-interested behavior ("the invisible hand") of artisans and traders. While praising its efficiency, Smith also expressed concern about the effects of industrial labor (e.g., repetitive activity) on workers. His work on moral sentiments sought to explain social bonds which enhance economic activity. * Socrates: Widely considered the founder of Western political philosophy, via his spoken influence on Athenian contemporaries; since Socrates never wrote anything, much of what we know about him and his teachings comes through his most famous student, Plato. * Baruch Spinoza: Set forth the first analysis of *rational egoism*, in which the rational interest of self is conformance with pure reason. To Spinoza's thinking, in a society in which each individual is guided by reason, political authority would be superfluous. * Max Stirner: Important thinker within anarchism and the main representative of the anarchist current known as individualist anarchism. He was also the founder of ethical egoism which endorses anarchy. * Leo Strauss: Famously rejected modernity, mostly on the grounds of what he perceived to be modern political philosophy's excessive self-sufficiency of reason and flawed philosophical grounds for moral and political normativity. He argued instead we should return to pre-modern thinkers for answers to contemporary issues. His philosophy was influential on the formation of neoconservatism, and a number of his students later were members of the Bush administration. * Henry David Thoreau: Influential American thinker on such diverse later political positions and topics such as pacifism, anarchism, environmentalism and civil disobedience- notably with his written work *Civil Disobedience*- who influenced later important political activists such as Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr.. Hard-lining on the individual citizen's right to seek justice over the state's, he was also an outspoken advocate and apologist for John Brown following his raid on Harper's Ferry for the purpose of abolitionist efforts, writing two pieces with one pleading for his mercy- *A Plea for Captain John Brown*- and the other- *The Last Days of John Brown*- describing the life that had been lived fully. * Alexis de Tocqueville: A French political scientist and diplomat, known for his works *Democracy in America* and *The Old Regime and the Revolution*. * François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire): French Enlightenment writer, poet, and philosopher famous for his advocacy of civil liberties, including freedom of religion and free trade. * Bernard Williams: A British moral philosopher whose posthumously published work on political philosophy *In the Beginning was the Deed* has been seen—along with the works of Raymond Geuss—as a key foundational work on political realism. See also -------- * Anarchist schools of thought * Consensus decision-making * Consequentialist justifications of the state * Critical theory * Engaged theory * Justification for the state * Majoritarianism * Panarchy * Philosophy of law * Political journalism * Political spectrum * *Political Theory* * Post-structuralism * Progressivism * Rechtsstaat * Rule according to higher law * Semiotics of culture * State-centered theory * Theodemocracy Further reading --------------- * Academic journals dedicated to political philosophy include: *Political Theory*, *Philosophy and Public Affairs*, *Contemporary Political Theory*, *Theory & Event*, *Constellations*, and *Journal of Political Philosophy* * Assiter, Alison (2009). *Kierkegaard, metaphysics and political theory unfinished selves*. London New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780826498311. * Bohman, James F.; Rehg, William (1997). *Deliberative Democracy: Essays on Reason and Politics*. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-52241-0. * Barzilai, Gad (2003). *Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities*. The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-47211315-6. * Gatti, Roberto; Alici, Luca (2018). *Filosofia politica. Gli autori, i concetti. Edizione ampliata*. Morcelliana. ISBN 978-8-828-40006-6. * Glinka, Lukasz Andrzej (2014). *Aryan Unconscious : Archetype of Discrimination, History & Politics*. Cambridge: Cambridge International Science Publishing. ISBN 978-1-907343-59-9. OCLC 896613668. * Gutmann, Amy; Thompson, Dennis F. (1996). *Democracy and Disagreement*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-19766-4. * Gutmann, Amy; Thompson, Dennis (2004). *Why Deliberative Democracy?*. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12019-5. * London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Political Philosophy * Parkinson, John; Mansbridge, Jane (2012). *Deliberative Systems: Deliberative Democracy at the Large Scale*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-02539-4. * Alexander F. Tsvirkun 2008. *History of political and legal Teachings of Ukraine*. Kharkiv. * Bielskis, Andrius 2005. *Towards a Postmodern Understanding of the Political*. Basingstoke, New York: Palgrave-Macmillan. * Eric Nelson, *The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought* (Harvard University Press, 2010) * Zippelius, Reinhold (2003). *Geschichte der Staatsideen*. C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-49494-9. * Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan (1987–1991). *PROUT in a Nutshell (Parts 1 to 21)*. Ananda Marga Publications.

Political philosophy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_philosophy

**Najd** (Arabic: نَجْدٌ, pronounced [nad͡ʒd]) is the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the House of Saud to bring Arabia under a single polity. Historic Najd was divided into three modern administrative regions still in use today. The Riyadh region, featuring Wadi Hanifa and the Tuwaiq escarpment, which houses easterly Yamama with the Saudi capital, Riyadh since 1824, and the Sudairi region, which has its capital in Majmaah. The second administrative unit, Al-Qassim, houses the fertile oases and date palm orchards spread out in the region's highlands along Wadi Rummah in central Najd with its capital in Buraidah, the second largest Najdi city, with the region historically contested by the House of Rashid to its north and the House of Saud to its east and south. The third administrative unit is northerly Ḥaʼil, which features the mountains of Jabal Shammar housing the Tayy capital of Ḥaʼil. History ------- ### Pre-6th century The Najd region is home to Al-Magar, which was an advanced prehistoric culture of the Neolithic whose center lay in modern-day southwestern Najd. Al-Magar is possibly one of the first cultures in the world where widespread agriculture and the domestication of animals occurred, particularly that of the horse, during the Neolithic period, before climate changes in the region resulted in desertification. Radiocarbon dating of several objects discovered at Al-Magar indicate an age of about 9,000 years. In November 2017 hunting scenes showing images of what appears to be domesticated dogs resembling the Canaan dog and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, an area about 370 km southwest of the city of Ha'il. Dated at 8000 years before the present, these are thought of as the earliest known depictions of dogs in the world. In ancient times, Najd was settled by numerous tribes such as the Kindites, Tayy, and many others. Led by Usma bin Luai (Arabic: عصمة بن لؤي), the Tayy sacked the mountains of Aja and Samra from Banu Tamim in northern Arabia in their exodus from Yemen circa CE 115. These mountains are now known as the Shammar Mountains. The Tayy Shammaris became pastoral nomadic camel herders and horse breeders in northern Najd for centuries with a sedentary faction ruling the tribal league from within their capital city of Ha’il. In the 5th century AD, the tribes of North Arabia became a major threat to the trade line between Yemen and Syria. The Ḥimyarites of Sheba decided to establish a vassal state that controlled Central and North Arabia. The Kindites, mentioned in Greek sources as the Chinedakolpitai (Greek: Χινεδακολπιται), gained strength and numbers to play that role and in AD 425 the Ḥimyarite king Ḥasan ibn 'Amr ibn Tubba’ made Ḥujr 'Akīl al-Murār ibn 'Amr the first King (Ḥujr) of Kindah. They established the Kingdom of Kinda in Najd in central Arabia unlike the organized states of Yemen; its kings exercised an influence over a number of associated tribes more by personal prestige than by coercive settled authority. Their first capital was Qaryat Dhāt Kāhil, today known as Qaryat al-Fāw. The Ghassānids, Lakhmids and Kindites were all Kahlānī and Qaḥṭānī kingdoms which thrived in Najd. In the 5th and 6th centuries AD, the Kindites made the first real concerted effort to unite all the tribes of Central Arabia through alliances, and focused on wars with the Lakhmids. Al-Ḥārith ibn 'Amr, the most famous of their kings, finally succeeded in capturing the Lakhmid capital of al-Ḥirah in southern modern-day Iraq. Later however in about 529, al-Mundhir recaptured the city and put King Ḥārith and about fifty members of his family to death. In 525, the Aksumites invaded Ḥimyar, and this had a knock-on effect with the Kindites, who lost the support of the Ḥimyarites. Within three years the Kindite kingdom had split into four groups: Asad, Taghlib, Qays and Kinānah, each led by a prince of Kindah. These small principalities were then overthrown in the 530s and 540s in a series of uprisings of the ‘Adnānī tribes of Najd and Ḥijāz. In 540, the Lakhmids destroyed all the Kindite settlements in Nejd, forcing the majority of them to move to Yemen. The Kindites and most of the Arab tribes switched their alliances to the Lakhmids. * Plaque with a Ma'inic inscription and two ibexes (1st century BC - 1st century AD), Qaryat al-FawPlaque with a Ma'inic inscription and two ibexes (1st century BC - 1st century AD), Qaryat al-Faw * Fragment of a mural painting with zodiacal motif (1st-3rd century AD), Qaryat al-FawFragment of a mural painting with zodiacal motif (1st-3rd century AD), Qaryat al-Faw * A large ancient stone carving, dating back to 8100 BC, of an equidae - an animal belonging to the horse family, found at Al-Magar. The piece itself, measuring 86 cms long by 18 cms thick and weighing more than 135kg., is a large sculptural fragment that appears to show the head, muzzle, shoulder and withers of a horse.A large ancient stone carving, dating back to 8100 BC, of an equidae - an animal belonging to the horse family, found at Al-Magar. The piece itself, measuring 86 cms long by 18 cms thick and weighing more than 135kg., is a large sculptural fragment that appears to show the head, muzzle, shoulder and withers of a horse. ### The Era of Muhammad ﷺ During the Islamic prophet Muhammad ﷺ's era, He carried out military expeditions in the area. The first was the Nejd Caravan Raid against the Quraysh, which took place in 624. The Meccans led by Safwan ibn Umayyah, who lived on trade, left in summer for Syria for their seasonal trade business. After Muhammad ﷺ received intelligence about the Caravan's route, Muhammad ﷺ ordered Zayd ibn Haritha to go after the Caravan, and they successfully raided it and captured 100,000 dirhams worth of booty. The Invasion of Nejd happened in Rabi‘ Ath-Thani or Jumada Al-Awwal, 4 AH (i.e. in October, 625 AD). Muhammad ﷺ led his fighters to Nejd to scare off some tribes he believed had suspicious intentions. Some scholars say the Expedition of Dhat al-Riqa took place in Nejd as part of this invasion. The most authentic opinion according to "Saifur Rahman al Mubararakpuri", however, is that the Dhat Ar-Riqa' campaign took place after the fall of Khaibar (and not as part of the Invasion of Nejd). This is supported by the fact that Abu Hurairah and Abu Musa Al-Ash'ari witnessed the battle. Abu Hurairah embraced Islam only some days before Khaibar, and Abu Musa Al-Ash'ari came back from Abyssinia, modern day Ethiopia, and joined Muhammad ﷺ at Khaibar. The rules relating to the prayer of fear, which Muhammad ﷺ observed at the Dhat Ar-Riqa' campaign, were revealed at the Asfan Invasion and these scholars say, took place after Al-Khandaq. The Expedition of Qatan also took place in Nejd. The Banu Asad ibn Khuzaymah tribe (not to be confused with the Banu Asad tribe) was a powerful tribe connected with the Quraysh. They resided near the hill of Katan, in the vicinity of Fayd, in Nejd. Muhammad ﷺ received intelligence reports that they were planning a raid on Medina, so he dispatched a force of 150 men under the leadership of Abu Salama 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Asad to make a sudden attack on this tribe. ### Post-Muhammad ﷺ #### Ridda wars After Muhammad ﷺ's death, previously dormant tensions between the Meccan immigrants, the Muhajirun, and the Medinan converts, the Ansar, threatened to split the Ummah. Other Arabic tribes also wished to revert from Islam to local leadership and split from Medina's control; in some places, people such as Al-Aswad Al-Ansi and Musaylima claimed prophethood and started to establish leaderships in opposition to Medina. The Ansar, the leaders of the tribes of Medina, met in a hall or house called saqifah, to discuss whom they would support as their new leader. When Abu Bakr was informed of the meeting, he, Umar, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah and a few others rushed to prevent the Ansar from making a premature decision. During the meeting Umar declared that Abu Bakr should be the new leader, and declared his allegiance to Abu Bakr, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, and thus Abu Bakr became the first caliph. Apostasy and rebellion in central Arabia were led by Musaylima in the fertile region of Yamamah. He was mainly supported by the powerful tribe of Banu Hanifa. At Buzakha in north central Arabia, another claimed prophet, Tulayha, a tribal chief of Banu Asad, led the rebellion against Medina, aided by the allied tribes of Banu Ghatafan, the Hawazin, and the Tayy. At Najd, Malik ibn Nuweira led the tribes of Banu Tamim against the authority of Medina. On receiving intelligence of the Muslims' preparations, Tulayha too prepared for a battle, and was further reinforced by the contingents of the allied tribes. Before launching Khalid ibn Al-Walid against Tulayha, Abu Bakr sought ways and means of reducing the latter's strength, so that the battle could be fought with the maximum prospects of victory. Nothing could be done about the tribes of Banu Asad and Banu Ghatafan, which stood solidly behind Tulayha, but the Tayy were not so staunch in their support of Tulayha, and their chief, Adi ibn Hatim, was a devout Muslim. Adi was appointed by Abu Bakr to negotiate with the tribal elders to withdraw their contingent from Tulayha's army. The negotiations were a success, and Adi brought with him 500 horsemen of his tribe to reinforce Khalid's army. Khalid next marched against another apostate tribe, Jadila. Here again, Adi ibn Hatim offered his services to persuade the tribe to submit without bloodshed. Bani Jadila submitted, and their 1000 warriors joined Khalid's army. Khalid, now much stronger than when he had left Zhu Qissa, marched for Buzakha. There, in mid-September 632, he defeated Tulayha in the Battle of Buzakha. The remaining army of Tulayha retreated to Ghamra, 20 miles from Buzakha, and was defeated in the Battle of Ghamra in the third week of September. Several tribes submitted to the Caliph after Khalid's decisive victories. Moving south from Buzakha, Khalid reached Naqra in October, with an army now 6000 strong, and defeated the rebel tribe of Banu Saleem in the Battle of Naqra. In the third week of October, Khalid defeated a tribal chieftess, Salma, in the battle of Zafar. Afterwards, he moved to Najd against the rebel tribe of Banu Tamim and their Sheikh Malik ibn Nuwayrah. At Najd, getting the news of Khalid's decisive victories against apostates in Buzakha, many clans of Banu Tamim hastened to visit Khalid, but the Banu Yarbu', a branch of Banu Tamim, under their chief, Malik ibn Nuwayrah, hung back. Malik was a chief of some distinction: a warrior, noted for his generosity, and a famous poet. Bravery, generosity, and poetry were the three qualities most admired among the Arabs. At the time of Muhammad ﷺ, he had been appointed as a tax collector for the tribe of Banu Tamim. As soon as Malik heard of the death of Muhammad ﷺ, he gave back all the tax to his tribespeople, saying, "Now you are the owner of your wealth."[*full citation needed*] Moreover, he was to be charged because he signed a pact with the anti-Islamic prophet Sajjah. This agreement stated that first, they would deal with local enemy tribes together, and then they would confront the state of Madinah.[*full citation needed*] His riders were stopped by Khalid's army at the town of Buttah. Khalid asked them about the signing of pact with Sajjah; they said it was just because they wanted revenge against their terrible enemies.[*full citation needed*] When Khalid reached Najd he found no opposing army. He sent his cavalry to nearby villages and ordered them to call the Athaan to each party they meet. Zirrar bin Azwar, a squadron leader, arrested the family of Malik, claiming they did not answer the call to prayer. Malik avoided direct contact with Khalid's army and ordered his followers to scatter, and he and his family apparently moved away across the desert. He refused to give zakat, hence differentiating between prayer and zakat. Nevertheless, Malik was accused of rebellion against the state of Medina. He was also to be charged for his entering in an anti-Caliphate alliance with the anti-Islamic prophetess Sajjah. Malik was arrested along with his clan men, Malik was asked by Khalid about his crimes. Malik's response was "your master said this, your master said that," referring to Abu Bakr. Khalid declared Malik a rebel apostate and ordered his execution. Khalid bin Walid killed Malik ibn Nuwayra. Ikrimah ibn Abi-Jahl, one of the corps commanders, was instructed to make contact with Musaylima at Yamamah, but not to engage in fighting until Khalid joined him. Abu Bakr's intention in giving Ikrimah this mission was to tie Musaylima down at Yamamah. With Ikrimah on the horizon, Musaylima would remain in expectation of a Muslim attack, and thus not be able to leave his base. With Musaylima so committed, Khalid would be free to deal with the apostate tribes of north-central Arabia without interference from Yamamah. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr sent Shurhabil's corps to reinforce Ikrama at Yamamah. However, Ikrimah attacked Musaylima's forces in early September 632 and was defeated. He wrote the details of his actions to Abu Bakr, who, both pained and angered by the rashness of Ikrimah and his disobedience, ordered him to proceed with his force to Oman to assist Hudaifa; once Hudaifa had completed his task, to march to Mahra to help Arfaja, and thereafter go to Yemen to help Muhajir. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr sent orders to Khalid to march against Musaylima. Shurhabil's corps, that was stationed at Yamamah, was to reinforce Khalid's corps. In addition to this Abu Bakr assembled a fresh army of Ansar and Muhajireen in Medina that joined Khalid's corps at Butah. From Butah Khalid marched to Yamamah to join with Shurhabil's corps. Though Abu Bakr had instructed Shurhabil not to engage Musaylima's forces until the arrival of Khalid, shortly before the arrival of Khalid, Shurhabil engaged Musaylima's forces and was defeated too. Khalid joined with the corps of Shurhabil early in December 632. The combined force of Muslims, now 13,000 strong, defeated Musaylima's army in the Battle of Yamamah, which was fought in the third week of December. The fortified city of Yamamah surrendered peacefully later that week. Khalid established his headquarters at Yamamah, from where he despatched columns to all over the plain of Aqraba to subdue the region around Yamamah and to kill or capture all who resisted. Thereafter all of central Arabia submitted to Medina. What remained of the apostasy in the less vital areas of Arabia was rooted out by the Muslims in a series of well-planned campaigns within five months. #### Post–Ridda wars, until the 10th century Muhammad ﷺ's followers rapidly expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering huge swathes of territory from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to modern day Pakistan in the east in a matter of decades. The bulk of the tribes that helped the Caliphate's expansion into Persia and the Levant were composed of Najdi tribes such as Banu Tamim. The Caliphate's use of these once-rebellious tribes allowed Abu Bakr and Umar to quickly deploy battle hardened men and experienced generals such as Al-Qa'qa' ibn Amr al-Tamimi into the front-lines against the Persians and Byzantines. Najd soon became a politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the more developed conquered lands. The conquering tribes of Najd soon shifted into the Levant, Persia and North Africa, playing a role in future conflicts in the caliphate, becoming governors and even birthing emirates such as the Aghlabids. #### 16th century to the unification of Saudi Arabia In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, Asir and al-Ahsa) to the Empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean. Ottoman control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the Empire's central authority. The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began in Najd in central Arabia in 1744, when Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the dynasty, joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance formed in the 18th century provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The first "Saudi state" established in 1744 in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, but was destroyed by 1818 by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. A much smaller second "Saudi state", located mainly in Nejd, was established in 1824 by Turki bn Abdullah. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Al Rashid. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the Sharif of Mecca having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman's son, AbdulAziz—later to be known to the west as Ibn Saud—recaptured control of Riyadh, bringing the Al Saud back to Najd. Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913. In 1916, with the encouragement and support of Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the Arab Revolt of 1916 to 1918 failed in its objective, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia. Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultan of Najd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25 and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself King of the Hejaz. A year later, he added the title of King of Nejd. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership turned to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies, which appeared to favor modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1930 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred. In 1932 the two kingdoms of the Hejaz and Nejd were united as the *Kingdom of Saudi Arabia*. Geography --------- ### Boundaries The Arabic word *najd* literally means "upland" and was once applied to a variety of regions within the Arabian Peninsula. However, the most famous of these in recent times was the central region of the Peninsula roughly bounded on the west by the mountains of the Hejaz and Yemen and to the east by the historical region of Eastern Arabia and the north by Iraq and Syria. Medieval Muslim geographers spent a great amount of time debating the exact boundaries between Hejaz and Najd in particular, but generally set the western boundaries of Najd to be wherever the western mountain ranges and lava beds began to slope eastwards, and set the eastern boundaries of Najd at the narrow strip of red sand dunes known as the Ad-Dahna Desert, some 100 km (62 mi) east of modern-day Riyadh. The southern border of Najd has always been set at the large sea of sand dunes known today as Rub' al Khali (the Empty Quarter), while the southwestern boundaries are marked by the valleys of Wadi Ranyah, Wadi Bisha, and Wadi Tathlith. The northern boundaries of Najd have fluctuated greatly over time and received far less attention from the medieval geographers. In the early Islamic centuries, Najd was considered to extend as far north as the River Euphrates, or more specifically, the "Walls of Khosrau", constructed by the Sassanid Empire as a barrier between Arabia and Iraq immediately prior to the advent of Islam. The modern usage of the term encompasses the region of Al-Yamama, which was not always considered part of Najd historically, and became incorporated into the larger definition of Nejd in the past centuries. ### Topography Najd is a plateau ranging from 762 to 1,525 m (2,500 to 5,003 ft) in height and sloping downwards from west to east. The eastern sections (historically better known as Al-Yamama) are marked by oasis settlements with much farming and trading activities, while the rest has traditionally been sparsely occupied by nomadic Bedouins. The main topographical features include the twin mountains of Aja and Salma in the north near Ha'il, the high land of Jabal Shammar and the Tuwaiq mountain range running through its center from north to south. Also important are the various dry river-beds (*wadis*) such as Wadi Hanifa near Riyadh, Wadi Na'am in the south, Wadi Al-Rumah in the Al-Qassim Province in the north, and Wadi ad-Dawasir at the southernmost tip of Najd on the border with Najran. Most Najdi villages and settlements are located along these wadis, due to ability of these wadis to preserve precious rainwater in the arid desert climate, while others are located near oases. Historically, Najd itself has been divided into small provinces made up of constellations of small towns, villages and settlements, with each one usually centered on one "capital". These subdivisions are still recognized by Najdis today, as each province retains its own variation of the Najdi dialect and Najdi customs. The most prominent among these provinces are Al-'Aridh, which includes Riyadh and the historical Saudi capital of Diriyah; Al-Qassim, with its capital in Buraidah; Sudair, centered on Al Majma'ah; Al-Washm, centered on Shaqraa; and Jebel Shammar, with its capital, Ha'il. Under modern-day Saudi Arabia, however, Najd is divided into three administrative regions: Ha'il, Al-Qassim, and Riyadh, comprising a combined area of 554,000 km2 (214,000 sq mi). * Lake at the 120 km long Wadi Hanifa valley that cuts through RiyadhLake at the 120 km long Wadi Hanifa valley that cuts through Riyadh * The area of 'Uqdah on the outskirts of Ha'ilThe area of 'Uqdah on the outskirts of Ha'il * The An Nafud desert in the outskirts of Riyadh with the Jabal Tuwaiq in the backgroundThe An Nafud desert in the outskirts of Riyadh with the Jabal Tuwaiq in the background Major towns ----------- Riyadh is the largest city in Najd, as well as the largest city in the country as a whole, with a population of more than 7,676,654 as of 2018. Other cities include Ḥaʼil (936,465 in 2021), Buraidah (745,353 in 2021), Unaizah (163,729 in 2010) and Ar Rass (133,000 in 2010). Smaller towns and villages include Sudair, Al-Kharj, Dawadmi, 'Afif, Al-Zilfi, Al Majma'ah, Shaqraa, Tharmada'a, Dhurma, Al-Gway'iyyah, Al-Hareeq, Hotat Bani Tamim, Layla, As Sulayyil, and Wadi ad-Dawasir, the southernmost settlement in Najd. Population ---------- ### Social and ethnic groups Prior to the formation of the modern Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, the native population was largely made up of tribal Arabs, who were either part of the majority class of sedentary farmers and merchants who lived in villages and towns dotted around central Arabia or nomads (*bedouins*), who were a minority of inhabitants who roamed between the towns and villages of Najd much like Hejaz. The rest of the population consisted mainly of Arabs who were, for various reasons, unaffiliated with any tribes, and who mostly lived in the towns and villages of Najd working in various trades such as carpentry or as *Sonnaa'* (craftsmen). There was also a small segment of the population made up of African as well as some East and South Eastern European slaves and freedmen. Most of the Najdi tribes are of Adnanite origin and emigrated from Northern Arabia, Tihamah and Hijaz to Najd in ancient times. The most famous Najdi tribes in the pre-Islamic era were Banu Hanifa, who occupied the area around modern-day Riyadh, Banu Tamim, who occupied areas further north, the tribe of Banu Abs who were centered in Al-Qassim, the tribe of Tayy, centered on modern-day Ha'il, and the tribe of Banu 'Amir in southern Najd. In the 15th through 18th centuries, there was considerable tribal influx from the west, increasing both the nomadic and settled population of the area and providing fertile soil for the Wahhabi movement. By the 20th century, many of the ancient tribes had morphed into new confederations or emigrated from other areas of the Middle East, and many tribes from other regions of the Peninsula had moved into Najd. However, the largest proportion of native Najdis today still belong to these ancient Najdi tribes or to their newer incarnations. Many of the Najdi tribes even in ancient times were not nomadic or bedouin but rather very well settled farmers and merchants. The royal family of Saudi Arabia, Al Saud, for example, trace their lineage to Banu Hanifa. On the eve of the formation of Saudi Arabia, the major nomadic tribes of Najd included Dawasir, Mutayr, 'Utaybah, Shammar (historically known as Tayy) Subay', Suhool, Harb, and the Qahtanites in southern Najd. In addition to those tribes, many of the sedentary population belonged to Anizzah, Banu Tamim, Banu Hanifa, Banu Khalid, and Banu Zayd. Most of the minority nomadic tribes are now settled either in cities such as Riyadh, or in special settlements, known as hijras, that were established in the early part of the 20th century as part of a country-wide policy undertaken by King Abdul-Aziz to put an end to nomadic life. Nomads still exist in the Kingdom, however, in very small numbers – a far cry from the days when they made up the majority of the people of the Arabian Peninsula. Since the formation of modern Saudi Arabia, Najd, and particularly Riyadh, has seen an influx of immigrants from all regions of the country and from virtually every social class. The native Najdi population has also largely moved away from its native towns and villages to the capital, Riyadh. However, most of these villages still retain a small number of their native inhabitants. About a quarter of the population of Najd, including about a third of the population of Riyadh, are non-Saudi expatriates, including both skilled professionals and unskilled laborers. Slavery was abolished in Saudi Arabia by King Faisal in 1962. Some of those freed slaves chose to continue working for their former slave-owners, particularly those whose former owners were members of the royal family. Unlike the Hejaz and Tihamah, Najd is remote and stayed outside of the reign of important Islamic empires such as the Abbasids and the Ottoman Empire. This fact largely shaped its current dissimilarity to Hejaz. ### Religion The region is traditionally known as a Hanbali stronghold, and after the 18th century became known for its strict interpretation of Islam and is generally considered a bastion of religious conservatism. The founder of the interpretation of Sunni Islam called Salafism, Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, was born in 'Uyayna, a village in the Najd. The majority of people in the region consider themselves as Salafi Muslims. The name derives from advocating a return to the traditions of the "ancestors" (salaf), the first three generations of Muslims said to know the unadulterated, pure form of Islam. Those generations include the Islamic prophet Muhammad ﷺ and his companions (the Sahabah), their successors (the Tabi‘un), and the successors of the successors (the Taba al-Tabi‘in). Practically, Salafis maintain that Muslims ought to rely on the Qur'an, the Sunnah and the 'Ijma (consensus) of the salaf, giving them precedence over later Islamic hermeneutic teachings. ### Language The people of Najd have spoken Arabic, in one form or another, for practically all of recorded history. As in other regions of the Peninsula, there is a divergence between the dialect of the nomadic Bedouins and the dialect of the sedentary townspeople. The variation, however, is far less pronounced in Najd than it is elsewhere in the country, and the Najdi sedentary dialect seems to be descended from the Bedouin dialect, just as many sedentary Najdis are descendants of nomadic Bedouins themselves. The Najdi dialect is seen by some to be the least foreign-influenced of all modern Arabic dialects, due to the isolated location and harsh climate of the Najdi plateau, as well as the apparent absence of any substratum from a previous language. Indeed, not even the ancient South Arabian language appears to have been widely spoken in Najd in ancient times, unlike southern Saudi Arabia, for example. Within Najd itself, the different regions and towns have their own distinctive accents and sub-dialects. However, these have largely merged in recent times and have become heavily influenced by Arabic dialects from other regions and countries. This is particularly the case in Riyadh. Economy ------- In the early 20th century, Najd produced coarse wool cloth and a wide range of agricultural products. In popular culture ------------------ Bahiyyih Nakhjavani's first novel *The Saddlebag – A Fable for Doubters and Seekers* describes events set in the Najd plateau along the pilgrimage route between Mecca and Medina in 1844–1845. A contest held in the Middle East brought light to a new character in famed SNK Playmore video game, *The King of Fighters XIV*. This character goes under the name Najd. See also -------- * flag Saudi Arabia portal * Hadith of Najd * History of Saudi Arabia * Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz * List of expeditions of Muhammad in Nejd * Nejd Expedition

Najd

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Najd

**Altaic** (/ælˈteɪ.ɪk/) is a controversial proposed language family that would include the Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic languages. Speakers of these languages are currently scattered over most of Asia north of 35° N and in some eastern parts of Europe, extending in longitude from Turkey to Japan. The group is named after the Altai mountain range in the center of Asia. The hypothetical language family has long been rejected by most comparative linguists, although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority. The research on their supposedly common linguistics origin has inspired various comparative studies on the folklore and mythology among the Turks, Proto-Mongols and Tungus people. The Altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century. It was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks. Since the 1950s, most comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found, and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences between the groups concerned. Modern supporters of Altaic acknowledge that many shared features are the result of contact and convergence and thus cannot be taken as evidence for a genetic relationship, but they nevertheless argue that a core of existing correspondences goes back to a common ancestor. The original hypothesis unified only the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic groups. Later proposals to include the Korean and Japanese languages into a "Macro-Altaic" family have always been controversial. The original proposal was sometimes called "Micro-Altaic" by retronymy. Most proponents of Altaic continue to support the inclusion of Korean, but fewer do for Japanese. Some proposals also included Ainuic but this is not widely accepted even among Altaicists themselves. A common ancestral Proto-Altaic language for the "Macro" family has been tentatively reconstructed by Sergei Starostin and others. Micro-Altaic includes about 66 living languages, to which Macro-Altaic would add Korean, Jeju, Japanese, and the Ryukyuan languages, for a total of about 74 (depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect). These numbers do not include earlier states of languages, such as Middle Mongol, Old Korean, or Old Japanese. Earliest attestations --------------------- The earliest attested expressions in Proto-Turkic are recorded in various Chinese sources. Anna Dybo identifies in Shizi (330 BCE) and the Book of Han (111 CE) several dozen Proto-Turkic exotisms in Chinese Han transcriptions. Lanhai Wei and Hui Li reconstruct the name of the Xiōngnú ruling house as PT \*Alayundluğ /alajuntˈluγ/ 'piebald horse clan.' The earliest known texts in a Turkic language are the Orkhon inscriptions, 720–735 AD. They were deciphered in 1893 by the Danish linguist Vilhelm Thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival, the German–Russian linguist Wilhelm Radloff. However, Radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions. The first Tungusic language to be attested is Jurchen, the language of the ancestors of the Manchus. A writing system for it was devised in 1119 AD and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 (see List of Jurchen inscriptions). The earliest Mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as Middle Mongol. It is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 AD, the Stele of Yisüngge, and by the *Secret History of the Mongols*, written in 1228 (see Mongolic languages). The earliest Para-Mongolic text is the Memorial for Yelü Yanning, written in the Khitan large script and dated to 986 AD. However, the Inscription of Hüis Tolgoi, discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of Mongolic, has been dated to 604-620 AD. The Bugut inscription dates back to 584 AD. Japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in Classical Chinese from the 5th century AD, such as found on the Inariyama Sword. The first substantial text in Japanese, however, is the *Kojiki*, which dates from 712 AD. It is followed by the *Nihon shoki*, completed in 720, and then by the *Man'yōshū*, which dates from c. 771–785, but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier. The most important text for the study of early Korean is the Hyangga, a collection of 25 poems, of which some go back to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BC–668 AD), but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century AD. Korean is copiously attested from the mid-15th century on in the phonetically precise Hangul system of writing. History of the Altaic family concept ------------------------------------ ### Origins The earliest known reference to a unified language group of Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages is from the 1692 work of Nicolaes Witsen which may be based on a 1661 work of Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur *Genealogy of the Turkmens*. A proposed grouping of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was published in 1730 by Philip Johan von Strahlenberg, a Swedish officer who traveled in the eastern Russian Empire while a prisoner of war after the Great Northern War. However, he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages. ### Uralo-Altaic hypothesis In 1844, the Finnish philologist Matthias Castrén proposed a broader grouping which later came to be called the Ural–Altaic family, which included Turkic, Mongolian, and Manchu-Tungus (=Tungusic) as an "Altaic" branch, and also the Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic languages as the "Uralic" branch (though Castrén himself used the terms "Tataric" and "Chudic"). The name "Altaic" referred to the Altai Mountains in East-Central Asia, which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families. The name "Uralic" referred to the Ural Mountains. While the Ural-Altaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias, atlases, and similar general references, since the 1960s it has been heavily criticized. Even linguists who accept the basic Altaic family, such as Sergei Starostin, completely discard the inclusion of the "Uralic" branch. The term continues to be used for the central Eurasian typological, grammatical and lexical convergence zone. Indeed, "Ural-Altaic" may be preferable to "Altaic" in this sense. For example, Juha Janhunen states that "speaking of 'Altaic' instead of 'Ural-Altaic' is a misconception, for there are no areal or typological features that are specific to 'Altaic' without Uralic." ### Korean and Japanese languages In 1857, the Austrian scholar Anton Boller suggested adding Japanese to the Ural–Altaic family. In the 1920s, G.J. Ramstedt and E.D. Polivanov advocated the inclusion of Korean. Decades later, in his 1952 book, Ramstedt rejected the Ural–Altaic hypothesis but again included Korean in Altaic, an inclusion followed by most leading Altaicists (supporters of the theory) to date. His book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the Altaic language families. In 1960, Nicholas Poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of Ramstedt's volume on phonology that has since set the standard in Altaic studies. Poppe considered the issue of the relationship of Korean to Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic not settled. In his view, there were three possibilities: (1) Korean did not belong with the other three genealogically, but had been influenced by an Altaic substratum; (2) Korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other; (3) Korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes. Roy Andrew Miller's 1971 book *Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages* convinced most Altaicists that Japanese also belonged to Altaic. Since then, the "Macro-Altaic" has been generally assumed to include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese. In 1990, Unger advocated a family consisting of Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic languages, but not Turkic or Mongolic. However, many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of Korean and Japanese to the other three groups. Some authors instead tried to connect Japanese to the Austronesian languages. In 2017, Martine Robbeets proposed that Japanese (and possibly Korean) originated as a hybrid language. She proposed that the ancestral home of the Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern Manchuria. A group of those proto-Altaic ("Transeurasian") speakers would have migrated south into the modern Liaoning province, where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an Austronesian-like language. The fusion of the two languages would have resulted in proto-Japanese and proto-Korean. In a typological study that does not directly evaluate the validity of the Altaic hypothesis, Yurayong and Szeto (2020) discuss for Koreanic and Japonic the stages of convergence to the Altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model, which resulted in the present typological similarity between Koreanic and Japonic. They state that both are "still so different from the Core Altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent Japanese-Korean type of grammar. Given also that there is neither a strong proof of common Proto-Altaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences but, rather, only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the Altaic typology, our results indirectly speak in favour of a “Paleo-Asiatic” origin of the Japonic and Koreanic languages." ### The Ainu language In 1962, John C. Street proposed an alternative classification, with Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic in one grouping and Korean-Japanese-Ainu in another, joined in what he designated as the "North Asiatic" family. The inclusion of Ainu was adopted also by James Patrie in 1982. The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic and Korean-Japanese-Ainu groupings were also posited in 2000–2002 by Joseph Greenberg. However, he treated them as independent members of a larger family, which he termed Eurasiatic. The inclusion of Ainu is not widely accepted by Altaicists. In fact, no convincing genealogical relationship between Ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated, and it is generally regarded as a language isolate. ### Early criticism and rejection Starting in the late 1950s, some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal Altaic family hypothesis, disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages. Among the earlier critics were Gerard Clauson (1956), Gerhard Doerfer (1963), and Alexander Shcherbak. They claimed that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. In 1988, Doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups. ### Modern controversy A major continuing supporter of the Altaic hypothesis has been Sergei Starostin, who published a comparative lexical analysis of the Altaic languages in 1991. He concluded that the analysis supported the Altaic grouping, although it was "older than most other language families in Eurasia, such as Indo-European or Finno-Ugric, and this is the reason why the modern Altaic languages preserve few common elements". In 1991 and again in 1996, Roy Miller defended the Altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of Clauson and Doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences, whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. In 2003, Claus Schönig published a critical overview of the history of the Altaic hypothesis up to that time, siding with the earlier criticisms of Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak. In 2003, Starostin, Anna Dybo and Oleg Mudrak published the *Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages*, which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments. Starostin's book was criticized by Stefan Georg in 2004 and 2005, and by Alexander Vovin in 2005. Other defenses of the theory, in response to the criticisms of Georg and Vovin, were published by Starostin in 2005, Blažek in 2006, Robbeets in 2007, and Dybo and G. Starostin in 2008. In 2010, Lars Johanson echoed Miller's 1996 rebuttal to the critics, and called for a muting of the polemic. ### List of supporters and critics of the Altaic hypothesis The list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the Altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of Ramstedt's *Einführung* in 1952. The dates given are those of works concerning Altaic. For supporters of the theory, the version of Altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry, if other than the prevailing one of Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean–Japanese. #### Major supporters * Pentti Aalto (1955). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. * Anna V. Dybo (S. Starostin et al. 2003, A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). * Frederik Kortlandt (2010). * Karl H. Menges (1975). Common ancestor of Korean, Japanese and traditional Altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium BC (1975: 125). * Roy Andrew Miller (1971, 1980, 1986, 1996). Supported the inclusion of Korean and Japanese. * Oleg A. Mudrak (S. Starostin et al. 2003). * Nicholas Poppe (1965). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and perhaps Korean. * Alexis Manaster Ramer. * Martine Robbeets (2004, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2015, 2021) (in the form of "Transeurasian"). * G. J. Ramstedt (1952–1957). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. * George Starostin (A. Dybo and G. Starostin 2008). * Sergei Starostin (1991, S. Starostin et al. 2003). * John C. Street (1962). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped as "North Asiatic". * Talât Tekin (1994). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic–Korean. #### Major critics * Gerard Clauson (1956, 1959, 1962). * Gerhard Doerfer (1963, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1988, 1993). * Susumu Ōno (1970, 2000) * Juha Janhunen (1992, 1995) (tentative support of Mongolic-Tungusic). * Claus Schönig (2003). * Stefan Georg (2004, 2005). * Alexander Vovin (2005, 2010, 2017). Formerly an advocate of Altaic (1994, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001), later a critic. * Alexander Shcherbak. * Alexander B. M. Stiven (2008, 2010). #### Advocates of alternative hypotheses * James Patrie (1982) and Joseph Greenberg (2000–2002). Turkic–Mongolic–Tungusic and Korean–Japanese–Ainu, grouped in a common taxon (cf. John C. Street 1962). * J. Marshall Unger (1990). Tungusic–Korean–Japanese ("**Macro-Tungusic**"), with Turkic and Mongolic as separate language families. * Lars Johanson (2010). Agnostic, proponent of a "Transeurasian" verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked. ### "Transeurasian" renaming In Robbeets and Johanson (2010), there was a proposal to replace the name "Altaic" with the name "Transeurasian". While "Altaic" has sometimes included Japonic, Koreanic, and other languages or families, but only on the consideration of particular authors, "Transeurasian" was specifically intended to always include Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Japonic, and Koreanic. Robbeets and Johanson gave as their reasoning for the new term: 1) to avoid confusion between the different uses of Altaic as to which group of languages is included, 2) to reduce the counterproductive polarization between "Pro-Altaists" and "Anti-Altaists"; 3) to broaden the applicability of the term because the suffix *-ic* implies affinity while *-an* leaves room for an areal hypothesis; and 4) to eliminate the reference to the Altai mountains as a potential homeland. In Robbeets and Savelyev, ed. (2020) there was a concerted effort to distinguish "Altaic" as a subgroup of "Transeurasian" consisting only of Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic, while retaining "Transeurasian" as "Altaic" plus Japonic and Koreanic. Arguments --------- ### For the Altaic grouping #### Phonological and grammatical features The original arguments for grouping the "micro-Altaic" languages within a Uralo-Altaic family were based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination. According to Roy Miller, the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology. The *Etymological Dictionary* by Starostin and others (2003) proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from Proto-Altaic to the descendant languages. For example, although most of today's Altaic languages have vowel harmony, Proto-Altaic as reconstructed by them lacked it; instead, various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japonic. They also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages. #### Shared lexicon Starostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed Altaic group shared about 15–20% of apparent cognates within a 110-word Swadesh-Yakhontov list; in particular, Turkic–Mongolic 20%, Turkic–Tungusic 18%, Turkic–Korean 17%, Mongolic–Tungusic 22%, Mongolic–Korean 16%, and Tungusic–Korean 21%. The 2003 *Etymological Dictionary* includes a list of 2,800 proposed cognate sets, as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of Proto-Altaic. The authors tried hard to distinguish loans between Turkic and Mongolic and between Mongolic and Tungusic from cognates; and suggest words that occur in Turkic and Tungusic but not in Mongolic. All other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book. It lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary, including words for such items as 'eye', 'ear', 'neck', 'bone', 'blood', 'water', 'stone', 'sun', and 'two'. Robbeets and Bouckaert (2018) use Bayesian phylolinguistic methods to argue for the coherence of the "narrow" Altaic languages (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) together with Japonic and Koreanic, which they refer to as the *Transeurasian* languages. Their results include the following phylogenetic tree: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Transeurasian** | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Japano‑Koreanic | | | | | --- | --- | | | Japonic | | | | | Koreanic | | | | | | | Altaic | | | | | --- | --- | | | Tungusic | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | | | Mongolic | | | | | Turkic | | | | | | | | | | | | Martine Robbeets (2020) argues that early Transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists in northeastern China, only becoming pastoralists later on. Some lexical reconstructions of agricultural terms by Robbeets (2020) are listed below. | Macro-level reconstruction | Family-level reconstructions | | --- | --- | | PTEA \*pata ‘field for cultivation’ | PTk \*(p)atï ‘delimited field irrigated for cultivation’ (PTk \*-r2 collective suffix)PTk \*(p)ata ‘delimited field irrigated for cultivation’ (PTk \*-(A)g place suffix?)PK \*patʌ ‘(dry) field’ (PK \*-(ɨ/ʌ)k place suffix)PJ \*pata ‘(dry) field’ (PJ \*-ka place suffix, PJ \*-i substantivizer) | | PTEA \*muda ‘uncultivated field’ | PTg \*muda ‘plain, open field, highland’PK \*mutʌ-k ‘dry land’ (PK \*-(ɨ/ʌ)k place suffix)PJ \*muta ‘uncultivated land, marshland’ | | PTEA \*pisi- ‘sprinkle with the hands, sow’ | PMo \*pesü-r-/\*pissü-r- ‘to sprinkle, scatter; jump around’ (PMo \*-r- intensive)PTg \*pisi- ‘to sprinkle with the hands’PTg \*pisi-ke ‘broomcorn millet (*Panicum miliaceum*)’ (PTg \*-xa ~ \*-kA resultative deverbal noun suffix)PK \*pis- ‘to sprinkle, scatter, sow’ | | PTEA \*pisi-i (sow-INS.NMLZ) ‘seed, seedling’ (PTEA \*-i/Ø instrumental deverbal noun suffix) | PMo \*pesi/\*pisi ‘origin or base of a plant’PK \*pisi ‘seed; lineage’ | | PTEA \*kipi ~ \*kipe ‘barnyard millet’ | PTg \*kipe ‘components that need to be removed from the grain harvest, barnyard grass’PK \*kipi ‘barnyard millet’PJ \*kinpi ‘broomcorn millet’ | | PA \*tari- ‘to cultivate’ | PTk \*tarï- ‘to scatter, sow, cultivate (land)’PMo \*tari- ‘to sow, plant; to plow’PTg \*tari-‘to cultivate’ | | PA \*toru ‘young male pig’ | PTk \*toːrum ‘young camel/horse/cattle’PMo \*toru ‘young/male pig’ (PMo \*-i animal suffix in e.g. \*gaka-i ‘pig’, \*noka-i ‘dog’, \*moga-i ‘snake’)PTg \*toro-kiː ‘male pig’ (PTg \*-kiː animal suffix) | | - | PTk \*sag- ‘to milk; ‘to draw toward oneself; to pull out; to pull offPMo \*saɣa- ‘to milk; to reduce; to draw toward oneself; to draw tight; to contract’ | | PJK \*pata ‘dry field’ < PTEA \*pata ‘field for cultivation’ | PK \*patʌ ‘(dry) field’ (PK \*-(ɨ/ʌ)k place suffix)PJ \*pata ‘(dry) field’(PJ \*-ka place suffix, \*-i substantivizer) | | PJK \*muta ‘uncultivated land’ < PTEA \*muda ‘uncultivated land’ | PK \*mutʌ-k ‘dry land’ (PK \*-(ɨ/ʌ)k place suffix)PJ \*muta ‘uncultivated land, marshland’ | | PJK \*no ‘field’ | PK \*non ‘rice paddyfield’PJ \*no ‘field’ | | PJK \*mati ‘delimited plot for cultivation’ | PK \*mat(i)-k ‘delimited plot for cultivation’ (PK \*-(ɨ/ʌ)k place suffix)PJ \*mati ‘delimited plot for cultivation’ | Abbreviations * PTEA = Proto-Transeurasian + PA = Proto-Altaic - PTk = Proto-Turkic - PMo = Proto-Mongolic - PTg = Proto-Tungusic + PJK = Proto-Japano-Koreanic - PK = Proto-Koreanic - PJ = Proto-Japonic Additional family-level reconstructions of agricultural vocabulary from Robbeets et al. (2020): * Proto-Turkic \*ek- ‘to sprinkle with the hand; sow’ > \*ek-e.g. ‘plow’ * Proto-Turkic \*tarï- ‘to cultivate (the ground)’ > \*tarï-g ‘what is cultivated; crops, main crop, cultivated land’ * Proto-Turkic \*ko- ‘to put’ > \*koːn- ‘to settle down (of animals), to take up residence (of people), to be planted (of plants)’ > \*konak ‘foxtail millet (*Setaria italica*)’ * Proto-Turkic \*tög- ‘to hit, beat; to pound, crush (food in a mortar); to husk, thresh (cereals)’ > \*tögi ‘husked millet; husked rice’ * Proto-Turkic \*ügür ‘(broomcorn) millet’ * Proto-Turkic \*arpa ‘barley (*Hordeum vulgare*)' < ? Proto-Iranian \*arbusā ‘barley’ * Proto-Mongolic \*amun ‘cereals; broomcorn millet (*Panicum miliaceum*)’ (Nugteren 2011: 268) * Proto-Mongolic \*konag ‘foxtail millet’ < PTk \*konak ‘foxtail millet (*Setaria italica*)’ * Proto-Mongolic \*budaga ‘cooked cereals; porridge; meal’ * Proto-Mongolic \*tari- ‘to sow, plant’ (Nugteren 2011: 512–13) * Proto-Macro-Mongolic \*püre ‘seed; descendants’ * Proto-Tungusic \*pisi-ke ‘broomcorn millet (*Panicum miliaceum*)’ * Proto-Tungusic \*jiya- ‘foxtail millet (*Setaria italica*)’ * Proto-Tungusic \*murgi ‘barley (*Hordeum vulgare*)’ * Proto-Tungusic \*üse- ~ \*üsi- ‘to plant’ üse ~ üsi ‘seed, seedling’, üsi-n ‘field for cultivation’ * Proto-Tungusic \*tari- ‘to sow, to plant’ * Proto-Koreanic \*pisi ‘seed’, \*pihi ‘barnyard millet’ < Proto-Transeurasian (PTEA) \*pisi-i (sow-NMLZ) ‘seed’ ~ \*pisi-ke (sow-RES.NMLZ) ‘what is sown, major crop’ * Proto-Koreanic \*patʌ-k ‘dry field’ < Proto-Japano-Koreanic (PJK) \*pata ‘dry field’ < PTEA \*pata ‘field for cultivation’ * Proto-Koreanic \*mutʌ-k ‘dry land’ < PJK \*muta ‘land’ < PTEA \*mudu ‘uncultivated land’ * Proto-Koreanic \*mat-ʌk ‘garden plot’ < PJK \*mat ‘plot of land for cultivation’ * Proto-Koreanic \*non ‘rice paddy field’ < PJK \*non ‘field’ * Proto-Koreanic \*pap ‘any boiled preparation of cereal; boiled rice’ * Proto-Koreanic \*pʌsal ‘hulled (of any grain); hulled corn of grain; hulled rice’ < Proto-Japonic \*wasa-ra ‘early ripening (of any grain)’ * Proto-Koreanic \*ipi > \*pi > \*pye ‘(unhusked) rice’ < Proto-Japonic \*ip-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ * Proto-Japonic \*nuka ‘rice bran’ < PJ \*nuka- (remove.NMLZ) * Proto-Japonic \*məmi ‘hulled rice’ < PJ \*məm-i (move.back.and.forth.with.force-NMLZ) * Proto-Japonic \*ipi ‘cooked millet, steamed rice’ < \*ip-i (eat-NMLZ) < PK \*me(k)i ‘rice offered to a higher rank’ < \*mek-i (eat-NMLZ) ‘what you eat, food’ < Proto-Austronesian \*ka-en eat-OBJ.NMLZ * Proto-Japonic \*wasa- ~ \*wəsə- ‘to be early ripening (of crops); an early ripening variety (of any crop); early-ripening rice plant’ * Proto-Japonic \*usu ‘(rice and grain) mortar’ < Para-Austronesian \*lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’; cf. Proto-Austronesian \*lusuŋ ‘(rice) mortar’ * Proto-Japonic \*kəmai ‘dehusked rice’ < Para-Austronesian \*hemay < Proto-Macro-Austronesian \*Semay ‘cooked rice’; cf. Proto-Austronesian \*Semay ‘cooked rice’ ### Against the grouping #### Weakness of lexical and typological data According to G. Clauson (1956), G. Doerfer (1963), and A. Shcherbak (1963), many of the typological features of the supposed Altaic languages, particularly agglutinative strongly suffixing morphology and subject–object–verb (SOV) word order, often occur together in languages. Those critics also argued that the words and features shared by Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances. They noted that there was little vocabulary shared by Turkic and Tungusic languages, though more shared with Mongolic languages. They reasoned that, if all three families had a common ancestor, we should expect losses to happen at random, and not only at the geographical margins of the family; and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing. According to C. Schönig (2003), after accounting for areal effects, the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots, including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items, whose sharing could be explained in other ways; not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship. #### The Sprachbund hypothesis Instead of a common genetic origin, Clauson, Doerfer, and Shcherbak proposed (in 1956–1966) that Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic languages form a *Sprachbund*: a set of languages with similarities due to convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact, rather than common origin. Asya Pereltsvaig further observed in 2011 that, in general, genetically related languages and families tend to diverge over time: the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms. However, she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of Mongolic and Turkic languages shows the opposite, suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor, but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects. Hypothesis about the original homeland -------------------------------------- The prehistory of the peoples speaking the "Altaic" languages is largely unknown. Whereas for certain other language families, such as the speakers of Indo-European, Uralic, and Austronesian, it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses, in the case of the proposed Altaic family much remains to be done. Some scholars have hypothesised a possible Uralic and Altaic homeland in the Central Asian steppes. Chaubey and van Driem propose that the dispersal of ancient Altaic language communities is reflected by the early Holocene dissemination of haplogroup C2 (M217): "If the paternal lineage C2 (M217) is correlated with Altaic linguistic affinity, as appears to be the case for Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic, then Japanese is no Father Tongue, and neither is Korean. This Y-chromosomal haplogroup accounts for 11% of Korean paternal lineages, and the frequency of the lineage is even more reduced in Japan. Yet this molecular marker may still be a tracer for the introduction of Altaic language to the archipelago, where the paternal lineage has persisted, albeit in a frequency of just 6%." According to Juha Janhunen, the ancestral languages of Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Korean, and Japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising present-day North Korea, Southern Manchuria, and Southeastern Mongolia. However Janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of Japanese to Altaic, while András Róna-Tas remarked that a relationship between Altaic and Japanese, if it ever existed, must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the Indo-European languages. Ramsey stated that "the genetic relationship between Korean and Japanese, if it in fact exists, is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge". Supporters of the Altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the Proto-Altaic language at around 4000 BC, but today at around 5000 BC or 6000 BC. This would make Altaic a language family older than Indo-European (around 3000 to 4000 BC according to mainstream hypotheses) but considerably younger than Afroasiatic (c. 10,000 BC or 11,000 to 16,000 BC according to different sources). See also -------- * Classification of the Japonic languages * Nostratic languages * Pan-Turanism * Turco-Mongol * Uralo-Siberian languages * Xiongnu * Comparison of Japanese and Korean References ---------- ### Sources * Aalto, Pentti. 1955. "On the Altaic initial \**p-*." *Central Asiatic Journal* 1, 9–16. * Anonymous. 2008. [title missing]. *Bulletin of the Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas*, 31 March 2008, 264: \_\_\_\_. * Antonov, Anton; Jacques, Guillaume (2012). "Turkic kümüš 'silver' and the lambdaism vs sigmatism debate". *Turkic Languages*. **15** (2): 151–170. * Anthony, David W. 2007. *The Horse, the Wheel, and Language.* Princeton: Princeton University Press. * Boller, Anton. 1857. *Nachweis, daß das Japanische zum ural-altaischen Stamme gehört.* Wien. * Clauson, Gerard. 1959. "The case for the Altaic theory examined." *Akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen Orientalisten-Kongresses*, edited by H. Franke. Wiesbaden: Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, in Komission bei Franz Steiner Verlag. * Clauson, Gerard. 1968. "A lexicostatistical appraisal of the Altaic theory." *Central Asiatic Journal* 13: 1–23. * Doerfer, Gerhard. 1973. "Lautgesetze und Zufall: Betrachtungen zum Omnicomparativismus." *Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft* 10. * Doerfer, Gerhard. 1974. "Ist das Japanische mit den altaischen Sprachen verwandt?" *Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft* 114.1. * Doerfer, Gerhard. 1985. *Mongolica-Tungusica.* Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. * Georg, Stefan. 1999 / 2000. "Haupt und Glieder der altaischen Hypothese: die Körperteilbezeichnungen im Türkischen, Mongolischen und Tungusischen" ('Head and members of the Altaic hypothesis: The body-part designations in Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic'). *Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, neue Folge B* 16, 143–182. * Kortlandt, Frederik (2010). "Indo-Uralic and Altaic revisited". In Johanson L; Robbeets M (eds.). *Transeurasian verbal morphology in a comparative perspective: genealogy, contact, chance*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. pp. 153–164.. * Lee, Ki-Moon and S. Robert Ramsey. 2011. *A History of the Korean Language.* Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Menges, Karl. H. 1975. *Altajische Studien II. Japanisch und Altajisch.* Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. * Miller, Roy Andrew. 1980. *Origins of the Japanese Language: Lectures in Japan during the Academic Year 1977–1978.* Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95766-2. * Ramstedt, G.J. 1952. *Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft I. Lautlehre*, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 1: Phonology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. * Ramstedt, G.J. 1957. *Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft II. Formenlehre*, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 2: Morphology', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. * Ramstedt, G.J. 1966. *Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft III. Register*, 'Introduction to Altaic Linguistics, Volume 3: Index', edited and published by Pentti Aalto. Helsinki: Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura. * Robbeets, Martine. 2004. "Swadesh 100 on Japanese, Korean and Altaic." Tokyo University Linguistic Papers, TULIP 23, 99–118. * Robbeets, Martine. 2005. *Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic?* Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. * Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1730. *Das nord- und ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia....* Stockholm. (Reprint: 1975. Studia Uralo-Altaica. Szeged and Amsterdam.) * Strahlenberg, P.J.T. von. 1738. *Russia, Siberia and Great Tartary, an Historico-geographical Description of the North and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia....* (Reprint: 1970. New York: Arno Press.) English translation of the previous. * Tekin, Talat. 1994. "Altaic languages." In *The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics*, Vol. 1, edited by R.E. Asher. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press. * Vovin, Alexander. 1993. "About the phonetic value of the Middle Korean grapheme ᅀ." *Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies* 56(2), 247–259. * Vovin, Alexander. 1994. "Genetic affiliation of Japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison." *Journal de la Société finno-ougrienne* 85, 241–256. * Vovin, Alexander. 2001. "Japanese, Korean, and Tungusic: evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology." *Altaic Affinities* (Proceedings of the 40th Meeting of PIAC, Provo, Utah, 1997), edited by David B. Honey and David C. Wright, 83–202. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. * Vovin, Alexander. 2010. *Koreo-Japonica: A Re-Evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin*. University of Hawaii Press. * Whitney Coolidge, Jennifer. 2005. *Southern Turkmenistan in the Neolithic: A Petrographic Case Study.* Oxbow Books. Further reading --------------- * Blažek, Václav. "Altaic numerals". In: Blažek, Václav. *Numerals: comparative-etymological analyses of numeral systems and their implications: (Saharan, Nubian, Egyptian, Berber, Kartvelian, Uralic, Altaic and Indo-European languages)*. Vyd. 1. V Brně: Masarykova univerzita, 1999, pp. 102–140. ISBN 8021020709; * Dybo, Anna. "New trends in European studies on the Altaic problem". In: *Journal of Language Relationship* 14, no. 1-2 (2017): 71-106. https://doi.org/10.31826/jlr-2017-141-208 * Finch, Roger. "Gender Distinctions in Nouns and Pronouns of the Altaic Languages". *Expressions of Gender in the Altaic World: Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC), Kocaeli, Turkey, July 7-12, 2013*. Edited by Münevver Tekcan and Oliver Corff. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2021. pp. 57-84. https://doi-org.wikipedialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1515/9783110748789-008 * Greenberg, Joseph H. 1997. "Does Altaic exist?". In: Irén Hegedus, Peter A. Michalove, and Alexis Manaster Ramer (editors), *Indo-European, Nostratic and Beyond: A Festschrift for Vitaly V. Shevoroshkin*, Washington, DC: Institute for the Study of Man, 1997, 88–93. (Reprinted in Joseph H. Greenberg, *Genetic Linguistics*, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, 325–330.) * Hahn, Reinhard F. 1994. *LINGUIST List* 5.908, 18 August 1994. * Janhunen, Juha. 1995. "Prolegomena to a Comparative Analysis of Mongolic and Tungusic". *Proceedings of the 38th Permanent International Altaistic Conference (PIAC)*, 209–218. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. * Janhunen, Juha A. 2023. "The Unity and Diversity of Altaic", *Annual Review of Linguistics* **9**:135-154 (January 2023) doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356 * Johanson, Lars. 1999. "Cognates and copies in Altaic verb derivation". In: *Language and Literature – Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages: Studies in Honour of Roy Andrew Miller on His 75th Birthday*, edited by Karl H. Menges and Nelly Naumann, 1–13. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. (Also: HTML version.) * Johanson, Lars. 1999. "Attractiveness and relatedness: Notes on Turkic language contacts". *Proceedings of the Twenty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society: Special Session on Caucasian, Dravidian, and Turkic Linguistics*, edited by Jeff Good and Alan C.L. Yu, 87–94. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society. * Johanson, Lars. 2002. *Structural Factors in Turkic Language Contacts*, translated by Vanessa Karam. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. * Kim, Jangsuk; Park, Jinho (2020). "Millet vs rice: an evaluation of the farming/language dispersal hypothesis in the Korean context". *Evolutionary Human Sciences*. **2**. doi:10.1017/ehs.2020.13. ISSN 2513-843X. * Kortlandt, Frederik. 1993. "The origin of the Japanese and Korean accent systems". *Acta Linguistica Hafniensia* 26, 57–65. * Martin, Samuel E. (1966). "Lexical Evidence Relating Korean to Japanese". *Language*. **42** (2): 185–251. doi:10.2307/411687. JSTOR 411687. * Nichols, Johanna (1992). *Linguistic Diversity in Space and Time*. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226580593.001.0001. ISBN 9780226580579. * Robbeets, Martine. 2004. "Belief or argument? The classification of the Japanese language." *Eurasia Newsletter* 8. Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto University. * Ruhlen, Merritt. 1987. *A Guide to the World's Languages*. Stanford University Press. * Sinor, Denis. 1990. *Essays in Comparative Altaic Linguistics*. Bloomington: Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 0-933070-26-8. * Vovin, Alexander. 2009. "Japanese, Korean, and other 'non-Altaic' languages". In: *Central Asiatic Journal* 53 (1): 105–147. * Yurayong, Chingduang; Szeto, Pui Yiu (5 August 2020). "Altaicization and De-Altaicization of Japonic and Koreanic". *International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics*. **2** (1): 108–148. doi:10.1163/25898833-12340026. ISSN 2589-8833. S2CID 225358117.

Altaic languages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic_languages

**B vitamins** are a class of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism and synthesis of red blood cells. They are a chemically diverse class of compounds, but are associated in diet, often occuring together in the same foods. Dietary supplements containing all eight are referred to as a **vitamin B complex**. Individual B vitamins are referred to by B-number or by chemical name, such as B1 for thiamine, B2 for riboflavin, and B3 for niacin, while some are more commonly recognized by name than by number, such as pantothenic acid (B5), biotin (B7), and folate (B9). Each B vitamin is either a cofactor (generally a coenzyme) for key metabolic processes or is a precursor needed to make one. List of B vitamins ------------------ List of B vitamins| Vitamin | Name | Description | | --- | --- | --- | | Vitamin B1 | Thiamine | A coenzyme in the catabolism of sugars and amino acids. | | Vitamin B2 | Riboflavin | A precursor of coenzymes called FAD and FMN, which are needed for flavoprotein enzyme reactions, including activation of other vitamins | | Vitamin B3 | Niacin (nicotinic acid) | A precursor of coenzymes called NAD and NADP, which are needed in many metabolic processes. | | Nicotinamide | | Nicotinamide riboside | | Vitamin B5 | Pantothenic acid | A precursor of coenzyme A and therefore needed to metabolize many molecules. | | Vitamin B6 | Pyridoxine | A coenzyme in many enzymatic reactions in metabolism. | | Pyridoxal | | Pyridoxamine | | Vitamin B7 | Biotin | A coenzyme for carboxylase enzymes, needed for synthesis of fatty acids and in gluconeogenesis. | | Vitamin B9 | Folate | A precursor needed to make, repair, and methylate DNA; a cofactor in various reactions; especially important in aiding rapid cell division and growth, such as in infancy and pregnancy. | | Vitamin B12 | Cobalamins | Commonly cyanocobalamin or methylcobalamin in vitamin supplements. A coenzyme involved in the metabolism of all animal cells, especially affecting DNA synthesis and regulation, but also fatty acid metabolism and amino acid metabolism. | **Note:** Other substances once thought to be vitamins were given B-numbers, but were disqualified once discovered to be either manufactured by the body or not essential for life. See #Related compounds for numbers 4, 8, 10, 11, and others. Sources ------- B vitamins are found in abundance in meat, eggs, and dairy products. Processed carbohydrates such as sugar and white flour tend to have lower B vitamin than their unprocessed counterparts. For this reason, it is common in many countries (including the United States) that the B vitamins thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid are added back to white flour after processing. This is referred to as "enriched flour" on food labels. B vitamins are particularly concentrated in meat such as turkey, tuna and liver. Sources for B vitamins also include spinach, legumes (pulses or beans), whole grains, asparagus, potatoes, bananas, chili peppers, breakfast cereals. The B12 vitamin is not abundantly available from plant products (although it has been found in moderate abundance in fermented vegetable products, certain seaweeds, and in certain mushrooms, with the bioavailability of the vitamin in these cases remaining uncertain), making B12 deficiency a legitimate concern for those maintaining a vegan diet. Manufacturers of plant-based foods will sometimes report B12 content, leading to confusion about what sources yield B12. The confusion arises because the standard US Pharmacopeia (USP) method for measuring the B12 content does not measure the B12 directly. Instead, it measures a bacterial response to the food. Chemical variants of the B12 vitamin found in plant sources are active for bacteria, but cannot be used by the human body. This same phenomenon can cause significant over-reporting of B12 content in other types of foods as well. A common way to increase vitamin B intake is by using dietary supplements. B vitamins are commonly added to energy drinks, many of which have been marketed with large amounts of B vitamins. Because they are soluble in water, excess B vitamins are generally readily excreted, although individual absorption, use and metabolism may vary. The elderly and athletes may need to supplement their intake of B12 and other B vitamins due to problems in absorption and increased needs for energy production. In cases of severe deficiency, B vitamins, especially B12, may also be delivered by injection to reverse deficiencies.[*unreliable medical source?*] Both type 1 and type 2 diabetics may also be advised to supplement thiamine based on high prevalence of low plasma thiamine concentration and increased thiamine clearance associated with diabetes. Also, folate deficiency in early embryo development has been linked to neural tube defects. Thus, women planning to become pregnant are usually encouraged to increase daily dietary folate intake or take a supplement. Molecular functions ------------------- | Vitamin | Name | Structure | Molecular Function | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Vitamin B1 | Thiamine | | Thiamine plays a central role in the release of energy from carbohydrates. It is involved in RNA and DNA production, as well as nerve function. Its active form is a coenzyme called thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), which takes part in the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A in metabolism. | | Vitamin B2 | Riboflavin | | Riboflavin is involved in release of energy in the electron transport chain, the citric acid cycle, as well as the catabolism of fatty acids (beta oxidation). | | Vitamin B3 | Niacin | | Niacin is composed of two structures: nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. There are two co-enzyme forms of niacin: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP). Both play an important role in energy transfer reactions in the metabolism of glucose, fat and alcohol. NAD carries hydrogens and their electrons during metabolic reactions, including the pathway from the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain. NADP is a coenzyme in lipid and nucleic acid synthesis. | | Vitamin B5 | Pantothenic acid | | Pantothenic acid is involved in the oxidation of fatty acids and carbohydrates. Coenzyme A, which can be synthesised from pantothenic acid, is involved in the synthesis of amino acids, fatty acids, ketone bodies, cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid hormones, neurotransmitters (such as acetylcholine), and antibodies. | | Vitamin B6 | Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine | | The active form pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP) (depicted) serves as a cofactor in many enzyme reactions mainly in amino acid metabolism including biosynthesis of neurotransmitters. | | Vitamin B7 | Biotin | | Biotin plays a key role in the metabolism of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. It is a critical co-enzyme of four carboxylases: acetyl CoA carboxylase, which is involved in the synthesis of fatty acids from acetate; pyruvate CoA carboxylase, involved in gluconeogenesis; β-methylcrotonyl CoA carboxylase, involved in the metabolism of leucine; and propionyl CoA carboxylase, which is involved in the metabolism of energy, amino acids and cholesterol. | | Vitamin B9 | Folate | | Folate acts as a co-enzyme in the form of tetrahydrofolate (THF), which is involved in the transfer of single-carbon units in the metabolism of nucleic acids and amino acids. THF is involved in purine and pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis, so is needed for normal cell division, especially during pregnancy and infancy, which are times of rapid growth. Folate also aids in erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells. | | Vitamin B12 | Cobalamin | | Vitamin B12 is involved in the cellular metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. It is essential in the production of blood cells in bone marrow, and for nerve sheaths and proteins. Vitamin B12 functions as a co-enzyme in intermediary metabolism for the methionine synthase reaction with methylcobalamin, and the methylmalonyl CoA mutase reaction with adenosylcobalamin. | Deficiencies ------------ Several named vitamin deficiency diseases may result from the lack of sufficient B vitamins. Deficiencies of other B vitamins result in symptoms that are not part of a named deficiency disease. | Vitamin | Name | Deficiency effects | | --- | --- | --- | | Vitamin B1 | Thiamine | Thiamine deficiency causes beriberi. Symptoms of this disease of the nervous system include weight loss, emotional disturbances, Wernicke encephalopathy (impaired sensory perception), weakness and pain in the limbs, periods of irregular heartbeat, and edema (swelling of bodily tissues). Heart failure and death may occur in advanced cases. Chronic thiamine deficiency can also cause alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome, an irreversible dementia characterized by amnesia and compensatory confabulation. | | Vitamin B2 | Riboflavin | Riboflavin deficiency can cause ariboflavinosis, which may result in cheilosis (cracks in the lips), high sensitivity to sunlight, angular cheilitis, glossitis (inflammation of the tongue), seborrheic dermatitis or pseudo-syphilis (particularly affecting the scrotum or labia majora and the mouth), pharyngitis (sore throat), hyperemia, and edema of the pharyngeal and oral mucosa. | | Vitamin B3 | Niacin | Niacin deficiency, along with a deficiency of tryptophan, causes pellagra. Symptoms include aggression, dermatitis, insomnia, weakness, mental confusion, and diarrhea. In advanced cases, pellagra may lead to dementia and death (the 3(+1) D's: dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia, and death). | | Vitamin B5 | Pantothenic acid | Pantothenic acid deficiency can result in acne and paresthesia, although it is uncommon. | | Vitamin B6 | Pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine | Vitamin B6 deficiency causes seborrhoeic dermatitis-like eruptions, pink eye and neurological symptoms (e.g. epilepsy). | | Vitamin B7 | Biotin | Biotin deficiency does not typically cause symptoms in adults, other than cosmetic issues such as decreased hair and nail growth, but may lead to impaired growth and neurological disorders in infants. Multiple carboxylase deficiency, an inborn error of metabolism, can lead to biotin deficiency even when dietary biotin intake is normal. | | Folate | Folic acid | Folic acid deficiency results in a macrocytic anemia, and elevated levels of homocysteine. Deficiency in pregnant women can lead to birth defects, particularly neural tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly. | | Vitamin B12 | Cobalamins | Vitamin B12 deficiency results in a macrocytic anemia, elevated methylmalonic acid and homocysteine, peripheral neuropathy, sense loss, change in mobility, memory loss and other cognitive deficits. It is most likely to occur among elderly people, as absorption through the gut declines with age; the autoimmune disease pernicious anemia is another common cause. It can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis. Untreated, it is possible to cause irreversible damage to the brain and nerve system — In rare extreme cases, paralysis can result. | Side effects ------------ Because water-soluble B vitamins are eliminated in the urine, taking large doses of certain B vitamins usually only produces transient side effects (only exception is pyridoxine). General side effects may include restlessness, nausea and insomnia. These side effects are almost always caused by dietary supplements and not foodstuffs. | Vitamin | Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) | Harmful effects | | --- | --- | --- | | Vitamin B1 | None | No known toxicity from oral intake. There are some reports of anaphylaxis caused by high-dose thiamin injections into the vein or muscle. However, the doses were greater than the quantity humans can physically absorb from oral intake. | | Vitamin B2 | None | No evidence of toxicity based on limited human and animal studies. The only evidence of adverse effects associated with riboflavin comes from *in vitro* studies showing the production of reactive oxygen species (free radicals) when riboflavin was exposed to intense visible and UV light. | | Vitamin B3 | US UL = 35 mg as a dietary supplement | Intake of 3000 mg/day of nicotinamide and 1500 mg/day of nicotinic acid are associated with nausea, vomiting, and signs and symptoms of liver toxicity. Other effects may include glucose intolerance, and (reversible) ocular effects. Additionally, the nicotinic acid form may cause vasodilatory effects, also known as flushing, including redness of the skin, often accompanied by an itching, tingling, or mild burning sensation, which is also often accompanied by pruritus, headaches, and increased intracranial blood flow, and occasionally accompanied by pain. Medical practitioners prescribe recommended doses up to 2000 mg per day of niacin in either immediate-release or slow-release formats, to lower plasma triglycerides and low-density lipiprotein cholesterol. | | Vitamin B5 | None | No toxicity known. | | Vitamin B6 | US UL = 100 mg/day; EU UL = 25 mg/day | See Megavitamin-B6 syndrome for more information. | | Vitamin B7 | None | No toxicity known. | | Folate | 1 mg/day | Masks B12 deficiency, which can lead to permanent neurological damage. | | Vitamin B12 | None established | Skin and spinal lesions. Acne-like rash [causality is not conclusively established]. | Discovery --------- | Vitamin | Name | Discoverer | Date | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Vitamin B1 | Thiamine | Umetaro Suzuki | 1910 | Failed to gain publicity. | | Casimir Funk | 1912 | | | Vitamin B2 | Riboflavin | D.T Smith and E.G Hendrick | 1926 | Max Tishler invented methods for synthesizing it. | | Vitamin B3 | Niacin | Conrad Elvehjem | 1937 | | | Vitamin B5 | Pantothenic acid | Roger J. Williams | 1933 | | | Vitamin B6 | Pyridoxine etc. | Paul Gyorgy | 1934 | | | Vitamin B7 | Biotin | Research by multiple independent groups in the early 1900s; credits for discovery include Margaret Averil Boas (1927), Paul Gyorgy (1939, as Vitamin H), and Dean Burk. | | Vitamin B9 | Folic acid | Lucy Wills | 1933 | | | Vitamin B12 | Cobalamins | Five people have been awarded Nobel Prizes for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B12: George Whipple, George Minot and William Murphy (1934), Alexander R. Todd (1957), and Dorothy Hodgkin (1964). | Related compounds ----------------- Many of the following substances have been referred to as vitamins as they were once believed to be vitamins. They are no longer considered as such, and the numbers that were assigned to them now form the "gaps" in the true series of B-complex vitamins described above (for example, there is no vitamin B4). Some of them, though not essential to humans, are essential in the diets of other organisms; others have no known nutritional value and may even be toxic under certain conditions. * **Vitamin B4**: can refer to the distinct chemicals choline, adenine, or carnitine. + Choline is synthesized by the human body, but not sufficiently to maintain good health, and is now considered an essential dietary nutrient. + Adenine is a nucleobase synthesized by the human body. + Carnitine is an essential dietary nutrient for certain worms, but not for humans. * **Vitamin B8**: adenosine monophosphate (AMP), also known as adenylic acid. Vitamin B8 may also refer to inositol. * **Vitamin B10**: *para*-aminobenzoic acid (pABA or PABA), a chemical component of the folate molecule produced by plants and bacteria, and found in many foods. It is best known as a UV-blocking sunscreen applied to the skin, and is sometimes taken orally for certain medical conditions. * **Vitamin B11**: pteroylheptaglutamic acid (PHGA; chick growth factor). Vitamin Bc-conjugate was also found to be identical to PHGA. Derivative of folate ("pteroylmonoglutamic acid" in this nomenclature). * **Vitamin B13**: orotic acid. * **Vitamin B14**: cell proliferant, anti-anemia, rat growth factor, and antitumor pterin phosphate, named by Earl R. Norris. Isolated from human urine at 0.33ppm (later in blood), but later abandoned by him as further evidence did not confirm this. He also claimed this was not xanthopterin. * **Vitamin B15**: pangamic acid, also known as pangamate. Promoted in various forms as a dietary supplement and drug; considered unsafe and subject to seizure by the US Food and Drug Administration. * **Vitamin B16**: dimethylglycine (DMG) is synthesized by the human body from choline. * **Vitamin B17**: pseudoscientific name for the poisonous compound amygdalin, also known as the equally pseudoscientific name "nitrilosides" despite the fact that it is a single compound. Amygdalin can be found in various plants, but is most commonly extracted from apricot pits and other similar fruit kernels. Amygdalin is hydrolyzed by various intestinal enzymes to form, among other things, hydrogen cyanide, which is toxic to human beings when exposed to a high enough dosage. Some proponents claim that amygdalin is effective in cancer treatment and prevention, despite its toxicity and a lack of scientific evidence. * **Vitamin B20**: L-carnitine. * **Vitamin Bf**: carnitine. * **Vitamin Bm**: *myo*-inositol, also called "mouse antialopaecia factor". * **Vitamin Bp**: "antiperosis factor", which prevents perosis, a leg disorder, in chicks; can be replaced by choline and manganese salts. * **Vitamin BT**: carnitine. * **Vitamin Bv**: a type of B6 other than pyridoxine. * **Vitamin BW**: a type of biotin other than d-biotin. * **Vitamin Bx**: an alternative name for both pABA (see vitamin B10) and pantothenic acid.

B vitamins

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_vitamins

**Football at the Summer Olympics**, referred to as the **Olympic Football Tournament**, has been included in every Summer Olympic Games as a men's competition sport, except 1896 (the inaugural Games) and 1932 (in an attempt to promote the new FIFA World Cup tournament). Women's football was added to the official program at the Atlanta 1996 Games. In order to avoid competition with the World Cup, FIFA have restricted participation of elite players in the men's tournament in various ways: currently, squads for the men's tournament are required to be composed of players under 23 years of age, with three permitted exceptions. By comparison, the women's football tournament is a full senior-level international tournament, second in prestige only to the FIFA Women's World Cup. History ------- ### Pre-World Cup era #### Beginnings Football was not included in the program at the first modern Olympic Games in Athens in 1896, as international football was in its infancy at the time. However, sources claim that an unofficial football tournament was organised during the first competition, with participating teams including Athens and Smyrna (Izmir), then part of the Ottoman Empire. According to Bill Mallon's research, this is an error which has been perpetuated in multiple texts. Tournaments were played at the 1900 and 1904 games and the Intercalated Games of 1906, but these were contested by various clubs and scratch teams. Although the IOC considers the 1900 and 1904 tournaments to be official Olympic events, they are not recognised by FIFA, and neither recognises the Intercalated Games today. In 1906 teams from Great Britain, Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France withdrew from an unofficial competition and left Denmark, Smyrna (one Armenian, two Frenchmen and eight Britons), Athens and Thessaloniki to compete. Denmark won the final against Athens 9–0. #### British successes In the London Games of 1908 a proper international tournament was organised by the Football Association, featuring just six teams. The number of teams rose to eleven in 1912, when the competition was organised by the Swedish Football Association. Many of these early matches were unbalanced, as evidenced by high scoring games; two players, Sophus Nielsen in 1908 and Gottfried Fuchs in 1912, each scored ten goals in a single match. All players were amateurs, in accordance with the Olympic rules, which meant that countries could not send their full senior national teams. The National Olympic Committee for Great Britain and Ireland asked the Football Association to send an English national amateur team. Some of the English members played with professional clubs, most notably Derby County's Ivan Sharpe, Bradford City F.C. Harold Walden and Chelsea's Vivian Woodward. England won the first two official tournaments convincingly, beating Denmark both times. #### 1920s and the rise of Uruguay During the 1920 final against Belgium, the Czechoslovakia national football team walked off the field to protest the refereeing of John Lewis and the militarised mood within the stadium in Antwerp. This would be the final all-European football competition at the Olympic games, with Egypt, the United States, and Uruguay participating in 1924. With teams from new regions the quality of play increased, as did fan interest. Uruguay dominated the tournament, winning their four games by a combined score of 15-1: the final was a 3–0 victory over Switzerland. In 1928, football was the most popular event at the games and the final was an all-South American affair. Because no other major international tournament existed yet, Uruguay defeated Argentina 2–1 in what David Goldblatt says was "football's first world championship". After these tournaments, FIFA realized that the Olympic movement prevented nations from competing on an equal footing and, given that the Olympics only permitted amateurs to participate, did not represent the true strength of the international game. The popularity of international soccer gave FIFA the incentive to create an international tournament, and FIFA began organising the World Cup. ### After the first World Cup #### Tumultuous '30s Following Jules Rimet's proposal in 1929 to initiate a professional World Championship of Football, the sport was dropped from the 1932 Los Angeles Games by FIFA in an attempt to promote the new tournament. Football returned to controversy at the 1936 Berlin Games. The German organisers were intent on the return of the game to the Olympic movement since it guaranteed income into the organisation's coffers. The Italian team intimidated a referee. Peru scored a contested victory over Austria in overtime, with a fan invasion of the field at the very end. The Austrian team asked for the result to be annulled, and the game repeated. FIFA agreed, but the Peruvian team refused and left the Olympics. #### Soviet Bloc dominance amid amateurism controversy As professionalism spread around the world, the gap in quality between the World Cup and the Olympics widened. The countries that benefited most were the Soviet Bloc countries of Eastern Europe, where top athletes were state-sponsored while retaining their status as amateurs. As a result, young Western amateurs had to face seasoned and veteran Soviet Bloc teams, which put them at a significant disadvantage. All Olympic football tournaments from 1948 to 1980 were dominated by the Soviet Union and its satellites. Between 1948 and 1980, 23 out of 28 Olympic medals were won by Eastern Europe, with only Sweden (gold in 1948 and bronze in 1952), Denmark (bronze in 1948 and silver in 1960) and Japan (bronze in 1968) breaking their dominance. The next two tournaments saw some changes due to FIFA's changing of the call-up rules, with only Yugoslavia (bronze in 1984) and the Soviet Union (gold in 1988) winning medals for the Eastern Bloc. #### Changes and developments For the 1984 Los Angeles Games, the IOC decided to admit professional players, however, FIFA still did not want the Olympics to rival the World Cup. A compromise was struck that allowed teams from countries outside of UEFA and CONMEBOL to field their strongest sides, while restricting UEFA and CONMEBOL (the strongest confederations whose teams had played all finals and won every single World Cup title) countries to players who had not played in a World Cup. The 1984 rules were maintained also for the 1988 edition, but with an additional rider: any European and South American footballers who had previously played less than 90 minutes in one single match of the World Cup, were eligible. #### 1992–present: Age restrictions introduced Since 1992, male competitors have been required to be under 23 years old, and since 1996, a maximum of three over-23-year-old players have been allowed per squad. African countries have taken particular advantage of this, with Nigeria and Cameroon winning in 1996 and 2000 respectively. Because of the unusual format and the separation from the main national teams that play the World Cup and top continental tournaments, historically strong men's national teams have unimpressive Olympic records. Uruguay, who won the two tournaments prior to the World Cup's creation, only qualified again in 2012, after an 84-year absence. Argentina won silver twice (1928 and 1996) before the 2004 tournament, but its appearance in Athens 2004, in which it won the first gold medal, was only their seventh overall. Brazil's silver medals in the 1984, 1988 and 2012 editions were the best they had achieved until 2016's gold. Italy has only won the Olympic title once, in 1936, although along with the two bronzes, the team has the highest number of appearances in the tournament, with 15, the last in 2008. France won the Olympic title in 1984, but only qualified twice ever since. A team from Germany won the gold medal only once, in 1976 (East Germany), and the reunified team did not make an Olympic appearance until 2016, when they won silver. Spain has won gold as hosts in 1992, and followed it with two silver medals (in 2000 and 2020, having also won a third in 1920), along with a few failures to qualify. ### British non-involvement Football in the United Kingdom has no single governing body, and there are separate teams for the UK's four Home Nations: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Further to this, only the English Football Association (FA) is affiliated to the British Olympic Association (BOA), and the FA entered "Great Britain" teams to the football tournaments until 1972. In 1974, the FA abolished the distinction between "amateur" and "professional" football, and ceased to enter the Olympics. Even though FIFA has allowed professionals at the Olympics since 1984, the FA did not re-enter, as the Home Nations were concerned that a united British Olympic team would set a precedent that might cause FIFA to question their separate status in other FIFA competitions, and even their status on and/or the existence of the International Football Association Board. When London was selected to host the 2012 Games, there was pressure on the English FA to exercise the host nation's automatic right to field a team. In 2009 the plan agreed by the FA with the Welsh FA, Scottish FA and Irish FA was only to field English players; however the BOA overruled this, and ultimately there were Welsh players in the men's squad and Scots players in the women's squad. After the 2012 games, the FA decided that no team would be entered in subsequent men's tournaments, but was open to fielding a women's team again. The distinction recognised the importance and status of Olympic football in the women's international game. For the 2020 tournament, FIFA stated that the women's UK team (not applied to the men's UK team) may enter the Olympics after the four FAs agreed, depending on the performance of women's English team in 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup (which serves as the European qualification for the Olympics). This brought women's football under the BOA jurisdiction in line with the long standing qualification rules in Field hockey and Rugby sevens, although the home nation's sevens teams were subsumed into a standing Great Britain team in 2022 Venues ------ Due to the number of large stadia required for the Olympic tournament, venues in distant cities – often more than 200 km (120 mi) away from the main host – are typically used for the football tournament. In an extreme example, two early-round venues for the 1984 Games were on the East Coast of the United States, well over 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from the host city of Los Angeles. The next Games held in the United States, the 1996 Games, were unique in that no matches were held in the host city of Atlanta; the nearest venue and the site of the finals was 65 miles (105 km) away on the University of Georgia campus in Athens. Counting the 2016 and 2020 Summer Olympics, there are 127 venues that have hosted Olympic football, the most of any sport. | Edition of the Olympic Games | City | Stadium | | --- | --- | --- | | Greece Athens 1896 | *No official football tournament* | | France Paris 1900 | Paris | Vincennes Velodrome | | United States St. Louis 1904 | St. Louis | Francis Field | | United Kingdom London 1908 | London | White City Stadium | | Sweden Stockholm 1912 | Stockholm | Stockholm Olympic Stadium | | Råsunda Stadium | | Tranebergs Idrottsplats | | Belgium Antwerp 1920 | Antwerp | Olympic Stadium | | Stadion Broodstraat | | Brussels | Stade de l'Union St. Gilloise | | Ghent | Stade d'A.A. La Gantoise | | France Paris 1924 | Paris | Stade Olympique, Colombes | | Stade Bergeyre | | Stade de Paris, Saint-Ouen | | Stade Pershing, Vincennes | | Netherlands Amsterdam 1928 | Amsterdam | Olympisch Stadion | | Harry Elte Stadium | | United States Los Angeles 1932 | *No football tournament* | | Germany Berlin 1936 | Berlin | Olympiastadion | | Poststadion, Tiergarten | | Mommsenstadion, Charlottenburg | | Hertha-BSC-Platz | | United Kingdom London 1948 | London | Empire Stadium, Wembley | | White Hart Lane, Tottenham | | Selhurst Park, Crystal Palace | | Craven Cottage, Fulham | | Griffin Park, Brentford | | Arsenal Stadium, Highbury | | Lynn Road, Ilford | | Green Pond Road, Walthamstow | | Champion Hill, Dulwich | | Brighton | Goldstone Ground | | Portsmouth | Fratton Park | | Finland Helsinki 1952 | Helsinki | Olympiastadion | | Töölö Football Grounds | | Turku | Kupittaa Stadium | | Tampere | Ratina Stadium | | Lahti | Kisapuisto | | Kotka | Kotka Stadium | | Australia Melbourne 1956 | Melbourne | Melbourne Cricket Ground | | Olympic Park Stadium | | Italy Rome 1960 | Rome | Flaminio Stadium | | Florence | Stadio Comunale | | Grosseto | Stadio Comunale | | Livorno | Stadio Ardenza | | Pescara | Stadio Adriatico | | L'Aquila | Stadio Comunale | | Naples | Stadio Fuorigrotta | | Japan Tokyo 1964 | Tokyo | National Olympic Stadium | | Prince Chichibu Memorial Field | | Komazawa Stadium | | Ōmiya | Omiya Soccer Stadium | | Yokohama | Mitsuzawa Football Stadium | | Mexico Mexico City 1968 | Mexico City | Azteca Stadium | | Puebla | Estadio Cuauhtémoc | | Guadalajara | Estadio Jalisco | | León | Estadio León | | West Germany Munich 1972 | Munich | Olympiastadion | | Augsburg | Rosenaustadion | | Ingolstadt | ESV-Stadion | | Regensburg | Jahn Stadium | | Nuremberg | Städtisches Stadium | | Passau | Drei Flüsse Stadion | | Canada Montreal 1976 | Montreal | Olympic Stadium | | Sherbrooke | Municipal Stadium | | Toronto | Varsity Stadium | | Ottawa | Lansdowne Stadium | | Soviet Union Moscow 1980 | Moscow | Grand Central Lenin Stadium | | Dynamo Stadium | | Leningrad | Kirov Stadium | | Kyiv | Republican Stadium | | Minsk | Dinamo Stadium | | United States Los Angeles 1984 | Pasadena, California | Rose Bowl | | Boston | Harvard Stadium | | Annapolis, Maryland | Navy–Marine Corps Memorial Stadium | | Stanford, California | Stanford Stadium | | South Korea Seoul 1988 | Seoul | Olympic Stadium | | Dongdaemun Stadium | | Busan | Busan Stadium | | Daegu | Daegu Stadium | | Daejeon | Daejeon Stadium | | Gwangju | Gwangju Stadium | | Spain Barcelona 1992 | Barcelona | Camp Nou | | Estadi de Sarrià | | Sabadell | Estadi de la Nova Creu Alta | | Zaragoza | Estadio La Romareda | | Valencia | Estadio Luis Casanova | | United States Atlanta 1996 | Athens, Georgia | Sanford Stadium | | Orlando, Florida | Citrus Bowl | | Birmingham, Alabama | Legion Field | | Miami, Florida | Miami Orange Bowl | | Washington, D.C. | Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium | | Australia Sydney 2000 | Sydney | Olympic Stadium | | Sydney Football Stadium | | Brisbane | Brisbane Cricket Ground | | Adelaide | Hindmarsh Stadium | | Canberra | Bruce Stadium | | Melbourne | Melbourne Cricket Ground | | Greece Athens 2004 | Marousi | Olympic Stadium | | Piraeus | Karaiskakis Stadium | | Patras | Pampeloponnisiako Stadium | | Volos | Panthessaliko Stadium | | Thessaloniki | Kaftanzoglio Stadium | | Heraklion | Pankritio Stadium | | China Beijing 2008 | Beijing | National Stadium | | Workers' Stadium | | Tianjin | Tianjin Olympic Center Stadium | | Shanghai | Shanghai Stadium | | Qinhuangdao | Qinhuangdao Olympic Sports Center Stadium | | Shenyang | Shenyang Olympic Sports Center Stadium | | United Kingdom London 2012 | London | Wembley Stadium | | Glasgow | Hampden Park | | Cardiff | Millennium Stadium | | Coventry | City of Coventry Stadium | | Manchester | Old Trafford | | Newcastle upon Tyne | St James' Park | | Brazil Rio 2016 | Rio de Janeiro | Maracanã | | João Havelange Olympic Stadium | | São Paulo | Arena Corinthians | | Brasília | Estádio Nacional Mané Garrincha | | Salvador | Arena Fonte Nova | | Belo Horizonte | Estádio Mineirão | | Manaus | Arena da Amazônia | | Japan Tokyo 2020 | | Tokyo | Tokyo Stadium | | Yokohama | International Stadium Yokohama | | Kashima | Kashima Soccer Stadium | | Saitama | Saitama Stadium 2002 | | Rifu | Miyagi Stadium | | Sapporo | Sapporo Dome | Events ------ | Event | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 32 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Men's event | | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | 28 | | Women's event | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | 8 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | *Total* | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | Competition format ------------------ For both the men's and women's tournaments, the competition consists of a round-robin group stage followed by a knockout stage. Teams are placed into groups of 4 teams, with each team playing each other team in its group once. Teams earn 3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss. The top two teams in each group (as well as the top two third-place finishers, in the women's tournament) advance to the knockout rounds. The knockout rounds are a single-elimination tournament consisting of quarterfinals, semifinals, and the gold and bronze medal matches. Matches consist of two halves of 45 minutes each. Since 2004, during the knockout rounds, if the match is tied after 90 minutes, two 15-minute halves of extra time are played (extra time is skipped in favour of immediate penalty kicks in the bronze medal match if it is played on the same day in the same stadium as the gold medal match). If the score remains tied, penalty kicks, which is 5 rounds, plus extra rounds if tied, are used to determine the winner. The qualifying tournament, like that for the World Cup, is organised along continental lines. Most continental confederations organise a special Under-23 qualifying tournament, although the European qualifiers are drawn from the finalists of the UEFA Under-21 Championship. Teams participating in the preliminary and final competitions must be composed of U-23 players, with up to three players who are at least 23. For Paris 2024, U-23 players were born after 1 January 2001. For the 2024 Games, the number of places allocated to each continent is: * Europe – 4 (includes host France) * Asia – 3 or 4 * Africa – 3 or 4 * South America – 2 * North America – 2 * Oceania – 1 Team variants ------------- ### Men * 1900–1904: Club teams * 1908–1964: National teams * 1968–1980: National amateur teams * 1984–1988: National teams (with UEFA/CONMEBOL restrictions) * 1992: National U23 team * 1996–present: National U23 team (with three overage players) ### Women * 1996–present: National team Men's tournament ---------------- ### Participating nations Numbers refer to the final placing of each team at the respective Games. Host nation is shown in **bold**. | | | --- | | **UEFA** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Austria | – | – | – | 6 | – | – | – | 2 | 11 | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **4** | |  Belarus | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | – | – | – | **1** | |  Belgium | 3 | – | – | – | **1** | 15 | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 4 | – | – | – | — | **5** | |  Bulgaria | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | – | – | – | 17 | 3 | 5 | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **5** | |  Czech Republic | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Czechoslovakia | – | – | – | – | 9 | 9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | 9 | – | – | 1 | WD | – | Split into Slovakia and Czech Republic | **5** | |  Denmark | – | – | 2 | 2 | 10 | – | – | – | 3 | 5 | – | 2 | – | – | 6 | – | – | – | – | 13 | – | – | – | – | – | 8 | – | – | **9** | |  East Germany | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | WD | – | – | 3 | – | 3 | 1 | 2 | WD | – | Merged into West Germany (FRG) | **4** | |  Estonia | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Finland | – | – | – | 4 | – | – | – | 9 | – | **14** | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **4** | |  France | **2** | – | 5 | – | 4 | **5** | 9 | – | 5 | 17 | – | 9 | – | 7 | – | 5 | – | 1 | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | 13 | **Q** | **14** | |  Germany | – | – | – | 7 | – | – | 5 | **5** | – | 4 | 9 | – | – | – | **5** | – | – | 5 | 3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | 9 | | **10** | |  Great Britain | 1 | – | **1** | 1 | 11 | – | – | 5 | **4** | 17 | 5 | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **5** | – | – | – | **10** | |  Greece | – | – | – | – | 13 | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **15** | – | – | – | – | – | **3** | |  Hungary | – | – | – | 5 | – | 13 | – | 9 | – | 1 | WD | 3 | 1 | 1 | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **9** | |  Ireland | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **2** | |  Israel | Competed with Asia (qualified 2 times) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **2** | |  Italy | – | – | – | 8 | 5 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 5 | 9 | – | **4** | DSQ | – | – | – | – | 4 | 4 | 5 | 12 | 5 | 3 | 5 | – | – | – | | **15** | |  Latvia | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Lithuania | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Luxembourg | – | – | – | – | 12 | 11 | 9 | 9 | 9 | 9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **6** | |  Netherlands | – | – | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | **9** | – | 9 | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | – | – | – | – | **8** | |  Norway | – | – | – | 9 | 7 | – | – | 3 | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **5** | |  Poland | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | 4 | – | 9 | – | 10 | – | – | 1 | 2 | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **7** | |  Portugal | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 4 | – | 14 | – | – | 6 | – | | **4** | |  Romania | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | – | **4** | |  Russia | – | – | – | 10 | – | As the Soviet Union | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Serbia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Serbia and Montenegro | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | Split into 2 nations | **1** | |  Slovakia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 13 | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Soviet Union | As the Russian Empire | – | – | – | – | 9 | 1 | – | – | – | 3 | 3 | **3** | WD | 1 | – | Split into 15 nations, with Russia as successor | **6** | |  Spain | – | – | – | – | 2 | 17 | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | – | 12 | 10 | – | – | **1** | 6 | 2 | – | – | 14 | – | 2 | | **11** | |  Sweden | – | – | 4 | **11** | 6 | 3 | – | 9 | 1 | 3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | 6 | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | – | **10** | |  Switzerland | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | 9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 13 | – | – | | **3** | |  Turkey | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | 9 | 9 | 5 | 5 | WD | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **6** | |  Yugoslavia | – | – | – | – | 9 | 17 | 9 | – | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 6 | – | – | – | 4 | 3 | 10 | – | Split into 5, later 6 nations | **11** | | **CONMEBOL** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Argentina | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | 7 | 10 | – | – | – | WD | – | 8 | – | 2 | – | 1 | 1 | – | 11 | 10 | | **9** | |  Brazil | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | 6 | 9 | 13 | 13 | 4 | – | 2 | 2 | – | 3 | 7 | – | 3 | 2 | **1** | 1 | | **14** | |  Chile | – | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | – | – | – | 3 | – | – | – | – | – | | **4** | |  Colombia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | 11 | – | 11 | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | – | | **5** | |  Paraguay | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | – | – | 2 | – | – | – | – | | **2** | |  Peru | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | 11 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **2** | |  Uruguay | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | WD | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | – | – | | **3** | |  Venezuela | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | | **CONCACAF** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Canada | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **13** | – | 6 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **3** | |  Costa Rica | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | 13 | – | – | – | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | **3** | |  Cuba | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | 7 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **2** | |  Dominican Republic | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Q | **1** | |  El Salvador | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Guatemala | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 8 | – | 10 | – | – | 16 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **3** | |  Honduras | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | – | 16 | 7 | 4 | 14 | – | **5** | |  Mexico | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | – | 11 | – | – | – | 11 | **4** | 7 | 9 | – | – | DSQ | 10 | 7 | – | 10 | – | 1 | 9 | 3 | – | **12** | |  Netherlands Antilles | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | Split into 2 nations | **1** | |  United States | – | **2** | **3** | – | – | – | 12 | 9 | 9 | 11 | 17 | 5 | – | – | – | 14 | – | WD | **9** | 12 | 9 | **10** | 4 | – | 9 | – | – | – | Q | **15** | | **CAF** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Algeria | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | **2** | |  Cameroon | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | **3** | |  Egypt | – | – | – | – | 8 | 8 | 4 | 9 | 11 | 9 | WD | 12 | 4 | – | – | – | WD | 8 | – | 12 | – | – | – | – | 8 | – | 8 | | **12** | |  Gabon | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | – | | **1** | |  Ghana | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | 12 | 16 | WD | WD | – | – | 3 | 8 | – | 9 | – | – | – | – | | **6** | |  Guinea | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Ivory Coast | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | – | – | 7 | – | **2** | |  Mali | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Morocco | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 13 | WD | 8 | – | – | 12 | – | 15 | – | 16 | 10 | – | 11 | – | – | | **7** | |  Nigeria | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | WD | 13 | – | 15 | – | 1 | 8 | – | 2 | – | 3 | – | – | **7** | |  Senegal | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | – | – | – | **1** | |  South Africa | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | – | – | – | 13 | 16 | – | **3** | |  Sudan | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Tunisia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 13 | – | 14 | – | 12 | – | – | – | – | – | **4** | |  Zambia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | WD | 15 | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **2** | | **AFC** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Afghanistan | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 17 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Australia | Competed with Oceania (qualified 6 times) | 11 | – | – | 12 | | **2** | |  China | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | 11 | – | WD | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | **13** | – | – | – | | **4** | |  Chinese Taipei | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | − | − | – | – | 16 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  India | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | 17 | 4 | 13 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **4** | |  Indonesia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Iran | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | 12 | 7 | WD | − | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **3** | |  Iraq | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | 14 | 9 | – | – | – | 4 | – | – | 12 | – | | **5** | |  Israel | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | 6 | – | Competed with Europe | **2** | |  Japan | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | 9 | – | **8** | 3 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | 6 | 13 | 15 | 4 | 10 | **4** | | **11** | |  Kuwait | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 6 | – | – | 16 | – | 12 | – | – | – | – | – | | **3** | |  Malaysia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 10 | – | WD | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Myanmar | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  North Korea | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | WD | – | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Qatar | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **2** | |  Saudi Arabia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | – | – | 15 | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | | **3** | |  South Korea | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | **11** | 11 | 11 | 9 | 6 | 10 | 3 | 5 | 5 | | **11** | |  Syria | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Thailand | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | – | – | 16 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **2** | |  United Arab Emirates | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 15 | – | – | | **1** | | **OFC** | | Nation | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 20 | 24 | 28 | 36 | 48 | 52 | 56 | 60 | 64 | 68 | 72 | 76 | 80 | 84 | 88 | 92 | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Australia | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | **5** | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7 | 4 | 13 | **15** | 7 | AFC (qualified 2 times) | **6** | |  Fiji | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 16 | – | | **1** | |  New Zealand | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 14 | 16 | – | 6 | | **3** | | | | **Total nations** | **3** | **2** | **5** | **11** | **14** | **22** | **17** | **16** | **18** | **25** | **11** | **16** | **14** | **16** | **16** | **13** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | **16** | | ### Results Rules * 1896–1904: *club teams* * 1908–1980: *amateur national teams* * 1984–1988: *professional national teams* (except UEFA and CONMEBOL) * 1992: *u-23 national teams* * 1996–present: *u-23 national teams (with three 'no age limit' players allowed, after an agreement between FIFA and IOC)* Keys * Contested by club teams instead of proper national squads * Playoff match after the final ended in a tie | Ed. | Year | Hosts | Gold medal match | Bronze medal match | Num.teams | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st place, gold medalist(s) Gold medalists | Score | 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Silver medalists | 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Bronze medalists | Score | Fourth place | | – | 1896 | Athens | Denmark **Denmark** | *unknown* | Greece **Greece** | – | – | – | 2 | | 1 | 1900 | Paris | United Kingdom **Great Britain** | – | France France | Belgium Belgium | – | – | 3 | | 2 | 1904 | St. Louis | Canada **Canada** | – | United States United States | United States United States | – | – | 3 | | 3 | 1908 | London | **Great Britain** | 2–0 |  Denmark |  Netherlands | 2–0 |  Sweden | 6 | | 4 | 1912 | Stockholm | **Great Britain** | 4–2 |  Denmark |  Netherlands | 9–0 |  Finland | 11 | | 5 | 1920 | Antwerp | **Belgium** | – |  Spain |  Netherlands | – |  France | 14 | | 6 | 1924 | Paris | **Uruguay** | 3–0 |  Switzerland |  Sweden | 1–1 (a.e.t.) |  Netherlands | 22 | | 3–1 | | 7 | 1928 | Amsterdam | **Uruguay** | 1–1 (a.e.t.) |  Argentina |  Italy | 11–3 |  Egypt | 17 | | 2–1 | | – | 1932 | Los Angeles | *(No tournament held)* | | 8 | 1936 | Berlin | **Italy** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) |  Austria |  Norway | 3–2 |  Poland | 16 | | 9 | 1948 | London | **Sweden** | 3–1 |  Yugoslavia |  Denmark | 5–3 |  Great Britain | 18 | | 10 | 1952 | Helsinki | **Hungary** | 2–0 |  Yugoslavia |  Sweden | 2–0 |  Germany | 25 | | 11 | 1956 | Melbourne | **Soviet Union** | 1–0 |  Yugoslavia |  Bulgaria | 3–0 |  India | 11 | | 12 | 1960 | Rome | **Yugoslavia** | 3–1 |  Denmark |  Hungary | 2–1 |  Italy | 16 | | 13 | 1964 | Tokyo | **Hungary** | 2–1 |  Czechoslovakia |  United Team of Germany (EUA) | 3–1 |  United Arab Republic | 14 | | 14 | 1968 | Mexico City | **Hungary** | 4–1 |  Bulgaria |  Japan | 2–0 |  Mexico | 16 | | 15 | 1972 | Munich | **Poland** | 2–1 |  Hungary |  East Germany  Soviet Union | 2–2 (a.e.t.) | – | 16 | | 16 | 1976 | Montreal | **East Germany** | 3–1 |  Poland |  Soviet Union | 2–0 |  Brazil | 13 | | 17 | 1980 | Moscow | **Czechoslovakia** | 1–0 |  East Germany |  Soviet Union | 2–0 |  Yugoslavia | 16 | | 18 | 1984 | Los Angeles | **France** | 2–0 |  Brazil |  Yugoslavia | 2–1 |  Italy | 16 | | 19 | 1988 | Seoul | **Soviet Union** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) |  Brazil |  Germany | 3–0 |  Italy | 16 | | 20 | 1992 | Barcelona | **Spain** | 3–2 |  Poland |  Ghana | 1–0 |  Australia | 16 | | 21 | 1996 | Atlanta | **Nigeria** | 3–2 |  Argentina |  Brazil | 5–0 |  Portugal | 16 | | 22 | 2000 | Sydney | **Cameroon** | 2–2 (5–3 p) |  Spain |  Chile | 2–0 |  United States | 16 | | 23 | 2004 | Athens | **Argentina** | 1–0 |  Paraguay |  Italy | 1–0 |  Iraq | 16 | | 24 | 2008 | Beijing | **Argentina** | 1–0 |  Nigeria |  Brazil | 3–0 |  Belgium | 16 | | 25 | 2012 | London | **Mexico** | 2–1 |  Brazil |  South Korea | 2–0 |  Japan | 16 | | 26 | 2016 | Rio de Janeiro | **Brazil** | 1–1 (5–4 p) |  Germany |  Nigeria | 3–2 |  Honduras | 16 | | 27 | 2020 | Tokyo | **Brazil** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) |  Spain |  Mexico | 3–1 |  Japan | 16 | | 28 | 2024 | Paris | *TBD* | | *TBD* | *TBD* | | *TBD* | | Notes 1. ↑ The 1924 and 1928 editions were co-organised by FIFA. 2. ↑ Countries from Eastern Europe competed with professional players. 3. ↑ This tournament was part of the unofficial programme, or a demonstration sport, during the 1896 Olympic Games 4. ↑ Combined team of players from Københavns Roklub and Østerbros Boldklub. 5. ↑ The exact score is still unknown: various sources list from 9–0 to 15–0. 6. ↑ Represented by the S.C. Athinaikos Athlitikos Syllogos. 7. 1 2 3 Only two teams participated in the tournament. 8. 1 2 This tournament was originally a pair of demonstration matches between the three teams, but has subsequently been upgraded to official status by the IOC with medals attributed to the teams based upon the match results. 9. ↑ Represented by the Upton Park F.C. 10. 1 2 3 4 No final was held so it was played under a round-robin format. 11. ↑ Represented by the Club Français. 12. ↑ Represented by the University of Brussels. 13. 1 2 Only three teams participated in the competition. 14. ↑ Represented by the Galt F.C. 15. ↑ Represented by the Christian Brothers College. 16. ↑ Represented by the St. Rose Parish. 17. 1 2 The 1920 final between Belgium and Czechoslovakia was abandoned in the 39th minute with Belgium leading 2–0 after Czechoslovakia walked off to protest the officiating; they were ejected from the competition, and a second tournament to determine the other medalists was held, with Spain beating the Netherlands for second place 3–1. 18. ↑ Bronze medal shared. ### Performances by countries Below are the 41 nations that have reached at least the semi-final stage in the Summer Olympics finals. | Team | Gold medals | Silver medals | Bronze medals | Fourth place | Medals | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Hungary | **3** (1952, 1964, 1968) | 1 (1972) | 1 (1960) | | 5 | |  Great Britain | **3** (1900, 1908, 1912) | | | 1 (1948) | 3 | |  Brazil | 2 (2016, 2020) | **3** (1984, 1988, 2012) | 2 (1996, 2008) | 1 (1976) | **7** | |  Argentina | 2 (2004, 2008) | 2 (1928, 1996) | | | 4 | |  Soviet Union | 2 (1956, 1988) | | **3** (1972, 1976, 1980) | | 5 | |  Uruguay | 2 (1924, 1928) | | | | 2 | |  Yugoslavia | 1 (1960) | **3** (1948, 1952, 1956) | 1 (1984) | 1 (1980) | 5 | |  Spain | 1 (1992) | **3** (1920, 2000, 2020) | | | 4 | |  Poland | 1 (1972) | 2 (1976, 1992) | | 1 (1936) | 3 | |  East Germany | 1 (1976) | 1 (1980) | 1 (1972) | | 3 | |  Nigeria | 1 (1996) | 1 (2008) | 1 (2016) | | 3 | |  France | 1 (1984) | 1 (1900) | | 1 (1920) | 2 | |  Czechoslovakia | 1 (1980) | 1 (1964) | | | 2 | |  Italy | 1 (1936) | | 2 (1928, 2004) | **3** (1960, 1984, 1988) | 3 | |  Sweden | 1 (1948) | | 2 (1924, 1952) | 1 (1908) | 3 | |  Mexico | 1 (2012) | | 1 (2020) | 1 (1968) | 2 | |  Belgium | 1 (1920) | | 1 (1900) | 1 (2008) | 2 | |  Canada | 1 (1904) | | | | 1 | |  Cameroon | 1 (2000) | | | | 1 | |  Denmark | | **3** (1908, 1912, 1960) | 1 (1948) | | 4 | |  United States | | 1 (1904) | 1 (1904) | 1 (2000) | 2 | |  Bulgaria | | 1 (1968) | 1 (1956) | | 2 | |  Germany | | 1 (2016) | | 1 (1952) | 1 | |  Switzerland | | 1 (1924) | | | 1 | |  Austria | | 1 (1936) | | | 1 | |  Paraguay | | 1 (2004) | | | 1 | |  Netherlands | | | **3** (1908, 1912, 1920) | 1 (1924) | 3 | |  Japan | | | 1 (1968) | 2 (2012, 2020) | 1 | |  Norway | | | 1 (1936) | | 1 | |  United Team of Germany | | | 1 (1964) | | 1 | |  West Germany | | | 1 (1988) | | 1 | |  Ghana | | | 1 (1992) | | 1 | |  Chile | | | 1 (2000) | | 1 | |  South Korea | | | 1 (2012) | | 1 | |  Egypt | | | | 2 (1928, 1964) | 0 | |  Finland | | | | 1 (1912) | 0 | |  India | | | | 1 (1956) | 0 | |  Australia | | | | 1 (1992) | 0 | |  Portugal | | | | 1 (1996) | 0 | |  Iraq | | | | 1 (2004) | 0 | |  Honduras | | | | 1 (2016) | 0 | Women's tournament ------------------ The women's tournament is contested between the full senior national teams, with no restrictions. One place is reserved for the host country. Of the remaining teams, as in World Cup contests a specific number of places are reserved for teams from each continental region; the European (UEFA) teams until 2020 are chosen from the most successful European teams in the previous year's World Cup; the UEFA Women's Nations League which its Finals is held in the same year as the Olympics will be used from 2024, while the other continental regions host their own qualifying tournaments in the build-up to the Olympics. The first women's tournament was at the 1996 Atlanta Games. The United States won the gold medal. Norway defeated the U.S. in 2000 by a golden goal that was highly controversial and seemed like a handball, but was allowed to stand. The finals of the next two tournaments, in 2004 and 2008, also went to extra time, with the U.S. defeating Brazil both times. In 2012 the U.S. won their fourth gold medal defeating Japan 2–1 in the final. In 2016 Germany won its first gold, defeating in the final Sweden, who upset in the succession the U.S. and hosts Brazil. In 2020, Canada won gold on penalties over Sweden, having previously also beaten Brazil and the U.S. Allocation of places for each continent in the 2024 Games is: * Europe – 3 (includes host France) * Africa – 2 * Asia – 2 * South America – 2 * North America – 2 * Oceania – 1 ### Participating nations Numbers refer to the final placing of each team at the respective Games. Host nation is shown in **bold**. | | | --- | | **UEFA** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Denmark | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  France | – | – | – | – | 4 | 6 | – | **Q** | **3** | |  Germany | 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | – | 1 | – | | **5** | |  Great Britain | – | – | – | – | **5** | – | 7 | | **2** | |  Greece | – | – | **10** | – | – | – | – | | **1** | |  Netherlands | – | – | – | – | – | – | 5 | | **1** | |  Norway | 3 | 1 | – | 7 | – | – | – | | **3** | |  Sweden | 6 | 6 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 2 | 2 | | **7** | | **CONMEBOL** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Argentina | – | – | – | 11 | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  Brazil | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 6 | **4** | 6 | Q | **8** | |  Chile | – | – | – | – | – | – | 11 | – | **1** | |  Colombia | – | – | – | – | 11 | 11 | – | Q | **3** | | **CONCACAF** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Canada | – | – | – | 8 | 3 | 3 | 1 | | **4** | |  Mexico | – | – | 8 | – | – | – | – | – | **1** | |  United States | **1** | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | Q | **8** | | **CAF** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Cameroon | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | – | | **1** | |  Nigeria | – | 8 | 6 | 11 | – | – | – | | **3** | |  South Africa | – | – | – | – | 10 | 10 | – | | **2** | |  Zambia | – | – | – | – | – | – | 9 | | **1** | |  Zimbabwe | – | – | – | – | – | 12 | – | | **1** | | **AFC** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Australia | OFC (q. 2 t.) | – | – | 7 | 4 | | **2** | |  China | 2 | 5 | 9 | **5** | – | 8 | 10 | | **6** | |  Japan | 7 | – | 7 | 4 | 2 | – | **8** | | **5** | |  North Korea | – | – | – | 9 | 9 | – | – | | **2** | | | **OFC** | | Nation | 96 | 00 | 04 | 08 | 12 | 16 | 20 | 24 | Years | |  Australia | – | **7** | 5 | AFC (qualified 2 times) | **2** | |  New Zealand | – | – | – | 10 | 8 | 9 | 12 | | **4** | | | | **Total nations** | **8** | **8** | **10** | **12** | **12** | **12** | **12** | **12** | | ### Results Keys * a.e.t. – *after extra time* * a.s.d.e.t. – *after sudden death extra time* | Ed. | Year | Hosts | Gold medal match | Bronze medal match | Num.teams | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1st place, gold medalist(s) Gold medalists | Score | 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Silver medalists | 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) Bronze medalists | Score | Fourth place | | 1 | 1996 | Atlanta | **United States** | 2–1 |  China |  Norway | 2–0 |  Brazil | 8 | | 2 | 2000 | Sydney | **Norway** | 3–2 (a.s.d.e.t.) |  United States |  Germany | 2–0 |  Brazil | 8 | | 3 | 2004 | Athens | **United States** | 2–1 (a.e.t.) |  Brazil |  Germany | 1–0 |  Sweden | 10 | | 4 | 2008 | Beijing | **United States** | 1–0 (a.e.t.) |  Brazil |  Germany | 2–0 |  Japan | 12 | | 5 | 2012 | London | **United States** | 2–1 |  Japan |  Canada | 1–0 |  France | 12 | | 6 | 2016 | Rio de Janeiro | **Germany** | 2–1 |  Sweden |  Canada | 2–1 |  Brazil | 12 | | 7 | 2020 | Tokyo | **Canada** | 1–1 (3–2 p) |  Sweden |  United States | 4–3 |  Australia | 12 | | 8 | 2024 | Paris | *TBD* | | *TBD* | *TBD* | | *TBD* | | ### Performances by countries Below are the ten nations that have reached at least the semi-final stage in the Summer Olympics finals. | Team | Gold medals | Silver medals | Bronze medals | Fourth place | Medals | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  United States | **4** (1996, 2004, 2008, 2012) | 1 (2000) | 1 (2020) | | **6** | |  Germany | **1** (2016) | | **3** (2000, 2004, 2008) | | 4 | |  Canada | **1** (2020) | | 2 (2012, 2016) | | 3 | |  Norway | **1** (2000) | | 1 (1996) | | 2 | |  Brazil | | **2** (2004, 2008) | | **3** (1996, 2000, 2016) | 2 | |  Sweden | | **2** (2016, 2020) | | 1 (2004) | 2 | |  Japan | | 1 (2012) | | 1 (2008) | 1 | |  China | | 1 (1996) | | | 1 | |  Australia | | | | 1 (2020) | 0 | |  France | | | | 1 (2012) | 0 | Overall medal table ------------------- * *Total medals won (men's and women's) including 1900 and 1904* * *Bronze medals shared in 1972 tournament* | Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 |  United States (USA) | 4 | 2 | 2 | 8 | | 2 |  Hungary (HUN) | 3 | 1 | 1 | 5 | | 3 |  Great Britain (GBR) | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | | 4 |  Brazil (BRA) | 2 | 5 | 2 | 9 | | 5 |  Argentina (ARG) | 2 | 2 | 0 | 4 | | 6 | *Soviet Union (URS)* | 2 | 0 | 3 | 5 | | 7 |  Canada (CAN) | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | | 8 |  Uruguay (URU) | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | 9 | *Yugoslavia (YUG)* | 1 | 3 | 1 | 5 | | 10 |  Spain (ESP) | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 | | 11 |  Sweden (SWE) | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | | 12 |  Poland (POL) | 1 | 2 | 0 | 3 | | 13 |  Germany (GER) | 1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | | 14 | *East Germany (GDR)* | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | |  Nigeria (NGR) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | | 16 | *Czechoslovakia (TCH)* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | |  France (FRA) | 1 | 1 | 0 | 2 | | 18 |  Italy (ITA) | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | |  Norway (NOR) | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | | 20 |  Belgium (BEL) | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | |  Mexico (MEX) | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | | 22 |  Cameroon (CMR) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | | 23 |  Denmark (DEN) | 0 | 3 | 1 | 4 | | 24 |  Bulgaria (BUL) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  Japan (JPN) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | 26 |  Austria (AUT) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  China (CHN) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  Paraguay (PAR) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  Switzerland (SUI) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | 30 |  Netherlands (NED) | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | | 31 |  Chile (CHI) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |  Ghana (GHA) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |  South Korea (KOR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | *United Team of Germany (EUA)* | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | *West Germany (FRG)* | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Totals (35 entries) | 34 | 34 | 35 | 103 | See also -------- * Football at the Youth Olympic Games

Football at the Summer Olympics

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Football_at_the_Summer_Olympics

**Fructose**, or **fruit sugar**, is a ketonic simple sugar found in many plants, where it is often bonded to glucose to form the disaccharide sucrose. It is one of the three dietary monosaccharides, along with glucose and galactose, that are absorbed by the gut directly into the blood of the portal vein during digestion. The liver then converts both fructose and galactose into glucose, so that dissolved glucose, known as blood sugar, is the only monosaccharide present in circulating blood. Fructose was discovered by French chemist Augustin-Pierre Dubrunfaut in 1847. The name "fructose" was coined in 1857 by the English chemist William Allen Miller. Pure, dry fructose is a sweet, white, odorless, crystalline solid, and is the most water-soluble of all the sugars. Fructose is found in honey, tree and vine fruits, flowers, berries, and most root vegetables. Commercially, fructose is derived from sugar cane, sugar beets, and maize. High-fructose corn syrup is a mixture of glucose and fructose as monosaccharides. Sucrose is a compound with one molecule of glucose covalently linked to one molecule of fructose. All forms of fructose, including those found in fruits and juices, are commonly added to foods and drinks for palatability and taste enhancement, and for browning of some foods, such as baked goods. As of 2004, about 240,000 tonnes of crystalline fructose were being produced annually. Excessive consumption of sugars, including fructose, (especially from sugar-sweetened beverages) may contribute to insulin resistance, obesity, elevated LDL cholesterol and triglycerides, leading to metabolic syndrome. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) stated in 2011 that fructose may be preferable over sucrose and glucose in sugar-sweetened foods and beverages because of its lower effect on postprandial blood sugar levels, while also noting the potential downside that "high intakes of fructose may lead to metabolic complications such as dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance, and increased visceral adiposity". The UK's Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition in 2015 disputed the claims of fructose causing metabolic disorders, stating that "there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate that fructose intake, at levels consumed in the normal UK diet, leads to adverse health outcomes independent of any effects related to its presence as a component of total and free sugars." Etymology --------- The word "fructose" was coined in 1857 from the Latin for *fructus* (fruit) and the generic chemical suffix for sugars, *-ose*. It is also called fruit sugar and levulose or laevulose. Chemical properties ------------------- Fructose is a 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone. Crystalline fructose adopts a cyclic six-membered structure, called β-d-fructopyranose, owing to the stability of its hemiketal and internal hydrogen-bonding. In solution, fructose exists as an equilibrium mixture of the tautomers β-d-fructopyranose, β-d-fructofuranose, α-d-fructofuranose, α-d-fructopyranose and *keto*-d-fructose (the non-cyclic form). The distribution of d-fructose tautomers in solution is related to several variables, such as solvent and temperature. d-Fructopyranose and d-fructofuranose distributions in water have been identified multiple times as roughly 70% fructopyranose and 22% fructofuranose. ### Reactions #### Fructose and fermentation Fructose may be anaerobically fermented by yeast or bacteria. Yeast enzymes convert sugar (sucrose, glucose, or fructose, but not lactose) to ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some of the carbon dioxide produced during fermentation will remain dissolved in water, where it will reach equilibrium with carbonic acid. The dissolved carbon dioxide and carbonic acid produce the carbonation in some fermented beverages, such as champagne. #### Fructose and Maillard reaction Fructose undergoes the Maillard reaction, non-enzymatic browning, with amino acids. Because fructose exists to a greater extent in the open-chain form than does glucose, the initial stages of the Maillard reaction occur more rapidly than with glucose. Therefore, fructose has potential to contribute to changes in food palatability, as well as other nutritional effects, such as excessive browning, volume and tenderness reduction during cake preparation, and formation of mutagenic compounds. #### Dehydration Fructose readily dehydrates to give hydroxymethylfurfural ("HMF", C 6H 6O 3), which can be processed into liquid dimethylfuran (C 6H 8O). This process, in the future, may become part of a low-cost, carbon-neutral system to produce replacements for petrol and diesel from plants. Physical and functional properties ---------------------------------- ### Sweetness of fructose The primary reason that fructose is used commercially in foods and beverages, besides its low cost, is its high relative sweetness. It is the sweetest of all naturally occurring carbohydrates. The relative sweetness of fructose has been reported in the range of 1.2–1.8 times that of sucrose. However, it is the 6-membered ring form of fructose that is sweeter; the 5-membered ring form tastes about the same as usual table sugar. Warming fructose leads to formation of the 5-membered ring form. Therefore, the relative sweetness decreases with increasing temperature. However, it has been observed that the absolute sweetness of fructose is identical at 5 °C as 50 °C and thus the relative sweetness to sucrose is not due to anomeric distribution but a decrease in the absolute sweetness of sucrose at higher temperatures. The sweetness of fructose is perceived earlier than that of sucrose or glucose, and the taste sensation reaches a peak (higher than that of sucrose), and diminishes more quickly than that of sucrose. Fructose can also enhance other flavors in the system. Fructose exhibits a sweetness synergy effect when used in combination with other sweeteners. The relative sweetness of fructose blended with sucrose, aspartame, or saccharin is perceived to be greater than the sweetness calculated from individual components. ### Fructose solubility and crystallization Fructose has higher water solubility than other sugars, as well as other sugar alcohols. Fructose is, therefore, difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution. Sugar mixes containing fructose, such as candies, are softer than those containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of fructose. ### Fructose hygroscopicity and humectancy Fructose is quicker to absorb moisture and slower to release it to the environment than sucrose, glucose, or other nutritive sweeteners. Fructose is an excellent humectant and retains moisture for a long period of time even at low relative humidity (RH). Therefore, fructose can contribute a more palatable texture, and longer shelf life to the food products in which it is used. ### Freezing point Fructose has a greater effect on freezing point depression than disaccharides or oligosaccharides, which may protect the integrity of cell walls of fruit by reducing ice crystal formation. However, this characteristic may be undesirable in soft-serve or hard-frozen dairy desserts. ### Fructose and starch functionality in food systems Fructose increases starch viscosity more rapidly and achieves a higher final viscosity than sucrose because fructose lowers the temperature required during gelatinizing of starch, causing a greater final viscosity. Although some artificial sweeteners are not suitable for home baking, many traditional recipes use fructose. Food sources ------------ Natural sources of fructose include fruits, vegetables (including sugar cane), and honey. Fructose is often further concentrated from these sources. The highest dietary sources of fructose, besides pure crystalline fructose, are foods containing white sugar (sucrose), high-fructose corn syrup, agave nectar, honey, molasses, maple syrup, fruit and fruit juices, as these have the highest percentages of fructose (including fructose in sucrose) per serving compared to other common foods and ingredients. Fructose exists in foods either as a free monosaccharide or bound to glucose as sucrose, a disaccharide. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose may all be present in food; however, different foods will have varying levels of each of these three sugars. The sugar contents of common fruits and vegetables are presented in Table 1. In general, in foods that contain free fructose, the ratio of fructose to glucose is approximately 1:1; that is, foods with fructose usually contain about an equal amount of free glucose. A value that is above 1 indicates a higher proportion of fructose to glucose and below 1 a lower proportion. Some fruits have larger proportions of fructose to glucose compared to others. For example, apples and pears contain more than twice as much free fructose as glucose, while for apricots the proportion is less than half as much fructose as glucose. Apple and pear juices are of particular interest to pediatricians because the high concentrations of free fructose in these juices can cause diarrhea in children. The cells (enterocytes) that line children's small intestines have less affinity for fructose absorption than for glucose and sucrose. Unabsorbed fructose creates higher osmolarity in the small intestine, which draws water into the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in osmotic diarrhea. This phenomenon is discussed in greater detail in the Health Effects section. Table 1 also shows the amount of sucrose found in common fruits and vegetables. Sugarcane and sugar beet have a high concentration of sucrose, and are used for commercial preparation of pure sucrose. Extracted cane or beet juice is clarified, removing impurities; and concentrated by removing excess water. The end product is 99.9%-pure sucrose. Sucrose-containing sugars include common white sugar and powdered sugar, as well as brown sugar. Table 1. Sugar content of selected common plant foods (g/100g)| Food Item | TotalCarbohydrateincluding"dietary fiber" | TotalSugars | FreeFructose | FreeGlucose | Sucrose | Fructose/GlucoseRatio | Sucroseas a % ofTotal Sugars | Free Fructose as a % of Total Sugars | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Fruits* |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | | Apple | 13.8 | 10.4 | 5.9 | 2.4 | 2.1 | 2.0 | 19.9 | 57 | | Apricot | 11.1 | 9.2 | 0.9 | 2.4 | 5.9 | 0.7 | 63.5 | 10 | | Banana | 22.8 | 12.2 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 2.4 | 1.0 | 20.0 | 40 | | Fig, dried | 63.9 | 47.9 | 22.9 | 24.8 | 0.9 | 0.93 | 1.9 | 47.8 | | Grapes | 18.1 | 15.5 | 8.1 | 7.2 | 0.2 | 1.1 | 1 | 52 | | Navel orange | 12.5 | 8.5 | 2.25 | 2.0 | 4.3 | 1.1 | 50.4 | 26 | | Peach | 9.5 | 8.4 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 4.8 | 0.9 | 56.7 | 18 | | Pear | 15.5 | 9.8 | 6.2 | 2.8 | 0.8 | 2.1 | 8.0 | 63 | | Pineapple | 13.1 | 9.9 | 2.1 | 1.7 | 6.0 | 1.1 | 60.8 | 21 | | Plum | 11.4 | 9.9 | 3.1 | 5.1 | 1.6 | 0.66 | 16.2 | 31 | | *Vegetables* |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | | Beet, Red | 9.6 | 6.8 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 6.5 | 1.0 | 96.2 | 1.5 | | Carrot | 9.6 | 4.7 | 0.6 | 0.6 | 3.6 | 1.0 | 77 | 13 | | Red Pepper, Sweet | 6.0 | 4.2 | 2.3 | 1.9 | 0.0 | 1.2 | 0.0 | 55 | | Onion, Sweet | 7.6 | 5.0 | 2.0 | 2.3 | 0.7 | 0.9 | 14.3 | 40 | | Sweet Potato | 20.1 | 4.2 | 0.7 | 1.0 | 2.5 | 0.9 | 60.3 | 17 | | Yam | 27.9 | 0.5 | tr | tr | tr | na | tr | | | Sugar Cane | | 13–18 | 0.2 – 1.0 | 0.2 – 1.0 | 11–16 | 1.0 | high | 1.5-5.6 | | Sugar Beet | | 17–18 | 0.1 – 0.5 | 0.1 – 0.5 | 16–17 | 1.0 | high | 0.59-2.8 | | *Grains* |   |   |   |   |   |   |   | | | Maize, Sweet | 19.0 | 6.2 | 1.9 | 3.4 | 0.9 | 0.61 | 15.0 | 31 | **^A** The carbohydrate figure is calculated in FoodData Central and does not always correspond to the sum of the sugars, the starch, and the "dietary fiber". All data with a unit of g (gram) are based on 100 g of a food item. The fructose/glucose ratio is calculated by dividing the sum of free fructose plus half sucrose by the sum of free glucose plus half sucrose. Fructose is also found in the manufactured sweetener, high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), which is produced by treating corn syrup with enzymes, converting glucose into fructose. The common designations for fructose content, HFCS-42 and HFCS-55, indicate the percentage of fructose present in HFCS. HFCS-55 is commonly used as a sweetener for soft drinks, whereas HFCS-42 is used to sweeten processed foods, breakfast cereals, bakery foods, and some soft drinks. ### Carbohydrate content of commercial sweeteners (percent on dry basis) | Sugar | Fructose | Glucose | Sucrose(Fructose+Glucose) | Othersugars | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Granulated sugar | 0 | 0 | 100 | 0 | | Caramel | 1 | 1 | 97 | 1 | | HFCS-42 | 42 | 53 | 0 | 5 | | HFCS-55 | 55 | 41 | 0 | 4 | | HFCS-90 | 90 | 5 | 0 | 5 | | Honey | 50 | 44 | 1 | 5 | | Maple syrup | 1 | 4 | 95 | 0 | | Molasses | 23 | 21 | 53 | 3 | | Tapioca Syrup | 55 | 45 | 0 | 0 | | Corn syrup | 0 | 98 | 0 | 2 | for HFCS, and USDA for fruits and vegetables and the other refined sugars. Cane and beet sugars have been used as the major sweetener in food manufacturing for centuries. However, with the development of HFCS, a significant shift occurred in the type of sweetener consumption in certain countries, particularly the United States. Contrary to the popular belief, however, with the increase of HFCS consumption, the total fructose intake relative to the total glucose intake has not dramatically changed. Granulated sugar is 99.9%-pure sucrose, which means that it has equal ratio of fructose to glucose. The most commonly used forms of HFCS, HFCS-42, and HFCS-55, have a roughly equal ratio of fructose to glucose, with minor differences. HFCS has simply replaced sucrose as a sweetener. Therefore, despite the changes in the sweetener consumption, the ratio of glucose to fructose intake has remained relatively constant. ### Nutritional information Providing 368 kcal per 100 grams of dry powder (table), fructose has 95% the caloric value of sucrose by weight. Fructose powder is 100% carbohydrates and supplies no other nutrients in significant amount (table). Fructose digestion and absorption in humans ------------------------------------------- Fructose exists in foods either as a monosaccharide (free fructose) or as a unit of a disaccharide (sucrose). Free fructose is absorbed directly by the intestine. When fructose is consumed in the form of sucrose, it is digested (broken down) and then absorbed as free fructose. As sucrose comes into contact with the membrane of the small intestine, the enzyme sucrase catalyzes the cleavage of sucrose to yield one glucose unit and one fructose unit, which are then each absorbed. After absorption, it enters the hepatic portal vein and is directed toward the liver. The mechanism of fructose absorption in the small intestine is not completely understood. Some evidence suggests active transport, because fructose uptake has been shown to occur against a concentration gradient. However, the majority of research supports the claim that fructose absorption occurs on the mucosal membrane via facilitated transport involving GLUT5 transport proteins. Since the concentration of fructose is higher in the lumen, fructose is able to flow down a concentration gradient into the enterocytes, assisted by transport proteins. Fructose may be transported out of the enterocyte across the basolateral membrane by either GLUT2 or GLUT5, although the GLUT2 transporter has a greater capacity for transporting fructose, and, therefore, the majority of fructose is transported out of the enterocyte through GLUT2. ### Capacity and rate of absorption The absorption capacity for fructose in monosaccharide form ranges from less than 5 g to 50 g (per individual serving) and adapts with changes in dietary fructose intake. Studies show the greatest absorption rate occurs when glucose and fructose are administered in equal quantities. When fructose is ingested as part of the disaccharide sucrose, absorption capacity is much higher because fructose exists in a 1:1 ratio with glucose. It appears that the GLUT5 transfer rate may be saturated at low levels, and absorption is increased through joint absorption with glucose. One proposed mechanism for this phenomenon is a glucose-dependent cotransport of fructose. In addition, fructose transfer activity increases with dietary fructose intake. The presence of fructose in the lumen causes increased mRNA transcription of GLUT5, leading to increased transport proteins. High-fructose diets (>2.4 g/kg body wt) increase the transport proteins within three days of intake. ### Malabsorption Several studies have measured the intestinal absorption of fructose using the hydrogen breath test. These studies indicate that fructose is not completely absorbed in the small intestine. When fructose is not absorbed in the small intestine, it is transported into the large intestine, where it is fermented by the colonic flora. Hydrogen is produced during the fermentation process and dissolves into the blood of the portal vein. This hydrogen is transported to the lungs, where it is exchanged across the lungs and is measurable by the hydrogen breath test. The colonic flora also produces carbon dioxide, short-chain fatty acids, organic acids, and trace gases in the presence of unabsorbed fructose. The presence of gases and organic acids in the large intestine causes gastrointestinal symptoms such as bloating, diarrhea, flatulence, and gastrointestinal pain. Exercise immediately after consumption can exacerbate these symptoms by decreasing transit time in the small intestine, resulting in a greater amount of fructose emptied into the large intestine. Fructose metabolism ------------------- All three dietary monosaccharides are transported into the liver by the GLUT2 transporter. Fructose and galactose are phosphorylated in the liver by fructokinase (Km= 0.5 mM) and galactokinase (Km = 0.8 mM), respectively. By contrast, glucose tends to pass through the liver (Km of hepatic glucokinase = 10 mM) and can be metabolised anywhere in the body. Uptake of fructose by the liver is not regulated by insulin. However, insulin is capable of increasing the abundance and functional activity of GLUT5, fructose transporter, in skeletal muscle cells. ### Fructolysis The initial catabolism of fructose is sometimes referred to as fructolysis, in analogy with glycolysis, the catabolism of glucose. In fructolysis, the enzyme fructokinase initially produces fructose 1-phosphate, which is split by aldolase B to produce the trioses dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. Unlike glycolysis, in fructolysis the triose glyceraldehyde lacks a phosphate group. A third enzyme, triokinase, is therefore required to phosphorylate glyceraldehyde, producing glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The resulting trioses are identical to those obtained in glycolysis and can enter the gluconeogenic pathway for glucose or glycogen synthesis, or be further catabolized through the lower glycolytic pathway to pyruvate. ### Metabolism of fructose to DHAP and glyceraldehyde The first step in the metabolism of fructose is the phosphorylation of fructose to fructose 1-phosphate by fructokinase, thus trapping fructose for metabolism in the liver. Fructose 1-phosphate then undergoes hydrolysis by aldolase B to form DHAP and glyceraldehydes; DHAP can either be isomerized to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by triosephosphate isomerase or undergo reduction to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The glyceraldehyde produced may also be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by glyceraldehyde kinase or further converted to glycerol 3-phosphate by glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The metabolism of fructose at this point yields intermediates in the gluconeogenic pathway leading to glycogen synthesis as well as fatty acid and triglyceride synthesis. ### Synthesis of glycogen from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate The resultant glyceraldehyde formed by aldolase B then undergoes phosphorylation to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Increased concentrations of DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the liver drive the gluconeogenic pathway toward glucose and subsequent glycogen synthesis. It appears that fructose is a better substrate for glycogen synthesis than glucose and that glycogen replenishment takes precedence over triglyceride formation. Once liver glycogen is replenished, the intermediates of fructose metabolism are primarily directed toward triglyceride synthesis. ### Synthesis of triglyceride from DHAP and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Carbons from dietary fructose are found in both the free fatty acid and glycerol moieties of plasma triglycerides. High fructose consumption can lead to excess pyruvate production, causing a buildup of Krebs cycle intermediates. Accumulated citrate can be transported from the mitochondria into the cytosol of hepatocytes, converted to acetyl CoA by citrate lyase and directed toward fatty acid synthesis. In addition, DHAP can be converted to glycerol 3-phosphate, providing the glycerol backbone for the triglyceride molecule. Triglycerides are incorporated into very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), which are released from the liver destined toward peripheral tissues for storage in both fat and muscle cells. Potential health effects ------------------------ In 2022, the European Food Safety Authority stated that there is research evidence that fructose and other added free sugars may be associated with increased risk of several chronic diseases: the risk is moderate for obesity and dyslipidemia (more than 50%), and low for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, type 2 diabetes (from 15% to 50%) and hypertension. EFSA further stated that clinical research did "not support a positive relationship between the intake of dietary sugars, in isocaloric exchange with other macronutrients, and any of the chronic metabolic diseases or pregnancy-related endpoints assessed" but advised "the intake of added and free sugars should be as low as possible in the context of a nutritionally adequate diet." ### Cardiometabolic diseases When fructose is consumed in excess as a sweetening agent in foods or beverages, it may be associated with increased risk of obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disorders that are part of metabolic syndrome. ### Compared with sucrose Fructose was found to increase triglycerides in type-2 but not type-1 diabetes and moderate use of it has previously been considered acceptable as a sweetener for diabetics, possibly because it does not trigger the production of insulin by pancreatic β cells. For a 50 gram reference amount, fructose has a glycemic index of 23, compared with 100 for glucose and 60 for sucrose. Fructose is also 73% sweeter than sucrose at room temperature, allowing diabetics to use less of it per serving. Fructose consumed before a meal may reduce the glycemic response of the meal. Fructose-sweetened food and beverage products cause less of a rise in blood glucose levels than do those manufactured with either sucrose or glucose. See also -------- * Hereditary fructose intolerance * Inverted sugar syrup

Fructose

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructose

**Investment** is traditionally defined as the "commitment of resources to achieve later benefits". If an investment involves money, then it can be defined as a "commitment of money to receive more money later". From a broader viewpoint, an investment can be defined as "to tailor the pattern of expenditure and receipt of resources to optimise the desirable patterns of these flows". When expenditure and receipts are defined in terms of money, then the net monetary receipt in a time period is termed as cash flow, while money received in a series of several time periods is termed as cash flow stream. Investment science is the application of scientific tools (usually mathematical) for investments. In finance, the purpose of investing is to generate a return from the invested asset. The return may consist of a gain (profit) or a loss realized from the sale of a property or an investment, unrealized capital appreciation (or depreciation), or investment income such as dividends, interest, or rental income, or a combination of capital gain and income. The return may also include currency gains or losses due to changes in the foreign currency exchange rates. Investors generally expect higher returns from riskier investments. When a low-risk investment is made, the return is also generally low. Similarly, high risk comes with a chance of high losses. Investors, particularly novices, are often advised to diversify their portfolio. Diversification has the statistical effect of reducing overall risk. Investment and risk ------------------- An investor may bear a risk of loss of some or all of their capital invested. Investment differs from arbitrage, in which profit is generated without investing capital or bearing risk. Savings bear the (normally remote) risk that the financial provider may default. Foreign currency savings also bear foreign exchange risk: if the currency of a savings account differs from the account holder's home currency, then there is the risk that the exchange rate between the two currencies will move unfavourably so that the value of the savings account decreases, measured in the account holder's home currency. Even investing in tangible assets like property has its risk. And similar to most risks, property buyers can seek to mitigate any potential risk by taking out mortgage and by borrowing at a lower loan to security ratio. In contrast with savings, investments tend to carry more risk, in the form of both a wider variety of risk factors and a greater level of uncertainty. Industry to industry volatility is more or less of a risk depending. In biotechnology, for example, investors look for big profits on companies that have small market capitalizations but can be worth hundreds of millions quite quickly. The risk is high because approximately 90% of biotechnology products researched do not make it to market due to regulations and the complex demands within pharmacology as the average prescription drug takes 10 years and US$2.5 billion worth of capital. History ------- The Code of Hammurabi (developed during his reign between 1792-1750 BC) provided a legal framework for investment, establishing a means for the pledge of collateral by codifying debtor and creditor rights in regard to pledged land. Punishments for breaking financial obligations were not as severe as those for crimes involving injury or death. In the medieval Islamic world, the qirad was a major financial instrument. This was an arrangement between one or more investors and an agent where the investors entrusted capital to an agent who then traded with it in hopes of making a profit. Both parties then received a previously settled portion of the profit, though the agent was not liable for any losses. Many will notice that the *qirad* is similar to the institution of the commenda later used in western Europe, though whether the qirad transformed into the *commenda* or the two institutions evolved independently cannot be stated with certainty. In the early 1900s, purchasers of stocks, bonds, and other securities were described in media, academia, and commerce as speculators. Since the Wall Street crash of 1929, and particularly by the 1950s, the term investment had come to denote the more conservative end of the securities spectrum, while speculation was applied by financial brokers and their advertising agencies to higher risk securities much in vogue at that time. Since the last half of the 20th century, the terms speculation and speculator have specifically referred to higher risk ventures. Investment strategies --------------------- ### Value investing A value investor buys assets that they believe to be undervalued (and sells overvalued ones). To identify undervalued securities, a value investor uses analysis of the financial reports of the issuer to evaluate the security. Value investors employ accounting ratios, such as earnings per share and sales growth, to identify securities trading at prices below their worth. Warren Buffett and Benjamin Graham are notable examples of value investors. Graham and Dodd's seminal work, *Security Analysis*, was written in the wake of the Wall Street Crash of 1929. The price to earnings ratio (P/E), or earnings multiple, is a particularly significant and recognized fundamental ratio, with a function of dividing the share price of the stock, by its earnings per share. This will provide the value representing the sum investors are prepared to expend for each dollar of company earnings. This ratio is an important aspect, due to its capacity as measurement for the comparison of valuations of various companies. A stock with a lower P/E ratio will cost less per share than one with a higher P/E, taking into account the same level of financial performance; therefore, it essentially means a low P/E is the preferred option. An instance in which the price to earnings ratio has a lesser significance is when companies in different industries are compared. For example, although it is reasonable for a telecommunications stock to show a P/E in the low teens, in the case of hi-tech stock, a P/E in the 40s range is not unusual. When making comparisons, the P/E ratio can give you a refined view of a particular stock valuation. For investors paying for each dollar of a company's earnings, the P/E ratio is a significant indicator, but the price-to-book ratio (P/B) is also a reliable indication of how much investors are willing to spend on each dollar of company assets. In the process of the P/B ratio, the share price of a stock is divided by its net assets; any intangibles, such as goodwill, are not taken into account. It is a crucial factor of the price-to-book ratio, due to it indicating the actual payment for tangible assets and not the more difficult valuation of intangibles. Accordingly, the P/B could be considered a comparatively conservative metric. ### Growth investing Growth investors seek investments they believe are likely to have higher earnings or greater value in the future. To identify such stocks, growth investors often evaluate measures of current stock value as well as predictions of future financial performance. Growth investors seek profits through capital appreciation – the gains earned when a stock is sold at a higher price than what it was purchased for. The price-to-earnings (P/E) multiple is also used for this type of investment; growth stock are likely to have a P/E higher than others in its industry. According to Investopedia author Troy Segal and U.S. Department of State Fulbright fintech research awardee Julius Mansa, growth investing is best suited for investors who prefer relatively shorter investment horizons, higher risks, and are not seeking immediate cash flow through dividends. Some investors attribute the introduction of the growth investing strategy to investment banker Thomas Rowe Price Jr., who tested and popularized the method in 1950 by introducing his mutual fund, the T. Rowe Price Growth Stock Fund. Price asserted that investors could reap high returns by "investing in companies that are well-managed in fertile fields." A new form of investing that seems to have caught the attention of investors is Venture Capital. Venture Capital is independently managed dedicated pools of capital that focus on equity or equity-linked investments in privately held, high growth companies. ### Momentum investing Momentum investors generally seek to buy stocks that are currently experiencing a short-term uptrend, and they usually sell them once this momentum starts to decrease. Stocks or securities purchased for momentum investing are often characterized by demonstrating consistently high returns for the past three to twelve months. However, in a bear market, momentum investing also involves short-selling securities of stocks that are experiencing a downward trend, because it is believed that these stocks will continue to decrease in value. Essentially, momentum investing generally relies on the principle that a consistently up-trending stock will continue to grow, while a consistently down-trending stock will continue to fall. Economists and financial analysts have not reached a consensus on the effectiveness of using the momentum investing strategy. Rather than evaluating a company's operational performance, momentum investors instead utilize trend lines, moving averages, and the Average Directional Index (ADX) to determine the existence and strength of trends. ### Dollar cost averaging Dollar cost averaging (DCA), also known in the UK as pound-cost averaging, is the process of consistently investing a certain amount of money across regular increments of time, and the method can be used in conjunction with value investing, growth investing, momentum investing, or other strategies. For example, an investor who practices dollar-cost averaging could choose to invest $200 a month for the next 3 years, regardless of the share price of their preferred stock(s), mutual funds, or exchange-traded funds. Many investors believe that dollar-cost averaging helps minimize short-term volatility by spreading risk out across time intervals and avoiding market timing. Research also shows that DCA can help reduce the total average cost per share in an investment because the method enables the purchase of more shares when their price is lower, and less shares when the price is higher. However, dollar-cost averaging is also generally characterized by more brokerage fees, which could decrease an investor's overall returns. The term "dollar-cost averaging" is believed to have first been coined in 1949 by economist and author Benjamin Graham in his book, *The Intelligent Investor.* Graham asserted that investors that use DCA are "likely to end up with a satisfactory overall price for all [their] holdings." ### Micro-Investing Micro-investing is a type of investment strategy that is designed to make investing regular, accessible and affordable, especially for those who may not have a lot of money to invest or who are new to investing. Intermediaries and collective investments ----------------------------------------- Investments are often made indirectly through intermediary financial institutions. These intermediaries include pension funds, banks, and insurance companies. They may pool money received from a number of individual end investors into funds such as investment trusts, unit trusts, and SICAVs to make large-scale investments. Each individual investor holds an indirect or direct claim on the assets purchased, subject to charges levied by the intermediary, which may be large and varied. Approaches to investment sometimes referred to in marketing of collective investments include dollar cost averaging and market timing. Famous investors ---------------- Investors famous for their success include Warren Buffett, who ranked second in the Forbes 400 list of the March 2013 edition of *Forbes* magazine. Buffett has advised in numerous articles and interviews that a good investment strategy is long-term and due diligence is the key to investing in the right assets. Edward O. Thorp was a highly successful hedge fund manager in the 1970s and 1980s who spoke of a similar approach. The investment principles of both of these investors have points in common with the Kelly criterion for money management. Numerous interactive calculators which use the Kelly criterion can be found online. Investment valuation -------------------- Free cash flow measures the cash a company generates which is available to its debt and equity investors, after allowing for reinvestment in working capital and capital expenditure. High and rising free cash flow, therefore, tend to make a company more attractive to investors. The debt-to-equity ratio is an indicator of capital structure. A high proportion of debt, reflected in a high debt-to-equity ratio, tends to make a company's earnings, free cash flow, and ultimately the returns to its investors, riskier or volatile. Investors compare a company's debt-to-equity ratio with those of other companies in the same industry, and examine trends in debt-to-equity ratios and free cashflow. See also -------- * Capital accumulation * Capital gains tax * Climate-related asset stranding * Diversification (finance) * Divestment * EBITDA * Foreign direct investment * Fundamental analysis * Legal Alpha * List of countries by gross fixed investment as percentage of GDP * List of economics topics * Market sentiment * Mortgage investment corporation * Rate of return * Socially responsible investing * Specialized investment fund * Time value of money * Time-weighted return External links --------------

Investment

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investment

**Hashish** (Arabic: حشيش, (IPA: [ħæʃiːʃ])), also known as **hash**, is a drug made by compressing and processing parts of the cannabis plant, typically focusing on flowering buds (female flowers) containing the most trichomes. It is consumed by smoking, typically in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joint, or via oral ingestion. Hash has a long history of usage in countries such as Morocco, Egypt, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, Iran, and Lebanon. Hash consumption is also popular in Europe. In the United States, dried flowers or concentrates are more popular, though hash has seen a rise in popularity following changes in law. Like many recreational drugs, multiple synonyms and alternative names for hash exist, and vary greatly depending on the country and native language. Hash is a cannabis concentrate product composed of compressed or purified preparations of stalked resin glands, called trichomes, from the plant. It is defined by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (Schedule I and IV) as "the separated resin, whether crude or purified, obtained from the cannabis plant". The resin contains ingredients such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and other cannabinoids—but often in higher concentrations than the unsifted or unprocessed cannabis flower. Purities of confiscated hashish in Europe (2011) range between 3% and 15%. Between 2000 and 2005, the percentage of hashish in cannabis end product seizures was at 18%. With the strength of unprocessed cannabis flowers having increased greatly in recent years—with flowers containing upwards of 25% THC by weight—the strength of hashish produced today and in the future is likely to be far more potent than in these older records. The consistency and appearance of hash vary depending on the process and amount of leftover plant material (e.g. chlorophyll). It is typically solid, though its consistency ranges from brittle to malleable. It is most commonly light or dark brown in color, though may appear transparent, yellow, black, or red. History ------- Hashish has been consumed for many centuries, though there is no clear evidence as to its first appearance. North India and Nepal have a long social tradition in the production of hashish, known locally as *charas*. The first attestation of the term "hashish" is in a pamphlet published in Cairo in 1123 CE, accusing Nizari Muslims of being "hashish-eaters". The cult of Nizari militants which emerged after the fall of the Fatimid Caliphate is commonly called the sect of the Assassins—a corruption of *hashishin,* Arabic for "hashish-smokers." The 13th-century jurist Ibn Taymiyyah prohibited the use of hashish; he mentioned that it was introduced to Levant with the Mongol invasion (throughout the 13th century). Smoking did not become common in the Old World until after the introduction of tobacco; until the 1500s, hashish was consumed as an edible in the Muslim world. In 1596, Dutchman Jan Huyghen van Linschoten spent three pages on "Bangue" (*bhang*) in his historic work documenting his journeys in the East. He particularly mentioned the Egyptian hashish. He said, "Bangue is likewise much used in Turkie and Egypt, and is made in three sorts, having also three names. The first by the Egyptians is called Assis (Hashish (Arab.)), which is the poulder of Hemp, or of Hemp leaves, which is water made in paste or dough, they would eat five pieces, (each) as big as a Chestnut (or larger); This is used by the common people, because it is of a small price, and it is no wonder, that such vertue proceedeth from the Hempe, for that according to Galens opinion, Hempe excessively filleth the head." Hashish arrived in Europe from the East during the 18th century, and is first mentioned scientifically by Gmelin in 1777. The Napoleonic campaigns introduced French troops to hashish in Egypt and the first description of its useful stems was in 1830 by pharmacist and botanist Theodor Friedrich Ludwig Nees von Esenbeck. In 1839, O’Shaughnessy wrote a comprehensive study of Himalayan hemp, which was recognised by the European school of medicine and describes hashish as relief for cramps and causing the disappearance of certain symptoms from afflictions such as rabies, cholera, and tetanus. This led to high hopes in the medical community. In 1840, Louis Aubert-Roche reported his successful use of hashish against pestilence. Also psychiatric experiments with hashish were done at the same time with Jacques-Joseph Moreau being convinced that it is the supreme medicament for use in psychiatry. In the 19th century, hashish was embraced in some European literary circles. Most famously, the Club des Hashischins was a Parisian club dedicated to the consumption of hashish and other drugs; its members included writers Théophile Gautier, Dr. Moreau de Tours, Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, Charles Baudelaire and Honoré de Balzac. Baudelaire later wrote the 1860 book *Les paradis artificiels*, about the state of being under the influence of opium and hashish. At around the same time, American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow wrote the 1857 book *The Hasheesh Eater* about his youthful experiences, both positive and negative, with the drug. Hashish was also mentioned[*by whom?*] and used as an anaesthetic in Germany in 1869. It was imported in great quantities especially from India where it was called charas. However, there were also people[*who?*] who did not deem cannabis as harmless. Between 1880 and 1900 was the peak of the medicinal use, where hashish compounds were most commonplace in almost all European countries and the USA. Evidence of misuse at that time was practically non-existent (as opposed to widespread reports in Asia and Africa). Hashish played a significant role in the treatment of pain, migraine, dysmenorrhea, pertussis, asthma and insomnia in Europe and USA towards the end of the 19th century. Rare applications included stomach ache, depression, diarrhea, diminished appetite, pruritus, hemorrhage, Basedow syndrome and malaria. The use was later prohibited worldwide as the use as a medicine was made impossible by the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. At the beginning of the 20th century, the majority of hashish in Europe came from Kashmir and other parts of India, Afghanistan, as well as Greece, Syria, Nepal, Lebanon, and Turkey. Larger markets developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s when most of the hashish was imported from Pakistan and Afghanistan. In Greece, Hashish was prevalent in the early decades of the 20th century, and although locally produced for hundreds of years prior, it reached its peak with the coming of two and a half million Greek refugees, expelled from Turkey following the diastrous 1919-21 war. Many of these refugees had habitually smoked hashish in Turkey, using waterpipes, (hookas) called "arghilethes," and due to extreme poverty upon arriving in Greece, and living in overcrowded and poor refugee communities, many hashish dens, called "tekethes" sprung up in Greece's larger cities, the port city of Piraeus, and the northern city of Thessaloniki (where many refugees lived.) This gave rise to a substantial urban underclass and sub culture of hashish smokers called "hasiklithes," and a musical genre "rembetika" (oriental sounding), "urban blues" played on the bouzouki, tzoura, and oriental instruments such as the baglama, outi (oud) and kanonaki (kanun) that spoke of life as a hashish user in the "tekethes", as well as about life as refugees, society's unfairness, lack of financial opportunities, prejudice against the refugees, and the deceit of lovers and others in the community. The "tekethes" were closed down in the 1930s by the Greek police and the "rembetes" were jailed and ostracized. In succeeding decades, there has been a strong 20+ year resurgence in Greece of "rembetika" music with the songs of the rembetes and hasiklithes being contuinually performed publicly by many including the younger generation, as a form of cultural heritage, and have gained respectability and popoularity for their frank expressions of that period, and Greek society in general. Due to disruptive conflicts in the regions, Morocco took over and was the sufficient exporter until lately.[*when?*] It is believed that massive hashish production for international trade originated in Morocco during the 1960s, where the cannabis plant was widely available. Before the coming of the first hippies from the Hippie Trail, only small pieces of Lebanese hashish were found in Morocco. However, since the 2000s there has been a dramatic shift in the market due to an increase of homegrown cannabis production. While Morocco held a quasi-monopoly on hashish in the 1990s with the 250g so-called "soap bar" blocks, which were of low quality, Afghanistan is now regarded as the biggest producer of higher quality hashish. Since then, hashish quality in Europe has increased while its prices have remained stable, with an exception of the COVID-19 pandemic, where the cannabis street prices surged due to various national lockdowns. Hashish remains in high demand in most of the world while quality continues to increase, due to many Moroccan and western farmers in Morocco and other hash producing countries using more advanced cultivation methods as well as cultivating further developed cannabis strains which increases yields greatly, as well as improving resin quality with higher ratios of psychoactive ingredients (THC). A tastier, smoother and more aromatic terpenes and flavanoids profile is seen as an indicator of a significant rise in hashish quality in more recent years. Hashish production in Spain has also become more popular and is on the rise, however the demand for relatively cheap and high quality Moroccan hash is still extremely high. Changes to regulations around the world have contributed greatly to more and more countries becoming legitimate hashish producing regions, with countries like Spain effecting more lenient laws on cannabis products such as hashish. Washington State followed by Colorado started regulating cultivation, manufacturing and distribution of cannabis and cannabis derived products such as hashish in the United States, followed by many other places in the US (such as Humboldt, California), and around the world. European market --------------- According to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Western Europe is the biggest market for cannabis resin with 70% of global seizures. The European hashish market is changing though: Cannabis cultivation increased throughout the 1990s until 2004, with a noticeable decrease reported in 2005 according to the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Morocco has been the major source, however lately there has been a shift in the market and Afghanistan has been named the major producer of Hashish. Even though a drop in usage and production has been reported, Morocco produced around 6600 tonnes of resin in 2005. As 641 tonnes of hashish were consumed in the EU in 2013, the European market is currently the world's largest and most profitable. Therefore, many players are involved in the business, including organised crime groups. The largest cannabis resin seizures in Europe happen in Portugal, due to its proximity to Northern Africa. The 1990s "soap bars" disappeared and the physical shapes of hashish changed to melon shaped, tablets or olive shaped pellets. Overall the general trend of domestically grown cannabis displacing the imported resin leads to a market reaction of potency changes while the prices remain stable while soap-bar potency increased from 8% to up to 20.7% in 2014. Generally, more resin than herb is consumed in Europe. Short-term effects ------------------ The onset of effects is felt within minute 15 when smoking, and about 30 to 60 minutes when eaten. * changes in perception; including a feeling of relaxation, pleasure (“high” or euphoria) * poor short-term memory * increased appetite * altered feeling in the senses (the ability to see colors, hear sounds and taste food more clearly), as a result of the drug increasing the activity of the senses * altered sense of time and space (feeling that time is slow and the distances are longer) * dry mouth and throat * impaired motor skills * cognitive impairment, including poor reactions * blood-shot eye (hypotony) * fast heartbeat * orthostatic hypotension (a drop in pressure when standing) Side effects with overdose may include anxiety, paranoia and panic. Substance properties -------------------- As hashish is a derivative of cannabis, it possesses identical psychoactive and biological effects. When smoked, THC can be detected in plasma within seconds, with a half-life of two hours. Due to its lipophilic nature, it is widely distributed through the body, and some metabolites can be detected in urine for up to two weeks following consumption. Hashish is made from cannabinoid-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of cannabis flower and leaf fragments. The flowers of a mature female plant contain the most trichomes, though trichomes are also found on other parts of the plant. Certain strains of cannabis are cultivated specifically for their ability to produce large amounts of trichomes. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes, sometimes erroneously called pollen (vendors often use the euphemism "pollen catchers" to describe screened kief-grinders in order to skirt paraphernalia-selling laws), are separated from the plant through various methods. Hashish samples from India, Lebanon and Morocco confiscated in Europe and Israel in 2005 contained all appreciable amounts of cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabinol (CBN), in addition to tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). In some samples the CBD-content was significantly higher than the THC-content. The simultaneous occurrence of these three cannabinoids constitute the typical, chemical profile of hashish consumed in Europe and Northern Africa. In comparison, most high-potency marijuana products contain only THC. It is believed that the psychotropic effects of hashish are therefore more subtle, and sedative. Use --- Hashish can be consumed by oral ingestion or smoking. When smoked, it may be smoked in a pipe, bong, vaporizer or joints, where it is often mixed with tobacco, as pure hashish will burn poorly if burned alone. THC has a low water solubility therefore ingestion should be done alongside a fatty meal or snack. Not all hashish can be consumed orally as some is not decarboxylated during manufacture. Generally the methods are similar to overall cannabis consumption. As hashish’ active ingredient is THC it has the same effects as cannabis. Most well known effect of hashish is a euphoric, drowsy, sedated effect. A certain relief of anxiety is often reported.[19] During a high, the user experiences a distortion of time and space.[20] It has been claimed that the user’s psychological and physiological needs will influence the response and that the user must cooperate with and facilitate the effects. Therefore, the effect of the physical and interpersonal setting is strong and usually controls the underlying tone of the experience.[20] Generally the intensification of sensation and increased clarity of perception have been reported.[20] Short lived adverse effects have also been reported, including psychotic states following heavy consumption.[21] Regular users are at risk of dependence. Especially people with major mental illnesses e.g. schizophrenia are vulnerable as hashish provokes relapse and aggravates existing symptoms.[19] Perceptual changes As perceptual changes are very hard to measure, most studies on the altered state of consciousness concentrate on subjective descriptions only. The general awareness of proprioceptive responses seem to enhance, as emotional involvement is reported to enhance perception in general. Taste and smell seem intensified and visual scenes seem to have more depth while sounds are heard with more dimension.[20] Perception of time is also reported to change: there is a general experience of time distortion where events take longer to occur and the subject is involved in internal fantasies with the impression that external time has slowed down.[20] However, there seems to be no impression of speed or rapidity for internal processes. Similar effects are common in normal experience, for example when time slows down in boredom. It is proposed that this distortion is caused as the experience itself is the focus of attention rather than what is happening around the individual.[20] Functional associations seem to decrease in strength and there are fewer mental impositions on the sensory perception of the object. Aspects which are normally filtered out are given equal attention. Therefore, objects are not necessarily conceptualized via their use but rather experienced as a whole.[20] Detailed attention is paid, focussing on certain aspects of an object, a sentence or any other perceptual input in a magnifying way. Clearly the attention process is affected. Only a narrow amount of diverse content is the focus of attention and fewer objects are perceived.[20] A person may become absorbed by one object, event or process up to the exclusion of everything else, which has been called a train of fantasy and has been described as a form of tunnel vision where the individual is more aware of an individual element of meaning, emotion etc. There seems to be a certain unity of attention while normally attention relies on multiple channels.[20] Flights of fantasy and dreaming, including perceiving connections and associations of ideas that do not seem accessible in a normal state are often reported.[20] There seems to be a reduction of the automatic availability of memory images, however an increased strength of memories when relevant to central needs.[20] Experiences seem new and are experienced without a feeling of familiarity and is more intense if emotionally salient. This emotional force may activate internal imagery, which is used to search for identity or to interpret incoming stimuli.[20] Short term memory becomes shorter and in a very high state the sequence of thoughts is not remembered past one or two transitions.[20] Expectancies and anticipation which are important to keep behaviour consistent in normal states seem to be decreased in strength which might lead to surprising or out-of-character behaviour.[20] Normally these expectancies let the person behave in a goal directed and reasonable manner, with the decrease the person might act out in illogical and unforeseeable ways. Similarly inhibitions, especially social inhibition seems to be reduced, resulting in playful behaviour and acting on impulses.[20] Manufacturing processes ----------------------- The sticky resins of the fresh flowering female cannabis plant are collected. Traditionally this was, and still is, done in remote locations by pressing or rubbing the flowering plant between two hands and then forming the sticky resins into a small ball of hashish called charas. This method produces the highest amount of cannabinoids (THC content up to 60%) without chemical solvents or distillation. The best quality charas is produced in Central Asia, and sold in sausage-like shapes. Mechanical separation methods use physical action to remove the trichomes from the dried plant material, such as sieving through a screen by hand or in motorized tumblers. This technique is known as "drysifting". The resulting powder, referred to as "kief" or "drysift", is compressed with the aid of heat into blocks of hashish; if pure, the kief will become gooey and pliable. When a high level of pure THC is present, the end product will be almost transparent and will start to melt at the point of human contact. Ice-water separation is another mechanical method of isolating trichomes. Newer techniques have been developed such as heat and pressure separations, static-electricity sieving or acoustical dry sieving. Trichomes may break away from supporting stalks and leaves when plant material becomes brittle at low temperatures. After plant material has been agitated in an icy slush, separated trichomes are often dense enough to sink to the bottom of the ice-water mixture following agitation, while lighter pieces of leaves and stems tend to float. The ice-water method requires ice, water, agitation, filtration bags with various-sized screens and plant material. With the ice-water extraction method the resin becomes hard and brittle and can easily be separated. This allows large quantities of pure resins to be extracted in a very clean process without the use of solvents, making for a more purified hashish. Chemical separation methods generally use a solvent such as ethanol, butane or hexane to dissolve the lipophilic desirable resin. Remaining plant materials are filtered out of the solution and sent to the compost. The solvent is then evaporated, or boiled off (purged) leaving behind the desirable resins, called honey oil, "hash oil", or just "oil". Honey oil still contains waxes and essential oils and can be further purified by vacuum distillation to yield "red oil". The product of chemical separations is more commonly referred to as "honey oil." This oil is not really hashish, as the latter name covers trichomes that are extracted by sieving. This leaves most of the glands intact. In a study conducted in 2014 by Jean-Jaques Filippi, Marie Marchini, Céline Charvoz, Laurence Dujourdy and Nicolas Baldovini (*Multidimensional analysis of cannabis volatile constituents: Identification of 5,5-dimethyl-1-vinylbicyclo[2.1.1]hexane as a volatile marker of hashish, the resin of Cannabis sativa L.*) the researchers linked the characteristic flavour of hashish with a rearrangement of myrcene caused during the process of manufacture. Depending on the production process, the product can be contaminated with different amounts of dirt and plant fragments, varying greatly in terms of appearance, texture, odour and potency. Also, adulterants may be added in order to increase weight or modify appearance. Morocco has been the major hashish producer globally with €10.8 billion earned from Moroccan resin in 2004, but some so-called "Moroccan" may actually be European-made. The income for the farmers was around €325 million in 2005. While the overall number of plants and areas shrank in size, the introduction of more potent hybrid plants produced a high resin rate. The range of resin produced is estimated between 3800 and 9500 tonnes in 2005. The largest producer today is Afghanistan, however studies suggest there is a "hashish revival" in Morocco. Quality ------- Tiny pieces of leaf matter may be accidentally or even purposely added; adulterants introduced when the hashish is being produced will reduce the purity of the material and often resulting in green finished product. If hash is really sticky, this can mean that additional oils have been added to increase the overall weight of the product. The most common quality indicator is the smell. High-quality hash will smell fragrant and aromatic, whereas hash of low quality may have a distinct mouldy or musty aroma. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of hashish comes in wide ranges from almost none to 65% and that of hash oil from 30% to 90%. Hashish can also contain appreciable amounts of CBD, CBN and also contain trace amounts of other cannabinoids As mentioned above, there has been a general increase in potency as the competition has grown bigger and new hybrid plants have been developed. See also -------- * Cannabis concentrate * Cannabis culture * Cannabis (drug) * Charas * Club des Hashischins * Hash oil * Hemp oil Further reading --------------- * *Hashish!* by Robert Connell Clarke, ISBN 0-929349-05-9 * *The Hasheesh Eater* by Fitz Hugh Ludlow; first edition 1857 * *Marihuana The first twelve thousand years* by Ernest L. Abel, 1980, ISBN 0-306-40496-6 * Starks, Michael. *Marijuana Potency*. Berkeley, California: And/Or Press, 1977. Chapter 6 "Extraction of THC and Preparation of Hash Oil" pp. 111–122. ISBN 0-915904-27-6.

Hashish

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hashish

**Triskaidekaphobia** (/ˌtrɪskaɪˌdɛkəˈfoʊbiə/ *TRIS-kye-DEK-ə-FOH-bee-ə*, /ˌtrɪskə-/ *TRIS-kə-*; from Ancient Greek τρεισκαίδεκα *(treiskaídeka)* 'thirteen', and Ancient Greek φόβος *(phóbos)* 'fear') is fear or avoidance of the number 13. It is also a reason for the fear of Friday the 13th, called *paraskevidekatriaphobia* (from Greek Παρασκευή *(Paraskevi)* 'Friday', Greek δεκατρείς *(dekatreís)* 'thirteen', and Ancient Greek φόβος *(phóbos)* 'fear') or *friggatriskaidekaphobia* (from Old Norse *Frigg* 'Frigg', Ancient Greek τρεισκαίδεκα *(treiskaídeka)* 'thirteen', and Ancient Greek φόβος *(phóbos)* 'fear'). The term was used as early as in 1910 by Isador Coriat in *Abnormal Psychology*. Origins ------- The supposed unlucky nature of the number 13 has several theories of origin. Although several authors claim it is an older belief, no such evidence has been documented so far. In fact, the earliest attestation of 13 being unlucky is first found after the Middle Ages in Europe. ### Playing cards Tarot card games have been attested since at least around 1450 with the Visconti-Sforza Tarot. One of the trump cards in tarot represents death and is the card number 13 in several variants. In 1781, Antoine Court de Gébelin writes this in a French book involving Tarot of Marseilles: > > *Le no. XIII. représente la Mort [...] Il n'est pas étonnant qu'elle soit placée sous ce numéro; le nombre treize fut toujours regarde comme malheureux.* > > Number XIII represents Death [...] It is not astonishing that it is placed under this number; the number thirteen was always looked upon as unlucky. > > > In 1784, Johann Gottlob Immanuel Breitkopf writes a German book on the origins of playing cards, cites Gébelin, and reaffirms that the tarot card number 13 is death and misfortune ("Der Tod, Unglück"). ### 13 at a table Since at least 1774, a superstition of "thirteen at a table" has been documented: if 13 people sit at a table, then one of them must die within a year. The origin of the superstition is unclear and various theories of its source have been presented over the years. In 1774, Johann August Ephraim Götze speculated: > > *Da ich aus der Erfahrung weis, daß der Aberglaube nichts liebers, als Religionssachen, zu seinen Beweisen macht; so glaube ich bey nahe nicht zu irren, wenn ich den Ursprung des Gegenwärtigen mit der Zahl XIII, von der Stelle des Evangelii herleite, wo der Heiland, bey der Ostermahlzeit, mit zwölf Jüngern zu Tische saß.* > > Since I know from experience that superstition loves nothing better than religious matters as its proofs, I believe I'm almost unmistaken when I derive the origin of the matter of the number XIII from the passage of the Gospel where the Savior sat at table with twelve disciples at the Easter meal. > > > From the 1890s, a number of English-language sources reiterated the idea that at the Last Supper, Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus, was the 13th to sit at the table. The Bible says nothing about the order in which the Apostles sat, but there were thirteen people at the table. In 1968, Douglas Hill in *Magic and Superstitions* recounts a Norse myth about 12 gods having a dinner party in Valhalla. The trickster god Loki, who was not invited, arrived as the 13th guest, and arranged for Höðr to shoot Balder with a mistletoe-tipped arrow. This story was also echoed in *Holiday folklore, phobias, and fun* by folklore historian Donald Dossey, citing Hill. However, in the *Prose Edda* by Snorri Sturluson, the story about Loki and Balder does not emphasize that there are 12 gods, nor does it talk about a dinner party or the number 13. Events related to "unlucky" 13 ------------------------------ * On Friday, October 13, 1307, the arrest of the Knights Templar was ordered by Philip IV of France. While the number 13 was considered unlucky, Friday the 13th was not considered unlucky at the time. The incorrect idea that their arrest was related to the phobias surrounding Friday the 13th was invented early in the 21st century and popularized by the novel *The Da Vinci Code*. * In 1881 an influential group of New Yorkers, led by US Civil War veteran Captain William Fowler, came together to put an end to this and other superstitions. They formed a dinner cabaret club, which they called the Thirteen Club. At the first meeting, on January 13, 1881, at 8:13 p.m., thirteen people sat down to dine in Room 13 of the venue. The guests walked under a ladder to enter the room and were seated among piles of spilled salt. Many "Thirteen Clubs" sprang up all over North America over the next 45 years. Their activities were regularly reported in leading newspapers, and their numbers included five future US presidents, from Chester A. Arthur to Theodore Roosevelt. Thirteen Clubs had various imitators, but they all gradually faded due to a lack of interest. * The British submarine, HMS *K13*, sank on 29 January 1917 while on her trials after diving with a hatch and some vents still open. Although she was raised and 48 men were rescued, 32 sailors and civilian technicians died. When repaired, she was renamed *K22* but was later involved in a multiple series of collisions with other K-class submarines on 1 February 1918 in which a total of 103 men were killed, an event known as the Battle of May Island. In the subsequent British L-class submarine, the number L13 was not used. * Apollo 13 was launched on April 11, 1970, at 13:13:00 CST and suffered an oxygen tank explosion on April 13 at 21:07:53 CST. It returned safely to Earth on April 17. * Friday the 13th mini-crash was a stock market crash that occurred on Friday, October 13, 1989. * Vehicle registration plates in Ireland are such that the first two digits represent the year of registration of the vehicle (i.e., 11 is a 2011 registered car, 12 is 2012, and so on). In 2012, there were concerns among members of the Society of the Irish Motor Industry (SIMI) that the prospect of having "13" registered vehicles might discourage motorists from buying new cars because of superstition surrounding the number thirteen, and that car sales and the motor industry (which was already doing badly) would suffer as a result. The government, in consultation with SIMI, introduced a system whereby 2013 registered vehicles would have their registration plates' age identifier string modified to read "131" for vehicles registered in the first six months of 2013 and "132" for those registered in the latter six months of the year. ### Effect on US Shuttle program mission naming The disaster that occurred on Apollo 13 may have been a factor that led to a renaming that prevented a mission called STS-13. STS-41-G was the name of the thirteenth Space Shuttle flight. However, originally STS-41-C was the mission originally numbered STS-13 STS-41-C was the eleventh orbital flight of the space shuttle program. The numbering system of the Space Shuttle was changed to a new one after STS-9. The new naming scheme started with STS-41B, the previous mission was STS-9, and the thirteenth mission (what would have been STS-13) would be STS-41C. The new scheme had first number stand for the U.S. fiscal year, the next number was a launch site (1 or 2), and the next was the number of the mission numbered with a letter for that period. In the case of the actual 13th flight, the crew was apparently not superstitious and made a humorous mission patch that had a black cat on it. Also, that mission re-entered and landed on Friday the 13th which one crew described as being "pretty cool". Because of the way the designations and launch manifest work, the mission numbered STS-13 might not have actually been the 13th to launch as was common throughout the shuttle program; indeed it turned out to be the eleventh. One of the reasons for this was when a launch had to be scrubbed, which delayed its mission. NASA said in a 2016 news article it was due to a much higher frequency of planned launches (pre-Challenger disaster). As it was, the Shuttle program did have a disaster on its *one-hundred* and thirteenth mission going by date of launch, which was STS-107. The actual mission STS-113 was successful, and had actually launched earlier due to the nature of the launch manifest. ### Omission of 13th rooms, floors and decks Many ships, including cruise liners have omitted having a 13th deck due to triskaidekaphobia. Instead, the decks are numbered up to 12 and skip straight to number 14. Hotels, buildings and elevator manufacturers have also avoided using the number 13 for rooms and floors based on triskaidekaphobia. Famous people with triskaidekaphobia ------------------------------------ * Arnold Schoenberg * Franklin D. Roosevelt * Sholom Aleichem * Stephen King * Nick Yarris * Ángel Nieto Similar phobias --------------- * Number 4 (Tetraphobia). In China, Taiwan, Singapore, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as in some other East Asian and South East Asian countries, it is not uncommon for buildings (including offices, apartments, hotels) to omit floors with numbers that include the digit 4, and Finnish mobile phone manufacturer Nokia's 1xxx-9xxx series of mobile phones does not include any model numbers beginning with a 4 (except Series 40, Nokia 3410 and Nokia 4.2). This originates from Classical Chinese, in which the pronunciation of the word for "four" (四, *sì* in Mandarin) is very similar to that of the word for "death" (死, *sǐ* in Mandarin), and remains so in the other countries' Sino-Xenic vocabulary (Korean *sa* for both; Japanese *shi* for both; Vietnamese *tứ* "four" vs. *tử* "death"). * Friday the 13th (Paraskevidekatriaphobia or Friggatriskaidekaphobia) is considered to be a day of bad luck in a number of western cultures. In Greece and some areas of Latin America, Tuesday the 13th is similarly considered unlucky. * Number 17 (Heptadecaphobia). In Italy, perhaps because in Roman numerals 17 is written XVII, which can be rearranged to VIXI, which in Latin means "I have lived" but can be a euphemism for "I am dead." In Italy, some planes have no row 17 and some hotels have no room 17. * Number 39 (Triakontenneaphobia). There is a belief in some parts of Afghanistan that the number 39 (thrice thirteen) is cursed or a badge of shame. * Number 616 (Hexakosioihekkaidekaphobia) or 666 (Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia), which come from the Biblical number of the beast. Lucky 13 -------- In some regions, 13 is or has been considered a lucky number. For example, prior to the First World War, 13 was considered to be a lucky number in France, even being featured on postcards and charms. In more modern times, 13 is lucky in Italy except in some contexts, such as sitting at the dinner table. In Cantonese-speaking areas, including Hong Kong and Macau, the number 13 is considered lucky because it sounds similar to the Cantonese words meaning "sure to live" (as opposed to the unlucky number 14 which in Cantonese sounds like the words meaning "sure to die"). Colgate University was started by 13 men with $13 and 13 prayers, so 13 is considered a lucky number. Friday the 13th is the luckiest day at Colgate. A number of sportspeople are known for wearing the number 13 jersey and performing successfully. On November 23, 2003, the Miami Dolphins retired the number 13 for Dan Marino, who played quarterback for the Dolphins from 1983 to 1999. Kurt Warner, St. Louis Rams quarterback (NFL MVP, 1999 & 2001, and Super Bowl XXXIV MVP) also wore number 13. Wilt Chamberlain, 13-time NBA All-Star, has had his No. 13 Jersey retired by the NBA's Golden State Warriors, Philadelphia 76ers; Los Angeles Lakers, Harlem Globetrotters, and Kansas University Jayhawks, all of which he played for. In 1966, the Portugal national football team achieved their best-ever result at the World Cup final tournaments by finishing third, thanks to a Mozambican-born striker, Eusebio, who has scored nine goals at World Cup – four of them in a 5-3 quarterfinal win over North Korea – and won the Golden Boot award as the tournament's top scorer while wearing the number 13. In the 1954 and 1974 World Cup finals, Germany's Max Morlock and Gerd Müller, respectively, played and scored in the final, wearing the number 13. More recent footballers playing successfully despite wearing number 13, include Michael Ballack, Alessandro Nesta, and Rafinha. Among other sportspeople who have chosen 13 as their number, are Venezuelans Dave Concepción, Omar Vizquel, Oswaldo Guillén and Pastor Maldonado due to the number being considered lucky in Venezuelan culture. Swedish-born hockey player Mats Sundin, who played 14 of his 18 NHL seasons for the Toronto Maple Leafs, setting team records for goals and points, had his number 13 retired by the team on 15 October 2016. See also -------- * List of phobias, including Numerophobia * National Accident Day (Finland) Notes ----- **^1** The main reason for this was stated to be to increase the number of car sales in the second half of the year. Even though 70% of new cars are bought during the first four months of the year, some consumers believe that the calendar year of registration does not accurately reflect the real age of a new car, since cars bought in January will most likely have been manufactured the previous year, while those bought later in the year will be actually made in the same year. **^2** Tuesday is generally unlucky in Greece for the fall of Byzantium Tues 29th May 1453. In Spanish-speaking countries, there is a proverb: En martes no te cases, ni te embarques 'On Tuesday, do not get married or set sail'.

Triskaidekaphobia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triskaidekaphobia

**Bullfighting** is a physical contest that involves a bullfighter attempting to subdue, immobilize, or kill a bull, usually according to a set of rules, guidelines, or cultural expectations. There are several variations, including some forms which involve dancing around or leaping over a cow or bull or attempting to grasp an object tied to the animal's horns. The best-known form of bullfighting is Spanish-style bullfighting, practiced in Spain, Portugal, Southern France, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Venezuela, and Peru. The Spanish Fighting Bull is bred for its aggression and physique, and is raised free-range with little human contact. The practice of bullfighting is controversial because of a range of concerns including animal welfare, funding, and religion. While some forms are considered a blood sport, in some countries, for example Spain, it is defined as an art form or cultural event, and local regulations define it as a cultural event or heritage. Bullfighting is illegal in most countries, but remains legal in most areas of Spain and Portugal, as well as in some Hispanic American countries and some parts of southern France. History ------- Bullfighting traces its roots to prehistoric bull worship and sacrifice in Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean region. The first recorded bullfight may be the *Epic of Gilgamesh,* which describes a scene in which Gilgamesh and Enkidu fought and killed the Bull of Heaven ("The Bull seemed indestructible, for hours they fought, till Gilgamesh dancing in front of the Bull, lured it with his tunic and bright weapons, and Enkidu thrust his sword, deep into the Bull's neck, and killed it"). Bull-leaping was portrayed in Crete and myths related to bulls throughout Greece. The cosmic connotations of the ancient Iranian practice of Bull sacrifice are reflected in Zoroaster's Gathas and the Avesta. The killing of the sacred bull (tauroctony) is the essential central iconic act of the Iranian Mithras, which was commemorated in the mithraeum wherever Roman soldiers were stationed. The oldest representation of what seems to be a man facing a bull is on the Celtiberian tombstone from Clunia and the cave painting *El toro de hachos*, both found in Spain. Bullfighting is often linked to Rome, where many human-versus-animal events were held as competition and entertainment, the *Venationes*. These hunting games spread to Africa, Asia, and Europe during Roman times. There are also theories that it was introduced into Hispania by the Emperor Claudius, as a substitute for gladiators, when he instituted a short-lived ban on gladiatorial combat. The latter theory was supported by Robert Graves (picadors are related to warriors who wielded the javelin, but their role in the contest is now a minor one limited to "preparing" the bull for the matador.) Spanish colonists took the practice of breeding cattle and bullfighting to the American colonies, the Pacific, and Asia. In the 19th century, areas of southern and southwestern France adopted bullfighting, developing their distinctive form. Religious festivities and royal weddings were celebrated by fights in the local plaza, where noblemen would ride competing for royal favor, and the populace enjoyed the excitement. In the Middle Ages across Europe, knights would joust in competitions on horseback. In Spain, they began to fight bulls. In medieval Spain bullfighting was considered a noble sport and reserved for the rich, who could afford to supply and train their horses. The bull was released into a closed arena where a single fighter on horseback was armed with a lance. This spectacle was said to be enjoyed by Charlemagne, Alfonso X the Wise and the Almohad caliphs, among others. The greatest Spanish performer of this art is said to have been the knight El Cid. According to a chronicle of the time, in 1128 "... when Alfonso VII of León and Castile married Berengaria of Barcelona daughter of Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona at Saldaña among other celebrations, there were also bullfights." In the time of Emperor Charles V, Pedro Ponce de Leon was the most famous bullfighter in Spain and a renovator of the technique of killing the bull on a horse with blindfolded eyes. Juan de Quirós, the best Sevillian poet of that time, dedicated to him a poem in Latin, of which Benito Arias Montano transmits some verses. Francisco Romero, from Ronda, Spain, is generally regarded as having been the first to introduce the practice of fighting bulls on foot around 1726, using the muleta in the last stage of the fight and an estoc to kill the bull. This type of fighting drew more attention from the crowds. Thus the modern *corrida*, or fight, began to take form, as riding noblemen were replaced by commoners on foot. This new style prompted the construction of dedicated bullrings, initially square, like the *Plaza de Armas*, and later round, to discourage the cornering of the action. The modern style of Spanish bullfighting is credited to Juan Belmonte, generally considered the greatest matador of all time. Belmonte introduced a daring and revolutionary style, in which he stayed within a few centimeters of the bull throughout the fight. Although extremely dangerous (Belmonte was gored on many occasions), his style is still seen by most matadors as the ideal to be emulated. Styles ------ Originally, at least five distinct regional styles of bullfighting were practised in southwestern Europe: Andalusia, Aragon–Navarre, Alentejo, Camargue, Aquitaine. Over time, these have evolved more or less into standardized national forms mentioned below. The "classic" style of bullfighting, in which the rule is kill the bull is the style practiced in Spain and many Latin American countries. Bullfighting stadia are named "bullrings". There are many historic bullrings; the oldest are the 1700s Spanish plazas of Sevilla and Ronda. The largest bullring is the Plaza México in Mexican capital which seats 48,000 people. ### Spanish Spanish-style bullfighting is called *corrida de toros* (literally "coursing of bulls") or *la fiesta* ("the festival"). In the traditional *corrida*, three *matadores* each fight two bulls, each of which is between four and six years old and weighs no less than 460 kg (1,014 lb). Each matador has six assistants: two *picadores* (lancers mounted on horseback), three *banderilleros* – who along with the matadors are collectively known as *toreros* (bullfighters) – and a *mozo de espadas* (sword page). Collectively they comprise a *cuadrilla* (entourage). In Spanish the more general *torero* or *diestro* (literally 'right-hander') is used for the lead fighter, and only when needed to distinguish a man is the full title *matador de toros* used; in English, "matador" is generally used for the bullfighter. #### Structure The modern *corrida* is highly ritualized, with three distinct stages or *tercios* ("thirds"); the start of each being announced by a bugle sound. The participants enter the arena in a parade, called the *paseíllo*, to salute the presiding dignitary, accompanied by band music. Torero costumes are inspired by 17th-century Andalusian clothing, and matadores are easily distinguished by the gold of their *traje de luces* ("suit of lights"), as opposed to the lesser banderilleros, who are also known as *toreros de plata* ("bullfighters of silver"). ##### *Tercio de Varas* The bull is released into the ring, where he is tested for ferocity by the *matador* and *banderilleros* with the magenta and gold *capote* ("cape"). This is the first stage, the *tercio de varas* ("the lancing third"). The matador confronts the bull with the capote, performing a series of passes and observing the behavior and quirks of the bull. Next, a picador enters the arena on horseback armed with a *vara* (lance). To protect the horse from the bull's horns, the animal wears a protective, padded covering called *peto*. Prior to 1930, the horses did not wear any protection. Often the bull would disembowel the horse during this stage. Until the use of protection was instituted, the number of horses killed during a fiesta generally exceeded the number of bulls killed. At this point, the picador stabs just behind the *morrillo*, a mound of muscle on the fighting bull's neck, weakening the neck muscles and leading to the animal's first loss of blood. The manner in which the bull charges the horse provides important clues to the matador about the bull such as which horn the bull favors. As a result of the injury and also the fatigue of striving to injure the armoured heavy horse, the bull holds its head and horns slightly lower during the following stages of the fight. This ultimately enables the matador to perform the killing thrust later in the performance. The encounter with the picador often fundamentally changes the behavior of a bull; distracted and unengaging bulls will become more focused and stay on a single target instead of charging at everything that moves, conserving their diminished energy reserves. ##### *Tercio de Banderillas* In the next stage, the *tercio de banderillas* ("the third of banderillas"), each of the three banderilleros attempts to plant two *banderillas*, sharp barbed sticks, into the bull's shoulders. These anger and agitate the bull reinvigorating him from the *aplomado* (literally 'leadened') state his attacks on the horse and injuries from the lance left him in. Sometimes a matador will place his own banderillas. If so, he usually embellishes this part of his performance and employs more varied maneuvers than the standard *al cuarteo* method commonly used by banderilleros. ##### *Tercio de Muerte* In the final stage, the *tercio de muerte* ("a third of death"), the matador re-enters the ring alone with a smaller red cloth, or *muleta*, and a sword. It is a common misconception that the color red is supposed to anger the bull; the animals are functionally colorblind in this respect: the bull is incited to charge by the movement of the muleta. The muleta is thought to be red to mask the bull's blood, although the color is now a matter of tradition. The matador uses his muleta to attract the bull in a series of passes, which serve the dual purpose of wearing the animal down for the kill and creating sculptural forms between man and animal that can fascinate or thrill the audience, and which when linked together in a rhythm create a dance of passes, or *faena*. The matador will often try to enhance the drama of the dance by bringing the bull's horns especially close to his body. The faena refers to the entire performance with the muleta. The faena is usually broken down into *tandas*, or "series", of passes. The faena ends with a final series of passes in which the matador, using the cape, tries to maneuver the bull into a position to stab it between the shoulder blades going over the horns and thus exposing his own body to the bull. The sword is called *estoque,* and the act of thrusting the sword is called an *estocada*. During the initial series, while the matador in part is performing for the crowd, he uses a fake sword (*estoque simulado*). This is made of wood or aluminum, making it lighter and much easier to handle. The *estoque de verdad* (real sword) is made out of steel. At the end of the *tercio de muerte*, when the matador has finished his faena, he will change swords to take up the steel one. He performs the *estocada* with the intent of piercing the heart or aorta, or severing other major blood vessels to induce a quick death if all goes according to plan. Often this does not happen and repeated efforts must be made to bring the bull down, sometimes the matador changing to the 'descabello', which resembles a sword, but is actually a heavy dagger blade at the end of a steel rod which is thrust between the cervical vertebrae to sever the spinal column and induce instant death. Even if the descabello is not required and the bull falls quickly from the sword one of the banderilleros will perform this function with an actual dagger to ensure the bull is dead. If the matador has performed particularly well, the crowd may petition the president by waving white handkerchiefs to award the matador an ear of the bull. If his performance was exceptional, the president will award two ears. In certain more rural rings, the practice includes an award of the bull's tail. Very rarely, if the public and the matador believe that the bull has fought extremely bravely – and the breeder of the bull agrees to have it return to the ranch – the event's president may grant a pardon (*indulto*). If the *indulto* is granted, the bull's life is spared; it leaves the ring alive and is returned to its home ranch for treatment and then to become a *semental*, or seed-bull, for the rest of its life. * First tercio: torero drawing a Verónica.First tercio: torero drawing a *Verónica*. * First tercio: matador making another kind of Verónica.First tercio: matador making another kind of Verónica. * Second tercio: banderillero.Second tercio: banderillero. * Third tercio: faena of muleta.Third tercio: *faena* of *muleta*. * Third tercio: faena of muleta.Third tercio: faena of *muleta*. #### Recortes Recortes, a style of bullfighting practiced in Navarre, La Rioja, north of Castile and Valencia, has been much less popular than the traditional *corridas*. But recortes have undergone a revival in Spain and are sometimes broadcast on TV. This style was common in the early 19th century. Etchings by painter Francisco de Goya depict these events. Recortes differ from *corridas* in the following manners: * The bull is not physically injured. Drawing blood is rare, and the bull is allowed to return to his pen at the end of the performance. * The men are dressed in common street clothes rather than traditional bullfighting dress. * Acrobatics are performed without the use of capes or other props. Performers attempt to evade the bull solely through the swiftness of their movements. * Rituals are less strict, so the men have the freedom to perform stunts as they please. * Men work in teams, but with less role distinction than with *corridas*. * Teams compete for points awarded by a jury. Since horses are not used, and performers are not professionals, recortes are less costly to produce. #### Comic bullfighting Comical spectacles based on bullfighting, called *espectáculos cómico-taurinos* or *charlotadas*, are still popular in Spain and Mexico. Troupes include *El empastre* or *El bombero torero*. #### Encierros An *encierro*, or running of the bulls, is an activity related to a bullfighting fiesta. Before the events that are held in the ring, people (usually young men) run in front of a small group of bulls that have been let loose, on a course of a sectioned-off subset of a town's streets. #### Toro embolado A *toro embolado* (in Spanish), *bou embolat* (in Catalan), roughly meaning "bull with balls", is a festive activity held at night and typical of many towns in Spain (mainly in the Valencian Community and Southern Catalonia). Balls of flammable material are attached to a bull's horns. The balls are lit and the bull is set free in the streets at night; participants dodge the bull when it comes close. It can be considered a variant of an *encierro* (*correbous* in Catalan). This activity is held in a number of Spanish towns during their local festivals. ### Portuguese Most Portuguese bullfights are held in two phases: the spectacle of the *cavaleiro*, and the *pega*. In the *cavaleiro*, a horseman on a Portuguese Lusitano horse (specially trained for the fights) fights the bull from horseback. The purpose of this fight is to stab three or four *bandeiras* (small javelins) into the back of the bull. In the second stage, called the *pega* ("holding"), the forcados, a group of eight men, challenge the bull directly without any protection or weapon of defense. The frontman provokes the bull into a charge to perform a *pega de cara* or *pega de caras* (face grab). The frontman secures the animal's head and is quickly aided by his fellows who surround and secure the animal until he is subdued. Forcados are dressed in a traditional costume of damask or velvet, with long knitted hats as worn by the *campinos* (bull headers) from Ribatejo. The bull is not killed in the ring and, at the end of the *corrida*, leading oxen are let into the arena, and two *campinos* on foot herd the bull among them back to its pen. The bull is usually killed out of sight of the audience by a professional butcher. Some bulls, after an exceptional performance, are healed, released to pasture and used for breeding. In the Portuguese Azores islands, there is a form of bullfighting called *tourada à corda*, in which a bull is led on a rope along a street, while players taunt and dodge the bull, who is not killed during or after the fight, but returned to pasture and used in later events. Rádio e Televisão de Portugal (RTP) ceased to broadcast bullfights in Portugal since 2021. ### French Since the 19th century, Spanish-style *corridas* have been increasingly popular in Southern France where they enjoy legal protection in areas where there is an uninterrupted tradition of such bull fights, particularly during holidays such as Whitsun or Easter. Among France's most important venues for bullfighting are the ancient Roman arenas of Nîmes and Arles, although there are bull rings across the South from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic coasts. Bullfights of this kind follow the Spanish tradition and even Spanish words are used for all Bullfighting related terms. Minor cosmetic differences exist such as music. This is not to be confused with the bloodless bullfights referred to below which are indigenous to France. #### *Course camarguaise* (*course libre*) A more indigenous genre of bullfighting is widely common in the Provence and Languedoc areas, and is known alternately as "*course libre*" or "*course camarguaise*". This is a bloodless spectacle (for the bulls) in which the objective is to snatch a rosette from the head of a young bull. The participants, or *raseteurs*, begin training in their early teens against young bulls from the Camargue region of Provence before graduating to regular contests held principally in Arles and Nîmes but also in other Provençal and Languedoc towns and villages. Before the *course*, an *abrivado*—a "running" of the bulls in the streets—takes place, in which young men compete to outrun the charging bulls. The *course* itself takes place in a small (often portable) arena erected in a town square. For a period of about 15–20 minutes, the *raseteurs* compete to snatch rosettes (*cocarde*) tied between the bulls' horns. They do not take the rosette with their bare hands but with a claw-shaped metal instrument called a *raset* or *crochet* (*hook*) in their hands, hence their name. Afterward, the bulls are herded back to their pen by *gardians* (Camarguais cowboys) in a *bandido*, amidst a great deal of ceremony. The stars of these spectacles are the bulls. #### *Course landaise* Another type of French 'bullfighting' is the "course landaise", in which cows are used instead of bulls. This is a competition between teams named *cuadrillas*, which belong to certain breeding estates. A cuadrilla is made up of a *teneur de corde*, an *entraîneur*, a *sauteur*, and six *écarteurs*. The cows are brought to the arena in crates and then taken out in order. The teneur de corde controls the dangling rope attached to the cow's horns and the entraîneur positions the cow to face and attack the player. The écarteurs will try, at the last possible moment, to dodge around the cow and the sauteur will leap over it. Each team aims to complete a set of at least one hundred dodges and eight leaps. This is the main scheme of the "classic" form, the *course landaise formelle*. However, different rules may be applied in some competitions. For example, competitions for Coupe Jeannot Lafittau are arranged with cows without ropes. At one point, it resulted in so many fatalities that the French government tried to ban it but had to back down in the face of local opposition. The bulls themselves are generally fairly small, much less imposing than the adult bulls employed in the *corrida*. Nonetheless, the bulls remain dangerous due to their mobility and vertically formed horns. Participants and spectators share the risk; it is not unknown for angry bulls to smash their way through barriers and charge the surrounding crowd of spectators. The *course landaise* is not seen as a dangerous sport by many, but écarteur Jean-Pierre Rachou died in 2003 when a bull's horn tore his femoral artery. Non-bloodsport variations ------------------------- * In Bolivia, bulls are not killed nor injured with any sticks. The goal of Bolivian toreros is to provoke the bull with taunts without getting harmed themselves. * In El Seibo Province of the Dominican Republic bullfights are not about killing or harming the animal, but taunting and evading it until it is tired. * In Canada, Portuguese-style bullfighting was introduced in 1989 by Portuguese immigrants in the town of Listowel in southern Ontario. Despite objections and concerns from local authorities and a humane society, the practice was allowed as the bulls were not killed or injured in this version. In the nearby city of Brampton, Portuguese immigrants from the Azores practice "tourada a corda" (bullfight by rope). * Jallikattu is a traditional spectacle in Tamil Nadu, India as a part of Pongal celebrations on Mattu Pongal day. A breed of bos indicus (humped) bulls, called "Jellicut" are used. During jallikattu, a bull is released into a group of people, and participants attempt to grab the bull's hump and hold onto it for a determined distance, length of time, or with the goal of taking a pack of money tied to the bull's horns. The goal of the activity is more similar to bull riding (staying on). * American Freestyle Bullfighting is a style of bullfighting developed in American rodeo. The style was developed by the rodeo clowns who protect bull riders from being trampled or gored by a loose bull. Freestyle bullfighting is a 70-second competition in which the bullfighter (rodeo clown) avoids the bull by means of dodging, jumping, and use of a barrel. The bullfighter is then scored points based on his performance. * In California's Central Valley, the historically Portuguese community has developed a form of bullfight in which the bull is taunted by a matador, but the lances are tipped with fabric hook and loop (e.g. Velcro) and they are aimed at hook-and-loop covered pads secured to the bull's shoulder. Fights occur from May through October around traditional Portuguese holidays. While California outlawed bullfighting in 1957, this type of bloodless bullfighting is still allowed if carried out during religious festivals or celebrations. * In Tanzania, bullfighting was introduced by the Portuguese to Zanzibar and to Pemba Island, in modern Tanzania, where it is known as *mchezo wa ngombe*. Similar to the Portuguese Azorean *tourada a corda*, the bull is restrained by a rope, generally neither bull nor player is harmed, and the bull is not killed at the end of the fight. * In Zhejiang, China, guanniu is a traditional form of bullfighting in which contestants attempt to physically wrestle a bull to the ground. Hazards ------- Spanish-style bullfighting is usually fatal for the bull, and it is also dangerous for the matador. Matadors are usually gored every season, with picadors and banderilleros being gored less often. With the discovery of antibiotics and advances in surgical techniques, fatalities are now rare, although over the past three centuries 534 professional bullfighters have died in the ring or from injuries sustained there. Most recently, Iván Fandiño died of injuries he sustained after being gored by a bull on June 17, 2017 in Aire-sur-l'Adour, France. Some matadors, notably Juan Belmonte, have been seriously gored many times: according to Ernest Hemingway, Belmonte's legs were marred by many ugly scars. A special type of surgeon has developed, in Spain and elsewhere, to treat *cornadas*, or horn-wounds. The bullring has a chapel where a matador can pray before the *corrida*, and where a priest can be found in case a sacrament is needed. The most relevant sacrament is now called "Anointing of the Sick"; it was formerly known as "Extreme Unction", or the "Last Rites". The media often reports the more horrific of bullfighting injuries, such as the September 2011 goring of matador Juan José Padilla's head by a bull in Zaragoza, resulting in the loss of his left eye, use of his right ear, and facial paralysis. He returned to bullfighting five months later with an eyepatch, multiple titanium plates in his skull, and the nickname 'The Pirate'. Until the early twentieth century, the horses were unprotected and were commonly gored and killed, or left close to death (intestines destroyed, for example). The horses used were old and worn-out, with little value. Starting in the twentieth-century horses were protected by thick blankets and wounds, though not unknown, were less common and less serious. However, the danger lurks not only from a bull, but also from other causes, such as too weak infrastructure. One of such cases happened in 2022 in Colombia, when several people were killed and more than 300 were injured after a stand collapsed during the bullfight. The incident happened in El Espinal, Tolima, in central Colombia. Cultural aspects ---------------- Many supporters of bullfighting regard it as a deeply ingrained, integral part of their national cultures; in Spain, bullfighting is nicknamed *la fiesta nacional* ("the national fiesta." Notice that *fiesta* can be translated as *celebration, festival, party* among other words). The aesthetic of bullfighting is based on the interaction of the man and the bull. Rather than a competitive sport, the bullfight is more of a ritual of ancient origin, which is judged by *aficionados* based on artistic impression and command. American author Ernest Hemingway wrote of it in his 1932 non-fiction book *Death in the Afternoon*: "Bullfighting is the only art in which the artist is in danger of death and in which the degree of brilliance in the performance is left to the fighter's honor." Bullfighting is seen by some as a symbol of Spanish national culture. The bullfight is regarded as a demonstration of style, technique, and courage by its participants and as a demonstration of cruelty and cowardice by its critics. While there is usually no doubt about the outcome, the bull is not viewed by bullfighting supporters as a sacrificial victim — it is instead seen by the audience as a worthy adversary, deserving of respect in its own right. Those who oppose bullfighting maintain that the practice is a sadistic tradition of torturing and killing a bull amidst pomp and pageantry. Supporters of bullfights, called "aficionados", claim to respect the bulls, that the bulls live better than other cattle, and that bullfighting is a grand tradition, a form of art important to their culture. Women in bullfighting --------------------- Conchita Cintrón was a Peruvian female bullfighter who began her career in Portugal before being active in Mexican and other South American bullfights. Patricia McCormick began bullfighting as a professional *Matadora* in January 1952, and was the first American to do so. Bette Ford was the first American woman to fight on foot in the Plaza México, the world's largest bullfight arena. In 1974, Angela Hernandez (also known as Angela Hernandez Gomez and just Angela), of Spain, won a case in the Spanish Supreme Court allowing women to be bullfighters in Spain; a prohibition against women doing so was put in place in Spain in 1908. Cristina Sánchez de Pablos, of Spain, was one of the first female bullfighters to gain prominence; she debuted as a bullfighter in Madrid on 13 February 1993. Popularity, controversy, and criticism -------------------------------------- ### Popularity In Spain and Latin America, opposition to bullfighting is referred to as the *antitaurino* movement. In a 2012 poll, 70% of Mexican respondents wanted bullfighting to be prohibited. #### France | **Are you in favour of banning bullfighting in France or not?** | | --- | | **% response** | **Sep 2007** | **Aug 2010** | **Feb 2018** | | In favour | 50 | 66 | 74 | | Not in favour | 50 | 34 | 26 | A February 2018 study commissioned by the 30 millions d'amis foundation and conducted by the Institut français d'opinion publique (IFOP) found that 74% of the French wanted to prohibit bullfighting in France, with 26% opposed. In September 2007, these percentages were still 50-50, with those favouring a ban growing to 66% in August 2010 and those opposed shrinking to 34%. The survey found a correlation between age and opinion; younger survey participants were more likely to support a ban. #### Spain Prevalence of bullfighting across Spanish provinces during the 19th century.Prevalence of bullfighting across Spanish provinces as of 2012. Despite its slow decrease in popularity among younger generations, bullfighting remains a widespread cultural activity throughout Spain. A 2016 poll reported that 58% of Spaniards aged 16 to 65 opposed bullfighting against 19% who supported it. The support was lower among the younger population, with only 7% of respondents aged 16 to 24 supporting bullfighting, vs. 29% support within 55 to 65 age group. According to the same poll 67% of respondents felt "little to not at all" proud to live in a country where bullfighting was a cultural tradition (84% among 16 to 24 age group). Between 2007 and 2014, the number of *corridas* held in Spain decreased by 60%. In 2007 there were 3,651 bullfighting and bull-related events in Spain but by 2018, the number of bullfights had decreased to 1,521, a historic low. A September 2019 Spanish government report showed that only 8% of the population had attended a bull-related event in 2018; of this percentage, 5.9% attended a bullfight while the remainder attended other bull-related events, such as the running of the bulls. When asked to gauge their interest in bullfighting on a scale of 0 through 10, only 5.9% responded with 9–10. A majority of 65% of responded with 0–2; among those aged 15–19, this figure was 72.1%, and for those aged 20–24, it reached 76.4%. With a fall in attendance, the bullfighting sector has come under financial stress, as many local authorities have reduced subsidies because of public criticism. | **Should bullfighting be banned [in Spain]?** | | --- | | **% response** | **May 2020** | | Yes | 52 | | No | 35 | | Don't know / Refused answer | 10 / 2 | When the COVID-19 pandemic hit Spain and the country entered into lockdown in March 2020, all bullfighting events were cancelled indefinitely. In mid-May 2020, the bullfighting industry, alike other sectors of Spanish economy, demanded that the government compensate them for their losses, estimated at €700 million. This prompted outrage, and more than 100,000 people signed a petition launched by AnimaNaturalis urging the government not to rescue "spectacles based on the abuse and mistreatment of animals" with taxpayer money at a time when people were struggling to survive and public finances were already heavily strained. A 29–31 May 2020 YouGov survey commissioned by *HuffPost* showed that 52% of the 1,001 Spaniards questioned wanted to ban bullfighting, 35% were opposed, 10% did not know and 2% refused to answer. A strong majority of 78% answered that *corridas* should no longer be partially subsidised by the government, with 12% favoring subsidies and 10% undecided. When asked whether bullfighting was culture or mistreatment, 40% replied that it is mistreatment alone, 18% replied that it is culture alone and 37% replied that it is both. Of the respondents, 53% had never attended a *corrida*. #### Perú Outside of Spain, the country in which bullfighting has enjoyed the most popularity even today is Peru. The Plaza de toros de Acho, the oldest bullring in the Americas and second oldest in the world after La Maestranza in Spain (not counting the Roman Empire-era Arles Amphitheatre in France), serves as the premier bullring in the country and is classified as a national historic monument. The bullfighting fair held in honor of the annual Señor de los Milagros festival takes place at the plaza on Sundays through October and November. During the fair, Lima brings in some of the world's most lauded talent (the bill for 2019 included Andrés Roca Rey, Sebastian Castella, and Jose Mari Manzanares) The best bullfighter of the year is awarded the *Escapulario de Oro* (Golden Scapular), while the *Escapulario de Plata* (Silver Scapular) goes to the provider of the best bull. Sometimes either or both scapulars may go not awarded. ### Animal welfare RSPCA assistant director for public affairs David Bowles said: "The RSPCA is strongly opposed to bullfighting. It is an inhumane and outdated practice that continues to lose support, including from those living in the countries where this takes place such as Spain, Portugal and France." The bullfighting guide *The Bulletpoint Bullfight* warns that bullfighting is "not for the squeamish," advising spectators to "be prepared for blood." The guide details prolonged and profuse bleeding caused by horse-mounted lancers, the charging by the bull of a blindfolded, armored horse who is "sometimes doped up, and unaware of the proximity of the bull", the placing of barbed darts by banderilleros and the matador's fatal sword thrust. The guide stresses that these procedures are a normal part of bullfighting and that death is rarely instantaneous. The guide further warns those attending bullfights to "Be prepared to witness various failed attempts at killing the animal before it lies down." Alexander Fiske-Harrison, who trained as a bullfighter to research for his book on the topic (and trained in biological sciences and moral philosophy before that) has pointed out that the bull lives three times longer than do cattle reared exclusively for meat, and lives wild during that period in meadows and forests which are funded by the premium the bullfight's box office adds on to the price of their meat, should be taken into account when weighing concerns about both animal welfare and the environment. He also speculated that the adrenalizing nature of the 30-minute spectacle may reduce the bull's suffering even below that of the stress and anxiety of queueing in the abattoir. However, zoologist and animal rights activist Jordi Casamitjana argues that the bulls do experience a high degree of suffering and "all aspects of any bullfight, from the transport to the death, are in themselves causes of suffering." ### Funding The question of public funding is particularly controversial in Spain, since widely disparaged claims have been made by supporters and opponents of bullfighting. According to government figures, bullfighting in Spain generates €1.6 billion a year and 200,000 jobs, 57,000 of which are directly linked to the industry. Furthermore, bullfighting is the cultural activity that generates the most tax revenue for the Spanish state (€45 million in VAT and over €12 million in social security). According to a poll, 73% of Spaniards oppose public funding for bullfighting activities. Critics often claim that bullfighting is financed with public money. However, though bullfighting attracts 25 million spectators annually, it represents just 0.01% of state subsidies allocated to cultural activities, and less than 3% of the cultural budget of regional, provincial and local authorities. The bulk of subsidies is paid by town halls in localities where there is a historical tradition and support for bullfighting and related events, which are often held free of charge to participants and spectators. The European Union does not subsidize bullfighting but it does subsidize cattle farming in general, which also benefits those who rear Spanish fighting bulls. In 2015, 438 of 687 members of the European Parliament voted in favour of amending the 2016 E.U. budget to indicate that the "Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) appropriations or any other appropriations from the budget should not be used for the financing of lethal bullfighting activities." ### Politics In the late 19th and early 20th century, some Spanish *regeneracionista* intellectuals protested against what they called the policy of *pan y toros* ("bread and bulls"), an analogue of Roman *panem et circenses*. Such belief was part of the wider current of thought known as *anti-flamenquismo*, a campaign against the popularity of both bullfighting and flamenco music, which were believed to be "oriental" elements of Spanish culture that were responsible for Spain's perceived culture gap compared to the rest of Europe. In Francoist Spain, bullfights received great governmental support, as they were considered a demonstration of greatness of the Spanish nation and received the name of *fiesta nacional.* Bullfighting was therefore highly associated with the regime. After Spain's transition to democracy, popular support for bullfighting declined. Opposition to bullfighting from Spain's political parties is typically highest among those on the left. PSOE, the main left-wing political party, has distanced itself from bullfighting but refuses to ban it, while Spain's far-left political party Podemos has repeatedly called for referendums on the matter and has shown disapproval of the practise. PP, the largest conservative party, strongly supports bullfighting and has requested large public subsidies for it. The government of José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero was the first to oppose bullfighting, prohibiting children under 14 from attending events and imposing a six-year ban on live bullfights broadcast on state-run national television, although the latter measure was reversed after Zapatero's party lost in the 2011 elections. Despite its long history in Barcelona, bullfighting was outlawed across the Catalonia region in 2010 following a campaign led by an animal-rights civic platform called "Prou!" ("Enough!" in Catalan). Critics have argued that the ban was motivated by issues of Catalan separatism and identity politics. In October 2016, the Constitutional Court ruled that the regional Catalan Parliament did not have the authority to ban events that are legal in Spain. The Spanish Royal Family is divided on the issue. Former queen consort Sofía of Spain disapproves of bullfights, but former king Juan Carlos occasionally presided over bullfights from the royal box. Their daughter Princess Elena is well-known for her support of the practise and often attends bullfights. Pro-bullfighting supporters include former prime minister Mariano Rajoy and his party (Partido Popular), as well as most leaders of the opposition PSOE party, including former prime minister Felipe Gonzalez and the current presidents of Andalusia, Extremadura and Castilla–La Mancha. ### Religion Bullfighting is thought to have been practised since prehistoric times throughout the entire Mediterranean coast, but it survives only in Iberia and in part of France. During the Arab rule of Iberia, the ruling class tried to ban bullfighting, considering it a pagan celebration and heresy. In the 16th century, Pope Pius V banned bullfighting for its ties to paganism and for the danger that it posed to the participants. Anyone who would sponsor, watch or participate in a bullfight was to be excommunicated by the church. Spanish and Portuguese bullfighters kept the tradition alive covertly, and Pius's successor Pope Gregory XIII relaxed the church's position. However, Pope Gregory advised bullfighters to not use the sport as means of honoring Jesus Christ or the saints, as was typical in Spain and Portugal. Although Pope Francis' statement that "every act of cruelty towards any creature is 'contrary to human dignity'", in his 2015 encyclical letter, *Laudato si'*, does not mention bullfighting as such, it has been taken as supporting religious opposition to bullfighting. Bullfighting has been intertwined with religion and religious folklore in Spain at a popular level, particularly in the areas in which it has been most popular. Bullfighting events are celebrated during festivities celebrating local patron saints, along with other activities, games and sports. The bullfighting world is also inextricably linked to iconography related to religious devotion in Spain, with bullfighters seeking the protection of Mary and often becoming members of religious brotherhoods. ### Media prohibitions State-run Spanish TVE had cancelled live coverage of bullfights in August 2007 until September 2012, claiming that the coverage was too violent for children and that live coverage violated a voluntary, industry-wide code attempting to limit "sequences that are particularly crude or brutal." In a October 2008 statement to Congress, Luis Fernández, the president of Spanish state broadcaster TVE, confirmed that the station would no longer broadcast live bullfights because of high production costs and a lack of advertiser support. However, the station continued to broadcast *Tendido Cero*, a bullfighting magazine programme. Other regional and private channels kept broadcasting it with good audiences.[*vague*] Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy's government lifted the ban, and live bullfights were shown at the traditional 6:00 p.m. time on TVE as of September 2012.[*needs update*] A television station in Costa Rica stopped the broadcast of bullfights in January 2008 over concerns that they were too violent for minors.[*failed verification*] ### Declaration as cultural patrimony A growing list of Spanish, Portuguese and South American cities and regions have formally declared their bullfighting celebrations as part of their protected cultural patrimony or heritage. Most of these declarations have been enacted in reaction to the 2010 ban in Catalonia. In April 2012, the Andalusian city of Seville declared bullfighting to be part of the city's cultural heritage. Laws ---- ### Pre-20th century In November 1567, Pope Pius V issued a papal bull titled *De Salute Gregis* forbidding the fighting of bulls and other beasts as a voluntary risk to life which endangered the soul of the combatants. However it was rescinded eight years later by his successor, Pope Gregory XIII, at the request of King Philip II. Chile banned bullfighting shortly after gaining independence in 1818, but the Chilean rodeo (which involves horseriders in an oval arena blocking a female cow against the wall without killing it) is still legal and has even been declared a national sport. Bullfighting was introduced in Uruguay in 1776 by Spain and abolished by Uruguayan law in February 1912; thus the Plaza de toros Real de San Carlos, built in 1910, only operated for two years. Bullfighting was also introduced in Argentina by Spain, but after Argentina's independence, the event drastically diminished in popularity and was abolished in 1899 under law 2786. Bullfighting was present in Cuba during its colonial period from 1514 to 1898, but was abolished by the United States military under the pressure of civic associations in 1899, right after the Spanish–American War of 1898. The prohibition was maintained after Cuba gained independence in 1902. Bullfighting was also banned for a period in Mexico in 1890; consequently some Spanish bullfighters moved to the United States to transfer their skills to the American rodeos. During the 18th and 19th centuries, bullfighting in Spain was banned at several occasions (for instance by Philip V), but always reinstituted later by other governments. Bullfighting had some popularity in the Philippines during Spanish rule, though foreign commentators derided the quality of local bulls and toreros. Bullfighting was noted in the Philippines as early as 1619, when it was among the festivities in celebration of Pope Urban III's authorisation of the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. Following the Spanish–American War, the Americans suppressed the custom in the Philippines under the tenure of Governor General Leonard Wood, and it was replaced with a now-popular Filipino sport, basketball. ### 20th century onwards **World laws on bullfighting** | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | |    | Nationwide ban on bullfighting |    | Nationwide ban on bullfighting, but some designated local traditions exempted | |    | Some subnational bans on bullfighting |    | Bullfighting *without* killing bulls in the ring legal (Portuguese style or 'bloodless') | |    | Bullfighting with killing bulls in the ring legal (Spanish style) |    | No data | Bullfighting is now banned in many countries; people taking part in such activity would be liable for terms of imprisonment for animal cruelty. "Bloodless" variations, though, are often permitted and have attracted a following in California, Texas, and France. In southern France, however, the traditional form of the corrida still exists and it is protected by French law. However, in June 2015 the Paris Court of Appeals removed bullfighting/"la corrida" from France's cultural heritage list. While it is not very popular in Texas, bloodless forms of bullfighting occur at rodeos in small Texas towns. Several cities around the world (especially in Catalonia) have symbolically declared themselves to be Anti-Bullfighting Cities, including Barcelona in 2006. ### Colombia The issue of bullfighting has been controversial and problematic in Colombia in recent years. Bullfighting with killing bulls in the ring is legal in Colombia. In 2013, Gustavo Petro, then mayor of the Colombian capital city of Bogotá, had *de facto* prohibited bullfighting by refusing to lease out bullrings to bullfighting organisers. But the Constitutional Court of Colombia ruled that this violated the right to expression of the bullfighters, and ordered the bullrings to be reopened. The first bullfight in Bogotá in four years happened on 22 January 2017 amid clashes between antitaurino protesters and police. Petro, who was elected as president of Colombia in 2022, promised in his campaign to end any show involving animals. After a bullring collapse in June 2022 occurred in the municipality of El Espinal in the Tolima department, resulting in the deaths of four people and injured hundreds, opened a new debate on the legality and safety of the *corralejas* and bullfights throughout the country. A bill presented that year on July 21 by Deputy Juan Carlos Lozada, from the Liberal Party, was approved by the First Commission of the Chamber in the first debate, and is based on eliminating bullfighting practices in the national territory. However, the bill foundered when it was passed to Congress. Animalists questioned the lack of support from the progressive bench. In the early hours of December 15, after several hours of hard debate between the government and opposition benches, the Senate of the Republic approved in a second debate the project of Law 085 of 2022, proposed by Senator Andrea Padilla of the Alianza Verde, which seeks a ban on bullfights in Colombia. However, consensus was achieved by leaving out the prohibition of cockfighting and *corralejas*, key points of the initiative. As of December 26, 2022, the proposal goes to the third debate, which will take place in the House of Representatives. The law seeks to eventually weed out bullfighting in the country in the next three years, while it stamps out practices of killing the bulls in the arena, attacking them with pikes or handheld harpoons. Supporters have stated that the measures would kill the tradition, which has existed in the country for generations, and that it is still a popular form of entertainment in rural areas and an art form. ### Costa Rica In Costa Rica the law prohibits the killing of bulls and other animals in public and private shows. However, there are still bullfights, called "*Toros a la Tica*", that are televised from Palmares and Zapote at the end and beginning of the year. Volunteer amateur bullfighters (*improvisados*) confront a bull in a ring and try to provoke him into charging and then run away. In a December 2016 survey, 46.4% of respondents wanted to outlaw bullfights while 50.1% thought they should continue. The bullfights do not include spears or any other device to harm the bull and resemble the running of the bulls in Pamplona, the difference being that the Costa Rican event takes place in an arena rather than in the streets, as in Pamplona. ### Ecuador Ecuador staged bullfights to the death for over three centuries as a Spanish colony. On 12 December 2010, Ecuador's president Rafael Correa announced that in an upcoming referendum, the country would be asked whether to ban bullfighting; in the referendum, held in May 2011, the Ecuadorians agreed on banning the final killing of the bull that happens in a corrida. This means the bull is no longer killed before the public, and is instead taken back inside the barn to be killed at the end of the event. The other parts of the corrida are still performed the same way as before in the cities that celebrate it. This part of the referendum is applied on a regional level, meaning that in regions where the population voted against the ban, which are the same regions where bullfighting is celebrated the most, killing the animal publicly in the bullfighting plaza is still performed. The main bullfighting celebration of the country, the Fiesta Brava in Quito was still allowed to take place in December 2011 after the referendum under these new rules. ### France In 1951, bullfighting in France was legalised by §7 of Article 521-1 of the French penal code in areas where there was an 'unbroken local tradition'. This exemption applies to Nîmes, Arles, Alès, Bayonne, Carcassonne, and Fréjus, amongst others. In 2011, the French Ministry of Culture added corrida to the list of 'intangible heritage' of France, but after much controversy silently removed it from its website again. Animal rights activists launched a lawsuit to make sure it was completely removed from the heritage list and thus not given extra legal protection; the Administrative Appeals Court of Paris ruled in their favour in June 2015. In a separate case, the Constitutional Council ruled on 21 September 2012 that bullfighting did not violate the French Constitution. ### Honduras In Honduras, under Article 11 of 'Decree no. 115-2015 ─ Animal Protection and Welfare Act' that went into effect in 2016, dog and cat fights and duck races are prohibited, while 'bullfighting shows and cockfights are part of the National Folklore and as such allowed'. However, 'in bullfighting shows, the use of spears, swords, fire or other objects that cause pain to the animal is prohibited.' ### India Jallikattu, a type of bull-taming or bull-riding event, is practiced in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. A bull is released into a crowd of people. Participants attempt to grab the bull's hump and either hold on for a determined distance or length of time or attempt to liberate a packet of money tied to the bull's horns. The practice was banned in 2014 by India's Supreme Court over concerns that bulls are sometimes mistreated prior to jallikattu events. Animal welfare investigations into the practice revealed that some bulls are poked with sticks and scythes, some have their tails twisted, some are force-fed alcohol to disorient them, and in some cases chili powder and other irritants are applied to bulls' eyes and genitals to agitate the animals. The 2014 ban was suspended and reinstated several times over the years. In January 2017, the Supreme Court upheld their previous ban and various protests arose in response. Due to these protests, on 21 January 2017, the Governor of Tamil Nadu issued a new ordinance that authorized the continuation of jallikattu events. On 23 January 2017 the Tamil Nadu legislature passed a bi-partisan bill, with the accession of the Prime Minister, exempting jallikattu from the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1960). As of January 2017[update] Jallikattu is legal in Tamil Nadu, but another organization may challenge the mechanism by which it was legalized, as the Animal Welfare Board of India claims that the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly does not have the power to override Indian federal law, meaning that the state law could possibly once again be nullified and jallikattu banned. ### Mexico Bullfighting has been banned in four Mexican states: Sonora in 2013, Guerrero in 2014, Coahuila in 2015, and Quintana Roo in 2019. It was banned "indefinitely" in Mexico City in 2022. ### Panama Law 308 on the Protection of Animals was approved by the National Assembly of Panama on 15 March 2012. Article 7 of the law states: 'Dog fights, animal races, bullfights – whether of the Spanish or Portuguese style – the breeding, entry, permanence and operation in the national territory of all kinds of circus or circus show that uses trained animals of any species, are prohibited.' Horse racing and cockfighting were exempt from the ban. ### Nicaragua Nicaragua prohibited bullfighting under a new Animal Welfare Law in December 2010, with 74 votes in favour and 5 votes against in Parliament. ### Portugal Queen Maria II of Portugal prohibited bullfighting in 1836 with the argument that it was unbefitting for a civilised nation. The ban was lifted in 1921, but in 1928 a law was passed that forbade the killing of the bull during a fight. In practice, bulls still frequently die after a fight from their injuries or by being slaughtered by a butcher. In 2001, matador Pedrito de Portugal controversially killed a bull at the end of a fight after spectators encouraged him to do so by chanting "Kill the bull! Kill the bull!" The crowds gave Pedrito a standing ovation, hoisted him on their shoulders and paraded him through the streets. Hours later the police arrested him and charged him with a fine, but they released him after crowds of angry fans surrounded the police station. A long court case ensued, finally resulting in Pedrito's conviction in 2007 with a fine of €100,000. In 2002, the Portuguese government gave Barrancos, a village near the Spanish border where bullfighting fans stubbornly persisted in encouraging the killing of bulls during fights, a dispensation from the 1928 ban. Various attempts have been made to ban bullfighting in Portugal, both nationally (in 2012 and 2018) and locally, but so far unsuccessful. In July 2018, animalist party PAN presented a proposal at the Portuguese Parliament to abolish all types of bullfighting in the country. Left-wing party Left Bloc voted in favour of the proposal but criticised its lack of solutions to the foreseen consequences of the abolition. The proposal was however categorically rejected by all other parties, that cited freedom of choice and respect for tradition as arguments against it. ### Spain The parliament of the Spanish region of Catalonia voted in favour of a ban on bullfighting in 2009, which went into effect in 2012. The Spanish national parliament passed a law in 2013 stating that bullfighting is an 'indisputable' part of Spain's 'cultural heritage'; this law was used by the Spanish Constitutional Court in 2016 to overturn the Catalan ban of 2012. When the island of Mallorca adopted a law in 2017 that prohibited the killing of a bull during a fight, this law was also declared partially unconstitutional by the Spanish Constitutional Court in 2018, as the judges ruled that the death of the bull was part of the essence of a corrida. #### Canary Islands In 1991, the Canary Islands became the first Spanish Autonomous Community to ban bullfighting, when they legislated to ban spectacles that involve cruelty to animals, with the exception of cockfighting, which is traditional in some towns in the Islands; bullfighting was never popular in the Canary Islands. Some supporters of bullfighting and even Lorenzo Olarte Cullen, Canarian head of government at the time, have argued that the fighting bull is not a "domestic animal" and hence the law does not ban bullfighting. The absence of spectacles since 1984 would be due to lack of demand. In the rest of Spain, national laws against cruelty to animals have abolished most blood sports, but specifically exempt bullfighting. #### Catalonia On 18 December 2009, the parliament of Catalonia, one of Spain's seventeen Autonomous Communities, approved by majority the preparation of a law to ban bullfighting in Catalonia, as a response to a popular initiative against bullfighting that gathered more than 180,000 signatures. On 28 July 2010, with the two main parties allowing their members a free vote, the ban was passed 68 to 55, with 9 abstentions. This meant Catalonia became the second Community of Spain (first was Canary Islands in 1991), and the first on the mainland, to ban bullfighting. The ban took effect on 1 January 2012, and affected only the one remaining functioning Catalan bullring, the Plaza de toros Monumental de Barcelona. It did not affect the *correbous*, a traditional game of the Ebro area (south of Catalonia) where lighted flares are attached to a bull's horns. The correbous are seen mainly in the municipalities in the south of Tarragona, with the exceptions of a few other towns in other provinces of Catalonia. The name *correbous* is essentially Catalan and Valencian; in other parts of Spain they have other names. A movement emerged to revoke the ban in the Spanish congress, citing the value of bullfighting as "cultural heritage". The proposal was backed by the majority of parliamentarians in 2013. In October 2016 the Spanish Constitutional Court ruled that the regional Catalan Parliament had no competence to ban any kind of spectacle that is legal in Spain. #### Galicia In Galicia, bullfighting has been banned in many cities by the local governments. Bullfighting has never had an important following in the region. ### United States Bullfighting was outlawed in California in 1957, but the law was amended in response to protests from the Portuguese community in Gustine. Lawmakers determined that a form of "bloodless" bullfighting would be allowed to continue, in affiliation with certain Christian holidays. Though the bull is not killed as with traditional bullfighting, it is still intentionally irritated and provoked and its horns are shaved down to prevent injury to people and other animals present in the ring, but serious injuries still can and do occur and spectators are also at risk. The Humane Society of the United States has expressed opposition to bullfighting in all its forms since at least 1981. Puerto Rico banned bullfighting and the breeding of bulls for fights by Law no. 176 of 25 July 1998. In literature, film, and the arts --------------------------------- * *Death in the Afternoon*, Ernest Hemingway's treatise on Spanish bullfighting. * *The Dangerous Summer*, Ernest Hemingway's chronicle of the bullfighting rivalry between Luis Miguel Dominguín and his brother-in-law Antonio Ordóñez. * *The Sun Also Rises*, a novel by Ernest Hemingway, includes many accounts of bullfighting. * *Bullfighter from Brooklyn* (1953), autobiography by matador Sidney Franklin. * *Into The Arena: The World Of The Spanish Bullfight* (2011), book by Alexander Fiske-Harrison about his time in Spain as an aficionado in 2009 and as a bullfighter in 2010.ISBN 1847654290 * *The Wild Man* (2001), *novel by Patricia Nell Warren about a non-conformist gay torero, set in 1960s Fascist Spain.* * *Bull Fever* (1955), an account by Kenneth Tynan. * *Shadow of a Bull* (1964), novel by Maia Wojciechowska about a bullfighter's son, Manolo Olivar. * *The Bullfighters* (1945), film starring the comedy duo Laurel and Hardy. * *The Story of a Matador*, David L. Wolper's 1962 documentary about the life of matador Jaime Bravo. * *Talk to Her*, film by Pedro Almodóvar, contains subplot concerning female matador who is gored during a bullfight. The director was criticized for shooting footage of a bull being actually killed during a bullfight staged especially for the film. * Ricardo Montalbán portrayed bullfighters in *Santa* (1943), *The Hour of Truth* (1945), *Fiesta* (1947), and *Columbo* episode "A Matter of Honor" (1976). * *Ferdinand*, an animated film covering the adventures of Ferdinand the bull as he is raised and trained to become a bull in the ring.[*clarification needed*] * The opera *Carmen* features a bullfighter as a major character, a well-known song about him, and a bullfight off-stage at the climax. * *Llanto por Ignacio Sánchez Mejías* ("Lament for Ignacio Sánchez Mejías", 1935), a poem by Federico García Lorca. * *Blood and Sand*, a movie starring Tyrone Power and Rita Hayworth. * *¡Que viva México!*, a film directed by Sergei Eisenstein, has a segment featuring a bullfight. * *Take a Bow*, music video revolved around famous bullfighter Madonna (1994). * *The Book of Life*, an animated movie about a bullfighter who wants to be a musician.

Bullfighting

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullfighting

The **common ostrich** (***Struthio camelus***), or simply **ostrich**, is a species of flightless bird native to certain large areas of Africa. It is one of two extant species of ostriches, the only living members of the genus *Struthio* in the ratite order of birds. The other is the Somali ostrich (*Struthio molybdophanes*), which was recognized as a distinct species by BirdLife International in 2014 having been previously considered a distinctive subspecies of ostrich. The common ostrich belongs to the order Struthioniformes. Struthioniformes previously contained all the ratites, such as the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, recent genetic analysis has found that the group is not monophyletic, as it is paraphyletic with respect to the tinamous, so the ostriches are now classified as the only members of the order. Phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the sister group to all other members of Palaeognathae and thus the flighted tinamous are the sister group to the extinct moa. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a long neck and legs, and can run for a long time at a speed of 55 km/h (34 mph) with short bursts up to about 70 km/h (40 mph), the fastest land speed of any bird. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and largest living dinosaur. It lays the largest eggs of any living bird (the extinct **giant elephant bird** (***Aepyornis maximus***) of Madagascar and the **south island giant moa** (***Dinornis robustus***) of New Zealand laid larger eggs). The common ostrich's diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates and small reptiles. It lives in nomadic groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground or run away. If cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by geographical region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females. The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers, which are decorative and are also used as feather dusters. Its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point. Description ----------- The common ostrich is the largest living bird and also the heaviest. Males stand 2.1 to 2.75 m (6 ft 11 in to 9 ft 0 in) tall and weigh 100 to 130 kilograms (220–290 lb), whereas females are about 1.75 to 1.9 m (5 ft 9 in to 6 ft 3 in) tall and weigh 90 to 120 kilograms (200–260 lb). While exceptional male ostriches (in the nominate subspecies) can weigh up to 156.8 kg (346 lb), some specimens in South Africa can only weigh between 59.5 to 81.3 kilograms (131–179 lb). New chicks are fawn in color, with dark brown spots. After three months they start to gain their juvenile plumage, which is steadily replaced by adult-like plumage during their second year. At four or five months old, they are already about half the size of an adult bird, and after a year they reach adult height, but not till they are 18 months old will they be fully as heavy as their parents. The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff. Females and young males are grayish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches are nearly bare, with a thin layer of down. The skin of the female's neck and thighs is pinkish gray, while the male's is gray or pink dependent on subspecies. * Head feathers are a thin layer of down.Head feathers are a thin layer of down. * Long eyelashes protect the eyes.Long eyelashes protect the eyes. * Feet are frequently missing the nail on the outer toe.Feet are frequently missing the nail on the outer toe. * SkullSkull * Claws on the wingsClaws on the wings * Ostrich skeleton * Male, NamibiaMale running, Namibia The long neck and legs keep their head up to 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) above the ground, and their eyes are said to be the largest of any land vertebrate – 50 mm (2 in) in diameter – helping them to see predators at a great distance. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above. However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds' huge size, with the bill measuring 12 to 14.3 cm (4+3⁄4 to 5+3⁄4 in). Their skin varies in color depending on the subspecies, with some having light or dark gray skin and others having pinkish or even reddish skin. The strong legs of the common ostrich are unfeathered and show bare skin, with the tarsus (the lowest upright part of the leg) being covered in scales: red in the male, black in the female. The tarsus of the common ostrich is the largest of any living bird, measuring 39 to 53 cm (15+1⁄2 to 21 in) in length. The bird is didactyl, having just two toes on each foot (most birds have four), with the nail on the larger, inner toe resembling a hoof. The outer toe has no nail. The reduced number of toes is an adaptation that appears to aid in running, useful for getting away from predators. Common ostriches can run at a speed over 70 km/h (40 mph) and can cover 3 to 5 m (10 to 15 ft) in a single stride. The wings reach a span of about two metres (6+1⁄2 ft), and the wing chord measurement of 90 cm (35 in) is around the same size as for the largest flying birds. The feathers lack the tiny hooks that lock together the smooth external feathers of flying birds, and so are soft and fluffy and serve as insulation. Common ostriches can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In much of their habitat, temperatures vary as much as 40 °C (70 °F) between night and day. Their temperature control relies in part on behavioral thermoregulation. For example, they use their wings to cover the naked skin of the upper legs and flanks to conserve heat, or leave these areas bare to release heat. The wings also function as stabilizers to give better maneuverability when running. Tests have shown that the wings are actively involved in rapid braking, turning, and zigzag maneuvers. They have 50–60 tail feathers, and their wings have 16 primary, four alular, and 20–23 secondary feathers. The common ostrich's sternum is flat, lacking the keel to which wing muscles attach in flying birds. The beak is flat and broad, with a rounded tip. Like all ratites, the ostrich has no crop, and it also lacks a gallbladder and the caecum is 71 cm (28 in). Unlike all other living birds, the common ostrich secretes urine separately from feces. All other birds store the urine and feces combined in the coprodeum, but the ostrich stores the feces in the terminal rectum. They also have unique pubic bones that are fused to hold their gut. Unlike most birds, the males have a copulatory organ, which is retractable and 20 cm (8 in) long. Their palate differs from other ratites in that the sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected. Taxonomy -------- The common ostrich was originally described by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in his 18th-century work, *Systema Naturae* under its current binomial name. Its genus is derived from the Late Latin *struthio* meaning "ostrich". The specific name is an allusion to "strouthokamelos" the Ancient Greek name for the ostrich, meaning camel-sparrow, the "camel" term referring to its dry habitat. Στρουθοκάμηλος is still the modern Greek name for the ostrich. The common ostrich belongs to the Infraclass *Palaeognathae* commonly known as ratites. Other members include rheas, emus, cassowaries, moa, kiwi elephant birds tinamous. ### Subspecies Four subspecies are recognized: Subspecies of the common ostrich| Subspecies | Description | Image | | --- | --- | --- | | **North African ostrich** (*S. c. camelus*), also known as the **red-necked ostrich** or **Barbary ostrich** | Lives in North Africa. Historically it was the most widespread subspecies, ranging from Ethiopia and Sudan in the east throughout the Sahel to Senegal and Mauritania in the west, and north to Egypt and southern Morocco, respectively. It has now disappeared from large parts of this range, and it only remains in six of the 18 countries where it originally occurred, leading some to consider it Critically Endangered. It is the largest subspecies, at 2.74 m (9 ft 0 in) in height and up to 154 kilograms (340 lb) in weight. The neck is pinkish-red, the plumage of males is black and white, and the plumage of females is grey.* Northern Africa: Algeria, the Central African Republic, Chad, Egypt, Ethiopia, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Sudan, South Sudan, Togo, and Tunisia * Western Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, and Senegal | | | **South African ostrich** (*S. c. australis*), also known as the **black-necked ostrich**, **Cape ostrich**, or **southern ostrich** | Found south of the Zambezi and Cunene Rivers. It is farmed for its meat, leather, and feathers in the Little Karoo area of Cape Province.* Southern Africa: Angola, Botswana, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe | | | **Masai ostrich** (*S. c. massaicus*), also known as the **pink-necked ostrich** or **East African ostrich** | It has some small feathers on its head, and its neck and thighs are pink. During the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become brighter. Its range is essentially limited to southern Kenya and eastern Tanzania and Ethiopia and parts of southern Somalia.* Eastern Africa: Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Tanzania, and Uganda | | | **Arabian ostrich** (†*S. c. syriacus*), also known as the **Syrian ostrich** or **Middle Eastern ostrich** | Was formerly very common in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, and Iraq; it became extinct around 1966. * Western Asia: Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen | | | Somali ostrich| Species | Description | Image | | --- | --- | --- | | **Somali ostrich** (*S. molybdophanes*), also known as the **blue-necked ostrich** | Found in southern Ethiopia, northeastern Kenya, and Somalia. The neck and thighs are grey-blue, and during the mating season, the male's neck and thighs become brighter and bluer. The females are more brown than those of other subspecies. It generally lives in pairs or alone, rather than in flocks. Its range overlaps with *S. c. massaicus* in northeastern Kenya.* Northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia | | | Some analyses indicate that the Somali ostrich is now considered a full species; the Tree of Life Project, *The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World*, BirdLife International, and the IOC World Bird List recognize it as a different species. A few authorities, including the *Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World*, do not recognize it as separate. Mitochondrial DNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the East African Rift. Hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range, *S. c. massaicus*, has apparently been prevented from occurring on a significant scale by ecological separation; the Somali ostrich prefers bushland where it browses middle-height vegetation for food while the Masai ostrich is, like the other subspecies, a grazing bird of the open savanna and *miombo* habitat. The population from Río de Oro was once separated as *Struthio camelus spatzi* because its eggshell pores were shaped like a teardrop and not round. As there is considerable variation of this character and there were no other differences between these birds and adjacent populations of *S. c. camelus*, the separation is no longer considered valid. However, a study analysing the postcranial skeleton of all living and recently extinct species and subspecies of ostriches appeared to validate *S. c. spatzi* based on its unique skeletal proportions. This population disappeared in the latter half of the 20th century. There were 19th-century reports of the existence of small ostriches in North Africa; these are referred to as Levaillant's ostrich (*Struthio bidactylus*) but remain a hypothetical form not supported by material evidence. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Common ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, East Africa, Africa south of the rainforest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today common ostriches prefer open land and are native to the savannas and Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In southwest Africa they inhabit the semi-desert or true desert. Farmed common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations. The Arabian ostriches in the Near and Middle East were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century. Attempts to reintroduce the common ostrich into Israel have failed. Common ostriches have occasionally been seen inhabiting islands on the Dahlak Archipelago, in the Red Sea near Eritrea. Research conducted by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany in India found molecular evidence that ostriches lived in India 25,000 years ago. DNA tests on fossilized eggshells recovered from eight archaeological sites in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh found 92% genetic similarity between the eggshells and the North African ostrich, so these could have been fairly distant relatives. Ostriches are farmed in Australia. Many escaped, however, and feral ostriches now roam the Australian outback. Behaviour and ecology --------------------- Common ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone. Only 16 percent of common ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 100 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. The male common ostrich territory is between two and twenty square kilometres (3⁄4 and 7+3⁄4 sq mi). With their acute eyesight and hearing, common ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of 70 km/h (40 mph), or possibly 80 km/h (50 mph) and can maintain a steady speed of 50 km/h (30 mph), which makes the common ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear like a mound of earth from a distance, aided by the heat haze in their hot, dry habitat. When threatened, common ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward. ### Feeding They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit, and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts, small reptiles such as lizards, and occasionally animal remains left by carnivorous predators. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The bolus may be as much as 210 mL (13 cu in). After passing through the neck (there is no crop) the food enters the gizzard and is worked on by the aforementioned pebbles. The gizzard can hold as much as 1,300 g (2 lb 14 oz), of which up to 45% may be sand and pebbles. Common ostriches can go without drinking for several days, using metabolic water and moisture in ingested plants, but they enjoy liquid water and frequently take baths where it is available. They can survive losing up to 25% of their body weight through dehydration. ### Mating Common ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. As with other birds, an individual may reproduce several times over its lifetime. The mating season begins in March or April and ends sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically boom (by inflating their neck) in defense of their territory and harem of two to seven hens; the successful male may then mate with several females in the area, but will only form a pair bond with a 'major' female. The cock performs with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behavior is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the soil. Then, while the hen runs a circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation. Common ostriches raised entirely by humans may direct their courtship behavior not at other ostriches, but toward their human keepers. * Only 15% of the surviving chicks reach 1 year of age.Only 15% of the surviving chicks reach 1 year of age. * Ostrich chick * Chick, recently hatched from eggRecently hatched from egg * Hen with chicksHen with chicks * Female incubating eggs in a shallow nest on the groundFemale incubating eggs * NestNest Egg Fried egg The female common ostrich lays her fertilized eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, 30 to 60 cm (12–24 in) deep and 3 m (10 ft) wide, scraped in the ground by the male. The dominant female lays her eggs first; when it is time to cover them for incubation, she discards extra eggs from the weaker females, leaving about 20 in most cases. A female common ostrich can distinguish her own eggs from the others in a communal nest. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs, though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the adult bird – on average they are 15 cm (6 in) long, 13 cm (5 in) wide, and weigh 1.4 kg (3 lb), over 20 times the weight of a chicken's egg and only 1 to 4% the size of the female. They are glossy cream-colored, with thick shells marked by small pits. The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the males by night. This uses the coloration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days, which is rather short compared to other ratites. This is believed to be the case due to the high rate of predation. Typically, the male defends the hatchlings and teaches them to feed, although males and females cooperate in rearing chicks. Fewer than 10% of nests survive the 9-week period of laying and incubation, and of the surviving chicks, only 15% of those survive to 1 year of age. However, among those common ostriches who survive to adulthood, the species is one of the longest-living bird species. Common ostriches in captivity have lived to 62 years and 7 months. ### Predators As a flightless species in the rich biozone of the African savanna, the common ostrich faces a variety of formidable predators throughout its life cycle. Animals that prey on ostriches of all ages may include cheetahs, lions, leopards, African hunting dogs, and spotted hyenas. Predators of nests and young common ostriches include jackals, various birds of prey, warthogs, mongoose, and Egyptian vultures. Egyptian vultures have been known to hurl stones at ostrich eggs to crack them open so they can eat their contents. Due to predation pressure, common ostriches have many antipredator tactics. Though they can deliver formidable kicks, they use their great eyesight and speed to run from most of their predators. Since ostriches that have detected predators are almost impossible to catch, most predators will try to ambush an unsuspecting bird using obstructing vegetation or other objects. Some ostriches forage with other ostriches or mammals such as wildebeests and zebras to detect predators more efficiently. If the nest or young are threatened, either or both of the parents may create a distraction, feigning injury. However, they may sometimes fiercely fight predators, especially when chicks are being defended, and are capable of killing humans, hyenas, and even lions in such confrontations. Usually, ostrich hunting is done by male cheetah coalitions in the Kalahari region during the night, when ostrich's vigilance is less effective. Cheetahs in other regions rarely hunt ostriches, but an exceptional coalition composed of three East African cheetahs has been reported in Kenya. Similarly, lions hunt ostriches mainly in the Kalahari region and not in other regions, or take ostriches as only a small percentage of their prey. Overall, due to their speed, vigilance, and possibly dangerous kick, ostriches are usually avoided by most predators, including lions, leopards, wild dogs, and cheetahs. Despite parental care, 90% is typical for chick mortality, most of it caused by predation. Physiology ---------- ### Respiration #### Anatomy Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the mesentery, and dorsally to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more anterior air sacs including the interclavicular, lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the caudal end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the parabronchi, which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites. The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the interclavicular (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult common ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or avascular epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes. #### Function The common ostrich is an endotherm and maintains a body temperature of 38.1–39.7 °C (100.6–103.5 °F) in its extreme living temperature conditions, such as the heat of the savanna and desert regions of Africa. The ostrich utilizes its respiratory system via a costal pump for ventilation rather than a diaphragmatic pump as seen in most mammals. Thus, they are able to use a series of air sacs connected to the lungs. The use of air sacs forms the basis for the three main avian respiratory characteristics: 1. Air is able to flow continuously in one direction through the lung, making it more efficient than the mammalian lung. 2. It provides birds with a large residual volume, allowing them to breathe much more slowly and deeply than a mammal of the same body mass. 3. It provides a large source of air that is used not only for gaseous exchange, but also for the transfer of heat by evaporation. Ostrich portrait showing its large eyes and long eyelashes, its flat, broad beak, and its nostrils Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea (c. 78 cm or 30+1⁄2 in) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The common ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration, since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen. To compensate for the large "dead" space, the common ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the total lung capacity of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a 100 kg (220 lb) ostrich is about 15 L (920 cu in), with a tidal volume ranging from 1.2–1.5 L (75–90 cu in). The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is a small pressure difference between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs. The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike most other birds, the common ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry, and moisture lacking properties of the common ostrich respiratory medium affect oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law). Common ostriches develop via Intussusceptive angiogenesis, a mechanism of blood vessel formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of lung development, along with elaborate parabronchial vasculature, and reorientation of the gas exchange blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The blood–gas barrier (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the capillaries in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB. ### Circulation #### Heart anatomy The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The common ostrich's heart has similar features to other avian species, like having a conically shaped heart and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds: 1. The right atrioventricular valve is fixed to the interventricular septum, by a thick muscular stock, which prevents back-flow of blood into the atrium when ventricular systole is occurring. In the fowl this valve is only connected by a short septal attachment. 2. Pulmonary veins attach to the left atrium separately, and also the opening to the pulmonary veins are separated by a septum. 3. Moderator bands, full of Purkinje fibers, are found in different locations in the left and right ventricles. These bands are associated with contractions of the heart and suggests this difference causes the left ventricle to contract harder to create more pressure for a completed circulation of blood around the body. The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricle. Upon view, the myocardial cells are observed to have large densely packed chromosomes within the nucleus. The coronary arteries start in the right and left aortic sinus and provide blood to the heart muscle in a similar fashion to most other vertebrates. Other domestic birds capable of flight have three or more coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The blood supply by the coronary arteries are fashioned starting as a large branch over the surface of the heart. It then moves along the coronary groove and continues on into the tissue as interventricular branches toward the apex of the heart. The atria, ventricles, and septum are supplied of blood by this modality. The deep branches of the coronary arteries found within the heart tissue are small and supply the interventricular and right atrioventricular valve with blood nutrients for which to carry out their processes. The interatrial artery of the ostrich is small in size and exclusively supplies blood to only part of the left auricle and interatrial septum. These Purkinje fibers (p-fibers) found in the hearts moderator bands are a specialized cardiac muscle fiber that causes the heart to contract. The Purkinje cells are mostly found within both the endocardium and the sub-endocardium. The sinoatrial node shows a small concentration of Purkinje fibers, however, continuing through the conducting pathway of the heart the bundle of his shows the highest amount of these Purkinje fibers. #### Blood composition The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P50, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich's tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface. During the embryonic stage, Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E diminishes while hemoglobin A and D increase in concentration. This shift in hemoglobin concentration results in both decreased oxygen affinity and increased P50 value. Furthermore, the P50 value is influenced by differing organic modulators. In the typical mammalian RBC 2,3 – DPG causes a lower affinity for oxygen. 2,3- DPG constitutes approximately 42–47%, of the cells phosphate of the embryonic ostrich. However, the adult ostrich have no traceable 2,3- DPG.In place of 2,3-DPG the ostrich uses inositol polyphosphates (IPP), which vary from 1–6 phosphates per molecule. In relation to the IPP, the ostrich also uses ATP to lower oxygen affinity. ATP has a consistent concentration of phosphate in the cell – around 31% at incubation periods and dropping to 16–20% in 36-day-old chicks. However, IPP has low concentrations, around 4%, of total phosphate concentration in embryonic stages, but the IPP concentration jumps to 60% of total phosphate of the cell. The majority of phosphate concentration switches from 2,3- DPG to IPP, suggesting the result of the overall low oxygen affinity is due to these varying polyphosphates. Concerning immunological adaptation, it was discovered that wild common ostriches have a pronounced non-specific immunity defense, with blood content reflecting high values of lysosome and phagocyte cells in medium. This is in contrast to domesticated ostriches, who in captivity develop high concentration of immunoglobulin antibodies in their circulation, indicating an acquired immunological response. It is suggested that this immunological adaptability may allow this species to have a high success rate of survival in variable environmental settings. ### Osmoregulation #### Physiological challenges The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environments, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is a ground bird and cannot fly to find water sources, which poses a further challenge. Because of their size, common ostriches cannot easily escape the heat of their environment; however, they dehydrate less than their small bird counterparts because of their small surface area to volume ratio. Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich's homeostatic response to osmoregulate. #### System overview The common ostrich is well-adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon – a length of approximately 11–13 m (36–43 ft) – between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around 80 cm (30 in) long. A well-developed caeca is also found and, in combination with the rectum, forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around 0.56 grams (9 grains) of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the feces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in fecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the common ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum. Common ostriches have two kidneys, which are chocolate brown in color, are granular in texture, and lie in a depression in the pelvic cavity of the dorsal wall. They are covered by peritoneum and a layer of fat. Each kidney is about 300 mm (12 in) long, 70 mm (3 in) wide, and divided into a cranial, middle, and caudal sections by large veins. The caudal section is the largest, extending into the middle of the pelvis. The ureters leave the ventral caudomedial surface and continue caudally, near the midline into the opening of the urodeum of the cloaca. Although there is no bladder, a dilated pouch of ureter stores the urine until it is secreted continuously down from the ureters to the urodeum until discharged. ##### Kidney function Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water within the kidney system when drinking water is scarce. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm and urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d−1 to only 0.3–0.5 L·d−1. In mammals and common ostriches, the increase of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine flow rate (UFR) is due to a high protein diets. As seen in various studies, scientists have measured clearance of creatinine, a fairly reliable marker of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It has been seen that during normal hydration within the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate is approximately 92 ml/min. However, when an ostrich experiences dehydration for at least 48 hours (2 days), this value diminishes to only 25% of the hydrated GFR rate. Thus in response to the dehydration, ostrich kidneys secrete small amounts of very viscous glomerular filtrates that have not been broken down and return them to the circulatory system through blood vessels. The reduction of GFR during dehydration is extremely high and so the fractional excretion of water (urine flow rate as a percentage of GFR) drops down from 15% at normal hydration to 1% during dehydration. ##### Water intake and turnover Common ostriches employ adaptive features to manage the dry heat and solar radiation in their habitat. Ostriches will drink available water; however, they are limited in accessing water by being flightless. They are also able to harvest water through dietary means, consuming plants such as the *Euphorbia heterochroma* that hold up to 87% water. Water mass accounts for 68% of body mass in adult common ostriches; this is down from 84% water mass in 35-day-old chicks. The differing degrees of water retention are thought to be a result of varying body fat mass. In comparison to smaller birds ostriches have a lower evaporative water loss resulting from their small body surface area per unit weight. When heat stress is at its maximum, common ostriches are able to recover evaporative loss by using a metabolic water mechanism to counter the loss by urine, feces, and respiratory evaporation. An experiment to determine the primary source of water intake in the ostrich indicated that while the ostrich does employ a metabolic water production mechanism as a source of hydration, the most important source of water is food. When ostriches were restricted to the no food or water condition, the metabolic water production was only 0.5 L·d−1, while total water lost to urine, feces, and evaporation was 2.3 L·d−1. When the birds were given both water and food, total water gain was 8.5 L·d−1. In the food only condition total water gain was 10.1 L·d−1. These results show that the metabolic water mechanism is not able to sustain water loss independently and that food intake, specifically of plants with a high water content such as *Euphorbia heterochroma*, is necessary to overcome water loss challenges in the common ostrich's arid habitat. In times of water deprivation, urine electrolyte and osmotic concentration increases while urination rate decreases. Under these conditions urine solute:plasma ratio is approximately 2.5, or hyperosmotic; that is to say that the ratio of solutes to water in the plasma is shifted down whereby reducing osmotic pressure in the plasma. Water is then able to be held back from excretion, keeping the ostrich hydrated, while the passed urine contains higher concentrations of solute. This mechanism exemplifies how renal function facilitates water retention during periods of dehydration stress. ##### Nasal glands A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the common ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck's nasal gland. The common ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the common ostrich's nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the common ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool. ##### Biochemistry The majority of the common ostrich's internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+), chloride ions (Cl−), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon and exhibits a rapid fall in Na+ concentrations and small changes in K+ and Cl−. The colon is divided into three sections and takes part in solute absorption. The upper colon largely absorbs Na+ and SCFA and partially absorbs KCl. The middle colon absorbs Na+ and SCFA, with little net transfer of K+ and Cl−. The lower colon then slightly absorbs Na+ and water and secretes K+. There is no net movements of Cl− and SCFA found in the lower colon. When the common ostrich is in a dehydrated state, plasma osmolality, Na+, K+, and Cl− ions all increase; however, K+ ions return to controlled concentration. The common ostrich also experiences an increase in haematocrit, resulting in a hypovolemic state. Two antidiuretic hormones, Arginine vasotocin (AVT) and angiotensin (AII), are increased in blood plasma as a response to hyperosmolality and hypovolemia. AVT triggers antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which targets the nephrons of the kidney. ADH causes a reabsorption of water from the lumen of the nephron to the extracellular fluid osmotically. These extracellular fluids then drain into blood vessels, causing a rehydrating effect. This drainage prevents loss of water by both lowering volume and increasing concentration of the urine. Angiotensin, on the other hand, causes vasoconstriction on the systemic arterioles and acts as a dipsogen for ostriches. Both of these antidiuretic hormones work together to maintain water levels in the body that would normally be lost due to the osmotic stress of the arid environment. Ostriches are uricotelic, excreting nitrogen in the form of uric acid and related derivatives. Uric acid's low solubility in water gives a semi-solid paste consistency to the ostrich's nitrogenous waste. ### Thermoregulation Common ostriches are homeothermic endotherms; they regulate a constant body temperature via regulating their metabolic heat rate. They closely regulate their core body temperature, but their appendages may be cooler in comparison as found with regulating species. The temperature of their beak, neck surfaces, lower legs, feet, and toes are regulated through heat exchange with the environment. Up to 40% of their produced metabolic heat is dissipated across these structures, which account for about 12% of their total surface area. Total evaporative water loss (TEWL) is statistically lower in the common ostrich than in membering ratites. As ambient temperature increases, dry heat loss decreases, but evaporative heat loss increases because of increased respiration. As ostriches experience high ambient temperatures, circa 50 °C (120 °F), they become slightly hyperthermic; however, they can maintain a stable body temperature, around 40 °C (105 °F), for up to 8 hours in these conditions. When dehydrated, the common ostrich minimizes water loss, causing the body temperature to increase further. When the body heat is allowed to increase the temperature gradient between the common ostrich and ambient heat is equilibrated. #### Physical adaptations Common ostriches have developed a comprehensive set of behavioral adaptations for thermoregulation, such as altering their feathers. Common ostriches display a feather fluffing behavior that aids them in thermoregulation by regulating convective heat loss at high ambient temperatures. They may also physically seek out shade in times of high ambient temperatures. When feather fluffing, they contract their muscles to raise their feathers to increase the air space next to their skin. This air space provides an insulating thickness of 7 cm (3 in). The ostrich will also expose the thermal windows of their unfeathered skin to enhance convective and radiative loss in times of heat stress. At higher ambient temperatures lower appendage temperature increases to 5 °C (9.0 °F) difference from ambient temperature. Neck surfaces are around 6–7 °C (11–13 °F) difference at most ambient temperatures, except when temperatures are around 25 °C (77 °F) it was only 4 °C (7 °F) above ambient. At low ambient temperatures the common ostrich utilizes feather flattening, which conserves body heat through insulation. The low conductance coefficient of air allows less heat to be lost to the environment. This flattening behavior compensate for common ostrich's rather poor cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL). These feather-heavy areas such as the body, thighs, and wings do not usually vary much from ambient temperatures due to this behavioural controls. This ostrich will also cover its legs to reduce heat loss to the environment, along with undergoing piloerection and shivering when faced with low ambient temperatures. #### Internal adaptations The use of countercurrent heat exchange with blood flow allows for regulated conservation/ elimination of heat of appendages. When ambient temperatures are low, heterotherms will constrict their arterioles to reduce heat loss along skin surfaces. The reverse occurs at high ambient temperatures, arterioles dilate to increase heat loss. At ambient temperatures below their body temperatures (thermal neutral zone (TNZ)), common ostriches decrease body surface temperatures so that heat loss occurs only across about 10% of total surface area. This 10% include critical areas that require blood flow to remain high to prevent freezing, such as their eyes. Their eyes and ears tend to be the warmest regions. It has been found that temperatures of lower appendages were no more than 2.5 °C (4.5 °F) above ambient temperature, which minimizes heat exchange between feet, toes, wings, and legs. Both the Gular and air sacs, being close to body temperature, are the main contributors to heat and water loss. Surface temperature can be affected by the rate of blood flow to a certain area and also by the surface area of the surrounding tissue. The ostrich reduces blood flow to the trachea to cool itself and vasodilates to its blood vessels around the gular region to raise the temperature of the tissue. The air sacs are poorly vascularized but show an increased temperature, which aids in heat loss. Common ostriches have evolved a 'selective brain cooling' mechanism as a means of thermoregulation. This modality allows the common ostrich to manage the temperature of the blood going to the brain in response to the extreme ambient temperature of the surroundings. The morphology for heat exchange occurs via cerebral arteries and the ophthalmic rete, a network of arteries originating from the ophthalmic artery. The ophthalmic rete is analogous to the carotid rete found in mammals, as it also facilitates transfer of heat from arterial blood coming from the core to venous blood returning from the evaporative surfaces at the head. Researchers suggest that common ostriches also employ a 'selective brain warming' mechanism in response to cooler surrounding temperatures in the evenings. The brain was found to maintain a warmer temperature when compared to carotid arterial blood supply. Researchers hypothesize three mechanisms that could explain this finding: 1. They first suggest a possible increase in metabolic heat production within the brain tissue itself to compensate for the colder arterial blood arriving from the core. 2. They also speculate that there is an overall decrease in cerebral blood flow to the brain. 3. Finally, they suggest that warm venous blood perfusion at the ophthalmic rete helps to warm the cerebral blood that supplies the hypothalamus. Further research will need to be done to find how this occurs. #### Breathing adaptations The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO2 concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird's metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way to panting. Both these behaviors allow the ostrich to actively increase the rate of evaporative cooling. In hot temperatures water is lost via respiration. Moreover, varying surface temperatures within the respiratory tract contribute differently to overall heat and water loss through panting. The surface temperature of the gular area is 38 °C (100 °F), that of the tracheal area is between 34 and 36 °C (93 and 97 °F), and that of both anterior and posterior air sacs is 38 °C (100 °F). The long trachea, being cooler than body temperature, is a site of water evaporation. As ambient air becomes hotter, additional evaporation can take place lower in the trachea making its way to the posterior sacs, shunting the lung surface. The trachea acts as a buffer for evaporation because of the length and the controlled vascularization. The Gular is also heavily vascularized; its purpose is for cooling blood, but also evaporation, as previously stated. Air flowing through the trachea can be either laminar or turbulent depending on the state of the bird. When the common ostrich is breathing normally, under no heat stress, air flow is laminar. When the common ostrich is experiencing heat stress from the environment the air flow is considered turbulent. This suggests that laminar air flow causes little to no heat transfer, while under heat stress turbulent airflow can cause maximum heat transfer within the trachea. #### Metabolism Common ostriches are able to attain their necessary energetic requirements via the oxidation of absorbed nutrients. Much of the metabolic rate in animals is dependent upon their allometry, the relationship between body size to shape, anatomy, physiology, and behavior of an animal. Hence, it is plausible to state that metabolic rate in animals with larger masses is greater than animals with a smaller mass. When a bird is inactive and unfed, and the ambient temperature (i.e. in the thermo-neutral zone) is high, the energy expended is at its minimum. This level of expenditure is better known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and can be calculated by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed during various activities. Therefore, in common ostriches we see use of more energy when compared to smaller birds in absolute terms, but less per unit mass. A key point when looking at the common ostrich metabolism is to note that it is a non-passerine bird. Thus, BMR in ostriches is particularly low with a value of only 0.113 mL O2 g−1 h−1. This value can further be described using Kleiber's law, which relates the BMR to the body mass of an animal. Metabolic rate = 70*M*0.75 where *M* is body mass, and metabolic rate is measured in kcal per day. In common ostriches, a BMR (mL O2 g−1 h−1) = 389 kg0.73, describing a line parallel to the intercept with only about 60% in relation to other non-passerine birds. Along with BMR, energy is also needed for a range of other activities. If the ambient temperature is lower than the thermo-neutral zone, heat is produced to maintain body temperature. So, the metabolic rate in a resting, unfed bird, that is producing heat is known as the standard metabolic rate (SMR) or resting metabolic rate (RMR). The common ostrich SMR has been seen to be approximately 0.26 mL O2 g−1 h−1, almost 2.3 times the BMR. On another note, animals that engage in extensive physical activity employ substantial amounts of energy for power. This is known as the maximum metabolic scope. In an ostrich, it is seen to be at least 28 times greater than the BMR. Likewise, the daily energy turnover rate for an ostrich with access to free water is 12,700 kJ d−1, equivalent to 0.26 mL O2 g−1 h−1. Status and conservation ----------------------- The wild common ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years, with most surviving birds in reserves or on farms. However, its range remains very large (9,800,000 km2 or 3,800,000 sq mi), leading the IUCN and BirdLife International to treat it as a species of Least Concern. Of its 5 subspecies, the Arabian ostrich (*S. c. syriacus*) became extinct around 1966. North African ostrich populations are protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning commercial international trade is prohibited and non-commercial trade is strictly regulated. Humans ------ Common ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt. A statue of Arsinoe II of Egypt riding a common ostrich was found in a tomb in Egypt. Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari use ostrich eggshells as water containers, punching a hole in them. They also produce jewelry from it. The presence of such eggshells with engraved hatched symbols dating from the Howiesons Poort period of the Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa suggests common ostriches were an important part of human life as early as 60,000 BP. In Eastern Christianity it is common to hang decorated common ostrich eggs on the chains holding the oil lamps. The initial reason was probably to prevent mice and rats from climbing down the chain to eat the oil. Another, symbolical explanation is based in the fictitious tradition that female common ostriches do not sit on their eggs, but stare at them incessantly until they hatch out, because if they stop staring even for a second the egg will addle. This is equated to the obligation of the Christian to direct his entire attention towards God during prayer, lest the prayer be fruitless. ### "Head in the sand" myth Contrary to popular belief, ostriches do not bury their heads in sand to avoid danger. This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed." This may have been a misunderstanding of their sticking their heads in the sand to swallow sand and pebbles to help digest their fibrous food, or, as National Geographic suggests, of the defensive behavior of lying low, so that they may appear from a distance to have their head buried. Another possible origin for the myth lies with the fact that ostriches keep their eggs in holes in the sand instead of nests and must rotate them using their beaks during incubation; digging the hole, placing the eggs, and rotating them might each be mistaken for an attempt to bury their heads in the sand. ### Economic use In Roman times, there was a demand for common ostriches to use in *venatio* games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times have been popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins are valued for their leather. In the 18th century they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. At the start of the 20th century there were over 700,000 birds in captivity. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins and meat became widespread during the 1970s. Common ostriches have been farmed in South Africa since the beginning of the 19th century. According to Frank G. Carpenter, the English are credited with first taming common ostriches outside Cape Town. Farmers captured baby common ostriches and raised them successfully on their property, and they were able to obtain a crop of feathers every seven to eight months instead of killing wild common ostriches for their feathers. It is claimed that common ostriches produce the strongest commercial leather. Common ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein, and iron. It is considered to be both poultry and red meat. Uncooked, it is dark red or cherry red, a little darker than beef. Ostrich stew is a dish prepared using common ostrich meat. Some common ostrich farms also cater to agri-tourism, which may produce a substantial portion of the farm's income. This may include tours of the farmlands, souvenirs, or even ostrich rides. ### Attacks Common ostriches typically avoid humans in the wild, since they correctly assess humans as potential predators. If approached, they often run away, but sometimes ostriches can be very aggressive when threatened, especially if cornered, and may also attack if they feel the need to defend their territories or offspring. Similar behaviors are noted in captive or domesticated common ostriches, which retain the same natural instincts and can occasionally respond aggressively to stress. When attacking a person, common ostriches deliver slashing kicks with their powerful feet, armed with long claws, with which they can disembowel or kill a person with a single blow. In one study of common ostrich attacks, it was estimated that two to three attacks that result in serious injury or death occur each year in the area of Oudtshoorn, South Africa, where a large number of common ostrich farms are set next to both feral and wild common ostrich populations. ### Racing In some countries, people race each other on the backs of common ostriches. The practice is common in Africa and is relatively unusual elsewhere. The common ostriches are ridden in the same way as horses with special saddles, reins, and bits. However, they are harder to manage than horses. The practice is becoming less common due to ethical concerns, and nowadays ostrich farms set a limit weight for people to ride ostriches, making the activity mostly suited for children and smaller adults. The racing is also a part of modern South African culture. Within the United States, a tourist attraction in Jacksonville, Florida, called 'The Ostrich Farm' opened up in 1892; it and its races became one of the most famous early attractions in the history of Florida. Likewise, the arts scene in Indio, California, consists of both ostrich and camel racing. Chandler, Arizona, hosts the annual "Ostrich Festival", which features common ostrich races. Racing has also occurred at many other locations such as Virginia City in Nevada, Canterbury Park in Minnesota, Prairie Meadows in Iowa, Ellis Park in Kentucky, and the Fairgrounds in New Orleans, Louisiana. Further reading --------------- * Cooper, J. C. (1992). *Symbolic and Mythological Animals*. New York, NY: Harpercollins. pp. 170–171. ISBN 978-1-85538-118-6. * Folch, A. (1992). "Family Struthionidae (Ostrich)". In del Hoya, Josep; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.). *Handbook of the Birds of the World*. Vol. 1, Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. pp. 76–83. ISBN 978-84-87334-09-2. * O'Shea, Michael Vincent; Foster, Ellsworth D.; Locke, George Herbert, eds. (1918). *Ostrich*. Vol. 6. Chicago, IL: The World Book, Inc. pp. 4422–4424.

Common ostrich

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_ostrich

**Pain** is a distressing feeling often caused by intense or damaging stimuli. The International Association for the Study of Pain defines pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with, or resembling that associated with, actual or potential tissue damage." Pain motivates organisms to withdraw from damaging situations, to protect a damaged body part while it heals, and to avoid similar experiences in the future. Most pain resolves once the noxious stimulus is removed and the body has healed, but it may persist despite removal of the stimulus and apparent healing of the body. Sometimes pain arises in the absence of any detectable stimulus, damage or disease. Pain is the most common reason for physician consultation in most developed countries. It is a major symptom in many medical conditions, and can interfere with a person's quality of life and general functioning. People in pain experience impaired concentration, working memory, mental flexibility, problem solving and information processing speed, and are more likely to experience irritability, depression and anxiety. Simple pain medications are useful in 20% to 70% of cases. Psychological factors such as social support, cognitive behavioral therapy, excitement, or distraction can affect pain's intensity or unpleasantness. Etymology --------- First attested in English in 1297, the word *peyn* comes from the Old French *peine*, in turn from Latin *poena* meaning "punishment, penalty" (also meaning "torment, hardship, suffering" in Late Latin) and that from Greek ποινή (*poine*), generally meaning "price paid, penalty, punishment". Classification -------------- The International Association for the Study of Pain recommends using specific features to describe a patient's pain: 1. region of the body involved (e.g. abdomen, lower limbs), 2. system whose dysfunction may be causing the pain (e.g., nervous, gastrointestinal), 3. duration and pattern of occurrence, 4. intensity, and 5. cause ### Chronic versus acute Pain is usually transitory, lasting only until the noxious stimulus is removed or the underlying damage or pathology has healed, but some painful conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, peripheral neuropathy, cancer and idiopathic pain, may persist for years. Pain that lasts a long time is called "chronic" or "persistent", and pain that resolves quickly is called "acute". Traditionally, the distinction between acute and chronic pain has relied upon an arbitrary interval of time between onset and resolution; the two most commonly used markers being 3 months and 6 months since the onset of pain, though some theorists and researchers have placed the transition from acute to chronic pain at 12 months. Others apply "acute" to pain that lasts less than 30 days, "chronic" to pain of more than six months' duration, and "subacute" to pain that lasts from one to six months. A popular alternative definition of "chronic pain", involving no arbitrarily fixed duration, is "pain that extends beyond the expected period of healing". Chronic pain may be classified as "cancer-related" or "benign." ### Allodynia Allodynia is pain experienced in response to a normally painless stimulus. It has no biological function and is classified by stimuli into dynamic mechanical, punctate and static. ### Phantom Phantom pain is pain felt in a part of the body that has been amputated, or from which the brain no longer receives signals. It is a type of neuropathic pain. The prevalence of phantom pain in upper limb amputees is nearly 82%, and in lower limb amputees is 54%. One study found that eight days after amputation, 72% of patients had phantom limb pain, and six months later, 67% reported it. Some amputees experience continuous pain that varies in intensity or quality; others experience several bouts of pain per day, or it may reoccur less often. It is often described as shooting, crushing, burning or cramping. If the pain is continuous for a long period, parts of the intact body may become sensitized, so that touching them evokes pain in the phantom limb. Phantom limb pain may accompany urination or defecation. Local anesthetic injections into the nerves or sensitive areas of the stump may relieve pain for days, weeks, or sometimes permanently, despite the drug wearing off in a matter of hours; and small injections of hypertonic saline into the soft tissue between vertebrae produces local pain that radiates into the phantom limb for ten minutes or so and may be followed by hours, weeks or even longer of partial or total relief from phantom pain. Vigorous vibration or electrical stimulation of the stump, or current from electrodes surgically implanted onto the spinal cord, all produce relief in some patients. Mirror box therapy produces the illusion of movement and touch in a phantom limb which in turn may cause a reduction in pain. Paraplegia, the loss of sensation and voluntary motor control after serious spinal cord damage, may be accompanied by girdle pain at the level of the spinal cord damage, visceral pain evoked by a filling bladder or bowel, or, in five to ten per cent of paraplegics, phantom body pain in areas of complete sensory loss. This phantom body pain is initially described as burning or tingling but may evolve into severe crushing or pinching pain, or the sensation of fire running down the legs or of a knife twisting in the flesh. Onset may be immediate or may not occur until years after the disabling injury. Surgical treatment rarely provides lasting relief. ### Breakthrough Breakthrough pain is transitory pain that comes on suddenly and is not alleviated by the patient's regular pain management. It is common in cancer patients who often have background pain that is generally well-controlled by medications, but who also sometimes experience bouts of severe pain that from time to time "breaks through" the medication. The characteristics of breakthrough cancer pain vary from person to person and according to the cause. Management of breakthrough pain can entail intensive use of opioids, including fentanyl. ### Asymbolia and insensitivity The ability to experience pain is essential for protection from injury, and recognition of the presence of injury. Episodic analgesia may occur under special circumstances, such as in the excitement of sport or war: a soldier on the battlefield may feel no pain for many hours from a traumatic amputation or other severe injury. Although unpleasantness is an essential part of the IASP definition of pain, it is possible to induce a state described as intense pain devoid of unpleasantness in some patients, with morphine injection or psychosurgery. Such patients report that they have pain but are not bothered by it; they recognize the sensation of pain but suffer little, or not at all. Indifference to pain can also rarely be present from birth; these people have normal nerves on medical investigations, and find pain unpleasant, but do not avoid repetition of the pain stimulus. Insensitivity to pain may also result from abnormalities in the nervous system. This is usually the result of acquired damage to the nerves, such as spinal cord injury, diabetes mellitus (diabetic neuropathy), or leprosy in countries where that disease is prevalent. These individuals are at risk of tissue damage and infection due to undiscovered injuries. People with diabetes-related nerve damage, for instance, sustain poorly-healing foot ulcers as a result of decreased sensation. A much smaller number of people are insensitive to pain due to an inborn abnormality of the nervous system, known as "congenital insensitivity to pain". Children with this condition incur carelessly-repeated damage to their tongues, eyes, joints, skin, and muscles. Some die before adulthood, and others have a reduced life expectancy. Most people with congenital insensitivity to pain have one of five hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathies (which includes familial dysautonomia and congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis). These conditions feature decreased sensitivity to pain together with other neurological abnormalities, particularly of the autonomic nervous system. A very rare syndrome with isolated congenital insensitivity to pain has been linked with mutations in the *SCN9A* gene, which codes for a sodium channel (Nav1.7) necessary in conducting pain nerve stimuli. Functional effects ------------------ Experimental subjects challenged by acute pain and patients in chronic pain experience impairments in attention control, working memory, mental flexibility, problem solving, and information processing speed. Acute and chronic pain are also associated with increased depression, anxiety, fear, and anger. > If I have matters right, the consequences of pain will include direct physical distress, unemployment, financial difficulties, marital disharmony, and difficulties in concentration and attention… > > — Harold Merskey 2000 ### On subsequent negative emotion Although pain is considered to be aversive and unpleasant and is therefore usually avoided, a meta-analysis which summarized and evaluated numerous studies from various psychological disciplines, found a reduction in negative affect. Across studies, participants that were subjected to acute physical pain in the laboratory subsequently reported feeling better than those in non-painful control conditions, a finding which was also reflected in physiological parameters. A potential mechanism to explain this effect is provided by the opponent-process theory. Theory ------ ### Historical Before the relatively recent discovery of neurons and their role in pain, various different body functions were proposed to account for pain. There were several competing early theories of pain among the ancient Greeks: Hippocrates believed that it was due to an imbalance in vital fluids. In the 11th century, Avicenna theorized that there were a number of feeling senses including touch, pain and titillation. In 1644, René Descartes theorized that pain was a disturbance that passed along nerve fibers until the disturbance reached the brain. Descartes's work, along with Avicenna's, prefigured the 19th-century development of specificity theory. Specificity theory saw pain as "a specific sensation, with its own sensory apparatus independent of touch and other senses". Another theory that came to prominence in the 18th and 19th centuries was intensive theory, which conceived of pain not as a unique sensory modality, but an emotional state produced by stronger than normal stimuli such as intense light, pressure or temperature. By the mid-1890s, specificity was backed mostly by physiologists and physicians, and the intensive theory was mostly backed by psychologists. However, after a series of clinical observations by Henry Head and experiments by Max von Frey, the psychologists migrated to specificity almost en masse, and by century's end, most textbooks on physiology and psychology were presenting pain specificity as fact. ### Modern Some sensory fibers do not differentiate between noxious and non-noxious stimuli, while others, nociceptors, respond only to noxious, high intensity stimuli. At the peripheral end of the nociceptor, noxious stimuli generate currents that, above a given threshold, send signals along the nerve fiber to the spinal cord. The "specificity" (whether it responds to thermal, chemical or mechanical features of its environment) of a nociceptor is determined by which ion channels it expresses at its peripheral end. Dozens of different types of nociceptor ion channels have so far been identified, and their exact functions are still being determined. The pain signal travels from the periphery to the spinal cord along A-delta and C fibers. Because the A-delta fiber is thicker than the C fiber, and is thinly sheathed in an electrically insulating material (myelin), it carries its signal faster (5–30 m/s) than the unmyelinated C fiber (0.5–2 m/s). Pain evoked by the A-delta fibers is described as sharp and is felt first. This is followed by a duller pain, often described as burning, carried by the C fibers. These A-delta and C fibers enter the spinal cord via Lissauer's tract and connect with spinal cord nerve fibers in the central gelatinous substance of the spinal cord. These spinal cord fibers then cross the cord via the anterior white commissure and ascend in the spinothalamic tract. Before reaching the brain, the spinothalamic tract splits into the lateral, neospinothalamic tract and the medial, paleospinothalamic tract. The neospinothalamic tract carries the fast, sharp A-delta signal to the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus. The paleospinothalamic tract carries the slow, dull, C-fiber pain signal. Some of the paleospinothalamic fibers peel off in the brain stem, connecting with the reticular formation or midbrain periaqueductal gray, and the remainder terminate in the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. Pain-related activity in the thalamus spreads to the insular cortex (thought to embody, among other things, the feeling that distinguishes pain from other homeostatic emotions such as itch and nausea) and anterior cingulate cortex (thought to embody, among other things, the affective/motivational element, the unpleasantness of pain), and pain that is distinctly located also activates primary and secondary somatosensory cortex. Spinal cord fibers dedicated to carrying A-delta fiber pain signals, and others that carry both A-delta and C fiber pain signals to the thalamus have been identified. Other spinal cord fibers, known as wide dynamic range neurons, respond to A-delta and C fibers, but also to the much larger, more heavily myelinated A-beta fibers that carry touch, pressure and vibration signals. Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall introduced their gate control theory in the 1965 *Science* article "Pain Mechanisms: A New Theory". The authors proposed that the thin C and A-delta (pain) and large diameter A-beta (touch, pressure, vibration) nerve fibers carry information from the site of injury to two destinations in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, and that A-beta fiber signals acting on inhibitory cells in the dorsal horn can reduce the intensity of pain signals sent to the brain. #### Three dimensions of pain In 1968 Ronald Melzack and Kenneth Casey described chronic pain in terms of its three dimensions: * "sensory-discriminative" (sense of the intensity, location, quality and duration of the pain), * "affective-motivational" (unpleasantness and urge to escape the unpleasantness), and * "cognitive-evaluative" (cognitions such as appraisal, cultural values, distraction and hypnotic suggestion). They theorized that pain intensity (the sensory discriminative dimension) and unpleasantness (the affective-motivational dimension) are not simply determined by the magnitude of the painful stimulus, but "higher" cognitive activities can influence perceived intensity and unpleasantness. Cognitive activities may affect both sensory and affective experience or they may modify primarily the affective-motivational dimension. Thus, excitement in games or war appears to block both the sensory-discriminative and affective-motivational dimensions of pain, while suggestion and placebos may modulate only the affective-motivational dimension and leave the sensory-discriminative dimension relatively undisturbed. (p. 432) The paper ends with a call to action: "Pain can be treated not only by trying to cut down the sensory input by anesthetic block, surgical intervention and the like, but also by influencing the motivational-affective and cognitive factors as well." (p. 435) Evolutionary and behavioral role -------------------------------- Pain is part of the body's defense system, producing a reflexive retraction from the painful stimulus, and tendencies to protect the affected body part while it heals, and avoid that harmful situation in the future. It is an important part of animal life, vital to healthy survival. People with congenital insensitivity to pain have reduced life expectancy. In *The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution*, biologist Richard Dawkins addresses the question of why pain should have the quality of being painful. He describes the alternative as a mental raising of a "red flag". To argue why that red flag might be insufficient, Dawkins argues that drives must compete with one other within living beings. The most "fit" creature would be the one whose pains are well balanced. Those pains which mean certain death when ignored will become the most powerfully felt. The relative intensities of pain, then, may resemble the relative importance of that risk to our ancestors. This resemblance will not be perfect, however, because natural selection can be a poor designer. This may have maladaptive results such as supernormal stimuli. Pain, however, does not only wave a "red flag" within living beings but may also act as a warning sign and a call for help to other living beings. Especially in humans who readily helped each other in case of sickness or injury throughout their evolutionary history, pain might be shaped by natural selection to be a credible and convincing signal of need for relief, help, and care. Idiopathic pain (pain that persists after the trauma or pathology has healed, or that arises without any apparent cause) may be an exception to the idea that pain is helpful to survival, although some psychodynamic psychologists argue that such pain is psychogenic, enlisted as a protective distraction to keep dangerous emotions unconscious. Thresholds ---------- In pain science, thresholds are measured by gradually increasing the intensity of a stimulus in a procedure called quantitative sensory testing which involves such stimuli as electric current, thermal (heat or cold), mechanical (pressure, touch, vibration), ischemic, or chemical stimuli applied to the subject to evoke a response. The "pain perception threshold" is the point at which the subject begins to feel pain, and the "pain threshold intensity" is the stimulus intensity at which the stimulus begins to hurt. The "pain tolerance threshold" is reached when the subject acts to stop the pain. Assessment ---------- A person's self-report is the most reliable measure of pain. Some health care professionals may underestimate pain severity. A definition of pain widely employed in nursing, emphasizing its subjective nature and the importance of believing patient reports, was introduced by Margo McCaffery in 1968: "Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is, existing whenever he says it does". To assess intensity, the patient may be asked to locate their pain on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 being no pain at all, and 10 the worst pain they have ever felt. Quality can be established by having the patient complete the McGill Pain Questionnaire indicating which words best describe their pain. ### Visual analogue scale The visual analogue scale is a common, reproducible tool in the assessment of pain and pain relief. The scale is a continuous line anchored by verbal descriptors, one for each extreme of pain where a higher score indicates greater pain intensity. It is usually 10 cm in length with no intermediate descriptors as to avoid marking of scores around a preferred numeric value. When applied as a pain descriptor, these anchors are often 'no pain' and 'worst imaginable pain". Cut-offs for pain classification have been recommended as no pain (0–4mm), mild pain (5–44mm), moderate pain (45–74mm) and severe pain (75–100mm).[*check quotation syntax*] ### Multidimensional pain inventory The Multidimensional Pain Inventory (MPI) is a questionnaire designed to assess the psychosocial state of a person with chronic pain. Combining the MPI characterization of the person with their IASP five-category pain profile is recommended for deriving the most useful case description. ### Assessment in non-verbal people Non-verbal people cannot use words to tell others that they are experiencing pain. However, they may be able to communicate through other means, such as blinking, pointing, or nodding. With a non-communicative person, observation becomes critical, and specific behaviors can be monitored as pain indicators. Behaviors such as facial grimacing and guarding (trying to protect part of the body from being bumped or touched) indicate pain, as well as an increase or decrease in vocalizations, changes in routine behavior patterns and mental status changes. Patients experiencing pain may exhibit withdrawn social behavior and possibly experience a decreased appetite and decreased nutritional intake. A change in condition that deviates from baseline, such as moaning with movement or when manipulating a body part, and limited range of motion are also potential pain indicators. In patients who possess language but are incapable of expressing themselves effectively, such as those with dementia, an increase in confusion or display of aggressive behaviors or agitation may signal that discomfort exists, and further assessment is necessary. Changes in behavior may be noticed by caregivers who are familiar with the person's normal behavior. Infants do feel pain, but lack the language needed to report it, and so communicate distress by crying. A non-verbal pain assessment should be conducted involving the parents, who will notice changes in the infant which may not be obvious to the health care provider. Pre-term babies are more sensitive to painful stimuli than those carried to full term. Another approach, when pain is suspected, is to give the person treatment for pain, and then watch to see whether the suspected indicators of pain subside. ### Other reporting barriers The way in which one experiences and responds to pain is related to sociocultural characteristics, such as gender, ethnicity, and age. An aging adult may not respond to pain in the same way that a younger person might. Their ability to recognize pain may be blunted by illness or the use of medication. Depression may also keep older adult from reporting they are in pain. Decline in self-care may also indicate the older adult is experiencing pain. They may be reluctant to report pain because they do not want to be perceived as weak, or may feel it is impolite or shameful to complain, or they may feel the pain is a form of deserved punishment. Cultural barriers may also affect the likelihood of reporting pain. Patients may feel that certain treatments go against their religious beliefs. They may not report pain because they feel it is a sign that death is near. Many people fear the stigma of addiction, and avoid pain treatment so as not to be prescribed potentially addicting drugs. Many Asians do not want to lose respect in society by admitting they are in pain and need help, believing the pain should be borne in silence, while other cultures feel they should report pain immediately to receive immediate relief. Gender can also be a perceived factor in reporting pain. Gender differences can be the result of social and cultural expectations, with women expected to be more emotional and show pain, and men more stoic. As a result, female pain is often stigmatized, leading to less urgent treatment of women based on social expectations of their ability to accurately report it. This leads to extended emergency room wait times for women and frequent dismissal of their ability to accurately report pain. ### Diagnostic aid Pain is a symptom of many medical conditions. Knowing the time of onset, location, intensity, pattern of occurrence (continuous, intermittent, etc.), exacerbating and relieving factors, and quality (burning, sharp, etc.) of the pain will help the examining physician to accurately diagnose the problem. For example, chest pain described as extreme heaviness may indicate myocardial infarction, while chest pain described as tearing may indicate aortic dissection. ### Physiological measurement Functional magnetic resonance imaging brain scanning has been used to measure pain, and correlates well with self-reported pain. Mechanisms ---------- ### Nociceptive Nociceptive pain is caused by stimulation of sensory nerve fibers that respond to stimuli approaching or exceeding harmful intensity (nociceptors), and may be classified according to the mode of noxious stimulation. The most common categories are "thermal" (e.g. heat or cold), "mechanical" (e.g. crushing, tearing, shearing, etc.) and "chemical" (e.g. iodine in a cut or chemicals released during inflammation). Some nociceptors respond to more than one of these modalities and are consequently designated polymodal. Nociceptive pain may also be classed according to the site of origin and divided into "visceral", "deep somatic" and "superficial somatic" pain. Visceral structures (e.g., the heart, liver and intestines) are highly sensitive to stretch, ischemia and inflammation, but relatively insensitive to other stimuli that normally evoke pain in other structures, such as burning and cutting. Visceral pain is diffuse, difficult to locate and often referred to a distant, usually superficial, structure. It may be accompanied by nausea and vomiting and may be described as sickening, deep, squeezing, and dull. *Deep somatic* pain is initiated by stimulation of nociceptors in ligaments, tendons, bones, blood vessels, fasciae and muscles, and is dull, aching, poorly-localized pain. Examples include sprains and broken bones. *Superficial somatic* pain is initiated by activation of nociceptors in the skin or other superficial tissue, and is sharp, well-defined and clearly located. Examples of injuries that produce superficial somatic pain include minor wounds and minor (first degree) burns. ### Neuropathic Neuropathic pain is caused by damage or disease affecting any part of the nervous system involved in bodily feelings (the somatosensory system). Neuropathic pain may be divided into peripheral, central, or mixed (peripheral and central) neuropathic pain. Peripheral neuropathic pain is often described as "burning", "tingling", "electrical", "stabbing", or "pins and needles". Bumping the "funny bone" elicits acute peripheral neuropathic pain. Some manifestations of neuropathic pain include: traumatic neuropathy, tic douloureux, painful diabetic neuropathy, and postherpetic neuralgia. ### Nociplastic Nociplastic pain is pain characterized by a changed nociception (but without evidence of real or threatened tissue damage, or without disease or damage in the somatosensory system). ### Psychogenic Psychogenic pain, also called *psychalgia* or *somatoform pain*, is pain caused, increased or prolonged by mental, emotional or behavioral factors. Headache, back pain and stomach pain are sometimes diagnosed as psychogenic. Those affected are often stigmatized, because both medical professionals and the general public tend to think that pain from a psychological source is not "real". However, specialists consider that it is no less actual or hurtful than pain from any other source. People with long-term pain frequently display psychological disturbance, with elevated scores on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory scales of hysteria, depression and hypochondriasis (the "neurotic triad"). Some investigators have argued that it is this neuroticism that causes acute pain to turn chronic, but clinical evidence points the other direction, to chronic pain causing neuroticism. When long-term pain is relieved by therapeutic intervention, scores on the neurotic triad and anxiety fall, often to normal levels. Self-esteem, often low in chronic pain patients, also shows improvement once pain has resolved. Management ---------- Pain can be treated through a variety of methods. The most appropriate method depends upon the situation. Management of chronic pain can be difficult and may require the coordinated efforts of a pain management team, which typically includes medical practitioners, clinical pharmacists, clinical psychologists, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners. Inadequate treatment of pain is widespread throughout surgical wards, intensive care units, and accident and emergency departments, in general practice, in the management of all forms of chronic pain including cancer pain, and in end of life care. This neglect extends to all ages, from newborns to medically frail elderly. In the US, African and Hispanic Americans are more likely than others to suffer unnecessarily while in the care of a physician; and women's pain is more likely to be undertreated than men's. The International Association for the Study of Pain advocates that the relief of pain should be recognized as a human right, that chronic pain should be considered a disease in its own right, and that pain medicine should have the full status of a medical specialty. It is a specialty only in China and Australia at this time. Elsewhere, pain medicine is a subspecialty under disciplines such as anesthesiology, physiatry, neurology, palliative medicine and psychiatry. In 2011, Human Rights Watch alerted that tens of millions of people worldwide are still denied access to inexpensive medications for severe pain. ### Medication Acute pain is usually managed with medications such as analgesics and anesthetics. Caffeine when added to pain medications such as ibuprofen, may provide some additional benefit. Ketamine can be used instead of opioids for short-term pain. Pain medications can cause paradoxical side effects, such as opioid-induced hyperalgesia (severe generalized pain caused by long-term opioid use). Sugar (sucrose) when taken by mouth reduces pain in newborn babies undergoing some medical procedures (a lancing of the heel, venipuncture, and intramuscular injections). Sugar does not remove pain from circumcision, and it is unknown if sugar reduces pain for other procedures. Sugar did not affect pain-related electrical activity in the brains of newborns one second after the heel lance procedure. Sweet liquid by mouth moderately reduces the rate and duration of crying caused by immunization injection in children between one and twelve months of age. ### Psychological Individuals with more social support experience less cancer pain, take less pain medication, report less labor pain and are less likely to use epidural anesthesia during childbirth, or suffer from chest pain after coronary artery bypass surgery. Suggestion can significantly affect pain intensity. About 35% of people report marked relief after receiving a saline injection they believed to be morphine. This placebo effect is more pronounced in people who are prone to anxiety, and so anxiety reduction may account for some of the effect, but it does not account for all of it. Placebos are more effective for intense pain than mild pain; and they produce progressively weaker effects with repeated administration. It is possible for many with chronic pain to become so absorbed in an activity or entertainment that the pain is no longer felt, or is greatly diminished. A number of meta-analyses have found clinical hypnosis to be effective in controlling pain associated with diagnostic and surgical procedures in both adults and children, as well as pain associated with cancer and childbirth. A 2007 review of 13 studies found evidence for the efficacy of hypnosis in the reduction of chronic pain under some conditions, though the number of patients enrolled in the studies was low, raising issues related to the statistical power to detect group differences, and most lacked credible controls for placebo or expectation. The authors concluded that "although the findings provide support for the general applicability of hypnosis in the treatment of chronic pain, considerably more research will be needed to fully determine the effects of hypnosis for different chronic-pain conditions." ### Alternative medicine An analysis of the 13 highest quality studies of pain treatment with acupuncture, published in January 2009, concluded there was little difference in the effect of real, faked and no acupuncture. However, more recent reviews have found some benefit. Additionally, there is tentative evidence for a few herbal medicines. There has been some interest in the relationship between vitamin D and pain, but the evidence so far from controlled trials for such a relationship, other than in osteomalacia, is inconclusive. For chronic (long-term) lower back pain, spinal manipulation produces tiny, clinically insignificant, short-term improvements in pain and function, compared with sham therapy and other interventions. Spinal manipulation produces the same outcome as other treatments, such as general practitioner care, pain-relief drugs, physical therapy, and exercise, for acute (short-term) lower back pain. Epidemiology ------------ Pain is the main reason for visiting an emergency department in more than 50% of cases, and is present in 30% of family practice visits. Several epidemiological studies have reported widely varying prevalence rates for chronic pain, ranging from 12 to 80% of the population. It becomes more common as people approach death. A study of 4,703 patients found that 26% had pain in the last two years of life, increasing to 46% in the last month. A survey of 6,636 children (0–18 years of age) found that, of the 5,424 respondents, 54% had experienced pain in the preceding three months. A quarter reported having experienced recurrent or continuous pain for three months or more, and a third of these reported frequent and intense pain. The intensity of chronic pain was higher for girls, and girls' reports of chronic pain increased markedly between ages 12 and 14. Society and culture ------------------- Physical pain is a universal experience, and a strong motivator of human and animal behavior. As such, physical pain is used politically in relation to various issues such as pain management policy, drug control, animal rights or animal welfare, torture, and pain compliance. The deliberate infliction of pain and the medical management of pain are both important aspects of biopower, a concept that encompasses the "set of mechanisms through which the basic biological features of the human species became the object of a political strategy". In various contexts, the deliberate infliction of pain in the form of corporal punishment is used as retribution for an offence, for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable. In Western societies, the intentional infliction of severe pain (torture) was principally used to extract confession prior to its abolition in the latter part of the 19th century. Torture as a means to punish the citizen has been reserved for offences posing severe threat to the social fabric (for example, treason). The administration of torture on bodies othered by the cultural narrative, those observed as not 'full members of society' met a resurgence in the 20th century, possibly due to the heightened warfare. Many cultures use painful ritual practices as a catalyst for psychological transformation. The use of pain to transition to a 'cleansed and purified' state is seen in Catholic self-flagellation practices, or personal catharsis in neo-primitive body suspension experiences. Beliefs about pain play an important role in sporting cultures. Pain may be viewed positively, exemplified by the 'no pain, no gain' attitude, with pain seen as an essential part of training. Sporting culture tends to normalise experiences of pain and injury and celebrate athletes who 'play hurt'. Pain has psychological, social, and physical dimensions, and is greatly influenced by cultural factors. Non-humans ---------- René Descartes argued that animals lack consciousness and therefore do not experience pain and suffering in the way that humans do. Bernard Rollin of Colorado State University, the principal author of two U.S. federal laws regulating pain relief for animals, wrote that researchers remained unsure into the 1980s as to whether animals experience pain, and that veterinarians trained in the U.S. before 1989 were simply taught to ignore animal pain. The ability of invertebrate species of animals, such as insects, to feel pain and suffering is unclear. Specialists believe that all vertebrates can feel pain, and that certain invertebrates, like the octopus, may also. The presence of pain in animals is unknown, but can be inferred through physical and behavioral reactions, such as paw withdrawal from various noxious mechanical stimuli in rodents. While plants, as living beings, can perceive and communicate physical stimuli and damage, they do not feel pain simply because of the lack of any pain receptors, nerves, or a brain, and, by extension, lack of consciousness. Many plants are known to perceive and respond to mechanical stimuli at a cellular level, and some plants such as the venus flytrap or touch-me-not, are known for their "obvious sensory abilities". Nevertheless, the plant kingdom as a whole do not feel pain notwithstanding their abilities to respond to sunlight, gravity, wind, and any external stimuli such as insect bites, since they lack any nervous system. The primary reason for this is that, unlike the members of the animal kingdom whose evolutionary successes and failures are shaped by suffering, the evolution of plants are simply shaped by life and death. See also -------- * Feeling, a perceptual state of conscious experience. * Hedonic adaptation, the tendency to quickly return to a relatively stable level of happiness despite major positive or negative events * Pain (philosophy), the branch of philosophy concerned with suffering and physical pain * Pain and suffering, the legal term for the physical and emotional stress caused from an injury Explanatory notes ----------------- 1. ↑ For example, lack of food, extreme cold, or serious injuries are felt as exceptionally painful, whereas minor damage is felt as mere discomfort. 2. ↑ Rollin drafted the 1985 Health Research Extension Act and an animal welfare amendment to the 1985 Food Security Act. * Casey K (2019). *Chasing Pain: The Search for a Neurobiological Mechanism*. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0190880231.

Pain

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain

The **history of Europe** is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD 500), the Middle Ages (AD 500 to AD 1500), and the modern era (since AD 1500). The first early European modern humans appear in the fossil record about 48,000 years ago, during the Paleolithic Era. People from this period left behind numerous artifacts, including works of art, burial sites, and tools, allowing some reconstruction of their society. Settled agriculture marked the Neolithic Era, which spread slowly across Europe from southeast to the north and west. The later Neolithic period saw the introduction of early metallurgy and the use of copper-based tools and weapons, and the building of megalithic structures, as exemplified by Stonehenge. During the Indo-European migrations, Europe saw migrations from the east and southeast. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of ancient Greece. Some of the earliest examples of literature, history, and philosophy come from the writings of the ancient Greeks, such as Homer, Herodotus, and Plato. Later, the Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. The Migration Period of the Germanic people began in the late 4th century AD and made gradual incursions into various parts of the Roman Empire. As these migratory people settled down and formed state societies of their own, this marked the transition period out of the classical era. The Fall of the Western Roman Empire in AD 476 traditionally marks the start of the Middle Ages. While the Eastern Roman Empire would continue for another 1000 years, the former lands of the Western Empire would be fragmented into a number of different states. At the same time, the early Slavs began to become established as a distinct group in the central and eastern parts of Europe. The first great empire of the Middle Ages was the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne, while the Islamic conquest of Iberia established Al-Andalus. The Viking Age saw a second great migration of Norse peoples. Attempts to retake the Levant from the Muslim states that occupied it made the High Middle Ages the age of The Crusades, while the political system of feudalism came to its height. The Late Middle Ages were marked by large population declines, as Europe was threatened by the Bubonic Plague, as well as invasions by the Mongol peoples from the Eurasian Steppe. At the end of the Middle Ages, there was a transitional period, known as the Renaissance. Early Modern Europe is usually dated to the end of the 15th century. Technological changes such as gunpowder and the printing press changed how warfare was conducted and how knowledge was preserved and disseminated. The Protestant Reformation saw the fragmentation of religious thought, leading to religious wars. The Age of Exploration led to colonization, and the exploitation of the people and resources of colonies brought resources and wealth to Europe. After 1800, the Industrial Revolution brought capital accumulation and rapid urbanization to Western Europe, while several countries transitioned away from absolutist rule to parliamentary regimes. The Age of Revolutions saw long-established political systems upset and turned over. In the 20th century, World War I led to a remaking of the map of Europe as the large Empires were broken up into nation-states. Lingering political issues would lead to World War II, during which Nazi Germany perpetrated the Holocaust. After World War II, during the Cold War, most of Europe became divided by the Iron Curtain in two military blocs: NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The post-war period saw decolonization as Western European colonial empires were dismantled. The post-war period also featured the gradual development of the European integration process, which led to the creation of the European Union; this extended to Eastern European countries after the Fall of the Berlin Wall. The 21st century saw the European debt crisis, the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Overview -------- During the Neolithic era (starting at c. 7000 BC) and the time of the Indo-European migrations (starting at c. 4000 BC.) Europe saw massive migrations from the east and southeast which also brought agriculture, new technologies, and the Indo-European languages, primarily through the areas of the Balkan peninsula and the Black sea region. Some of the most prominent civilizations of the late prehistoric Europe were the Minoan and the Mycenaean, which flourished during the Bronze Age until they collapsed in a short period of time around 1200 BC. The period known as classical antiquity began with the emergence of the city-states of Ancient Greece. After ultimately checking the Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars in the 5th century BC, Greek influence reached its zenith under the expansive empire of Alexander the Great, spreading throughout Asia, Africa, and other parts of Europe. The Thracians, their powerful Odrysian kingdom, distinct culture and architecture were long present in Southeast Europe. The Roman Empire came to dominate the entire Mediterranean basin. By 300 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and Eastern empires. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe, pressed by the Huns, grew in strength and led repeated attacks that resulted in the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. The Western empire's collapse in AD 476 traditionally marks the end of the classical period and the start of the Middle Ages. In Western Europe, Germanic peoples became more powerful in the remnants of the former Western Roman Empire and established kingdoms and empires of their own. Of all of the Germanic peoples, the Franks would rise to a position of hegemony over Western Europe, the Frankish Empire reaching its peak under Charlemagne around 800. This empire was later divided into several parts; West Francia would evolve into the Kingdom of France, while East Francia would evolve into the Holy Roman Empire, a precursor to modern Germany and Italy. The British Isles were the site of several large-scale migrations. The Byzantine Empire – the eastern part of the Roman Empire, with its capital Constantinople, flourished for the next 1000 years. During most of its existence, the empire was the most dominant of all, and also the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. The powerful and long lived Bulgarian Empire was its main competitor in the region of Southeast Europe for centuries. Byzantine art, architecture, political dominance, and Bulgarian cultural and linguistic achievements left a great legacy in Orthodox and Slavic Europe and beyond through the Middle Ages to this day. The Viking Age, a period of migrations of Scandinavian peoples, occurred from the late 8th century to the middle 11th century. The Normans, descendants of the Vikings who settled in Northern France, had a significant impact on many parts of Europe, from the Norman conquest of England to Sicily. The Rus' people founded Kievan Rus', which evolved into Russia. After 1000 the Crusades were a series of religiously motivated military expeditions originally intended to bring the Levant back under Christian rule. The Crusaders opened trade routes which enabled the merchant republics of Genoa and Venice to become major economic powers. The Reconquista, a related movement, worked to reconquer Iberia for Christendom. Eastern Europe in the High Middle Ages was dominated by the rise and fall of the Mongol Empire. Led by Genghis Khan, the Mongols were a group of steppe nomads who established a decentralized empire which, at its height, extended from China in the east to the Black and Baltic Seas in Europe. As Mongol power waned towards the Late Middle Ages, the Grand Duchy of Moscow rose to become the strongest of the numerous Russian principalities and republics and would grow into the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. The Late Middle Ages represented a period of upheaval in Europe. The pandemic known as the Black Death and an associated famine caused demographic catastrophe in Europe as the population plummeted. Dynastic struggles and wars of conquest kept many of the states of Europe at war for much of the period. In Scandinavia, the Kalmar Union dominated the political landscape, while England fought with Scotland in the Wars of Scottish Independence and with France in the Hundred Years' War. In Central Europe, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became a large territorial empire, while the Holy Roman Empire, which was an elective monarchy, came to be dominated for centuries by the House of Habsburg. Russia continued to expand southward and eastward into former Mongol lands. In the Balkans, the Ottoman Empire overran Byzantine lands, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, which historians mark as the end of the Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century in Florence and later spreading through Europe, a Renaissance of knowledge challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. The rediscovery of classical Greek and Roman knowledge had an enormous liberating effect on intellectuals. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. Henry VIII seized control of the English Church and its lands. The European religious wars were fought between German and Spanish rulers. The Reconquista ended Muslim rule in Iberia. By the 1490s a series of oceanic explorations marked the Age of Discovery, establishing direct links with Africa, the Americas, and Asia. Religious wars continued to be fought in Europe, until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. The Spanish crown maintained its hegemony in Europe and was the leading power on the continent until the signing of the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended a conflict between Spain and France that had begun during the Thirty Years' War. An unprecedented series of major wars and political revolutions took place around Europe and the world in the period between 1610 and 1700. The Industrial Revolution began in Britain, based on coal, steam, and textile mills. Political change in continental Europe was spurred by the French Revolution under the motto *liberté, égalité, fraternité*. Napoleon Bonaparte took control, made many reforms inside France, and transformed Western Europe. But his rise stimulated both nationalism and reaction and he was defeated in 1814–15 as the old royal conservatives returned to power. The period between 1815 and 1871 saw revolutionary attempts in much of Europe (apart from Britain). They all failed however. As industrial work forces grew in Western Europe, socialism and trade union activity developed. The last vestiges of serfdom were abolished in Russia in 1861. Greece and the other Balkan nations began a long slow road to independence from the Ottoman Empire, starting in the 1820s. Italy was unified in its Risorgimento in 1860. After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, Otto von Bismarck unified the German states into an empire that was politically and militarily dominant until 1914. Most of Europe scrambled for imperial colonies in Africa and Asia in the Age of Empire. Britain and France built the largest empires, while diplomats ensured there were no major wars in Europe, apart from the Crimean War of the 1850s. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 was precipitated by the rise of nationalism in Southeastern Europe as the Great Powers took sides. The 1917 October Revolution led the Russian Empire to become the world's first communist state, the Soviet Union. The Allies, led by Britain, France, and the United States, defeated the Central Powers, led by the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, in 1918. During the Paris Peace Conference the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, especially the Treaty of Versailles. The war's human and material devastation was unprecedented. Germany lost its overseas empire and several provinces, had to pay large reparations, and was humiliated by the victors. They in turn had large debts to the United States. The 1920s were prosperous until 1929 when the Great Depression broke out, which led to the collapse of democracy in many European states. The Nazi regime under Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, rearmed Germany, and along with Mussolini's Italy sought to assert themselves on the continent. Other nations, who had not taken to the attractions of fascism, sought to avoid conflict. They set boundaries of appeasement, which Hitler continually ignored. The Second World War began. The war ended with the defeat of the Axis powers but the threat of more conflict was recognised before the war's end. Many from the US were suspicious of how the USSR would treat the peace – in the USSR there was paranoia at US forces in Europe. Eastern Front/Western Front meetings among leaders in Yalta proved inconclusive. In the closing months of the war there was a race to the finish. The territories liberated from the Nazis by troops from the USSR found they had exchanged fascism for socialism. The USSR, however, would not leave those territories for forty years. The USSR claimed they needed buffer states between them and the nascent NATO. In the west, the term Iron Curtain entered the language. The United States launched the Marshall Plan from 1948 to 1951 and NATO from 1949, and rebuilt industrial economies that all were thriving by the 1950s. France and West Germany took the lead in forming the European Economic Community, which eventually became the European Union (EU). Secularization saw the weakening of Protestant and Catholic churches across most of Europe, except where they were symbols of reaction, as in Poland. The Revolutions of 1989 brought an end to both Soviet hegemony and socialism in Eastern Europe, the resulting capitalist restoration engendering economic and social devastation for the people. Germany was reunited, Europe's integration deepened, and both NATO and the EU expanded to the east. The EU came under increasing pressure because of the worldwide recession after 2008. In 2022, Russia would invade Ukraine. Prehistory of Europe -------------------- ### Paleolithic *Homo erectus* migrated from Africa to Europe before the emergence of modern humans. *Homo erectus georgicus*, which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia, is the earliest hominid to have been discovered in Europe. Lézignan-la-Cèbe in France, Orce in Spain, Monte Poggiolo in Italy and Kozarnika in Bulgaria are among the oldest Palaeolithic sites in Europe. The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 45,000 BC, referred to as the Early European modern humans. The earliest sites in Europe are Riparo Mochi (Italy), Swabian Jura (Germany), and Isturitz (France). Some locally developed transitional cultures (Uluzzian in Italy and Greece, Altmühlian in Germany, Szeletian in Central Europe and Châtelperronian in the southwest) use clearly Upper Palaeolithic technologies at very early dates. Nevertheless, the definitive advance of these technologies is made by the Aurignacian culture. The origins of this culture can be located in the Levant (Ahmarian) and Hungary (first full Aurignacian). By 35,000 BC, the Aurignacian culture and its technology had extended through most of Europe. The last Neanderthals seem to have been forced to retreat during this process to the southern half of the Iberian Peninsula. Around 29,000 BC a new technology/culture appeared in the western region of Europe: the Gravettian. This technology/culture has been theorised to have come with migrations of people from the Balkans (see Kozarnika). Around 16,000 BC, Europe witnessed the appearance of a new culture, known as Magdalenian, possibly rooted in the old Gravettian. This culture soon superseded the Solutrean area and the Gravettian of mainly France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Portugal and Ukraine. The Hamburg culture prevailed in Northern Europe in the 14th and the 13th millennium BC as the Creswellian (also termed the British Late Magdalenian) did shortly after in the British Isles. Around 12,500 BC, the Würm glaciation ended. Slowly, through the following millennia, temperatures and sea levels rose, changing the environment of prehistoric people. Nevertheless, Magdalenian culture persisted until c. 10,000 BC, when it quickly evolved into two *microlithist* cultures: Azilian (Federmesser), in Spain and southern France, and then Sauveterrian, in southern France and Tardenoisian in Central Europe, while in Northern Europe the Lyngby complex succeeded the Hamburg culture with the influence of the Federmesser group as well. ### Neolithic and Copper Age Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 8th millennium BC in the Balkans. The Neolithic reached Central Europe in the 6th millennium BC and parts of Northern Europe in the 5th and 4th millenniums BC. The modern indigenous populations of Europe are largely descended from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, a derivative of the Cro-Magnon population of Europe, Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution, and Yamnaya pastoralists who expanded into Europe in the context of the Indo-European expansion. The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago. The Indo-European migrations started in Southeast Europe at around c. 4200 BC. through the areas around the Black sea and the Balkan peninsula. In the next 3000 years the Indo-European languages expanded through Europe. Around this time, in the 5th millennium BC the Varna culture evolved. In 4700 – 4200 BC, the Solnitsata town, believed to be the oldest prehistoric town in Europe, flourished. In the Varna Necropolis – a burial site from 4569 to 4340 BC and one of the most important archaeological sites in world prehistory, was found the oldest gold treasure (elaborated golden objects) in the world. Recently discovered golden artifacts in another site in Bulgaria near Durankulak appear to be 7,000 years old. Several prehistoric Bulgarian finds are considered no less old – the golden treasures of Hotnitsa, artifacts from the Kurgan settlement of Yunatsite near Pazardzhik, the golden treasure Sakar, as well as beads and gold jewelry found in the Kurgan settlement of Provadia – Solnitsata (“salt pit”). However, Varna gold is most often called the oldest since this treasure is the largest and most diverse. * Neolithic expansion in Europe, 7000-4000 BCNeolithic expansion in Europe, 7000-4000 BC * Late Neolithic Europe, c. 5000-3500 BCLate Neolithic Europe, c. 5000-3500 BC * Indo-European migrations from c. 4000-1500 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesisIndo-European migrations from c. 4000-1500 BC according to the Kurgan hypothesis * Late Bronze Age Europe, c. 1300-900 BCLate Bronze Age Europe, c. 1300-900 BC Ancient Europe -------------- ### Bronze Age The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the Minoans. The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that arose on the island of Crete and flourished from approximately the 27th century BC to the 15th century BC. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century through the work of the British archaeologist Arthur Evans. Will Durant referred to it as "the first link in the European chain". The Minoans were replaced by the Mycenaean civilization which flourished during the period roughly between 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete, and 1100 BC. The major Mycenaean cities were Mycenae and Tiryns in Argolis, Pylos in Messenia, Athens in Attica, Thebes and Orchomenus in Boeotia, and Iolkos in Thessaly. In Crete, the Mycenaeans occupied Knossos. Mycenaean settlement sites also appeared in Epirus, Macedonia, on islands in the Aegean Sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, the Levant, Cyprus and Italy. Mycenaean artefacts have been found well outside the limits of the Mycenean world. Quite unlike the Minoans, whose society benefited from trade, the Mycenaeans advanced through conquest. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, the centre of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script (called Linear A) to write their early form of Greek in Linear B. The Mycenaean civilization perished with the collapse of Bronze-Age civilization on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The collapse is commonly attributed to the Dorian invasion, although other theories describing natural disasters and climate change have been advanced as well. Whatever the causes, the Mycenaean civilization had definitely disappeared after LH III C, when the sites of Mycenae and Tiryns were again destroyed and lost their importance. This end, during the last years of the 12th century BC, occurred after a slow decline of the Mycenaean civilization, which lasted many years before dying out. The beginning of the 11th century BC opened a new context, that of the protogeometric, the beginning of the geometric period, the *Greek Dark Ages* of traditional historiography. The Bronze Age collapse may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow spread of ironworking technology from present-day Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. ### Classical Antiquity The Greeks and the Romans left a legacy in Europe which is evident in European languages, thought, visual arts and law. Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, out of which the original form of democracy developed. Athens was the most powerful and developed city, and a cradle of learning from the time of Pericles. Citizens' forums debated and legislated policy of the state, and from here arose some of the most notable classical philosophers, such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, the last of whom taught Alexander the Great. Through his military campaigns, the king of the kingdom of Macedon, Alexander, spread Hellenistic culture and learning to the banks of the River Indus. Meanwhile, the Roman Republic strengthened through victory over Carthage in the Punic Wars. Greek wisdom passed into Roman institutions, as Athens itself was absorbed under the banner of the Senate and People of Rome (SPQR). The Romans expanded their domains from Anatolia in the east to Britannia in the west. In 44 BC as it approached its height, its dictator Julius Caesar was murdered by senators in an attempt to restore the Republic. In the ensuing turmoil, Octavian (ruled as Augustus; and as *divi filius*, or Son of God, as Julius had adopted him as an heir) usurped the reins of power and fought the Roman Senate. While proclaiming the rebirth of the Republic, he had ushered in the transfer of the Roman state from a republic to an empire, the Roman Empire, which lasted for nearly 15 centuries until the fall of the Eastern Roman Empire. ### Ancient Greece The Hellenic civilisation was a collection of city-states or poleis with different governments and cultures that achieved notable developments in government, philosophy, science, mathematics, politics, sports, theatre and music. The most powerful city-states were Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth, and Syracuse. Athens was a powerful Hellenic city-state and governed itself with an early form of direct democracy invented by Cleisthenes; the citizens of Athens voted on legislation and executive bills themselves. Athens was the home of Socrates, Plato, and the Platonic Academy. The Hellenic city-states established colonies on the shores of the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea (Asian Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy in Magna Graecia). By the late 6th century BC, all the Greek city states in Asia Minor had been incorporated into the Persian Empire, while the latter had made territorial gains in the Balkans (such as Macedon, Thrace, Paeonia, etc.) and Eastern Europe proper as well. In the course of the 5th century BC, some of the Greek city states attempted to overthrow Persian rule in the Ionian Revolt, which failed. This sparked the first Persian invasion of mainland Greece. At some point during the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars, namely during the Second Persian invasion of Greece, and precisely after the Battle of Thermopylae and the Battle of Artemisium, almost all of Greece to the north of the Isthmus of Corinth had been overrun by the Persians, but the Greek city states reached a decisive victory at the Battle of Plataea. With the end of the Greco-Persian wars, the Persians were eventually decisively forced to withdraw from their territories in Europe. The Greco-Persian Wars and the victory of the Greek city states directly influenced the entire further course of European history and would set its further tone. Some Greek city-states formed the Delian League to continue fighting Persia, but Athens' position as leader of this league led Sparta to form the rival Peloponnesian League. The Peloponnesian Wars ensued, and the Peloponnesian League was victorious. Subsequently, discontent with Spartan hegemony led to the Corinthian War and the defeat of Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra. At the same time at the north ruled the Thracian Odrysian Kingdom between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD. Hellenic infighting left Greek city states vulnerable, and Philip II of Macedon united the Greek city states under his control. The son of Philip II, known as Alexander the Great, invaded neighboring Persia, toppled and incorporated its domains, as well as invading Egypt and going as far off as India, increasing contact with people and cultures in these regions that marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period. After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire split into multiple kingdoms ruled by his generals, the Diadochi. The Diadochi fought against each other in a series of conflicts called the Wars of the Diadochi. In the beginning of the 2nd century BC, only three major kingdoms remained: the Ptolemaic Egypt, the Seleucid Empire and Macedonia. These kingdoms spread Greek culture to regions as far away as Bactria. ### Ancient Rome #### The rise of Rome Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from Italy, taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only challenge to Roman ascent came from the Phoenician colony of Carthage, and its defeats in the three Punic Wars marked the start of Roman hegemony. First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the Roman Republic), Rome finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under Augustus and his authoritarian successors. The Roman Empire had its centre in the Mediterranean, controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the Rhine and Danube rivers. Under the emperor Trajan (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, controlling approximately 5,900,000 km2 (2,300,000 sq mi) of land surface, including Italia, Gallia, Dalmatia, Aquitania, Britannia, Baetica, Hispania, Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, Moesia, Dacia, Pannonia, Egypt, Asia Minor, Cappadocia, Armenia, Caucasus, North Africa, Levant and parts of Mesopotamia. Pax Romana, a period of peace, civilisation and an efficient centralised government in the subject territories ended in the 3rd century, when a series of civil wars undermined Rome's economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors Diocletian and Constantine were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western part with a capital in Rome and an Eastern part with the capital in Byzantium, or Constantinople (now Istanbul). Constantinople is generally considered to be the center of "Eastern Orthodox civilization". Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted Christianity, Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored persecution of Christians in 313 with the Edict of Milan, thus setting the stage for the Church to become the state church of the Roman Empire in about 380. #### Decline of the Roman Empire The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. The British historian Edward Gibbon argued in *The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire* (1776) that the Romans had become decadent and had lost civic virtue. Gibbon said that the adoption of Christianity meant belief in a better life after death, and therefore made people lazy and indifferent to the present. "From the eighteenth century onward", Glen W. Bowersock has remarked, "we have been obsessed with the fall: it has been valued as an archetype for every perceived decline, and, hence, as a symbol for our own fears." It remains one of the greatest historical questions, and has a tradition rich in scholarly interest. Some other notable dates are the Battle of Adrianople in 378, the death of Theodosius I in 395 (the last time the Roman Empire was politically unified), the crossing of the Rhine in 406 by Germanic tribes after the withdrawal of the legions to defend Italy against Alaric I, the death of Stilicho in 408, followed by the disintegration of the western legions, the death of Justinian I, the last Roman emperor who tried to reconquer the west, in 565, and the coming of Islam after 632. Many scholars maintain that rather than a "fall", the changes can more accurately be described as a complex transformation. Over time many theories have been proposed on why the Empire fell, or whether indeed it fell at all. ### Late Antiquity and Migration Period When Emperor Constantine had reconquered Rome under the banner of the cross in 312, he soon afterwards issued the Edict of Milan in 313 (preceded by the Edict of Serdica in 311), declaring the legality of Christianity in the Roman Empire. In addition, Constantine officially shifted the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to the Greek town of Byzantium, which he renamed Nova Roma – it was later named Constantinople ("City of Constantine"). Theodosius I, who had made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, would be the last emperor to preside over a united Roman Empire, until his death in 395. The empire was split into two-halves: the Western Roman Empire centred in Ravenna, and the Eastern Roman Empire (later to be referred to as the Byzantine Empire) centred in Constantinople. The Roman Empire was repeatedly attacked by Hunnic, Germanic, Slavic and other "barbarian" tribes (see: Migration Period), and in 476 finally the Western part fell to the Heruli chieftain Odoacer. Roman authority in the Western part of the empire had collapsed, and a power vacuum left in the wake of this collapse; the central organization, institutions, laws and power of Rome had broken down, resulting in many areas being open to invasion by migrating tribes. Over time, feudalism and manorialism arose, two interlocking institutions that provided for division of land and labour, as well as a broad if uneven hierarchy of law and protection. These localised hierarchies were based on the bond of common people to the land on which they worked, and to a lord, who would provide and administer both local law to settle disputes among the peasants, as well as protection from outside invaders. Unlike under Roman rule, with its standard laws and military across the empire and its great bureaucracy to administer them and collect taxes, each lord (although having obligations to a higher lord) was largely sovereign in his domain. A peasant's lot could vary greatly depending on the leadership skills and attitudes to justice of the lord toward his people. Tithes or rents were paid to the lord, who in turn owed resources, and armed men in times of war, to his lord, perhaps a regional prince. However, the levels of hierarchy were varied over time and place. The western provinces soon were to be dominated by three great powers: first, the Franks (Merovingian dynasty) in Francia 481–843 AD, which covered much of present France and Germany; second, the Visigothic kingdom 418–711 AD in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain); and third, the Ostrogothic kingdom 493–553 AD in Italy and parts of the western Balkans. The Ostrogoths were later replaced by the Kingdom of the Lombards 568–774 AD. These new powers of the west built upon the Roman traditions until they evolved into a synthesis of Roman and Germanic cultures. Although these powers covered large territories, they did not have the great resources and bureaucracy of the Roman empire to control regions and localities. The ongoing invasions and boundary disputes usually meant a more risky and varying life than that under the empire. This meant that in general more power and responsibilities were left to local lords. On the other hand, it also meant more freedom, particularly in more remote areas. In Italy, Theodoric the Great began the cultural romanisation of the new world he had constructed. He made Ravenna a centre of Romano-Greek culture of art and his court fostered a flowering of literature and philosophy in Latin. In Iberia, King Chindasuinth created the Visigothic Code. In the Eastern part the dominant state was the remaining Eastern Roman Empire. In the feudal system, new princes and kings arose, the most powerful of which was arguably the Frankish ruler Charlemagne. In 800, Charlemagne, reinforced by his massive territorial conquests, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, effectively solidifying his power in western Europe. Charlemagne's reign marked the beginning of a new Germanic Roman Empire in the west, the Holy Roman Empire. Outside his borders, new forces were gathering. The Kievan Rus' were marking out their territory, a Great Moravia was growing, while the Angles and the Saxons were securing their borders. For the duration of the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire was embroiled in a series of deadly conflicts, first with the Persian Sassanid Empire (see Roman–Persian Wars), followed by the onslaught of the arising Islamic Caliphate (Rashidun and Umayyad). By 650, the provinces of Egypt, Palestine and Syria were lost to the Muslim forces, followed by Hispania and southern Italy in the 7th and 8th centuries (see Muslim conquests). The Arab invasion from the east was stopped after the intervention of the Bulgarian Empire (see Han Tervel). Post-classical Europe --------------------- The Middle Ages are commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire (or by some scholars, before that) in the 5th century to the beginning of the early modern period in the 16th century marked by the rise of nation states, the division of Western Christianity in the Reformation, the rise of humanism in the Italian Renaissance, and the beginnings of European overseas expansion which allowed for the Columbian Exchange. ### Byzantium Many consider Emperor Constantine I (reigned 306–337) to be the first "Byzantine emperor". It was he who moved the imperial capital in 324 from Nicomedia to Byzantium, which re-founded as Constantinople, or Nova Roma ("New Rome"). The city of Rome itself had not served as the capital since the reign of Diocletian (284–305). Some date the beginnings of the Empire to the reign of Theodosius I (379–395) and Christianity's official supplanting of the pagan Roman religion, or following his death in 395, when the empire was split into two parts, with capitals in Rome and Constantinople. Others place it yet later in 476, when Romulus Augustulus, traditionally considered the last western emperor, was deposed, thus leaving sole imperial authority with the emperor in the Greek East. Others point to the reorganisation of the empire in the time of Heraclius (c. 620) when Latin titles and usages were officially replaced with Greek versions. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when Constantine inaugurated his new capital, the process of hellenization and increasing Christianisation was already under way. The Empire is generally considered to have ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Plague of Justinian was a pandemic that afflicted the Byzantine Empire, including its capital Constantinople, in the years 541–542. It is estimated that the Plague of Justinian killed as many as 100 million people across the world. It caused Europe's population to drop by around 50% between 541 and 700. It also may have contributed to the success of the Muslim conquests. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe, and Constantinople was one of the largest and wealthiest cities in Europe. ### Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages span roughly five centuries from 500 to 1000. In the East and Southeast of Europe new dominant states formed: the Avar Khaganate (567–after 822), Old Great Bulgaria (632–668), the Khazar Khaganate (c. 650–969) and Danube Bulgaria (founded by Asparuh in 680) were constantly rivaling the hegemony of the Byzantine Empire. From the 7th century Byzantine history was greatly affected by the rise of Islam and the Caliphates. Muslim Arabs first invaded historically Roman territory under Abū Bakr, first Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate, who entered Roman Syria and Roman Mesopotamia. As the Byzantines and neighboring Sasanids were severely weakened by the time, amongst the most important reason(s) being the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars, which included the climactic Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628, under Umar, the second Caliph, the Muslims entirely toppled the Sasanid Persian Empire, and decisively conquered Syria and Mesopotamia, as well as Roman Palestine, Roman Egypt, and parts of Asia Minor and Roman North Africa. In the mid 7th century AD, following the Muslim conquest of Persia, Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region, of which parts would later permanently become part of Russia. This trend, which included the conquests by the invading Muslim forces and by that the spread of Islam as well continued under Umar's successors and under the Umayyad Caliphate, which conquered the rest of Mediterranean North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula. Over the next centuries Muslim forces were able to take further European territory, including Cyprus, Malta, Crete, and Sicily and parts of southern Italy. The Muslim conquest of Hispania began when the Moors (Berbers and Arabs) invaded the Christian Visigothic kingdom of Hispania in the year 711, under the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad. They landed at Gibraltar on 30 April and worked their way northward. Tariq's forces were joined the next year by those of his Arab superior, Musa ibn Nusair. During the eight-year campaign most of the Iberian Peninsula was brought under Muslim rule – save for small areas in the northwest (Asturias) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees. In 711, Visigothic Hispania was very weakened because it was immersed in a serious internal crisis caused by a war of succession to the throne involving two Visigoth suitors. The Muslims took advantage of the crisis within the Hispano-Visigothic society to carry out their conquests. This territory, under the Arab name Al-Andalus, became part of the expanding Umayyad empire. The second siege of Constantinople (717) ended unsuccessfully after the intervention of Tervel of Bulgaria and weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. In 722 Don Pelayo, a nobleman of Visigothic origin, formed an army of 300 Astur soldiers, to confront Munuza's Muslim troops. In the battle of Covadonga, the Astures defeated the Arab-Moors, who decided to retire. The Christian victory marked the beginning of the Reconquista and the establishment of the Kingdom of Asturias, whose first sovereign was Don Pelayo. The conquerors intended to continue their expansion in Europe and move northeast across the Pyrenees, but were defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. The Umayyads were overthrown in 750 by the 'Abbāsids, and, in 756, the Umayyads established an independent emirate in the Iberian Peninsula. #### Feudal Christendom The Holy Roman Empire emerged around 800, as Charlemagne, King of the Franks and part of the Carolingian dynasty, was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern France, the Low Countries and Germany expanded into modern Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, Lower Saxony and Spain. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the Lombards. His death marked the beginning of the end of the dynasty, which collapsed entirely by 888. The fragmentation of power led to semi-autonomy in the region, and has been defined as a critical starting point for the formation of states in Europe. To the east, Bulgaria was established in 681 and became the first Slavic country. The powerful Bulgarian Empire was the main rival of Byzantium for control of the Balkans for centuries and from the 9th century became the cultural centre of Slavic Europe. The Empire created the Cyrillic script during the 9th century AD, at the Preslav Literary School, and experienced the Golden Age of Bulgarian cultural prosperity during the reign of emperor Simeon I the Great (893–927). Two states, Great Moravia and Kievan Rus', emerged among the Slavic peoples respectively in the 9th century. In the late 9th and 10th centuries, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the Vikings who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced seagoing vessels such as the longships. The Vikings had left a cultural influence on the Anglo-Saxons and Franks as well as the Scots. The Hungarians pillaged mainland Europe, the Pechenegs raided Bulgaria, Rus States and the Arab states. In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe including Poland and the newly settled Kingdom of Hungary. The Kingdom of Croatia also appeared in the Balkans. The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of feudalism, which weakened the Holy Roman Empire. In eastern Europe, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 921, after Almış I converted to Islam under the missionary efforts of Ahmad ibn Fadlan. Slavery in the early medieval period had mostly died out in western Europe by about the year 1000 AD, replaced by serfdom. It lingered longer in England and in peripheral areas linked to the Muslim world, where slavery continued to flourish. Church rules suppressed slavery of Christians. Most historians argue the transition was quite abrupt around 1000, but some see a gradual transition from about 300 to 1000. ### High Middle Ages The slumber of the Dark Ages was shaken by a renewed crisis in the Church. In 1054, the East–West Schism, an insoluble split, occurred between the two remaining Christian seats in Rome and Constantinople (modern Istanbul). The High Middle Ages of the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries show a rapidly increasing population of Europe, which caused great social and political change from the preceding era. By 1250, the robust population increase greatly benefited the economy, reaching levels it would not see again in some areas until the 19th century. From about the year 1000 onwards, Western Europe saw the last of the barbarian invasions and became more politically organized. The Vikings had settled in Britain, Ireland, France and elsewhere, whilst Norse Christian kingdoms were developing in their Scandinavian homelands. The Magyars had ceased their expansion in the 10th century, and by the year 1000, the Roman Catholic Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary was recognised in central Europe. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased. Bulgarian sovereignty was re-established with the anti-Byzantine uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs in 1185. The crusaders invaded the Byzantine empire, captured Constantinople in 1204 and established their Latin Empire. Kaloyan of Bulgaria defeated Baldwin I, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, in the Battle of Adrianople on 14 April 1205. The reign of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria led to maximum territorial expansion and that of Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria to a Second Golden Age of Bulgarian culture. The Byzantine Empire was fully re-established in 1261. In the 11th century, populations north of the Alps began to settle new lands, some of which had reverted to wilderness after the end of the Roman Empire. In what is known as the "great clearances", vast forests and marshes of Europe were cleared and cultivated. At the same time settlements moved beyond the traditional boundaries of the Frankish Empire to new frontiers in Europe, beyond the Elbe river, tripling the size of Germany in the process. Crusaders founded European colonies in the Levant, the majority of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered from the Muslims, and the Normans colonised southern Italy, all part of the major population increase and resettlement pattern. The High Middle Ages produced many different forms of intellectual, spiritual and artistic works. The most famous are the great cathedrals as expressions of Gothic architecture, which evolved from Romanesque architecture. This age saw the rise of modern nation-states in Western Europe and the ascent of the famous Italian city-states, such as Florence and Venice. The influential popes of the Catholic Church called volunteer armies from across Europe to a series of Crusades against the Seljuq Turks, who occupied the Holy Land. The rediscovery of the works of Aristotle led Thomas Aquinas and other thinkers to develop the philosophy of Scholasticism. #### A divided church The Great Schism between the Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) Christian Churches was sparked in 1054 by Pope Leo IX asserting authority over three of the seats in the Pentarchy, in Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Since the mid-8th century, the Byzantine Empire's borders had been shrinking in the face of Islamic expansion. Antioch had been wrested back into Byzantine control by 1045, but the resurgent power of the Roman successors in the West claimed a right and a duty for the lost seats in Asia and Africa. Pope Leo sparked a further dispute by defending the filioque clause in the Nicene Creed which the West had adopted customarily. The Orthodox today state that the XXVIIIth Canon of the Council of Chalcedon explicitly proclaimed the equality of the Bishops of Rome and Constantinople. The Orthodox also state that the Bishop of Rome has authority only over his own diocese and does not have any authority outside his diocese. There were other less significant catalysts for the Schism however, including variance over liturgy. The Schism of Roman Catholic and Orthodox followed centuries of estrangement between the Latin and Greek worlds. #### Holy wars After the East–West Schism, Western Christianity was adopted by the newly created kingdoms of Central Europe: Poland, Hungary and Bohemia. The Roman Catholic Church developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and emperor. The geographic reach of the Roman Catholic Church expanded enormously due to the conversions of pagan kings (Scandinavia, Lithuania, Poland, Hungary), the Christian Reconquista of Al-Andalus, and the crusades. Most of Europe was Roman Catholic in the 15th century. Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in western Europe began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in Italy, leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent city-states such as Venice and Florence; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as France, England, Spain, and Portugal, although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. These new nation-states began writing in their own cultural vernaculars, instead of the traditional Latin. Notable figures of this movement would include Dante Alighieri and Christine de Pizan (born Christina da Pizzano), the former writing in Italian, and the latter, although an Italian (Venice), relocated to France, writing in French. (See Reconquista for the latter two countries.) Elsewhere, the Holy Roman Empire, essentially based in Germany and Italy, further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal. The 14th century, when the Mongol Empire came to power, is often called the *Age of the Mongols*. Mongol armies expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan. Their western conquests included almost all of Russia (save Novgorod, which became a vassal), and the Kipchak-Cuman Confederation. Bulgaria, Hungary, and Poland managed to remain sovereign states. Mongolian records indicate that Batu Khan was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria, Italy and Germany, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Great Khan Ögedei. Most historians believe only his death prevented the complete conquest of Europe. The areas of Eastern Europe and most of Central Asia that were under direct Mongol rule became known as the Golden Horde. Under Uzbeg Khan, Islam became the official religion of the region in the early 14th century. The invading Mongols, together with their mostly Turkic subjects, were known as Tatars. In Russia, the Tatars ruled the various states of the Rus' through vassalage for over 300 years. In the Northern Europe, Konrad of Masovia gave Chełmno to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 as a base for a Crusade against the Old Prussians and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword were defeated by the Lithuanians, so in 1237 Gregory IX merged the remainder of the order into the Teutonic Order as the Livonian Order. By the middle of the century, the Teutonic Knights completed their conquest of the Prussians before converting the Lithuanians in the subsequent decades. The order also came into conflict with the Eastern Orthodox Church of the Pskov and Novgorod Republics. In 1240 the Orthodox Novgorod army defeated the Catholic Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, and, two years later, they defeated the Livonian Order in the Battle on the Ice. The Union of Krewo in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. ### Late Middle Ages The Late Middle Ages spanned around the 14th and late 15th centuries. Around 1300, centuries of European prosperity and growth came to a halt. A series of famines and plagues, such as the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, killed people in a matter of days, reducing the population of some areas by half as many survivors fled. Kishlansky reports: The Black Death touched every aspect of life, hastening a process of social, economic, and cultural transformation already underway.... Fields were abandoned, workplaces stood idle, international trade was suspended. Traditional bonds of kinship, village, and even religion were broken amid the horrors of death, flight, and failed expectations. "People cared no more for dead men than we care for dead goats," wrote one survivor. Depopulation caused labor to become scarcer; the survivors were better paid and peasants could drop some of the burdens of feudalism. There was also social unrest; France and England experienced serious peasant risings including the Jacquerie and the Peasants' Revolt. At the same time, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Great Schism. Collectively these events have been called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Beginning in the 14th century, the Baltic Sea became one of the most important trade routes. The Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities, facilitated the absorption of vast areas of Poland, Lithuania, and Livonia into trade with other European countries. This fed the growth of powerful states in this part of Europe including Poland–Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, and Muscovy later on. The conventional end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the fall of the city of Constantinople and of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their Ottoman Empire, which lasted until 1922 and included Egypt, Syria, and most of the Balkans. The Ottoman wars in Europe, also sometimes referred to as the Turkish wars, marked an essential part of the history of the continent as a whole. A key 15th-century development was the advent of the movable type of printing press circa 1439 in Mainz, building upon the impetus provided by the prior introduction of paper from China via the Arabs in the High Middle Ages. Paper was already readily available in Europe by the late 14th century. While forms of moveable type of printing press had been already used in China and Korea, the technique was singularly successful in Europe given the small number of characters of the Latin alphabet, massively reducing costs of book production. The adoption of the technology across the continent at dazzling speed for the remaining part of the 15th century would usher a revolution and by 1500 over 200 cities in Europe had presses that printed between 8 and 20 million books. #### Homicide rates plunge over 800 years At the local level, levels of violence were extremely high by modern standards in medieval and early modern Europe. They actually reached their peak during the late Middle Ages, having increased since the third century. Typically, small groups would battle their neighbors, using the farm tools at hand such as knives, sickles, hammers and axes. Mayhem and death were deliberate. The vast majority of people lived in rural areas. Cities were few, and small in size, but their concentration of population was conducive to violence. Long-term studies of places such as Amsterdam, Stockholm, Venice and Zurich show the same trends as rural areas. Across Europe, homicide trends (not including military actions) show a steady long-term decline. Regional differences were small, except that Italy's decline was later and slower. From approximately 1200 AD through 1800 AD, homicide rates from violent local episodes declined by a factor of ten, from approximately 32 deaths per 100 000 people to 3.2 per 100 000. In the 20th century the homicide rate fell to 1.4 per 100 000. Police forces seldom existed outside the cities; prisons only became common after 1800. Before then harsh penalties were imposed for homicide (severe whipping or execution) but they proved ineffective at controlling or reducing the insults to honor that precipitated most of the violence. The decline does not correlate with economics. Most historians attribute the trend in homicides to a steady increase in self-control of the sort promoted by Protestantism, and necessitated by schools and factories. Historian Manuel Eisner has summarized the patterns from over 300 historical studies. | Homicide rates in Europe | Deaths per year per 100 000 population | | --- | --- | | 13–14th centuries | 32 | | 15th century | 41 | | 16th century | 19 | | 17th century | 11 | | 18th century | 3.2 | | 19th century | 2.6 | | 20th century | 1.4 | Early modern Europe ------------------- The Early Modern period spans the centuries between the Middle Ages and the Industrial Revolution, roughly from 1500 to 1800, or from the discovery of the New World in 1492 to the French Revolution in 1789. The period is characterised by the rise in importance of science and increasingly rapid technological progress, secularised civic politics, and the nation state. Capitalist economies began their rise, and the early modern period also saw the rise and dominance of the economic theory of mercantilism. As such, the early modern period represents the decline and eventual disappearance, in much of the European sphere, of feudalism, serfdom and the power of the Catholic Church. The period includes the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, the Protestant Reformation, the disastrous Thirty Years' War, the European colonisation of the Americas and the European witch-hunts. ### Renaissance Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of great progress within the arts and sciences. A renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman led to the Italian Renaissance. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Beginning in Italy, and spreading to the north, west and middle Europe during a cultural lag of some two and a half centuries, its influence affected literature, philosophy, art, politics, science, history, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry. The Italian Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca), deemed the first full-blooded Humanist, wrote in the 1330s: "I am alive now, yet I would rather have been born in another time." He was enthusiastic about Greek and Roman antiquity. In the 15th and 16th centuries the continuing enthusiasm for the ancients was reinforced by the feeling that the inherited culture was dissolving and here was a storehouse of ideas and attitudes with which to rebuild. Matteo Palmieri wrote in the 1430s: "Now indeed may every thoughtful spirit thank god that it has been permitted to him to be born in a new age." The renaissance was born: a new age where learning was very important. The Renaissance was inspired by the growth in the study of Latin and Greek texts and the admiration of the Greco-Roman era as a golden age. This prompted many artists and writers to begin drawing from Roman and Greek examples for their works, but there was also much innovation in this period, especially by multi-faceted artists such as Leonardo da Vinci. The Humanists saw their repossession of a great past as a Renaissance – a rebirth of civilization itself. Important political precedents were also set in this period. Niccolò Machiavelli's political writing in *The Prince* influenced later absolutism and realpolitik. Also important were the many patrons who ruled states and used the artistry of the Renaissance as a sign of their power. In all, the Renaissance could be viewed as an attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly, both through the revival of ideas from antiquity and through novel approaches to thought – the immediate past being too "Gothic" in language, thought and sensibility. The Scientific Revolution took place in Europe starting towards the second half of the Renaissance period, with the 1543 Nicolaus Copernicus publication *De revolutionibus orbium coelestium* (*On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres*) often cited as its beginning. ### Exploration and trade Toward the end of the period, an era of discovery began. The growth of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the fall of Constantinople in 1453, cut off trading possibilities with the east. Western Europe was forced to discover new trading routes, as happened with Columbus' travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama's circumnavigation of India and Africa in 1498. The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. In the 15th century, Portugal led the way in geographical exploration along the coast of Africa in search of a maritime route to India, followed by Spain near the close of the 15th century, dividing their exploration of the world according to the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. They were the first states to set up colonies in America and European trading posts (factories) along the shores of Africa and Asia, establishing the first direct European diplomatic contacts with Southeast Asian states in 1511, China in 1513 and Japan in 1542. In 1552, Russian tsar Ivan the Terrible conquered two major Tatar khanates, the Khanate of Kazan and the Astrakhan Khanate. The Yermak's voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of the Tatar Siberian Khanate into Russia, and the Russians would soon after conquer the rest of Siberia, steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. Oceanic explorations soon followed by France, England and the Netherlands, who explored the Portuguese and Spanish trade routes into the Pacific Ocean, reaching Australia in 1606 and New Zealand in 1642. ### Reformation Martin Luther initiated the Reformation with his *Ninety-five Theses* in 1517 With the development of the printing press, new ideas spread throughout Europe and challenged traditional doctrines in science and theology. Simultaneously, the Protestant Reformation under German Martin Luther questioned Papal authority. The most common dating of the Reformation begins in 1517, when Luther published *The Ninety-Five Theses*, and concludes in 1648 with the Treaty of Westphalia that ended years of European religious wars. During this period corruption in the Catholic Church led to a sharp backlash in the Protestant Reformation. It gained many followers especially among princes and kings seeking a stronger state by ending the influence of the Catholic Church. Figures other than Martin Luther began to emerge as well like John Calvin whose Calvinism had influence in many countries and King Henry VIII of England who broke away from the Catholic Church in England and set up the Anglican Church; his daughter Queen Elizabeth finished the organization of the church. These religious divisions brought on a wave of wars inspired and driven by religion but also by the ambitious monarchs in Western Europe who were becoming more centralized and powerful. The Protestant Reformation also led to a strong reform movement in the Catholic Church called the Counter-Reformation, which aimed to reduce corruption as well as to improve and strengthen Catholic dogma. Two important groups in the Catholic Church who emerged from this movement were the Jesuits, who helped keep Spain, Portugal, Poland, and other European countries within the Catholic fold, and the Oratorians of Saint Philip Neri, who ministered to the faithful in Rome, restoring their confidence in the Church of Jesus Christ that subsisted substantially in the Church of Rome. Still, the Catholic Church was somewhat weakened by the Reformation, portions of Europe were no longer under its sway and kings in the remaining Catholic countries began to take control of the church institutions within their kingdoms. Unlike many European countries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Hungary were more tolerant. While still enforcing the predominance of Catholicism, they continued to allow the large religious minorities to maintain their faiths, traditions and customs. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became divided among Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, Jews and a small Muslim population. Another development was the idea of 'European superiority'. The ideal of civilization was taken over from the ancient Greeks and Romans: Discipline, education and living in the city were required to make people civilized; Europeans and non-Europeans were judged for their civility, and Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents. There was a movement by some such as Montaigne that regarded the non-Europeans as a better, more natural and primitive people. Post services were founded all over Europe, which allowed a humanistic interconnected network of intellectuals across Europe, despite religious divisions. However, the Roman Catholic Church banned many leading scientific works; this led to an intellectual advantage for Protestant countries, where the banning of books was regionally organised. Francis Bacon and other advocates of science tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in nature.1 In the 15th century, at the end of the Middle Ages, powerful sovereign states were appearing, built by the New Monarchs who were centralising power in France, England, and Spain. On the other hand, the Parliament in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. The new state power was contested by parliaments in other countries especially England. New kinds of states emerged which were co-operation agreements among territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. ### Mercantilism and colonial expansion The Iberian kingdoms were able to dominate colonial activity in the 16th century. The Portuguese forged the first global empire in the 15th and 16th century, whilst during the 16th century and the first half of the 17th century, the crown of Castile (and the overarching Hispanic Monarchy, including Portugal from 1580 to 1640) became the most powerful empire in the world. Spanish dominance in America was increasingly challenged by British, French, Dutch and Swedish colonial efforts of the 17th and 18th centuries. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new forms of government, law and economics necessary. Colonial expansion continued in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as successful wars of independence in the British American colonies and then later Haiti, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and others amid European turmoil of the Napoleonic Wars). Spain had control of a large part of North America, all of Central America and a great part of South America, the Caribbean and the Philippines; Britain took the whole of Australia and New Zealand, most of India, and large parts of Africa and North America; France held parts of Canada and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), Indochina, large parts of Africa and the Caribbean islands; the Netherlands gained the East Indies (now Indonesia) and islands in the Caribbean; Portugal obtained Brazil and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as Germany, Belgium, Italy and Russia acquired further colonies. This expansion helped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires. By the late 16th century, American silver accounted for one-fifth of Spain's total budget. The French colony of Saint-Domingue was one of richest European colonies in the 18th century, operating on a plantation economy fueled by slave labor. During the period of French rule, cash crops produced in Saint-Domingue comprised thirty percent of total French trade while its sugar exports represented forty percent of the Atlantic market. ### Crisis of the 17th century The 17th century was an era of crisis. Many historians have rejected the idea, while others promote it as an invaluable insight into the warfare, politics, economics, and even art. The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) focused attention on the massive horrors that wars could bring to entire populations. The 1640s in particular saw more state breakdowns around the world than any previous or subsequent period. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the largest state in Europe, temporarily disappeared. In addition, there were secessions and upheavals in several parts of the Spanish empire, the world's first global empire. In Britain the entire Stuart monarchy (England, Scotland, Ireland, and its North American colonies) rebelled. Political insurgency and a spate of popular revolts seldom equalled shook the foundations of most states in Europe and Asia. More wars took place around the world in the mid-17th century than in almost any other period of recorded history. The crises spread far beyond Europe – for example Ming China, the most populous state in the world, collapsed. Across the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-17th century experienced almost unprecedented death rates. Geoffrey Parker, a British historian, suggests that environmental factors may have been in part to blame, especially global cooling. ### Age of absolutism The "absolute" rule of powerful monarchs such as Louis XIV (ruled France 1643–1715), Peter the Great (ruled Russia 1682–1725), Maria Theresa (ruled Habsburg lands 1740–1780) and Frederick the Great (ruled Prussia 1740–86), produced powerful centralized states, with strong armies and powerful bureaucracies, all under the control of the king. Throughout the early part of this period, capitalism (through mercantilism) was replacing feudalism as the principal form of economic organisation, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a Commercial Revolution. The period is noted for the rise of modern science and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which animated the Industrial Revolution after 1750. The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. France suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the French Wars of Religion, which ended in the triumph of the Bourbon Dynasty. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under Elizabeth I to a moderate Anglicanism. Much of modern-day Germany was made up of numerous small sovereign states under the theoretical framework of the Holy Roman Empire, which was further divided along internally drawn sectarian lines. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is notable in this time for its religious indifference and a general immunity to the horrors of European religious strife. #### Thirty Years' War 1618–1648 The Thirty Years' War was fought between 1618 and 1648, across Germany and neighbouring areas, and involved most of the major European powers except England and Russia. Beginning as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in Bohemia, it quickly developed into a general war involving Catholics versus Protestants for the most part. The major impact of the war, in which mercenary armies were extensively used, was the devastation of entire regions scavenged bare by the foraging armies. Episodes of widespread famine and disease, and the breakup of family life, devastated the population of the German states and, to a lesser extent, the Low Countries, the Crown of Bohemia and northern parts of Italy, while bankrupting many of the regional powers involved. Between one-fourth and one-third of the German population perished from direct military causes or from disease and starvation, as well as postponed births. After the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the war in favour of nations deciding their own religious allegiance, absolutism became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the English Civil War and particularly the Glorious Revolution. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced northwest, the Enlightenment gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of literacy, made possible by the printing press, created new secular forces in thought. From the Union of Krewo (see above) central and eastern Europe was dominated by Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th and 17th centuries Central and Eastern Europe was an arena of conflict for domination of the continent between Sweden, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (involved in series of wars, like Khmelnytsky uprising, Russo-Polish War, the Deluge, etc.) and the Ottoman Empire. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies: Russia, Prussia and Austria (the Habsburg monarchy). By the turn of the 19th century they had become new powers, having divided Poland between themselves, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively as well as pauperisation. #### War of the Spanish Succession The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1715) was a major war with France opposed by a coalition of England, the Netherlands, the Habsburg monarchy, and Prussia. Duke of Marlborough commanded the English and Dutch victory at the Battle of Blenheim in 1704. The main issue was whether France under King Louis XIV would take control of Spain's very extensive possessions and thereby become by far the dominant power, or be forced to share power with other major nations. After initial allied successes, the long war produced a military stalemate and ended with the Treaty of Utrecht, which was based on a balance of power in Europe. Historian Russell Weigley argues that the many wars almost never accomplished more than they cost. British historian G. M. Trevelyan argues: That Treaty [of Utrecht], which ushered in the stable and characteristic period of Eighteenth-Century civilization, marked the end of danger to Europe from the old French monarchy, and it marked a change of no less significance to the world at large – the maritime, commercial and financial supremacy of Great Britain. #### Prussia Frederick the Great, king of Prussia 1740–86, modernized the Prussian army, introduced new tactical and strategic concepts, fought mostly successful wars (Silesian Wars, Seven Years' War) and doubled the size of Prussia. Frederick had a rationale based on Enlightenment thought: he fought total wars for limited objectives. The goal was to convince rival kings that it was better to negotiate and make peace than to fight him. #### Russia Russia fought numerous wars to achieve rapid expansion toward the east – i.e. Siberia, Far East, south, to the Black Sea, and south-east and to central Asia. Russia boasted a large and powerful army, a very large and complex internal bureaucracy, and a splendid court that rivaled Paris and London. However the government was living far beyond its means and seized Church lands, leaving organized religion in a weak condition. Throughout the 18th century Russia remained "a poor, backward, overwhelmingly agricultural, and illiterate country." ### Enlightenment The *Enlightenment* was a powerful, widespread cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in late 17th-century Europe emphasizing the power of reason rather than tradition; it was especially favourable to science (especially Isaac Newton's physics) and hostile to religious orthodoxy (especially of the Catholic Church). It sought to analyze and reform society using reason, to challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and to advance knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange. The Enlightenment was a revolution in human thought. This new way of thinking was that rational thought begins with clearly stated principles, uses correct logic to arrive at conclusions, tests the conclusions against evidence, and then revises the principles in light of the evidence. Isaac Newton and Jean-Jacques Rousseau Enlightenment thinkers opposed superstition. Some Enlightenment thinkers collaborated with Enlightened despots, absolutist rulers who attempted to forcibly impose some of the new ideas about government into practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment exerted significant influence on the culture, politics, and governments of Europe. Originating in the 17th century, it was sparked by philosophers Francis Bacon (1562–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677), John Locke (1632–1704), Pierre Bayle (1647–1706), Voltaire (1694–1778), Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), David Hume (1711–1776) and physicist Isaac Newton (1643–1727). Ruling princes often endorsed and fostered these figures and even attempted to apply their ideas of government in what was known as enlightened absolutism. The Scientific Revolution is closely tied to the Enlightenment, as its discoveries overturned many traditional concepts and introduced new perspectives on nature and man's place within it. The Enlightenment flourished until about 1790–1800, at which point the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on reason, gave way to Romanticism, which placed a new emphasis on emotion; a Counter-Enlightenment began to increase in prominence. The Romantics argued that the Enlightenment was reductionistic insofar as it had largely ignored the forces of imagination, mystery, and sentiment. In France, Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great *Encyclopédie* (1751–72) edited by Denis Diderot (1713–1784) and (until 1759) Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783) with contributions by hundreds of leading intellectuals who were called *philosophes*, notably Voltaire (1694–1778), Rousseau (1712–1778) and Montesquieu (1689–1755). Some 25,000 copies of the 35 volume encyclopedia were sold, half of them outside France. These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain's American colonies. The political ideals of the Enlightenment influenced the American Declaration of Independence, the United States Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and the Polish–Lithuanian Constitution of 3 May 1791. Taking a long-term historical perspective, Norman Davies has argued that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism and Enlightenment ideas in Europe, from about 1700 to the 20th century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. Prominent members included Montesquieu, Voltaire, Sir Robert Walpole, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Steven C. Bullock notes that in the late 18th century, English lodges were headed by the Prince of Wales, Prussian lodges by king Frederick the Great, and French lodges by royal princes. Emperor Napoleon selected as Grand Master of France his own brother. The great enemy of Freemasonry was the Roman Catholic Church, so that in countries with a large Catholic element, such as France, Italy, Austria, Spain and Mexico, much of the ferocity of the political battles involve the confrontation between supporters of the Church versus active Masons. 20th-century totalitarian and revolutionary movements, especially the Fascists and Communists, crushed the Freemasons. From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914) ------------------------------------------ The "long 19th century", from 1789 to 1914 saw the drastic social, political and economic changes initiated by the Industrial Revolution, the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. Following the reorganisation of the political map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Europe experienced the rise of Nationalism, the rise of the Russian Empire and the peak of the British Empire, as well as the decline of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the rise of the German Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire initiated the course of events that culminated in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. ### Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th century and early 19th century when major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, and transport impacted Britain and subsequently spread to the United States and Western Europe, a process that continues as industrialisation. Technological advancements, most notably the utilization of the steam engine, were major catalysts in the industrialisation process. It started in England and Scotland in the mid-18th century with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of coal as the main fuel. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power (fuelled primarily by coal) and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world. The impact of this change on society was enormous. ### Era of the French Revolution Historians R.R. Palmer and Joel Colton argue: In 1789 France fell into revolution, and the world has never since been the same. The French Revolution was by far the most momentous upheaval of the whole revolutionary age. It replaced the "old regime" with "modern society," and at its extreme phase became very radical, so much so that all later revolutionary movements have looked back to it as a predecessor to themselves.... From the 1760s to 1848, the role of France was decisive. The era of the French Revolution and the subsequent Napoleonic wars was a difficult time for monarchs. Tsar Paul I of Russia was assassinated; King Louis XVI of France was executed, as was his queen Marie Antoinette. Furthermore, kings Charles IV of Spain, Ferdinand VII of Spain and Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden were deposed as were ultimately the Emperor Napoleon and all of the relatives he had installed on various European thrones. King Frederick William III of Prussia and Emperor Francis II of Austria barely clung to their thrones. King George III of Great Britain lost the better part of the First British Empire. The American Revolution (1775–1783) was the first successful revolt of a colony against a European power. It proclaimed, in the words of Thomas Jefferson, that "all men are created equal," a position based on the principles of the Enlightenment. It rejected aristocracy and established a republican form of government under George Washington that attracted worldwide attention. The French Revolution (1789–1804) was a product of the same democratic forces in the Atlantic World and had an even greater impact. French historian François Aulard says: From the social point of view, the Revolution consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth, the establishment of equality, the simplification of life.... The French Revolution differed from other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity." French intervention in the American Revolutionary War had nearly bankrupted the state. After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, King Louis XVI had to convene the Estates-General, a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a National Assembly and swore an oath not to dissolve until France had a constitution and created, in July, the National Constituent Assembly. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789. At the time the assembly wanted to create a constitutional monarchy, and over the following two years passed various laws including the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the abolition of feudalism, and a fundamental change in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king agreed with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people. As anti-royalism increased along with threat of foreign invasion, the king tried to flee and join France's enemies. He was captured and on 21 January 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was guillotined. On 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war, the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by Maximilien de Robespierre of the Jacobin Club, to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre, the committee initiated the Reign of Terror, during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles and those convicted by the Revolutionary Tribunal, often on the flimsiest of evidence. Internal tensions at Paris drove the Committee towards increasing assertions of radicalism and increasing suspicions, fueling new terror: A few months into this phase, more and more prominent revolutionaries were being sent to the guillotine by Robespierre and his faction, for example Madame Roland and Georges Danton. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary insurrections were brutally suppressed. The regime was overthrown in the coup of 9 Thermidor (27 July 1794) and Robespierre was executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies. ### Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte was one of the world's most famous soldiers and statesmen, leading France to great victories over numerous European enemies. Despite modest origins he became Emperor and restructured much of European diplomacy, politics and law, until he was forced to abdicate in 1814. His 100-day comeback in 1815 failed at the Battle of Waterloo, and he died in exile on a remote island, remembered as a great hero by many Frenchmen and as a great villain by British and other enemies. Napoleon, despite his youth, was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 on 18 Brumaire (9 November) he overthrew the feeble government, replacing it with the Consulate, which he dominated. He gained popularity in France by restoring the Church, keeping taxes low, centralizing power in Paris, and winning glory on the battlefield. In 1804 he crowned himself Emperor. In 1805, Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria (Third Coalition), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time the French fleet was demolished by the British at the Battle of Trafalgar, ending any plan to invade Britain. On 2 December 1805, Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at Austerlitz, forcing Austria's withdrawal from the coalition (see Treaty of Pressburg) and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. In 1806, a Fourth Coalition was set up. On 14 October Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on 14 June 1807 at Friedland. The Treaties of Tilsit divided Europe between France and Russia and created the Duchy of Warsaw. On 12 June 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia with a Grande Armée of nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at Smolensk and Borodino Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian army. He was forced to withdraw. On the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign. By 1813 the tide had begun to turn from Napoleon. Having been defeated by a seven nation army at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, he was forced to abdicate after the Six Days' Campaign and the occupation of Paris. Under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the island of Elba. He returned to France on 1 March 1815 (see Hundred Days), raised an army, but was finally defeated by a British and Prussian force at the Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 and exiled to the small British island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. #### Impact of the French Revolution Roberts finds that the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, from 1793 to 1815, caused 4 million deaths (of whom 1 million were civilians); 1.4 million were French deaths. Outside France the Revolution had a major impact. Its ideas became widespread. Roberts argues that Napoleon was responsible for key ideas of the modern world, so that, "meritocracy, equality before the law, property rights, religious toleration, modern secular education, sound finances, and so on-were protected, consolidated, codified, and geographically extended by Napoleon during his 16 years of power." Furthermore, the French armies in the 1790s and 1800s directly overthrew feudal remains in much of western Europe. They liberalised property laws, ended seigneurial dues, abolished the guild of merchants and craftsmen to facilitate entrepreneurship, legalised divorce, closed the Jewish ghettos and made Jews equal to everyone else. The Inquisition ended as did the Holy Roman Empire. The power of church courts and religious authority was sharply reduced and equality under the law was proclaimed for all men. In foreign affairs, the French Army down to 1812 was quite successful. Roberts says that Napoleon fought 60 battles, losing only seven. France conquered Belgium and turned it into another province of France. It conquered the Netherlands, and made it a client state. It took control of the German areas on the left bank of the Rhine River and set up a puppet Confederation of the Rhine. It conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France, and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army. However the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a Second Coalition in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire and Austria). It scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, and trapped the French Army in Egypt. Napoleon himself slipped through the British blockade in October 1799, returning to Paris, where he overthrew the government and made himself the ruler. Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings. He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's Cisalpine Republic was centered on Milan; Genoa became a republic; the Roman Republic was formed as well as the small Ligurian Republic around Genoa. The Neapolitan Republic was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months. He later formed the Kingdom of Italy, with his brother as King. In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the Batavian Republic, and Switzerland into the Helvetic Republic. All these new countries were satellites of France, and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernized, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced. Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France. Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814. However, Artz emphasizes the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution: For nearly two decades the Italians had excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries.... Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality. Likewise in Switzerland the long-term impact of the French Revolution has been assessed by Martin: It proclaimed the equality of citizens before the law, equality of languages, freedom of thought and faith; it created a Swiss citizenship, basis of our modern nationality, and the separation of powers, of which the old regime had no conception; it suppressed internal tariffs and other economic restraints; it unified weights and measures, reformed civil and penal law, authorized mixed marriages (between Catholics and Protestants), suppressed torture and improved justice; it developed education and public works. The greatest impact came of course in France itself. In addition to effects similar to those in Italy and Switzerland, France saw the introduction of the principle of legal equality, and the downgrading of the once powerful and rich Catholic Church to just a bureau controlled by the government. Power became centralized in Paris, with its strong bureaucracy and an army supplied by conscripting all young men. French politics were permanently polarized – new names were given, "left" and "right" for the supporters and opponents of the principles of the Revolution. British historian Max Hastings says there is no question that as a military genius Napoleon ranks with Alexander the Great and Julius Caesar in greatness. However, in the political realm, historians debate whether Napoleon was "an enlightened despot who laid the foundations of modern Europe or, instead, a megalomaniac who wrought greater misery than any man before the coming of Hitler". ### Religion By the 19th century, governments increasingly took over traditional religious roles, paying much more attention to efficiency and uniformity than to religiosity. Secular bodies took control of education away from the churches, abolished taxes and tithes for the support of established religions, and excluded bishops from the upper houses. Secular laws increasingly regulated marriage and divorce, and maintaining birth and death registers became the duty of local officials. Although the numerous religious denominations in the United States founded many colleges and universities, that was almost exclusively a state function across Europe. Imperial powers protected Christian missionaries in African and Asian colonies. In France and other largely Catholic nations, anti-clerical political movements tried to reduce the role of the Catholic Church. Likewise briefly in Germany in the 1870s there was a fierce Kulturkampf (culture war) against Catholics, but the Catholics successfully fought back. The Catholic Church concentrated more power in the papacy and fought against secularism and socialism. It sponsored devotional reforms that gained wide support among the churchgoers. #### Protestantism Historian Kenneth Scott Latourette argues that the outlook for Protestantism at the start of the 19th century was discouraging. It was a regional religion based in Northwestern Europe, with an outpost in the sparsely settled United States. It was closely allied with government, as in Scandinavia, the Netherlands, Prussia, and especially Great Britain. The alliance came at the expense of independence, as the government made the basic policy decisions, down to such details as the salaries of ministers and location of new churches. The dominant intellectual currents of the Enlightenment promoted rationalism, and most Protestant leaders preached a sort of deism. Intellectually, the new methods of historical and anthropological study undermine automatic acceptance of biblical stories, as did the sciences of geology and biology. Industrialization was a strongly negative factor, as workers who moved to the city seldom joined churches. The gap between the church and the unchurched grew rapidly, and secular forces, based both in socialism and liberalism undermine the prestige of religion. Despite the negative forces, Protestantism demonstrated a striking vitality by 1900. Shrugging off Enlightenment rationalism, Protestants embraced romanticism, with the stress on the personal and the invisible. Entirely fresh ideas as expressed by Friedrich Schleiermacher, Soren Kierkegaard, Albrecht Ritschl and Adolf von Harnack restored the intellectual power of theology. There was more attention to historic creeds such as the Augsburg, the Heidelberg, and the Westminster confessions. In England, Anglicans emphasize the historically Catholic components of their heritage, as the High Church element reintroduced vestments and incense into their rituals. The stirrings of pietism on the Continent, and evangelicalism in Britain expanded enormously, leading the devout away from an emphasis on formality and ritual and toward an inner sensibility toward personal relationship to Christ. Social activities, in education and in opposition to social vices such as slavery, alcoholism and poverty provided new opportunities for social service. Above all, worldwide missionary activity became a highly prized goal, proving quite successful in close cooperation with European colonialists, particularly during the New Imperialism period. ### Nations rising #### Emerging nationalism The political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history; it is typically listed among the top causes of World War I. Napoleon's conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–1806 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity. ##### Germany In the German states east of Prussia Napoleon abolished many of the old or medieval relics, such as dissolving the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. He imposed rational legal systems and demonstrated how dramatic changes were possible. For example, his organization of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806 promoted a feeling of German nationalism. Nationalists sought to encompass masculinity in their quest for strength and unity. In the 1860s it was Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck who achieved German unification in 1870 after the many smaller states followed Prussia's leadership in wars against Denmark, Austria and France. ##### Italy Italian nationalism emerged in the 19th century and was the driving force for Italian unification or the "Risorgimento" (meaning the Resurgence or revival). It was the political and intellectual movement that consolidated different states of the Italian Peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in 1860. The memory of the Risorgimento is central to both Italian nationalism and Italian historiography. ##### Serbia For centuries the Orthodox Christian Serbs were ruled by the Muslim-controlled Ottoman Empire. The success of the Serbian revolution (1804–1817) against Ottoman rule in 1817 marked the foundation of modern Principality of Serbia. It achieved *de facto* independence in 1867 and finally gained recognition by the Great Powers in the Berlin Congress of 1878. The Serbs developed a larger vision for nationalism in Pan-Slavism and with Russian support sought to pull the other Slavs out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria, with German backing, tried to crush Serbia in 1914 but Russia intervened, thus igniting the First World War in which Austria dissolved into nation states. In 1918, the region of Vojvodina proclaimed its secession from Austria-Hungary to unite with the pan-Slavic State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs; the Kingdom of Serbia joined the union on 1 December 1918, and the country was named Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. It was renamed Yugoslavia, which was never able to tame the multiple nationalities and religions and it flew apart in civil war in the 1990s. ##### Greece The Greek drive for independence from the Ottoman Empire inspired supporters across Christian Europe, especially in Britain. France, Russia and Britain intervened to make this nationalist dream become reality with the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829/1830). ##### Bulgaria Bulgarian modern nationalism emerged under Ottoman rule in the late 18th and early 19th century, under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French revolution, mostly via Greece, although there were stirrings in the 18th century. Russia, as a World Great Power of fellow Orthodox Slavs, could appeal to the Bulgarians in a way that Austria could not. An autonomous Bulgarian Exarchate was established in 1870/1872 for the diocese of Bulgaria as well as for those, wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it. The April Uprising in 1876 indirectly resulted in the re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878. ##### Poland The cause of Polish nationalism was repeatedly frustrated before 1918. In the 1790s, Germany, Russia and Austria partitioned Poland. Napoleon set up the Duchy of Warsaw, a new Polish state that ignited a spirit of nationalism. Russia took it over in 1815 as Congress Poland with the tsar as King of Poland. Large-scale nationalist revolts erupted in 1830 and 1863–64 but were harshly crushed by Russia, which tried to Russify the Polish language, culture and religion. The collapse of the Russian Empire in the First World War enabled the major powers to reestablish an independent Second Polish Republic, which survived until 1939. Meanwhile, Poles in areas controlled by Germany moved into heavy industry but their religion came under attack by Bismarck in the Kulturkampf of the 1870s. The Poles joined German Catholics in a well-organized new Centre Party, and defeated Bismarck politically. He responded by stopping the harassment and cooperating with the Centre Party. ##### Spain After the War of the Spanish Succession, rooted in the political position of the Count-Duke of Olivares and the absolutism of Philip V, the assimilation of the Crown of Aragon by the Castilian Crown through the Decrees of Nova planta was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation state. As in other contemporary European states, political union was the first step in the creation of the Spanish nation-state, in this case not on a uniform ethnic basis, but through the imposition of the political and cultural characteristics of the dominant ethnic group, in this case the Castilians, over those of other ethnic groups, who became national minorities to be assimilated. In fact, since the political unification of 1714, Spanish assimilation policies towards Catalan-speaking territories (Catalonia, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, part of Aragon) and other national minorities have been a historical constant. The nationalization process accelerated in the 19th century, in parallel to the origin of Spanish nationalism, the social, political and ideological movement that tried to shape a Spanish national identity based on the Castilian model, in conflict with the other historical nations of the State. These nationalist policies, sometimes very aggressive, and still in force, have been, and still are, the seed of repeated territorial conflicts within the State. #### Education An important component of nationalism was the study of the nation's heritage, emphasizing the national language and literary culture. This stimulated, and was in turn strongly supported by, the emergence of national educational systems reaching the general population. Latin gave way to the national language, and compulsory education, with strong support from modernizers and the media, became standard in Germany and eventually the other West European nations. Voting reforms extended the franchise to the previously excluded elements. A strong sentiment among the elites was the necessity for compulsory public education, so that the new electorate could understand and handle its duties. Every country developed a sense of national origins – the historical accuracy was less important than the motivation toward patriotism. Universal compulsory education was extended as well to girls, at least at the elementary level. By the 1890s, strong movements emerged in some countries, including France, Germany and the United States, to extend compulsory education to the secondary level. #### Ideological coalitions After the defeat of revolutionary France, the great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful balance of power among the various European empires. This was known as the Metternich system. The powerbase of their support was the aristocracy, with its great landed wealth and control of the government, the church, and the military in most countries. However, their reactionary efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the middle classes had been deeply influenced by the ideals of the French revolution, and the Industrial Revolution brought important economical and social changes. Radical intellectuals looked to the working classes for a base for socialist, communist and anarchistic ideas. Widely influential was the 1848 pamphlet by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels *The Communist Manifesto*. The middle classes and businessmen promoted liberalism, free trade and capitalism. Aristocratic elements concentrated in government service, the military and the established churches. Nationalist movements (in Germany, Italy, Poland, Hungary, and elsewhere) called upon the "racial" unity (which usually meant a common language and an imagined common ethnicity) to seek national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars. Greece successfully revolted against Ottoman rule in the 1820s. European diplomats and intellectuals saw the Greek struggle for independence, with its accounts of Turkish atrocities, in a romantic light. #### France under Napoleon III Napoleon III, nephew of Napoleon I, parlayed his famous name and to widespread popularity across France. He returned from exile in 1848, promising to stabilize the chaotic political situation. He was elected president and maneuvered successfully to name himself Emperor, a move approved later by a large majority of the French electorate. The first part of his Imperial term brought many important reforms, facilitated by Napoleon's control of the lawmaking body, the government, and the French Armed Forces. Hundreds of old Republican leaders were arrested and deported. Napoleon controlled the media and censored the news. In compensation for the loss of freedom, Napoleon gave the people new hospitals and asylums, beautified and modernized Paris, and built a modern railroad and transportation system that dramatically improved commerce, and helped the many small farmers as well. The economy grew, but industrialization was not as rapid as Britain, and France depended largely on small family-oriented firms as opposed to the large companies that were emerging in the United States and Germany. France was on the winning side in the Crimean War (1854–56), but after 1858 Napoleon's foreign-policy was less and less successful. He antagonized Great Britain and failed to appreciate the danger of war with Prussia. Foreign-policy blunders finally destroyed his reign in 1870–71. He gained worldwide attention for his aggressive foreign policy in Europe, Mexico, and worldwide. He helped in the unification of Italy by fighting the Austrian Empire and joined the Crimean War on the side of the United Kingdom to defend the Ottoman Empire against Russia. His empire collapsed after being defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. France became a republic, but until the 1880s there was a strong popular demand for return to monarchy. That never happened because of the blunders made by the available monarchs. Hostility to the Catholic Church became a major issue, as France battle between secular and religious forces well into the 20th century, with the secular elements usually more successful. The French Third Republic emerged in 1871, was on the winning side of the first world war, and was finally overthrown when it was defeated in 1940 in World War II. #### Major powers | Country | Population in millions (year) | | --- | --- | | Russia | 71.8 (1870) | | Germany | 42.7 (1875) | | Austria-Hungary | 37.3 (1876) | | France | 36.9 (1876) | | Great Britain | 33.7 (1877) | | Italy | 26.8 (1876) | | Source: | *Appleton Annual Cyclopedia: 1877* (1878) p. 281 | Most European states had become constitutional (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy merged many small city-states to become united nation-states. Germany in particular increasingly dominated the continent in terms of economics and political power. Meanwhile, on a global scale, Great Britain, with its far-flung British Empire, unmatched Royal Navy, and powerful bankers, became the world's first global power. The sun never set on its territories, while an informal empire operated through British financiers, entrepreneurs, traders and engineers who established operations in many countries, and largely dominated Latin America. The British were especially famous for financing and constructing railways around the world. #### Bismarck's Germany From his base in Prussia, Otto von Bismarck in the 1860s engineered a series of short, decisive wars, that unified most of the German states (excluding Austria) into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. He humiliated France in the process, but kept on good terms with Austria-Hungary. With that accomplished by 1871 he then skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to preserve Germany's new role and keep Europe at peace. The new German Empire industrialized rapidly and challenged Britain for economic leadership. Bismarck disliked colonies but public and elite opinion forced him to build an overseas empire. He was removed from office in 1890 by an aggressive young Kaiser Wilhelm II, who pursued a disruptive foreign policy that polarized Europe into rival camps. These rival camps went to war with each other in 1914. #### Austrian and Russian empires The power of nationalism to create new states was irresistible in the 19th century, and the process could lead to collapse in the absence of a strong nationalism. Austria-Hungary had the advantage of size, but multiple disadvantages. There were rivals on four sides, its finances were unstable, the population was fragmented into multiple ethnicities and languages that served as the bases for separatist nationalisms. It had a large army with good forts, but its industrial base was thin. Its naval resources were so minimal that it did not attempt to build an overseas empire. It did have the advantage of good diplomats, typified by Metternich (Foreign Minister 1809–1848, Prime Minister, 1821–1848)). They employed a grand strategy for survival that balanced out different forces, set up buffer zones, and kept the Hapsburg empire going despite wars with the Ottomans, Frederick the Great, Napoleon and Bismarck, until the final disaster of the First World War. The Empire overnight disintegrated into multiple states based on ethnic nationalism and the principle of self-determination. The Russian Empire likewise brought together a multitude of languages and cultures, so that its military defeat in the First World War led to multiple splits that created independent Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Poland, and for a brief spell, independent Ukraine, Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan. ### Growth of European armies 1871 to 1904 Table: European armies on active duty in 1871, 1904 | | | | Country | Armies 1871 | Armies 1904 | | Germany | 403,000 | 606,000 | | France | 380,000 | 598,000 | | Austria-Hungary | 247,000 | 392,000 | | Russia | 700,000 | 1,100,000 | | Italy | 334,000 | 278,000 | ### Imperialism Colonial empires were the product of the European Age of Discovery from the 15th century. The initial impulse behind these dispersed maritime empires and those that followed was trade, driven by the new ideas and the capitalism that grew out of the Renaissance. Both the Portuguese Empire and Spanish Empire quickly grew into the first global political and economic systems with territories spread around the world. Subsequent major European colonial empires included the French, Dutch, and British empires. The latter, consolidated during the period of British maritime hegemony in the 19th century, became the largest empire in history because of the improved ocean transportation technologies of the time as well as electronic communication through the telegraph, cable, and radio. At its height in 1920, the British Empire covered a quarter of the Earth's land area and comprised a quarter of its population. Other European countries, such as Belgium, Germany, and Italy, pursued colonial empires as well (mostly in Africa), but they were smaller. Ignoring the oceans, Russia built its Russian Empire through conquest by land in Eastern Europe, and Asia. By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire had declined enough to become a target for other global powers (see History of the Balkans). This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that eventually set the stage for the First World War. In the second half of the 19th century, the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Kingdom of Prussia carried out a series of wars that resulted in the creation of Italy and Germany as nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. From 1870, Otto von Bismarck engineered a German hegemony of Europe that put France in a critical situation. It slowly rebuilt its relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain to control the growing power of Germany. In this way, two opposing sides – the Triple Alliance of 1882 (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente of 1907 (Britain, France and Russia) – formed in Europe, improving their military forces and alliances year-by-year. 1914–1945: two world wars ------------------------- German-American historian Konrad Jarausch, asked if he agreed that "the European record of the past century [was] just one gigantic catastrophe", argues: It is true that the first half of the 20th century was full of internecine warfare, economic depression, ethnic cleansing and racist genocide that killed tens of millions of people, more than any other period in human history. But looking only at the disasters creates an incomplete perception, because the second half of the century witnessed a much more positive development in spite of the Cold War. After the defeat of Fascism in 1945, the peaceful revolution of 1989/90 also liberated the East from Communist control in a quite unexpected fashion. As a result, Europeans generally live more free, prosperous and healthy lives than ever before. The "short twentieth century", from 1914 to 1991, included the First World War, the Second World War and the Cold War. The First World War used modern technology to kill millions of soldiers. Victory by Britain, France, the United States and other allies drastically changed the map of Europe, ending four major land empires (the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires) and leading to the creation of nation-states across Central and Eastern Europe. The October Revolution in Russia led to the creation of the Soviet Union (1917–1991) and the rise of the international communist movement. Widespread economic prosperity was typical of the period before 1914, and 1920–1929. After the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, however, democracy collapsed in most of Europe. Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party took control in Italy, and the even more aggressive Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler took control of Germany, 1933–45. The Second World War was fought on an even larger scale than the First war, killing many more people, and using even more advanced technology. It ended with the division of Europe between East and West, with the East under the control of the Soviet Union and the West dominated by NATO. The two sides engaged in the Cold War, with actual conflict taking place not in Europe but in Asia in the Korean War and the Vietnam War. The Imperial system collapsed. The remaining colonial empires ended through the decolonisation of European rule in Africa and Asia. The fall of Soviet Communism (1989–1991) left the West dominant and enabled the reunification of Germany. It accelerated the process of a European integration to include Eastern Europe. The European Union continues today, but with German economic dominance. Since the worldwide Great Recession of 2008, European growth has been slow, and financial crises have hit Greece and other countries. Modern-day Russia is weaker by military might, compared to when it was a superpower as a part of the Soviet Union, but has retained its historical status as both a great power and a regional power, confronting Ukraine and other post-Soviet states. ### World War I After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers, compounded by a rising nationalism among ethnic groups, exploded in August 1914, when the First World War started. Over 65 million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918; 20 million soldiers and civilians died, and 21 million were seriously wounded. On one side were Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria (the Central Powers/Triple Alliance), while on the other side stood Serbia and the *Triple Entente* – the coalition of France, Britain and Russia, which were joined by Italy in 1915, Romania in 1916 and by the United States in 1917. The Western Front involved especially brutal combat without any territorial gains by either side. Single battles like Verdun and the Somme killed hundreds of thousands of men while leaving the stalemate unchanged. Heavy artillery and machine guns caused most of the casualties, supplemented by poison gas. Czarist Russia collapsed in the February Revolution of 1917 and Germany claimed victory on the Eastern Front. After eight months of liberal rule, the October Revolution brought Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks to power, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union in place of the disintegrated Russian Empire. With American entry into the war in 1917 on the Allied side, and the failure of Germany's spring 1918 offensive, Germany had run out of manpower, while an average of 10,000 American troops were arriving in France every day in the summer of 1918. Germany's allies, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, surrendered and dissolved, followed by Germany on 11 November 1918. The victors forced Germany to assume responsibility for the conflict and pay war reparations. One factor in determining the outcome of the war was that the Allies had significantly more economic resources they could spend on the war. One estimate (using 1913 US dollars) is that the Allies spent $58 billion on the war and the Central Powers only $25 billion. Among the Allies, Britain spent $21 billion and the U.S. $17 billion; among the Central Powers Germany spent $20 billion. ### Paris Peace Conference The world war was settled by the victors at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Two dozen nations sent delegations, and there were many nongovernmental groups, but the defeated powers were not invited. The "Big Four" were President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France, and, of least importance, Italian Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando. Each has a large staff of experts. They met together informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn were ratified by the others. The major decisions were the creation of the League of Nations; the six peace treaties with defeated enemies, most notable the Treaty of Versailles with Germany; the awarding of German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates", chiefly to Britain and France; and the drawing of new national boundaries (sometimes with plebiscites) to better reflect the forces of nationalism. The Big Four implemented sweeping changes to the political geography of the world. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany's military power and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on its shoulders – the humiliation and resentment in Germany was probably one of the causes of Nazi success and indirectly a cause of World War II. At the insistence of President Wilson, the Big Four required the Second Polish Republic to sign a treaty on 28 June 1919 that guaranteed minority rights in the new nation. Poland signed under protest, and made little effort to enforce the specified rights for Germans, Jews, Ukrainians, and other minorities. Similar treaties were signed by Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and later by Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania. Finland and Germany were not asked to sign a minority rights treaty. ### Interwar In the Treaty of Versailles (1919) the winners recognised the new states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Austria, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) created in central Europe from the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, based on national (ethnic) self-determination. It was a peaceful era with a few small wars before 1922 such as the Ukrainian–Soviet War (1917–1921) and the Polish–Soviet War (1919–1921). Prosperity was widespread, and the major cities sponsored a youth culture called the "Roaring Twenties" or "Jazz Age" that was often featured in the cinema, which attracted very large audiences. The Allied victory in the First World War seemed to mark the triumph of liberalism, not just in the Allied countries themselves, but also in Germany and in the new states of Eastern Europe, as well as Japan. Authoritarian militarism as typified by Germany had been defeated and discredited. Historian Martin Blinkhorn argues that the liberal themes were ascendant in terms of "cultural pluralism, religious and ethnic toleration, national self-determination, free-market economics, representative and responsible government, free trade, unionism, and the peaceful settlement of international disputes through a new body, the League of Nations." However, as early as 1917, the emerging liberal order was being challenged by the new communist movement taking inspiration from the Russian Revolution. Communist revolts were beaten back everywhere else, but they did succeed in Russia. #### Fascism and authoritarianism Italy adopted an authoritarian dictatorship known as Fascism in 1922; it became a model for Hitler in Germany and for right wing elements in other countries. Historian Stanley G. Payne says Italian fascism was: A primarily political dictatorship....The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy....The Fascist militia was placed under military control....The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders...nor was a major new police elite created....There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience.... Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed....The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive. Authoritarian regimes replaced democracy in the 1930s in Nazi Germany, Portugal, Austria, Poland, Greece, the Baltic countries and Francoist Spain. By 1940, there were only four liberal democracies left on the European continent: France, Finland, Switzerland and Sweden. ### Great Depression: 1929–1939 After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, nearly the whole world sank into a Great Depression, as money stopped flowing from New York to Europe, prices fell, profits fell, and unemployment soared. The worst hit sectors included heavy industry, export-oriented agriculture, mining and lumbering, and construction. World trade fell by two-thirds. Liberalism and democracy were discredited. In most of Europe, as well as in Japan and most of Latin America, nation after nation turned to dictators and authoritarian regimes. The most momentous change of government came when Hitler and his Nazis took power in Germany in 1933. The main institution that was meant to bring stability was the League of Nations, created in 1919. However the League failed to resolve any major crises and by 1938 it was no longer a major player. The League was undermined by the bellicosity of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, and Mussolini's Italy, and by the non-participation of the United States. By 1937 it was largely ignored. A major civil war took place in Spain, with the nationalists winning. The League of Nations was helpless as Italy conquered Ethiopia and Japan seized Manchuria in 1931 and took over most of China starting in 1937. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was marked by numerous small battles and sieges, and many atrocities, until the rebels (the Nationalist faction), led by Francisco Franco, won in 1939. There was military intervention as Italy sent land forces, and Germany sent smaller elite air force and armoured units to the Nationalists. The Soviet Union sold armaments to the leftist Republican faction on the other side, while the Communist parties in numerous countries sent soldiers to the "International Brigades." The civil war did not escalate into a larger conflict, but did become a worldwide ideological battleground that pitted the left, the communist movement and many liberals against Catholics, conservatives, and fascists. Britain, France and the US remained neutral and refused to sell military supplies to either side. Worldwide there was a decline in pacifism and a growing sense that another world war was imminent, and that it would be worth fighting for. ### World War II In the Munich Agreement of 1938, Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement as they gave Hitler what he wanted out of Czechoslovakia in the hope that it would bring peace. It did not. In 1939 Germany took over the rest of Czechoslovakia and appeasement policies gave way to hurried rearmament as Hitler next turned his attention to Poland. After allying with Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact and then also with Benito Mussolini's Italy in the "Pact of Steel", and finally signing a non-aggression treaty with the Soviet Union in August 1939, Hitler launched the Second World War on 1 September 1939 by attacking Poland. To his surprise Britain and France declared war on Germany, but there was little fighting during the "Phoney War" period. War began in earnest in spring 1940 with the successful Blitzkrieg conquests of Denmark, Norway, the Low Countries, and France. Britain remained alone but refused to negotiate, and defeated Germany's air attacks in the Battle of Britain. Hitler's goal was to control Eastern Europe but because of his failure to defeat Britain and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Balkans, the great attack on the Soviet Union was delayed until June 1941. Despite initial successes, the Wehrmacht was stopped close to Moscow in December 1941. Over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of Stalingrad and at Kursk. Meanwhile, Japan (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked Britain and the United States on 7 December 1941; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allied Forces (British Empire, Soviet Union, and the United States). The Allied Forces won in North Africa, invaded Italy in 1943, and recaptured France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by the Soviet Union and from the west by the other Allies. As the Red Army conquered the Reichstag in the Battle of Berlin, Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May. World War II was the deadliest conflict in human history, causing between 50 and 80 million deaths, the majority of whom were civilians (approximately 38 to 55 million). This period was also marked by systematic genocide. In 1942–45, separately from the war-related deaths, the Nazis killed an additional number of over 11 million civilians identified through IBM-enabled censuses, including the majority of the Jews and Gypsies of Europe, millions of Polish and Soviet Slavs, and also homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, misfits, disabled, and political enemies. Meanwhile, in the 1930s the Soviet system of forced labour, expulsions and allegedly engineered famine had a similar death toll. During and after the war millions of civilians were affected by forced population transfers. Cold War era ------------ The world wars ended the pre-eminent position of Britain, France and Germany in Europe and the world. At the Yalta Conference, Europe was divided into spheres of influence between the victors of World War II, and soon became the principal zone of contention in the Cold War between the two power blocs, the Western countries and the Communist bloc. The United States and the majority of European liberal democracies at the time (United Kingdom, France, Italy, Netherlands, West Germany etc.) established the NATO military alliance. Later, the Soviet Union and its satellites (Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania) in 1955 established the Warsaw Pact as a counterpoint to NATO. The Warsaw Pact had a much larger ground force, but the American-French-British nuclear umbrellas protected NATO. Communist states were imposed by the Red Army in the East, while parliamentary democracy became the dominant form of government in the West. Most historians point to its success as the product of exhaustion with war and dictatorship, and the promise of continued economic prosperity. Martin Conway also adds that an important impetus came from the anti-Nazi wartime political coalitions. ### Economic recovery The United States gave away about $20 billion in Marshall Plan grants and other grants and low-interest long-term loans to Western Europe, 1945 to 1951. Historian Michael J. Hogan argues that American aid was critical in stabilizing the economy and politics of Western Europe. It brought in modern management that dramatically increased productivity, and encouraged cooperation between labor and management, and among the member states. Local Communist parties were opposed, and they lost prestige and influence and a role in government. In strategic terms, says Hogan, the Marshall Plan strengthened the West against the possibility of a communist invasion or political takeover. However, the Marshall Plan's role in the rapid recovery has been debated. Most reject the idea that it only miraculously revived Europe, since the evidence shows that a general recovery was already under way thanks to other aid programs from the United States. Economic historians Bradford De Long and Barry Eichengreen conclude it was, " History's Most Successful Structural Adjustment Program." They state: It was not large enough to have significantly accelerated recovery by financing investment, aiding the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure, or easing commodity bottlenecks. We argue, however, that the Marshall Plan did play a major role in setting the stage for post-World War II Western Europe's rapid growth. The conditions attached to Marshall Plan aid pushed European political economy in a direction that left its post World War II "mixed economies" with more "market" and less "controls" in the mix. The Soviet Union concentrated on its own recovery. It seized and transferred most of Germany's industrial plants and it exacted war reparations from East Germany, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria, using Soviet-dominated joint enterprises. It used trading arrangements deliberately designed to favor the Soviet Union. Moscow controlled the Communist parties that ruled the satellite states, and they followed orders from the Kremlin. Historian Mark Kramer concludes: The net outflow of resources from eastern Europe to the Soviet Union was approximately $15 billion to $20 billion in the first decade after World War II, an amount roughly equal to the total aid provided by the United States to western Europe under the Marshall Plan. Western Europe began economic and then political integration, with the aim to unite the region and defend it. This process included organisations such as the European Coal and Steel Community, which grew and evolved into the European Union, and the Council of Europe. The Solidarność movement in the 1980s weakened the Communist government in Poland. At the time the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev initiated perestroika and glasnost, which weakened Soviet influence in Europe, particularly in the USSR. In 1989 after the Pan-European Picnic the Iron Curtain and the Berlin Wall came down and Communist governments outside the Soviet Union were deposed. In 1990 the Federal Republic of Germany absorbed East Germany, after making large cash payments to the USSR. In 1991 the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in Moscow collapsed, ending the USSR, which split into fifteen independent states. The largest, Russia, took the Soviet Union's seat on the United Nations Security Council. The most violent dissolution happened in Yugoslavia, in the Balkans. Four (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and North Macedonia) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. In 2006 Montenegro seceded and became an independent state. In the post–Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the Warsaw Pact. Looking at the half century after the war historian Walter Lacquer concluded: "The postwar generations of European elites aimed to create more democratic societies. They wanted to reduce the extremes of wealth and poverty and provide essential social services in a way that prewar generations had not. They had had quite enough of unrest and conflict. For decades many Continental societies had more or less achieved these aims and had every reason to be proud of their progress. Europe was quiet and civilized. Europe's success was based on recent painful experience: the horrors of two world wars; the lessons of dictatorship; the experiences of fascism and communism. Above all, it was based on a feeling of European identity and common values – or so it appeared at the time." The post-war period also witnessed a significant rise in the standard of living of the Western European working class. As noted by one historical text, "within a single generation, the working classes of Western Europe came to enjoy the multiple pleasures of the consumer society." Western Europe's industrial nations in the 1970s were hit by a global economic crisis. They had obsolescent heavy industry, and suddenly had to pay very high energy prices which caused sharp inflation. Some of them also had inefficient nationalized railways and heavy industries. In the important field of computer technology, European nations lagged behind the United States. They also faced high government deficits and growing unrest led by militant labour unions. There was an urgent need for new economic directions. Germany and Sweden sought to create a social consensus behind a gradual restructuring. Germany's efforts proved highly successful. In Britain under the premiership of Margaret Thatcher, the solution was shock therapy, high interest rates, austerity, and selling off inefficient corporations as well as the public housing, which was sold off to the tenants. One result was escalating social tensions in Britain, led by the militant coal miners. Thatcher eventually defeated her opponents and radically changed the British economy, but the controversy never went away as shown by the hostile demonstrations at the time of her death in 2013. Recent history -------------- The end of the Cold War came in a series of events from 1979 to 1991, mainly in Eastern Europe. In the end, these brought the fall of the Iron Curtain, the German reunification and the end of Soviet control over their Eastern European satellites and their worldwide network of communist parties in a friendly chain reaction from the Pan-European Picnic in 1989. The finals brought the division of the Soviet Union into 15 non-communist states in 1991. Italian historian Federico Romero reports that observers at the time emphasized that: The systemic and ideological confrontation between capitalism and communism had faded away. The geopolitical partition of Europe was no more. Nuclear deterrence was morphing into a less armed, almost hypothetical version of its previous self. Superpower rivalry was rapidly wound up with cascading effects in various areas of the world. Following the end of the Cold War, the European Economic Community pushed for closer integration, co-operation in foreign and home affairs, and started to increase its membership into the neutral and former communist countries. In 1993, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union, succeeding the EEC and furthering political co-operation. The neutral countries of Austria, Finland and Sweden acceded to the EU, and those that didn't join were tied into the EU's economic market via the European Economic Area. These countries also entered the Schengen Agreement which lifted border controls between member states. The Maastricht Treaty created a single currency for most EU members. The *euro* was created in 1999 and replaced all previous currencies in participating states in 2002. The most notable exception to the currency union, or *eurozone*, was the United Kingdom, which also did not sign the Schengen Agreement. The EU did not participate in the Yugoslav Wars, and was divided on supporting the United States in the 2003–2011 Iraq War. NATO was part of the war in Afghanistan, but at a much lower level of involvement than the United States. In 2004, the EU gained 10 new members. (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, which had been part of the Soviet Union; Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, five former-communist countries; Malta, and the divided island of Cyprus.) These were followed by Bulgaria and Romania in 2007. Russia's regime had interpreted these expansions as violations against NATO's promise to not expand "one inch to the east" in 1990. Russia engaged in a number of bilateral disputes about gas supplies with Belarus and Ukraine which endangered gas supplies to Europe. Russia also engaged in a minor war with Georgia in 2008. Supported by the United States and some European countries, Kosovo's government unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Public opinion in the EU turned against enlargement, partially due to what was seen as over-eager expansion including Turkey gaining candidate status. The European Constitution was rejected in France and the Netherlands, and then (as the Treaty of Lisbon) in Ireland, although a second vote passed in Ireland in 2009. The financial crisis of 2007–08 affected Europe, and government responded with austerity measures. Limited ability of the smaller EU nations (most notably Greece) to handle their debts led to social unrest, government liquidation, and financial insolvency. In May 2010, the German parliament agreed to loan 22.4 billion euros to Greece over three years, with the stipulation that Greece follow strict austerity measures. See European sovereign-debt crisis. Beginning in 2014, Ukraine has been in a state of revolution and unrest with two breakaway regions (Donetsk and Lugansk) attempting to join Russia as full federal subjects. (*See Russo-Ukrainian War.*) On 16 March, a disputed referendum was held in Crimea leading to the *de facto* secession of Crimea and its largely internationally unrecognized annexation to the Russian Federation as the Republic of Crimea. In June 2016, in a referendum in the United Kingdom on the country's membership in the European Union, 52% of voters voted to leave the EU, leading to the complex Brexit separation process and negotiations, which led to political and economic changes for both the UK and the remaining European Union countries. The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. Later that year, Europe was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the *Wall Street Journal* in 2021 as Angela Merkel stepped down as the highly popular Chancellor of Germany after 16 years: > Ms. Merkel leaves in her wake a weakened Europe, a region whose aspirations to act as a third superpower have come to seem ever more unrealistic. When she became chancellor in 2005, the EU was at a high point: It had adopted the euro, which was meant to rival the dollar as a global currency, and had just expanded by absorbing former members of the Soviet bloc. Today’s EU, by contrast, is geographically and economically diminished. Having lost the U.K. because of Brexit, it faces deep political and cultural divisions, lags behind in the global race for innovation and technology and is increasingly squeezed by the mounting U.S.-China strategic rivalry. Europe has endured thanks in part to Ms. Merkel’s pragmatic stewardship, but it has been battered by crises during her entire time in office. > > Russia began an invasion of Ukraine on 24 February 2022, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War that began in 2014. It is the largest conventional military attack in Europe since World War II. Chronology ---------- * 7000 BC: Neolithic in Europe begins. * 4600 - 4200 BC: First European proto-civilisation, first golden artefacts and first fortified stone town - the Varna culture. * 5000 - 3500 BC: First European proto-script - the Old European script (Danubian script). * 3850 - 3600 BC: Malta's Temple period begins. * 3500 BC: First European civilization, Minoan civilization, begins on Crete. * 3000 BC: Indo-Europeans begin a large-scale settlement of the continent. * 2500 BC: Stonehenge is constructed. * 2100 BC: First European script, Cretan hieroglyphs, is invented by Minoans. * 1750 BC: Mycenaean civilization begins. * 1600 BC: Thera eruption occurs on the island of Santorini, destructing the Minoan city of Thera. * 1450 BC: Crete is conquered by Mycenaeans. * 1200 BC: Late Bronze Age collapse begins, that may be seen in the context of a technological history that saw the slow spread of ironworking technology from present-day Bulgaria and Romania in the 13th and the 12th centuries BC. * 1100 BC: Minoan civilization falls. * 1050 BC: Mycenaean civilization falls after a period of palace destruction, marking the beginning of Greek Dark Ages. * 900 BC: Etruscan civilization begins. * 800 BC: Greek Dark Ages end, marking the beginning of classical antiquity. * 753 BC: Traditional year of founding of Rome. * 700 BC: Homer composes *The Iliad*, an epic poem that represents the first extended work of European literature. * 509 BC: Roman Republic is created. * 499 BC: Greco-Persian Wars begin. * c.480 BC: The Thracian Odrysian kingdom was founded as the most important Daco-Thracian state union. * 449 BC: End of Greco-Persian Wars with Greeks defeating Achaemid Empire. * 440 BC: Herodotus defends Athenian political freedom in the *Histories*. * 404 BC: Sparta wins the Peloponnesian War. * 323 BC: Alexander the Great dies and his Macedonian Empire (reaching far into Asia) fragments. * 264 BC: Punic Wars begin. * 146 BC: Punic Wars end with destruction of Carthage. * 48 BC: Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon river, marking the beginning of a civil war. * 44 BC: Julius Caesar is murdered. The Roman Republic enters its terminal crisis. * 27 BC: Establishment of the Roman Empire under Octavian. **AD** * 14 AD: Octavian dies. * 30 or 33 AD: Jesus, a popular religious leader, is crucified. * 45–55 (ca): First Christian congregations in mainland Greece and in Rome. * 68: First Roman imperial dynasty, Julio-Claudian, ends with suicide of Nero. * 79: Eruption of Vesuvius occurs, buriing the cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabiae under the ashes. * 117: Roman Empire reaches its territorial peak. * 166: Antonine Plague begins. * 293: Diocletian reorganizes the Empire by creating the Tetrarchy. * 313: Constantine officially recognises Christianity, marking the end of the persecution of Christians. * 330: Constantine makes Constantinople into his capital, a new Rome. * 370: Huns first enter Europe. * 395: Following the death of Theodosius I, the Empire is permanently split into the Eastern Roman Empire (later Byzantium) and the Western Roman Empire. * 476: Odoacer captures Ravenna and deposes the last Roman emperor in the west: traditionally seen as the end date of the Western Roman Empire. * 527: Justinian I is crowned emperor of Byzantium. Orders the editing of *Corpus Juris Civilis*, Digest (Roman law). * 597: Beginning of Roman Catholic Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England (missions and churches had been in existence well before this date, but their contacts with Rome had been loose or nonexistent) * 600: Saint Columbanus uses the term "Europe" in a letter. * 655: Jus patronatus. * 681: Khan Asparukh leads the Bulgars and in a union with the numerous local Slavs invades the Byzantine empire in the Battle of Ongal, creating Bulgaria. * 718: Tervel of Bulgaria helps the Byzantine Empire stop the Arabic invasion of Europe, and breaks the siege of Constantinople. * 722: Battle of Covadonga in the Iberian Peninsula. Pelayo, a noble Visigoth, defeats a Muslim army that tried to conquer the Cantabrian coast. This helps establish the Christian Kingdom of Asturias, and marks the beginning of the Reconquista. * 732: At the Battle of Tours, the Franks stop the advance of the Arabs into Europe. * 800: Coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor. * 813: Third Council of Tours: Priests are ordered to preach in the native language of the population. * 843: Treaty of Verdun. * 863: Saints Cyril and Methodius arrive in Great Moravia, initiating Christian mission among the Slav peoples. * 864: Boris I of Bulgaria officially baptises the whole nation, converting the non-Christian population from Tengrism, Slavic and other paganism to Christianity, and officially founding the Bulgarian Church * 872: Unification of Norway. * 886: Bulgarian students of Cyril and Methodius – Sava, Kliment, Naum, Gorazd, Angelariy – arrive back to Bulgaria, creating the Preslav and Ohrid Literary Schools. * 893: The Cyrillic alphabet, developed during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School in the First Bulgarian Empire, becomes the official Bulgarian alphabet. * 895: Hungarian people led by Árpád start to settle in the Carpathian Basin. * 917: In the Battle of Achelous (917) Bulgaria defeats the Byzantine empire, and Simeon I of Bulgaria is proclaimed as emperor, thus Bulgaria becomes an empire. * 962: Otto I of East Francia is crowned as "Emperor" by the Pope, beginning the Holy Roman Empire. * 988 Kievan Rus adopts Christianity, often seen as the origin of the Russian Orthodox Church. * 1054: Start of the East–West Schism, which divides the Christian church for centuries. * 1066: Successful Norman Invasion of England by William the Conqueror. * 1095: Pope Urban II calls for the First Crusade. * 12th century: The 12th century in literature saw an increase in the number of texts. The Renaissance of the 12th century occurs. * 1128: Battle of São Mamede, formation of Portuguese sovereignty. * 1131: Birth of the Kingdom of Sicily * 1185: Bulgarian sovereignty was reestablished with the anti-Byzantine uprising of the Bulgarians and Vlachs * 1250: Death of emperor Frederick II; end of effective ability of emperors to exercise control in Italy. * 1303: The period of the Crusades is over. * 1309–1378: The Avignon Papacy * 1315–1317: The Great Famine of 1315–1317 in Northern Europe * 1341: Petrarch, the "Father of Humanism", becomes the first poet laureate since antiquity. * 1337–1453: The Hundred Years' War between England and France. * 1348–1351: Black Death kills about one-third of Europe's population. * 1439: Johannes Gutenberg invents first movable type and the first printing press for books, starting the Printing Revolution. * 1453: Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. * 1487: The Wars of the Roses end. * 1492: The Reconquista ends in the Iberian Peninsula. A Spanish expeditionary group, commanded by Christopher Columbus, lands in the New World. * 1497: Vasco da Gama departs to India starting direct trade with Asia. * 1498: Leonardo da Vinci paints *The Last Supper* in Milan as the Renaissance flourishes. * 1508: Maximilian I the last ruling "King of the Romans" and the first "elected Emperor of the Romans". * 1517: Martin Luther nails his 95 theses on indulgences to the door of the church in Wittenberg, triggering discussions which would soon lead to the Reformation * 1519: Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano begin first global circumnavigation. Their expedition returns in 1522. * 1519: Hernán Cortés begins conquest of Mexico for Spain. * 1532: Francisco Pizarro begins the conquest of Peru (the Inca Empire) for Spain. * 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes *De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres)*. * 1547: The Grand Duchy of Moscow becomes the Tsardom of Russia. * 1582: The introduction of the Gregorian calendar; Russia refuses to adopt it until 1918. * 1610: Galileo Galilei uses his telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter. * 1618: The Thirty Years' War brings massive devastation to central Europe. * 1648: The Peace of Westphalia ends the Thirty Years' War, and introduces the principle of the integrity of the nation state. * 1687: Isaac Newton publishes *Principia Mathematica*, having a profound impact on The Enlightenment. * 1699: Treaty of Karlowitz concludes the Austro-Ottoman War. This marks the end of Ottoman control of Central Europe and the beginning of Ottoman stagnation, establishing the Habsburg monarchy as the dominant power in Central and Southeastern Europe. * 1700: Outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War. The first would check the aspirations of Louis XIV, king of France to dominate European affairs; the second would lead to Russia's emergence as a great power and a recognizably European state. * 18th century: Age of Enlightenment spurs an intellectual renaissance across Europe. * 1707: The Kingdom of Great Britain is formed by the union of the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland. * 1712: Thomas Newcomen invents first practical steam engine which begins Industrial Revolution in Britain. * 1721: Foundation of the Russian Empire. * 1775: James Watt invents a new efficient steam engine accelerating the Industrial Revolution in Britain. * 1776: Adam Smith publishes The Wealth of Nations. * 1784: Immanuel Kant publishes *Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?*. * 1789: Beginning of the French Revolution and end of the absolute monarchy in France. * 1792–1802: French Revolutionary Wars. * 1799: Napoleon comes to power, eventually consolidating his position as Emperor of the French. * 1803–1815: Napoleonic Wars end in defeat of Napoleon. * 1806: Napoleon abolishes the Holy Roman Empire. * 1814–1815: Congress of Vienna; Treaty of Vienna; France is reduced to 1789 boundaries; Reactionary forces dominate across Europe. * 1825: George Stephenson opens the Stockton and Darlington Railway the first steam train railway for passenger traffic in the world. * 1830: The southern provinces secede from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in the Belgian Revolution. * 1836: Louis Daguerre invents first practical photographic method, in effect the first camera. * 1838: SS *Great Western*, the first steamship built for regularly scheduled transatlantic crossings enters service. * 1848: Revolutions of 1848 and publication of *The Communist Manifesto*. * 1852: Start of the Crimean War, which ends in 1855 in a defeat for Russia. * 1859: Charles Darwin publishes *On the Origin of Species*. * 1861: Unification of Italy after victories by Giuseppe Garibaldi. * 1866: First commercially successful transatlantic telegraph cable is completed. * 1860s: Russia emancipates its serfs and Karl Marx completes the first volume of *Das Kapital*. * 1870: Franco-Prussian War and the fall of the Second French Empire. * 1871: Unification of Germany under the direction of Otto von Bismarck. * 1873: Panic of 1873 occurs. The Long Depression begins. * 1878: Re-establishment of Bulgaria, independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania * 1885: Karl Benz invents Benz Patent-Motorwagen, the world's first automobile. * 1885: First permanent citywide electrical tram system in Europe (in Sarajevo). * 1895: Auguste and Louis Lumière begin exhibitions of projected films before the paying public with their cinematograph, a portable camera, printer, and projector. * 1902: Guglielmo Marconi sends first transatlantic radio transmission. * 1914: Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria is assassinated; World War I begins. * 1917: Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks seize power in the Russian Revolution. The ensuing Russian Civil War lasts until 1922. * 1918: World War I ends with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers. Ten million soldiers killed; collapse of Russian, German, Austrian, and Ottoman empires. * 1918: Collapse of the German Empire and monarchic system; founding of Weimar Republic. * 1918: Worldwide Spanish flu epidemic kills millions in Europe. * 1918: Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolves. * 1919: Versailles Treaty strips Germany of its colonies, several provinces and its navy and air force; limits army; Allies occupy western areas; reparations ordered. * 1920: League of Nations begins operations; largely ineffective; defunct by 1939. * 1921–22: Ireland divided; Irish Free State becomes independent and civil war erupts. * 1922: Benito Mussolini and the Fascists take power in Italy. * 1929: Worldwide Great Depression begins with stock market crash in New York City. * 1933: Adolf Hitler and the Nazis take power in Germany. * 1935: Italy conquers Ethiopia; League sanctions are ineffective. * 1936: Start of the Spanish Civil War; ends in 1939 with victory of Nationalists who are aided by Germany and Italy. * 1938: Germany escalates the persecution of Jews with Kristallnacht. * 1938: Appeasement of Germany by Britain and France; Munich agreement splits Czechoslovakia; Germany seized the remainder in 1939. * 1939: Britain and France hurriedly rearm; failed to arrange treaty with USSR. * 1939: Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin agree partition of Eastern Europe in Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. * 1939: Nazi Germany invades Poland, starting the Second World War. * 1940: Great Britain under Winston Churchill becomes the last nation to hold out against the Nazis after winning the Battle of Britain. * 1941: U.S. begins large-scale lend-lease aid to Britain, Free France, the USSR and other Allies; Canada also provides financial aid. * 1941: Germany invades the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa; fails to capture Moscow or Leningrad. * 1942: Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany commence the Holocaust – a Final Solution, with the murder of 6 million Jews. * 1943: After Stalingrad and Kursk, Soviet forces begin recapturing Nazi-occupied territory in the East. * 1944: U.S., British and Canadian armed forces invade Nazi-occupied France at Normandy. * 1945: Hitler commits suicide, Mussolini is executed. World War II ends with Europe in ruins and Germany defeated. * 1945: United Nations formed. * 1947: The British Empire begins a process of voluntarily dismantling with the granting of independence to India and Pakistan. * 1947: Cold War begins as Europe is polarized East versus West. * 1948–1951: U.S. provides large sums to rebuild Western Europe through the Marshall Plan; stimulates large-scale modernization of European industries and reduction of trade restrictions. * 1949: The NATO alliance is established. * 1955: USSR creates a rival military coalition, the Warsaw Pact. * 1950: The Schuman Declaration begins the process of European integration. * 1954: The French Empire begins to be dismantled; Withdraws from Vietnam. * 1956: Suez Crisis signals the end of the effective power of the British Empire. * 1956: Hungarian Uprising defeated by Soviet military forces. * 1957: Treaties of Rome establish the European Economic Community from 1958. * 1962: The Second Vatican Council opens and begins a period of reform in the Catholic Church * 1968: The May 1968 events in France lead France to the brink of revolution. * 1968: The Prague Spring is defeated by Warsaw Pact military forces. The Club of Rome is founded. * 1980: The Solidarność movement under Lech Wałęsa begins open, overground opposition to the Communist rule in Poland. * 1985: Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union and begins reforms which inadvertently leads to the fall of Communism and the Soviet Union. * 1986: Chernobyl disaster occurs, the worst nuclear disaster in history. * 1989: Communism overthrown in all the Warsaw Pact countries except the Soviet Union. Fall of the Berlin Wall (opening of unrestrained border crossings between east and west, which effectively deprived the wall of any relevance). * 1990: Reunification of Germany. * 1991: Breakup of Yugoslavia and the beginning of the Yugoslav Wars. * 1991: Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. * 1993: Maastricht Treaty establishes the European Union. * 1997–99: End of European colonial empires in Asia with the handover of Hong Kong and Macau to China. * 2004: Slovenia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Cyprus and Malta join the European Union. * 2007: Romania and Bulgaria join the European Union. * 2008: The Great Recession begins. Unemployment rises in some parts of Europe. * 2013: Croatia joins the European Union. * 2014: Revolution of Dignity in Ukraine and the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian War. * 2015: European migrant crisis starts. * 2020: The United Kingdom leaves the European Union. * 2020-2023: COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, countries with the most cases are Russia, the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Italy. * 2022: Russian invasion of Ukraine opens with some of the most intense combat operations in Europe since the end of the Cold War. See also -------- * Prehistoric Europe * Hellenistic period * Roman Empire * Byzantine Empire * Middle Ages * Renaissance * Age of Discovery * Major explorations after the Age of Discovery * Colonialism * Age of Enlightenment * Atlantic Revolutions * Rise of nationalism in Europe * Industrial Revolution * House of European History, Museum scheduled to open in 2016 in Brussels * List of historians, inclusive of most major historians * List of history journals#Europe * List of largest European cities in history * List of predecessors of sovereign states in Europe * List of sovereign states by date of formation § Europe * Timeline of sovereign states in Europe * List of empires * List of medieval great powers * List of modern great powers * Atlantic World * History of the Mediterranean region * History of Western civilization * History of the Balkans Timeline of European Union history * Timeline of sovereign states in Europe * Genetic history of Europe * History of the Romani people Bibliography ------------ ### Surveys * Blum, Jerome et al. *The European World* (2 vol. 2nd ed. 1970) university textbook; online * Davies, Norman. *Europe: A History* (1998), advanced university textbook * Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb *Modern Europe: To 1815* (1973) online, university textbook + Gay, Peter and R.K. Webb *Modern Europe: Since 1815* (1973), university textbook * Gooch, Brison D. ed. *Interpreting European history. 1: From the renaissance to Napoleon* (1967) online and *Interpreting European history 2: from Metternich to Present* (1967). online; readings by scholars * McKay, John P. et al. *A History of Western Society* (13th ed.; 2 vol 2020) 1300 pp; university textbook * Moncure, James A. ed. *Research Guide to European Historical Biography: 1450–Present* (4 vol 1992); 2140 pp; historiographical guide to 200 major political and military leaders * Roberts, J.M. *The Penguin History of Europe* (1998), survey; excerpt * Simms, Brendan. *Europe: The Struggle for Supremacy, from 1453 to the Present* (2013), survey, with emphasis on Germany * Stearns, Peter, ed. *The Encyclopedia of World History* (2001); comprehensive global coverage ### Geography and atlases * *Cambridge Modern History Atlas* (1912) online free. 141 maps * Catchpole, Brian. *Map History of the Modern World* (1982) * Darby, H. C., and H. Fullard, eds. *The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 14: Atlas* (1970) * East, W. Gordon. *An Historical Geography of Europe* (4th ed. 1950) * Haywood, John. *Atlas of world history* (1997) online free * Horrabin, J.F. *An Atlas History of the Second Great War* (9 vol 1941–45) 7 vol online free * Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann. *Anchor Atlas of World History* (2 vol. 1978); advanced analytical maps, mostly of Europe * O'Brian, Patrick K. *Atlas of World History* (2007) Online free * Pounds, Norman J. G. (1990). *An Historical Geography of Europe*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511572265. ISBN 9780521311090. * *Rand McNally Atlas of World History* (1983), maps #76-81. Published in Britain as the *Hamlyn Historical Atlas* online free * Robertson, Charles Grant. *An historical atlas of modern Europe from 1789 to 1922 with an historical and explanatory text* (1922) online free * Schenk, Frithjof Benjamin, Mental Maps: The Cognitive Mapping of the Continent as an Object of Research of European History, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2013, retrieved: 4 March 2020 * Talbert, Richard J.A. *Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World for iPad* (Princeton UP 2014) ISBN 978-1-4008-4876-8; 102 interactive color maps from archaic Greece to the Late Roman Empire. * *Historical Atlas* Wikipedia maps; no copyright * *Atlas of Germany* Wikipedia maps; no copyright ### Major nations * Black, Jeremy (1996). *A History of the British Isles*. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-24974-9. ISBN 978-1-349-24976-3. * Carr, Raymond, ed. *Spain: A history* (2000) * Clark, Christopher M. *Iron kingdom: the rise and downfall of Prussia, 1600-1947* (2006) * Davies, Norman. *The Isles: A History* (2001), Britain and Ireland * Duggan, Christopher (2013). *A Concise History of Italy*. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139019330. ISBN 9781139019330. * Fraser, Rebecca. *The Story of Britain: From the Romans to the Present: A Narrative History* (2006) * Holborn, Hajo. vol 1: *A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation*; vol 2: *A History of Modern Germany: 1648-1840*; vol 3: *A history of modern Germany: 1840–1945* (1959). a standard scholarly survey. * Kamen, Henry. *A concise history of Spain* (1973) * Helle, Knut (2003). "Introduction". *The Cambridge History of Scandinavia*. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521472999.002. ISBN 9781139053570. * Holmes, George, ed. *The Oxford illustrated history of medieval Europe* (2001). * Holmes, George, ed. *The Oxford illustrated history of Italy* (1997) * Jones, Colin. *The Cambridge Illustrated History of France* (1999) * Kitchen, Martin *The Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany* (1996). * Morgan, Kenneth O., ed. *The Oxford illustrated history of Britain* (1984) * Price, Roger (2013). *A Concise History of France*. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139084710. ISBN 9781139084710. * Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. *A History of Russia* (2 vol. 2010) * Sagarra, Eda. *A social history of Germany* (2003) * Tombs, Robert, *The English and their History* (2014) advanced history; online review * Wilson, Peter H. (2016). *Heart of Europe*. doi:10.4159/9780674915909. ISBN 9780674915909. ### Classical * Boardman, John, et al. eds. *The Oxford History of Greece and the Hellenistic World* (2nd ed. 2002) 520 pp * Boardman, John, et al. eds. *The Oxford History of the Roman World* (2001) * Cartledge, Paul. *The Cambridge Illustrated History of Ancient Greece* (2002) ### Late Roman * Heather, Peter. *Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe* (Oxford University Press; 2010); 734 pages; Examines the migrations, trade, and other phenomena that shaped a recognizable entity of Europe in the first millennium. * Jones, A.H.M. *The Later Roman Empire, 284–602: A Social, Economic, and Administrative Survey* (2 Vol. 1964) * Mitchell, Stephen. *A History of the Later Roman Empire, AD 284–641: The Transformation of the Ancient World* (2006) ### Medieval * Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). *The Byzantine Economy*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84978-4. * Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). *An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22379-9. * Davis, R.H.C. *A History of Medieval Europe* (2nd ed. 2000) * Ferguson, Wallace K. *Europe in Transition, 1300–1520* (1962) * Hanawalt, Barbara. *The Middle Ages: An Illustrated History* (1999) * Holmes, George, ed. *The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe* (2001) * Koenigsberger, H.G. *Medieval Europe 400–1500* (1987) * Riddle, John M. *A history of the Middle Ages, 300–1500* (2008) ### Early modern * Blanning, T. C. W. (2002). *The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture*. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198227458.001.0001. ISBN 9780198227458. * Cameron, Euan. *Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History* (2001) * Friedrich, Carl J. *The Age of the Baroque, 1610-1660* (1962); Despite the title, this is a wide-ranging Social, cultural, political and diplomatic history of Europe; 14-day borrowing copy * Hesmyr, Atle. *Scandinavia in the Early Modern Era; From Peasant Revolts and Witch Hunts to Constitution Drafting Yeomen* (2014) * McKay, Derek (2014). *The Rise of the Great Powers 1648 - 1815*. doi:10.4324/9781315837093. ISBN 9781315837093. * Rice, Eugene F. *The Foundations of Early Modern Europe, 1460-1559* (2nd ed. 1994) 240 pp * Merriman, John. *A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present* (3rd ed. 2010, 2 vol), 1412 pp online * Scott, Hamish, ed. *The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350–1750: Volume I: Peoples and Place* (2015). + Scott, Hamish, ed. (2015). *The Oxford Handbook of Early Modern European History, 1350-1750*. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199597260.001.0001. ISBN 9780199597260. * Stoye, John. *Europe Unfolding, 1648-1688* (2nd ed. 2000). * Treasure, Geoffrey (2003). *The Making of Modern Europe, 1648-1780*. doi:10.4324/9780203425985. ISBN 9780203425985. * Wiesner, Merry E. *Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789* (Cambridge History of Europe) (2006) ### 19th century * Anderson, M.S. *The Ascendancy of Europe: 1815-1914* (3rd ed. 2003) * Berger, Stefan, ed. *A Companion to Nineteenth-Century Europe, 1789–1914* (2006), 545pp; emphasis on historiography of 32 topics; online * Blanning, T.C.W. ed. *The Nineteenth Century: Europe 1789–1914* (Short Oxford History of Europe) (2000) 320 pp * Brinton, Crane. *A Decade of Revolution, 1789–1799* (1934) *online in Langer series on history of Europe.* * Bruun, Geoffrey. *Europe and the French Imperium, 1799–1814* (1938) online. * Cameron, Rondo. *France and the Economic Development of Europe, 1800–1914: Conquests of Peace and Seeds of War* (1961), wide-ranging economic and business history. online * Evans, Richard J. *The Pursuit of Power: Europe 1815–1914* (2016), 934 pp; scholarly survey * Gildea, Robert. *Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800–1914* (Short Oxford History of the Modern World) (3rd ed. 2003) 544 p * Gooch, Brison D. *Europe in the nineteenth century; a history* (1970) online * Grab, Alexander (2003). *Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe*. doi:10.1007/978-1-4039-3757-5. ISBN 978-0-333-68275-3. * Kertesz, G.A. ed *Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939* (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents; primary sources * Mason, David S. *A Concise History of Modern Europe: Liberty, Equality, Solidarity* (2011), since 1700 * Merriman, John, and J.M. Winter, eds. *Europe 1789 to 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age of Industry and Empire* (5 vol. 2006) * Ramm, Agatha. *Europe in the Nineteenth Century 1789–1905* (1984). 1950 edition online * Richardson, Hubert N.B. *A Dictionary of Napoleon and His Times* (1921) online free 489 pp * Steinberg, Jonathan. *Bismarck: A Life* (2011) * Salmi, Hannu. *19th Century Europe: A Cultural History* (2008). * Taylor, A.J.P. *The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848-1918* (1954) online free; Advanced diplomatic history online * Thomson, David. *Europe Since Napoleon* (1923) 524 pp online ### Since 1900 * Brose, Eric Dorn. *A History of Europe in the Twentieth Century* (2004) 548 pp * Brown, Archie. *The Rise and Fall of Communism* (2009), global * Buchanan, Tom. *Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Present* (Blackwell History of Europe) (2012) * Cook, Bernard A. *Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia* (2 vol; 2001), 1465 pp * Davies, Norman. *Europe at War 1939-1945: No Simple Victory* (2008) * Dear, I.C.B. and M.R.D. Foot, eds. *The Oxford Companion to World War II* (2006) * Frank, Matthew. *Making Minorities History: Population Transfer in Twentieth-Century Europe* (Oxford UP, 2017). 464 pp. online review * Grenville, J.A.S. *A History of the World in the Twentieth Century* (1994). online free * Hallock, Stephanie A. *The World in the 20th Century: A Thematic Approach* (2012) * Jarausch, Konrad H. (2015). *Out of Ashes*. doi:10.1515/9781400865598. ISBN 9781400865598. * Judt, Tony. *Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945* (2006) * Martel, Gordon, ed. *A Companion to Europe, 1900-1950* (2011) 32 essays by scholars; emphasis on historiography * Mazower, Mark. *Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century* (2000) 512 pp * Merriman, John, and Jay Winter, eds. *Europe Since 1914: Encyclopedia of the Age War and Reconstruction* (5 vol. 2006) * Payne, Stanley G. (2011). *Civil War in Europe, 1905–1949*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511820465. ISBN 9780511820465. * Paxton, Robert O., and Julie Hessler. *Europe in the twentieth century* (5th edition 2011. * Pollard, Sidney, ed. *Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century* (1990), 260 pp; global perspective online free * Sontag, Raymond James. *A broken world, 1919–1939* (1972), wide-ranging history of interwar Europe; online free to borrow * Stone, Dan, ed. *The Oxford Handbook of Postwar European History* (2015). * Ther, Philipp. *Europe since 1989: A History* (Princeton UP, 2016) excerpt, 440 pp * Toynbee, Arnold, ed. *Survey Of International Affairs: Hitler's Europe 1939–1946* (1954) online * Wasserstein, Bernard. *Barbarism and civilization: A history of Europe in our time* (2007), since 1914 online * Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). *A World at Arms*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511818639. ISBN 9780511818639., on World War II ### Agriculture and economy * Bakels, Corrie C. (2009). *The Western European Loess Belt*. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9840-6. ISBN 978-1-4020-9839-0. * Berend, Iván T. *An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe* (2013) * Berend, Ivan T. (2010). *Europe*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511844867. ISBN 9780511844867. S2CID 152558617. * Broadberry, Stephen; Orourke, Kevin H, eds. (2010). *The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Europe*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511794841. ISBN 9780511794841. * Dovring, Folke; Dovring, Karin (1965). *Land and Labor in Europe in the Twentieth Century*. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-6137-6. ISBN 978-94-017-5756-0. * Gras, Norman. *A history of agriculture in Europe and America* (1925). online * Kander, Astrid, et al. *Power to the People: Energy in Europe Over the Last Five Centuries* (Princeton UP, 2013) * Milward, Alan S. and S.B. Saul. *The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850–1914* (1977) online * Murray, Jacqueline. *The First European Agriculture* (1970) * Pollard, Sidney, ed. *Wealth and Poverty: an Economic History of the 20th Century* (1990), 260 pp; global perspective online free * Pounds, N.J.G. *An Economic History of Medieval Europe* (1994) * Slicher van Bath, B.H. *The agrarian history of Western Europe, AD 500–1850* (1966) * Thorp, William Long. *Business Annals: United States, England, France, Germany, Austria, Russia, Sweden, Netherlands, Italy, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, South Africa, Australia, India, Japan, China* (1926) capsule summary of conditions in each country for each quarter-year 1790–1925 online ### Diplomacy * Albrecht-Carrié, René. *A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna* (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online * Black, Jeremy. *A History of Diplomacy* (2011) * Black, Jeremy (2002). *European International Relations 1648–1815*. doi:10.1007/978-1-137-09934-1. ISBN 978-0-333-96451-4. * Kertesz, G.A. ed *Documents in the Political History of the European Continent 1815-1939* (1968), 507 pp; several hundred short documents * Langer, William. *An Encyclopedia of World History* (5th ed. 1973), very detailed outline * Macmillan, Margaret. *The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914* (2013) cover 1890s to 1914 * Mowat, R.B. *History of European Diplomacy, 1451–1789* (1928) 324 pages * Petrie, Charles. *Earlier diplomatic history, 1492–1713* (1949), covers all of Europe; online * Petrie, Charles. *Diplomatic History, 1713–1933* (1946), broad summary online * Schroeder, Paul. *The Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848* (1994) online; advanced diplomatic history * Sontag, Raymond James. *European Diplomatic History 1871–1932* (1933) online * Steiner, Zara. *The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933* (2007) * Steiner, Zara. *The Triumph of the Dark: European International History 1933–1939* (2011) * Taylor, A.J.P *The struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848–1918* (1954) online ### Empires and interactions * Bayly, C.A. ed. *Atlas of the British Empire* (1989). survey by scholars; heavily illustrated * Brendon, Piers. *The Decline and Fall of the British Empire, 1781–1997* (2008), wide-ranging survey * Cotterell, Arthur. *Western Power in Asia: Its Slow Rise and Swift Fall, 1415 – 1999* (2009) popular history; excerpt * Darwin, John. *After Tamerlane: The Rise and Fall of Global Empires, 1400–2000* (2008). * James, Lawrence. *The Rise and Fall of the British Empire* (1997) * Poddar, Prem, and Lars Jensen, eds., *A historical companion to postcolonial literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires* (Edinburgh UP, 2008), excerpt also entire text online * Tolan, John; Laurens, Henry; Veinstein, Gilles; Esposito, John L. (2012). *Europe and the Islamic World*. doi:10.23943/princeton/9780691147055.001.0001. ISBN 9780691147055. ### Ideas and science * Heilbron, John L., ed. *The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science* (2003) * Outhwaite, William (2002). Outhwaite, William (ed.). *The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought*. pp. vi. doi:10.1111/b.9780631221647.2002.00001.x. ISBN 9780631221647. * Wiener, Philip P. *Dictionary of the History of Ideas* (5 vol 1973) ### Religion * Forlenza, Rosario. "New Perspectives on Twentieth-Century Catholicism." *Contemporary European History* 28.4 (2019): 581–595 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960777319000146 * Latourette, Kenneth Scott. *Christianity in a Revolutionary Age: A History of Christianity in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries* (5 vol. 1958–69) vol 1, 2, and 4 for detailed country-by-country coverage * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. *Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years* (2011) ### Social * Knepper, Paul; Johansen, Anja (2016). Knepper, Paul; Johansen, Anja (eds.). *The Oxford Handbook of the History of Crime and Criminal Justice*. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199352333.001.0001. ISBN 9780199352333. * Maynes, Mary Jo. *Schooling in Western Europe: A social history* (1985). * Patel, Klaus Kiran, Transnational History, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 4 March 2020 * Sagarra, Eda (2017). *A Social History of Germany 1648-1914*. doi:10.4324/9781315083247. ISBN 9781315083247. * Schmale, Wolfgang, A Transcultural History of Europe – Perspectives from the History of Migration, EGO – European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: 4 March 2020 * Stearns, Peter N., ed. *Encyclopedia of European Social History* (6 vol 2000), 3000 pp comprehensive coverage * Stearns, Peter N., and Herrick Chapman. *European society in upheaval: social history since 1750* (1975). * Tipton, F. and Robert Aldrich. *An Economic and Social History of Europe* (1987), two volumes * Watts, Sheldon J. (2017). *A Social History of Western Europe 1450–1720*. doi:10.4324/9781315180793. ISBN 9781315180793. S2CID 152533804. * Woolf, Stuart (2016). *The Poor in Western Europe in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries*. *Medical History*. Vol. 31. pp. 382–383. doi:10.4324/9781315512495. ISBN 9781315512495. PMC 1139771. ### Warfare * Archer, Christon I.; John R. Ferris, Holger H. Herwig. *World History of Warfare* (2002) * *The Cambridge History of the First World War* (3 vol 2014) online Archived 20 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine * *The Cambridge History of the Second World War* (3 vol 2015) online Archived 20 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine * Cruttwell, C. R. M. F. *A History of the Great War, 1914–1918* (1934), general military history online free * Dear, I.C.B.; Foot, M.R.D., eds. (2001) [1995]. *The Oxford Companion to World War II*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-860446-4. * Dupuy, R. Ernest, *The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History: From 3500 BC to the Present* (1993) * Gerwarth, Robert, and Erez Manela. "The Great War as a Global War: Imperial Conflict and the Reconfiguration of World Order, 1911–1923." *Diplomatic History* 38.4 (2014): 786–800. online * Gerwarth, Robert, and Erez Manela, eds. *Empires at War: 1911–1923* (2014), 12 very wide-ranging essays by scholars. excerpt * Goldsworthy, Adrian, and John Keegan. *Roman Warfare* (2000) * Horne, John, ed. *A Companion to World War I* (2012) * Keegan, John. *A History of Warfare* (1994) online * Kennedy, Paul. *The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers* (1989) online * Muehlbauer, Matthew S., and David J. Ulbrich, eds. *The Routledge History of Global War and Society* (Routledge, 2018) * Paret, Peter, ed. *Makers of Modern Strategy* (1986), ideas of warfare * Rapport, Mike (2013). *The Napoleonic Wars*. doi:10.1093/actrade/9780199590964.001.0001. ISBN 9780199590964. * Sharman, Jason C. "Myths of military revolution: European expansion and Eurocentrism." *European Journal of International Relations* 24.3 (2018): 491-513 online * Stevenson, David. *Cataclysm: The First World War As Political Tragedy* (2004) major reinterpretation, 560pp * Strachan, Hew. *The First World War: Volume I: To Arms* (2004): a major scholarly synthesis. Thorough coverage of 1914–16; 1245pp * Weinberg, Gerhard L. (2005). *A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II* (2nd ed.).; comprehensive overview with emphasis on diplomacy * Winter, J. M. *The Experience of World War I* (2nd ed 2005), topical essays; * Winter, Jay, and Antoine Prost (2nd ed 2020). *The Great War in History: Debates and Controversies, 1914 to the Present*. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-52161-633-1 * Winter, Jay. *Remembering War: The Great War Between Memory and History in the Twentieth Century*. (Yale University Press, 2006) * Winter, Jay, ed. (2014). *The Cambridge History of the First World War* (2 vol. Cambridge University Press, 2014) * Zeiler, Thomas W. and Daniel M. DuBois, eds. *A Companion to World War II* (2 vol 2013), 1030 pp; comprehensive overview by scholars ### Women and gender * Anderson, Bonnie S. and Judith P. Zinsser. *A History of Their Own: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present* (2nd ed 2000) * Bridenthal, Renate, et al. eds. *Becoming Visible: Women in European History* (3rd ed. 1997), 608 pp; essays by scholars * Frey, Linda, Marsha Frey, Joanne Schneider. *Women in Western European History: A Select Chronological, Geographical, and Topical Bibliography* (1982) * Hufton, Olwen. *The Prospect Before Her: A History of Women in Western Europe, 1500–1800* (1996) * Herzog, Dagmar (2011). *Sexuality in Europe*. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511997075. ISBN 9780511997075. * Karen Offen (2010). "Surveying European Women's History since the Millenium: A Comparative Review". *Journal of Women's History*. **22**: 154–177. doi:10.1353/jowh.0.0131. S2CID 145632281. * Sanborn, Joshua A.; Timm, Annette F. (2016). *Gender, Sex and the Shaping of Modern Europe*. doi:10.5040/9781350001688. ISBN 9781350001688. * Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. (2019). *Women and Gender in Early Modern Europe*. doi:10.1017/9781108683524. ISBN 9781108683524. S2CID 165898969.

History of Europe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Europe

**Bornholm** (Danish pronunciation: [pɒːnˈhʌlˀm]) is a Danish island in the Baltic Sea, to the east of the rest of Denmark, south of Sweden, northeast of Germany and north of Poland. Strategically located, Bornholm has been fought over for centuries. It has usually been ruled by Denmark, but also by Sweden and by Lübeck. The ruin of Hammershus, at the northwestern tip of the island, is the largest medieval fortress in northern Europe, testament to the importance of its location. Bornholm and Ertholmene comprise the last remaining Danish territory in Skåneland east of Øresund, having been surrendered to Sweden in 1658, but regained by Denmark in 1660 after a local revolt. The island is known as *solskinsøen* ("sunshine island") because of its weather and *klippeøen* ("rock island") because of its geology, which consists of granite, except along the southern coast. The heat from the summer is stored in the rock formations and the weather is quite warm until October. As a result of the climate, a local variety of the common fig, known as Bornholm's Diamond (*Bornholms Diamant*), can grow locally on the island. The island's topography consists of dramatic rock formations in the north (unlike the rest of Denmark, which is mostly gentle rolling hills) sloping down towards pine and deciduous forests (greatly affected by storms in the 1950s), farmland in the middle and sandy beaches in the south. The island is home to many of Denmark's round churches. Occupying an area of 584.59 square kilometres (225.71 sq mi), the island had a total population of 39,602 as of January 2023[update]. In May 2023 the island suffered a number of minor tremors (magnitude 2.3) which were caused by acoustic pressure waves from an unknown source. The Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (Geus) reported that the tremors were "not caused by earthquakes, but by pressure waves from an event in the atmosphere", which came from, "an unknown source". History ------- ### Medieval In Old Norse the island was known as *Burgundaholmr*, and in ancient Danish especially the island's name was *Borghand* or *Borghund*; these names were related to Old Norse *borg* 'height' and *bjarg/berg* 'mountain, rock' because it is an island that rises high from the sea. Other names known for the island include *Burgendaland* (9th century), *Hulmo* / *Holmus* (*Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum*), *Burgundehulm* (1145), and *Borghandæholm* (14th century). The Old English translation of Orosius uses the form *Burgenda land*. Some scholars believe that the Burgundians are named after Bornholm. The Burgundians were Germanic peoples who moved west when the Western Roman Empire collapsed and occupied and named Burgundy in France. Bornholm formed part of the historical Lands of Denmark when the nation united out of a series of petty chiefdoms. It was originally administratively part of the province of Scania and was administered by the Scanian Law after this was codified in the 13th century. Control over the island evolved into a long-raging dispute between the See of Lund and the Danish crown, culminating in several battles. The first fortress on the island was Gamleborg, which was replaced by Lilleborg built by the king in 1150. In 1149 the king accepted the transfer of three of the island's four herreder (districts) to the archbishop. In 1250, the archbishop constructed his own fortress, Hammershus. A campaign launched from it in 1259 conquered the remaining part of the island including Lilleborg. The island's status remained a matter of dispute for an additional 200 years. ### Modern Bornholm was pawned to Lübeck for 50 years starting in 1525. Its first militia, Bornholms Milits, was formed in 1624. Swedish forces conquered the island in 1645, but returned the island to Denmark in the following peace settlement. After the war in 1658, Denmark ceded the island to Sweden under the Treaty of Roskilde along with the rest of the Skåneland, Bohuslän and Trøndelag, and it was occupied by Swedish forces. A revolt broke out the same year, culminating in Villum Clausen's shooting of the Swedish commander Johan Printzensköld on 8 December 1658. Following the revolt, a deputation of islanders presented the island as a gift to King Frederick III of Denmark on the condition that the island would never be ceded again. This status was confirmed in the Treaty of Copenhagen in 1660. Swedes, notably from Småland and Scania, emigrated to the island during the 19th century, seeking work and better conditions. Most of the migrants did not remain. Bornholm also attracted many famous artists at the beginning of the 20th century, forming a group now known as the Bornholm school of painters. In addition to Oluf Høst, they include Karl Isaksson (1878–1922) from Sweden, and the Danes Edvard Weie (1879–1943), Olaf Rude (1886–1957), Niels Lergaard (1893–1982), and Kræsten Iversen (1886–1955). In 2023, the island recorded several tremors. Scientists on the island stated that the tremors were caused by acoustic pressure waves but were unable to find the source of the waves that caused the tremor. Theories about the causes of the tremor include an earthquake and a nearby explosion but both have been ruled as unlikely. ### German and Soviet occupation Bornholm, as a part of Denmark, was captured by Nazi Germany on 10 April 1940, and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war, as it was a part of the Eastern Front. The island's perfect central position in the Baltic Sea meant that it was an important "natural fortress" between Germany and Sweden, effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi-occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, as well as several coastal batteries, which had tremendous range. However, none of them were ever used, and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule have since fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded today as historical curiosities. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, however, providing supplemental income to the tourist industry. On 22 August 1942 a V-1 flying bomb (numbered V83, probably launched from a Heinkel He 111) crashed on Bornholm during a test – the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. The wreckage was photographed and sketched by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. This was one of the first signs British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop flying bombs and rockets which were to become known as V-1. The Bornholm rocket turned out to be from Peenemünde.[*self-published source?*] Bornholm was heavily bombarded by the Soviet Air Forces in May 1945, as it was a part of the Eastern Front. The German garrison commander, German Navy Captain Gerhard von Kamptz (1902–1998), refused to surrender to the Soviets, as his orders were to surrender only to the Western Allies. The Germans sent several telegrams to Copenhagen requesting that at least one British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the Western Allied forces instead of the Soviets. When von Kamptz failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by the Soviet commanders, Soviet aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses in Rønne and in Nexø, and seriously damaged roughly 3,000 more on 7–8 May 1945. The population had been forewarned of the bombardments, and the towns were evacuated, but 10 local people were killed. Soldiers were also killed and wounded. Some of them were conscripts from occupied Latvia fighting in German ranks against the Soviets. During the Soviet bombing of the two main towns on 7-8 May, Danish radio was not allowed to broadcast the news because it was thought it would spoil the liberation festivities in Denmark. On 9 May Soviet troops landed on the island, and after a short fight, the German garrison (about 12,000 strong) surrendered. Soviet forces left the island on 5 April 1946 as part of the post-war division of interests of the Soviet Union and the Western Allies. Denmark was to be Western aligned, and in return Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania were to be kept under Soviet occupation. ### Cold War After the evacuation of their forces from Bornholm, the Soviets took the position that the stationing of foreign troops on Bornholm would be considered a declaration of war against the Soviet Union, and that Denmark should keep troops on it at all times to protect it from such foreign aggression. This policy remained in force after NATO was formed, with Denmark as a founding member. The Soviets accepted the stationing there of Danish troops, which were part of NATO but viewed as militarily inferior elements of the alliance, but they strongly objected to the presence of other NATO troops on Bornholm, US troops in particular. On 5 March 1953, the day of Stalin's death, Polish pilot Franciszek Jarecki defected from the Eastern Bloc and landed a MiG-15 fighter on the island. He was later granted asylum and rewarded for providing Western intelligence with the then-newest Soviet jet fighter. In 2017, Denmark's Defence Intelligence Service decided to build a listening tower near Østermarie, almost 90 meters high, to intercept radio communications across the Baltic Sea and in parts of Russia. Municipality ------------ Result of referendum 29 May 2001 on merger of municipalities with the county 1 January 2003| Municipality | Yes | No | | --- | --- | --- | | Votes | Percent | Votes | Percent | | Allinge-Gudhjem | 3,590 | 74 | 1,287 | 26 | | Hasle | 2,886 | 70 | 1,219 | 30 | | Nexø | 3,218 | 59 | 2,252 | 41 | | Rønne | 7,754 | 85 | 1,366 | 15 | | Aakirkeby | 3,131 | 74 | 1,118 | 26 | | Total:27821 | 20,579 | 74 | 7,242 | 26 | Bornholm Regional Municipality is the local authority (Danish, *kommune*) covering the entire island. Its formal name is Bornholm Municipality. It is given the right in the law establishing it to be called Bornholm Regional Municipality. (For explanation read on). It is the result of a merger of the five former (1 April 1970 until 2002) municipalities on the island (Allinge-Gudhjem, Hasle, Nexø, Rønne and Aakirkeby) and the former Bornholm County. Bornholm Regional Municipality was also a county in its own right during its first four years from 1 January 2003 until 31 December 2006. From 1 January 2007 all counties were abolished, and Bornholm became part of the Capital Region of Denmark whose main responsibility is the health service. In the bill (Danish *forslag*) (*Bill of Law on merger of the municipalities of Bornholm*) presented 30 January 2002 by the Minister of Interior and Health to Folketinget, it says in §1 that (1st sentence) "The 1st of January 2003 Bornholm Municipality is established by a merger of (names of municipalities mentioned, and county's name mentioned), and (2nd sentence) Bornholm Municipality is called Bornholm Regional Municipality". The island had 21 municipalities until March 1970, of which 6 were market towns and 15 parishes. In addition to supervising parish municipalities, which was the responsibility of the counties in *all* of Denmark, the market town municipalities of Bornholm were supervised by Bornholm County as well and not by the Interior Ministry as was the case in the rest of Denmark. The seat of the municipal council is the island's main town, Rønne. The voters decided to merge the county with the municipalities in a referendum 29 May 2001, effective from 1 January 2003. The question on the ballot was, "Do you want the six municipal entities of Bornholm to be joined to form one municipal entity as of 1 January 2003?" 73.9% voted in favour. The lowest percentage for the merger was in Nexø municipality (966 more people voting "Yes" than "No"), whose mayor, Annelise Molin, a Social Democrat, spoke out against the merger. It was required that each municipality had more "Yes" votes than "No" votes. Otherwise the merger would have to be abandoned altogether. The six municipal entities had up to 122 councillors (of which county clls were 18, from 1998 15), reduced to 89 in the municipalities from the 1990s, in the 1970s and the new regional municipality would have 27 councillors from the start 1 January 2003. They were reduced to 23 from 1 January 2018 (election November 2017). From 1 January 2003 until 31 December 2006 the 27 cllrs were called Regional Council (Danish *Regionsråd*), from 1 January 2007 changed to Municipal Board (Danish *Kommunalbestyrelse*) as is the usual term in almost all Danish municipalities. This was to avoid confusion with the Regional Council in Region Hovedstaden, and in the other regions The merger was approved in a law by the Folketing 19 (and signature by the head of state 25) March 2002, transferring the tasks of the abolished county and old municipalities to the new Bornholm Regional Municipality. The first regional mayor in the first three years from 2003 until 2005 was Thomas Thors (born 28 July 1949), a physician and member of the Social Democrats and previously the last mayor of Rønne Municipality for five years from 1998 until 2002. He became a mayor again in 2021. Bjarne Kristiansen, who was the last mayor of Hasle 2+1⁄2 years from the summer of 2000 until 2002, representing the local Borgerlisten political party, served as mayor for four years from 1 January 2006 until 2009. From 1 January 2007, Bornholm became a part of the Capital Region of Denmark. From 1 January 2010 until 31 December 2020 the mayor was Winni Grosbøll, a high school teacher and a member of the Social Democrats (*Socialdemokratiet*) political party. The deputy mayor Morten Riis was mayor for a short interlude from 1 January until 4 January 2021. He is from the Red-Green Alliance. Thomas Thors, who was elected again in 2017, became mayor again from 4 January 2021. After the 2021 Danish local elections Jacob Trøst became mayor from January 2022. He is from the Conservative party. This was after an agreement (*aftale om konstituering*) between the Red-Green Alliance, amongst whom Morten Riis will be deputy mayor, and the Danish People's Party with the Conservatives. ### Municipal council Bornholm's municipal council today consists of 23 members, elected every four years. In the first four local elections in the newly created municipality there were 27 members elected to the municipal council. The 2002 local election only took place on Bornholm. From the election in 2017 the number of councillors elected was reduced to 23 members, serving their term of office from 1 January 2018 until 31 December 2021. Below are the election results to the new merged municipal council beginning with the first election 29 May 2002. | Election | Party | Totalseats | Turnout | Electedmayor | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **A** | **B** | **C** | **F** | **K** | **L** | **O** | **R** | **V** | **W** | **Ø** | **Å** | | 2002 | 8 | | | 1 | 1 | 9 | | | 8 | | | | 27 | 79.3% | Thomas Thors (A) | | 2005 | 7 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 78.0% | Bjarne Kristiansen (L) | | 2009 | 8 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 1 | | 8 | 72.1% | Winni Grosbøll (A)Morten Riis (Ø)(1-4 January 2021)Thomas Thors (A)(January 2021) | | 2013 | 12 | 1 | 2 | | 1 | | 2 | 6 | 1 | 2 | 77.1% | | 2017 | 8 | | | 1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 23 | 75.6% | | 2021 | 4 | | 3 | | 1 | | 4 | | 2 | 2 | 7 | | 23 | 72.91% | Jacob Trøst (C) | | Data from KMDValg.dk | Transport --------- Ferry services connect Rønne to Świnoujście (Poland), Sassnitz (Germany), Køge, 45 kilometres (28 miles) by road (34 kilometres or 21 miles as the crow flies) south of Copenhagen, Denmark; the destination to Køge replaced the nighttime route directly to and from Copenhagen (for both cargo and passengers) from 1 October 2004; and catamaran services to Ystad (Sweden). Simrishamn (Sweden) has a ferry connection during the summer. There are also regular catamaran services between Nexø and the Polish ports of Kołobrzeg, Łeba and Ustka. There are direct bus connections Ystad-Copenhagen, coordinated with the catamaran. There are also flights from Bornholm Airport to Copenhagen and other locations. Because of its remote location Bornholm Regional Municipality has its own traffic company, BAT, and is its own employment region, and also performs other tasks normally carried out by the regions in the rest of Denmark. In some respects the municipality forms a region of its own. Bornholm Regional Municipality was not merged with other municipalities on 1 January 2007 in the nationwide Municipal Reform of 2007. Towns and villages ------------------ The larger towns on the island are located on the coast and have harbours. There is however one exception, centrally placed Aakirkeby, which was also the name of the municipality from 1970 until 2002, but it included the harbour of Boderne, 5 kilometres (3.1 miles) to the south. The largest town is Rønne; it is the seat, in the southwest on the westernmost point of the island. The other main towns (clockwise around the island) are Hasle, Sandvig, Allinge, Gudhjem, Svaneke and Nexø. Monday morning 22 September 2014 it was documented by *Folkeregistret* in the municipality that the number of people living in the municipality that day were 39,922, the lowest number in over 100 years. As of 2018[update], Statistics Denmark gave the populations as follows: | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | --- | --- | | Rønne | 12,887 | | Nexø | 3,644 | | Aakirkeby | 2,083 | | Hasle | 1,622 | | Allinge-Sandvig | 1,489 | | Svaneke | 1,078 | | Tejn | 890 | | | | | | --- | --- | | Gudhjem | 723 | | Snogebæk | 715 | | Nyker | 701 | | Klemensker | 639 | | Sorthat-Muleby | 519 | | Østermarie | 486 | | Aarsdale | 387 | | | | | | --- | --- | | Lobbæk | 355 | | Østerlars | 238 | | Balka | 214 | | Vestermarie | 256 | | Pedersker | 242 | | Nylars | 228 | | Listed | 204 | | | The town of Rønne after the merger of the island's administrative entities 1 January 2003 reached a low point of 13,568 inhabitants 1 January 2014. 15,957 people in 1965 (date unknown;number not registerbased) lived in the two parishes that would become Rønne municipality from 1 April 1970. In the table, numbers for Rønne are for the parish of Rønne, Rønne Sogn, alone. The year is unknown but sometime between 2000 and 2005. It does not include Knudsker Sogn, which was also part of Rønne Municipality. Other localities (with approximate populations, not updated) include Aarsballe (86), Arnager (151), Olsker (67), Rutsker (64), Rø (181), Stenseby (?) and Vang (92). In 2010 and 2018 10,297 and 9,111 respectively lived in rural districts, and 88 and 71 had no fixed address. A rural district is defined by Statistics Denmark as a settlement with less than 200 inhabitants. Demography ---------- ### Population of parishes Year: Beginning with 2007; 2018; * 7552. Rønne 11,752; 11,539; * 7553. Knudsker 2,821; 2,729; * 7554. Vestermarie 1,460; 1,324; * 7555. Nylarsker 924; 832; * 7556. Nyker 1,737; 1,628; * 7557. Hasle 1,887; 1,747; * 7558. Rutsker 684; 570; * 7559. Olsker 1,556; 1,266; * 7560. Allinge-Sandvig 1,860; 1,527; * 7561. Klemensker 1,737; 1,555; * 7562. Rø 503; 418; * 7563. Ibsker 1,322; 1,148; * 7564. Svaneke 1,082; 981; * 7565. Østerlarsker 997; 811; * 7566. Gudhjem 752; 677; * 7567. Østermarie 1,624; 1,458; * 7568. Christiansø 95; 83; * 7569. Aaker 3,479; 3,201; * 7570. Bodilsker 981; 849; * 7571. Nexø 3,884; 3,670; * 7572. Poulsker 1,215; 1,061; * 7573. Pedersker 715; 570; Population numbers are from 1 January. Christiansø Parish (which encompasses Ertholmene) is not a part of Bornholm Regional Municipality. It is included because Danmarks Statistik includes it as parish number 7568. Bornholm has 21 parishes (2018) that before 1 April 1970 were parish (15) or market city (6) municipalities themselves. There are 2,158 parishes (2021) in the Church of Denmark. Source:Statistikbanken.dk/Befolkning og valg/(table)FODIE (births);FOD207 (deaths);BEV107 (births;deaths;birth surplus);KM1 (parishes). | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1850 | 27,927 | —     | | 1901 | 40,677 | +45.7% | | 1916 | 43,445 | +6.8% | | 1925 | 45,550 | +4.8% | | 1935 | 45,819 | +0.6% | | 1945 | 47,185 | +3.0% | | 1955 | 48,475 | +2.7% | | 1965 | 48,620 | +0.3% | | 1976 | 47,242 | −2.8% | | 1981 | 47,370 | +0.3% | | 1986 | 46,919 | −1.0% | | 1990 | 45,784 | −2.4% | | 1995 | 44,823 | −2.1% | | 2000 | 44,238 | −1.3% | | 2005 | 43,347 | −2.0% | | 2010 | 41,802 | −3.6% | | 2015 | 39,842 | −4.7% | | 2020 | 39,499 | −0.9% | | Source: statistikbanken.dk *Statistical Yearbook 2009: Area and population. Regions and inhabited islands* | | On 22 September 2014 population numbers showed fewer than 40,000 inhabitants on the island for the first time in over 100 years. The *Folkeregister* in the municipality could document 39,922 inhabitants in the municipality on that date. ### Language Many inhabitants speak the Bornholmsk dialect, which is officially a dialect of Danish. Bornholmsk retains three grammatical genders, like Faroese, Icelandic and most dialects of Norwegian, but unlike standard Danish. Its phonology includes archaisms (unstressed [a] and internal [d̥, ɡ̊], where other dialects have [ə] and [ð̞, ʊ / ɪ]) and innovations ([tɕ, dʝ] for [kʰ, ɡ̊] before and after front vowels). This makes the dialect difficult to understand for some Danish speakers. However, Swedish speakers often consider Bornholmian to be easier to understand than standard Danish. The intonation resembles the dialects spoken in nearby Scania, Blekinge and Halland the southernmost provinces of Sweden. ### Religion Most inhabitants are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark (*Folkekirken*). Various Christian denominations have become established on the island, most during the 19th century. * *Folkekirken* (State church) (1536) * Baptist church (1843) * The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) (1850) * Methodist church (1895) * Jehovah's Witnesses (1897) * Roman Catholic Church (ca 1150–1536, 1849) Sights and landmarks -------------------- On the surface of Bornholm older geological formations can be seen better than in the rest of Denmark. *Stubbeløkken* – which is still operating (Danish *i drift*) – and *Klippeløkken* granite quarries in Knudsker parish just east of central Rønne – and statistically a part of the town – are among the few remaining quarries of what was once many active quarries on the island. The island's varied geography and seascapes attract visitors to its many beauty spots from the Hammeren promontory in the northwest to the Almindingen forest in the centre and the Dueodde beaches in the southeast. Of special interest are the rocky sea cliffs at Jons Kapel and Helligdomsklipperne, the varied topography of Paradisbakkerne and rift valleys such as Ekkodalen and Døndalen. Bornholm's numerous windmills include the post mill of Egeby and the well-kept Dutch mill at Aarsdale. The lighthouse at Dueodde is Denmark's tallest, while Hammeren Lighthouse stands at a height of 85 metres (279 ft) above sea level and Rønne Lighthouse rises over the waterfront. Examples of roads that have (very) steep climbs and descents are: (inland) Simblegårdsvej in Klemensker, which begins by the village inn Klemens Kro, and Slamrebjergvej just outside Nexø extending northward from the main road from Rønne. Along the coast there are several steep roads, which is also the case in some parts of Denmark as a whole, for instance in and around Vejle. The island hosts examples of 19th- and early-20th-century architecture, and about 300 wooden houses in Rønne and Nexø, donated by Sweden after World War II, when the island was repairing damage caused by the war. The island is home to 15 medieval churches, four of which are round churches with unique artwork and architecture. The ancient site of Rispebjerg has remains of sun temples from the Neolithic and earthworks from the Iron Age. There are 14 European bison near Åkirkeby, attracting 100,000 visitors a year. Education --------- Because of the dilapidated state of their buildings, all secondary educational facilities in Rønne, including adult evening classes, are being transferred to new facilities at Campus Bornholm in 2018. Campus Bornholm is a merger formed in June 2010 consisting of Bornholms Erhvervsskole (youth and adults), Bornholm High School (youth) and VUC Bornholm (adults), then occupying separate addresses. Learning institutions not part of this formalised collaboration will also be housed at Minervavej in Rønne. The building costs were over 300 million DKK (US$46.9 million (29 June 2018)). The A.P. Møller Foundation contributed a sum of 56 million DKK (US$8.76 million (29 June 2018)) to the project. Economy ------- Among Bornholm's chief industrial activities are dairy farming and arts and crafts industries such as glass production and pottery using locally worked clay. Jensen-Group, an industrial washing and folding machine company, was founded on the island and has a factory in Rønne. It is headquartered in Belgium. Tourism is also important during the summer months. ### Electricity supply Bornholm is connected to the Swedish electricity grid by a submarine 60 kV AC cable, which is among the longest AC cables in Europe. This cable is capable of delivering all the electrical energy consumed on Bornholm. However Bornholm also generates its own electricity at small thermal power plants and especially wind turbines. Bornholm is also home to a large internationally funded demonstration project to test the viability of novel energy market mechanisms to regulate energy networks with a high prevalence of renewables (such as wind turbines and photovoltaics). 50% of the EcoGrid project is EU-funded, with the remainder coming mainly from large corporations. Military -------- Bornholm hosts a Marines like squadron (4th Basic Training Squadron), of the Guard Hussar Regiment at Almegårds Kaserne. Climate ------- Bornholm has an oceanic climate relatively similar to southern Sweden and mainland Denmark, whose summer highs and winter lows are heavily moderated by its maritime and isolated position. Though intense heat is rare, the climate is sunny during summer and rainfall is generally sparse for a climate of this type. The winter of 2010 – 2011 was exceptionally extreme with snow depth reaching at least 146 cm (58 inches) and snowdrifts of six meters (20 feet), the highest in Northern Europe. Military assistance was needed to clear roadways. The DMI estimated the weight of snow to be 100 million tons. | Climate data for Bornholm (1971–2000) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 8.9(48.0) | 9.7(49.5) | 15.1(59.2) | 26.6(79.9) | 27.2(81.0) | 31.7(89.1) | 31.9(89.4) | 32.0(89.6) | 27.9(82.2) | 20.2(68.4) | 15.7(60.3) | 11.0(51.8) | 32.0(89.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.7(36.9) | 2.4(36.3) | 4.5(40.1) | 8.9(48.0) | 14.5(58.1) | 17.9(64.2) | 20.1(68.2) | 20.5(68.9) | 16.4(61.5) | 11.9(53.4) | 7.3(45.1) | 4.4(39.9) | 10.9(51.6) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 0.9(33.6) | 0.4(32.7) | 2.1(35.8) | 5.5(41.9) | 10.5(50.9) | 14.3(57.7) | 16.8(62.2) | 17.0(62.6) | 13.4(56.1) | 9.5(49.1) | 5.4(41.7) | 2.6(36.7) | 8.2(46.8) | | Average low °C (°F) | −1.1(30.0) | −1.7(28.9) | −0.4(31.3) | 2.1(35.8) | 6.6(43.9) | 10.7(51.3) | 13.3(55.9) | 13.4(56.1) | 10.5(50.9) | 6.9(44.4) | 3.2(37.8) | 0.5(32.9) | 5.3(41.5) | | Record low °C (°F) | −15.7(3.7) | −17.7(0.1) | −16.1(3.0) | −7(19) | −3(27) | −0.2(31.6) | 4.0(39.2) | 5.4(41.7) | −0.2(31.6) | −5.7(21.7) | −10.1(13.8) | −14.1(6.6) | −17.7(0.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 40.2(1.58) | 22.8(0.90) | 30.6(1.20) | 30.2(1.19) | 31.9(1.26) | 44.2(1.74) | 47.1(1.85) | 41.4(1.63) | 55.5(2.19) | 50.2(1.98) | 52.1(2.05) | 42.4(1.67) | 488.7(19.24) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 16.5 | 12.9 | 13.7 | 11.2 | 10.0 | 11.0 | 10.6 | 10.8 | 13.2 | 14.5 | 16.7 | 16.1 | 157.3 | | Average snowy days | 5.6 | 5.3 | 4.0 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.8 | 3.4 | 21.2 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 35 | 53 | 112 | 190 | 284 | 266 | 276 | 252 | 155 | 102 | 46 | 31 | 1,809 | | Source: Danish Meteorological Institute | Sports ------ Bornholm's geography as an island and moderate climate makes Bornholm an ideal location for sailing and other water-based sports. Bornholm has also become an internationally recognised venue for 'match racing', a sailing sport where two identical yachts are raced in one-on-one events on the water. The Danish Open event was held in Bornholm in September 2010 at the port town of Rønne on the western coast of Bornholm. The five-day Danish Open is a key event in the World Match Racing Tour calendar which is one of only 3 events awarded 'special event' status by the International Sailing Federation. The Tour is the world's leading professional 'match racing' series and features a nine-event calendar which crosses three continents during the series. Points accrued during the Danish Open contribute directly to the World Match Racing Tour championship with the winner of the season finale at the Monsoon Cup in Malaysia claiming the ultimate match racing title ISAF World Match Racing Champion. There are two small stadiums: Nexø Stadion, in Nexø, where NB Bornholm association football club play; and the slightly larger multi-use stadium Rønne Stadion Nord in Rønne, which serves the Bornholm national football team, multi-section club most well known for athletics IK Viking, and several local football clubs. The DBU Bornholm is the local branch governing football on the island. Cultural references ------------------- * Russian writer Nikolay Karamzin in his novella "The Island Bornholm" ("Ostrov Borngol'm") depicts formidable rocks and green meadows of the island. This story about forbidden love is considered one of the first russian gothic tales. * The Academy Award-winning 1987 Bille August film *Pelle the Conqueror*, an adaptation of Martin Andersen Nexø's four volume novel by the same name, is set and was shot on the island. * A considerable part of the Second World War spy thriller *Hornet Flight* by Ken Follett takes place on Bornholm, depicting the island under German occupation. * *Megaheavy* by Danish filmmaker Fenar Ahmad is set on Bornholm in the 1980s. It won the Grand Prix at the 2010 Odense Film Festival. * The 2006 film *Tempelriddernes Skat* (The Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar) takes place on Bornholm. * Bornholm has an appearance in a *Roblox* game titled Dynamic Ship Simulator 3, made by CaptainMarcin and his dev team, Badyacht. * Minor planet 4453 Bornholm is named after the island. * The 1933 work, *Folkeliv og Indstiftelser paa Bornholm*, describes the culture and history of the island. Notable residents ----------------- ### Arts * Kristian Zahrtmann (1843 in Rønne – 1917) painter, favoured naturalism and realism * Michael Ancher (1849 in Rutsker – 1927) realist artist, painted fishermen in Skagen * Mathias Bidstrup (1852 in Rønne – 1929) architect of many buildings on Bornholm, schools, churches (including Gudhjem Church), train stations and the post office in Rønne * Janus Laurentius Ridter (1854 in Aakirkeby – 1921) painter and illustrator of topographical watercolours * Julius Folkmann (1864 in Rønne – 1948) a Danish photographer and cinematographer * Vilhelm Herold (1865 in Hasle – 1937) operatic tenor, voice teacher, and theatre director * Oluf Høst (1884 in Svaneke – 1966) Expressionist painter, the only native member of the Bornholm school of painters * Else Højgaard (1906–1979) ballerina and an actress of stage and screen, noted for her fiery temperament and edgy intensity * Gustaf Munch-Petersen (1912–1938) writer and painter, moved to Bornholm in 1935 * Gertrud Vasegaard (1913 in Rønne – 2007), a ceramist remembered for her stoneware, in 1933 she moved to Bornholm whence her family originated and opened a studio in Gudhjem. * Arne Ranslet (1931–2018) sculptor and ceramist, moved to Bornholm in 1955 * Tulla Blomberg Ranslet (born 1928) Norwegian painter, moved to Bornholm in 1955 * Heather Spears (1934–2021), Canadian poet, artist, and novelist, moved to Bornholm in 1962 * Ursula Munch-Petersen (born 1937 in Rønne) ceramist * Bente Hammer (born 1950) textile artist and fashion designer, moved to Bornholm in 1987, opened a workshop and boutique * Pia Ranslet (born 1956 in Allinge) painter and sculptor * Klaus Bondam (born 1963 in Aakirkeby) actor and ex-politician * Sofie Stougaard (born 1966 in Svaneke) actress * Jonas Jeberg (born 1975 in Rønne) a songwriter and music producer, lives in Los Angeles * Engelina Andrina Larsen (born 1978) singer and songwriter * Aura Dione (born 1985) pop singer and songwriter, resident on Bornholm since aged seven ### Science * Peder Olsen Walløe (1716–1793) Dano-Norwegian Arctic explorer, explored the former Norse settlements on Greenland * Peter Schousboe (1766 in Rønne – 1832) botanist and Danish consul general in Tangier * Johan Nicolai Madvig (1804 in Svaneke – 1886) a Danish philologist and Kultus Minister of Denmark * Peter Ludvig Panum (1820 in Rønne – 1885) physiologist and pathologist * Dr. Lilli Nielsen (1926 in Rønne – 2013) psychologist, taught blind children and those with multiple disabilities ### Business * Hans Peder Kofoed (1743 in Svaneke – 1812) a Danish brewer, merchant and shipowner traded with Danish West Indies * M.P. Möller (1854 in Østermarie – 1937), a pipe-organ builder and manufacturer, moved to the United States in 1872 * Christian Schmiegelow (1859 in Rønne – 1949) a Danish businessman, co-founder of Torm * Nicolai Nørregaard (born 1979 in Svaneke) chef and restaurateur ### Public affairs * Jørgen Landt (1751–1804 in Olsker) a Danish priest, botanist and author * Johan Peter Andreas Anker (1838 in Knudsker Sogn – 1876) a Danish military officer * Johanne Münter (1844 in Rønne – 1921) a Danish women's rights activist and writer * Martin Andersen Nexø (1869–1954) socialist writer, moved to the island aged 8 and adopted the city name * Vilhelm Grønbech (1873 in Allinge – 1948) cultural historian and professor of the history of religion at the University of Copenhagen * Mogens Glistrup (1926–2008) controversial politician, lawyer and tax protester * Flemming Kofod-Svendsen (born 1944 in Aakirkeby) an ordained minister in the Lutheran Church and politician * Lea Wermelin (born 1985 in Rønne) a Danish politician, Minister for the Environment * Peter Kofod Poulsen (born 1990 in Snogebæk) a Danish politician, MEP since 2019 ### Sport * Hans Colberg (1921 in Klemensker – 2007) football player, over 200 pro appearances * Allan Kuhn (born 1968 in Rønne) a Danish association football coach and former player. * Julie Houmann (born in Rønne 1979) badminton player * Lisbet Jakobsen (born 1987 in Nexø) rower, competed at the 2016 Summer Olympics * Magnus Cort (born 1993) professional road bicycle racer * Mathias Christiansen (born 1994) badminton player * Amir Hadžiahmetović (born 1997 in Nexø) a Bosnian professional footballer See also -------- * Bornholm disease * Battle of Bornholm (disambiguation) * *Dromaeosauroides bornholmensis*, the first dinosaur found in Denmark * Arts and Crafts movement * List of islands of Denmark Further reading --------------- 1. "The Island of Bornholm," a chapter in *Selected Prose* by Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin, 1969, Northwestern University Press. 2. "The Battle of Bornholm" in *The Hidden Folk: Stories of Fairies, Dwarves, Selkies, and Other Secret Beings*, by Lise Lunge-Larsen, 2004, Houghton Mifflin. 3. *The Templars' Secret Island: The Knights, the Priest, and the Treasure*, 1992, by Erling Haagensen and Henry Lincoln 4. *Behind the Da Vinci Code*, 2006 documentary by *The History Channel* 5. *Bornholm i krig 1940–1946* (Bornholm in War), Bornholm museum, 2001, ISBN 978-87-88179-49-1. Book of photos from World War II. 6. Bent Jensen: "Soviet Remote Control: the Island of Bornholm as a Relay Station in Soviet-Danish Relations, 1945–71," in *Mechanisms of Power in the Soviet Union*, Macmillan Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-312-23089-0. 7. Lucazin, M (2010), *Utkast till ortografi över skånska språket med morfologi och ordlista. Första revisionen* (PDF), ISBN 978-91-977265-2-8, archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2011, retrieved 21 January 2011 Outlined scanian orthography including morphology and word index. First revision. 8. Lucazin, M (2010), *Utkast till ortografi över skånska språket med morfologi och ordlista* (PDF), ISBN 978-91-977265-1-1, archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2010, retrieved 27 July 2010 Outlined scanian orthography including morphology and word index.

Bornholm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bornholm

A **password**, sometimes called a **passcode** (for example in Apple devices), is secret data, typically a string of characters, usually used to confirm a user's identity. Traditionally, passwords were expected to be memorized, but the large number of password-protected services that a typical individual accesses can make memorization of unique passwords for each service impractical. Using the terminology of the NIST Digital Identity Guidelines, the secret is held by a party called the *claimant* while the party verifying the identity of the claimant is called the *verifier*. When the claimant successfully demonstrates knowledge of the password to the verifier through an established authentication protocol, the verifier is able to infer the claimant's identity. In general, a password is an arbitrary string of characters including letters, digits, or other symbols. If the permissible characters are constrained to be numeric, the corresponding secret is sometimes called a personal identification number (PIN). Despite its name, a password does not need to be an actual word; indeed, a non-word (in the dictionary sense) may be harder to guess, which is a desirable property of passwords. A memorized secret consisting of a sequence of words or other text separated by spaces is sometimes called a passphrase. A passphrase is similar to a password in usage, but the former is generally longer for added security. History ------- Passwords have been used since ancient times. Sentries would challenge those wishing to enter an area to supply a password or *watchword*, and would only allow a person or group to pass if they knew the password. Polybius describes the system for the distribution of watchwords in the Roman military as follows: > The way in which they secure the passing round of the watchword for the night is as follows: from the tenth maniple of each class of infantry and cavalry, the maniple which is encamped at the lower end of the street, a man is chosen who is relieved from guard duty, and he attends every day at sunset at the tent of the tribune, and receiving from him the watchword—that is a wooden tablet with the word inscribed on it – takes his leave, and on returning to his quarters passes on the watchword and tablet before witnesses to the commander of the next maniple, who in turn passes it to the one next to him. All do the same until it reaches the first maniples, those encamped near the tents of the tribunes. These latter are obliged to deliver the tablet to the tribunes before dark. So that if all those issued are returned, the tribune knows that the watchword has been given to all the maniples, and has passed through all on its way back to him. If any one of them is missing, he makes inquiry at once, as he knows by the marks from what quarter the tablet has not returned, and whoever is responsible for the stoppage meets with the punishment he merits. > > Passwords in military use evolved to include not just a password, but a password and a counterpassword; for example in the opening days of the Battle of Normandy, paratroopers of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division used a password—*flash*—which was presented as a challenge, and answered with the correct response—*thunder*. The challenge and response were changed every three days. American paratroopers also famously used a device known as a "cricket" on D-Day in place of a password system as a temporarily unique method of identification; one metallic click given by the device in lieu of a password was to be met by two clicks in reply. Passwords have been used with computers since the earliest days of computing. The Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS), an operating system introduced at MIT in 1961, was the first computer system to implement password login. CTSS had a LOGIN command that requested a user password. "After typing PASSWORD, the system turns off the printing mechanism, if possible, so that the user may type in his password with privacy." In the early 1970s, Robert Morris developed a system of storing login passwords in a hashed form as part of the Unix operating system. The system was based on a simulated Hagelin rotor crypto machine, and first appeared in 6th Edition Unix in 1974. A later version of his algorithm, known as crypt(3), used a 12-bit salt and invoked a modified form of the DES algorithm 25 times to reduce the risk of pre-computed dictionary attacks. In modern times, user names and passwords are commonly used by people during a log in process that controls access to protected computer operating systems, mobile phones, cable TV decoders, automated teller machines (ATMs), etc. A typical computer user has passwords for many purposes: logging into accounts, retrieving e-mail, accessing applications, databases, networks, web sites, and even reading the morning newspaper online. Choosing a secure and memorable password ---------------------------------------- The easier a password is for the owner to remember generally means it will be easier for an attacker to guess. However, passwords that are difficult to remember may also reduce the security of a system because (a) users might need to write down or electronically store the password, (b) users will need frequent password resets and (c) users are more likely to re-use the same password across different accounts. Similarly, the more stringent the password requirements, such as "have a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters and digits" or "change it monthly", the greater the degree to which users will subvert the system. Others argue longer passwords provide more security (e.g., entropy) than shorter passwords with a wide variety of characters. In *The Memorability and Security of Passwords*, Jeff Yan et al. examine the effect of advice given to users about a good choice of password. They found that passwords based on thinking of a phrase and taking the first letter of each word are just as memorable as naively selected passwords, and just as hard to crack as randomly generated passwords. Combining two or more unrelated words and altering some of the letters to special characters or numbers is another good method, but a single dictionary word is not. Having a personally designed algorithm for generating obscure passwords is another good method. However, asking users to remember a password consisting of a "mix of uppercase and lowercase characters" is similar to asking them to remember a sequence of bits: hard to remember, and only a little bit harder to crack (e.g. only 128 times harder to crack for 7-letter passwords, less if the user simply capitalises one of the letters). Asking users to use "both letters and digits" will often lead to easy-to-guess substitutions such as 'E' → '3' and 'I' → '1', substitutions that are well known to attackers. Similarly typing the password one keyboard row higher is a common trick known to attackers. In 2013, Google released a list of the most common password types, all of which are considered insecure because they are too easy to guess (especially after researching an individual on social media): * The name of a pet, child, family member, or significant other * Anniversary dates and birthdays * Birthplace * Name of a favorite holiday * Something related to a favorite sports team * The word "password" Alternatives to memorization ---------------------------- Traditional advice to memorize passwords and never write them down has become a challenge because of the sheer number of passwords users of computers and the internet are expected to maintain. One survey concluded that the average user has around 100 passwords. To manage the proliferation of passwords, some users employ the same password for multiple accounts, a dangerous practice since a data breach in one account could compromise the rest. Less risky alternatives include the use of password managers, single sign-on systems and simply keeping paper lists of less critical passwords. Such practices can reduce the number of passwords that must be memorized, such as the password manager's master password, to a more manageable number. Factors in the security of a password system -------------------------------------------- The security of a password-protected system depends on several factors. The overall system must be designed for sound security, with protection against computer viruses, man-in-the-middle attacks and the like. Physical security issues are also a concern, from deterring shoulder surfing to more sophisticated physical threats such as video cameras and keyboard sniffers. Passwords should be chosen so that they are hard for an attacker to guess and hard for an attacker to discover using any of the available automatic attack schemes. See password strength and computer security for more information. Nowadays, it is a common practice for computer systems to hide passwords as they are typed. The purpose of this measure is to prevent bystanders from reading the password; however, some argue that this practice may lead to mistakes and stress, encouraging users to choose weak passwords. As an alternative, users should have the option to show or hide passwords as they type them. Effective access control provisions may force extreme measures on criminals seeking to acquire a password or biometric token. Less extreme measures include extortion, rubber hose cryptanalysis, and side channel attack. Some specific password management issues that must be considered when thinking about, choosing, and handling, a password follow. ### Rate at which an attacker can try guessed passwords The rate at which an attacker can submit guessed passwords to the system is a key factor in determining system security. Some systems impose a time-out of several seconds after a small number (e.g., three) of failed password entry attempts, also known as throttling. In the absence of other vulnerabilities, such systems can be effectively secure with relatively simple passwords if they have been well chosen and are not easily guessed. Many systems store a cryptographic hash of the password. If an attacker gets access to the file of hashed passwords guessing can be done offline, rapidly testing candidate passwords against the true password's hash value. In the example of a web-server, an online attacker can guess only at the rate at which the server will respond, while an off-line attacker (who gains access to the file) can guess at a rate limited only by the hardware on which the attack is running. Passwords that are used to generate cryptographic keys (e.g., for disk encryption or Wi-Fi security) can also be subjected to high rate guessing. Lists of common passwords are widely available and can make password attacks very efficient. (See Password cracking.) Security in such situations depends on using passwords or passphrases of adequate complexity, making such an attack computationally infeasible for the attacker. Some systems, such as PGP and Wi-Fi WPA, apply a computation-intensive hash to the password to slow such attacks. See key stretching. ### Limits on the number of password guesses An alternative to limiting the rate at which an attacker can make guesses on a password is to limit the total number of guesses that can be made. The password can be disabled, requiring a reset, after a small number of consecutive bad guesses (say 5); and the user may be required to change the password after a larger cumulative number of bad guesses (say 30), to prevent an attacker from making an arbitrarily large number of bad guesses by interspersing them between good guesses made by the legitimate password owner. Attackers may conversely use knowledge of this mitigation to implement a denial of service attack against the user by intentionally locking the user out of their own device; this denial of service may open other avenues for the attacker to manipulate the situation to their advantage via social engineering. ### Form of stored passwords Some computer systems store user passwords as plaintext, against which to compare user logon attempts. If an attacker gains access to such an internal password store, all passwords—and so all user accounts—will be compromised. If some users employ the same password for accounts on different systems, those will be compromised as well. More secure systems store each password in a cryptographically protected form, so access to the actual password will still be difficult for a snooper who gains internal access to the system, while validation of user access attempts remains possible. The most secure do not store passwords at all, but a one-way derivation, such as a polynomial, modulus, or an advanced hash function. Roger Needham invented the now-common approach of storing only a "hashed" form of the plaintext password. When a user types in a password on such a system, the password handling software runs through a cryptographic hash algorithm, and if the hash value generated from the user's entry matches the hash stored in the password database, the user is permitted access. The hash value is created by applying a cryptographic hash function to a string consisting of the submitted password and, in many implementations, another value known as a salt. A salt prevents attackers from easily building a list of hash values for common passwords and prevents password cracking efforts from scaling across all users. MD5 and SHA1 are frequently used cryptographic hash functions, but they are not recommended for password hashing unless they are used as part of a larger construction such as in PBKDF2. The stored data—sometimes called the "password verifier" or the "password hash"—is often stored in Modular Crypt Format or RFC 2307 hash format, sometimes in the /etc/passwd file or the /etc/shadow file. The main storage methods for passwords are plain text, hashed, hashed and salted, and reversibly encrypted. If an attacker gains access to the password file, then if it is stored as plain text, no cracking is necessary. If it is hashed but not salted then it is vulnerable to rainbow table attacks (which are more efficient than cracking). If it is reversibly encrypted then if the attacker gets the decryption key along with the file no cracking is necessary, while if he fails to get the key cracking is not possible. Thus, of the common storage formats for passwords only when passwords have been salted and hashed is cracking both necessary and possible. If a cryptographic hash function is well designed, it is computationally infeasible to reverse the function to recover a plaintext password. An attacker can, however, use widely available tools to attempt to guess the passwords. These tools work by hashing possible passwords and comparing the result of each guess to the actual password hashes. If the attacker finds a match, they know that their guess is the actual password for the associated user. Password cracking tools can operate by brute force (i.e. trying every possible combination of characters) or by hashing every word from a list; large lists of possible passwords in many languages are widely available on the Internet. The existence of password cracking tools allows attackers to easily recover poorly chosen passwords. In particular, attackers can quickly recover passwords that are short, dictionary words, simple variations on dictionary words, or that use easily guessable patterns. A modified version of the DES algorithm was used as the basis for the password hashing algorithm in early Unix systems. The crypt algorithm used a 12-bit salt value so that each user's hash was unique and iterated the DES algorithm 25 times in order to make the hash function slower, both measures intended to frustrate automated guessing attacks. The user's password was used as a key to encrypt a fixed value. More recent Unix or Unix-like systems (e.g., Linux or the various BSD systems) use more secure password hashing algorithms such as PBKDF2, bcrypt, and scrypt, which have large salts and an adjustable cost or number of iterations. A poorly designed hash function can make attacks feasible even if a strong password is chosen. See LM hash for a widely deployed and insecure example. ### Methods of verifying a password over a network #### Simple transmission of the password Passwords are vulnerable to interception (i.e., "snooping") while being transmitted to the authenticating machine or person. If the password is carried as electrical signals on unsecured physical wiring between the user access point and the central system controlling the password database, it is subject to snooping by wiretapping methods. If it is carried as packeted data over the Internet, anyone able to watch the packets containing the logon information can snoop with a very low probability of detection. Email is sometimes used to distribute passwords but this is generally an insecure method. Since most email is sent as plaintext, a message containing a password is readable without effort during transport by any eavesdropper. Further, the message will be stored as plaintext on at least two computers: the sender's and the recipient's. If it passes through intermediate systems during its travels, it will probably be stored on there as well, at least for some time, and may be copied to backup, cache or history files on any of these systems. Using client-side encryption will only protect transmission from the mail handling system server to the client machine. Previous or subsequent relays of the email will not be protected and the email will probably be stored on multiple computers, certainly on the originating and receiving computers, most often in clear text. #### Transmission through encrypted channels The risk of interception of passwords sent over the Internet can be reduced by, among other approaches, using cryptographic protection. The most widely used is the Transport Layer Security (TLS, previously called SSL) feature built into most current Internet browsers. Most browsers alert the user of a TLS/SSL-protected exchange with a server by displaying a closed lock icon, or some other sign, when TLS is in use. There are several other techniques in use; see cryptography. #### Hash-based challenge–response methods Unfortunately, there is a conflict between stored hashed-passwords and hash-based challenge–response authentication; the latter requires a client to prove to a server that they know what the shared secret (i.e., password) is, and to do this, the server must be able to obtain the shared secret from its stored form. On many systems (including Unix-type systems) doing remote authentication, the shared secret usually becomes the hashed form and has the serious limitation of exposing passwords to offline guessing attacks. In addition, when the hash is used as a shared secret, an attacker does not need the original password to authenticate remotely; they only need the hash. #### Zero-knowledge password proofs Rather than transmitting a password, or transmitting the hash of the password, password-authenticated key agreement systems can perform a zero-knowledge password proof, which proves knowledge of the password without exposing it. Moving a step further, augmented systems for password-authenticated key agreement (e.g., AMP, B-SPEKE, PAK-Z, SRP-6) avoid both the conflict and limitation of hash-based methods. An augmented system allows a client to prove knowledge of the password to a server, where the server knows only a (not exactly) hashed password, and where the un-hashed password is required to gain access. ### Procedures for changing passwords Usually, a system must provide a way to change a password, either because a user believes the current password has been (or might have been) compromised, or as a precautionary measure. If a new password is passed to the system in unencrypted form, security can be lost (e.g., via wiretapping) before the new password can even be installed in the password database and if the new password is given to a compromised employee, little is gained. Some websites include the user-selected password in an unencrypted confirmation e-mail message, with the obvious increased vulnerability. Identity management systems are increasingly used to automate the issuance of replacements for lost passwords, a feature called self-service password reset. The user's identity is verified by asking questions and comparing the answers to ones previously stored (i.e., when the account was opened). Some password reset questions ask for personal information that could be found on social media, such as mother's maiden name. As a result, some security experts recommend either making up one's own questions or giving false answers. ### Password longevity "Password aging" is a feature of some operating systems which forces users to change passwords frequently (e.g., quarterly, monthly or even more often). Such policies usually provoke user protest and foot-dragging at best and hostility at worst. There is often an increase in the number of people who note down the password and leave it where it can easily be found, as well as help desk calls to reset a forgotten password. Users may use simpler passwords or develop variation patterns on a consistent theme to keep their passwords memorable. Because of these issues, there is some debate as to whether password aging is effective. Changing a password will not prevent abuse in most cases, since the abuse would often be immediately noticeable. However, if someone may have had access to the password through some means, such as sharing a computer or breaching a different site, changing the password limits the window for abuse. ### Number of users per password Allotting separate passwords to each user of a system is preferable to having a single password shared by legitimate users of the system, certainly from a security viewpoint. This is partly because users are more willing to tell another person (who may not be authorized) a shared password than one exclusively for their use. Single passwords are also much less convenient to change because many people need to be told at the same time, and they make removal of a particular user's access more difficult, as for instance on graduation or resignation. Separate logins are also often used for accountability, for example to know who changed a piece of data. ### Password security architecture Common techniques used to improve the security of computer systems protected by a password include: * Not displaying the password on the display screen as it is being entered or obscuring it as it is typed by using asterisks (\*) or bullets (•). * Allowing passwords of adequate length. (Some legacy operating systems, including early versions[*which?*] of Unix and Windows, limited passwords to an 8 character maximum, reducing security.) * Requiring users to re-enter their password after a period of inactivity (a semi log-off policy). * Enforcing a password policy to increase password strength and security. + Assigning randomly chosen passwords. + Requiring minimum password lengths. + Some systems require characters from various character classes in a password—for example, "must have at least one uppercase and at least one lowercase letter". However, all-lowercase passwords are more secure per keystroke than mixed capitalization passwords. + Employ a password blacklist to block the use of weak, easily guessed passwords + Providing an alternative to keyboard entry (e.g., spoken passwords, or biometric identifiers). + Requiring more than one authentication system, such as two-factor authentication (something a user has and something the user knows). * Using encrypted tunnels or password-authenticated key agreement to prevent access to transmitted passwords via network attacks * Limiting the number of allowed failures within a given time period (to prevent repeated password guessing). After the limit is reached, further attempts will fail (including correct password attempts) until the beginning of the next time period. However, this is vulnerable to a form of denial of service attack. * Introducing a delay between password submission attempts to slow down automated password guessing programs. Some of the more stringent policy enforcement measures can pose a risk of alienating users, possibly decreasing security as a result. ### Password reuse It is common practice amongst computer users to reuse the same password on multiple sites. This presents a substantial security risk, because an attacker needs to only compromise a single site in order to gain access to other sites the victim uses. This problem is exacerbated by also reusing usernames, and by websites requiring email logins, as it makes it easier for an attacker to track a single user across multiple sites. Password reuse can be avoided or minimized by using mnemonic techniques, writing passwords down on paper, or using a password manager. It has been argued by Redmond researchers Dinei Florencio and Cormac Herley, together with Paul C. van Oorschot of Carleton University, Canada, that password reuse is inevitable, and that users should reuse passwords for low-security websites (which contain little personal data and no financial information, for example) and instead focus their efforts on remembering long, complex passwords for a few important accounts, such as bank accounts. Similar arguments were made by Forbes in not change passwords as often as many "experts" advise, due to the same limitations in human memory. ### Writing down passwords on paper Historically, many security experts asked people to memorize their passwords: "Never write down a password". More recently, many security experts such as Bruce Schneier recommend that people use passwords that are too complicated to memorize, write them down on paper, and keep them in a wallet. Password manager software can also store passwords relatively safely, in an encrypted file sealed with a single master password. ### After death According to a survey by the University of London, one in ten people are now leaving their passwords in their wills to pass on this important information when they die. One-third of people, according to the poll, agree that their password-protected data is important enough to pass on in their will. ### Multi-factor authentication Multi-factor authentication schemes combine passwords (as "knowledge factors") with one or more other means of authentication, to make authentication more secure and less vulnerable to compromised passwords. For example, a simple two-factor login might send a text message, e-mail, automated phone call, or similar alert whenever a login attempt is made, possibly supplying a code that must be entered in addition to a password. More sophisticated factors include such things as hardware tokens and biometric security. ### Password rotation Password rotation is a policy that is commonly implemented with the goal of enhancing computer security. In 2019, Microsoft stated that the practice is "ancient and obsolete". Password rules -------------- Most organizations specify a password policy that sets requirements for the composition and usage of passwords, typically dictating minimum length, required categories (e.g., upper and lower case, numbers, and special characters), prohibited elements (e.g., use of one's own name, date of birth, address, telephone number). Some governments have national authentication frameworks that define requirements for user authentication to government services, including requirements for passwords. Many websites enforce standard rules such as minimum and maximum length, but also frequently include composition rules such as featuring at least one capital letter and at least one number/symbol. These latter, more specific rules were largely based on a 2003 report by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), authored by Bill Burr. It originally proposed the practice of using numbers, obscure characters and capital letters and updating regularly. In a 2017 *Wall Street Journal* article, Burr reported he regrets these proposals and made a mistake when he recommended them. According to a 2017 rewrite of this NIST report, many websites have rules that actually have the opposite effect on the security of their users. This includes complex composition rules as well as forced password changes after certain periods of time. While these rules have long been widespread, they have also long been seen as annoying and ineffective by both users and cyber-security experts. The NIST recommends people use longer phrases as passwords (and advises websites to raise the maximum password length) instead of hard-to-remember passwords with "illusory complexity" such as "pA55w+rd". A user prevented from using the password "password" may simply choose "Password1" if required to include a number and uppercase letter. Combined with forced periodic password changes, this can lead to passwords that are difficult to remember but easy to crack. Paul Grassi, one of the 2017 NIST report's authors, further elaborated: "Everyone knows that an exclamation point is a 1, or an I, or the last character of a password. $ is an S or a 5. If we use these well-known tricks, we aren't fooling any adversary. We are simply fooling the database that stores passwords into thinking the user did something good." Pieris Tsokkis and Eliana Stavrou were able to identify some bad password construction strategies through their research and development of a password generator tool. They came up with eight categories of password construction strategies based on exposed password lists, password cracking tools, and online reports citing the most used passwords. These categories include user-related information, keyboard combinations and patterns, placement strategy, word processing, substitution, capitalization, append dates, and a combination of the previous categories Password cracking ----------------- Attempting to crack passwords by trying as many possibilities as time and money permit is a brute force attack. A related method, rather more efficient in most cases, is a dictionary attack. In a dictionary attack, all words in one or more dictionaries are tested. Lists of common passwords are also typically tested. Password strength is the likelihood that a password cannot be guessed or discovered, and varies with the attack algorithm used. Cryptologists and computer scientists often refer to the strength or 'hardness' in terms of entropy. Passwords easily discovered are termed *weak* or *vulnerable*; passwords very difficult or impossible to discover are considered *strong*. There are several programs available for password attack (or even auditing and recovery by systems personnel) such as L0phtCrack, John the Ripper, and Cain; some of which use password design vulnerabilities (as found in the Microsoft LANManager system) to increase efficiency. These programs are sometimes used by system administrators to detect weak passwords proposed by users. Studies of production computer systems have consistently shown that a large fraction of all user-chosen passwords are readily guessed automatically. For example, Columbia University found 22% of user passwords could be recovered with little effort. According to Bruce Schneier, examining data from a 2006 phishing attack, 55% of MySpace passwords would be crackable in 8 hours using a commercially available Password Recovery Toolkit capable of testing 200,000 passwords per second in 2006. He also reported that the single most common password was *password1*, confirming yet again the general lack of informed care in choosing passwords among users. (He nevertheless maintained, based on these data, that the general quality of passwords has improved over the years—for example, average length was up to eight characters from under seven in previous surveys, and less than 4% were dictionary words.) ### Incidents * On July 16, 1998, CERT reported an incident where an attacker had found 186,126 encrypted passwords. At the time the attacker was discovered, 47,642 passwords had already been cracked. * In September 2001, after the deaths of 658 of their 960 New York employees in the September 11 attacks, financial services firm Cantor Fitzgerald through Microsoft broke the passwords of deceased employees to gain access to files needed for servicing client accounts. Technicians used brute-force attacks, and interviewers contacted families to gather personalized information that might reduce the search time for weaker passwords. * In December 2009, a major password breach of the Rockyou.com website occurred that led to the release of 32 million passwords. The hacker then leaked the full list of the 32 million passwords (with no other identifiable information) to the Internet. Passwords were stored in cleartext in the database and were extracted through a SQL injection vulnerability. The Imperva Application Defense Center (ADC) did an analysis on the strength of the passwords. * In June 2011, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) experienced a security breach that led to the public release of first and last names, usernames, and passwords for more than 11,000 registered users of their e-bookshop. The data was leaked as part of Operation AntiSec, a movement that includes Anonymous, LulzSec, as well as other hacking groups and individuals. The aim of AntiSec is to expose personal, sensitive, and restricted information to the world, using any means necessary. * On July 11, 2011, Booz Allen Hamilton, a consulting firm that does work for the Pentagon, had their servers hacked by Anonymous and leaked the same day. "The leak, dubbed 'Military Meltdown Monday,' includes 90,000 logins of military personnel—including personnel from USCENTCOM, SOCOM, the Marine corps, various Air Force facilities, Homeland Security, State Department staff, and what looks like private sector contractors." These leaked passwords wound up being hashed in SHA1, and were later decrypted and analyzed by the ADC team at Imperva, revealing that even military personnel look for shortcuts and ways around the password requirements. Alternatives to passwords for authentication -------------------------------------------- The numerous ways in which permanent or semi-permanent passwords can be compromised has prompted the development of other techniques. Unfortunately, some are inadequate in practice, and in any case few have become universally available for users seeking a more secure alternative. A 2012 paper examines why passwords have proved so hard to supplant (despite numerous predictions that they would soon be a thing of the past); in examining thirty representative proposed replacements with respect to security, usability and deployability they conclude "none even retains the full set of benefits that legacy passwords already provide." * Single-use passwords. Having passwords that are only valid once makes many potential attacks ineffective. Most users find single-use passwords extremely inconvenient. They have, however, been widely implemented in personal online banking, where they are known as Transaction Authentication Numbers (TANs). As most home users only perform a small number of transactions each week, the single-use issue has not led to intolerable customer dissatisfaction in this case. * Time-synchronized one-time passwords are similar in some ways to single-use passwords, but the value to be entered is displayed on a small (generally pocketable) item and changes every minute or so. * PassWindow one-time passwords are used as single-use passwords, but the dynamic characters to be entered are visible only when a user superimposes a unique printed visual key over a server-generated challenge image shown on the user's screen. * Access controls based on public-key cryptography e.g. ssh. The necessary keys are usually too large to memorize (but see proposal Passmaze) and must be stored on a local computer, security token or portable memory device, such as a USB flash drive or even floppy disk. The private key may be stored on a cloud service provider, and activated by the use of a password or two-factor authentication. * Biometric methods promise authentication based on unalterable personal characteristics, but currently (2008) have high error rates and require additional hardware to scan,[*needs update*] for example, fingerprints, irises, etc. They have proven easy to spoof in some famous incidents testing commercially available systems, for example, the gummie fingerprint spoof demonstration, and, because these characteristics are unalterable, they cannot be changed if compromised; this is a highly important consideration in access control as a compromised access token is necessarily insecure. * Single sign-on technology is claimed to eliminate the need for having multiple passwords. Such schemes do not relieve users and administrators from choosing reasonable single passwords, nor system designers or administrators from ensuring that private access control information passed among systems enabling single sign-on is secure against attack. As yet, no satisfactory standard has been developed. * Envaulting technology is a password-free way to secure data on removable storage devices such as USB flash drives. Instead of user passwords, access control is based on the user's access to a network resource. * Non-text-based passwords, such as graphical passwords or mouse-movement based passwords. Graphical passwords are an alternative means of authentication for log-in intended to be used in place of conventional password; they use images, graphics or colours instead of letters, digits or special characters. One system requires users to select a series of faces as a password, utilizing the human brain's ability to recall faces easily. In some implementations the user is required to pick from a series of images in the correct sequence in order to gain access. Another graphical password solution creates a one-time password using a randomly generated grid of images. Each time the user is required to authenticate, they look for the images that fit their pre-chosen categories and enter the randomly generated alphanumeric character that appears in the image to form the one-time password. So far, graphical passwords are promising, but are not widely used. Studies on this subject have been made to determine its usability in the real world. While some believe that graphical passwords would be harder to crack, others suggest that people will be just as likely to pick common images or sequences as they are to pick common passwords. * 2D Key (2-Dimensional Key) is a 2D matrix-like key input method having the key styles of multiline passphrase, crossword, ASCII/Unicode art, with optional textual semantic noises, to create big password/key beyond 128 bits to realize the MePKC (Memorizable Public-Key Cryptography) using fully memorizable private key upon the current private key management technologies like encrypted private key, split private key, and roaming private key. * Cognitive passwords use question and answer cue/response pairs to verify identity. "The password is dead" ---------------------- "The password is dead" is a recurring idea in computer security. The reasons given often include reference to the usability as well as security problems of passwords. It often accompanies arguments that the replacement of passwords by a more secure means of authentication is both necessary and imminent. This claim has been made by numerous people at least since 2004. Alternatives to passwords include biometrics, two-factor authentication or single sign-on, Microsoft's Cardspace, the Higgins project, the Liberty Alliance, NSTIC, the FIDO Alliance and various Identity 2.0 proposals. However, in spite of these predictions and efforts to replace them passwords are still the dominant form of authentication on the web. In "The Persistence of Passwords", Cormac Herley and Paul van Oorschot suggest that every effort should be made to end the "spectacularly incorrect assumption" that passwords are dead. They argue that "no other single technology matches their combination of cost, immediacy and convenience" and that "passwords are themselves the best fit for many of the scenarios in which they are currently used." Following this, Bonneau et al. systematically compared web passwords to 35 competing authentication schemes in terms of their usability, deployability, and security. Their analysis shows that most schemes do better than passwords on security, some schemes do better and some worse with respect to usability, while *every* scheme does worse than passwords on deployability. The authors conclude with the following observation: "Marginal gains are often not sufficient to reach the activation energy necessary to overcome significant transition costs, which may provide the best explanation of why we are likely to live considerably longer before seeing the funeral procession for passwords arrive at the cemetery." See also -------- * Access code (disambiguation) * Authentication * CAPTCHA * Cognitive science * Combination lock * Diceware * Electronic lock * Kerberos (protocol) * Keyfile * Passphrase * Password cracking * Password fatigue * Password length parameter * Password manager * Password notification e-mail * Password policy * Password psychology * Password strength * Password synchronization * Password-authenticated key agreement * Personal identification number * Pre-shared key * Rainbow table * Random password generator * Self-service password reset * Shibboleth * Usability of web authentication systems

Password

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password

A **lathe** (/leɪð/) is a machine tool that rotates a workpiece about an axis of rotation to perform various operations such as cutting, sanding, knurling, drilling, deformation, facing, and turning, with tools that are applied to the workpiece to create an object with symmetry about that axis. Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, thermal spraying, reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the best-known design being the Potter's wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces and screw threads or helices. Ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The workpiece is usually held in place by either one or two *centers*, at least one of which can typically be moved horizontally to accommodate varying workpiece lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dog clutch. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include screws, candlesticks, gun barrels, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, pens, musical instruments (especially woodwind instruments), and crankshafts. History ------- The lathe is an ancient tool. The earliest evidence of a lathe dates back to Ancient Egypt around 1300 BC. There is also tenuous evidence for its existence at a Mycenaean Greek site, dating back as far as the 13th or 14th century BC. Clear evidence of turned artifacts have been found from the 6th century BC: fragments of a wooden bowl in an Etruscan tomb in Northern Italy as well as two flat wooden dishes with decorative turned rims from modern Turkey. During the Warring States period in China, c. 400 BC, the ancient Chinese used rotary lathes to sharpen tools and weapons on an industrial scale. The first known painting showing a lathe dates to the 3rd century BC in ancient Egypt. The lathe was very important to the Industrial Revolution. It is known as the *mother of machine tools*, as it was the first machine tool that led to the invention of other machine tools. The first fully documented, all-metal slide rest lathe was invented by Jacques de Vaucanson around 1751. It was described in the *Encyclopédie*. In 1718 Russian engineer Andrey Nartov invented one of the first lathes with a mechanical cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears (also known as a compound rest or slide rest) with the first to invent such a lathe probably being Leonardo da Vinci. An important early lathe in the UK was the horizontal boring machine that was installed by Jan Verbruggen in 1772 in the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich. It was horse-powered and allowed for the production of much more accurate and stronger cannon used with success in the American Revolutionary War in the late 18th century. One of the key characteristics of this machine was that the workpiece was turning as opposed to the tool, making it technically a lathe. Henry Maudslay, who later developed many improvements to the lathe, worked at the Royal Arsenal from 1783, being exposed to this machine in the Verbruggen workshop. A detailed description of Vaucanson's lathe was published decades before Maudslay perfected his version. It is likely that Maudslay was not aware of Vaucanson's work, since his first versions of the slide rest had many errors that were not present in the Vaucanson lathe. During the Industrial Revolution, mechanized power generated by water wheels or steam engines was transmitted to the lathe via line shafting, allowing faster and easier work. Metalworking lathes evolved into heavier machines with thicker, more rigid parts. Between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, individual electric motors at each lathe replaced line shafting as the power source. Beginning in the 1950s, servomechanisms were applied to the control of lathes and other machine tools via numerical control, which often was coupled with computers to yield computerized numerical control (CNC). Today manually controlled and CNC lathes coexist in the manufacturing industries. Design ------ ### Components A lathe may or may not have legs, which sit on the floor and elevate the lathe bed to a working height. A lathe may be small and sit on a workbench or table, not requiring a stand. Almost all lathes have a bed, which is almost always a horizontal beam, although CNC lathes commonly have an inclined or vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed. Woodturning lathes specialized for turning large bowls often have no bed or tail stock, merely a free-standing headstock and a cantilevered tool rest. At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the lathe) is a headstock. The headstock contains high-precision spinning bearings. Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the bed, called the spindle. Spindles are often hollow and have an interior Morse taper on the spindle nose (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which work-holding accessories may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have arrangements for work-holding on the left-hand end of the spindle with other tooling arrangements for particular tasks. (i.e., facing away from the main bed) end, or may have a hand-wheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered and impart motion to the workpiece. The spindle is driven either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt or gear drive from a power source such as electric motor or overhead line shafts. In most modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor, often either in the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand. In addition to the spindle and its bearings, the headstock often contains parts to convert the motor speed into various spindle speeds. Various types of speed-changing mechanism achieve this, from a cone pulley or step pulley, to a cone pulley with back gear (which is essentially a low range, similar in net effect to the two-speed rear of a truck), to an entire gear train similar to that of a manual-shift automotive transmission. Some motors have electronic rheostat-type speed controls, which obviates cone pulleys or gears. The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to as the loose head, as it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed by sliding it to the required area. The tail-stock contains a barrel, which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed and directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow and usually contains a taper to facilitate the gripping of various types of tooling. Its most common uses are to hold a hardened steel center, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold drill bits for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible. Metalworking lathes have a carriage (comprising a saddle and apron) topped with a cross-slide, which is a flat piece that sits crosswise on the bed and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. Sitting atop the cross slide is usually another slide called a compound rest, which provides 2 additional axes of motion, rotary and linear. Atop that sits a toolpost, which holds a cutting tool, which removes material from the workpiece. There may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross-slide along the bed. Woodturning and metal spinning lathes do not have cross-slides, but rather have banjos, which are flat pieces that sit crosswise on the bed. The position of a banjo can be adjusted by hand; no gearing is involved. Ascending vertically from the banjo is a tool-post, at the top of which is a horizontal tool-rest. In woodturning, hand tools are braced against the tool rest and levered into the workpiece. In metal spinning, the further pin ascends vertically from the tool rest and serves as a fulcrum against which tools may be levered into the workpiece. ### Accessories Unless a workpiece has a taper machined onto it which perfectly matches the internal taper in the spindle, or has threads which perfectly match the external threads on the spindle (two conditions which rarely exist), an accessory must be used to mount a workpiece to the spindle. A workpiece may be bolted or screwed to a faceplate, a large, flat disk that mounts to the spindle. In the alternative, faceplate dogs may be used to secure the work to the faceplate. A workpiece may be mounted on a mandrel, or circular work clamped in a three- or four-jaw chuck. For irregular shaped workpieces it is usual to use a four jaw (independent moving jaws) chuck. These holding devices mount directly to the lathe headstock spindle. In precision work, and in some classes of repetition work, cylindrical workpieces are usually held in a collet inserted into the spindle and secured either by a draw-bar, or by a collet closing cap on the spindle. Suitable collets may also be used to mount square or hexagonal workpieces. In precision toolmaking work such collets are usually of the draw-in variety, where, as the collet is tightened, the workpiece moves slightly back into the headstock, whereas for most repetition work the dead length variety is preferred, as this ensures that the position of the workpiece does not move as the collet is tightened. A soft workpiece (e.g., wood) may be pinched between centers by using a spur drive at the headstock, which bites into the wood and imparts torque to it. A soft dead center is used in the headstock spindle as the work rotates with the centre. Because the centre is soft it can be trued in place before use. The included angle is 60°. Traditionally, a hard dead center is used together with suitable lubricant in the tailstock to support the workpiece. In modern practice the dead center is frequently replaced by a running center, as it turns freely with the workpiece—usually on ball bearings—reducing the frictional heat, especially important at high speeds. When clear facing a long length of material it must be supported at both ends. This can be achieved by the use of a traveling or fixed steady. If a steady is not available, the end face being worked on may be supported by a dead (stationary) half center. A half center has a flat surface machined across a broad section of half of its diameter at the pointed end. A small section of the tip of the dead center is retained to ensure concentricity. Lubrication must be applied at this point of contact and tail stock pressure reduced. A lathe carrier or lathe dog may also be employed when turning between two centers. In woodturning, one variation of a running center is a cup center, which is a cone of metal surrounded by an annular ring of metal that decreases the chances of the workpiece splitting. A circular metal plate with even spaced holes around the periphery, mounted to the spindle, is called an "index plate". It can be used to rotate the spindle to a precise angle, then lock it in place, facilitating repeated auxiliary operations done to the workpiece. Other accessories, including items such as taper turning attachments, knurling tools, vertical slides, fixed and traveling steadies, etc., increase the versatility of a lathe and the range of work it may perform. ### Modes of use When a workpiece is fixed between the headstock and the tail-stock, it is said to be "between centers". When a workpiece is supported at both ends, it is more stable, and more force may be applied to the workpiece, via tools, at a right angle to the axis of rotation, without fear that the workpiece may break loose. When a workpiece is fixed only to the spindle at the headstock end, the work is said to be "face work". When a workpiece is supported in this manner, less force may be applied to the workpiece, via tools, at a right angle to the axis of rotation, lest the workpiece rip free. Thus, most work must be done axially, towards the headstock, or at right angles, but gently. When a workpiece is mounted with a certain axis of rotation, worked, then remounted with a new axis of rotation, this is referred to as "eccentric turning" or "multi-axis turning". The result is that various cross sections of the workpiece are rotationally symmetric, but the workpiece as a whole is not rotationally symmetric. This technique is used for camshafts, various types of chair legs. ### Sizes Lathes are usually 'sized' by the capacity of the work that they may hold. Usually large work is held at both ends either using a chuck or other drive in the headstock and a centre in the tailstock. To maximise size, turning between centres allows the work to be as close to the headstock as possible and is used to determine the longest piece the lathe will turn: when the base of the tailstock is aligned with the end of the bed. The distance between centres gives the maximum length of work the lathe will officially hold. It is possible to get slightly longer items in if the tailstock overhangs the end of the bed but this is an ill-advised practice. The other dimension of the workpiece is how far off-centre it can be. This is known as the 'swing' ("The distance from the head center of a lathe to the bed or ways, or to the rest. The swing determines the diametric size of the object which is capable of being turned in the lathe; anything larger would interfere with the bed. This limit is called the swing of the bed. The swing of the rest is the size which will rotate above the rest, which lies upon the bed.") from the notion that the work 'swings' from the centre upon which it is mounted. This makes more sense with odd-shaped work but as the lathe is most often used with cylindrical work, it is useful to know the maximum diameter of work the lathe will hold. This is simply the value of the swing (or centre height above the bed) multiplied by two. For some reason, in the U.S. swing is assumed to be diameter but this is incorrect. To be clear on size, it is better, therefore, to describe the dimension as 'centre height above the bed'. As parts of the lathe reduce capacity, measurements such as 'swing over cross slide' or other named parts can be found. ### Varieties The smallest lathes are "jewelers lathes" or "watchmaker lathes", which, though often small enough to be held in one hand are normally fastened to a bench. There are rare and even smaller mini lathes made for precision cutting. The workpieces machined on a jeweler's lathe are often metal, but other softer materials can also be machined. Jeweler's lathes can be used with hand-held "graver" tools or with a "compound rest" that attach to the lathe bed and allows the tool to be clamped in place and moved by a screw or lever feed. Graver tools are generally supported by a T-rest, not fixed to a cross slide or compound rest. The work is usually held in a collet, but high-precision 3 and 6-jaw chucks are also commonly employed. Common spindle bore sizes are 6 mm, 8 mm and 10 mm. The term WW refers to the Webster/Whitcomb collet and lathe, invented by the American Watch Tool Company of Waltham, Massachusetts. Most lathes commonly referred to as watchmakers lathes are of this design. In 1909, the American Watch Tool company introduced the Magnus type collet (a 10-mm body size collet) using a lathe of the same basic design, the Webster/Whitcomb Magnus. (F.W.Derbyshire, Inc. retains the trade names Webster/Whitcomb and Magnus and still produces these collets.) Two bed patterns are common: the WW (Webster Whitcomb) bed, a truncated triangular prism (found only on 8 and 10 mm watchmakers' lathes); and the continental D-style bar bed (used on both 6 mm and 8 mm lathes by firms such as Lorch and Star). Other bed designs have been used, such as a triangular prism on some Boley 6.5 mm lathes, and a V-edged bed on IME's 8 mm lathes. Smaller metalworking lathes that are larger than jewelers' lathes and can sit on a bench or table, but offer such features as tool holders and a screw-cutting gear train are called hobby lathes, and larger versions, "bench lathes" - this term also commonly applied to a special type of high-precision lathe used by toolmakers for one-off jobs. Even larger lathes offering similar features for producing or modifying individual parts are called "engine lathes". Lathes of these types do not have additional integral features for repetitive production, but rather are used for individual part production or modification as the primary role. Lathes of this size that are designed for mass manufacture, but not offering the versatile screw-cutting capabilities of the engine or bench lathe, are referred to as "second operation" lathes. Lathes with a very large spindle bore and a chuck on both ends of the spindle are called "oil field lathes". Fully automatic mechanical lathes, employing cams and gear trains for controlled movement, are called screw machines. Lathes that are controlled by a computer are CNC lathes. Lathes with the spindle mounted in a vertical configuration, instead of horizontal configuration, are called vertical lathes or vertical boring machines. They are used where very large diameters must be turned, and the workpiece (comparatively) is not very long. A lathe with a tool post that can rotate around a vertical axis, so as to present different tools towards the headstock (and the workpiece) are turret lathes. A lathe equipped with indexing plates, profile cutters, spiral or helical guides, etc., so as to enable ornamental turning is an ornamental lathe. Various combinations are possible: for example, a vertical lathe can have CNC capabilities as well (such as a CNC VTL). Lathes can be combined with other machine tools, such as a drill press or vertical milling machine. These are usually referred to as combination lathes. Uses ---- ### Woodworking Woodworking lathes are the oldest variety. All other varieties are descended from these simple lathes. An adjustable horizontal metal rail, the tool rest, between the material and the operator accommodates the positioning of shaping tools, which are usually hand-held. After shaping, it is common practice to press and slide sandpaper against the still-spinning object to smooth the surface made with the metal shaping tools. The tool rest is usually removed during sanding, as it may be unsafe to have the operators hands between it and the spinning wood. Many woodworking lathes can also be used for making bowls and plates. The bowl or plate needs only to be held at the bottom by one side of the lathe. It is usually attached to a metal face plate attached to the spindle. With many lathes, this operation happens on the left side of the headstock, where are no rails and therefore more clearance. In this configuration, the piece can be shaped inside and out. A specific curved tool rest may be used to support tools while shaping the inside. Further detail can be found on the woodturning page. Most woodworking lathes are designed to be operated at a speed of between 200 and 1,400 revolutions per minute, with slightly over 1,000 rpm considered optimal for most such work, and with larger workpieces requiring lower speeds. ### Duplicating One type of specialized lathe is duplicating or copying lathe also known as Blanchard lathe after its inventor Thomas Blanchard. This type of lathe was able to create shapes identical to a standard pattern and it revolutionized the process of gun stock making in the 1820s when it was invented. ### Patternmaking Used to make a pattern for foundries, often from wood, but also plastics. A patternmaker's lathe looks like a heavy wood lathe, often with a turret and either a leadscrew or a rack and pinion to manually position the turret. The turret is used to accurately cut straight lines. They often have a provision to turn very large parts on the other end of the headstock, using a free-standing toolrest. Another way of turning large parts is a sliding bed, which can slide away from the headstock and thus open up a gap in front of the headstock for large parts. ### Metalworking In a metalworking lathe, metal is removed from the workpiece using a hardened cutting tool, which is usually fixed to a solid moveable mounting, either a tool-post or a turret, which is then moved against the workpiece using handwheels or computer-controlled motors. These cutting tools come in a wide range of sizes and shapes, depending upon their application. Some common styles are diamond, round, square and triangular. The tool-post is operated by lead-screws that can accurately position the tool in a variety of planes. The tool-post may be driven manually or automatically to produce the roughing and finishing cuts required to *turn* the workpiece to the desired shape and dimensions, or for cutting threads, worm gears, etc. Cutting fluid may also be pumped to the cutting site to provide cooling, lubrication and clearing of swarf from the workpiece. Some lathes may be operated under control of a computer for mass production of parts (see "Computer numerical control"). Manually controlled metalworking lathes are commonly provided with a variable-ratio gear-train to drive the main lead-screw. This enables different thread pitches to be cut. On some older lathes or more affordable new lathes, the gear trains are changed by swapping gears with various numbers of teeth onto or off of the shafts, while more modern or expensive manually controlled lathes have a **quick-change box** to provide commonly used ratios by the operation of a lever. CNC lathes use computers and servomechanisms to regulate the rates of movement. On manually controlled lathes, the thread pitches that can be cut are, in some ways, determined by the pitch of the lead-screw: A lathe with a metric lead-screw will readily cut metric threads (including BA), while one with an imperial lead-screw will readily cut imperial-unit-based threads such as BSW or UTS (UNF, UNC). This limitation is not insurmountable, because a 127-tooth gear, called a transposing gear, is used to translate between metric and inch thread pitches. However, this is optional equipment that many lathe owners do not own. It is also a larger change-wheel than the others, and on some lathes may be larger than the change-wheel mounting banjo is capable of mounting. The workpiece may be supported between a pair of points called centres, or it may be bolted to a faceplate or held in a chuck. A chuck has movable jaws that can grip the workpiece securely. There are some effects on material properties when using a metalworking lathe. There are few chemical or physical effects, but there are many mechanical effects, which include residual stress, micro-cracks, work-hardening, and tempering in hardened materials. ### Cue lathes Cue lathes function similarly to turning and spinning lathes, allowing a perfectly radially-symmetrical cut for billiard cues. They can also be used to refinish cues that have been worn over the years. ### Glass-working Glass-working lathes are similar in design to other lathes, but differ markedly in how the workpiece is modified. Glass-working lathes slowly rotate a hollow glass vessel over a fixed- or variable-temperature flame. The source of the flame may be either hand-held or mounted to a banjo/cross-slide that can be moved along the lathe bed. The flame serves to soften the glass being worked, so that the glass in a specific area of the workpiece becomes ductile and subject to forming either by inflation ("glassblowing") or by deformation with a heat-resistant tool. Such lathes usually have two head-stocks with chucks holding the work, arranged so that they both rotate together in unison. Air can be introduced through the headstock chuck spindle for glassblowing. The tools to deform the glass and tubes to blow (inflate) the glass are usually handheld. In diamond turning, a computer-controlled lathe with a diamond-tipped tool is used to make precision optical surfaces in glass or other optical materials. Unlike conventional optical grinding, complex aspheric surfaces can be machined easily. Instead of the dovetailed ways used on the tool slide of a metal-turning lathe, the ways typically float on air bearings, and the position of the tool is measured by optical interferometry to achieve the necessary standard of precision for optical work. The finished work piece usually requires a small amount of subsequent polishing by conventional techniques to achieve a finished surface suitably smooth for use in a lens, but the rough grinding time is significantly reduced for complex lenses. ### Metal-spinning In metal spinning, a disk of sheet metal is held perpendicularly to the main axis of the lathe, and tools with polished tips (*spoons*) or roller tips are hand-held, but levered by hand against fixed posts, to develop pressure that deforms the spinning sheet of metal. Metal-spinning lathes are almost as simple as wood-turning lathes. Typically, metal spinning requires a mandrel, usually made from wood, which serves as the template onto which the workpiece is formed (asymmetric shapes can be made, but it is a very advanced technique). For example, to make a sheet metal bowl, a solid block of wood in the shape of the bowl is required; similarly, to make a vase, a solid template of the vase is required. Given the advent of high-speed, high-pressure, industrial die forming, metal spinning is less common now than it once was, but still a valuable technique for producing one-off prototypes or small batches, where die forming would be uneconomical. ### Ornamental turning The ornamental turning lathe was developed around the same time as the industrial screw-cutting lathe in the nineteenth century. It was used not for making practical objects, but for decorative work: *ornamental turning*. By using accessories such as the horizontal and vertical cutting frames, eccentric chuck and elliptical chuck, solids of extraordinary complexity may be produced by various generative procedures. A special-purpose lathe, the Rose engine lathe, is also used for ornamental turning, in particular for engine turning, typically in precious metals, for example to decorate pocket-watch cases. As well as a wide range of accessories, these lathes usually have complex dividing arrangements to allow the exact rotation of the mandrel. Cutting is usually carried out by rotating cutters, rather than directly by the rotation of the work itself. Because of the difficulty of polishing such work, the materials turned, such as wood or ivory, are usually quite soft, and the cutter has to be exceptionally sharp. The finest ornamental lathes are generally considered to be those made by Holtzapffel around the turn of the 19th century. ### Reducing Many types of lathes can be equipped with accessory components to allow them to reproduce an item: the original item is mounted on one spindle, the blank is mounted on another, and as both turn in synchronized manner, one end of an arm "reads" the original and the other end of the arm "carves" the duplicate. A **reduction lathe** is a specialized lathe that is designed with this feature and incorporates a mechanism similar to a pantograph, so that when the "reading" end of the arm reads a detail that measures one inch (for example), the cutting end of the arm creates an analogous detail that is (for example) one quarter of an inch (a 4:1 reduction, although given appropriate machinery and appropriate settings, any reduction ratio is possible). Reducing lathes are used in coin-making, where a plaster original (or an epoxy master made from the plaster original, or a copper-shelled master made from the plaster original, etc.) is duplicated and reduced on the reducing lathe, generating a master die. ### Rotary lathes A lathe in which wood logs are turned against a very sharp blade and peeled off in one continuous or semi-continuous roll. Invented by Immanuel Nobel (father of the more famous Alfred Nobel). The first such lathes in the United States were set up in the mid-19th century. The product is called wood veneer and it is used for making plywood and as a cosmetic surface veneer on some grades of chipboard. ### Watchmaking Watchmakers lathes are delicate but precise metalworking lathes, usually without provision for screwcutting, and are still used by horologists for work such as the turning of balance staffs. A handheld tool called a graver is often used in preference to a slide-mounted tool. The original watchmaker's turns was a simple dead-center lathe with a moveable rest and two loose head-stocks. The workpiece would be rotated by a bow, typically of horsehair, wrapped around it. ### Transcription or recording Transcription or recording lathes are used to make grooves on a surface for recording sounds. These were used in creating sound grooves on wax cylinders and then on flat recording discs originally also made of wax, but later as lacquers on a substratum. Originally the cutting lathes were driven by sound vibrations through a horn in a process known as acoustic recording and later driven by an electric current when microphones were first used in sound recording. Many such lathes were professional models, but others were developed for home recording and were common before the advent of home tape recording. Performance ----------- National and international standards are used to standardize the definitions, environmental requirements, and test methods used for the performance evaluation of lathes. Election of the standard to be used is an agreement between the supplier and the user and has some significance in the design of the lathe. In the United States, ASME has developed the B5.57 Standard entitled "Methods for Performance Evaluation of Computer Numerically Controlled Lathes and Turning Centers", which establishes requirements and methods for specifying and testing the performance of CNC lathes and turning centers. See also -------- * Diamond turning * Gun drill * Mandrel * Segmented turning * Solid of revolution * Unimat Further reading --------------- * Holtzapffel, Charles (1843–1897). *Turning and Mechanical Manipulation Volume V*. * Marlow, Frank (2008). *Machine Shop Essentials: Q & A*. Metal Arts Press. ISBN 978-0-9759963-3-1. * Oscar E. Perrigo. *Modern American Lathe Practice. A New, Complete and Practical Work on the "king of Machine Shop Tools.",* 1907. * Raffan, Richard (2001). *Turning Wood With Richard Raffan*. Taunton. ISBN 1-56158-417-7. * Joshua Rose. *The Complete Practical Machinist: Embracing Lathe Work, Vise Work, Drills, etc.,* Philadelphia: H.C. Baird & Co., 1876; 2nd ed. 1885. * Sparey, Lawrence (1947). *The Amateur's Lathe*. Special Interest Model Books. ISBN 0-85242-288-1. * Woodbury, Robert S (1961). *History of the Lathe to 1850*. Cleveland, Ohio: Society for the History of Technology. ISBN 978-0-262-73004-4. * Bray, Stan (2004). *The compact lathe* (2nd rev. ed.). Poole: Special Interest Model Books. ISBN 1854862278. OCLC 63184337.

Lathe

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lathe

A **zoonosis** (/zoʊˈɒnəsɪs, ˌzoʊəˈnoʊsɪs/; plural **zoonoses**) or **zoonotic disease** is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite or prion) that can jump from a non-human (usually a vertebrate) to a human and vice versa. Major modern diseases such as Ebola virus disease and salmonellosis are zoonoses. HIV was a zoonotic disease transmitted to humans in the early part of the 20th century, though it has now evolved into a separate human-only disease. Most strains of influenza that infect humans are human diseases, although many strains of bird flu and swine flu are zoonoses; these viruses occasionally recombine with human strains of the flu and can cause pandemics such as the 1918 Spanish flu or the 2009 swine flu. *Taenia solium* infection is one of the neglected tropical diseases with public health and veterinary concern in endemic regions. Zoonoses can be caused by a range of disease pathogens such as emergent viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites; of 1,415 pathogens known to infect humans, 61% were zoonotic. Most human diseases originated in non-humans; however, only diseases that routinely involve non-human to human transmission, such as rabies, are considered direct zoonoses. Zoonoses have different modes of transmission. In direct zoonosis the disease is directly transmitted from non-humans to humans through media such as air (influenza) or through bites and saliva (rabies). In contrast, transmission can also occur via an intermediate species (referred to as a vector), which carry the disease pathogen without getting sick. When humans infect non-humans, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis. The term is from Greek: ζῷον *zoon* "animal" and νόσος *nosos* "sickness". Host genetics plays an important role in determining which non-human viruses will be able to make copies of themselves in the human body. Dangerous non-human viruses are those that require few mutations to begin replicating themselves in human cells. These viruses are dangerous since the required combinations of mutations might randomly arise in the natural reservoir. Causes ------ The emergence of zoonotic diseases originated with the domestication of animals. Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering or consuming wild game) or research context. Recently, there has been a rise in frequency of appearance of new zoonotic diseases. "Approximately 1.67 million undescribed viruses are thought to exist in mammals and birds, up to half of which are estimated to have the potential to spill over into humans," says a study led by researchers at the University of California, Davis. According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute large part of the causes are environmental like climate change, unsustainable agriculture, exploitation of wildlife, land use change. Others are linked to changes in human society like more mobility. The organizations propose a set of measures to stop the rise. ### Contamination of food or water supply The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are *Escherichia coli* O157:H7, *Campylobacter*, *Caliciviridae*, and *Salmonella*. In 2006 a conference held in Berlin focused on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety, urging government intervention and public vigilance against the risks of catching food-borne diseases from farm-to-table dining. Many food-borne outbreaks can be linked to zoonotic pathogens. Many different types of food that have an animal origin can become contaminated. Some common food items linked to zoonotic contaminations include eggs, seafood, meat, dairy, and even some vegetables. Outbreaks involving contaminated food should be handled in preparedness plans to prevent widespread outbreaks and to efficiently and effectively contain outbreaks. ### Farming, ranching and animal husbandry Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. Glanders primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to cutaneous anthrax infection, whereas inhalation anthrax infection is more common for workers in slaughterhouses, tanneries and wool mills. Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to infection with the bacterium *Chlamydia psittaci,* causing chlamydiosis (and enzootic abortion in pregnant women), as well as increase the risk of Q fever, toxoplasmosis, and listeriosis, in the pregnant or otherwise immunocompromised. Echinococcosis is caused by a tapeworm, which can spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated by feces or wool. Bird flu is common in chickens and, while rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of bird flu will recombine with a human flu virus and cause a pandemic like the 1918 Spanish flu. In 2017, free-range chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of bird flu. Cattle are an important reservoir of cryptosporidiosis, which mainly affects the immunocompromised. Reports have shown mink can also become infected. In Western countries, Hepatitis E burden is largely dependent on exposure to animal products, and pork is a significant source of infection, in this respect. Veterinarians are exposed to unique occupational hazards when it comes to zoonotic disease. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk of injuries and lack of veterinary awareness of these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with musculoskeletal injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts. A July 2020 report by the United Nations Environment Programme stated that the increase in zoonotic pandemics is directly attributable to anthropogenic destruction of nature and the increased global demand for meat, and that the industrial farming of pigs and chickens in particular will be a primary risk factor for the spillover of zoonotic diseases in the future. Habitat loss of viral reservoir species has been identified as a significant source in at least one spillover event. ### Wildlife trade or animal attacks The wildlife trade may increase spillover risk because it directly increases the number of interactions across animal species, sometimes in small spaces. The origin of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is traced to the wet markets in China. * Rabies ### Insect vectors * African sleeping sickness * Dirofilariasis * Eastern equine encephalitis * Japanese encephalitis * Saint Louis encephalitis * Scrub typhus * Tularemia * Venezuelan equine encephalitis * West Nile fever * Western equine encephalitis * Zika fever ### Pets Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies. Pets can also transmit ringworm and *Giardia*, which are endemic in both animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women. Dirofilariasis is caused by *Dirofilaria immitis* through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by *Bartonella henselae* and *Bartonella quintana*, which are transmitted by fleas that are endemic to cats. Toxocariasis is the infection of humans by any of species of roundworm, including species specific to dogs (*Toxocara canis)* or cats (*Toxocara cati*). Cryptosporidiosis can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the leopard gecko. *Encephalitozoon cuniculi* is a microsporidial parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important opportunistic pathogen in people immunocompromised by HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency. Pets may also serve as a reservoir of viral disease and contribute to the chronic presence of certain viral diseases in the human population. For instance, approximately 20% of domestic dogs, cats and horses carry anti-Hepatitis E virus antibodies and thus these animals probably contribute to human Hepatitis E burden as well. For non-vulnerable populations (people who are not immunocompromised) the associated disease burden is, however, small. ### Exhibition Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with, and exposure to, other animals at fairs, live animal markets, petting zoos, and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings. The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management. ### Hunting and bushmeat * HIV * SARS ### Deforestation, biodiversity loss and environmental degradation Kate Jones, Chair of Ecology and Biodiversity at University College London, says zoonotic diseases are increasingly linked to environmental change and human behaviour. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now "a hidden cost of human economic development". In a guest article, published by IPBES, President of the EcoHealth Alliance and zoologist Peter Daszak, along with three co-chairs of the 2019 *Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services*, Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz, and Eduardo Brondizio, wrote that "rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, intensive farming, mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a 'perfect storm' for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people." Joshua Moon, Clare Wenham and Sophie Harman said that there is evidence that decreased biodiversity has an effect on the diversity of hosts and frequency of human-animal interactions with potential for pathogenic spillover. An April 2020 study, published in the *Proceedings of the Royal Society*'s Part B journal, found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation, as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980. An August 2020 study, published in *Nature*, concludes that the anthropogenic destruction of ecosystems for the purpose of expanding agriculture and human settlements reduces biodiversity and allows for smaller animals such as bats and rats, who are more adaptable to human pressures and also carry the most zoonotic diseases, to proliferate. This in turn can result in more pandemics. In October 2020, the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services published its report on the 'era of pandemics' by 22 experts in a variety of fields, and concluded that anthropogenic destruction of biodiversity is paving the way to the pandemic era, and could result in as many as 850,000 viruses being transmitted from animals – in particular birds and mammals – to humans. The increased pressure on ecosystems is being driven by the "exponential rise" in consumption and trade of commodities such as meat, palm oil, and metals, largely facilitated by developed nations, and by a growing human population. According to Peter Daszak, the chair of the group who produced the report, "there is no great mystery about the cause of the Covid-19 pandemic, or of any modern pandemic. The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment." ### Climate change According to a report from the United Nations Environment Programme and International Livestock Research Institute, entitled "Preventing the next pandemic – Zoonotic diseases and how to break the chain of transmission," climate change is one of the 7 human-related causes of the increase in the number of zoonotic diseases. The University of Sydney issued a study, in March 2021, that examines factors increasing the likelihood of epidemics and pandemics like the COVID-19 pandemic. The researchers found that "pressure on ecosystems, climate change and economic development are key factors" in doing so. More zoonotic diseases were found in high-income countries. In 2022, a big study dedicated to the link between climate change and Zoonosis was published. The study found a strong link between climate change and the epidemic emergence in the last 15 years, as it caused a massive migration of species to new areas, and consequently contact between species which do not normally come in contact with one another. Even in a scenario with weak climatic changes, there will be 15,000 spillover of viruses to new hosts in the next decades. The areas with the most possibilities for spillover are the mountainous tropical regions of Africa and southeast Asia. Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable as it has a large number of bat species that generally do not mix, but could easily if climate change forced them to begin migrating. A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 through bats. The authors suggest that climate-driven changes in the distribution and robustness of bat species harboring coronaviruses may have occurred in eastern Asian hotspots (southern China, Myanmar and Laos), constituting a driver behind the evolution and spread of the virus. ### Secondary transmission * Ebola and Marburg are examples of viral hemorrhagic disease. History ------- During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response. To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected. In fact, for many "human" diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a dead-end host. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia and West Nile virus. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic. Many diseases, even epidemic ones, have zoonotic origin and measles, smallpox, influenza, HIV, and diphtheria are particular examples. Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species. Some experts have suggested that all human viral infections were originally zoonotic. Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus first appeared in the United States in 1999, in the New York City area. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease, as are salmonellosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Lyme disease. A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife. This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia, in 1999, when intensive pig farming began within the habitat of infected fruit bats. The unidentified infection of these pigs amplified the force of infection, transmitting the virus to farmers, and eventually causing 105 human deaths. Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals, such as bats and birds, may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation. Because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis, river blindness, and elephantiasis are *not* defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors. Use in vaccines --------------- The first vaccine against smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called cowpox. Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass vaccination against this disease ceased in 1981. There are a variety of vaccine varieties, including traditional inactivated pathogen vaccines, Subunit vaccines, live attenuated vaccines. There are also new vaccine technologies such as viral vector vaccines and DNA/RNA Vaccines, which includes the SARS-CoV-2 Coronavirus vaccines. Lists of diseases ----------------- | Disease | Pathogen(s) | Animals involved | Mode of transmission | Emergence | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | African sleeping sickness | *Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense* | range of wild animals and domestic livestock | transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly | 'present in Africa for thousands of years' – major outbreak 1900–1920, cases continue (sub-Saharan Africa, 2020) | | Angiostrongyliasis | *Angiostrongylus cantonensis*, *Angiostrongylus costaricensis* | rats, cotton rats | consuming raw or undercooked snails, slugs, other mollusks, crustaceans, contaminated water, and unwashed vegetables contaminated with larvae | | Anisakiasis | *Anisakis* | whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, other marine animals | eating raw or undercooked fish and squid contaminated with eggs | | Anthrax | *Bacillus anthracis* | commonly – grazing herbivores such as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, horses, and pigs | by ingestion, inhalation or skin contact of spores | | Babesiosis | *Babesia* spp. | mice, other animals | tick bite | | Baylisascariasis | *Baylisascaris procyonis* | raccoons | ingestion of eggs in feces | | Barmah Forest fever | *Barmah Forest virus* | kangaroos, wallabies, opossums | mosquito bite | | Bird flu | Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 | wild birds, domesticated birds such as chickens | close contact | 2003–19 Avian Influenza in Southeast Asia and Egypt | | Bovine spongiform encephalopathy | Prions | cattle | eating infected meat | isolated similar cases reported in ancient history; in recent UK history probable start in the 1970s | | Brucellosis | *Brucella* spp. | cattle, goats, pigs, sheep | infected milk or meat | historically widespread in Mediterranean region; identified early 20th century | | Bubonic plague, Pneumonic plague, Septicemic plague, Sylvatic plague | *Yersinia pestis* | rabbits, hares, rodents, ferrets, goats, sheep, camels | flea bite | Epidemics like Black Death in Europe around 1347–53 during the Late Middle Age, Third Plague Pandemic in China-Qing dynasty and India alone | | Capillariasis | *Capillaria* spp. | rodents, birds, foxes | eating raw or undercooked fish, ingesting embryonated eggs in fecal-contaminated food, water, or soil | | Cat-scratch disease | *Bartonella henselae* | cats | bites or scratches from infected cats | | Chagas disease | *Trypanosoma cruzi* | armadillos, Triatominae (kissing bug) | Contact of mucosae or wounds with feces of kissing bugs. Accidental ingestion of parasites in food contaminated by bugs or infected mammal excretae. | | Clamydiosis / Enzootic abortion | *Chlamydophila abortus* | domestic livestock, particularly sheep | close contact with postpartum ewes | | suspected: COVID-19 | *Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2* | suspected: bats, felines, raccoon dogs, minks. White-tailed deer | respiratory transmission | COVID-19 pandemic; 2019–present; Ongoing pandemic | | Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease | PrPvCJD | cattle | eating meat from animals with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) | 1996–2001: United Kingdom | | Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever | *Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever orthonairovirus* | cattle, goats, sheep, birds, multimammate rats, hares | tick bite, contact with bodily fluids | | Cryptococcosis | *Cryptococcus neoformans* | commonly – birds like pigeons | inhaling fungi | | Cryptosporidiosis | *Cryptosporidium* spp. | cattle, dogs, cats, mice, pigs, horses, deer, sheep, goats, rabbits, leopard geckos, birds | ingesting cysts from water contaminated with feces | | Cysticercosis and taeniasis | *Taenia solium*, *Taenia asiatica*, *Taenia saginata* | commonly – pigs and cattle | consuming water, soil or food contaminated with the tapeworm eggs (cysticercosis) or raw or undercooked pork contaminated with the cysticerci (taeniasis) | | Dirofilariasis | *Dirofilaria* spp. | dogs, wolves, coyotes, foxes, jackals, cats, monkeys, raccoons, bears, muskrats, rabbits, leopards, seals, sea lions, beavers, ferrets, reptiles | mosquito bite | | Eastern equine encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Western equine encephalitis | *Eastern equine encephalitis virus*, *Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus*, *Western equine encephalitis virus* | horses, donkeys, zebras, birds | mosquito bite | | Ebola virus disease (a haemorrhagic fever) | *Ebolavirus* spp. | chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, fruit bats, monkeys, shrews, forest antelope and porcupines | through body fluids and organs | 2013–16; possible in Africa | | Other haemorrhagic fevers (Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, Dengue fever, Lassa fever, Marburg viral haemorrhagic fever, Rift Valley fever) | Varies – commonly viruses | varies (sometimes unknown) – commonly camels, rabbits, hares, hedgehogs, cattle, sheep, goats, horses and swine | infection usually occurs through direct contact with infected animals | 2019–20 dengue fever | | Echinococcosis | *Echinococcus* spp. | commonly – dogs, foxes, jackals, wolves, coyotes, sheep, pigs, rodents | ingestion of infective eggs from contaminated food or water with feces of an infected definitive host | | Fasciolosis | *Fasciola hepatica*, *Fasciola gigantica* | sheep, cattle, buffaloes | ingesting contaminated plants | | Fasciolopsiasis | *Fasciolopsis buski* | pigs | eating raw vegetables such as water spinach | | Foodborne illnesses (commonly diarrheal diseases) | *Campylobacter* spp., *Escherichia coli*, *Salmonella* spp., *Listeria* spp., *Shigella* spp. and *Trichinella* spp. | animals domesticated for food production (cattle, poultry) | raw or undercooked food made from animals and unwashed vegetables contaminated with feces | | Giardiasis | *Giardia lamblia* | beavers, other rodents, raccoons, deer, cattle, goats, sheep, dogs, cats | ingesting spores and cysts in food and water contaminated with feces | | Glanders | *Burkholderia mallei.* | horses, donkeys | direct contact | | Gnathostomiasis | *Gnathostoma* spp. | dogs, minks, opossums, cats, lions, tigers, leopards, raccoons, poultry, other birds, frogs | raw or undercooked fish or meat | | Hantavirus | *Hantavirus* spp. | deer mice, cotton rats and other rodents | exposure to feces, urine, saliva or bodily fluids | | Henipavirus | *Henipavirus* spp. | horses, bats | exposure to feces, urine, saliva or contact with sick horses | | Hepatitis E | *Hepatitis E virus* | domestic and wild animals | contaminated food or water | | Histoplasmosis | *Histoplasma capsulatum* | birds, bats | inhaling fungi in guano | | HIV | *SIV Simian immunodeficiency virus* | Non-human primates | Blood | Immunodeficiency resembling human AIDS was reported in captive monkeys in the United States beginning in 1983. SIV was isolated in 1985 from some of these animals, captive rhesus macaques who had simian AIDS (SAIDS). The discovery of SIV was made shortly after HIV-1 had been isolated as the cause of AIDS and led to the discovery of HIV-2 strains in West Africa. HIV-2 was more similar to the then-known SIV strains than to HIV-1, suggesting for the first time the simian origin of HIV. Further studies indicated that HIV-2 is derived from the SIVsmm strain found in sooty mangabeys, whereas HIV-1, the predominant virus found in humans, is derived from SIV strains infecting chimpanzees (SIVcpz) | | Japanese encephalitis | *Japanese encephalitis virus* | pigs, water birds | mosquito bite | | Kyasanur Forest disease | *Kyasanur Forest disease virus* | rodents, shrews, bats, monkeys | tick bite | | La Crosse encephalitis | *La Crosse virus* | chipmunks, tree squirrels | mosquito bite | | Leishmaniasis | *Leishmania* spp. | dogs, rodents, other animals | sandfly bite | 2004 Afghanistan | | Leprosy | *Mycobacterium leprae*, *Mycobacterium lepromatosis* | armadillos, monkeys, rabbits, mice | direct contact, including meat consumption. However, scientists believe most infections are spread human to human. | | Leptospirosis | *Leptospira interrogans* | rats, mice, pigs, horses, goats, sheep, cattle, buffaloes, opossums, raccoons, mongooses, foxes, dogs | direct or indirect contact with urine of infected animals | 1616–20 New England infection: Present day in the United States) | | Lassa fever | *Lassa fever virus* | rodents | exposure to rodents | | Lyme disease | *Borrelia burgdorferi* | deer, wolves, dogs, birds, rodents, rabbits, hares, reptiles | tick bite | | Lymphocytic choriomeningitis | *Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus* | rodents | exposure to urine, feces, or saliva | | Melioidosis | *Burkholderia pseudomallei* | various animals | direct contact with contaminated soil and surface water | | Microsporidiosis | *Encephalitozoon cuniculi* | Rabbits, dogs, mice, and other mammals | ingestion of spores | | Middle East respiratory syndrome | *MERS coronavirus* | bats, camels | close contact | 2012–present: Saudi Arabia | | Monkeypox | *Monkeypox virus* | rodents, primates | contact with infected rodents, primates, or contaminated materials | | Nipah virus infection | *Nipah virus (NiV)* | bats, pigs | direct contact with infected bats, infected pigs | | Orf | *Orf virus* | goats, sheep | close contact | | Powassan encephalitis | Powassan virus | ticks | tick bites | | Psittacosis | *Chlamydophila psittaci* | macaws, cockatiels, budgerigars, pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many other bird species | contact with bird droplets | | Q fever | *Coxiella burnetii* | livestock and other domestic animals such as dogs and cats | inhalation of spores, contact with bodily fluid or faeces | | Rabies | *Rabies virus* | commonly – dogs, bats, monkeys, raccoons, foxes, skunks, cattle, goats, sheep, wolves, coyotes, groundhogs, horses, mongooses and cats | through saliva by biting, or through scratches from an infected animal | Variety of places like Oceanic, South America, Europe; Year is unknown | | Rat-bite fever | *Streptobacillus moniliformis*, *Spirillum minus* | rats, mice | bites of rats but also urine and mucus secretions | | Rift Valley fever | *Phlebovirus* | livestock, buffaloes, camels | mosquito bite, contact with bodily fluids, blood, tissues, breathing around butchered animals or raw milk | 2006–07 East Africa outbreak | | Rocky Mountain spotted fever | *Rickettsia rickettsii* | dogs, rodents | tick bite | | Ross River fever | *Ross River virus* | kangaroos, wallabies, horses, opossums, birds, flying foxes | mosquito bite | | Saint Louis encephalitis | *Saint Louis encephalitis virus* | birds | mosquito bite | | Severe acute respiratory syndrome | *SARS coronavirus* | bats, civets | close contact, respiratory droplets | 2002–04 SARS outbreak; started in China | | Smallpox | Variola virus | Possible Monkeys or horses | Spread to person to person quickly | The last cases was in 1977; WHO certified to Eradicated (for the world) in December 1979 or 1980. | | Swine influenza | A new strain of the influenza virus endemic in pigs (excludes H1N1 swine flu, which is a human virus). | pigs | close contact | 2009–10; 2009 swine flu pandemic; The outbreak began in Mexico. | | *Taenia crassiceps* infection | *Taenia crassiceps* | wolves, coyotes, jackals, foxes | contact with soil contaminated with feces | | Toxocariasis | *Toxocara* spp. | dogs, foxes, cats | ingestion of eggs in soil, fresh or unwashed vegetables or undercooked meat | | Toxoplasmosis | *Toxoplasma gondii* | cats, livestock, poultry | exposure to cat feces, organ transplantation, blood transfusion, contaminated soil, water, grass, unwashed vegetables, unpasteurized dairy products and undercooked meat | | Trichinosis | *Trichinella* spp. | rodents, pigs, horses, bears, walruses, dogs, foxes, crocodiles, birds | eating undercooked meat | | Tuberculosis | *Mycobacterium bovis* | infected cattle, deer, llamas, pigs, domestic cats, wild carnivores (foxes, coyotes) and omnivores (possums, mustelids and rodents) | milk, exhaled air, sputum, urine, faeces and pus from infected animals | | Tularemia | *Francisella tularensis* | lagomorphs (type A), rodents (type B), birds | ticks, deer flies, and other insects including mosquitoes | | West Nile fever | *Flavivirus* | birds, horses | mosquito bite | | Zika fever | *Zika virus* | chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans, monkeys, baboons | mosquito bite, sexual intercourse, blood transfusion and sometimes bites of monkeys | 2015–16 epidemic in the Americas and Oceanic | See also -------- * Animal welfare#Animal welfare organizations – Well-being of non-human animals * Conservation medicine * Cross-species transmission – Transmission of a pathogen between different species * Emerging infectious disease – Infectious disease of emerging pathogen, often novel in its outbreak range or transmission mode * Foodborne illness – Illness from eating spoiled food * Spillover infection – Occurs when a reservoir population causes an epidemic in a novel host population * Wildlife disease – diseases in wild animalsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * Veterinary medicine – Deals with the diseases of animals * Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses – Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlifePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * List of zoonotic primate viruses Bibliography ------------ * Bardosh K (2016). *One Health: Science, Politics and Zoonotic Disease in Africa*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-96148-7.. * Crawford D (2018). *Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198815440. * Felbab-Brown V (6 October 2020). "Preventing the next zoonotic pandemic". *Brookings Institution*. Archived from the original on 21 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2021. * Greger M (2007). "The human/animal interface: emergence and resurgence of zoonotic infectious diseases". *Critical Reviews in Microbiology*. **33** (4): 243–299. doi:10.1080/10408410701647594. PMID 18033595. S2CID 8940310. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2020. * H. Krauss, A. Weber, M. Appel, B. Enders, A. v. Graevenitz, H. D. Isenberg, H. G. Schiefer, W. Slenczka, H. Zahner: Zoonoses. Infectious Diseases Transmissible from Animals to Humans. 3rd Edition, 456 pages. ASM Press. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C., 2003. ISBN 1-55581-236-8. * González JG (2010). *Infection Risk and Limitation of Fundamental Rights by Animal-To-Human Transplantations. EU, Spanish and German Law with Special Consideration of English Law* (in German). Hamburg: Verlag Dr. Kovac. ISBN 978-3-8300-4712-4. * Quammen D (2013). *Spillover: Animal Infections and the Next Human Pandemic*. ISBN 978-0-393-34661-9. Scholia has a *topic* profile for ***Zoonosis***.

Zoonosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoonosis

**Suwon** (Korean: 수원; Hanja: 水原; lit. Waterfield, Korean: [sʰu.wʌn]) is the capital and largest city of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea's most populous province. Suwon lies approximately 30 km (19 mi) south of the national capital, Seoul. With a population close to 1¼ million, it has more residents than Ulsan Metropolitan City, though it has a lesser degree of self-governance as a 'special case city'. Traditionally known as the 'City of Filial Piety', today Suwon retains a variety of historical features. As a walled city, it is a popular destination for day trippers from Seoul, and these city walls appear among the province's more popular sites. Suwon also plays an important economic role: Samsung Electronics, Korea's largest company by sales, is based in the city. The company's research and development centre is in Yeongtong-gu, where its headquarters have also been located since 2016. Samsung's presence in Suwon is clearly visible: the company is a partner of Sungkyunkwan University, which has its Natural Sciences Campus in the city, and the company owns the four-time K League champions and two-time Asian Super Cup winners Suwon Samsung Bluewings. Suwon is home to several universities, e.g., Sungkyunkwan University, Ajou University, and several football, baseball, basketball, and volleyball teams, including Suwon Samsung Bluewings, Suwon FC, and KT Wiz. The city is served by three expressways, the national railway network, and three lines on the Seoul Metropolitan Subway. History ------- Suwon has historically gone by many names. In ancient tribal times, it was known as Mosu-guk (모수국), part of the Mahan confederacy. During the Proto–Three Kingdoms period era, the area that today comprises Suwon and neighbouring Hwaseong was called *Maehol-gun* (매홀군). In 757, under King Gyeongdeok of Unified Silla, the name was changed to *Suseong-gun* (수성군). In 940, during the Goryeo Dynasty, it changed again in to *Suju* (수주). Finally, in 1413, King Taejong of the Joseon Dynasty changed the name to Suwon, the name still in use today, though in the 19th century it was often spelt 'Sou-wen'. In 1592, during the Imjin wars, Commander Yi Gwang attempted to launch his army toward the capital city, Seoul (at the time named 'Hanseong'). The army was withdrawn, however, after news reached the commander that the city had already been sacked. As the army grew to 50,000 men by accumulating several volunteer forces, Yi Gwang and the irregular commanders reconsidered their aim of reclaiming the capital, and led the combined forces north to Suwon. ### Relocation of the city centre, and construction of Hwaseong Fortress In 1796, during the Joseon Dynasty, King Jeongjo relocated the city centre from the bottom of Hwasan (a hill in modern-day Hwasan-dong, Hwaseong City) to its corny location to the east of Paldalsan. He instructed that Hwaseong Fortress be built. This fortified wall encompassed the entire city. Hwaseong was originally built under the guidance of philosopher Jeong Yak-yong, and its construction was one of Korea's first examples of paid labour, corvée labour having been common previously. Shortly after King Jeongjo's death in 1800, Hwaseong Seongyeok Uigwe (화성 성역 의궤; 華城城域儀軌) was published, exhaustively detailing the construction of the fortress. This document was more precise that other such construction records from the time. Hwaseong was damaged severely during the Korean War, so the meticulous record of its construction has proven invaluable during reconstruction efforts from 1964 to the present day. Suwon was once entirely encircled by the fortress, but modern urban growth has seen the city spread out far beyond the walls. The fortress is now a designated UNESCO World Heritage site, and it is often featured in the city and province's promotional materials. ### Japanese occupation It appears that a focal point in Suwon's resistance to Japanese occupation was Adams Memorial Hall, at 342 Suwoncheon-ro in Maehyang,dong, Paldal-gu (37°17′03″N 127°01′08″E / 37.28417°N 127.01889°E / 37.28417; 127.01889). Under Pastor William Noble, this 1923 building was built in Samil Middle School grounds with funding from a church in North Adams, Massachusetts, from the Suwon Jongno Church (830 Jeongjo-ro, Buksu-dong), and from local residents. Here, independence activists including Park Seon-tae and Lee Deuk-su met weekly to discuss their rebellion. * Suwon Adams Memorial HallSuwon Adams Memorial Hall ### Korean War When the Korean War began, the United States Air Force 49th Fighter Wing, then stationed in Japan, was sent to Korea with an initial mission of evacuating civilians from Suwon and Gimpo. While on this mission, on 27 June 1950, US planes in Suwon were attacked by North Korean fighters, and the Battle of Suwon Airfield became the first aerial combat of the war. Suwon Airfield was attacked again two days later while General Douglas MacArthur was on site. Though the US repelled these attacks, Suwon fell to the advancing North Koreans one week later, on 4 July 1950. The Battle of Osan, the first conflict between United States and North Korean forces, occurred the following day. Defences were erected on the road between occupied Suwon and still-southern Osan. As Northern troops advanced south, a 3½-hour battle ensued in which 150 United States and 42 North Korean soldiers were killed, and the US troops were forced to retreat. The North Korean advance southwards to Osan was delayed by an estimated seven hours. In the early days of the war, southern authorities feared left-leaning civilians, and many were killed. Eyewitness account from US intelligence officer Donald Nichols places Suwon as the location of a massacre of approximately 1,800 suspected Communist civilians by South Korean authorities on 28, 29, or 30 June 1950 (depending on source). On 16 December 1950, the Greek Expeditionary Force relocated from Busan to Suwon, attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division. From 6 November 1951, the United States Air Force's top fighter pilot Gabby Gabreski was in charge of Suwon Air Base, also known then as K-13. In total, Suwon changed hands four times during the war. * North Korean T-34-85 caught on a bridge south of Suwon by US attack aircraft in the Korean WarNorth Korean T-34-85 caught on a bridge south of Suwon by US attack aircraft in the Korean War A memorial to the French forces was erected in 1974 in Jangan-gu, near the Yeongdong Expressway's North Suwon exit (37°19′40″N 126°59′08″E / 37.32778°N 126.98556°E / 37.32778; 126.98556). This was renovated in 2013. ### Recent history In 1949, Seoul left Gyeonggi-do, and in the same year, Suwon-eup in Suwon-gun became Suwon City while the remainder of Suwon-gun became Hwaseong-gun. Suwon became the capital of Gyeonggi-do on 23 June 1967, when the provincial office was relocated from Seoul. On 1 January 1963, Suwon expanded greatly as Cheoncheon-ri, Daehwanggyo-ri, Gokbanjeong-ri, Gosaek-ri, Guun-ri, Gwonseon-ri, Hagwanggyo-ri, Imok-ri, Jangji-ri, Jeongja-ri, Jowon-ri, Maetan-ri, Omokcheon-ri, Pajang-ri, Pyeong-ri, Sanggwanggyo-ri, Songjuk-ri, Tap-ri, Woncheon-ri, and Yuljeon-ri were incorporated from Hwaseong-gun. On 15 February 1983, further expansion saw Ha-ri and Iui-ri switch from Yongin to Suwon. On 1 January 1987, Suwon expanded westwards as Geumgok-ri and Homaesil-ri were acquired from Maesong-myeon in Hwaseong. Yeongtong-ri transferred from Hwaseong to Suwon on 26 December 1994 along with parts of Sin-ri and Mangpo-ri, and part of Yeongdeok-ri from Yongin. The remainder of Sun-ri and Mangpo-ri joined Suwon on 20 April 1995. On 9 May 2007, in preparation for the construction of the new town of Gwanggyo, there was a two-way exchange of land between Ha-dong in Suwon and neighbouring Sanghyeon-dong in Yongin. A similar exchange on 13 September 2019 saw parcels of land switch sides between Woncheon-dong in Suwon, and Yongin's Yeongdeok-dong. With further boundary changes on 24 July 2020, parts of Shin-dong and Mangpo-dong in Suwon and Banjeong-dong in Hwaseong were exchanged. Geography --------- Suwon lies in the north of the Gyeonggi plain, just south of South Korea's capital, Seoul. It is bordered by Uiwang to the north-west, Yongin to the east, the city of Hwaseong to the south-west, and Ansan to the west. At its closest point, on the 239-metre (784 ft) Chilbosan ridge to the west, Suwon lies 18.2 km (11.3 mi) from the western tip of Ueumdo in Sihwa Lake, an inlet of the Yellow Sea cordoned off to drive the world's largest tidal power station. ### Topography There are several hills around Suwon, the highest of which is Gwanggyosan [582 m (1,909 ft)], to the north of the city, bordering Yongin. ### Water flow Most of the streams passing through Suwon originate on Gwanggyosan or other nearby peaks to the north of the city. Since Suwon is bounded to the west by Chilbosan and to the east by other hills, the streams, chiefly the Suwoncheon and Seohocheon, flow southwards through the city, joining the Hwanggujicheon, and eventually emptying into the Yellow Sea at Asan Bay. The entirety of Suwon is drained in this manner. ### Lakes There are few natural lakes on South Korea's mainland, and none in Suwon. There are, however, many small reservoirs, namely Chungmanje (축만제), otherwise known as Seoho (서호) near Hwaseo Station, Irwol Reservoir (일원 저수지) near Sungkyunkwan University, Bambat Reservoir (밤밭 저수지) near Sungkyunkwan University Station, Ilwang Reservoir (일왕 저수지), otherwise called Manseokkeo (만석거) in Manseok Park, Pajang Reservoir (파장 저수지) near the North Suwon exit of the Yeongdong Expressway, Gwanggyo Reservoir (광교 저수지) and Hagwanggyo Reservoir (하광교 소류지) at the foot of Gwanggyosan, Woncheon and Sindae Reservoirs (원천 저수지, 신대 저수지) in Gwanggyo Lake Park, and Geumgok Reservoir (금곡 저수지), a small reservoir at the foot of Chilbosan. Wangsong Reservoir (왕송 저수지) in Uiwang used to be partly in Suwon, but after controversial boundary changes, it is now entirely in Uiwang. ### Geology Suwon is primarily composed of Precambrian metamorphic rock, and has amphibolites that intrude through these, and also granites from the Mesozoic Era. #### Precambrian gneiss Biotite gneiss (Precambrian biotite gneiss, PCEbgn) is found in northern Suwon, specifically Pajang-dong, Gwanggyo-dong, Woncheon-dong, and Maetan-dong. Visible rocks here are composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, amphibole, and muscovite; and are generally dark gray or dark green. Mesozoic biotite granite intrudes through these. Precambrian quartzo-feldspathic gneiss (PCEqgn) is distributed in some mountainous areas in Hagwanggyo-dong and Sanggwanggyo-dong in northern Suwon. This gneiss has undergone silicification most predominantly, and is mainly composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and muscovite. It is grey, dark grey, grey-brown, and white. #### Mesozoic intrusive rocks Biotite granite (Jbgr) from the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic Era constitutes most of Suwon, and is centred on Paldalsan. It is a form of Daebo granite, and is distributed through Homaesil-dong, Geumgok-dong, Dangsu-dong, Seryu-dong, Seodun-dong, Gwonseon-dong, and other areas. The main constituent minerals are quartz, plagioclase, orthotic, biotite, and amphibole. #### Fault Suwon's single fault splits from the Singal Fault in Iui-dong, Yeongtong-gu, creating the Woncheonri Stream, and follows this stream to Ha-dong, Woncheon-dong, and Maetan-dong. It joins the Hwangguji Stream in Annyeong-dong, Hwaseong City. This is a 20 km-long vertical fault running SSW, eventually to the Yellow Sea. In Suwon, biotite gneiss and biotite granite are brought into contact by this fault. ### Climate Suwon has a humid continental climate (Köppen: *Dwa*), but can be considered a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen: *Cwa*) using the −3 °C (27 °F) isotherm. | Climate data for Suwon (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1964–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 15.3(59.5) | 19.3(66.7) | 25.0(77.0) | 30.5(86.9) | 33.2(91.8) | 34.0(93.2) | 37.5(99.5) | 39.3(102.7) | 33.7(92.7) | 29.0(84.2) | 25.8(78.4) | 17.8(64.0) | 39.3(102.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | 2.8(37.0) | 5.6(42.1) | 11.3(52.3) | 18.2(64.8) | 23.6(74.5) | 27.5(81.5) | 29.3(84.7) | 30.3(86.5) | 26.4(79.5) | 20.4(68.7) | 12.5(54.5) | 4.9(40.8) | 17.7(63.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −2.1(28.2) | 0.3(32.5) | 5.7(42.3) | 12.0(53.6) | 17.6(63.7) | 22.2(72.0) | 25.3(77.5) | 26.0(78.8) | 21.4(70.5) | 14.6(58.3) | 7.2(45.0) | 0.1(32.2) | 12.5(54.5) | | Average low °C (°F) | −6.6(20.1) | −4.5(23.9) | 0.6(33.1) | 6.4(43.5) | 12.3(54.1) | 17.9(64.2) | 22.1(71.8) | 22.7(72.9) | 17.1(62.8) | 9.4(48.9) | 2.4(36.3) | −4.2(24.4) | 8.0(46.4) | | Record low °C (°F) | −24.8(−12.6) | −25.8(−14.4) | −11.3(11.7) | −4.7(23.5) | 2.3(36.1) | 7.8(46.0) | 13.2(55.8) | 13.0(55.4) | 3.6(38.5) | −3.6(25.5) | −12.6(9.3) | −24.4(−11.9) | −25.8(−14.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 18.1(0.71) | 28.3(1.11) | 40.7(1.60) | 71.6(2.82) | 95.0(3.74) | 122.9(4.84) | 385.1(15.16) | 296.3(11.67) | 133.5(5.26) | 54.1(2.13) | 48.9(1.93) | 25.8(1.02) | 1,320.3(51.98) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 6.7 | 6.2 | 7.0 | 8.0 | 8.6 | 9.6 | 15.4 | 14.0 | 8.6 | 6.1 | 9.0 | 8.3 | 107.5 | | Average snowy days | 6.9 | 5.3 | 2.2 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.8 | 6.8 | 23.1 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 63.0 | 61.9 | 62.2 | 62.1 | 66.1 | 71.4 | 79.9 | 77.6 | 73.2 | 69.8 | 67.9 | 64.4 | 68.3 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 174.3 | 178.7 | 205.7 | 214.5 | 229.7 | 195.0 | 138.2 | 168.7 | 184.6 | 208.9 | 162.5 | 166.2 | 2,227 | | Percent possible sunshine | 54.0 | 56.2 | 53.4 | 54.6 | 50.4 | 42.8 | 30.5 | 39.5 | 48.8 | 57.4 | 51.6 | 53.4 | 48.6 | | Source: Korea Meteorological Administration (percent sunshine 1981–2010) | ### Administrative divisions The city is composed of four *gu* (districts). Jangan-gu (장안구) and Gwonseon-gu (권선구) were established on 1 July 1988, and on 1 February 1993, parts of Jangan-gu and Gwonseon-gu became a new district, Paldal-gu (팔달구). The newest district is Yeongtong-gu (영통구), which separated from Paldal-gu on 24 November 2003. These districts are in turn divided into 42 *dong*. There are several new "towns" in Suwon, such as Homaesil and Gwanggyo. The latter is perhaps the most notable of these: the first stage of construction of this large residential area in eastern Suwon was completed in 2011. Gwanggyo is in Yeongtong-gu, which has Gyeonggi-do's seventh most expensive housing. * Districts of SuwonDistricts of Suwon Demography ---------- Suwon is 50.3% male (49.7% female), and 2.82% foreign. On average, there are 2.31 residents per household. Further details for each district are shown below. | | Total people | Korean males | Korean females | Korean (total) | Foreign males | Foreign females | Foreign (total) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Suwon** (total) | 1,226,873 | 600,239 | 591,986 | 1,192,225 | 17,211 | 17,437 | 34,648 | | Gwonseon-gu | 376,541 | 185,722 | 181,896 | 367,618 | 4,307 | 4,616 | 8,923 | | Jangan-gu | 275,983 | 135,528 | 133,875 | 269,403 | 3,263 | 3,317 | 6,580 | | Paldal-gu | 204,560 | 97,354 | 96,009 | 193,363 | 5,750 | 5,447 | 11,197 | | Yeongtong-gu | 369,789 | 181,635 | 180,206 | 361,841 | 3,891 | 4,057 | 7,948 | ### Religion Suwon has churches from a variety of Christian denominations, and a range of Buddhist temples. The Catholic Diocese of Suwon was created in 1963 by Pope Paul VI. The cathedral is in Jeongja-dong. The former president of the Baptist World Alliance, Kim Janghwan (Billy Kim), was born in Suwon, where he founded the Central Baptist Church. #### Mireukdang Mireukdang (Korean: 미륵당; Hanja: 彌勒堂) is a small shrine to Maitreya in Pajang-dong, Jangan-gu. Its religious basis is a fusion of Buddhism and traditional local religions. * MireukdangMireukdang ### Crime The following table tallies crimes in Suwon reported in 2021. Suwon crime statistics, 2021| Category | Crime | Number | | --- | --- | --- | | Property crime | Theft | 4,202 | | Possession of stolen property | 8 | | Fraud | 6,183 | | Embezzlement | 1,277 | | Breach of trust | 70 | | Destruction | 1,510 | | Violent crime (serious) | Murder | 16 | | Robbery | 7 | | Arson | 28 | | Sexual assault | 934 | | Violent crime (lesser) | Violence | 2,988 | | Injury | 429 | | Intimidation | 540 | | Extortion | 159 | | Kidnapping, abduction | 4 | | False arrest, confinement | 33 | | Violation of *The Punishment of Violence, Etc. Act* (e.g., burglary) | 29 | | Violation of *The Punishment of Violences, Etc. Act* (e g., Formation of illegal organizations, and such activities) | 0 | | Forgery | Currency | 7 | | Valuable securities, revenue stamp, postage | 2 | | Documents | 228 | | Seal | 11 | | Public official crime | Abandonment of duties | 18 | | Abuse of authority | 30 | | Receiving bribes | 2 | | Giving bribes | 0 | | Crime against morality | Gambling, lotteries | 1,342 | | Deceased person | 1 | | Other obscene acts | 79 | | Negligence | Inflicting bodily injury or death through negligence | 52 | | Inflicting bodily injury or death through occupational negligence | 47 | | Fire caused by negligence | 57 | | Misc. | Defamation | 759 | | Obstruction of rights | 134 | | Credit business, auction | 438 | | Trespass | 439 | | Violation of secrecy | 4 | | Abandonment | 5 | | Traffic obstruction | 10 | | Obstruction of official duties | 186 | | Escape, harbouring criminals | 4 | | Perjury, destruction, and concealment of evidence | 83 | | False accusation | 108 | | Breach of the peace | 4 | | Insurrection | 0 | | Drinking water crimes | 0 | | Water use crimes | 0 | Education --------- ### Colleges and universities There are several universities and colleges in Suwon, including Sungkyunkwan University's Natural Sciences Campus, Kyonggi University, Ajou University, Dongnam Health University, Gukje Cyber University, Hapdong Theological Seminary, and Suwon Women's University. Despite their names, the University of Suwon and Suwon Science College are not actually in Suwon, but in neighbouring Hwaseong. The agricultural campus of Seoul National University was located in Suwon until 2005, but is now in Gwanak-gu, Seoul near its main campus. * Sungkyunkwan University librarySungkyunkwan University library ### Schools There are 44 high schools, 57 middle schools, 100 primary schools, and 180 kindergartens in Suwon. Schools and kindergartens in Suwon| | | Gwonseon-gu | Jangan-gu | Paldal-gu | Yeongtong-gu | Total | | Kindergarten | Public (dedicated k'gtn) | 3 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 11 | | Public (in elem. sch.) | 32 | 19 | 11 | 23 | 85 | | Private | 29 | 21 | 10 | 24 | 84 | | Elementary school | Public | 33 | 22 | 15 | 28 | 98 | | Private | 0 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | | Middle School | Public | 13 | 13 | 5 | 20 | 51 | | Private | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 6 | | High School | Public | 7 | 9 | 3 | 12 | 31 | | Private | 2 | 3 | 8 | 0 | 13 | Suwon has three schools dedicated to special education: Jahye School (47 Subong-ro, in Tap-dong, Gwonseon-gu), Suwon Seokwang School (517 Jangan-ro, in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu), and Areum School (32 Gwanggyo-ro, in Iui-dong, Yeongtong-gu). Special education is also provided in some regular schools, e.g., Suwonbuk Middle School. There is also a centre for lifelong learning at Kyemyung High School (88 Jangan-ro 496 beon-gil in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu). #### International schools There are also two international schools in Suwon: Gyeonggi Suwon International School and Suwon Chinese International School (Korean: 수원화교중정소학교; Hanja: 水原華僑中正小學) Environment ----------- Throughout South Korea, water management is a challenge. Suwon is 11% self-sufficient in its use of water, and plans to increase this to 50% through rainwater harvesting, including building retention facilities; and by treating and reusing sewage. Air pollution in Suwon appears to be from a range of industrial and other sources, with origins of coarse particulate matter (PM10) shown in the pie chart. PM10 sources on the Suwon–Yongin border.   Soil (25.4%)  Secondary sulphate (produced in the atmosphere by photochemical processes acting on sulphuric compounds) (22.1%)  Industry and oil combustion (13.8%)  Secondary nitrate (produced by oxidation of some volatile organic compounds) (12.3%)  Diesel emissions (12.1%)  Gasoline emissions (5.6%)  Sodium-rich sources (5.6%)  Waste incineration (3.1%) Industry -------- The main industrial employer in Suwon is Samsung. Samsung Electronics was founded in Suwon in 1969, and its headquarters are now located with its large R&D complex in central Suwon. The company is the largest employer in Suwon. Samsung's long-standing relationship with the city is seen in its sponsorship of various local sports teams, including Suwon Samsung Bluewings Football Club, and two of the oldest domestic basketball teams in Samsung Thunders and Samsung Life Blueminx, both of which have since moved out of Suwon. Other major companies in Suwon include SK Chemical, Samsung SDI, and Samsung Electro-Mechanics. Landmarks --------- ### Hwaseong Fortress Hwaseong Fortress, built under the orders of King Jeongjo in 1796, is Suwon's most notable attraction, and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The entire city used to be encircled by the fortress walls, but Suwon has long since expanded far beyond this boundary. There are four main gates in the walls, and Haenggung Palace in the centre of the fortress. * Hwaseomun (West Gate)Hwaseomun (West Gate) * SeojangdaeSeojangdae * BanghwasuryujeongBanghwasuryujeong * Paldalmun (South Gate)Paldalmun (South Gate) ### Hyanggyo Suwon Hyanggyo (Korean: 수원향교; Hanja: 水原鄕校) was a hyanggyo—a government-run school and Confucian ceremonial centre during the Goryeo and Joseon periods. During the Joseon Dynasty, it was the largest and oldest state school in Gyeonggi-do. The school houses memorial tablets to Confucius, Mencius, and 25 Korean figures noteworthy to Confucianism. Originally built in 1291 beside Hwasan in Wau-ri, Bongdam-myeon, Hwaseong-gun, Suwon Hyanggyo was moved to its current location at 107–9 Hyanggyo-ro, Paldal-gu (37°16′22″N 127°0′44″E / 37.27278°N 127.01222°E / 37.27278; 127.01222) around 1795—the 19th year of King Jeongjo of the Joseon Dynasty—when Hwaseong Fortress was built, and it has since undergone several repairs. Hyanggyo is open to the public on weekdays from 9 a.m. till 5 p.m. It is closed at weekends. * Oesam GateOesam Gate * Myeongnyundang (front)Myeongnyundang (front) * Myeongnyundang (rear)Myeongnyundang (rear) * DaeseongjeonDaeseongjeon ### Bugugwon Bugugwon (Korean: 부국원; Hanja: 富國園), also known as *Suwon Gu Bugugwon*, built prior to 1923, is a cultural centre at 130 Hyanggyo-ro in Gyo-dong, Paldal-gu (37°16′21″N 127°0′52″E / 37.27250°N 127.01444°E / 37.27250; 127.01444). There is no record of the 85.95 m2 building's construction, but exterior photographs were published in 1923, When Korea was a Japanese colony, the building was the headquarters of Bugukwon Co., Ltd., which sold agricultural products such as fertilizers. After liberation, from 1952 to 1956, it temporarily housed the Suwon Court and the Public Prosecutor's Office. From 1957 to 1960, it was used as the Suwon City Education Support Office, and in 1974 the Republican Party used it as their Gyeonggi-do base. In 1979 the Suwon Arts Foundation was based here, and in 1981 it became an internal medicine clinic. Since 2018, it has been a public cultural space. * BugugwonBugugwon Culture and contemporary life ----------------------------- ### Housing As is typical of urban South Korea, Suwon has many apartment complexes. while some areas have more *jutaek* (houses, often split into several units). While some areas are more affordable, Yeongtong-gu's housing is the seventh most expensive in the province. * SK Skyview Apartments, Jeongja-dongSK Skyview Apartments, Jeongja-dong ### Food Suwon is known for Suwon galbi, a variation on beef short ribs enjoyed throughout Korea. The city also has a wide variety of restaurants serving Korean and international cuisine. ### Sports Suwon's sports facilities include Suwon World Cup Stadium, which hosted 2002 FIFA World Cup matches, a gymnasium used in the 1988 Summer Olympic Games, a baseball field used by KT Wiz, an archery field, badminton courts, ten-pin bowling lanes, indoor swimming pools, tennis courts, and soft tennis courts. #### Football Suwon World Cup Stadium was built for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, and is home to the K League 1 team Suwon Samsung Bluewings. Another K League 1 team, Suwon FC, and a WK League team, Suwon FC Women, play at the Suwon Sports Complex. #### Baseball Since 2013, Suwon has been home to KT Wiz. The team played at Sungkyunkwan University till Suwon Baseball Stadium remodelling was completed in time for their elevation to the KBO League in 2015. The city was previously the home of the Hyundai Unicorns, but this team folded after the 2007 season. * KT Wiz StadiumKT Wiz Stadium #### Indoor sports Suwon Gymnasium hosted the handball events in the 1988 Summer Olympics, and handball and table tennis matches at the 2014 Asian Games. It has a capacity of 5,145, and has hosted basketball and volleyball matches. * Suwon GymnasiumSuwon Gymnasium ##### Basketball Two of the Korean Basketball League and Women's Korean Basketball League's oldest teams, Samsung Thunders and Samsung Life Blueminx, respectively, used to be based in Suwon. Samsung Thunders relocated to Jamsil Arena in Seoul in 2001, while four years later, Samsung Life moved to Yongin. Top-flight men's basketball returned to Suwon in 2021, when KT Sonicboom relocated to the renamed Suwon KT Sonicboom Arena (formerly Seosuwon Chilbo Gymnasium) from Busan. ##### Volleyball Suwon is home to the men's and women's volleyball teams Suwon Kepco Vixtorm and Suwon Hyundai Engineering & Construction Hillstate respectively, which play in the V-League. ### Museums Suwon has two national museums and a number of smaller institutions. The National Map Museum of Korea is at 92 Worldcup-ro in Woncheon-dong, Yeongtong-gu (37°16′34″N 127°3′19″E / 37.27611°N 127.05528°E / 37.27611; 127.05528). It houses a collection of 33,598 maps. Admission is free, and the museum opens daily from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. The National Agricultural Museum of Korea opened by Seoho Lake in December 2022. Located at 154 Suin-ro in Seodun-dong, Gwonseon-gu (37°16′34″N 126°59′0″E / 37.27611°N 126.98333°E / 37.27611; 126.98333), admission is free, and the museum is open daily from 10 a.m. till 6 p.m. Suwon Hwaseong Museum, at 21 Changryong-daero in Maehyang-dong, Paldal-gu (37°16′57″N 127°1′8″E / 37.28250°N 127.01889°E / 37.28250; 127.01889), features exhibits contextualising and explaining the construction of Hwaseong. Mr. Toilet House is a toilet museum built in 2007 at 463 Jangan-ro in Imok-dong, Jangan-gu (37°19′9″N 126°58′41″E / 37.31917°N 126.97806°E / 37.31917; 126.97806). Ownership was transferred to the city council in 2009. ### Libraries Suwon Central Library opened at 318 Paldalsan-ro, Gyo-dong, Paldal-gu, in 1980. Today the city has 27 public libraries—seven in Gwonseon-gu, five in Jangan-gu, six in Paldal-gu, and nine in Yeongtong-gu—and plans to build another in Imok-dong. ### Parks and gardens Irwol Arboretum (일월 수목원, 37°17′22″N 126°58′33″E / 37.28944°N 126.97583°E / 37.28944; 126.97583) and Yeongheung Arboretum (영흥 수목원, 37°15′49″N 127°4′16″E / 37.26361°N 127.07111°E / 37.26361; 127.07111) opened on 19 May 2023 beside Irwol Reservoir and Yeongheung Park respectively. The 10.15-hectare (25.1-acre) Irwol Arboretum features 429,000 plants of 52,000 species, while Yeongheung Arboretum hosts 118,000 plants of 42,000 species over 14.6 hectares (36 acres). There are also many parks scattered through the city, some of which, e.g., Gwanggyo Lake Park, Seoho Park, Irwol Park, and Manseok Park, contain sizeable lakes. Some parks target outdoor activities; for example, Manseok Park has facilities such as tennis courts (indoor & outdoor), soccer pitches (dirt and artificial turf), and the Suwon X-Games skatepark. Others, e.g., Gwanggyo History Park, have a more traditional focus. * Manseok ParkManseok Park * Tomb of Simon (심온), Gwanggyo History ParkTomb of Simon (심온), Gwanggyo History Park ### Media Newspapers based in Suwon include the Kyeonggi Daily (경기일보), based in Jangan-gu; and the Kyeongin Daily (경인일보) and Suwon Daily (수원일보), based in Paldal-gu. These publish exclusively in Korean. ### Cinemas Suwon has several major multiplex cinemas, e.g., *Megabox* by Suwon Bus Terminal, *CGV* and *Lotte Cinema* by Suwon Station, and *Kinex 5* in Yeongtong-gu. Other smaller cinemas, which may show fewer foreign films, include *Cinema Town*, *Taehan Theater*, *Piccadilly Theater*, *Jungang Theater*, *Royal Theater*, *Dano Theater*, and *Dano Art Hall*. ### Retail There are several major shopping centres across Suwon, e.g., AK Plaza and Lotte Mall at Suwon Station, and Avenue France and Alleyway in Gwanggyo. Another large centre, Starfield, is under construction beside Hwaseo Station. * Avenue FranceAvenue France ### Public toilets Suwon City Council prides itself on the condition of its public lavatories. After efforts to improve facilities, there even used to be guided tours of the municipal facilities. Transport --------- ### Rail Suwon is a regional transportation hub, with Suwon Station a major stop served by KTX and other trains on the Gyeongbu Line connecting Seoul to Busan. Until 1973, the Suryo Line also connected Suwon to Yeoju. The Suin Line also connected Suwon to Incheon, and this line has been reconstructed as part of the Seoul Metro. * Suwon StationSuwon Station ### Metro Suwon is served by three lines (14 stations) on the Seoul Metro. * Line 1 + Sungkyunkwan University (성균관대) + Hwaseo (화서) + Suwon (수원) + Seryu (세류) * Shinbundang Line + Gwanggyo Jungang (광교중앙) + Gwanggyo (광교) * Suin-Bundang Line + Cheongmyeong (청명) + Yeongtong (영통) + Mangpo (망포) + Maetan-Gwonseon (매탄권성) + Suwon City Hall (수원시청) + Maegyo (매교) + Suwon (수원) + Gosaek (고색) + Omokcheon (오목천) Construction on an extension of the Sinbundang Line to Homaesil is scheduled to begin in 2024. Another planned line—the Dongtan–Indeogwon Line—should create several new stations in Suwon, but this has been delayed, promoting affected cities to call for urgent action. ### Bus There are two inter-city bus terminals in Suwon with connections to many cities nationwide: Suwon Bus Terminal near Seryu Station, and West Suwon Bus Terminal near Sungkyunkwan University. Suwon is connected to Seoul and other nearby cities by city and express buses with departure points across the city. In 2017, Suwon Station Transfer Center opened to the west of the Gyeongbu Line. This new bank of bus stops was built to alleviate pressure on bus and taxi stands across the tracks. Another transfer centre is incorporated into Gwanggyo Jungang Station; this is underground, and bus stands feature screen doors. Suwon has invested heavily in electric buses—in 2019, it built the country's largest bus charging station at 46 Gyeongsu-daero 1220beon-gil in Pajang-dong. * Gwanggyo Jungang Underground Transfer CentreGwanggyo Jungang Underground Transfer Centre ### Road The Yeongdong Expressway (50) passes through Suwon, with two exits within the city limits: North Suwon and East Suwon. The Gwanggyo Sanghyeon exit on the Yongin–Seoul Expressway (171) is on Suwon's border with Yongin, and the Pyeongtaek–Paju Expressway (17) also has an exit in Suwon (Geumgok). Nearby Homaesil is one of Suwon's more notorious bottlenecks. Despite its name, the Suwon exit of the Gyeongbu Expressway (1) lies in Singal in neighbouring Yongin. ### Car-free zones In 2013, the city hosted the EcoMobility World Festival in Haenggung-dong, where for one month, streets were closed to cars as a car-free experiment. Instead of cars, residents used non-motorized vehicles provided by the festival organizers. The experiment was not unopposed; however, on balance it was considered a success. Following the festival, the city began discussing whether to adopt the practice on a permanent basis. Military -------- Suwon Air Base in Jangji-dong, Gwonseon-gu was used by the United States Air Force during the Korean War, when it was the scene of the conflict's first aerial combat. Today the base is under Republic of Korea Air Force jurisdiction, though it is still managed and maintained by the US military. Fauna ----- Suwon's wildlife is similar to that of most of Gyeonggi-do. A notable species, however, is the endangered Suwon tree frog. This is one of only two tree frogs to inhabit the Korean peninsula, and it lives only in the Gyeonggi-do area. ### Mammals Mammals living on Gwanggyosan and elsewhere in the city include the raccoon dog, Japanese mole, Siberian weasel, water deer, Korean hare, red squirrel (*Sciurus vulgaris mantchuricus*), house mouse, striped field mouse, and the Eurasian harvest mouse. ### Birds A variety of birds inhabit Suwon. For example, Irwol Lake is home to great crested grebes, goshawks, and mandarins among other species, and swans began wintering on the lake in 2022. Suwon also appears to be Korea's first recorded breeding site of the white-breasted waterhen. Other birds in Suwon include the Eurasian tree sparrow, Oriental magpie, large-billed crow, rook, brown-eared bulbul, vinous-throated parrotbill, rock dove, marsh tit, Japanese tit, coal tit, varied tit, Eastern spot-billed duck, great cormorant, grey heron, striated heron, great white egret, little egret, and common sandpiper. Notable people -------------- Notable people from Suwon include: ### Deceased *List in chronological order of birth* * Lee Go (이고; 李皐, 1341–1420, Goryeo subject opposed to Joseon) * Kim Jullyong (김준룡; 金俊龍, 1586–1642, military general, defeated Qing soldiers at Gwanggyosan) * Choi Rubaek (최루백, pious son) * Woo Hayeong (우하영, 1741–1812, Silhak scholar, agricultural pioneer) * Lim Myeonsu (임면수; 林勉洙, 13 June 1874–29 November 1930, independence activist) * Kim Sehwan (김세환; 金世煥, 1889–1945, educator, independence activist) * Na Hyeseok (나혜석; 羅蕙錫, 28 April 1896–10 December 1948, feminist, painter, writer, poet, sculptor, journalist) * Kim Hyanghwa (김향화; 金香花, 1897–?, gisaeng, independence activist) * Park Seontae (박선태; 朴善泰, 1901–1938, independence activist) * Lee Seongyeong (이선경; 李善卿, 1902–1921, independence activist) * Kim Jangseong (김장성; 金長星, 7 February 1913–9 March 1932, independence activist) * Hong Jongcheol (홍종철; 洪鐘哲, 26 March 1920–22 July 1989, independence activist) ### Living *List in alphabetical order by surname* * Han-na Chang (장한나; 張漢娜, 23 December 1982–, conductor, cellist) * Chung Hyeon (정현; 鄭泫, 19 May 1996–, tennis player) * Im Chang-kyun (임창균; 任創均, stage name *I.M*, 26 January 1996–, rapper, singer, songwriter) * Jeon Ji-yoon (전지윤; 田祉潤, 15 October 1990–, rapper, singer, songwriter, actor) * Stella Hanbyul Jeung (정한별, opera singer) * Jo Kwon (조권; 趙權, 28 August 1989–, singer, actor, presenter) * Joo Won (문준원; 文晙原; *Mun Junwon*, stage name *Joo Won*, 30 September 1987–, actor) * Kim Dong-hyun (김동현; 金東炫, 17 November 1981–, MMA fighter) * Kim Jang-hwan (김장환, known as *Billy Kim*, 25 July 1934–, pastor, former President of the Baptist World Alliance, President of the Far East Broadcasting Company) * Kim Myung-jun (김명준; 金明俊, stage name *MJ*, 5 March 1994–, singer, actor, model) * Kim Yugwon (김유권; 金有權, stage name *U-Kwon*, 9 April 1992–, singer) * Lee Chang-sub (이창섭; 李昌燮, 26 February 1991–, singer) * Lee Dong-hun (이동훈, 28 February 1993–, singer, A.C.E) * Lee Jin-ki (이진기; 李珍基, stage name *Onew*, 14 December 1989–, singer, songwriter, actor, presenter) * Lee Jong-suk (이종석; 李鐘奭, 14 September 1989–, actor, model) * Lee Ju-eun (이주은; 李宙恩, 7 June 1995–, singer, actor) * Oh Kyo-moon (오교문; 吳教文, 2 March 1972–, archer) * Sam Oh (오상미; *O Sangmi*, 15 January 1980–, presenter, columnist) * Park Hae-soo (박해수; 朴海秀, 21 November 1981–, actor) * Park Ji-sung (박지성; 朴智星, 30 March 1981–, footballer) Park was born in Seoul but raised in Suwon. In 2005, a city street was renamed after him. * Ryu Jun-yeol (류준열; 柳俊烈, 25 September 1986–, actor) * Seol Yoeun (설요은, 2012–, violinist) * Shin Dong-hee (신동희; 申東熙, stage name *Shindong*, 28 September 1985–, rapper, singer, dancer, presenter, video director) * Song Kang (송강; 宋江, 23 April 1994–, actor) * Yoo Hyun-young (유현영, 6 September 1976–, actor) * Yoo Jeong-yeon (유전연; 俞定延, 1 November 1996–, singer) * Yoon Bo-mi (윤보미; 尹普美, 13 August 1993–, singer, actor) * Yun Hanheum (윤한흠, 1923–, actor) Twin towns and sister cities ---------------------------- Suwon is twinned with: * Japan Asahikawa, Japan (1989) * China Jinan, China (1993) * Australia Townsville, Australia (1997) * Indonesia Bandung, Indonesia (1997) * Turkey Yalova, Turkey (1999) * Romania Cluj-Napoca, Romania (1999) * Mexico Toluca, Mexico (1999) * Morocco Fez, Morocco (2003) * Vietnam Hải Dương Province, Vietnam (2004) * Cambodia Siem Reap Province, Cambodia (2004) * Russia Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (2005) * Brazil Curitiba, Brazil (2006) * Germany Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany (2015) See also -------- * List of cities in South Korea * Geography of South Korea * Seoul National Capital Area

Suwon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwon

The **Mahdi** (Arabic: ٱلْمَهْدِيّ, romanized: *al-Mahdī*, lit. 'the Guided') is a Final Leader in Islamic eschatology who is believed to appear at the end of times to rid the world of evil and injustice. He is said to be a descendant of Muhammad who will appear shortly before the Prophet ʿĪsā (Jesus Christ) and lead Muslims to rule the world. Though the Mahdi is not referenced in the Quran, and is absent from several canonical compilations of hadith – including the two most-revered Sunni hadith collections: *Sahih al-Bukhari* and *Sahih Muslim* – he is mentioned in other hadith literature. The doctrine of the mahdi seems to have gained traction during the confusion and unrest of the religious and political upheavals of the first and second centuries of Islam. Among the first references to the Mahdi appear in the late 7th century, when the revolutionary Mukhtar ibn Abi Ubayd (c. 622–687) declared Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, a son of caliph Ali (r. 656–661), to be the Mahdi. Although the concept of a Mahdi is not an essential doctrine in Islam, it is popular among Muslims. It has been a part of the *ʿaqīdah* (creed) of Muslims for 1,400 years. Over centuries, there have been a vast number of Mahdi claimants. The Mahdi features in both Shi'a and Sunni branches of Islam, though they differ extensively on his attributes and status. Among Twelver Shi'as, the Mahdi is believed to be Muhammad al-Mahdi, son of the eleventh Imam, Hasan al-Askari (d. 874), who is said to be in occultation (*ghayba*) by divine will. This is rejected by most Sunnis, who assert that the Mahdi has not been born yet. Etymology --------- The term *Mahdi* is derived from the Arabic root *h-d-y* (ه-د-ي), commonly used to mean "divine guidance". Although the root appears in the Qur'an at multiple places and in various contexts, the word *Mahdi* never occurs in the book. The associated verb is *hada*, which means to guide. However, *Mahdi* can be read in active voice, where it means the one who guides, as well as passive voice, where it means the one who is guided. In the doctrinal sense, Mahdi is the title of the end-times eschatological redeemer in most Islamic sects. Historical development ---------------------- ### Pre-Islamic ideas Some historians suggest that the term itself was probably introduced into Islam by southern Arabian tribes who had settled in Syria in the mid-7th century. They believed that the Mahdi would lead them back to their homeland and re-establish the Himyarite Kingdom. They also believed that he would eventually conquer Constantinople. It has also been suggested that the concept of the Mahdi may have been derived from earlier messianic Judeo-Christian beliefs. Accordingly, traditions were introduced to support certain political interests, especially anti-Abbasid sentiments. These traditions about the Mahdi appeared only at later times in *ḥadīth* collections such as *Jami' at-Tirmidhi* and *Sunan Abu Dawud*, but are absent from the early works of Bukhari and Muslim. ### Origin The term *al-Mahdi* was employed from the beginning of Islam, but only as an honorific epithet ("the guide") and without any messianic significance. As an honorific, it was used in some instances to describe Muhammad (by Hassan ibn Thabit), Abraham, al-Husayn, and various Umayyad caliphs (هداة مهديون, *hudat mahdiyyun*). During the Second Muslim Civil War (680–692), after the death of Mu'awiya I (r. 661–680), the term acquired a new meaning of a ruler who would restore Islam to its perfect form and restore justice after oppression. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, who laid claim to the caliphate against the Umayyads and found temporary success during the civil war, presented himself in this role. Although the title Mahdi was not applied to him, his career as the anti-caliph significantly influenced the future development of the concept. A hadith was promulgated in which Muhammad prophesies the coming of a just ruler. > There will arise a difference after the death of a caliph, and a man of the people of Medina will go forth fleeing to Mecca. Then some of the people of Mecca will come to him and will make him rise in revolt against his will ... An expedition will be sent against him from Syria but will be swallowed up ... in the desert between Mecca and Medina. When the people see this, the righteous men ... of Syria and ... Iraq will come to him and pledge allegiance to him. Thereafter a man of the Quraysh will arise whose maternal uncles are of Kalb. He will send an expedition against them, but they will defeat them ... He will then divide the wealth and act among them according to the Sunna of their Prophet. Islam will settle down firmly on the ground ... He will stay seven years and then die, and the Muslims will pray over him. > > Refusing to recognize the new caliph, Yazid I (r. 680–683), after Mu'awiya's death in 680, Ibn al-Zubayr had fled to the Meccan sanctuary. From there he launched anti-Umayyad propaganda, calling for a *shura* of the Quraysh to elect a new caliph. Those opposed to the Umayyads were paying him homage and asking for the public proclamation of his caliphate, forcing Yazid to send an army to dislodge him in 683. After defeating rebels in the nearby Medina, the army besieged Mecca but was forced to withdraw as a result of Yazid's sudden death shortly afterward. Ibn al-Zubayr was recognized caliph in Arabia, Iraq, and parts of Syria, where Yazid's son and successor Mu'awiya II (r. 683–684) held power in Damascus and adjoining areas. The hadith hoped to enlist support against an expected Umayyad campaign from Syria. The Umayyads did indeed send another army to Mecca in 692, but contrary to the hadith's prediction was successful in removing Ibn al-Zubayr. The hadith lost relevance soon afterward, but resurfaced in the Basran hadith circles a generation later, this time removed from its original context and understood as referring to a future restorer. Around the time when Ibn al-Zubayr was trying to expand his dominion, the pro-Alid revolutionary al-Mukhtar al-Thaqafi took control of the Iraqi garrison town of Kufa in the name of Ali's son Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya, whom he proclaimed as the Mahdi in the messianic sense. The association of the name Muhammad with the Mahdi seems to have originated with Ibn al-Hanafiyya, who also shared the epithet Abu al-Qasim with Muhammad, the Islamic prophet. Among the Umayyads, the caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 715–717) encouraged the belief that he was the Mahdi, and other Umayyad rulers, like Umar II (r. 717–720), have been addressed as such in the panegyrics of Jarir (d. 728) and al-Farazdaq (d. 728–730). Early discussions about the identity of the Mahdi by religious scholars can be traced back to the time after the Second Fitna. These discussions developed in different directions and were influenced by traditions (hadith) attributed to Muhammad. In Umayyad times, scholars and traditionists not only differed on which caliph or rebel leader should be designated as Mahdi but also on whether the Mahdi is a messianic figure and if signs and predictions of his time had been satisfied. In Medina, among the conservative religious circles, the belief in Umar II being the Mahdi was widespread. Said ibn al-Musayyib (d. 715) is said to identify Umar II as the Mahdi long before his reign. The Basran, Abu Qilabah, supported the view that Umar II was the Mahdi. Hasan al-Basri (d. 728) opposed the concept of a Muslim Messiah but believed that if there was the Mahdi, it was Umar II. By the time of the Abbasid Revolution in 750, Mahdi was already a known concept. Evidence shows that the first Abbasid caliph Saffah (r. 750–754) assumed the title of "the Mahdi" for himself. ### Shi'a Islam In Shi'a Islam, the eschatological Mahdi was commonly given the epithet al-Qa'im (القائم), which can be translated as 'he who will rise,' signifying his rise against tyranny in the end of time. Distinctively Shi'a is the notion of temporary absence or occultation of the Mahdi, whose life has been prolonged by divine will. An intimately related Shi'a notion is that of *raj'a* (lit. 'return'), which often means the return to life of (some) Shi'a Imams, particularly Husayn ibn Ali, to exact their revenge on their oppressors. Traditions that predicted the occultation and rise of a future imam were already in circulation for a century before the death of the eleventh Imam in 260 (874 CE), and possibly as early as the seventh-century CE. These traditions were appropriated by various Shi'a sects in different periods, including the now-extinct sects of Nawusites and Waqifites. For instance, these traditions were cited by the now-extinct Kaysanites, who denied the death of Ibn al-Hanafiyya, and held that he was in hiding in the Razwa mountains near Medina. This likely originated with two groups of his supporters, namely, southern Arabian settlers and local recent converts in Iraq, who seem to have spread the notions now known as occultation and *raj'a*. Later on, these traditions were also employed by the Waqifites to argue that Musa al-Kazim, the seventh Imam, had not died but was in occultation. In parallel, traditions predicting the occultation of a future imam also persisted in the writings of the mainstream Shi'a, who later formed the Twelvers. Based on this material, the Twelver doctrine of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth (tenth) century, in the works of Ibrahim al-Qummi (d. 919), Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 941), and Ibn Babawayh (d. 991), among others. This period also saw a transition in Twelver arguments from a traditionist to a rationalist approach in order to vindicate the occultation of the twelfth Imam. The Twelver authors also aim to establish that the description of Mahdi in Sunni sources applies to the twelfth Imam. Their efforts gained momentum in the seventh (thirteenth) century when some notable Sunni scholars endorsed the Shi'a view of the Mahdi, including the Shafi'i traditionist Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Gandji. Since then, Amir-Moezzi writes, there is Sunni support from time to time for the Twelvers' view of Mahdi. There has also been some support for the mahdiship of the twelfth Imam in Sufi circles, for instance, by the Egyptian Sufi al-Sha'rani*.* Before the rise of the Fatimid Caliphate, as a major Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty, the terms Mahdi and Qa'im were used interchangeably for the messianic imam anticipated in Shi'a traditions. With the rise of the Fatimids in the tenth century CE, however, al-Qadi al-Nu'man argued that some of these predictions had materialized by the first Fatimid caliph, Abdallah al-Mahdi Billah, while the rest would be fulfilled by his successors. Henceforth, their literature referred to the awaited eschatological imam only as Qa'im (instead of Mahdi). In Zaydi view, imams are not endowed with superhuman qualities, and expectations for their mahdiship are thus often marginal. One exception is the now-extinct Husaynites in Yemen, who denied the death of al-Husayn ibn al-Qasim al-Iyani and awaited his return. In Islamic doctrine ------------------- ### Sunni Islam In Sunni Islam, the Mahdi doctrine is not theologically important and remains as a popular belief instead. Of the six canonical Sunni hadith compilations, only three—*Abu Dawood*, *Ibn Maja*, and *Tirmidhi*—contain traditions on the Mahdi; the compilations of *Bukhari* and *Muslim*—considered the most authoritative by the Sunnis and the earliest of the six—do not, nor does *Nasai*. Some Sunnis, including the philosopher and historian Ibn Khaldun (d. 1406), and reportedly also Hasan al-Basri (d. 728), an influential early theologian and exegete, deny the Mahdi being a separate figure, holding that Jesus will fulfill this role and judge over mankind; *Mahdi* is thus considered a title for Jesus when he returns. Others, like the historian and the Qur'an commentator Ibn Kathir (d. 1373), elaborated a whole apocalyptic scenario which includes prophecies about the Mahdi, Jesus, and the Dajjal (the antichrist) during the end times. The common opinion among the Sunnis is that the Mahdi is an expected ruler to be sent by God before the end times to re-establish righteousness. He is held to be from among the descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali, and his physical characteristics including a broad forehead and curved nose. He will eradicate injustice and evil from the world. He will be from the Hasanid branch of Muhammad's descendants, as opposed to the Shi'a belief that he is of the Husaynid line. The Mahdi's name would be Muhammad and his father's name would be Abd Allah. Abu Dawood quotes Muhammad as saying: "The Mahdi will be from my family, from the descendants of Fatimah". Another hadith states: > Even if only one day remains [until the doomsday], God will lengthen this day until He calls forth a man from me, or from the family of my house, his name matching mine and his father's name matching that of my father. He will fill the Earth with equity and justice just as it had previously been filled with injustice and oppression. > > Before the arrival of the Mahdi, the earth would be filled with anarchy and chaos. Divisions and civil wars, moral degradation, and worldliness would be prevalent among the Muslims. Injustice and oppression would be rampant in the world. In the aftermath of the death of a king, the people would quarrel among themselves, and the as yet unrecognized Mahdi would flee from Medina to Mecca to take refuge in the Ka'ba. Against his will, would the Mahdi be recognized as ruler by the people. The Dajjal would appear and will spread corruption in the world. With an army bearing black banners, which would come to his aid from the east, the Mahdi would confront the Dajjal, but would be unable to defeat him. Dressed in saffron robes with his head anointed, Jesus would descend at the point of a white minaret of the Umayyad Mosque in eastern Damascus (believed to be the Minaret of Isa) and join the Mahdi. Jesus would pray behind the Mahdi and then kill the Dajjal. The Gog and Magog would also appear wreaking havoc before their final defeat by the forces of Jesus. Although not as significant as the Dajjal and the Gog and Magog, the Sufyani, another representative of the forces of dark, also features in the Sunni traditions. He will rise in Syria before the appearance of Mahdi. When the latter appears, the Sufyani, along with his army, will either be swallowed up en route to Mecca by the earth with God's command or defeated by the Mahdi. Jesus and the Mahdi will then conquer the world and establish caliphate. The Mahdi will die after 7 to 13 years, whereas Jesus after 40 years. Their deaths would be followed by reappearance of corruption before the final end of the world. ### Shia Islam #### Twelver In Twelver Shi'ism, the largest Shi'i branch, the belief in the messianic imam is not merely a part of creed, but the pivot. For the Twelver Shi'a, the Mahdi was born but disappeared, and would remain hidden from humanity until he reappears to bring justice to the world in the end of time, a doctrine known as the Occultation. This imam in occultation is the twelfth imam, Muhammad, son of the eleventh imam, Hasan al-Askari. According to the Twelvers, the Mahdi was born in Samarra around 868, though his birth was kept hidden from the public. He lived under his father's care until 874 when the latter was killed by the Abbasids. ##### Minor Occultation When his father died in 874, possibly poisoned by the Abbasids, the Mahdi went into occultation by the divine command and was hidden from public view for his life was in danger from the Abbasids. Only a few of the elite among the Shi'a, known as the deputies (سفراء, *sufara*; sing. سفير *safir*) of the twelfth imam, were able to communicate with him; hence the occultation in this period is referred to as the Minor Occultation (*ghayba al-sughra*). The first of the deputies is held to have been Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Amri, a trusted companion and confidant of the eleventh imam. Through him the Mahdi would answer the demands and questions of the Shi'a. He was later succeeded by his son Muhammad ibn Uthman al-Amri, who held the office for some fifty years and died in 917. His successor Husayn ibn Rawh al-Nawbakhti was in the office until his death in 938. The next deputy, Ali ibn Muhammad al-Simari, abolished the office on the orders of the imam just a few days before his death in 941. ##### Major Occultation With the death of the fourth agent, thus began the Major Occultation (الغيبة الكبرى, *ghayba al-kubra*), in which the communication between the Mahdi and the faithful was severed. The leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by jurists. During the Major Occultation, the Mahdi roams the earth and is sustained by God. He is the lord of the time (صاحب الزمان *sahib az-zamān*) and does not age. Although his whereabouts and the exact date of his return are unknown, the Mahdi is nevertheless believed to contact some of his Shi'a if he wishes. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread in the Twelver community. Shi'a scholars have argued that the longevity of the Mahdi is not unreasonable given the long lives of Khidr, Jesus, and the Dajjal, as well as secular reports about long-lived men. Along these lines, Tabatabai emphasizes the miraculous qualities of al-Mahdi, adding that his long life, while unlikely, is not impossible. He is viewed as the sole legitimate ruler of the Muslim world and the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran recognizes him as the head of the state. ##### Reappearance Before his reappearance (ظهور, *zuhur*), the world will plunge into chaos, where immorality and ignorance will be commonplace, the Qur'an will be forgotten, and religion will be abandoned. There will be plagues, earthquakes, floods, wars and death. The Sufyani will rise and lead people astray. The Mahdi will then reappear in Mecca, with the sword of Ali (*dhu'l-fiqar*) in his hand, between the corner of the Ka'ba and the station of Abraham. By some accounts, he will reappear on the day of *ashura* (tenth of Muharram), the day the third Shi'a imam Husayn ibn Ali was slain. He will be "a young man of medium stature with a handsome face," with black hair and beard. A divine cry will call the people of the world to his aid, after which the angels, jinns, and humans will flock to the Mahdi. This is often followed shortly by another supernatural cry from the earth that invites men to join the enemies of the Mahdi, and would appeal to disbelievers and hypocrites. The Mahdi will then go to Kufa, which will become his capital, and send troops to kill the Sufyani in Damascus. Husayn and his slain partisans are expected to resurrect to avenge their deaths, known as the doctrine of *raj'a* (lit. 'return'). The episode of Jesus' return in the Twelver doctrine is similar to the Sunni belief, although in some Twelver traditions it is the Mahdi who would kill the Dajjal. Those who hold enmity towards Ali ibn Abi Talib (ناصبيّ, *nasibi*s) will be subject to *jizya* (poll tax) or killed if they do not accept Shi'ism. The Mahdi is also viewed as the restorer of true Islam, and the restorer of other monotheistic religions after their distortion and abandonment. He establishes the kingdom of God on earth and Islamizes the whole world. In their true form, it is believed, all monotheistic religions are essentially identical to Islam as "submission to God." It is in this sense, according to Amir-Moezzi, that one should understand the claims that al-Mahdi will impose Islam on everyone. His rule will be paradise on earth, which will last for seventy years until his death, though other traditions state 7, 19, or 309 years. #### Isma'ilism In Isma'ilism a distinct concept of the Mahdi developed, with select Isma'ili imams representing the Mahdi or al-Qa'im at various times. When the sixth Shi'a imam Ja'far al-Sadiq died, some of his followers held his already dead son Isma'il ibn Ja'far to be the imam asserting that he was alive and will return as the Mahdi. Another group accepted his death and acknowledged his son Muhammad ibn Isma'il as the imam instead. When he died, his followers too denied his death and believed that he was the last imam and the Mahdi. By the mid-9th century, Isma'ili groups of different persuasions had coalesced into a unified movement centered in Salamiyya in central Syria, and a network of activists was working to collect funds and amass weapons for the return of the Mahdi Muhammad ibn Isma'il, who would overthrow the Abbasids and establish his righteous caliphate. The propaganda of the Mahdi's return had a special appeal to peasants, Bedouins, and many of the later-to-be Twelver Shi'is, who were in a state of confusion (*hayra*) in the aftermath of the death of their 11th imam Hasan al-Askari, and resulted in many conversions. In 899, the leader of the movement, Sa'id ibn al-Husayn, declared himself the Mahdi. This brought about schism in the unified Isma'ili community as not all adherents of the movement accepted his Mahdist claims. Those in Iraq and Arabia, known as Qarmatians after their leader Hamdan Qarmat, still held that Muhammad ibn Isma'il was the awaited Mahdi and denounced the Salamiyya-based Mahdism. In the Qarmati doctrine, the Mahdi was to abrogate the Islamic law (the Sharia) and bring forth a new message. In 931, the then Qarmati leader Abu Tahir al-Jannabi declared a Persian prisoner named Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani as the awaited Mahdi. The Mahdi went on to denounce Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad as liars, abolished Islam, and instituted the cult of fire. Abu Tahir had to depose him as imposter and had him executed. Meanwhile, in Syria, Sa'id ibn al-Husayn's partisans took control of the central Syria in 903, and for a time the Friday sermon was read in the name of the "Successor, the rightly-guided Heir, the Lord of the Age, the Commander of the Faithful, the Mahdi". Eventually, the uprising was routed by the Abbasids. This forced Sa'id to flee from Syria to North Africa, where he founded the Fatimid Caliphate in Ifriqiya in 909. There he assumed the regnal name *al-Mahdi Billah*; as the historian Heinz Halm comments, the singular, semi-divine figure of the Mahdi was thus reduced to an adjective in a caliphal title, 'the Imam rightly guided by God' (*al-imam al-mahdi bi'llah*): instead of the promised messiah, al-Mahdi presented himself merely as one in a long sequence of imams descending from Ali and Fatima. Messianic expectations associated with the Mahdi nevertheless did not materialize, contrary to the expectations of his propagandists and followers who expected him to do wonders. Al-Mahdi attempted to downplay messianism and asserted that the propaganda of Muhammad ibn Isma'il's return as the Mahdi had only been a ruse to avoid Abbasid persecution and protect the real imam predecessors of his. The Mahdi was actually a collective title of the true imams from the progeny of Ja'far al-Sadiq. In a bid to gain time, al-Mahdi also sought to shift the messianic expectations on his son, al-Qa'im: by renaming himself as Abdallah Abu Muhammad, and his son as Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad rather than his original name, Abd al-Rahman, the latter would bear the name Abu'l-Qasim Muhammad ibn Abdallah. This was the name of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and it hand been prophesied that the Mahdi would also bear it. The Fatimids eventually dropped the millenarian rhetoric. #### Zaydism In Zaydism, the concept of imamate is different from the Isma'ili and Twelver branches; a Zaydi Imam is any respectable person from the descendants of Ali and Fatima who lays claim to political leadership and struggles for its acquisition. As such, the Zaydi imamate doctrine lacks eschatological characteristics and there is no end-times redeemer in Zaydism. The title of mahdi has been applied to several Zaydi imams as an honorific over the centuries. ### Ahmadiyya belief In the Ahmadiyya belief, the prophesied eschatological figures of Christianity and Islam, the Messiah and Mahdi, actually refer to the same person. These prophecies were fulfilled in Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), the founder of the movement; he is held to be the Mahdi and the manifestation of Jesus. However, the historical Jesus in their view, although escaped crucifixion, nevertheless died and will not be coming back. Instead, God made Mirza Ghulam Ahmad the exact alike of Jesus in character and qualities. Similarly, the Mahdi is not an apocalyptic figure to launch global jihad and conquer the world, but a peaceful *mujaddid* (renewer of religion), who spreads Islam with "heavenly signs and arguments". Mahdi claimants --------------- Throughout history, various individuals have claimed to be or were proclaimed to be the Mahdi. Claimants have included Muhammad Jaunpuri, the founder of the Mahdavia sect; Ali Muhammad Shirazi, the founder of Bábism; Muhammad Ahmad, who established the Mahdist State in Sudan in the late 19th century. The Iranian dissident Massoud Rajavi, the leader of the MEK, also claimed to be a 'representative' of the Mahdi. The adherents of the Nation of Islam hold Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the movement, to be the Messiah and the Mahdi. Adnan Oktar, a Turkish cult leader, is considered by his followers as the Mahdi. Ibn Khaldun noted a pattern where embracing a Mahdi claimant enabled unity among tribes and/or a region, often enabled them to forcibly seize power, but the lifespan of such a force was usually limited, as their Mahdi had to conform to hadith prophesies – winning their battles and bringing peace and justice to the world before Judgement Day – which (so far) none have. See also -------- * List of Mahdi claimants * Signs of the appearance of Mahdi * Moshiach * Du'a al-Faraj

Mahdi

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdi

**Computer security**, **cyber security** , **digital security** or **information technology security** (**IT security**) is the protection of computer systems and networks from attack by malicious actors that may result in unauthorized information disclosure, theft of, or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide. The field is significant due to the expanded reliance on computer systems, the Internet, and wireless network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. Also, due to the growth of smart devices, including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT). Cybersecurity is one of the most significant challenges of the contemporary world, due to both the complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is of especially high importance for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power distribution, elections, and finance. History ------- Since the Internet's arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives. Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 60 years of technological change. In the 1970s and 1980s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the 1990s, the 2000s marked the institutionalization[*clarification needed*] of cyber threats and cybersecurity. The April 1967 session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference, and the later publication of the Ware Report, were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security. Ware's work straddled the intersection of material, cultural, political, and social concerns. A 1977 NIST publication introduced the *CIA triad* of confidentiality, integrity, and availability as a clear and simple way to describe key security goals. While still relevant, many more elaborate frameworks have since been proposed. However, in the 1970s and 1980s, there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable. More often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain. By the second half of the 1970s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products. One of the earliest examples of an attack on a computer network was the computer worm Creeper written by Bob Thomas at BBN, which propagated through the ARPANET in 1971. The program was purely experimental in nature and carried no malicious payload. A later program, Reaper, was created by Ray Tomlinson in 1972 and used to destroy Creeper. Between September 1986 and June 1987, a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage. The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military base networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by Markus Hess, who was arrested on 29 June, 1987. He was convicted of espionage (along with two co-conspirators) on 15 Feb 1990. In 1988, one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm, was distributed via the Internet. It gained significant mainstream media attention. In 1993, Netscape started developing the protocol SSL, shortly after the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) launched Mosaic 1.0, the first web browser, in 1993. Netscape had SSL version 1.0 ready in 1994, but it was never released to the public due to many serious security vulnerabilities. These weaknesses included replay attacks and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February 1995, Netscape launched Version 2.0. The National Security Agency (NSA) is responsible for the protection of U.S. information systems and also for collecting foreign intelligence. The agency analyzes commonly used software in order to find security flaws, which it reserves for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States. The agency seldom takes defensive action by reporting the flaws to software producers so that they can eliminate them. NSA contractors created and sold *click-and-shoot* attack tools to US agencies and close allies, but eventually, the tools made their way to foreign adversaries. In 2016, NSAs own hacking tools were hacked, and they have been used by Russia and North Korea. NSA's employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare. In 2007, the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials. Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which it began using against the United States. Vulnerabilities and attacks --------------------------- A vulnerability is a weakness in design, implementation, operation, or internal control. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures (CVE) database. An *exploitable* vulnerability is one for which at least one working attack or *exploit* exists. Vulnerabilities can be researched, reverse-engineered, hunted, or exploited using automated tools or customized scripts. To secure a computer system, it is important to understand the attacks that can be made against it, and these threats can typically be classified into one of these categories below: ### Backdoor A backdoor in a computer system, a cryptosystem, or an algorithm, is any secret method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls. They may exist for many reasons, including original design or poor configuration. They may have been added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access, or by an attacker for malicious reasons; but regardless of the motives for their existence, they create a vulnerability. Backdoors can be very hard to detect, and backdoors are usually discovered by someone who has access to application source code or intimate knowledge of the operating system of the computer. ### Denial-of-service attack Denial of service attacks (DoS) are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Attackers can deny service to individual victims, such as by deliberately entering a wrong password enough consecutive times to cause the victim's account to be locked, or they may overload the capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of Distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points – and defending is much more difficult. Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including distributed reflective denial of service (DRDoS), where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim. With such attacks, the amplification factor makes the attack easier for the attacker because they have to use little bandwidth themselves. ### Direct-access attacks An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks. ### Eavesdropping Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer conversation (communication), typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInSight have been used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact with the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon by monitoring the faint electromagnetic transmissions generated by the hardware. TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks. ### Multi-vector, polymorphic attacks Surfacing in 2017, a new class of multi-vector, polymorphic cyber threats combined several types of attacks and changed form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread. ### Phishing Phishing is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users. Phishing is typically carried out by email spoofing or instant messaging, and it often directs users to enter details at a fake website whose look and feel are almost identical to the legitimate one. The fake website often asks for personal information, such as login details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual's real account on the real website. Preying on a victim's trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers are using creative ways to gain access to real accounts. A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. A more strategic type of phishing is spear-phishing which leverages personal or organization-specific details to make the attacker appear like a trusted source. Spear-phishing attacks target specific individuals, rather than the broad net cast by phishing attempts. ### Privilege escalation Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level. For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become *root* and have full unrestricted access to a system. ### Reverse engineering Reverse engineering is the process by which a man-made object is deconstructed to reveal its designs, code, and architecture, or to extract knowledge from the object; similar to scientific research, the only difference being that scientific research is about a natural phenomenon. ### Side-channel attack Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment includes a wide range of criteria, which can range from electromagnetic radiation to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequence make a Cold boot attack possible, to hardware implementation faults that allow for access and or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios, the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure. ### Social engineering Social engineering, in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. or grant physical access by, for example, impersonating a senior executive, bank, a contractor, or a customer. This generally involves exploiting peoples trust, and relying on their cognitive biases. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action. In early 2016, the FBI reported that such business email compromise (BEC) scams had cost US businesses more than $2 billion in about two years. In May 2016, the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team's president Peter Feigin, resulting in the handover of all the team's employees' 2015 W-2 tax forms. ### Spoofing Spoofing is an act of masquerading as a valid entity through the falsification of data (such as an IP address or username), in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain. There are several types of spoofing, including: * Email spoofing, is where an attacker forges the sending (*From*, or source) address of an email. * IP address spoofing, where an attacker alters the source IP address in a network packet to hide their identity or impersonate another computing system. * MAC spoofing, where an attacker modifies the Media Access Control (MAC) address of their network interface controller to obscure their identity, or to pose as another. * Biometric spoofing, where an attacker produces a fake biometric sample to pose as another user. * Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) spoofing, where an attacker sends spoofed address resolution protocol onto a local area network to associate their Media Access Control address with a different host's IP address. This causes data to be sent to the attacker rather than the intended host. In 2018, the cybersecurity firm Trellix published research on the life-threatening risk of spoofing in the healthcare industry. ### Tampering Tampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. An intentional but unauthorized act resulting in the modification of a system, components of systems, its intended behavior, or data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. ### Malware Malicious software (malware) installed on a computer can leak any information, such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently. ### HTML smuggling HTML files can carry payloads concealed as benign, inert data in order to defeat content filters. These payloads can be reconstructed on the other side of the filter. Information security culture ---------------------------- Employee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness toward information security within an organization. Information security culture is the "...totality of patterns of behavior in an organization that contributes to the protection of information of all kinds." Andersson and Reimers (2014) found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization's information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes. Indeed, the Verizon Data Breach Investigations Report 2020, which examined 3,950 security breaches, discovered 30% of cybersecurity incidents involved internal actors within a company. Research shows information security culture needs to be improved continuously. In "Information Security Culture from Analysis to Change", authors commented, "It's a never-ending process, a cycle of evaluation and change or maintenance." To manage the information security culture, five steps should be taken: pre-evaluation, strategic planning, operative planning, implementation, and post-evaluation. * Pre-evaluation: To identify the awareness of information security within employees and to analyze the current security policies. * Strategic planning: To come up with a better awareness program, clear targets need to be set. Assembling a team of skilled professionals is helpful to achieve it. * Operative planning: A good security culture can be established based on internal communication, management buy-in, security awareness and a training program. * Implementation: Four stages should be used to implement the information security culture. They are: 1. Commitment of the management 2. Communication with organizational members 3. Courses for all organizational members 4. Commitment of the employees * Post-evaluation: To assess the success of the planning and implementation, and to identify unresolved areas of concern. Systems at risk --------------- The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk. ### Financial systems The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cybercriminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains. Websites and apps that accept or store credit card numbers, brokerage accounts, and bank account information are also prominent hacking targets, because of the potential for immediate financial gain from transferring money, making purchases, or selling the information on the black market. In-store payment systems and ATMs have also been tampered with in order to gather customer account data and PINs. The UCLA Internet Report: Surveying the Digital Future (2000) found that the privacy of personal data created barriers to online sales and that more than nine out of 10 internet users were somewhat or very concerned about credit card security. The most common web technologies for improving security between browsers and websites are named SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), and its successor TLS (Transport Layer Security), identity management and authentication services, and domain name services allow companies and consumers to engage in secure communications and commerce. Several versions of SSL and TLS are commonly used today in applications such as web browsing, e-mail, internet faxing, instant messaging, and VoIP (voice-over-IP). There are various interoperable implementations of these technologies, including at least one implementation that is open source. Open source allows anyone to view the application's source code, and look for and report vulnerabilities. The credit card companies Visa and MasterCard cooperated to develop the secure EMV chip which is embedded in credit cards. Further developments include the Chip Authentication Program where banks give customers hand-held card readers to perform online secure transactions. Other developments in this arena include the development of technology such as Instant Issuance which has enabled shopping mall kiosks acting on behalf of banks to issue on-the-spot credit cards to interested customers. ### Utilities and industrial equipment Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies. ### Aviation The aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked. A simple power outage at one airport can cause repercussions worldwide, much of the system relies on radio transmissions which could be disrupted, and controlling aircraft over oceans is especially dangerous because radar surveillance only extends 175 to 225 miles offshore. There is also potential for attack from within an aircraft. In Europe, with the (Pan-European Network Service) and NewPENS, and in the US with the NextGen program, air navigation service providers are moving to create their own dedicated networks. Many modern passports are now biometric passports, containing an embedded microchip that stores a digitized photograph and personal information such as name, gender, and date of birth. In addition, more countries[*which?*] are introducing facial recognition technology to reduce identity-related fraud. The introduction of the ePassport has assisted border officials in verifying the identity of the passport holder, thus allowing for quick passenger processing. Plans are under way in the US, the UK, and Australia to introduce SmartGate kiosks with both retina and fingerprint recognition technology. The airline industry is moving from the use of traditional paper tickets towards the use of electronic tickets (e-tickets). These have been made possible by advances in online credit card transactions in partnership with the airlines. Long-distance bus companies[*which?*] are also switching over to e-ticketing transactions today. The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life. ### Consumer devices Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets. ### Healthcare Today many health-care providers and health insurance companies use the internet to provide enhanced products and services, for example through use of tele-health to potentially offer better quality and access to healthcare, or fitness trackers to lower insurance premiums. The health care company Humana partners with WebMD, Oracle Corporation, EDS and Microsoft to enable its members to access their health care records, as well as to provide an overview of health care plans. Patient records are increasingly being placed on secure in-house networks, alleviating the need for extra storage space. ### Large corporations Large corporations are common targets. In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients' credit card and financial details by Home Depot, Staples, Target Corporation, and Equifax. Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale. Although cyber threats continue to increase, 62% of all organizations did not increase security training for their business in 2015. Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal had a serious series of attacks in 2011 from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm's CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group, and Sony Pictures was hacked in 2014 with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers. ### Automobiles Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control, anti-lock brakes, seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models. Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network. Self-driving cars are expected to be even more complex. All of these systems carry some security risk, and such issues have gained wide attention. Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, and the car's onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping. However, if access is gained to a car's internal controller area network, the danger is much greater – and in a widely publicized 2015 test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch. Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in 2016 pushing out some security fixes *over the air* into its cars' computer systems. In the area of autonomous vehicles, in September 2016 the United States Department of Transportation announced some initial safety standards, and called for states to come up with uniform policies. Additionally, e-Drivers’ licenses are being developed using the same technology. For example, Mexico’s licensing authority (ICV) has used a smart card platform to issue the first e-Drivers’ licenses to the city of Monterrey, in the state of Nuevo León. ### Shipping Shipping companies have adopted RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology as an efficient, digitally secure, tracking device. Unlike a barcode, RFID can be read up to 20 feet away. RFID is used by FedEx and UPS. ### Government Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists and foreign powers. Local and regional government infrastructure such as traffic light controls, police and intelligence agency communications, personnel records, as well as student records. The FBI, CIA, and Pentagon, all utilize secure controlled access technology for any of their buildings. However, the use of this form of technology is spreading into the entrepreneurial world. More and more companies are taking advantage of the development of digitally secure controlled access technology. GE's ACUVision, for example, offers a single panel platform for access control, alarm monitoring and digital recording. ### Internet of things and physical vulnerabilities The Internet of things (IoT) is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data. Concerns have been raised that this is being developed without appropriate consideration of the security challenges involved. While the IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, it also provides opportunities for misuse. In particular, as the Internet of Things spreads widely, cyberattacks are likely to become an increasingly physical (rather than simply virtual) threat. If a front door's lock is connected to the Internet, and can be locked/unlocked from a phone, then a criminal could enter the home at the press of a button from a stolen or hacked phone. People could stand to lose much more than their credit card numbers in a world controlled by IoT-enabled devices. Thieves have also used electronic means to circumvent non-Internet-connected hotel door locks. An attack that targets physical infrastructure and/or human lives is sometimes referred to as a cyber-kinetic attack. As IoT devices and appliances gain currency, cyber-kinetic attacks can become pervasive and significantly damaging. ### Medical systems Medical devices have either been successfully attacked or had potentially deadly vulnerabilities demonstrated, including both in-hospital diagnostic equipment and implanted devices including pacemakers and insulin pumps. There are many reports of hospitals and hospital organizations getting hacked, including ransomware attacks, Windows XP exploits, viruses, and data breaches of sensitive data stored on hospital servers. On 28 December 2016 the US Food and Drug Administration released its recommendations for how medical device manufacturers should maintain the security of Internet-connected devices – but no structure for enforcement. ### Energy sector In distributed generation systems, the risk of a cyber attack is real, according to *Daily Energy Insider*. An attack could cause a loss of power in a large area for a long period of time, and such an attack could have just as severe consequences as a natural disaster. The District of Columbia is considering creating a Distributed Energy Resources (DER) Authority within the city, with the goal being for customers to have more insight into their own energy use and giving the local electric utility, Pepco, the chance to better estimate energy demand. The D.C. proposal, however, would "allow third-party vendors to create numerous points of energy distribution, which could potentially create more opportunities for cyber attackers to threaten the electric grid." ### Telecommunications Perhaps the most widely known digitally secure telecommunication device is the SIM (Subscriber Identity Module) card, a device that is embedded in most of the world’s cellular devices before any service can be obtained. The SIM card is just the beginning of this digitally secure environment. The Smart Card Web Servers draft standard (SCWS) defines the interfaces to an HTTP server in a smart card. Tests are being conducted to secure OTA ("over-the-air") payment and credit card information from and to a mobile phone. Combination SIM/DVD devices are being developed through Smart Video Card technology which embeds a DVD-compliant optical disc into the card body of a regular SIM card. Other telecommunication developments involving digital security include mobile signatures, which use the embedded SIM card to generate a legally binding electronic signature. Impact of security breaches --------------------------- Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal." However, reasonable estimates of the financial cost of security breaches can actually help organizations make rational investment decisions. According to the classic Gordon-Loeb Model analyzing the optimal investment level in information security, one can conclude that the amount a firm spends to protect information should generally be only a small fraction of the expected loss (i.e., the expected value of the loss resulting from a cyber/information security breach). Attacker motivation ------------------- As with physical security, the motivations for breaches of computer security vary between attackers. Some are thrill-seekers or vandals, some are activists, others are criminals looking for financial gain. State-sponsored attackers are now common and well resourced but started with amateurs such as Markus Hess who hacked for the KGB, as recounted by Clifford Stoll in *The Cuckoo's Egg*. Additionally, recent attacker motivations can be traced back to extremist organizations seeking to gain political advantage or disrupt social agendas. The growth of the internet, mobile technologies, and inexpensive computing devices have led to a rise in capabilities but also to the risk to environments that are deemed as vital to operations. All critical targeted environments are susceptible to compromise and this has led to a series of proactive studies on how to migrate the risk by taking into consideration motivations by these types of actors. Several stark differences exist between the hacker motivation and that of nation state actors seeking to attack based on an ideological preference. A standard part of threat modeling for any particular system is to identify what might motivate an attack on that system, and who might be motivated to breach it. The level and detail of precautions will vary depending on the system to be secured. A home personal computer, bank, and classified military network face very different threats, even when the underlying technologies in use are similar. Computer protection (countermeasures) ------------------------------------- In computer security, a countermeasure is an action, device, procedure or technique that reduces a threat, a vulnerability, or an attack by eliminating or preventing it, by minimizing the harm it can cause, or by discovering and reporting it so that corrective action can be taken. Some common countermeasures are listed in the following sections: ### Security by design Security by design, or alternately secure by design, means that the software has been designed from the ground up to be secure. In this case, security is considered as a main feature. Some of the techniques in this approach include: * The principle of least privilege, where each part of the system has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an attacker gains access to that part, they only have limited access to the whole system. * Automated theorem proving to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. * Code reviews and unit testing, approaches to make modules more secure where formal correctness proofs are not possible. * Defense in depth, where the design is such that more than one subsystem needs to be violated to compromise the integrity of the system and the information it holds. * Default secure settings, and design to *fail secure* rather than *fail insecure* (see fail-safe for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. * Audit trails track system activity so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined. Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks. * Full disclosure of all vulnerabilities, to ensure that the *window of vulnerability* is kept as short as possible when bugs are discovered. ### Security architecture The Open Security Architecture organization defines IT security architecture as "the design artifacts that describe how the security controls (security countermeasures) are positioned, and how they relate to the overall information technology architecture. These controls serve the purpose to maintain the system's quality attributes: confidentiality, integrity, availability, accountability and assurance services". Techopedia defines security architecture as "a unified security design that addresses the necessities and potential risks involved in a certain scenario or environment. It also specifies when and where to apply security controls. The design process is generally reproducible." The key attributes of security architecture are: * the relationship of different components and how they depend on each other. * determination of controls based on risk assessment, good practices, finances, and legal matters. * the standardization of controls. Practicing security architecture provides the right foundation to systematically address business, IT and security concerns in an organization. ### Security measures A state of computer security is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three processes: threat prevention, detection, and response. These processes are based on various policies and system components, which include the following: * User account access controls and cryptography can protect systems files and data, respectively. * Firewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services, and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering. Firewalls can be both hardware and software-based. * Intrusion Detection System (IDS) products are designed to detect network attacks in-progress and assist in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for individual systems. * *Response* is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, the complete destruction of the compromised system is favored, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources are detected. * Cyber security awareness training to cope with cyber threats and attacks. * Forward web proxy solutions can prevent the client to visit malicious web pages and inspect the content before downloading to the client machines. Today, computer security consists mainly of preventive measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet, and can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real-time filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so-called *physical firewall*, which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet. Some organizations are turning to big data platforms, such as Apache Hadoop, to extend data accessibility and machine learning to detect advanced persistent threats. However, relatively few organizations maintain computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organized response mechanisms in place. As a result, as Reuters pointed out in 2010: "Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of data than physical stealing of assets". The primary obstacle to effective eradication of cybercrime could be traced to excessive reliance on firewalls and other automated detection systems. Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind bars. In order to ensure adequate security, the confidentiality, integrity and availability of a network, better known as the CIA triad, must be protected and is considered the foundation to information security. To achieve those objectives, administrative, physical and technical security measures should be employed. The amount of security afforded to an asset can only be determined when its value is known. ### Vulnerability management Vulnerability management is the cycle of identifying, remediating or mitigating vulnerabilities, especially in software and firmware. Vulnerability management is integral to computer security and network security. Vulnerabilities can be discovered with a vulnerability scanner, which analyzes a computer system in search of known vulnerabilities, such as open ports, insecure software configuration, and susceptibility to malware. In order for these tools to be effective, they must be kept up to date with every new update the vendor release. Typically, these updates will scan for the new vulnerabilities that were introduced recently. Beyond vulnerability scanning, many organizations contract outside security auditors to run regular penetration tests against their systems to identify vulnerabilities. In some sectors, this is a contractual requirement. ### Reducing vulnerabilities While formal verification of the correctness of computer systems is possible, it is not yet common. Operating systems formally verified include seL4, and SYSGO's PikeOS – but these make up a very small percentage of the market. Two factor authentication is a method for mitigating unauthorized access to a system or sensitive information. It requires *something you know*; a password or PIN, and *something you have*; a card, dongle, cellphone, or another piece of hardware. This increases security as an unauthorized person needs both of these to gain access. Social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only be prevented by non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the information. Training is often involved to help mitigate this risk, but even in highly disciplined environments (e.g. military organizations), social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent. Inoculation, derived from inoculation theory, seeks to prevent social engineering and other fraudulent tricks or traps by instilling a resistance to persuasion attempts through exposure to similar or related attempts. It is possible to reduce an attacker's chances by keeping systems up to date with security patches and updates, using a security scanner[*definition needed*] and/or hiring people with expertise in security, though none of these guarantee the prevention of an attack. The effects of data loss/damage can be reduced by careful backing up and insurance. ### Hardware protection mechanisms While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process, hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below. * USB dongles are typically used in software licensing schemes to unlock software capabilities, but they can also be seen as a way to prevent unauthorized access to a computer or other device's software. The dongle, or key, essentially creates a secure encrypted tunnel between the software application and the key. The principle is that an encryption scheme on the dongle, such as Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) provides a stronger measure of security since it is harder to hack and replicate the dongle than to simply copy the native software to another machine and use it. Another security application for dongles is to use them for accessing web-based content such as cloud software or Virtual Private Networks (VPNs). In addition, a USB dongle can be configured to lock or unlock a computer. * Trusted platform modules (TPMs) secure devices by integrating cryptographic capabilities onto access devices, through the use of microprocessors, or so-called computers-on-a-chip. TPMs used in conjunction with server-side software offer a way to detect and authenticate hardware devices, preventing unauthorized network and data access. * Computer case intrusion detection refers to a device, typically a push-button switch, which detects when a computer case is opened. The firmware or BIOS is programmed to show an alert to the operator when the computer is booted up the next time. * Drive locks are essentially software tools to encrypt hard drives, making them inaccessible to thieves. Tools exist specifically for encrypting external drives as well. * Disabling USB ports is a security option for preventing unauthorized and malicious access to an otherwise secure computer. Infected USB dongles connected to a network from a computer inside the firewall are considered by the magazine Network World as the most common hardware threat facing computer networks. * Disconnecting or disabling peripheral devices ( like camera, GPS, removable storage etc.), that are not in use. * Mobile-enabled access devices are growing in popularity due to the ubiquitous nature of cell phones. Built-in capabilities such as Bluetooth, the newer Bluetooth low energy (LE), near-field communication (NFC) on non-iOS devices and biometric validation such as thumbprint readers, as well as QR code reader software designed for mobile devices, offer new, secure ways for mobile phones to connect to access control systems. These control systems provide computer security and can also be used for controlling access to secure buildings. * IOMMUs allow for hardware-based sandboxing of components in mobile and desktop computers by utilizing direct memory access protections. * Physical Unclonable Functions (PUFs) can be used as a digital fingerprint or a unique identifier to integrated circuits and hardware, providing users the ability to secure the hardware supply chains going into their systems. ### Secure operating systems One use of the term *computer security* refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. In the 1980s, the United States Department of Defense (DoD) used the "Orange Book" standards, but the current international standard ISO/IEC 15408, Common Criteria defines a number of progressively more stringent Evaluation Assurance Levels. Many common operating systems meet the EAL4 standard of being "Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed", but the formal verification required for the highest levels means that they are uncommon. An example of an EAL6 ("Semiformally Verified Design and Tested") system is INTEGRITY-178B, which is used in the Airbus A380 and several military jets. ### Secure coding In software engineering, secure coding aims to guard against the accidental introduction of security vulnerabilities. It is also possible to create software designed from the ground up to be secure. Such systems are *secure by design*. Beyond this, formal verification aims to prove the correctness of the algorithms underlying a system; important for cryptographic protocols for example. ### Capabilities and access control lists Within computer systems, two of the main security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and role-based access control (RBAC). An access-control list (ACL), with respect to a computer file system, is a list of permissions associated with an object. An ACL specifies which users or system processes are granted access to objects, as well as what operations are allowed on given objects. Role-based access control is an approach to restricting system access to authorized users, used by the majority of enterprises with more than 500 employees, and can implement mandatory access control (MAC) or discretionary access control (DAC). A further approach, capability-based security has been mostly restricted to research operating systems. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open-source project in the area is the E language. ### End user security training The end-user is widely recognized as the weakest link in the security chain and it is estimated that more than 90% of security incidents and breaches involve some kind of human error. Among the most commonly recorded forms of errors and misjudgment are poor password management, sending emails containing sensitive data and attachments to the wrong recipient, the inability to recognize misleading URLs and to identify fake websites and dangerous email attachments. A common mistake that users make is saving their user id/password in their browsers to make it easier to log in to banking sites. This is a gift to attackers who have obtained access to a machine by some means. The risk may be mitigated by the use of two-factor authentication. As the human component of cyber risk is particularly relevant in determining the global cyber risk an organization is facing, security awareness training, at all levels, not only provides formal compliance with regulatory and industry mandates but is considered essential in reducing cyber risk and protecting individuals and companies from the great majority of cyber threats. The focus on the end-user represents a profound cultural change for many security practitioners, who have traditionally approached cybersecurity exclusively from a technical perspective, and moves along the lines suggested by major security centers to develop a culture of cyber awareness within the organization, recognizing that a security-aware user provides an important line of defense against cyber attacks. ### Digital hygiene Related to end-user training, **digital hygiene** or **cyber hygiene** is a fundamental principle relating to information security and, as the analogy with personal hygiene shows, is the equivalent of establishing simple routine measures to minimize the risks from cyber threats. The assumption is that good cyber hygiene practices can give networked users another layer of protection, reducing the risk that one vulnerable node will be used to either mount attacks or compromise another node or network, especially from common cyberattacks. Cyber hygiene should also not be mistaken for proactive cyber defence, a military term. As opposed to a purely technology-based defense against threats, cyber hygiene mostly regards routine measures that are technically simple to implement and mostly dependent on discipline or education. It can be thought of as an abstract list of tips or measures that have been demonstrated as having a positive effect on personal and/or collective digital security. As such, these measures can be performed by laypeople, not just security experts. Cyber hygiene relates to personal hygiene as computer viruses relate to biological viruses (or pathogens). However, while the term *computer virus* was coined almost simultaneously with the creation of the first working computer viruses, the term *cyber hygiene* is a much later invention, perhaps as late as 2000 by Internet pioneer Vint Cerf. It has since been adopted by the Congress and Senate of the United States, the FBI, EU institutions and heads of state. ### Response to breaches Responding to attempted security breaches is often very difficult for a variety of reasons, including: * Identifying attackers is difficult, as they may operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymizing procedures which make back-tracing difficult - and are often located in another jurisdiction. If they successfully breach security, they have also often gained enough administrative access to enable them to delete logs to cover their tracks. * The sheer number of attempted attacks, often by automated vulnerability scanners and computer worms, is so large that organizations cannot spend time pursuing each. * Law enforcement officers often lack the skills, interest or budget to pursue attackers. In addition, the identification of attackers across a network may require logs from various points in the network and in many countries, which may be difficult or time-consuming to obtain. Where an attack succeeds and a breach occurs, many jurisdictions now have in place mandatory security breach notification laws. ### Types of security and privacy * Access control * Anti-keyloggers * Anti-malware * Anti-spyware * Anti-subversion software * Anti-tamper software * Anti-theft * Antivirus software * Cryptographic software * Computer-aided dispatch (CAD) * Firewall * Intrusion detection system (IDS) * Intrusion prevention system (IPS) * Log management software * Parental control * Records management * Sandbox * Security information management * Security information and event management (SIEM) * Software and operating system updating * Vulnerability Management Computer security incident management ------------------------------------- Computer security incident management is an organized approach to addressing and managing the aftermath of a computer security incident or compromise with the goal of preventing a breach or thwarting a cyberattack. An incident that is not identified and managed at the time of intrusion typically escalates to a more damaging event such as a data breach or system failure. The intended outcome of a computer security incident response plan is to contain the incident, limit damage and assist recovery to business as usual. Responding to compromises quickly can mitigate exploited vulnerabilities, restore services and processes and minimize losses. Incident response planning allows an organization to establish a series of best practices to stop an intrusion before it causes damage. Typical incident response plans contain a set of written instructions that outline the organization's response to a cyberattack. Without a documented plan in place, an organization may not successfully detect an intrusion or compromise and stakeholders may not understand their roles, processes and procedures during an escalation, slowing the organization's response and resolution. There are four key components of a computer security incident response plan: 1. Preparation: Preparing stakeholders on the procedures for handling computer security incidents or compromises 2. Detection and analysis: Identifying and investigating suspicious activity to confirm a security incident, prioritizing the response based on impact and coordinating notification of the incident 3. Containment, eradication and recovery: Isolating affected systems to prevent escalation and limit impact, pinpointing the genesis of the incident, removing malware, affected systems and bad actors from the environment and restoring systems and data when a threat no longer remains 4. Post incident activity: Post mortem analysis of the incident, its root cause and the organization's response with the intent of improving the incident response plan and future response efforts. 5. Importance o Notable attacks and breaches ---------------------------- Some illustrative examples of different types of computer security breaches are given below. ### Robert Morris and the first computer worm In 1988, 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On 2 November 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet computer worm. The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris who said "he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet". ### Rome Laboratory In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horses, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user. ### TJX customer credit card details In early 2007, American apparel and home goods company TJX announced that it was the victim of an unauthorized computer systems intrusion and that the hackers had accessed a system that stored data on credit card, debit card, check, and merchandise return transactions. ### Stuxnet attack In 2010, the computer worm known as Stuxnet reportedly ruined almost one-fifth of Iran's nuclear centrifuges. It did so by disrupting industrial programmable logic controllers (PLCs) in a targeted attack. This is generally believed to have been launched by Israel and the United States to disrupt Iran's nuclear program – although neither has publicly admitted this. ### Global surveillance disclosures In early 2013, documents provided by Edward Snowden were published by *The Washington Post* and *The Guardian* exposing the massive scale of NSA global surveillance. There were also indications that the NSA may have inserted a backdoor in a NIST standard for encryption. This standard was later withdrawn due to widespread criticism. The NSA additionally were revealed to have tapped the links between Google's data centers. ### Target and Home Depot breaches A Ukrainian hacker known as Rescator broke into Target Corporation computers in 2013, stealing roughly 40 million credit cards, and then Home Depot computers in 2014, stealing between 53 and 56 million credit card numbers. Warnings were delivered at both corporations, but ignored; physical security breaches using self checkout machines are believed to have played a large role. "The malware utilized is absolutely unsophisticated and uninteresting," says Jim Walter, director of threat intelligence operations at security technology company McAfee – meaning that the heists could have easily been stopped by existing antivirus software had administrators responded to the warnings. The size of the thefts has resulted in major attention from state and Federal United States authorities and the investigation is ongoing. ### Office of Personnel Management data breach In April 2015, the Office of Personnel Management discovered it had been hacked more than a year earlier in a data breach, resulting in the theft of approximately 21.5 million personnel records handled by the office. The Office of Personnel Management hack has been described by federal officials as among the largest breaches of government data in the history of the United States. Data targeted in the breach included personally identifiable information such as Social Security numbers, names, dates and places of birth, addresses, and fingerprints of current and former government employees as well as anyone who had undergone a government background check. It is believed the hack was perpetrated by Chinese hackers. ### Ashley Madison breach In July 2015, a hacker group is known as The Impact Team successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison, created by Avid Life Media. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. When Avid Life Media did not take the site offline the group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned; but the website remained to function. ### Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack In June 2021, the cyber attack took down the largest fuel pipeline in the U.S. and led to shortages across the East Coast. Legal issues and global regulation ---------------------------------- International legal issues of cyber attacks are complicated in nature. There is no global base of common rules to judge, and eventually punish, cybercrimes and cybercriminals - and where security firms or agencies do locate the cybercriminal behind the creation of a particular piece of malware or form of cyber attack, often the local authorities cannot take action due to lack of laws under which to prosecute. Proving attribution for cybercrimes and cyberattacks is also a major problem for all law enforcement agencies. "Computer viruses switch from one country to another, from one jurisdiction to another – moving around the world, using the fact that we don't have the capability to globally police operations like this. So the Internet is as if someone [had] given free plane tickets to all the online criminals of the world." The use of techniques such as dynamic DNS, fast flux and bullet proof servers add to the difficulty of investigation and enforcement. Role of government ------------------ The role of the government is to make regulations to force companies and organizations to protect their systems, infrastructure and information from any cyberattacks, but also to protect its own national infrastructure such as the national power-grid. The government's regulatory role in cyberspace is complicated. For some, cyberspace was seen as a virtual space that was to remain free of government intervention, as can be seen in many of today's libertarian blockchain and bitcoin discussions. Many government officials and experts think that the government should do more and that there is a crucial need for improved regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If the industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through." On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently. Daniel R. McCarthy analyzed this public-private partnership in cybersecurity and reflected on the role of cybersecurity in the broader constitution of political order. On 22 May 2020, the UN Security Council held its second ever informal meeting on cybersecurity to focus on cyber challenges to international peace. According to UN Secretary-General António Guterres, new technologies are too often used to violate rights. International actions --------------------- Many different teams and organizations exist, including: * The Forum of Incident Response and Security Teams (FIRST) is the global association of CSIRTs. The US-CERT, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, McAfee, Microsoft are all members of this international team. * The Council of Europe helps protect societies worldwide from the threat of cybercrime through the Convention on Cybercrime. * The purpose of the Messaging Anti-Abuse Working Group (MAAWG) is to bring the messaging industry together to work collaboratively and to successfully address the various forms of messaging abuse, such as spam, viruses, denial-of-service attacks and other messaging exploitations. France Telecom, Facebook, AT&T, Apple, Cisco, Sprint are some of the members of the MAAWG. * ENISA : The European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) is an agency of the European Union with the objective to improve network and information security in the European Union. ### Europe On 14 April 2016, the European Parliament and Council of the European Union adopted The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) (EU) 2016/679. GDPR, which became enforceable beginning 25 May 2018, provides for data protection and privacy for all individuals within the European Union (EU) and the European Economic Area (EEA). GDPR requires that business processes that handle personal data be built with data protection by design and by default. GDPR also requires that certain organizations appoint a Data Protection Officer (DPO). National actions ---------------- ### Computer emergency response teams Most countries have their own computer emergency response team to protect network security. #### Canada Since 2010, Canada has had a cybersecurity strategy. This functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure. The strategy has three main pillars: securing government systems, securing vital private cyber systems, and helping Canadians to be secure online. There is also a Cyber Incident Management Framework to provide a coordinated response in the event of a cyber incident. The Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure and cyber systems. It provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond & recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada's critical infrastructure sectors. It posts regular cybersecurity bulletins & operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. To inform the general public on how to protect themselves online, Public Safety Canada has partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations, and launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. They also run the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and Cyber Security Awareness Month during October. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's cybersecurity strategy in early 2015. #### China China's Central Leading Group for Internet Security and Informatization (Chinese: 中央网络安全和信息化领导小组) was established on 27 February 2014. This Leading Small Group (LSG) of the Chinese Communist Party is headed by General Secretary Xi Jinping himself and is staffed with relevant Party and state decision-makers. The LSG was created to overcome the incoherent policies and overlapping responsibilities that characterized China's former cyberspace decision-making mechanisms. The LSG oversees policy-making in the economic, political, cultural, social and military fields as they relate to network security and IT strategy. This LSG also coordinates major policy initiatives in the international arena that promote norms and standards favored by the Chinese government and that emphasizes the principle of national sovereignty in cyberspace. #### Germany Berlin starts National Cyber Defense Initiative: On 16 June 2011, the German Minister for Home Affairs, officially opened the new German NCAZ (National Center for Cyber Defense) Nationales Cyber-Abwehrzentrum located in Bonn. The NCAZ closely cooperates with BSI (Federal Office for Information Security) Bundesamt für Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik, BKA (Federal Police Organisation) Bundeskriminalamt (Deutschland), BND (Federal Intelligence Service) Bundesnachrichtendienst, MAD (Military Intelligence Service) Amt für den Militärischen Abschirmdienst and other national organizations in Germany taking care of national security aspects. According to the Minister, the primary task of the new organization founded on 23 February 2011, is to detect and prevent attacks against the national infrastructure and mentioned incidents like Stuxnet. Germany has also established the largest research institution for IT security in Europe, the Center for Research in Security and Privacy (CRISP) in Darmstadt. #### India Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000. The National Cyber Security Policy 2013 is a policy framework by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) which aims to protect the public and private infrastructure from cyberattacks, and safeguard "information, such as personal information (of web users), financial and banking information and sovereign data". CERT- In is the nodal agency which monitors the cyber threats in the country. The post of National Cyber Security Coordinator has also been created in the Prime Minister's Office (PMO). The Indian Companies Act 2013 has also introduced cyber law and cybersecurity obligations on the part of Indian directors. Some provisions for cybersecurity have been incorporated into rules framed under the Information Technology Act 2000 Update in 2013. #### South Korea Following cyberattacks in the first half of 2013, when the government, news media, television stations, and bank websites were compromised, the national government committed to the training of 5,000 new cybersecurity experts by 2017. The South Korean government blamed its northern counterpart for these attacks, as well as incidents that occurred in 2009, 2011, and 2012, but Pyongyang denies the accusations. #### United States ##### Legislation The 1986 18 U.S.C. § 1030, the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act is the key legislation. It prohibits unauthorized access or damage of *protected computers* as defined in 18 U.S.C. § 1030(e)(2). Although various other measures have been proposed – none has succeeded. In 2013, executive order 13636 *Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity* was signed, which prompted the creation of the NIST Cybersecurity Framework. In response to the Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack President Joe Biden signed Executive Order 14028 on May 12, 2021, to increase software security standards for sales to the government, tighten detection and security on existing systems, improve information sharing and training, establish a Cyber Safety Review Board, and improve incident response. ##### Standardized government testing services The General Services Administration (GSA) has[*when?*] standardized the *penetration test* service as a pre-vetted support service, to rapidly address potential vulnerabilities, and stop adversaries before they impact US federal, state and local governments. These services are commonly referred to as Highly Adaptive Cybersecurity Services (HACS). ##### Agencies The Department of Homeland Security has a dedicated division responsible for the response system, risk management program and requirements for cybersecurity in the United States called the National Cyber Security Division. The division is home to US-CERT operations and the National Cyber Alert System. The National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center brings together government organizations responsible for protecting computer networks and networked infrastructure. The third priority of the FBI is to: "Protect the United States against cyber-based attacks and high-technology crimes", and they, along with the National White Collar Crime Center (NW3C), and the Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) are part of the multi-agency task force, The Internet Crime Complaint Center, also known as IC3. In addition to its own specific duties, the FBI participates alongside non-profit organizations such as InfraGard. The Computer Crime and Intellectual Property Section (CCIPS) operates in the United States Department of Justice Criminal Division. The CCIPS is in charge of investigating computer crime and intellectual property crime and is specialized in the search and seizure of digital evidence in computers and networks. In 2017, CCIPS published A Framework for a Vulnerability Disclosure Program for Online Systems to help organizations "clearly describe authorized vulnerability disclosure and discovery conduct, thereby substantially reducing the likelihood that such described activities will result in a civil or criminal violation of law under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (18 U.S.C. § 1030)." The United States Cyber Command, also known as USCYBERCOM, "has the mission to direct, synchronize, and coordinate cyberspace planning and operations to defend and advance national interests in collaboration with domestic and international partners." It has no role in the protection of civilian networks. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission's role in cybersecurity is to strengthen the protection of critical communications infrastructure, to assist in maintaining the reliability of networks during disasters, to aid in swift recovery after, and to ensure that first responders have access to effective communications services. The Food and Drug Administration has issued guidance for medical devices, and the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is concerned with automotive cybersecurity. After being criticized by the Government Accountability Office, and following successful attacks on airports and claimed attacks on airplanes, the Federal Aviation Administration has devoted funding to securing systems on board the planes of private manufacturers, and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System. Concerns have also been raised about the future Next Generation Air Transportation System. The US Department of Defense (DoD) issued DoD Directive 8570 in 2004, supplemented by DoD Directive 8140, requiring all DoD employees and all DoD contract personnel involved in information assurance roles and activities to earn and maintain various industry Information Technology (IT) certifications in an effort to ensure that all DoD personnel involved in network infrastructure defense have minimum levels of IT industry recognized knowledge, skills and abilities (KSA). Andersson and Reimers (2019) report these certifications range from CompTIA's A+ and Security+ through the ICS2.org's CISSP, etc.. ##### Computer emergency readiness team *Computer emergency response team* is a name given to expert groups that handle computer security incidents. In the US, two distinct organizations exist, although they do work closely together. * US-CERT: part of the National Cyber Security Division of the United States Department of Homeland Security. * CERT/CC: created by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and run by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI). Modern warfare -------------- There is growing concern that cyberspace will become the next theater of warfare. As Mark Clayton from *The Christian Science Monitor* wrote in a 2015 article titled "The New Cyber Arms Race": > In the future, wars will not just be fought by soldiers with guns or with planes that drop bombs. They will also be fought with the click of a mouse a half a world away that unleashes carefully weaponized computer programs that disrupt or destroy critical industries like utilities, transportation, communications, and energy. Such attacks could also disable military networks that control the movement of troops, the path of jet fighters, the command and control of warships. > > This has led to new terms such as *cyberwarfare* and *cyberterrorism*. The United States Cyber Command was created in 2009 and many other countries have similar forces. There are a few critical voices that question whether cybersecurity is as significant a threat as it is made out to be. Importance of Cyber Security ---------------------------- • Protection of Sensitive Information Both network security and cybersecurity are important for protecting sensitive information such as personal data, financial information, and trade secrets. A breach of this information can result in significant financial and reputational losses for businesses and individuals alike. • Protection of Devices and Systems Network security and cybersecurity are also important for protecting devices and systems from unauthorized access and malicious attacks. This is particularly important for businesses that rely on digital technologies to store and transmit sensitive data. • Compliance with Regulations Many industries are subject to regulatory compliance requirements, such as HIPAA, PCI DSS, and GDPR, which mandate the protection of sensitive information. Compliance with these regulations requires implementing robust network security and cybersecurity measures. Careers ------- Cybersecurity is a fast-growing field of IT concerned with reducing organizations' risk of hack or data breaches. According to research from the Enterprise Strategy Group, 46% of organizations say that they have a "problematic shortage" of cybersecurity skills in 2016, up from 28% in 2015. Commercial, government and non-governmental organizations all employ cybersecurity professionals. The fastest increases in demand for cybersecurity workers are in industries managing increasing volumes of consumer data such as finance, health care, and retail. However, the use of the term *cybersecurity* is more prevalent in government job descriptions. Typical cybersecurity job titles and descriptions include: ### Security analyst Analyzes and assesses vulnerabilities in the infrastructure (software, hardware, networks), investigates using available tools and countermeasures to remedy the detected vulnerabilities and recommends solutions and best practices. Analyzes and assesses damage to the data/infrastructure as a result of security incidents, examines available recovery tools and processes, and recommends solutions. Tests for compliance with security policies and procedures. May assist in the creation, implementation, or management of security solutions. ### Security engineer Performs security monitoring, security and data/logs analysis, and forensic analysis, to detect security incidents, and mount the incident response. Investigates and utilizes new technologies and processes to enhance security capabilities and implement improvements. May also review code or perform other security engineering methodologies. ### Security architect Designs a security system or major components of a security system, and may head a security design team building a new security system. ### Security administrator Installs and manages organization-wide security systems. This position may also include taking on some of the tasks of a security analyst in smaller organizations. ### Chief Information Security Officer (CISO) A high-level management position responsible for the entire information security division/staff. The position may include hands-on technical work. ### Chief Security Officer (CSO) A high-level management position responsible for the entire security division/staff. A newer position is now deemed needed as security risks grow. ### Data Protection Officer (DPO) A DPO is tasked with monitoring compliance with the UK GDPR and other data protection laws, our data protection policies, awareness-raising, training, and audits. ### Security Consultant/Specialist/Intelligence Broad titles that encompass any one or all of the other roles or titles tasked with protecting computers, networks, software, data or information systems against viruses, worms, spyware, malware, intrusion detection, unauthorized access, denial-of-service attacks, and an ever-increasing list of attacks by hackers acting as individuals or as part of organized crime or foreign governments. Student programs are also available for people interested in beginning a career in cybersecurity. Meanwhile, a flexible and effective option for information security professionals of all experience levels to keep studying is online security training, including webcasts. A wide range of certified courses are also available. In the United Kingdom, a nationwide set of cybersecurity forums, known as the U.K Cyber Security Forum, were established supported by the Government's cybersecurity strategy in order to encourage start-ups and innovation and to address the skills gap identified by the U.K Government. In Singapore, the Cyber Security Agency has issued a Singapore Operational Technology (OT) Cybersecurity Competency Framework (OTCCF). The framework defines emerging cybersecurity roles in Operational Technology. The OTCCF was endorsed by the Infocomm Media Development Authority (IMDA). It outlines the different OT cybersecurity job positions as well as the technical skills and core competencies necessary. It also depicts the many career paths available, including vertical and lateral advancement opportunities. Terminology ----------- The following terms used with regards to computer security are explained below: * Access authorization restricts access to a computer to a group of users through the use of authentication systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer, such as through an interactive login screen, or individual services, such as a FTP server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as passwords, identification cards, smart cards, and biometric systems. * Anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart, and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). * Applications are executable code, so general corporate practice is to restrict or block users the power to install them; to install them only when there is a demonstrated need (e.g. software needed to perform assignments); to install only those which are known to be reputable (preferably with access to the computer code used to create the application,- and to reduce the attack surface by installing as few as possible. They are typically run with least privilege, with a robust process in place to identify, test and install any released security patches or updates for them. + For example, programs can be installed into an individual user's account, which limits the program's potential access, as well as being a means control which users have specific exceptions to policy. In Linux], FreeBSD, OpenBSD, and other Unix-like operating systems there is an option to further restrict an application using chroot or other means of restricting the application to its own 'sandbox'. For example. Linux provides namespaces, and Cgroups to further restrict the access of an application to system resources. + Generalized security frameworks such as SELinux or AppArmor help administrators control access. + Java and other languages which compile to Java byte code and run in the Java virtual machine can have their access to other applications controlled at the virtual machine level. + Some software can be run in software containers which can even provide their own set of system libraries, limiting the software's, or anyone controlling it, access to the server's versions of the libraries. * Authentication techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are. * Automated theorem proving and other verification tools can be used to enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications. * Backups are one or more copies kept of important computer files. Typically, multiple copies will be kept at different locations so that if a copy is stolen or damaged, other copies will still exist. * Capability and access control list techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. Capabilities vs. ACLs discusses their use. * Chain of trust techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers. * Confidentiality is the nondisclosure of information except to another authorized person. * Cryptographic techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that the data exchange between systems can be intercepted or modified. * Cyberwarfare is an Internet-based conflict that involves politically motivated attacks on information and information systems. Such attacks can, for example, disable official websites and networks, disrupt or disable essential services, steal or alter classified data, and cripple financial systems. * Data integrity is the accuracy and consistency of stored data, indicated by an absence of any alteration in data between two updates of a data record. * Encryption is used to protect the confidentiality of a message. Cryptographically secure ciphers are designed to make any practical attempt of breaking them infeasible. Symmetric-key ciphers are suitable for bulk encryption using shared keys, and public-key encryption using digital certificates can provide a practical solution for the problem of securely communicating when no key is shared in advance. * Endpoint security software aids networks in preventing malware infection and data theft at network entry points made vulnerable by the prevalence of potentially infected devices such as laptops, mobile devices, and USB drives. * Firewalls serve as a gatekeeper system between networks, allowing only traffic that matches defined rules. They often include detailed logging, and may include intrusion detection and intrusion prevention features. They are near-universal between company local area networks and the Internet, but can also be used internally to impose traffic rules between networks if network segmentation is configured. * A hacker is someone who seeks to breach defenses and exploit weaknesses in a computer system or network. * Honey pots are computers that are intentionally left vulnerable to attack by crackers. They can be used to catch crackers and to identify their techniques. * Intrusion-detection systems are devices or software applications that monitor networks or systems for malicious activity or policy violations. * A microkernel is an approach to operating system design which has only the near-minimum amount of code running at the most privileged level – and runs other elements of the operating system such as device drivers, protocol stacks and file systems, in the safer, less privileged user space. * Pinging. The standard ping application can be used to test if an IP address is in use. If it is, attackers may then try a port scan to detect which services are exposed. * A port scan is used to probe an IP address for open ports to identify accessible network services and applications. * A key logger is spyware that silently captures and stores each keystroke that a user types on the computer's keyboard. * Social engineering is the use of deception to manipulate individuals to breach security. * Logic bombs is a type of malware added to a legitimate program that lies dormant until it is triggered by a specific event. * Zero trust security means that no one is trusted by default from inside or outside the network, and verification is required from everyone trying to gain access to resources on the network. Notable scholars ---------------- * Ross J. Anderson * Annie Anton * Adam Back * Daniel J. Bernstein * Matt Blaze * Stefan Brands * L. Jean Camp * Lorrie Cranor * Dorothy E. Denning * Peter J. Denning * Cynthia Dwork * Chuck Easttom * Deborah Estrin * Joan Feigenbaum * Ian Goldberg * Shafi Goldwasser * Lawrence A. Gordon * Peter Gutmann * Paul Kocher * Monica S. Lam * Butler Lampson * Brian LaMacchia * Susan Landau * Carl Landwehr * Kevin Mitnick * Peter G. Neumann * Susan Nycum * Paul C. van Oorschot * Roger R. Schell * Bruce Schneier * Dawn Song * Gene Spafford * Salvatore J. Stolfo * Willis Ware * Moti Yung See also -------- * Attack tree – Conceptual diagrams showing how an asset, or target, might be attacked * Bicycle attack – Method of discovering password length * CAPTCHA – Test to determine whether a user is human * Center for Internet Security – Nonprofit organization focused on cybersecurity * Cloud computing security – Methods used to protect cloud based assets * Comparison of antivirus software * Content Disarm & Reconstruction – Policy-based removal of components * Content Security Policy – Computer security standard to prevent cross-site scripting and related attacks * Countermeasure (computer) – Process to reduce a security threat * Cyber insurance – Information technology risk insurance * Cyber self-defense – Self-defense against cyberattack * Cyberbiosecurity – Emerging field of computer security * Cybersecurity information technology list * Dancing pigs – Users' disregard for IT security * Data security – Protection of digital data * Defense strategy (computing) – Concept to reduce computer security risks * Fault tolerance – Resilience of systems to component failures or errors * Hardware security – Security architecture implemented in hardware * Human–computer interaction (security) – Academic discipline studying the relationship between computer systems and their usersPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets * Identity management – Technical and Policy systems to give users appropriate access * Identity-based security – Access control by authenticated ID * Information security awareness – part of information security that focuses on raising consciousness regarding potential risks of the rapidly evolving forms of information and the accompanying threatsPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback * Internet privacy – Right or mandate of personal privacy concerning the internet * Internet safety – Being aware of safety and security risks on the Internet * Internet security – Branch of computer security * IT risk – Any risk related to information technology * IT security standards – Technology standards and techniques * Kill chain – Military concept for attack sequence * List of computer security certifications * List of cyber warfare forces * Open security – Open source approach to computer security * Outline of computer security – Overview of and topical guide to computer security * OWASP – Computer security organization * Physical information security – Common ground of physical and information security * Privacy software – Layer to protect users' privacy * Security through obscurity – Reliance on design or implementation secrecy for security * Separation of protection and security – Mechanism v. policy design choice * Software-defined perimeter – Approach to computer security from the US Defense Information Systems Agency Further reading --------------- * Branch, J. (2020). "What's in a Name? Metaphors and Cybersecurity". *International Organization*. Volume 75, Issue 1. * Costigan, Sean; Hennessy, Michael (2016). *Cybersecurity: A Generic Reference Curriculum* (PDF). NATO. ISBN 978-9284501960. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 March 2017. * Fuller, Christopher J. "The Roots of the United States' Cyber (In)Security," *Diplomatic History* 43:1 (2019): 157–185. online * Jeremy Bob, Yonah (2021). "Ex-IDF cyber intel. official reveals secrets behind cyber offense". *The Jerusalem Post*. * Kim, Peter (2014). *The Hacker Playbook: Practical Guide To Penetration Testing*. Seattle: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. ISBN 978-1494932633. * Lee, Newton (2015). *Counterterrorism and Cybersecurity: Total Information Awareness* (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-3319172439. * Montagnani, Maria Lillà and Cavallo, Mirta Antonella (26 July 2018). "Cybersecurity and Liability in a Big Data World". SSRN. * Shariati, M., et al. (2011). Enterprise information security, a review of architectures and frameworks from interoperability perspective. Procedia Computer Science **3**. 537–543. doi:10.1016/j.procs.2010.12.089. * Singer, P. W.; Friedman, Allan (2014). *Cybersecurity and Cyberwar: What Everyone Needs to Know*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199918119. * Wu, Chwan-Hwa (John); Irwin, J. David (2013). *Introduction to Computer Networks and Cybersecurity*. Boca Raton: CRC Press. ISBN 978-1466572133.

Computer security

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_security

**Naturism** is a lifestyle of practicing non-sexual social nudity in private and in public; the word also refers to the cultural movement which advocates and defends that lifestyle. Both may alternatively be called **nudism**. Though the two terms are broadly interchangeable, *nudism* emphasizes the practice of nudity, whereas *naturism* highlights an attitude favoring harmony with nature and respect for the environment, into which that practice is integrated. That said, naturists come from a range of philosophical and cultural backgrounds; there is no single naturist ideology. Ethical or philosophical nudism has a long history, with many advocates of the benefits of enjoying nature without clothing. At the turn of the 20th century, organizations emerged to promote social nudity and to establish private campgrounds and resorts for that purpose. Since the 1960s, with the acceptance of public places for clothing-optional recreation, individuals who do not identify themselves as naturists or nudists have been able to casually participate in nude activities. Nude recreation opportunities vary widely around the world, from isolated places known mainly to locals through officially designated nude beaches and parks and on to public spaces and buildings in some jurisdictions. Definition and lexicology ------------------------- The XIV Congress of the International Naturist Federation (INF) held at Agde, France, in 1974 defined naturism as: > ...a way of life in harmony with nature characterised by the practice of communal nudity with the intention of encouraging self-respect, respect for others and for the environment. > > Many contemporary naturists and naturist organisations advocate that the practice of social nudity should not be linked with sexual activity. Some recent studies show that naturism can help grow self-esteem, and thus have a positive impact on having a well-balanced sexuality, too. For various sociocultural and historical reasons, the lay public, the media, and many contemporary naturists and their organisations have, or present, a simplified view of the relationship between naturism and sexuality. Current research has begun to explore this complex relationship. The International Naturist Federation explains: > Each country has its own kind of naturism, and even each club has its own special character, for we too, human beings, have each our own character which is reflected in our surroundings. > > The usage and definition of these terms varies geographically and historically. Naturism and nudism have the same meaning in the United States, but there is a clear distinction between the two terms in Great Britain.[*further explanation needed*] In naturist parlance, the terms "textile" or "textilist" refer to non-naturist persons, behaviours or facilities (e.g. "the textile beach starts at the flag", "they are a mixed couple – he is naturist, she is textile"). "Textile" is the predominant term used in the UK ("textilist" is unknown in British naturist magazines, including *H&E naturist*), although some naturists avoid using this term due to perceived negative or derogatory connotations. "Textilist" is said to be used interchangeably with "textile", but no dictionary definition to this effect exists, nor are there any equivalent examples of use in mainstream literature such as those for *textile*. Naturist places and events -------------------------- ### Naturist facilities At naturist-organised events or venues, clothing is usually optional. At naturist swimming pools or sunbathing places, however, complete nudity is expected (weather permitting). This rule is sometimes a source of controversy among naturists. Staff at a naturist facility are usually required to be clothed due to health and safety regulations. Facilities for naturists are classified in various ways. A landed or members' naturist club is one that owns its own facilities. Non-landed (or travel) clubs meet at various locations, such as private residences, swimming pools, hot springs, landed clubs and resorts, or rented facilities. Landed clubs can be run by members on democratic lines or by one or more owners who make the rules. In either case, they can determine membership criteria and the obligations of members. This usually involves sharing work necessary to maintain or develop the site. The international naturist organizations were mainly composed of representatives of landed clubs. "Nudist colony" is no longer a favored term, but can be used by naturists to address landed clubs that have rigid non-inclusive membership criteria. A holiday centre is a facility that specializes in providing apartments, chalets and camping pitches for visiting holidaymakers. A center is run commercially, and visitors are not members and have no say in the management. Most holiday centers expect visitors to hold an INF card (that is, to belong to an INF-affiliated organization), but some have relaxed this requirement, relying on the carrying of a trade card. Holiday centers vary in size. Larger holiday centres may have swimming pools, sports pitches, an entertainment program, kids' clubs, restaurants and supermarkets. Some holiday centres allow regular visitors to purchase their own chalets, and generations of the same families may visit each year. Holiday centres are more tolerant of clothing than members-only clubs; total nudity is usually compulsory in the swimming pools and may be expected on the beaches, while on the football pitches, or in the restaurants in the evening, it is rare. A naturist resort is, to a European, a private property with accommodation and facilities where naturism is the norm. Centre Helio-Marin in Vendays Montalivet, Aquitaine, France (the first naturist resort, established in 1950); the naturist village of Charco del Palo on Lanzarote, Canary Islands; Vera Playa in Spain; and Vritomartis Resort in Greece are examples. In US usage, a naturist resort can mean a holiday centre. Freikörperkultur (FKK)—literally translated as 'free body culture'—is the name for the general movement in Germany. The abbreviation is also recognised outside of Germany and can be found on informal signs indicating the direction to a remote naturist beach. ### Nude beaches In some European countries, such as Denmark, all beaches are clothing optional, while in others like Germany (and experimentally in France) there are naturist sunbathing areas in public parks (e.g., in Munich and Berlin). Beaches in some holiday destinations, such as Crete, are also clothing optional, except some central urban beaches. There are two centrally located clothes-optional beaches in Barcelona. Sweden allows nudity on all beaches. In a survey by *The Daily Telegraph*, Germans and Austrians were most likely to have visited a nude beach (28%), followed by Norwegians (18%), Spaniards (17%), Australians (17%), and New Zealanders (16%). Of the nationalities surveyed, the Japanese (2%) were the least likely to have visited a nude beach. This result may indicate the lack of nude beaches in Japan; however, the Japanese are open with regard to family bathing nude at home and at onsens (hot springs). ### Festival naturism From Woodstock to Edinburgh, and Nambassa in the southern hemisphere, communal nudity can be seen at music and counterculture festivals. The Nambassa hippie festivals held in New Zealand in the late 1970s were examples of non-sexual naturism. Of the 75,000 patrons who attended the 1979 Nambassa three-day festival, an estimated 35% of attendees spontaneously chose to remove their clothing, preferring complete or partial nudity. Some nudist festivals are held to celebrate particular days of the year, and activities may include nude bodypainting. One example is the Neptune Day Festival held in Koktebel, Crimea, to depict mythological events. Another is the Festival Nudista Zipolite organized by the Federación Nudista de México (Mexican Nudist Federation) held annually since 2016 on the first weekend of February. A few camps organize activities in the nude, such as oil wrestling by camp Gymnasium. ### Summer naturism Naturism tends to be more common during the warmer summer months. Some regions host first-time naturists and people who have recently started to practice the naturist lifestyle. One study noted that some of these people are seasonal naturists who wear clothes during other times of the year. History ------- Nudity in social contexts has been practised in various forms by many cultures and in all time periods. In modern Western society, social nudity is most frequently encountered in the contexts of bathing, swimming and in saunas, whether in single-sex groups, within the family, or with mixed-sex friends, but throughout history and in many contemporary tropical cultures, nudity is a norm at many sports events and competitions. The first known use of the word *naturisme* occurred in 1778. A French-speaking Belgian, Jean Baptiste Luc Planchon (1734–1781), used the term to advocate nudism as a means of improving the *hygiène de vie* or healthy living. The earliest known naturist club in the western sense of the word was established in British India in 1891. The Fellowship of the Naked Trust was founded by Charles Edward Gordon Crawford, a widower who was a District and Sessions Judge for the Bombay Civil Service. The commune was based in Matheran and had just three members at the beginning: Crawford and two sons of an Anglican missionary, Andrew and Kellogg Calderwood. The commune fell apart when Crawford was transferred to Ratnagiri; he died soon after in 1894. In 1902, a series of philosophical papers was published in Germany by Dr. Heinrich Pudor under the pseudonym Heinrich Scham, who coined the term *Nacktkultur*. In 1906 he wrote a three-volume treatise with his new term as its title, which discussed the benefits of nudity in co-education and advocated participating in sports while being free of cumbersome clothing. Richard Ungewitter (*Nacktheit*, 1906, *Nackt*, 1908, etc.) proposed that combining physical fitness, sunlight, and fresh-air bathing, and then adding the nudist philosophy, contributed to mental and psychological fitness, good health, and an improved moral-life view. Major promoters of these ideas included Adolf Koch and Hans Suren. Germany published the first journal of nudism between 1902 and 1932. The wide publication of those papers, and others, contributed to an explosive worldwide growth of nudism in which nudists participated in various social, recreational, and physical fitness activities in the nude. The first organized club for nudists on a large scale, *Freilichtpark* (Free-Light Park), was opened near Hamburg in 1903 by Paul Zimmerman. In 1919, German doctor Kurt Huldschinsky discovered that exposure to sunlight helped to cure rickets in many children, causing sunlight to be associated with improved health. In France in the early 20th century, the brothers Gaston and André Durville, both physicians, studied the effects of psychology, nutrition, and environment on health and healing. They became convinced of the importance of natural foods and the natural environment on human well-being and health. They named this concept in French: *naturisme*. The profound effect of clean air and sunlight on human bodies became evident to them and so nudity became a part of their naturism. Naturism became a more widespread phenomenon in the 1920s in Germany, the United Kingdom, France and other European countries and spread to the United States where it became established in the 1930s. By 1951, the various national federations united to form the International Naturist Federation. Some naturists preferred not to join clubs, and after 1945, pressure arose to designate beaches for naturist use. From the middle of the 20th century, with changing leisure patterns, commercial organisations began opening holiday resorts to attract naturists who expected the same – or better – standards of comfort and amenity offered to non-naturists. More recently, naturist holiday options have expanded to include cruises. In the early 21st century many organised clubs saw a decline in attendance by young people, which worried many naturists about the future of the movement. The clubs' aging memberships may have put younger people off joining in a vicious circle of decline. A rise in social conservatism, re-asserting a nudity taboo, may have also contributed to the decline. However, since tolerance for nudity in general is increasing over time, and is higher among younger generations, an alternative hypothesis is that younger naturists no longer feel they need to join a club or visit a resort in order to practise naturism. Active recruitment of younger members is being pursued by some organisations. The phenomenon varies by country, with, for example, naturism in France experiencing steady growth in a younger demographic during the 2010s. Writers ------- Naturism was part of a literary movement [fr] in the late 19th century(see the writings of André Gide) that also influenced the art movements of the time, specifically Henri Matisse and other Fauve painters. This movement was based on the French concept of *joie de vivre*, the idea of reveling freely in physical sensations and direct experiences and a spontaneous approach to life. * Heinrich Pudor wrote on methods to improve social hygiene in his book *Nackende Menschen und Jauchzen der Zukunft* (Naked people and the future of Mankind) and then *Nacktkultur* (Nude Culture). It prescribes an austere lifestyle and nudity. * Paul Zimmermann opened the Freilicht Park in Lübeck which was open to those who subscribed to Nacktkultur principles. * Richard Ungewitter wrote *Die Nacktheit* (Nakedness) which sold 90,000 copies, prescribed a similar Utopian lifestyle, where everyone would be nude, eat only vegetables and abstain from alcohol and tobacco. In his Utopia, everyone was to be Germanic with blue eyes and blonde hair. * Adolf Koch, a left-wing primary-school teacher, sought to use social nudity to free the people from "authority fixated conditioning which held proletarians in deference of their masters: parental authority, paternalism of the church, the mass media and organs of law and order." He used Organic-Rhythmic exercises in Berlin schools in the 1920s. In 1932 there were about 100,000 Germans involved with naturism, of which 70,000 were in Koch's *Körperschülen* schools. * Hans Surén taught nude gymnastics to soldiers for five years, and on being forced to leave the army, he wrote (in 1924) *Mensch und die Sonne* (Men and the Sun) which ran to 61 reprints. * American writers Walt Whitman and Henry David Thoreau both wrote of nudity within the natural environment. Health ------ Naturist activities can have positive psychological benefits including greater life satisfaction, more positive body image, and higher self-esteem. Social nudity leads to acceptance in spite of differences in age, body shape, fitness, and health. Religion -------- Christian naturism includes various members associated with most denominations. Although beliefs vary, a common theme is that much of Christianity has misinterpreted the events regarding the Garden of Eden, and that God was displeased with Adam and Eve for covering their bodies with fig leaves. Controversy ----------- Naturism is usually promoted as not being sexual, but there are also resorts where social nudity is practised alongside exhibitionism, voyeurism, and other alternative lifestyles like swinging. Mainstream discourse around naturism sometimes conflates sexual and non-sexual variations, though family-oriented naturism organisations try to resist this stigma. Some naturist clubs have shifted to catering to swingers, and as a result may be expelled from mainstream naturist organizations, whilst some naturist villages, notably Cap d'Agde, have been successfully overtaken by swingers and "libertines". Attempts have been made to legislate naturist activity, such as children's summer camps. Many films and published materials in the middle decades of the 20th century were presented as documentaries of the naturist lifestyle. In fact this was largely a pretext to exploit a loophole in censorship laws restricting the exhibition of nudity. Additionally, child pornography has been distributed under the guise of naturist media. Precisely defining the distinction has proved challenging for law enforcers, as it depends on the subjective question of whether the purpose of the production is sexual. Court cases attempting to differentiate naturist publications from pornography reach back almost a century.[*page needed*] Africa ------ ### South Africa Mpenjati beach in KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa is a nude beach where clothes are not allowed. Europe ------ In most European countries, nudity is not explicitly forbidden. Whether it is tolerated on beaches which are not marked as official nudist beaches varies greatly. The only country with substantially different laws is Denmark, where beach nudity is explicitly allowed on all beaches, except for two in the far west of the country. ### Belgium Organized naturism in Belgium began in 1924 when engineer Joseph-Paul Swenne founded the Belgian League of Heliophilous Propaganda (usually abbreviated to *Hélios*) in Uccle near Brussels. This was followed four years later by *De Spar*, founded by Jozef Geertz and hosted on the country estate of entrepreneur Oswald Johan de Schampelaere. Belgian naturism was influenced in equal part by French naturism and German *Freikörperkultur*. Today Belgian naturists are represented by the *Federatie van Belgische Naturisten* (FBN). ### Croatia Croatia is world-famous for naturism, which accounts for about 15% of its tourism industry. It was also the first European country to develop commercial naturist resorts. During a 1936 Adriatic cruise, King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson stopped at a beach on the island of Rab where King Edward obtained a special permission from the local government to swim naked, thereby designating it the world's first official nude beach. ### Finland In Finnish culture, nudism is considered to be a relatively normal way to live. It is not uncommon to see entire families spending time together naked. Families may be naked while bathing in a sauna, swimming in a pool, or playing on a beach, and it is not unusual to see children playing naked in a family yard for example. Nudity as a whole is considered less taboo than in many other countries. ### France Marcel Kienné de Mongeot is credited with starting naturism in France in 1920. His family had suffered from tuberculosis, and he saw naturism as a cure and a continuation of the traditions of the ancient Greeks. In 1926 he started the magazine *Vivre intégralement* (later called *Vivre*) and the first French naturist club, *Sparta Club*, at Garambouville, near Évreux. The court action that he initiated established that nudism was legal on private property that was fenced and screened. Drs. André and Gaston Durville bought 70 hectares (170 acres) on the Île du Levant where they established the village of Héliopolis, which was open to the public. In 1925 Dr François Fougerat de David de Lastours wrote a thesis on heliotherapy, and in that year opened the *Club gymnique de France*. In 1936 the naturist movement was officially recognised. Albert and Christine Lecocq were active members of many of these clubs, but they left after disagreements and in 1944 founded the *Club du Soleil* with members in 84 cities. Four years later they founded the Fédération Française de Naturisme (FFN); in 1949 they started the magazine, *Vie au Soleil*; and in 1950 they opened the CHM Montalivet, the world's first naturist holiday centre, where the INF was formed. ### Germany German naturism (*Freikörperkultur, FKK*) was part of the *Lebensreform* movement and the *Wandervogel* youth movement of 1896, from Steglitz, Berlin, which promoted ideas of fitness and vigour. At the same time, doctors of the Natural Healing Movement were using heliotherapy, treating diseases such as tuberculosis, rheumatism, and scrofula with exposure to sunlight. *Nacktkultur*, a term coined in 1903 by Heinrich Pudor, connected nudity, vegetarianism and social reform, and was practised in a network of 200 members clubs. The movement gained prominence in the 1920s by offering a health-giving lifestyle with Utopian ideals. Germany published the first naturist journal between 1902 and 1932, but it became politicised by radical socialists who believed it would lead to classlessness and a breakdown of society. It eventually became associated with pacificism. In 1926, Adolf Koch established a school of naturism in Berlin, encouraging a mixing of the sexes, open air exercises, and a programme of "sexual hygiene". In 1929 the Berlin school hosted the first International Congress on Nudity. After World War II, East Germans were free to practice naturism, chiefly at beaches rather than clubs (private organizations were regarded as potentially subversive). Naturism became a large element in DDR politics. The *Proletarische Freikörperkulturbewegung* subsection of the Workers Sports Organisation had 60,000 members. Since reunification there are many clubs, parks and beaches open to naturists, though nudity has become less common in the former eastern zone. Germans are typically the most commonly seen visitors at nude beaches in France and around Europe. ### Greece Public nudity is legal in Greece. There are no official nude beaches, however, there are numerous unofficial nude beaches especially on the islands frequented by tourists, like Crete, Mykonos or Karpathos, and also on smaller islands like Skopelos or Skiathos where nudity is tolerated, usually at the more remote ends or secluded areas of beaches. Toplessness also is widely practiced by locals and tourists alike as there are no cultural taboos against it. In 2015, a court in Greece's second largest city, Thessaloniki, acquitted nudist activists who were charged for wandering naked in the city as part of their activist actions for promoting the urban nudism. In its ruling, the court deemed these acts to be "not lewd or lascivious", and vindicated the activists, thus recognizing their right to be naked publicly. ### Italy Full nudity is admitted in Italy in the official naturist beaches and places of the country, and in many other places where there's an established tradition of naturist attendance, as confirmed by a recent absolution sentence. In all other public places, full nudity is generally prohibited by civil law and could be punished with fines that have been recently reduced (min. 51 to max. 309 euros, see the pronouncement of the Constitutional Court). In the last decades, six regions have created laws to promote naturist tourism, and actually there are more than twenty official naturist beaches in all Italy, where naturism is recognised and guaranteed by administrative acts, and more than thirty beaches with a long tradition of naturist attendance where nudity is accepted. Naturist accommodations are located in most of the regions and it's estimated that the number of nudists and naturists in Italy is about half a million people. Since the 1960s there are naturist associations in many regions, and a naturist federation on a national level. Female toplessness is allowed, in a nonsexual context, in all the beaches of the country: on March 20, 2000, the Supreme Court of Cassation through sentence No. 3557 has determined that the exposure of the nude female breast since some decades is considered a "commonly accepted behavior" and therefore has "entered into the social custom". Since then, local government regulations forbidding toplessness are extremely rare. ### Netherlands The oldest Dutch naturist association is *Zon en Leven* ("Sun and Life"), founded in 1946 with the aim of promoting healthy physical and mental development and a natural way of life. The national association is *Naturisten Federatie Nederland* (NFN), which in 2017 adopted the new brand name *Bloot Gewoon!* ("Simply Naked") in an effort to become more accessible to casual naturists and strengthen the acceptance of nude recreation. In general, Dutch people are very tolerant of beach nudity, as long as it does not impact others, or involve inappropriate staring or sexual behaviour. Topless sunbathing is permitted on most beaches except where prohibited by signage. ### Portugal The *Federação Portuguesa de Naturismo* (Portuguese Naturist Federation) or FPN was founded on 1 March 1977 in Lisbon. In the 21st century, naturism is considered a tolerated practice, whereas there are many officially designated nudist beaches. ### Poland In today's Poland naturism is practiced in number of the seaside and inland beaches. Most Polish beaches of this type are actually clothing-optional rather than naturist. One such beach is Międzyzdroje-Lubiewo. ### Spain Public nudity in Spain is not illegal since there is no law banning its practice. Spanish legislation foresees felony for exhibitionism but restricts its scope to obscene exposure in front of children or mentally impaired individuals, i.e. with sexual connotation.[*clarification needed*] There are, however, some municipalities (like San Pedro del Pinatar) where public nudity has been banned by means of by-laws. Other municipalities (like Barcelona, Salou, Platja de Palma and Sant Antoni de Portmany) have used similar provisions to regulate partial nudity, requiring people to cover their torsos on the streets. Some naturist associations have appealed these by-laws on the grounds that a fundamental right (freedom of expression, as they understand nudism to be self-expression) cannot be regulated with such a mechanism. Some courts have ruled in favour of nudist associations. Nudism in Spain is normally practised by the seaside, on beaches or small coves with a tradition of naturism. In Vera (Andalusia), there is a wide residential area formed by nudist urbanisations. Nudist organisations may organise some activities elsewhere in inner territory. Research was done on Menorca, Spain, where naturism is practiced at small, isolated beaches apart from the island's developed resorts. Not everyone on these beaches, even within a group, are nude, both type of participants were interviewed. Most were white heterosexuals between 25 and 40 who live in cities such as Madrid or Barcelona. For them, being nude on a beach is about bodily sensations of sun, sea, and sand directly on the skin, not about cultural meanings or performance of bodily appearance. The behaviors that support the non-sexual definition of the situation work by downplaying the visual, most of all by not staring at others. It is also unacceptable for a person to actively seek the gaze of others. Naturists may see the decision not to be nude is holding on to the visual; while non-naturists may see beach nudity as a form of exhibitionism. Legal provisions regarding partial nudity (or toplessness) are analogous to those regarding full nudity, but social tolerance towards toplessness is higher. The law does not require women to cover their breasts in public swimming, or on any beach in Spain. The governments of the municipalities of Galdakao and L'Ametlla del Vallès legalized female toplessness on their public pools in March 2016 and June 2018, respectively. ### United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the first official nudist club was established in Wickford, Essex, in 1924. According to Michael Farrar, writing for British Naturism, the club adopted the name "Moonella Group" from the name of the owner of the ground and called its site The Camp. Moonella, who was still living in 1965 but whose identity remains to be discovered, had inherited a house with land in 1923 and made it available to certain members of the New Gymnosophy Society. This society was founded a few years before by H.C. Booth, M.H. Sorensen and Rex Wellbye under the name of the English Gymnosophical Society. It met for discussions at the Minerva Cafe at 144 High Holborn in London, the headquarters of the Women's Freedom League. Those who were permitted to join the Moonella Group were carefully selected, and the club was run by a leadership of the original members, all of whom had club names to preserve their anonymity. The club closed in 1926 because of construction on adjacent land. By 1943, there were a number of "sun clubs", and together they formed the British Sun Bathers Association, or BSBA. In 1954, a group of clubs unhappy with the way the BSBA was being run, split to form the Federation of British Sun Clubs, or FBSC. In 1961, the BSBA Annual Conference agreed that the term nudist was inappropriate and should be discarded in favour of naturist. The two organisations rivalled each other before eventually coming together again in 1964 as the Central Council for British Naturism, or CCBN. This organisation structure has remained much the same but it is now called British Naturism, which is often abbreviated to BN. The first official nude beach was opened at Fairlight Glen in Covehurst Bay near Hastings in 1978 (not to be confused with Fairlight Cove, which is 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the east), followed later by the beaches at Brighton and Fraisthorpe. Bridlington opened in April 1980. Oceania ------- ### Australia Australia's first naturist club was founded in Sydney in 1931 by the French-born anarchist and pacifist Kleber Claux. In 1975, the southern half of Maslin Beach, south of Adelaide, was declared Australia's first official nude beach. The beach is almost 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) long, so the area reserved for nude bathing is away from other beach users. ### New Zealand Nudist clubs (called *sun clubs*) were established in Dunedin and Auckland in early 1938; the Auckland Sun Group went into recess shortly afterwards due to the outbreak of World War II. In 1958 the allied nudist clubs of New Zealand established the New Zealand Sunbathing Association, later renamed the New Zealand Naturist Federation. The Federation includes 17 affiliated clubs with a total membership (in 2012) of 1,600 people. In 2016 the Federation, in conjunction with Tourism New Zealand, hosted the World Congress of the International Naturist Federation at the Wellington Naturist Club, marking the second time the Congress had ever been held in the Southern Hemisphere. Outside formal naturist organizations, social nudity is practised in a variety of contexts in New Zealand culture. It is a feature of many summer music festivals, including Convergence, Kiwiburn, Luminate, Rhythm & Vines, and Splore, in a tradition going back to Nambassa in the late 1970s. It is also associated with the culture of rugby, most prominently in the nude rugby match held in Dunedin each winter from 2002 to 2014 (and sporadically thereafter) as pre-match entertainment for the first professional rugby game of the season, and in the mock public holiday "National Nude Day", an event in which viewers of the TV2 talk show *SportsCafe* were invited – chiefly by former rugby player Marc Ellis, the show's most irrepressibly comic presenter – to send in photos and video of themselves performing daily activities in the nude. While a large proportion of New Zealanders are tolerant of nudity, especially on beaches, there remains a contingent who consider it obscene. Naturists who engage in casual public nudity, even in places where this is lawful, risk being reported to police by disapproving people. Legally, nudity is permissible on any beach where it is "known to occur", in consequence of which New Zealand has no official nude beaches. The indecent exposure provision of the Summary Offences Act is, in practice, reserved for cases of public sexual gratification, but public nudity may still be prosecuted under the "offensive behaviour" provision. North America ------------- ### Canada In Canada individuals around the country became interested in nudism, skinny-dipping, and physical culture in the early part of the 20th century. *Sunbathing & Health*, a magazine targeted toward Canadian naturists and which occasionally carried local news, began publication after 1940. There were scattered groups of naturists in several cities during the 1930s and 1940s, and some of these groups attracted enough interest to form clubs on private land. The most significant clubs were the Van Tan Club, formed in 1939, which is still operating in North Vancouver, BC, and the Sun Air Club, in Ontario. Canadians who served in the military during the Second World War met like-minded souls from across the country, and often visited clubs while in Europe. They were a ready pool of recruits for post-war organizers. A few years later, the wave of post-war immigration brought many Europeans with their own extensive experience, and they not only swelled the ranks of membership, but often formed their own clubs, helping to expand nudism from coast to coast. Most clubs eventually united in the Canadian Sunbathing Association, which affiliated with the American Sunbathing Association in 1954. Several disagreements between eastern and western members of the CSA resulted in its division into the Western Canadian Sunbathing Association (WCSA) and the Eastern Canadian Sunbathing Association (ECSA) in 1960. The ECSA endured much in-fighting over the next fifteen years, which led to its official demise in 1978. The WCSA changed its name to the American Association for Nude Recreation – Western Canadian Region, a region of the American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR), which itself was formerly known as the ASA. In 1977 the *Fédération québécoise de naturisme* (FQN) was founded in Quebec by Michel Vaïs, who had experienced European naturism at Montalivet. In 1985 the Federation of Canadian Naturists (FCN) was formed with the support of the FQN. In 1988 the FQN and FCN formed the FQN-FCN Union as the official Canadian representative in the International Naturist Federation. ### Mexico Federación Nudista de México is a members organization with both individual and organization members. It promotes social nudity in Mexico, and it is recognized by the International Naturist Federation as the official national naturist organization in that country. As of 2016, Playa Zipolite is Mexico's first and only legal public nude beach. A *free beach* and unofficially nudist for more than 50 years, this beach is reputed to be the best place for nudism in the country. The numerous nude sunbathers, and the long tradition, make it safe for nudism and naturism. Annually since 2016, on the first weekend of February, Zipolite has hosted Festival Nudista Zipolite that in 2019 attracted 7,000–8,000 visitors. ### United States Kurt Barthel founded the American League for Physical Culture in 1929 and organized the first nudist event. In about 1930 they organized the American Gymnosophical Association. Barthel founded America's first official nudist camp, Sky Farm in New Jersey, in May, 1932. Around 1932, the AGA established the Rock Lodge Club as a nudist facility in Stockholm, New Jersey and Ilsley Boone, a Dutch Reformed minister, formed the Christian naturism movement. Naturism began to expand nationwide. Nudism venues were alcohol-free until 1970. The American Association for Nude Recreation (AANR) is the national naturist organization. Arnd Krüger compared nudists in Germany and the United States and came to the conclusion that in Germany the racial aspects (*Zuchtwahl*) were important for the breakthrough (e.g. the Commanding General of the Army served as patron for nudists events), while in the U.S. nudism was far more commercial and had thus more difficulties. In 2008, Florida Young Naturists held their first Naked Bash, which has been repeated multiple times per year and has grown into one of the largest young naturist gatherings in the world. In 2009, a campaign to promote nudism in the United States occurred with an effort by the AANR to record the largest simultaneous skinny dip at several U.S. clubs and beaches, which occurred on July 11 of that year. In 2010, a new organization formed called Young Naturists America, which was mostly focused on the younger generation, as well as social issues, such as body image. Young Naturists and Nudists America closed in 2017. Asia ---- ### Indonesia In the 1970s, nudity on Bali's remote and deserted beaches was common, but with the massive growth of tourism this practice has disappeared. In 2002, nudity was declared illegal on Petitenget Beach, the last beach in Seminyak that tolerated discreet nudity. Individuals began to practice nudity in private villas and resorts. Laki Uma Villa, the first naturist facility to open, was for gay men only. Bali au Naturel, the first adult-only nudist resort for both genders, opened its doors in 2004. It subsequently expanded from 3 to 15 rooms and added two more swimming pools. Indonesia has an underground naturist community who defy the laws against public nudity. ### Thailand Nudism was successfully introduced in 2012 by The Thailand Naturist Association in Pattaya (Chan Resort), and five more nudist resorts have been created across Thailand: Barefeet Resort in Bangkok, Lemon Tree Resort in Phuket, Oriental Village in Chiangmai, Phuan Naturist Village in Pattaya, and Peace Blue Naturist Resort in Phuket. Since 2020 during the worldwide pandemic, Lemon Tree Resort in Phuket, Oriental Village in Chiangmai, and Phuan Naturist Village in Pattaya had been permanently closed. Dragonfly Naturist Village in Pattaya (a member of American Association for Nude Recreation) has opened and currently expanding its property as the largest naturist resort in Thailand. South America ------------- ### Argentina Naturism is allowed in the official nude beaches of Puerto Escondido, located near Miramar, and Playa Querandí, located in Villa Gesell. Furthermore, total nudity is also permitted in some private naturist resorts. ### Brazil In general, public nudity tends to be condemned by the Brazilian authorities, which commonly see it as indecent exposure. However, the country has the highest number of official nude beaches in Latin America, being 8 in total, and this is partially explained by the fact that the Brazilian territory has more than 8,000 kilometres (5,000 mi) of ocean coast. Moreover, there are a few private naturist clubs throughout the country where full nudity is accepted as well. Naturism in Brazil is regulated by the Brazilian Naturism Federation (in Portuguese: *Federação Brasileira de Naturismo*, abbreviated as *FBrN*). ### Chile The first nude beach in the country, called Playa Luna, was officially legalized in 2000, and there are unofficial restricted areas that were created in Playa Luna Norte (Tarapacá), Playa Luna Sur (Coliumo), Playa Escondida (Antofagasta), Playa Blanca (Tongoy) and Pichilemu, where it is possible to completely undress with total normality. ### Uruguay There are two official nude beaches where the practice of naturism is allowed: Chihuahua, located in the resort of the same name, and La Sirena, located in the resort of Aguas Dulces. Naturist media -------------- ### Magazines Magazines published by, for or purportedly about naturists can be grouped into the following: * Magazines published by an "official" national organisation, such as *BN* (British Naturism), *Going Natural/Au naturel* (FCN/FQN), *Nude & Natural Magazine* (The Naturist Society), *gonatural* (New Zealand Naturist Federation). * Independent magazines published for naturists, such as *Naturally*, *H&E naturist* and *TAN* (acronym of *The Australian Naturist*). * Magazines that print photographs only or primarily of young female professional models. These types of publications are disapproved of by many naturists and non-naturists alike. Magazines in the second and, occasionally, third groups feature naturist editorial and advertising. While some naturists argue over which magazines belong in which of these categories, these views may change as publishers and editors change. Many clubs and groups have benefited from magazines which, while not exclusively or even predominantly naturist in character, made naturist information available to many who would not otherwise have been aware of it. The information and advertising provided online, along with the wide availability of free online pornography, has meant the disappearance of old-style "skin" magazines presenting significant glamour content masquerading as, or alongside, naturist content. Naturist magazines have to appeal strongly to naturists to succeed; they cannot sit on the fence between naturism and glamour. Some naturists feel that the worthwhile editorial content in some magazines is not a fair balance for the disapproved-of photographic content. ### Photography, films and videos Although photographing others when they are nude in a public place may not violate their rights to privacy, individuals retain the personality rights to their own image in many countries. If so, recognizable photographs of any person cannot be published without permission. Some naturist clubs have been willing to allow filming by the media on their grounds, though content that proved not to be of genuine naturism can end up being parodied by the media. Some commercial 'naturist' DVDs are dominated by imagery of naked children. Such material can be marketed in ways that appear to appeal directly to pedophile inclinations, and ownership of these DVDs (and their earlier video cassette incarnations) has resulted in successful British prosecutions for possession of indecent images of children. One case was appealed, unsuccessfully, to the European Court of Human Rights. Photo shoots, including major high-profile works by Spencer Tunick, are done in public places including beaches. See also -------- * Breastfeeding in public * List of social nudity organizations * List of places where social nudity is practised * Naked party * Timeline of non-sexual social nudity * Streaking * Topfreedom References ---------- ### Books * Anon (1997). *Guide Mondial de Naturisme 96 97*. Moorland Publishing Company, Limited. ISBN 978-90-6716-833-5. * Baubérot, Arnaud (2004). *Histoire du naturisme: Le mythe du retour à la nature* (in French). Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. pp. Chapter XII. Naturism, between regeneration and leisure p. 281–307. doi:10.4000/books.pur.22872. ISBN 978-2-7535-0020-4. * Choin, Mireille (2002). *World Handbook Naturisme 2002 - 2003*. International Naturist Federation. ISBN 978-90-5583-833-2. * Cockington, James (2005). *Banned: Tales from the Bizarre History of Australian Obscenity*. ABC Books. ISBN 978-0-7333-1502-2. * Descamps, Marc-Alain (1987). *Vivre nu: psychosociologie du naturisme*. Trismégiste. ISBN 978-2-86509-026-6. * Duner, Paul (1942). *A Year and a Day*. L. Drummond. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Harrison, Charles; Perry, Gillian (1993). *Primitivism, Cubism, Abstraction: The Early Twentieth Century*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05516-0. * Hau, Michael (2003). *The Cult of Health and Beauty in Germany: A Social History, 1890-1930*. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31974-2. * Jones, Judith; Broadley, Colin (1979). *Nambassa: A New Direction*. A. H. & A. W. Reed. ISBN 978-0-589-01216-8. * Kennedy, Hubert (13 September 2013). *Homosexuality and Male Bonding in Pre-Nazi Germany: the youth movement, the gay movement, and male bonding before Hitler's rise*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-99203-5. * Krüger, Arnd (1992). "Zwischen Sex und Zuchtwahl. Nudismus und Naturismus in Deutschland und Amerika". In Norbert Finzsch & Hermann Wellenreuther (ed.). *Liberalitas: Festschrift für Erich Angermann zum 65. Geburtstag*. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-05656-4. * Peeters, Evert; Van Molle, Leen; Wils, Kaat, eds. (2011). "Ch. 1: The Performance of Redemption: Asceticism and Liberation in Belgian *Lebensreform*". *Beyond Pleasure: Cultures of Modern Asceticism* (NED - New edition, 1 ed.). Berghahn Books. pp. 21–41. ISBN 978-1-84545-773-0. JSTOR j.ctt9qd2zc. * Planchon, Jean Baptiste Luc (1778). *La naturisme, ou La nature considérée dans les maladies & leur traitement conforme à la doctrine & à la pratique d'Hippocrate et de ses sectateurs*. Tournay: Varlé. * Schneider, Andreas (2009). *Kreta* (in German). DuMont Reiseverlag. ISBN 978-3-7701-7231-3. * Storey, Mark (1 January 2003). *Cinema Au Naturel: A History of Nudist Film*. Naturist Education Foundation, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0-9740844-0-4. * Toepfer, Karl Eric (1997). *Empire of Ecstasy: Nudity and Movement in German Body Culture, 1910-1935*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91827-6. * White, Linda (1991). "Ch. 9: Specialty Vacations: Meeting People Who Share Your Interests" (Paperback). *The independent woman's guide to Europe*. Golden, Colo.: Fulcrum Pub. p. 95. ISBN 9781555910877. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Whitman, Walt (1883). "A Sun-Bath-Nakedness". *Specimen Days and Collect*. Glasgow: Wilson & McCormick. pp. 103–104. p. 104: Somehow I seem'd to get identity with each and every thing around me, in its condition. Nature was naked, and I was also. It was too lazy, soothing, and joyous-equable to speculate about. * Woycke, James Edward (2003). *Au Naturel: The History of Nudism in Canada* (Paperback). Federation of Canadian Naturists. ISBN 9780968233238. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Cook, Hera (5 September 2013). "Story: Naturism". *Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand*. Retrieved 4 March 2021. ### Journal articles * B., J. B. (1935). "Criminal Law and Procedure: Indecent Exposure: Nudism". *Michigan Law Review*. **33** (6): 936–942. doi:10.2307/1281779. ISSN 0026-2234. JSTOR 1281779. * Barcan, Ruth (2001). "'The Moral Bath of Bodily Unconsciousness': Female nudism, bodily exposure and the gaze". *Continuum*. **15** (3): 303–317. doi:10.1080/10304310120086795. ISSN 1030-4312. S2CID 145127932. * Barcan, Ruth (2004). ""Regaining what Mankind has Lost through Civilisation:" Early Nudism and Ambivalent Moderns". *Fashion Theory*. **8** (1): 63–82. doi:10.2752/136270404778051870. ISSN 1362-704X. S2CID 194179019. * Bell, D.; Holliday, R. (2000). "Naked as Nature Intended". *Body & Society*. **6** (3–4): 127–140. doi:10.1177/1357034X00006003007. ISSN 1357-034X. S2CID 144220703. * Buchy, Philip Edward (2005), *A Nudist Resort, thesis for MA*, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, Department of Architecture, retrieved 29 November 2007 * Bullough, Vern L. (1997). "In memory of William Hartman". *Journal of Sex Research*. **34** (4): 427–428. doi:10.1080/00224499709551910. ISSN 0022-4499. * Casler, Lawrence (1964). "Some Sociopsychological Observations in a Nudist Camp: A Preliminary Study". *The Journal of Social Psychology*. **64** (2): 307–323. doi:10.1080/00224545.1964.9919569. PMID 14239003 – via Taylor & Francis Online. * Cleminson, Richard (2004). "Making sense of the body: anarchism, nudism and subjective experience". *Bulletin of Spanish Studies*. **81** (6): 697–716. doi:10.1080/1475382042000272256. ISSN 1475-3820. S2CID 143076783. * Crosby, Donald A. (2003). "Naturism as a Form of Religious Naturalism". *Zygon*. **38** (1): 117–120. doi:10.1111/1467-9744.00484. ISSN 0591-2385. * Daley, Caroline (2005). "From bush to beach: nudism in Australasia". *Journal of Historical Geography*. **31** (1): 149–167. doi:10.1016/j.jhg.2004.03.020. ISSN 0305-7488. * de Vries, Bouke (2018). "The Right to be Publicly Naked: A Defence of Nudism". *Res Publica*. **25** (3): 407–424. doi:10.1007/s11158-018-09406-z. ISSN 1356-4765. S2CID 149854925. * Downs, J. F. (1966). "Social Nudism in America. Fred Ilfeld, Jr., Roger Lauer". *American Anthropologist*. **68** (1): 260–262. doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.1.02a00600. ISSN 0002-7294. * Kerin, Rani (2006). "'Natives Allowed to Remain Naked': An Unorthodox Approach to Medical Work at Ernabella Mission". *Health and History*. **8** (1): 80–99. doi:10.2307/40111530. ISSN 1442-1771. JSTOR 40111530. * Lempa, Heikki (2012). "Turning to Nature in Germany: Hiking, Nudism, and Conservation, 1900–1940 (review)". *Journal of the History of Sexuality*. **21** (2): 350–352. doi:10.1353/sex.2012.0032. ISSN 1535-3605. S2CID 142870375. * Makarova, Veronika (2013). "Doukhobor 'freedom seeker' nudism: Exploring the sociocultural roots". *Culture and Religion*. **14** (2): 131–145. doi:10.1080/14755610.2012.706228. ISSN 1475-5610. S2CID 145269278. * Martin, Richard (1991). "The Deceit of Dress: Utopian Visions and the Arguments against Clothing". *Utopian Studies* (4): 79–84. JSTOR 20718951. * McLellan, Josie (2007). "State socialist bodies: East German nudism from ban to boom". *The Journal of Modern History*. **79** (1): 48–79. doi:10.1086/517544. ISSN 0022-2801. S2CID 144281349 – via University of Chicago Press Journals. * Morris, N. J. (2009). "Naked in nature: naturism, nature and the senses in early 20th century Britain". *Cultural Geographies*. **16** (3): 283–308. doi:10.1177/1474474009105049. ISSN 1474-4740. S2CID 145366617. * Obrador-Pons, Pau (2007). "A Haptic Geography of the Beach: Naked Bodies, Vision and Touch". *Social and Cultural Geography*. **8** (1): 123–141. doi:10.1080/14649360701251866. ISSN 1464-9365. S2CID 219692942. Retrieved 20 January 2022. * Schrank, S. (2012). "Naked Houses: The Architecture of Nudism and the Rethinking of the American Suburbs". *Journal of Urban History*. **38** (4): 635–661. doi:10.1177/0096144211434988. ISSN 0096-1442. S2CID 145688769. * Shaffer, M. S. (2008). "Marguerite S. Shaffer on the Environmental Nude". *Environmental History*. **13** (1): 126–139. doi:10.1093/envhis/13.1.126-a. ISSN 1084-5453. JSTOR 25473196. * Smith, Glenn; King, Michael (2009). "Naturism and sexuality: Broadening our approach to sexual wellbeing". *Health & Place*. **15** (2): 439–446. doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.08.002. ISSN 1353-8292. PMID 18926761. * Warren, H. C. (1933). "Social nudism and the body taboo". *Psychological Review*. **40** (2): 160–183. doi:10.1037/h0073466. ISSN 0033-295X. * Weinberg, Martin S. (1965). "Sexual Modesty, Social Meanings, and the Nudist Camp". *Social Problems*. **12** (3): 311–318. doi:10.2307/798936. ISSN 0037-7791. JSTOR 798936. * Weinberg, Martin S. (1966). "Becoming a nudist". *Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Processes*. **21** (1): 15–24. doi:10.1080/00332747.1966.11023450. PMID 27820889. * West, Keon (1 March 2018). "Naked and Unashamed: Investigations and Applications of the Effects of Naturist Activities on Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction". *Journal of Happiness Studies*. **19** (3): 677–697. doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9846-1. ISSN 1573-7780. S2CID 9153791. * Woodall, Ellen E. (2003). "The American Nudist Movement: From Cooperative to Capital, the Song Remains the Same". *The Journal of Popular Culture*. **36** (2): 264–284. doi:10.1111/1540-5931.00006. ISSN 0022-3840. * *The Bulletin*. AANR. March 2010. p. 6. `{{cite magazine}}`: Missing or empty `|title=` (help) ### Newspaper articles * Andelane, Lana (15 January 2020). "G-string tog debate divides Taupō as local mums call for return to modest bathers". *Newshub*. MediaWorks New Zealand. Archived from the original on 24 September 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * Davison, Richard (10 April 2023). "Complaints about naturist's nude beach walks". *Otago Daily Times Online News*. Retrieved 13 April 2023. * Goosselink, Dave (15 June 2016). "Curtains for nude rugby in Dunedin?". *Newshub*. MediaWorks New Zealand. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * Hudson, Daisy (28 November 2019). "Smaills Beach naturist says people get the wrong idea". *Otago Daily Times Online News*. Archived from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * Steel, Ian (14 February 1975). "Govt. makes bathing in nude legal at Maslins". *Advertiser*. p. 1. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "Nudism moves into New Jersey skeeter district". *Ellensberg Daily Record*. 2 August 1932. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Third of Kiwis OK with beach nudity". *New Zealand Herald*. 1 November 2008. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021. * "Turning the other cheek, all for fun". *Stuff*. Stuff Limited. 31 January 2009. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2021. * "'I'd do it again': Topless woman at Rhythm and Vines speaks out in heartfelt message". *NZ Herald*. 2 January 2018. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. ### Websites * αNaturist (27 November 2016). "camp Gymnasium at Burning Man 2016". *Active Naturists*. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Anderson, Howard (2000), *Why be a naturist: Statistics*, archived from the original on 19 December 2008, retrieved 24 April 2012 * Andueza, Asier (24 March 2016). "Galdakao modifica la normativa para legalizar el 'topless' en sus piscinas" [Galdakao modifies the regulations to legalize 'topless' in its pools]. *EL CORREO.com* (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021. El Gobierno local retirará la prohibición expresa de esta práctica de la ordenanza que regula el uso de las instalaciones descubiertas * Bridge, Adrian (17 July 2014). "Germans Most Likely to Go Nude". *The Telegraph*. Archived from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2021. * Briggs, Bill (5 August 2013). "Naked truth: Aging nudists seek new skin in the game". *CNBC*. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 24 February 2021. * Ciazela, Jakub; Roszak, Sandra (1 January 2018). "Naturists of the Lubiewo resort, Międzyzdroje, Poland – characteristics and motivations". *ResearchGate*. Bogucki. pp. 97–111. Retrieved 2 March 2021. * Club, Naked (23 September 2015). "Nudist Neptune Festival 2014 in Crimea". *Vimeo*. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Connolly, Kate (8 August 2019). "The naked truth: is naturism dying out in Germany?". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Corte Suprema di Cassazione (26 February 2004). "ATTI CONTRARI ALLA PUBBLICA DECENZA - ESPOSIZIONE DEL CORPO NUDO SULLA PUBBLICA SPIAGGIA - COSTITUISCE VIOLAZIONE ALL'ART. 726 C.P." [ACTS CONTRARY TO PUBLIC DECENT - EXPOSURE OF THE NAKED BODY ON THE PUBLIC BEACH - CONSTITUTES VIOLATION OF ART. 726 C.P.]. *www.giustizia.it* (in Italian). Ministero della Giustizia. Archived from the original on 26 February 2004. Retrieved 1 March 2021. [...] diversamente da quella del seno nudo femminile, che ormai da vari lustri è comportamento comunemente accettato ed entrato nel costume sociale [...] * Deschênes, Stéphane (4 January 2016). "The Official INF-FNI Definition of Naturism" (PDF). *INF-FNI*. International Naturist Federation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021. * Ditzian, Danielle (30 April 2017). "What it was like to stay at the Nude Hotel in Zipolite, Mexico". *NZ Herald*. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021. *Zipolite is a small, little-known town on the Pacific coast of Mexico. It not only boasts being the only legal nude beach in Mexico, but is often likened to a town stuck in the 1960s. With the entire beach being clothing optional, it is unlike anywhere else I have ever had the pleasure of visiting*. * Edwards, Adam (10 May 2006). "Stark naked ambition". *The Daily Telegraph*. London. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * Eleftheriou-Smith, Loulla-Mae (30 November 2016). "Naked ambition: 5 ways to holiday in the nude". *The Independent*. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Evans, Stephen (13 April 2014). "10 inventions that owe their success to World War One". *BBC*. Archived from the original on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Fallon, Claire (25 June 2015). "Take It Off! The Fine Art Of Getting Naked In A Clothed World". *Huffington Post*. Archived from the original on 15 September 2017. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * Farrar, Michael (9 November 2005), "The Fellowship of the Naked Trust", *British Naturism*, ISSN 0264-0406, archived from the original on 28 October 2011, retrieved 14 February 2014 * FPN (2017). "Who We Are". *Portuguese Naturist Federation* (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * FPN (1 March 2021). "Institucional" [All the information you want to know about the Portuguese Naturism Federation is here]. *Federação Portuguesa de Naturismo* (in Portuguese). Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 2 March 2021. * Freyman, Falyn (11 April 2013). "Top 10 Reasons to Get Totally Nude at the Florida Young Naturists' Naked Spring Bash". *New Times Broward-Palm Beach*. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * Glaister, Dan (15 May 2007). "Too old - US naturists face up to the naked truth". *The Guardian*. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Haskell Smith, Mark (6 June 2015). "Nudist clubs: why is membership sagging?". *The Australian*. Retrieved 10 January 2020. * Higgins, Michelle (27 April 2008). "No Shoes, No Shirt, No Worries". *The New York Times*. Retrieved 30 July 2014. * Hile, Jennifer (21 July 2004). "The Skinny on Nudism in the U.S." *National Geographic News*. National Geographic Society. Retrieved 9 August 2014. * Hughes, Howard; Monterrubio, Juan Carlos; Miller, Amanda (2010). "'Gay' tourists and host community attitudes". *International Journal of Tourism Research*. **12** (6): 774–786. doi:10.1002/jtr.792. ISSN 1099-2340. * Jenison, David (9 March 2016). "deGeneration X: Buck Naked Jazz on a Black Sea Beach". *Paste Magazine*. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Johnson, Ian (2000). "What Do The First Three Chapters Of Genesis Teach About Clothing?". *Fig Leaf Forum*. Archived from the original on 25 May 2009. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Krien, Daniela (26 June 2007). "Vlog, Videoblog: Bodo Niemann, Gerhard Riebicke und die Freikörperkultur" [Vlog, video blog: Bodo Niemann, Gerhard Riebicke and nudism]. *Amadelio* (in German). Archived from the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 2 December 2007. * Kulkarni, Vishwas (25 April 2010). "World's first nudist colony was in Thane (and this man proved it)". *Mumbai Mirror*. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * M., Cory (2020). "The History of Social Nudism – Nudist History". *Clothesfree.com*. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * Mapes, Terri (2014). "Nudism in Finland". *About.com*. Archived from the original on 11 July 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Mapes, Terri (3 June 2019). "Nudism in Scandinavia". *TripSavvy*. Archived from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 8 March 2021. * O'Brien, Kathleen (3 July 2011), "Visitors of N.J. nude beach face the increasing threat of lurking photographers", *The Star Ledger*, retrieved 30 July 2014 * PARÍS, EFE (11 August 2017). "Las españolas son las que más topless y nudismo hacen" [Spanish women are the ones who do the most topless and nudism]. *La Vanguardia* (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * Patti, Fabrizio (10 July 2015). "Nudismo, l'uovo di Colombo del turismo italiano". *Linkiesta* (in Italian). Archived from the original on 27 October 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * Regula, deTraci (26 June 2019). "Nude Beaches on the Greek Islands, from A to Z". *TripSavvy*. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2017. * Renou, Aymeric (6 August 2017). "Plus jeunes et plus nombreux, les naturistes ont le vent en poupe" [Younger and more numerous, naturists have the wind behind them]. *le Parisien* (in French). Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Storey, Mark (2010). "The Ups and Downs of a Mexican Nude Beach Proposal" (PDF). *Naturist Action Committee*. The Naturist Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * Terp, Peter (16 August 2012). "Naturism / nudism in Finland". *SpotNaked*. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Thomas, Mark (19 January 2017). "A King who fell in love in Dubrovnik". *The Dubrovnik Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * Todd, Georgia (26 February 2019). "Illuminations from Luminate". *Spiritual Seekers Guide to Queenstown and Surrounds*. Archived from the original on 7 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. Clothing, optional and any take on clothing is embraced. * Τσεμπερλιδου, Κατερινα (2 July 2014). "Αυτές είναι 17 παραλίες στην Ελλάδα όπου μπορείτε να κάνετε μπάνιο...γυμνοί-Θα το τολμήσετε;" [These are 17 Beaches in Greece where you can Swim ... Naked – Will you Dare?]. *eirinika.gr* (in Greek). Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 12 June 2019. * Veltheim, John (December 1994). "Naturism: Naked Beneath Your Clothing". *PaRama.com*. Archived from the original on 18 June 2001. Retrieved 22 February 2021. * Zikakou, Ioanna (25 July 2014). "Greece's Most Amazing Nudist Beaches". *Greek Reporter*. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021. * "A History of Naturism - Timeline". *British Naturism*. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 23 December 2018. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "As melhores praias naturistas em Portugal" [The best naturist beaches in Portugal]. *Time Out Lisboa* (in Portuguese). 9 June 2020. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * "Barcelona". *Active Naturists*. 21 April 2012. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Berlin". *Active Naturists*. 25 April 2015. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Bigotte Politiker verderben den Spaß". *n-tv.de* (in German). 19 August 2017. Archived from the original on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * "BlootGewoon!, de nieuwste telg van NFN" [*BlootGewoon!*, the newest offshoot of the NFN]. *Naturisten Federatie Nederland* (in Dutch). 27 March 2017. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * "Body Acceptance: A Brief History of Social Nudity". *Lupin Lodge*. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Desfiles, baile y poca ropa en el Festival Nudista de Zipolite" [Parades, dance, and few clothes at the Zipolite Nudist Festival]. *Clarín* (in Spanish). Clarín, Argentina. 4 February 2018. Archived from the original on 26 October 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2021. Thousands of visitors arrived on the weekend of February 3 and 4 … to participate in the 2018 Nudist Festival… * "Crete". *Active Naturists*. 6 October 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Croatian highlights". *European Points of Interest*. 2011. Archived from the original on 24 February 2013. Retrieved 27 February 2021. * "Cuatro localidades donde te multan si vas sin camiseta por la calle" [Four locations where you are fined if you go without a shirt on the street]. *ECD Confidencial Digital* (in Spanish). 2 July 2014. Archived from the original on 12 August 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "Documento consolidado BOE-A-1995-25444". *Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado* (in Spanish). 24 November 1995. Archived from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 3 March 2021. * "Federación Nudista de México A.C." Archived from the original on 30 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Federatie van Belgische Naturisten". Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "FKK in München und Umland - das Nacktbaden Special". Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Gay reverend fined over 'indecent' images of boys". *Independent.ie*. 30 June 2007. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Greek Island FAQ | tourist travel guides to the Greek islands". *Greek Island Postcards*. Archived from the original on 30 November 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2021. * "Gymnasium theme camp". *Active Naturists*. 7 November 2015. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "History of Naturism". *Federation of Canadian Naturists*. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "History of the Vera Playa naturist zone". November 2006. Archived from the original on 21 August 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "How it used to be". *Active Naturists*. 24 January 2015. Archived from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Indonesia's secret nudist community defying the law". *BBC*. 22 October 2017. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "L'Ametlla del Vallès permitirá el toples en sus piscinas municipales tras consultar a las mujeres" [L'Ametlla del Vallès will allow toplessness in its municipal swimming pools after consulting with women]. *Publico* (in Spanish). 12 June 2018. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. El 60,9% del total de mujeres empadronadas de L'Ametlla del Vallès y mayores de 16 años han votado a favor de la práctica * "La Federación Española de Naturismo recurre ante el TSJC la prohibición del nudismo en Barcelona" [The Spanish Federation of Naturism appeals to the TSJC the prohibition of nudism in Barcelona]. *Europa Press* (in European Spanish). 17 July 2011. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 3 March 2021. * States News Service (24 December 1989). "Lobbying for Nudists' Rights". *New York Times*. Archived from the original on 2 January 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2021. We even have a word for everybody else, everyone who is not a nudist. They're 'textiles,' as in, 'There are textile beaches and nude beaches.' * "Montana Naturist website". Montananaturist.org. Retrieved 14 March 2013. * "Municipal declaration of the distinction of Zipolite and Playa del Amor as nude optional beaches by the Cabildo de San Pedro Pochutla, Pochutla, Oaxaca" (PDF). *federacionnudistademexico.org*. 2016. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "The Nambassa Experience". *Nambassa.com*. 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "New Zealand Naturist Federation". *National Library*. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "Nude Beaches In Greece: Where To Bare It All". *GTP Headlines*. 14 August 2013. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2021. * "Nude Beaches in Scandinavia". *Scandinavian Naturist Portal*. 29 April 2012. Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Nude Beaches in the Netherlands". *Netherlands Tourism*. 28 February 2014. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * "Nude Day". *New Zealand A to Z*. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2021. * "Nudist Beaches in Crete". *greek-islands.us*. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2021. * "Nudity in Public – Legal Aspects". *Free Beaches NZ*. Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "NZNF 60th Anniversary". *gonatural*. New Zealand Naturist Federation. 2018. Archived from the original on 8 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "Paedophile campaigner walks free". *BBC*. 26 November 2002. Archived from the original on 26 November 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Playa Zipolite". *tomzap.com*. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2021. *In the 1960s, Zipolite attracted young countercultural visitors and became known for its bohemian vibe and for its acceptance of nudity on the beach*. * "Rector found guilty over indecent images". *4IE*. 29 June 2007. Archived from the original on 4 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Registration – Convergence". *Convergence*. Archived from the original on 13 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2021. Some people choose to swim naked and occasional nudity will be seen elsewhere. * "Revealed: Paris opens first nudist park but no voyeurs allowed". *The Guardian*. Agence France-Presse. 31 August 2017. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Roberts v. Clement". *Naturist Education Foundation*. 12 February 1966. Archived from the original on 19 April 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "SENTENZA GIUDICE DI PACE DI CECINA - 29/03/2019" [JUDGMENT OF THE JUDGE OF PEACE OF CECINA - 29/03/2019]. *A.N.ITA.* (in Italian). Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. * "SportsCafe - Grand Final". *NZOnscreen*. 2005. Archived from the original on 3 December 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2021. * "The AANR World Record Skinny-Dip" (PDF). *Wreck Beach*. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Οι 10 ωραιότερες παραλίες για γυμνισμό στην Ελλάδα" [The 10 most beautiful beaches for nudism in Greece]. *The Toc* (in Greek). 21 July 2015. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2021. * "Terra Cotta Inn Frequently Asked Questions". *Terra Cotta Inn*. 2011. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * Editorial (11 August 2017). "The Guardian view on nudity: grin and bare it". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2021.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: date and year (link) * "The Nambassa Experience". *Nambassa*. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. Retrieved 4 March 2021. * "Naturism and free beaches in Denmark". 29 April 2012. Archived from the original on 29 April 2012. Retrieved 9 March 2021. With a few exceptions you may take a nude swim or be in the sun without any clothes anywhere in Denmark. * "TOURISME. Plus nombreux, les naturistes sont de plus en plus jeunes" [More numerous, naturists are getting younger and younger]. *le dauphiné* (in French). 1 April 2018. Archived from the original on 3 November 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Una playa sin tabú: Zipolite" [A Beach Without Taboo: Zipolite]. *El Imparcial* (in Spanish). 8 February 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2021. In four years the participation exceeded expectations, from 2 thousand ... to between 7 thousand and 8 thousand. * "what if nudity were a norm? (2)". *Active Naturists*. 6 May 2015. Archived from the original on 28 October 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Why Japanese people are comfortable with nakedness". *Japan Today*. 12 November 2012. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2021. * "Young Naturists America is closing in 2017; The End of Young Naturists America, Inc". *Naturism in Cornwall*. 26 October 2017. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2021. * "Zon en Leven" [Sun and Life]. *Naturisten Federatie Nederland* (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. Further reading --------------- * Carr-Gomm, Philip (2013). *A brief history of nakedness*. London: Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-78023-022-1. OCLC 906832943. * Clinard, Marshall B (2019). "Ch. 1: The Example of Nudism.". *Sociology of deviant behavior*. Boston, MA, USA: Cengage. ISBN 978-1-337-88564-5. OCLC 1019751074. * Crick, Malcolm (2016). *Resplendent sites, discordant voices: sri lankans and international tourism*. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-138-99728-8. OCLC 953428622. * Harp, Stephen L. *Au naturel: Naturism, nudism, and tourism in twentieth-century France* (LSU Press, 2014). * Harp, Stephen L. (2011). "Demanding Vacation au naturel : European Nudism and Postwar Municipal Development on the French Riviera". *The Journal of Modern History*. **83** (3): 513–543. doi:10.1086/660365. ISSN 0022-2801. JSTOR 10.1086/660365. S2CID 144401533. Retrieved 20 March 2021 – via University of Chicago Press Journals. * Hartman, William E. (1991). *Nudist society : the controversial study of the clothes-free naturist movement in America* (Rev. and updated ed.). Los Angeles: Elysium Growth Press. ISBN 1-55599-041-X. OCLC 23940079. * Hoffman, Brian S (2015). *Naked: a cultural history of American nudism*. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4465-9. OCLC 951103647. * Monterrubio, Juan Carlos; Jaurand, Emmanuel (5 May 2014). "Les sociétés locales face au tourisme nudiste: Résultats d'une enquête qualitative sur la côte pacifique du Mexique". *Téoros* (in French) (published 2009). **28** (2): 83–92. doi:10.7202/1024811ar. ISSN 1923-2705. * Parmelee, Maurice (2012). *Nudism in modern life*. Muller Press. ISBN 978-1-4474-5626-1. OCLC 935087781. * Theobald, William F (2005). "Ch. 7: Alternative tourism: a comparative analysis of meaning and impact". *Global tourism* (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 123. ISBN 978-1-4175-4459-2. OCLC 56731935.

Naturism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturism

**Sulfur dioxide** (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or **sulphur dioxide** (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula SO 2. It is a toxic gas responsible for the odor of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced as a by-product of copper extraction and the burning of sulfur-bearing fossil fuels. Structure and bonding --------------------- SO2 is a bent molecule with *C*2v symmetry point group. A valence bond theory approach considering just *s* and *p* orbitals would describe the bonding in terms of resonance between two resonance structures. The sulfur–oxygen bond has a bond order of 1.5. There is support for this simple approach that does not invoke *d* orbital participation. In terms of electron-counting formalism, the sulfur atom has an oxidation state of +4 and a formal charge of +1. Occurrence ---------- Sulfur dioxide is found on Earth and exists in very small concentrations in the atmosphere at about 15 ppb. On other planets, sulfur dioxide can be found in various concentrations, the most significant being the atmosphere of Venus, where it is the third-most abundant atmospheric gas at 150 ppm. There, it reacts with water to form clouds of sulfuric acid, and is a key component of the planet's global atmospheric sulfur cycle and contributes to global warming. It has been implicated as a key agent in the warming of early Mars, with estimates of concentrations in the lower atmosphere as high as 100 ppm, though it only exists in trace amounts. On both Venus and Mars, as on Earth, its primary source is thought to be volcanic. The atmosphere of Io, a natural satellite of Jupiter, is 90% sulfur dioxide and trace amounts are thought to also exist in the atmosphere of Jupiter. The James Webb Space Telescope has observed the presence of sulfur dioxide on the exoplanet WASP-39b, where it is formed through photochemistry in the planet's atmosphere. As an ice, it is thought to exist in abundance on the Galilean moons—as subliming ice or frost on the trailing hemisphere of Io, and in the crust and mantle of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, possibly also in liquid form and readily reacting with water. Production ---------- Sulfur dioxide is primarily produced for sulfuric acid manufacture (see contact process). In the United States in 1979, 23.6 million metric tons (26 million U.S. short tons) of sulfur dioxide were used in this way, compared with 150,000 metric tons (165,347 U.S. short tons) used for other purposes. Most sulfur dioxide is produced by the combustion of elemental sulfur. Some sulfur dioxide is also produced by roasting pyrite and other sulfide ores in air. ### Combustion routes Sulfur dioxide is the product of the burning of sulfur or of burning materials that contain sulfur: 1⁄8 S8 + O2 → SO2, ΔH = −297 kJ/mol To aid combustion, liquified sulfur (140–150 °C, 284-302 °F) is sprayed through an atomizing nozzle to generate fine drops of sulfur with a large surface area. The reaction is exothermic, and the combustion produces temperatures of 1000–1600 °C (1832–2912 °F). The significant amount of heat produced is recovered by steam generation that can subsequently be converted to electricity. The combustion of hydrogen sulfide and organosulfur compounds proceeds similarly. For example: H2S + 3⁄2 O2 → SO2 + H2O The roasting of sulfide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulfide) also releases SO2: 2 FeS2 + 11⁄2 O2 → Fe2O3 + 4 SO2 ZnS + 3⁄2 O2 → ZnO + SO2 HgS + O2 → Hg + SO2 2 FeS + 7⁄2 O2 → Fe2O3 + 2 SO2 A combination of these reactions is responsible for the largest source of sulfur dioxide, volcanic eruptions. These events can release millions of tons of SO2. ### Reduction of higher oxides Sulfur dioxide can also be a byproduct in the manufacture of calcium silicate cement; CaSO4 is heated with coke and sand in this process: 2 CaSO4 + 2 SiO2 + C → 2 CaSiO3 + 2 SO2 + CO2 Until the 1970s, commercial quantities of sulfuric acid and cement were produced by this process in Whitehaven, England. Upon being mixed with shale or marl, and roasted, the sulfate liberated sulfur dioxide gas, used in sulfuric acid production, the reaction also produced calcium silicate, a precursor in cement production. On a laboratory scale, the action of hot concentrated sulfuric acid on copper turnings produces sulfur dioxide. Cu + 2 H2SO4 → CuSO4 + SO2 + 2 H2O Tin also reacts with concentrated sulfuric acid but it produces tin(II) sulfate which can later be pyrolyzed at 360°C into tin dioxide and dry sulfur dioxide. Sn + H2SO4 → SnSO4 + H2 SnSO4 → SnO2 + SO2 ### From sulfites The reverse reaction occurs upon acidification: H+ + HSO−3 → SO2 + H2O Reactions --------- Sulfites results by the action of aqueous base on sulfur dioxide: SO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2SO3 + H2O Sulfur dioxide is a mild but useful reducing agent. It is oxidized by halogens to give the sulfuryl halides, such as sulfuryl chloride: SO2 + Cl2 → SO2Cl2 Sulfur dioxide is the oxidising agent in the Claus process, which is conducted on a large scale in oil refineries. Here, sulfur dioxide is reduced by hydrogen sulfide to give elemental sulfur: SO2 + 2 H2S → 3 S + 2 H2O The sequential oxidation of sulfur dioxide followed by its hydration is used in the production of sulfuric acid. SO2 + H2O + 1⁄2 O2 → H2SO4 Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to give "sulfurous acid", which cannot be isolated and is instead an acidic solution of bisulfite, and possibly sulfite, ions. SO2 + H2O ⇌ HSO−3 + H+          *K*a = 1.54×10−2; p*K*a = 1.81 ### Laboratory reactions Sulfur dioxide is one of the few common acidic yet reducing gases. It turns moist litmus pink (being acidic), then white (due to its bleaching effect). It may be identified by bubbling it through a dichromate solution, turning the solution from orange to green (Cr3+ (aq)). It can also reduce ferric ions to ferrous. Sulfur dioxide can react with certain 1,3-dienes in a cheletropic reaction to form cyclic sulfones. This reaction is exploited on an industrial scale for the synthesis of sulfolane, which is an important solvent in the petrochemical industry. Sulfur dioxide can bind to metal ions as a ligand to form metal sulfur dioxide complexes, typically where the transition metal is in oxidation state 0 or +1. Many different bonding modes (geometries) are recognized, but in most cases, the ligand is monodentate, attached to the metal through sulfur, which can be either planar and pyramidal η1. As a η1-SO2 (S-bonded planar) ligand sulfur dioxide functions as a Lewis base using the lone pair on S. SO2 functions as a Lewis acids in its η1-SO2 (S-bonded pyramidal) bonding mode with metals and in its 1:1 adducts with Lewis bases such as dimethylacetamide and trimethyl amine. When bonding to Lewis bases the acid parameters of SO2 are EA = 0.51 and EA = 1.56. Uses ---- The overarching, dominant use of sulfur dioxide is in the production of sulfuric acid. ### Precursor to sulfuric acid Sulfur dioxide is an intermediate in the production of sulfuric acid, being converted to sulfur trioxide, and then to oleum, which is made into sulfuric acid. Sulfur dioxide for this purpose is made when sulfur combines with oxygen. The method of converting sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid is called the contact process. Several billion kilograms are produced annually for this purpose. ### Food preservative Sulfur dioxide is sometimes used as a preservative for dried apricots, dried figs, and other dried fruits, owing to its antimicrobial properties and ability to prevent oxidation, and is called E220 when used in this way in Europe. As a preservative, it maintains the colorful appearance of the fruit and prevents rotting. It is also added to sulfured molasses. Sublimed sulfite is ignited and burned in an enclosed space with the fruits. This is usually done outdoors. Fruits may be sulfured by dipping them into an either sodium bisulfite, sodium sulfite or sodium metabisulfite. #### Winemaking Sulfur dioxide was first used in winemaking by the Romans, when they discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels keeps them fresh and free from vinegar smell. It is still an important compound in winemaking, and is measured in parts per million (*ppm*) in wine. It is present even in so-called unsulfurated wine at concentrations of up to 10 mg/L. It serves as an antibiotic and antioxidant, protecting wine from spoilage by bacteria and oxidation - a phenomenon that leads to the browning of the wine and a loss of cultivar specific flavors. Its antimicrobial action also helps minimize volatile acidity. Wines containing sulfur dioxide are typically labeled with "containing sulfites". Sulfur dioxide exists in wine in free and bound forms, and the combinations are referred to as total SO2. Binding, for instance to the carbonyl group of acetaldehyde, varies with the wine in question. The free form exists in equilibrium between molecular SO2 (as a dissolved gas) and bisulfite ion, which is in turn in equilibrium with sulfite ion. These equilibria depend on the pH of the wine. Lower pH shifts the equilibrium towards molecular (gaseous) SO2, which is the active form, while at higher pH more SO2 is found in the inactive sulfite and bisulfite forms. The molecular SO2 is active as an antimicrobial and antioxidant, and this is also the form which may be perceived as a pungent odor at high levels. Wines with total SO2 concentrations below 10 ppm do not require "contains sulfites" on the label by US and EU laws. The upper limit of total SO2 allowed in wine in the US is 350 ppm; in the EU it is 160 ppm for red wines and 210 ppm for white and rosé wines. In low concentrations, SO2 is mostly undetectable in wine, but at free SO2 concentrations over 50 ppm, SO2 becomes evident in the smell and taste of wine. SO2 is also a very important compound in winery sanitation. Wineries and equipment must be kept clean, and because bleach cannot be used in a winery due to the risk of cork taint, a mixture of SO2, water, and citric acid is commonly used to clean and sanitize equipment. Ozone (O3) is now used extensively for sanitizing in wineries due to its efficacy, and because it does not affect the wine or most equipment. ### As a reducing agent Sulfur dioxide is also a good reductant. In the presence of water, sulfur dioxide is able to decolorize substances. Specifically, it is a useful reducing bleach for papers and delicate materials such as clothes. This bleaching effect normally does not last very long. Oxygen in the atmosphere reoxidizes the reduced dyes, restoring the color. In municipal wastewater treatment, sulfur dioxide is used to treat chlorinated wastewater prior to release. Sulfur dioxide reduces free and combined chlorine to chloride. Sulfur dioxide is fairly soluble in water, and by both IR and Raman spectroscopy; the hypothetical sulfurous acid, H2SO3, is not present to any extent. However, such solutions do show spectra of the hydrogen sulfite ion, HSO3−, by reaction with water, and it is in fact the actual reducing agent present: SO2 + H2O ⇌ HSO3− + H+ ### As a fumigant In the beginning of the 20th century, sulfur dioxide was used in Buenos Aires as a fumigant to kill rats that carried the Yersinia pestis bacterium, which causes bubonic plague. The application was successful, and the application of this method was extended to other areas in South America. In Buenos Aires, where these apparatuses were known as Sulfurozador, but later also in Rio de Janeiro, New Orleans and San Francisco, the sulfur dioxide treatment machines were brought into the streets to enable extensive disinfection campaigns, with effective results. ### Biochemical and biomedical roles Sulfur dioxide or its conjugate base bisulfite is produced biologically as an intermediate in both sulfate-reducing organisms and in sulfur-oxidizing bacteria, as well. The role of sulfur dioxide in mammalian biology is not yet well understood. Sulfur dioxide blocks nerve signals from the pulmonary stretch receptors and abolishes the Hering–Breuer inflation reflex. It is considered that endogenous sulfur dioxide plays a significant physiological role in regulating cardiac and blood vessel function, and aberrant or deficient sulfur dioxide metabolism can contribute to several different cardiovascular diseases, such as arterial hypertension, atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, and stenocardia. It was shown that in children with pulmonary arterial hypertension due to congenital heart diseases the level of homocysteine is higher and the level of endogenous sulfur dioxide is lower than in normal control children. Moreover, these biochemical parameters strongly correlated to the severity of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Authors considered homocysteine to be one of useful biochemical markers of disease severity and sulfur dioxide metabolism to be one of potential therapeutic targets in those patients. Endogenous sulfur dioxide also has been shown to lower the proliferation rate of endothelial smooth muscle cells in blood vessels, via lowering the MAPK activity and activating adenylyl cyclase and protein kinase A. Smooth muscle cell proliferation is one of important mechanisms of hypertensive remodeling of blood vessels and their stenosis, so it is an important pathogenetic mechanism in arterial hypertension and atherosclerosis. Endogenous sulfur dioxide in low concentrations causes endothelium-dependent vasodilation. In higher concentrations it causes endothelium-independent vasodilation and has a negative inotropic effect on cardiac output function, thus effectively lowering blood pressure and myocardial oxygen consumption. The vasodilating and bronchodilating effects of sulfur dioxide are mediated via ATP-dependent calcium channels and L-type ("dihydropyridine") calcium channels. Endogenous sulfur dioxide is also a potent antiinflammatory, antioxidant and cytoprotective agent. It lowers blood pressure and slows hypertensive remodeling of blood vessels, especially thickening of their intima. It also regulates lipid metabolism. Endogenous sulfur dioxide also diminishes myocardial damage, caused by isoproterenol adrenergic hyperstimulation, and strengthens the myocardial antioxidant defense reserve. ### As a reagent and solvent in the laboratory Sulfur dioxide is a versatile inert solvent widely used for dissolving highly oxidizing salts. It is also used occasionally as a source of the sulfonyl group in organic synthesis. Treatment of aryl diazonium salts with sulfur dioxide and cuprous chloride yields the corresponding aryl sulfonyl chloride, for example: As a result of its very low Lewis basicity, it is often used as a low-temperature solvent/diluent for superacids like magic acid (FSO3H/SbF5), allowing for highly reactive species like *tert*-butyl cation to be observed spectroscopically at low temperature (though tertiary carbocations do react with SO2 above about –30 °C, and even less reactive solvents like SO2ClF must be used at these higher temperatures). ### Aspirational applications #### As a refrigerant Being easily condensed and possessing a high heat of evaporation, sulfur dioxide is a candidate material for refrigerants. Prior to the development of chlorofluorocarbons, sulfur dioxide was used as a refrigerant in home refrigerators. #### Climate engineering Injections of sulfur dioxide in the stratosphere has been proposed in climate engineering. The cooling effect would be similar to what has been observed after the large explosive 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. However this form of geoengineering would have uncertain regional consequences on rainfall patterns, for example in monsoon regions. As an air pollutant ------------------- Sulfur dioxide is a noticeable component in the atmosphere, especially following volcanic eruptions. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the amount of sulfur dioxide released in the U.S. per year was: | Year | SO2 | | --- | --- | | 1970 | 31,161,000 short tons (28.3 Mt) | | 1980 | 25,905,000 short tons (23.5 Mt) | | 1990 | 23,678,000 short tons (21.5 Mt) | | 1996 | 18,859,000 short tons (17.1 Mt) | | 1997 | 19,363,000 short tons (17.6 Mt) | | 1998 | 19,491,000 short tons (17.7 Mt) | | 1999 | 18,867,000 short tons (17.1 Mt) | Sulfur dioxide is a major air pollutant and has significant impacts upon human health. In addition, the concentration of sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere can influence the habitat suitability for plant communities, as well as animal life. Sulfur dioxide emissions are a precursor to acid rain and atmospheric particulates. Due largely to the US EPA's Acid Rain Program, the U.S. has had a 33% decrease in emissions between 1983 and 2002. This improvement resulted in part from flue-gas desulfurization, a technology that enables SO2 to be chemically bound in power plants burning sulfur-containing coal or oil. In particular, calcium oxide (lime) reacts with sulfur dioxide to form calcium sulfite: CaO + SO2 → CaSO3 Aerobic oxidation of the CaSO3 gives CaSO4, anhydrite. Most gypsum sold in Europe comes from flue-gas desulfurization. To control sulfur emissions, dozens of methods with relatively high efficiencies have been developed for fitting of coal-fired power plants. Sulfur can be removed from coal during burning by using limestone as a bed material in fluidized bed combustion. Sulfur can also be removed from fuels before burning, preventing formation of SO2 when the fuel is burnt. The Claus process is used in refineries to produce sulfur as a byproduct. The Stretford process has also been used to remove sulfur from fuel. Redox processes using iron oxides can also be used, for example, Lo-Cat or Sulferox. An analysis found that 18 coal-fired power stations in the western Balkans emitted two-and-half times more sulfur dioxide than all 221 coal plants in the EU combined. Fuel additives such as calcium additives and magnesium carboxylate may be used in marine engines to lower the emission of sulfur dioxide gases into the atmosphere. As of 2006, China was the world's largest sulfur dioxide polluter, with 2005 emissions estimated to be 25,490,000 short tons (23.1 Mt). This amount represents a 27% increase since 2000, and is roughly comparable with U.S. emissions in 1980. * A sulfur dioxide plume from Halemaʻumaʻu, which glows at nightA sulfur dioxide plume from Halemaʻumaʻu, which glows at night * Sulfur dioxide in the world on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary day to day with weather patterns and seasonality.Sulfur dioxide in the world on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary day to day with weather patterns and seasonality. Safety ------ ### Inhalation Incidental exposure to sulfur dioxide is routine, e.g. the smoke from matches, coal, and sulfur-containing fuels. Sulfur dioxide is mildly toxic and can be hazardous in high concentrations. Long-term exposure to low concentrations is also problematic. A 2011 systematic review concluded that exposure to sulfur dioxide is associated with preterm birth. ### U.S. regulations In 2008, the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists reduced the short-term exposure limit to 0.25 parts per million (ppm). In the US, the OSHA set the PEL at 5 ppm (13 mg/m3) time-weighted average. Also in the US, NIOSH set the IDLH at 100 ppm. In 2010, the EPA "revised the primary SO2 NAAQS by establishing a new one-hour standard at a level of 75 parts per billion (ppb). EPA revoked the two existing primary standards because they would not provide additional public health protection given a one-hour standard at 75 ppb." ### Ingestion In the United States, the Center for Science in the Public Interest lists the two food preservatives, sulfur dioxide and sodium bisulfite, as being safe for human consumption except for certain asthmatic individuals who may be sensitive to them, especially in large amounts. Symptoms of sensitivity to sulfiting agents, including sulfur dioxide, manifest as potentially life-threatening trouble breathing within minutes of ingestion. Sulphites may also cause symptoms in non-asthmatic individuals, namely dermatitis, urticaria, flushing, hypotension, abdominal pain and diarrhea, and even life-threatening anaphylaxis. Properties ---------- Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid sulfur dioxide: | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Temperature (°C) | Density (kg/m^3) | Specific heat (kJ/kg K) | Kinematic viscosity (m^2/s) | Conductivity (W/m K) | Thermal diffusivity (m^2/s) | Prandtl Number | Bulk modulus (K^-1) | | -50 | 1560.84 | 1.3595 | 4.84E-07 | 0.242 | 1.14E-07 | 4.24 | - | | -40 | 1536.81 | 1.3607 | 4.24E-07 | 0.235 | 1.13E-07 | 3.74 | - | | -30 | 1520.64 | 1.3616 | 3.71E-07 | 0.23 | 1.12E-07 | 3.31 | - | | -20 | 1488.6 | 1.3624 | 3.24E-07 | 0.225 | 1.11E-07 | 2.93 | - | | -10 | 1463.61 | 1.3628 | 2.88E-07 | 0.218 | 1.10E-07 | 2.62 | - | | 0 | 1438.46 | 1.3636 | 2.57E-07 | 0.211 | 1.08E-07 | 2.38 | - | | 10 | 1412.51 | 1.3645 | 2.32E-07 | 0.204 | 1.07E-07 | 2.18 | - | | 20 | 1386.4 | 1.3653 | 2.10E-07 | 0.199 | 1.05E-07 | 2 | 1.94E-03 | | 30 | 1359.33 | 1.3662 | 1.90E-07 | 0.192 | 1.04E-07 | 1.83 | - | | 40 | 1329.22 | 1.3674 | 1.73E-07 | 0.185 | 1.02E-07 | 1.7 | - | | 50 | 1299.1 | 1.3683 | 1.62E-07 | 0.177 | 9.99E-08 | 1.61 | - | See also -------- * Bunker fuel * National Ambient Air Quality Standards * Sulfur trioxide * Sulfur–iodine cycle

Sulfur dioxide

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide

The **Asian black bear** (***Ursus thibetanus***), also known as the **Asiatic black bear**, **moon bear** and **white-chested bear**, is a medium-sized bear species native to Asia that is largely adapted to an arboreal lifestyle. It lives in the Himalayas, southeastern Iran, the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent, the Korean Peninsula, China, the Russian Far East, the islands of Honshū and Shikoku in Japan, and Taiwan. It is listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List, and is threatened by deforestation and poaching for its body parts, which are used in traditional medicine. Characteristics --------------- The Asian black bear has black fur, a light brown muzzle, and a distinct whitish or creamy patch on the chest, which is sometimes V-shaped. Its ears are bell shaped, proportionately longer than those of other bears, and stick out sideways from the head. Its tail is short, around 11 cm (4.3 in) long. Adults measure 70–100 cm (28–39 in) at the shoulder, and 120–190 cm (47–75 in) in length. Adult males weigh 60–200 kg (130–440 lb) with an average weight of about 135 kg (298 lb). Adult females weigh 40–125 kg (88–276 lb), and large ones up to 140 kg (310 lb). Asian black bears are similar in general build to brown bears (*Ursus arctos*), but are lighter and smaller. The lips and nose are larger and more mobile than those of brown bears. The skulls of Asian black bears are relatively small, but massive, particularly in the lower jaw. Adult males have skulls measuring 311.7 to 328 mm (12.27 to 12.91 in) in length and 199.5–228 mm (7.85–8.98 in) in width, while female skulls are 291.6–315 mm (11.48–12.40 in) long and 163–173 mm (6.4–6.8 in) wide. Compared to other bears of the genus *Ursus*, the projections of the skull are weakly developed; the sagittal crest is low and short, even in old specimens, and does not exceed more than 19–20% of the total length of the skull, unlike in brown bears, which have sagittal crests comprising up to 41% of the skull's length. Although mostly herbivorous, the jaw structure of Asian black bears is not as specialized for plant eating as that of giant pandas: Asian black bears have much narrower zygomatic arches, and the weight ratio of the two pterygoid muscles is also much smaller in Asian black bears. The lateral slips of the temporal muscles are thicker and stronger in Asian black bears. In contrast to polar bears, Asian black bears have powerful upper bodies for climbing trees, and relatively weak hind legs which are shorter than those in brown bears and American black bears. An Asian black bear with broken hind legs can still climb effectively. They are the most bipedal of all bears, and have been known to walk upright for over a quarter of a mile. The heel pads on the forefeet are larger than those of most other bear species. Their claws, which are primarily used for climbing and digging, are slightly longer on the fore foot (30–45 mm) than the back (18–36 mm), and are larger and more hooked than those of the American black bear. On average, adult Asian black bears are slightly smaller than American black bears, though large males can exceed the size of several other bear species. The famed British sportsman known as the "Old Shekarry" wrote of how an Asian black bear he shot in India probably weighed no less than 363 kg (800 lb) based on how many people it took to lift its body. The largest Asian black bear on record allegedly weighed 200 kg (440 lb). Zoo-kept specimens can weigh up to 225 kg (496 lb). Although their senses are more acute than those of brown bears, their eyesight is poor, and their hearing range is moderate, the upper limit being 30 kHz. Taxonomy -------- ### Ancestral and sister taxa Biologically and morphologically, Asian black bears represent the beginning of the arboreal specializations attained by sloth bears and sun bears. Asian black bears have karyotypes nearly identical to those of the five other ursine bears, and, as is typical in the genus, they have 74 chromosomes. From an evolutionary perspective, Asian black bears are the least changed of the Old World bears, with certain scientists arguing that it is likely that all other lineages of ursine bear stem from this species. Scientists have proposed that Asian black bears are either a surviving, albeit modified, form of *Ursus etruscus*, specifically the early, small variety of the Middle Villafranchian (Upper Pliocene to Lower Pleistocene) or a larger form of *Ursus minimus*, an extinct species that arose 4,000,000 years ago. With the exception of the age of the bones, it is often difficult to distinguish the remains of *Ursus minimus* with those of modern Asian black bears. Asian black bears are close relatives to American black bears, with which they share a European common ancestor; the two species are thought to have diverged 3,000,000 years ago, though genetic evidence is inconclusive. Both the American and Asian black species are considered sister taxa and are more closely related to each other than to the other species of bear. The earliest known specimens of Asian black bears are known from the Early Pliocene of Moldova. The earliest American black bear fossils, which were located in Port Kennedy, Pennsylvania, greatly resemble the Asian black species. The first mtDNA study undertaken on Asian black bears suggested that the species arose after the American black bears, while a second study could not statistically resolve the branching order of sloth bears and the two black species, suggesting that these three species underwent a rapid radiation event. A third study suggested that American black bears and Asian black bears diverged as sister taxa after the sloth bear lineage and before the sun bear lineage. Further investigations on the entire mitochondrial cytochrome b sequence indicate that the divergence of continental Asian and Japanese black bear populations might have occurred when bears crossed the land bridge between the Korean peninsula and Japan 500,000 years ago, which is consistent with paleontological evidence. ### Subspecies Asian black bear subspecies| Subspecies name | Common name | Distribution | Description | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Ursus thibetanus formosanus* R. Swinhoe, 1864 | Formosan black bear | Taiwan | This subspecies lacks the thick neck fur of other subspecies. | | *Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus* Blanford, 1877 | Balochistan black bear | southern Balochistan | A small subspecies with relatively short, coarse hair, often reddish-brown rather than black. | | *Ursus thibetanus japonicus* Schlegel, 1857 | Japanese black bear | Honshū and Shikoku. Extinct on Kyushu. | A small subspecies weighing 60–120 kg (130–260 lb) for the adult male and 40–100 kg (88–220 lb) for the adult female. The average body length is 1.1–1.4 m (3 ft 7 in – 4 ft 7 in). It lacks the thick neck fur of other subspecies, and has a darker snout. | | *Ursus thibetanus laniger* Pocock, 1932 | Himalayan black bear | the Himalayas | Distinguished from *U. t. thibetanus* by its longer, thicker fur and smaller, whiter chest mark. During the summer, Himalayan black bears occur in warmer areas in Nepal, China, Siberia, and Tibet at elevations of 3,000–3,600 m (9,800–11,800 ft). For winter, they descend as low as 1,500 m (4,900 ft). On average, they measure 1.4–1.6 m (4 ft 7 in – 5 ft 3 in) from nose to tail and weigh from 90–120 kg (200–260 lb), though they may weigh as much as 181 kg (399 lb) in the fall when they are fattening up for hibernation. | | *Ursus thibetanus mupinensis* Heude, 1901 | indochinese black bear | Indochina | light-colored, similar to *U. t. laniger* | | *Ursus thibetanus thibetanus* Cuvier, 1823 | Tibetan black bear | Assam, Nepal, Myanmar, Mergui, Thailand and Annam | Distinguished from *U. t. laniger* by its short, thin coat with little to no underwool. | | *Ursus thibetanus ussuricus* Heude, 1901 | Ussuri black bear | southern Siberia, northeastern China and the Korean peninsula | the largest subspecies | Until the Late Pleistocene, two further subspecies ranged across Europe and West Asia. These are *U. t. mediterraneus* from Western Europe and the Caucasus and *U. t. permjak* from Eastern Europe, particularly the Ural Mountains. ### Hybrids Asian black bears are reproductively compatible with several other bear species, and have on occasion produced hybrid offspring. According to Jack Hanna's *Monkeys on the Interstate*, a bear captured in Sanford, Florida, was thought to have been the offspring of an escaped female Asian black bear and a male American black bear, and Scherren's *Some notes on hybrid bears* published in 1907 mentioned a successful mating between an Asian black bear and a sloth bear. In 1975, within Venezuela's "Las Delicias" Zoo, a female Asian black bear shared its enclosure with a male spectacled bear, and produced several hybrid descendants. In 2005, a possible Asian black bear–sun bear hybrid cub was captured in the Mekong River watershed of eastern Cambodia. An Asian black bear/brown bear hybrid, taken from a bile farm, is housed at the Animals Asia Foundation's China Moon Bear Rescue as of 2010[update]. Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Fossil record indicate that the Asian black bear once ranged as far west as Western Europe, though it now occurs very patchily throughout its former range, which is limited to Asia. Today, it occurs from southeastern Iran eastward through Afghanistan and Pakistan, across the foothills of the Himalayas in India and Myanmar to mainland Southeast Asia, except Malaysia. Its range in northeastern and southern China is patchy, and it is absent in much of east-central China. Other population clusters exist in the southern Russian Far East and in North Korea. A small remnant population survives in South Korea. It also occurs on the Japanese islands of Honshu and Shikoku, as well as on Taiwan and the Chinese island of Hainan. It typically inhabits deciduous forests, mixed forests and thornbrush forests. In the summer, it usually inhabits altitudes of around 3,500 m (11,480 ft) in the Himalayas but rarely above 3,700 m (12,000 ft). In winter, it descends to altitudes below 1,500 m (4,920 ft). In Japan, it also occurs at sea level. There is no definitive estimate as to the number of Asian black bears: Japan posed estimates of 8–14,000 bears living on Honshū, though the reliability of this is now doubted. Although their reliability is unclear, rangewide estimates of 5–6,000 bears have been presented by Russian biologists. In 2012, Japanese Ministry of the Environment estimated the population at 15–20,000. Rough density estimates without corroborating methodology or data have been made in India and Pakistan, resulting in the estimates of 7–9,000 in India and 1,000 in Pakistan. Unsubstantiated estimates from China give varying estimates between 15 and 46,000, with a government estimate of 28,000. ### Bangladesh The Wildlife Trust of Bangladesh conducted an on-field survey of bears in Bangladesh from 2008 to 2010 that included Asian black bears. The survey was done in 87 different places, mostly in the north-central, northeastern and southeastern areas of Bangladesh that had historical presence of bears. The survey result says that most of the areas still has some isolated small bear populations, mainly the Asian black bears. According to the survey, the most evidence found relating to bears were of Asian black bears that included nests, footprints, local sightings, etc. There are many reports on the presence of Asian black bears in the central, north-central, northeastern and southeastern parts of Bangladesh. Although Asian black bears still occur in different parts of Bangladesh, mainly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the population is very small. Conservationists fear that the species will soon be extinct in the country if necessary steps to protect it are not taken in the near future. ### China Three subspecies of the Asian black bear occur in China: the Tibetan subspecies (*U. thibetanus thibetanus*), the Indochinese subspecies (*U. thibetanus mupinensis*), and the northeastern subspecies (*U. thibetanus ussuricus*), which is the only subspecies of bear in northeastern China. Asian black bears are mainly distributed in the conifer forests in the cold and temperate zones of northeast China, the main areas being Chang Bai, Zhang Guangcai, Lao Ye, and the Lesser Xingan Mountains. Within Liaoning province, there are about 100 Asian black bears, which only inhabit the five counties of Xin Bin, Huan Ren, Ben Xi, Kuan Dian, and Fen Cheng. Within Jilin province, Asian black bears occur mainly in the counties of Hunchun, Dun Hua, Wangqing, An Tu, Chang Bai, Fu Song, Jiao He, Hua Dian, Pan Shi, and Shu Lan. In Heilongjiang province, Asian black bears occur in the counties of Ning An, BaYan, Wu Chang, Tong He, Bao Qing, Fu Yuan, Yi Chun, Tao Shan, Lan Xi, Tie Li, Sun Wu, Ai Hui, De Du, Bei An, and Nen Jiang. This population has a northern boundary of about 50° N and the southern boundary in Feng Cheng is about 40°30" N. ### Korea In Korea, most of the Asian black bears live in the broad-leaved forest of the alpine region, more than 1,500 meters north of Jirisan. Korean National Park Service announced on April 15, 2018, that eight mother bears gave birth to 11 cubs. Six mother bears living in the wild gave birth to eight cubs. Two mothers that were being taken care by the nature adaptation training center in Gurye, South Jeolla Province gave birth to three cubs. Now, there are 56 Asian black bears living in the wild of Jirisan. If the Korea National Park Service releases three cubs born in natural adaptation training centers at September this year, the number of Asian black bears living in the wild will increase to 59. As a result, the restoration of the target of 50 Asian black bears, or the minimum remaining population, will be achieved two years earlier. It was a goal by 2020. Their next goal is to expand and improve the habitat and to increase the genetic diversity of the Asian black bears in Mt. Jiri. ### Siberia In Siberia, the Asian black bear's northern range runs from Innokenti Bay on the coast of the Sea of Japan southwest to the elevated areas of Sikhote Alin crossing it at the sources of the Samarga River. At this point, the boundary directs itself to the north, through the middle course of the Khor, Anyui and Khungari rivers, and comes to the shore of the Amur, crossing it at the level of the mouth of the Gorin River. Along the Amur river, the species' presence has been noted as far as 51° N. Lat. From there, the territorial boundary runs southwest of the river's left bank, passing through the northern part of Lake Bolon and the juncture point of the Kur and Tunguska. Asian black bears are encountered in the Urmi's lower course. Within the Ussuri krai, the species is restricted to broad-leaved Manchurian-type forests. ### Taiwan In Taiwan, the endemic subspecies of Asiatic Black Bear, the Formosan black bear (*Ursus thibetanus formosanus*), chiefly is confined to the mountain ranges in the central regions of the island. It can be found along the Central and Snow mountain ranges, with populations in the latter being more common. The largest population of bears seem to be Lala mountain in Chatienshan Reserve, the (Snow) Mountain area in Sheipa National Park, and Taroko National Park. These populations' individuals and numbers can be found south to Tawushan Reserve through Yushan National Park. Typically they are found in rugged areas at elevations of 1,000–3,500 metres (3,300–11,500 ft). The estimated number of individuals in these regions number some 200 to 600 bears. Behavior and ecology -------------------- Asian black bears are diurnal, though they become nocturnal near human habitations. They will walk in a procession of largest to smallest. They are good climbers of rocks and trees, and will climb to feed, rest, sun, elude enemies and hibernate. Some older bears may become too heavy to climb. Half of their life is spent in trees and they are one of the largest arboreal mammals. In the Ussuri territory in the Russian Far East, Asian black bears can spend up to 15% of their time in trees. Asian black bears break branches and twigs to place under themselves when feeding on trees, thus causing many trees in their home ranges to have nest-like structures on their tops. Asian black bears will rest for short periods in nests on trees standing fifteen feet or higher. Asian black bears do not hibernate over most of their range. They may hibernate in their colder, northern ranges, though some bears will simply move to lower elevations. Nearly all pregnant sows hibernate. Asian black bears prepare their dens for hibernation in mid-October, and will sleep from November until March. Their dens can either be dug-out hollow trees (60 feet above ground), caves or holes in the ground, hollow logs, or steep, mountainous and sunny slopes. They may also den in abandoned brown bear dens. Asian black bears tend to den at lower elevations and on less steep slopes than brown bears. Female Asian black bears emerge from dens later than do males, and female Asian black bears with cubs emerge later than barren females. Asian black bears tend to be less mobile than brown bears. With sufficient food, Asian black bears can remain in an area of roughly 1–2 km2 (0.39–0.77 sq mi), and sometimes even as little as 0.5–1 km2 (0.19–0.39 sq mi). Asian black bears have a wide range of vocalizations, including grunts, whines, roars, slurping sounds (sometimes made when feeding) and "an appalling row" when wounded, alarmed or angry. They emit loud hisses when issuing warnings or threats, and scream when fighting. When approaching other bears, they produce "tut tut" sounds, thought to be produced by bears snapping their tongue against the roof of their mouth. When courting, they emit clucking sounds. ### Reproduction and life cycle Within Sikhote-Alin, the breeding season of Asian black bears occurs earlier than in brown bears, starting from mid-June to mid-August. Birth also occurs earlier, in mid-January. By October, the uterine horns of pregnant females grow to 15–22 mm (0.59–0.87 in). By late December, the embryos weigh 75 grams. Sows generally have their first litter at the age of three years. Pregnant females generally make up 14% of populations. Similar to brown bears, Asian black bears have delayed implantation. Sows usually give birth in caves or hollow trees in winter or early spring after a gestation period of 200–240 days. Cubs weigh 13 ounces at birth, and will begin walking at four days of age, and open their eyes three days later. The skulls of newborn Asian black bear cubs bear great resemblance to those of adult sun bears. Litters can consist of 1–4 cubs, with 2 being the average. Cubs have a slow growth rate, reaching only 2.5 kg by May. Asian black bear cubs will nurse for 104–130 weeks, and become independent at 24–36 months. There is usually a 2–3 year interval period before females produce subsequent litters. The average lifespan in the wild is 25 years, while the oldest Asian black bear in captivity died at the age of 44. ### Feeding Asian black bears are omnivorous, and will feed on insects, beetle larvae, invertebrates, termites, grubs, carrion, bees, eggs, garbage, mushrooms, grasses, bark, roots, tubers, fruits, nuts, seeds, honey, herbs, acorns, cherries, dogwood, and grain. Although herbivorous to a greater degree than brown bears, and more carnivorous than American black bears, Asian black bears are not as specialized in their diet as giant pandas are: while giant pandas depend on a constant supply of low calorie, yet abundant foodstuffs, Asian black bears are more opportunistic and have opted for a nutritional boom-or-bust economy. They thus gorge themselves on a variety of seasonal high calorie foods, storing the excess calories as fat, and then hibernate during times of scarcity. Asian black bears will eat pine nuts and acorns of the previous year in the April–May period. In times of scarcity, they enter river valleys to gain access to hazelnuts and insect larvae in rotting logs. From mid-May through late June, they will supplement their diet with green vegetation and fruit. Through July to September, they will climb trees to eat bird cherries, pine cones, vines and grapes. On rare occasions they will eat dead fish during the spawning season, though this constitutes a much lesser portion of their diet than in brown bears. In the 1970s, Asian black bears were reported to kill and eat Hanuman langurs in Nepal. They appear to be more carnivorous than most other bears, including American black bears, and will kill ungulates with some regularity, including domestic livestock. Wild ungulate prey can include muntjacs, serow, takin, malayan tapir wild boar and adult water buffaloes, which they kill by breaking their necks. ### Interspecific predatory relationships The Asian black bear's range overlaps with that of the sloth bear in central and southern India, the sun bear in Southeast Asia and the brown bear in the southern part of the Russian Far East. Asian black bears seem to intimidate Himalayan brown bears in direct encounters. They eat the fruit dropped by Asian black bears from trees, as they themselves are too large and cumbersome to climb. Asian black bears are occasionally attacked by tigers and brown bears. Leopards are known to prey on bear cubs younger than two years old. Packs of wolves and Eurasian lynxes are potential predators of bear cubs as well. Asian black bears usually dominate Amur leopards in physical confrontations in heavily vegetated areas, while leopards are uppermost in open areas, though the outcome of such encounters is largely dependent on the size of the individual animals. Ussuri brown bears may attack Asian black bears. Tigers occasionally attack and consume Asian black bears. Russian hunters found their remains in tiger scats, and Asian black bear carcasses showing evidence of tiger predation. To escape tigers, Asian black bears rush up a tree and wait for the tiger to leave, though some tigers will pretend to leave, and wait for the bear to descend. Tigers prey foremost on young bears. Some are very tenacious when attacked: Jim Corbett observed a fight between a tiger and the largest Asian black bear he had ever seen. The bear managed to chase off the tiger, despite having half its nose and scalp torn off. He twice saw Asian black bears carry off tiger kills when the latter was absent. Asian black bears are usually safe from tiger attacks once they reach five years of age. One fatal attack of a tiger on a juvenile Asian black bear has been recorded in Jigme Dorji National Park. One Siberian tiger was reported to have lured an Asian black bear by imitating its mating call. However, Asian black bears are probably less vulnerable to tiger attacks than brown bears, due to their habit of living in hollows or in close set rocks. Legal status ------------ The Asian black bear is listed as a protected animal in China's National Protection Wildlife Law, which stipulates that anyone hunting or catching bears without permits will be subject to severe punishment. Although the Asian black bear is protected in India, due to being listed as vulnerable in the Red Data Book in Appendix I of CITES in India and in Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act and its 1991 amendment, it has been difficult to prosecute those accused of poaching Asian black bears due to lack of witnesses and lack of Wildlife Forensic Labs to detect the originality of confiscated animal parts or products. Moreover, due to India's wide-stretching boundaries with other nations such as Pakistan, Tibet, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar, it is difficult to police such borders, which are often in mountainous terrain. Five Asian black bear populations, occurring in Kyushu, Shikoku, West-Chugoku, East-Chugoku and Kii areas, were listed as endangered by the Environmental Agency in the Japanese Red Data Book in 1991. Small isolated populations in the Tanzawa and Shimokita areas of mainland Honshū were listed as endangered in 1995. Beyond recognizing these populations as endangered, there is still a lack of efficient conservation methods for Japanese black bears. Asian black bears occur as an infrequent species in the Red Data Book of Russia, thus falling under special protection and hunting is prohibited. There is currently a strong movement to legalize the hunting of Russian black bears, which is supported by most of the local scientific community. As of January 30, 1989, Taiwan's Formosan black bears have been listed as an endangered species under the Natural and Cultural Heritage Act on, and was later listed as a Conserved Species Category I. The Vietnamese government issued Decision 276/QD, 276/1989, which prohibits the hunting and exporting of Asian black bears. The Red Book of Vietnam lists Vietnamese black bears as endangered. The Korean Government designated the Asian black bear as Natural Monument No. 329 and it is considered an extinction crisis. At the present time, the Endangered Species Restoration Center of Korea National Park Service is going through species restoration business. Threats ------- The main habitat threat to Asian black bears is overcutting of forests, mainly due to human populations increasing to over 430,000 in regions where bears are distributed, in the Shaanxi, Ganshu, and Sichuan provinces. 27 forestry enterprises were built in these areas between 1950 and 1985 (excluding the lumbering units belonging to the county). By the early 1990s, the Asian black bear distribution area was reduced to only one-fifth of the area that existed before the 1940s. Isolated bear populations face environmental and genetic stress in these circumstances. However, one of the most important reasons for their decrease involves overhunting, as Asian black bear paws, gall bladders and cubs have great economic value. Asian black bear harvests are maintained at a high level due to the harm they cause to crops, orchards and bee farms. During the 1950s and 1960s, 1,000 Asian black bears were harvested annually in the Heilongjiang Province. However, purchased furs were reduced by 4/5, even by 9/10 yearly in the late 1970s to the early 1980s. Asian black bears have also been declining annually in Dehong Dai and Jingpo Nations Autonomous Prefecture and the Yunnan Province. Poaching for gall bladders and skin are the main threats faced by Asian black bears in India. Although the poaching of Asian black bears is well known throughout Japan, authorities have done little to remedy the situation. The killing of nuisance bears is practiced year-round, and harvest numbers have been on the increase. Box traps have been widely used since 1970 to capture nuisance bears. It is estimated that the number of shot bears will decrease in time, due to the decline of old traditional hunters and the increase of a younger generation less inclined to hunt. Logging is also considered a threat. Although Asian black bears have been afforded protection in Russia since 1983, illegal poaching, fueled by a growing demand for bear parts in the Asian market, is still a major threat to the Russian population. Many workers of Chinese and Korean origin, supposedly employed in the timber industry, are actually involved in the illegal trade. Some Russian sailors reportedly purchase bear parts from local hunters to sell them to Japanese and Southeast Asian clients. Russia's rapidly growing timber industry has been a serious threat to the Asian black bear's home range for three decades. The cutting of trees containing cavities deprives Asian black bears of their main source of dens, and forces them to den on the ground or in rocks, thus making them more vulnerable to tigers, brown bears and hunters. In Taiwan, Asian black bears are not actively pursued, though steel traps set out for wild boars have been responsible for unintentional bear trappings. Timber harvesting has largely stopped being a major threat to Taiwan's Asian black bear population, though a new policy concerning the transfer of ownership of hill land from the government to private interests has the potential to affect some lowland habitat, particularly in the eastern part of the nation. The building of new cross island highways through bear habitat is also potentially threatening. Vietnamese black bear populations have declined rapidly due to the pressures of human population growth and unstable settlement. Vietnamese forests have been shrinking: of the 87,000 km2 (34,000 sq mi) of natural forests, about 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) disappear every year. Hunting pressures have also increased with a coinciding decline of environmental awareness. South Korea remains one of two countries to allow bear bile farming to continue legally. As reported in 2009, approximately 1,374 Asian black bears reside in an estimated 74 bear farms, where they are kept for slaughter to fuel the demands of traditional Asian medicine. In sharp contrast, fewer than 20 Asian black bears can be found at Jirisan Restoration Center, located in Korea's Jirisan National Park. Relationships with humans ------------------------- ### In folklore and literature In Japanese culture, the Asian black bear is traditionally associated with the mountain spirit (*yama no kami*) and is characterized variously as "mountain man" (**yamaotoko**), "mountain uncle" (*yama no ossan*), "mountain father" (*yama no oyaji*), a loving mother, and a child. Being a largely solitary creature, the Asian black bear is also viewed as "lonely person" (*sabishigariya*). Asian black bears feature very little in lowland Japanese folklore, but are prominent in upland Japan, a fact thought to reflect the bear's greater economic value in upland areas. According to the local folklore in Kituarahara-gun in Niigata, the Asian black bear received its white mark after being given a silk-wrapped amulet by *yama no kami*, which left the mark after being removed. In Hindu mythology, the Asian black bear Jambavantha (also known as Jambavan or Jamvanta) is believed to have lived from Treta Yuga to Dvapara Yuga. In the epic *Ramayana*, Jambavantha assists Rama in finding his wife Sita and battle her abductor, Ravana. Asian black bears are briefly mentioned in Yann Martel's novel *The Life of Pi*, in which they are described by the protagonist's father as being among the most dangerous animals in his zoo. ### Attacks on humans Although usually shy and cautious animals, Asian black bears are more aggressive towards humans than the brown bears of Eurasia and American black bears. David W. Macdonald theorizes that this greater aggression is an adaptation to being sympatric with tigers. According to Brigadier General R. G. Burton: > The Himalayan black bear is a savage animal, sometimes attacking without provocation, and inflicting horrible wounds, attacking generally the head and face with their claws, while using their teeth also on a prostrate victim. It is not uncommon to see men who have been terribly mutilated, some having the scalp torn from the head, and many sportsmen have been killed by these bears. > > — *A Book of Man Eaters*, Chapter XVII *Bears* In response to a chapter on Asian black bears written by Robert Armitage Sterndale in his *Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon* on how Asian black bears were no more dangerous than other animals in India, a reader responded with a letter to *The Asian* on May 11, 1880: > Mr Sterndale, in the course of his interesting papers on the *Mammalia of British India*, remarks of *Ursus Tibetanus*, commonly known as the Himalayan Black Bear, that 'a wounded one will sometimes show fight, but in general it tries to escape.' This description is not, I think, quite correct. As it would lead one to suppose that this bear is not more savage than any other wild animal—the nature of most of the feræ being to try to escape when wounded, unless they see the hunter who has fired at them, when many will charge at once, and desperately. The Himalayan Black Bear will not only do this almost invariably, but often attacks men without any provocation whatever, and is altogether about the most fierce, vicious, dangerous brute to be met with either in the hills or plains of India. [...] These brutes are totally different in their dispositions to the Brown Bear (*Ursus Isabellinus*), which, however desperately wounded, will never charge. I believe there is no case on record of a hunter being charged by a Brown Bear; or even of natives, under any circumstances, being attacked by one; whereas every one of your readers who has ever marched in the Himalayas must have come across many victims of the ferocity of *Ursus Tibetanus*. > > At the turn of the 20th century, a hospital in Srinagar, Kashmir received dozens of Asian black bear victims annually. When Asian black bears attack humans, they rear up on their hind legs and knock victims over with their front paws. Then they bite them on an arm or leg and snap on the victim's head, this being the most dangerous part of the attack. Asian black bear attacks have been increasing in Kashmir since the Kashmir conflict. In November 2009, in the Kulgam district of Indian-administered Kashmir, an Asian black bear attacked four insurgents after discovering them in its den, and killed two of them. In India, attacks on humans have been increasing yearly, and have occurred largely in the northwestern and western Himalayan region. In the Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh, the number of Asian black bear attacks on humans has gradually increased from 10 in 1988–89 to 21 in 1991–92. There are no records of predation on humans by Asian black bears in Russia, and no conflicts have been documented in Taiwan. Recent Asian black bear attacks on humans have been reported from Junbesi in Langtang National Park, Nepal, and occurred in villages as well as in the surrounding forest. Nine people were killed by Asian black bears in Japan between 1979 and 1989. In September 2009, an Asian black bear attacked a group of tourists, mauling nine people and seriously injuring four more at a bus station in the built-up area of Takayama, Gifu. The majority of attacks tend to occur when Asian black bears are encountered suddenly, and in close quarters. Because of this, Asian black bears are generally considered more dangerous than brown bears, which live in more open spaces and are thus less likely to be surprised by approaching humans. They are also likely to attack when protecting food. 2016 saw several attacks by Asian black bears in Japan. In May and June four people were killed by Asian black bears in Akita prefecture while picking bamboo shoots, and in August a female safari park worker in Gunma prefecture was killed when an Asian black bear climbed into her car and attacked her. ### Livestock predation and crop damage In the past, the farmers of the Himalayan lowlands feared Asian black bears more than any other pest, and would erect platforms in the fields, where watchmen would be posted at night and would beat drums to frighten off any interlopers. However, some Asian black bears would grow accustomed to the sound and encroach anyway. Of 1,375 livestock kills examined in Bhutan, Asian black bears accounted for 8% of attacks. Livestock predation, overall, was greatest in the summer and autumn periods, which corresponded with a peak in cropping agriculture; livestock are turned out to pasture and forest during the cropping season and, subsequently, are less well-guarded than at other times. Livestock killed by Asian black bears in Himachal Pradesh, India increased from 29 in 1988–1989 to 45 in 1992–1993. In the remoter areas of Japan, Asian black bears can be serious crop predators: the bears feed on cultivated bamboo shoots in spring, on plums, watermelons and corn in the summer, and on persimmons, sweet potatoes and rice in the autumn. Japanese black bears are estimated to damage 3,000 bee hives annually. When feeding on large crops such as watermelons or pumpkins, Asian black bears will ignore the flesh and eat the seeds, thus adversely affecting future harvests. Asian black bears can girdle and kill trees by stripping their bark for the sap. This can cause serious economic problems in Asia's valuable timber forests. In the late 1970s, 400–1,200 hectares of land had been affected by Asian black bears bark-stripping Japanese conifers. There is evidence that 70-year-old conifers (commanding the highest market values) may also have been bark-stripped. Asian black bears will prey on livestock if their natural food is in poor supply. They have been known to attack bullocks, either killing them outright, or eating them alive. ### Tameability and trainability Along with sun bears, Asian black bears are the most typically used species in areas where bears are used either in performances or as pets. Asian black bears have an outstanding learning ability in captivity, and are among the most common species used in circus acts. According to Gary Brown: > The Asiatic black bears are the comedians of the performing bears. They appear to appreciate applause and will intentionally move into their prescribed position late to attain laughter and attention. — Brown, *The Influence of Bears on Humans* > > Asian black bears are easily tamed, and can be fed with rice, maize, sweet potatoes, cassavas, pumpkins, ripe fruit, animal fat and sweet foods. Keeping captive Asian black bears is popular in China, especially due to the belief that milking the bear's gall bladder leads to quick prosperity. Asian black bears are also popular as pets in Vietnam. ### Hunting and exploitation #### Hunting According to *The Great and Small Game of India, Burma, and Tibet*, regarding the hunting of Asian black bears in British India: > Black bear stalking in the forests bordering the valley of Kashmir requires much more care than is expended in approaching brown bear on the open hills above, the senses of sight and hearing being more strongly developed in the black than in the brown species. Many of these forests are very dense, so that it requires the eye of an experienced *shikari* [hunter] to detect the dark forms of the bears while searching for chestnuts on the ground without the advancing party being detected by the vigilant animals. > > — *The Great and Small Game of India, Burma, and Tibet* p. 367 The book also describes a second method of black bear hunting involving the beating of small patches of forest, when the bears march out in single file. However, black bears were rarely hunted for sport, because of the poor quality of their fur and the ease by which they could be shot in trees, or stalked, as their hearing was poor. > Black bears here afford no sport; it is not shooting at all, it is merely potting a black thing in a tree... I can assure the reader that if he has a fondness for stalking, he will despise bear-killing, and will never shoot at them if there is a chance of anything else. If a man were to hunt for nothing else but bears, and kill a hundred in his six months' leave, he would not have enjoyed such real sport as he would, had he killed ten buck ibex or markhoor. > > — *The rifle in Cashmere* p. 73–74 Although easy to track and shoot, Asian black bears were known by British sportsmen to be extremely dangerous when injured. Brigadier General R.G. Burton wrote of how many sportsmen had been killed by Asian black bears after failing to make direct hits. Today, Asian black bears are only legally hunted for sport in Japan and Russia. In Russia, 75–100 Asian black bears are legally harvested annually, though 500 a year are reportedly harvested illegally. After the introduction of Buddhism in Japan, which prohibited the killing of animals, the Japanese compromised by devising different strategies in hunting bears. Some, such as the inhabitants of the Kiso area in the Nagano Prefecture, prohibited the practice altogether, while others developed rituals in order to placate the spirits of killed bears. In some Japanese hunting communities, Asian black bears lacking the white chest mark are considered sacred. In the Akita Prefecture, bears lacking the mark were known by *matagi* huntsmen as *minaguro* (all-black) or *munaguro* (black-chested), and were also considered messengers of **yama no kami**. If such a bear was shot, the huntsman would offer it to **yama no kami**, and give up hunting from that time on. Similar beliefs were held in Nagano, where the completely black Asian black bears were termed *nekoguma* or cat-bear. *Matagi* communities believed that killing an Asian black bear in the mountains would result in a bad storm, which was linked to the belief that bear spirits could affect weather. The *matagi* would generally hunt Asian black bears in spring or from late autumn to early winter, before they hibernated. In mountain regions, Asian black bears were hunted by driving them upland to a waiting hunter, who would then shoot it. Bear hunting expeditions were preceded by rituals, and could last up to two weeks. After killing the bear, the *matagi* would pray for the bear's soul. Asian black bear hunts in Japan are often termed *kuma taiji*, meaning "bear conquest". The word *taiji* itself is often used in Japanese folklore to describe the slaying of monsters and demons. Traditionally, the Atayal, Taroko, and Bunun people of Taiwan consider Asian black bears to be almost human in their behaviors, and thus unjust killing of bears is equated with murder and will cause misfortunes such as disease, death, or crop failure. The Bunun people call Asian black bears *Aguman* or *Duman*, which means devil. Traditionally, a Bunun hunter who has accidentally trapped an Asian black bear has to build a cottage in the mountains and cremate the bear within it. The hunter must stay in the cottage alone, away from the village until the end of the millet harvest, as it is believed that the killing of an Asian black bear will cause the millet crop to burn black. In the Tungpu area, Asian black bears are considered animals of the "third category": animals with the most remote relationship to humans and whose activity is restricted outside human settlements. Therefore, when Asian black bears encroach upon human settlements, they are considered ill omens. In this situation, the community can either destroy the trespassing bears or settle somewhere else. The Rukai and Paiwan people are permitted to hunt Asian black bears, though they believe that doing so will curse the hunters involved: Rukai people believe that hunting Asian black bears can result in disease. Children are forbidden from eating bear meat, which is itself not permitted to be taken within homes. #### Products Accounts on the quality of the Asian black bear's fur vary. According to *Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon*, "Their skins are always poor and mangy, and generally so greasy that they are very difficult to keep until you can make them over to the dresser", which is corroborated by *The Great and Small Game of India, Burma, and Tibet*, which states "... the skins are never of any particular value, and in autumn, owing to the masses of yellow fat that are accumulated beneath them, are absolutely useless." In British India, grease was the only practical use for Asian black bear carcasses. Bears living near villages were considered the most ideal, as they were almost invariably fatter than their forest-dwelling counterparts. In the former USSR, the Asian black bear yielded fur, meat and fat of greater quality than those of the brown bear. Asian black bears have been hunted for their parts in China since the Stone Age. Bile is most appreciated, as it supposedly cures many diseases, effectively treats the accumulation of blood below the skin, and counters toxic effects. Also, bear bone glue is used as a tonic, and bear fat is also used as a traditional medicine and a tonic. Asian black bear meat is also edible. Due to their many uses, Asian black bears are worth about 20–30 million dong (US$1,500–2,250) each in Vietnam. * Brown, G. (1993). *The Great Bear Almanac*. Lyons & Burford. ISBN 978-1-55821-210-7.

Asian black bear

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_black_bear

The **Senegal national football team** (French: *Équipe de football du Senegal*), nicknamed *Les Lions de la Teranga* (meaning: *The Lions of Teranga*), represents Senegal in international association football and is operated by the Senegalese Football Federation. They are the current champions of both the Africa Cup of Nations and African Nations Championship. One of Africa's most famous national football teams, Senegal reached the quarter-finals of the 2002 FIFA World Cup, becoming the second team from Africa (after Cameroon in 1990). They managed to upset defending world champions France, finish second in their group, and beat Sweden in extra time in the round of 16, before losing to Turkey in the quarter-finals. Senegal’s first appearance in the Africa Cup of Nations was in 1965, when they lost 1–0 to Ivory Coast for fourth place. They hosted the 1992 African Cup of Nations, where they made it to the quarter-finals, and finished as runners-up in both 2002 and 2019. Senegal would finally win their first AFCON title in 2021, defeating Egypt in the final on penalties following a 0–0 draw after extra time. Along with Norway, Senegal is one of very few national football teams to never have lost against Brazil, having one win and one draw in friendly matches. History ------- ### Early history Senegal gained its independence from France on 4 April 1960, and the Senegalese Football Federation (FSF) was founded that year. The first Senegal match took place on 31 December 1961 against Dahomey (now Benin), a 3–2 loss. The FSF has been affiliated with FIFA since 1962 and has been a member of the Confederation of African Football (CAF) since 1963. Senegal's first appearance in the Africa Cup of Nations was in 1965, where they finished second in their group, and lost 1–0 to Ivory Coast to finish in fourth place. After a group stage exit at the AFCON three years later, they would not qualify for the tournament until 1986. ### 1990s and 2000s In the 1990 Africa Cup of Nations, Senegal finished fourth; they hosted the 1992 tournament, where after finishing second in their group, they were eliminated by Cameroon in the quarterfinals. Senegal lost the 2002 final on a penalty shoot-out after drawing 0–0 with Cameroon. Later that year, Senegal made their debut appearance at the World Cup. After defeating defending world champions France in their opening game, they drew with Denmark and Uruguay to progress from the group stage, then beat Sweden in extra time in the round of 16 to reach the quarter-finals, one of only four African teams to do so (alongside Cameroon in 1990, Ghana in 2010 and Morocco in 2022). There, they lost to Turkey in extra time. Senegal qualified for the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, but finished third in their group with two points. They failed to make the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, the first World Cup to be held in Africa. ### 2010s Senegal was eliminated from the 2012 Africa Cup of Nations with zero wins and zero points. After former manager Bruno Metsu died on 14 October 2013, many Senegalese players were recalled to appear and have a moment of silence in memory of the manager who helped them reach the quarter-final in the 2002 World Cup. All activities of the national league and the national team were suspended for a few days in his memory. The West African nation narrowly missed the 2014 FIFA World Cup after losing in a round-robin match against Ivory Coast in the final qualification round. Senegal qualified for two Africa Cup of Nations tournaments before the next World Cup, being eliminated in the group stage in 2015 and reaching the quarterfinals in 2017. On 10 November 2017, after defeating South Africa 2–0, Senegal qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, their first since 2002. Senegal defeated Poland 2–1 in their opening group match, thanks to an own goal by Thiago Cionek and a M'Baye Niang strike. In the next group stage match, Senegal drew 2–2 against Japan, with goals from Sadio Mané and Moussa Wagué. A 1–0 loss to Colombia in their final match meant they finished level on points with Japan, who progressed thanks to a superior fair play record. Thus, Senegal was eliminated in the group stage for the first time in its World Cup history. Aliou Cissé, who participated in the 2002 AFCON, managed Senegal to a runner-up campaign in the 2019 Africa Cup of Nations. Having lost 1–0 to Algeria earlier in the tournament, Senegal lost 1–0 to them again in the final. ### 2020s Deprived of many players due to COVID-19, Senegal participated in the 2021 Africa Cup of Nations, postponed to 2022 because of the pandemic; they beat Zimbabwe in their first match 1–0 and drew their next two games, enough to finish first in their group. In the round of 16, Senegal faced Cape Verde. Mané recorded a shot that hit the post in the first minute. Patrick Andrade was sent off in the 21st minute, after intervention of the video assistant referee. Despite their dominance, the first half ended without a single shot on target; Mané opened the scoring a few minutes into the second half, following a corner. Senegal faced Equatorial Guinea in the quarter-finals. The Lions opened the scoring half an hour into the game, by Famara Diédhiou on a pass from Mané; Senegal eventually won 3–1. In the semi-finals, Senegal faced Burkina Faso, winning 3–1 again. In the final, Senegal faced Egypt, who eliminated hosts Cameroon in the semi-finals. In a penalty shoot-out, Mané scored the winning penalty, to bring Senegal its first Africa Cup of Nations title. Senegal returned home and took part in a victory parade that took place in the capital, Dakar. It ended up becoming the biggest party in the country's history. Senegal faced Egypt twice after the AFCON final, eliminating the Egyptians on penalties after being tied 1–1 on aggregate, to qualify for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Mané eliminated his Liverpool teammate Mohamed Salah after scoring the winning penalty again. The penalty shoot-out was however full of controversies with lasers being pointed at Egypt’s penalty takers and goalkeeper. FIFA fined Senegal’s football federation 175,000 Swiss francs as a result of the fan disorder. For the 2022 World Cup in Qatar, Senegal were drawn in Group A along with the hosts Qatar, Ecuador and the Netherlands. Star man Mané missed out due to injury, but Senegal managed to progress from the group nonetheless. Though they lost their first game against the Netherlands 2–0, Senegal went on to claim six points against the hosts and then Ecuador in their final game, progressing to the Round of 16, where they lost 3–0 to England. It marked the second time Senegal had progressed past the group stage, in only their third appearance. Kit history ----------- Puma has been the manufacturer of Senegal's kits since 2004. The home kit is typically white, and the away kit is green. | Kit providers | Period | | --- | --- | | Germany Adidas | 1980–2000 | | Italy Erreà | 2000–2002 | | France Le Coq Sportif | 2002–2004 | | Germany Puma | 2004–2016 | | United Arab Emirates Romai | 2017 | | Germany Puma | 2017–present | Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Senegal  v  Eswatini | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 13 July 2022 COSAFA Cup QF | **Senegal** | **1–1** (**10–9** p) | **Eswatini** | Durban, South Africa | | | * L. Camara 8' | | * Mkhontfo 60' | Stadium: Princess Magogo Stadium | Zambia  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 July 2022 COSAFA Cup SF | **Zambia** | **4–3** | **Senegal** | Durban | | | | | | Stadium: Moses Mabhida Stadium | Mozambique  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 July 2022 COSAFA Cup 3rd-place match | **Mozambique** | **1–1** (**2–4** p) | **Senegal** | Durban, South Africa | | | | | | Stadium: Moses Mabhida Stadium | Bolivia  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 September Friendly | **Bolivia** | **0–2** | **Senegal** | Orléans, France | | | | Report | * Dia 4' * Mané 44' (pen.) | Stadium: Stade de la SourceAttendance: 7,533Referee: Bastien Dechepy (France) | Iran  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September Friendly | **Iran** | **1–1** | **Senegal** | Maria Enzersdorf, Austria | | 16:30 UTC+2 | Azmoun 64' | Report | Pouraliganji 55' (o.g.) | Stadium: Motion invest ArenaReferee: Harald Lechner (Austria) | Senegal  v  Netherlands | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 21 November 2022 World Cup GS | **Senegal** | **0–2** | **Netherlands** | Doha, Qatar | | 13:00 UTC+3 | | Report | * Gakpo 84' * Klaassen 90+9' | Stadium: Al Thumama StadiumAttendance: 41,721Referee: Wilton Sampaio (Brazil) | Qatar  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 25 November 2022 World Cup GS | **Qatar** | **1–3** | **Senegal** | Doha, Qatar | | 16:00 UTC+3 | * Muntari 78' | Report | * Dia 41' * Diédhiou 48' * B. Dieng 84' | Stadium: Al Thumama StadiumAttendance: 41,797Referee: Antonio Mateu Lahoz (Spain) | Ecuador  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 29 November 2022 World Cup GS | **Ecuador** | **1–2** | **Senegal** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 18:00 UTC+3 | * Caicedo 67' | Report | * I. Sarr 44' (pen.) * Koulibaly 70' | Stadium: Khalifa International StadiumAttendance: 44,569Referee: Clément Turpin (France) | England  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 December 2022 World Cup R16 | **England** | **3–0** | **Senegal** | Al Khor, Qatar | | 22:00 UTC+3 | * Henderson 38' * Kane 45+3' * Saka 57' | Report | | Stadium: Al Bayt StadiumAttendance: 65,985Referee: Iván Barton (El Salvador) | Algeria  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 December Friendly | **Algeria** | **2–2** | **Senegal** | Annaba, Algeria | | 18:30 CET (UTC+1) | * Kendouci 27' * Mahious 61' | Report | * Kanté 15' * Mbaye 47' | Stadium: 19 May 1956 Stadium | ### 2023 Senegal  v  Niger | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 6 January Friendly | **Senegal** | **0–0** | **Niger** | Tabarka, Tunisia | | 13:00 CET (UTC+1) | | Report | | Stadium: La Cigale Sport Complex | Congo  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 9 January Friendly | **Congo** | **0–1** | **Senegal** | Tabarka, Tunisia | | 12:00 CET (UTC+1) | | Report | Camara 5' | Stadium: La Cigale Sport Complex | Ivory Coast  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 14 January 2022 CHAN GS | **Ivory Coast** | **0–1** | **Senegal** | Annaba, Algeria | | 20:00 CET (UTC+1) | | Report | * Ndiaye 80' | Stadium: 19 May 1956 StadiumReferee: Lotfi Bekouassa (Algeria) | Senegal  v  Uganda | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 18 January 2022 CHAN GS | **Senegal** | **0–1** | **Uganda** | Annaba, Algeria | | 20:00 CET (UTC+1) | | Report | * Karisa 33' | Stadium: 19 May 1956 StadiumReferee: Mehrez Melki (Tunisia) | Senegal  v  DR Congo | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 22 January 2022 CHAN GS | **Senegal** | **3–0** | **DR Congo** | Annaba, Algeria | | 20:00 CET (UTC+1) | * Diouf 23' * P. Diallo 74' * Saidi 77' (o.g.) | Report | | Stadium: 19 May 1956 StadiumReferee: Tom Abongile (South Africa) | Senegal  v  Mauritania | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 January 2022 CHAN QF | **Senegal** | **1–0** | **Mauritania** | Algiers, Algeria | | 20:00 CET (UTC+1) | * Camara 34' (pen.) | Report | | Stadium: Nelson Mandela StadiumReferee: Abdelaziz Bouh (Mauritania) | Senegal  v  Madagascar | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 31 January 2022 CHAN SF | **Senegal** | **1–0** | **Madagascar** | Algiers, Algeria | | 20:00 CET (UTC+1) | * P. Diallo 5' | Report | | Stadium: Nelson Mandela StadiumReferee: Alhadi Allaou Mahamat (Chad) | Algeria  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 February 2022 CHAN final | **Algeria** | **0–0** (a.e.t.) (**4–5** p) | **Senegal** | Algiers, Algeria | | 20:30 CET (UTC+1) | | Report | | Stadium: Nelson Mandela StadiumAttendance: 39,120Referee: Pierre Ghislain Atcho (Gabon) | | | **Penalties** | | | * Djahnit soccer ball with check mark * Draoui soccer ball with check mark * Bayazid soccer ball with check mark * Laouafi soccer ball with check mark * Mahious soccer ball with red X * Kendouci soccer ball with red X | | * soccer ball with check mark Baldé * soccer ball with check mark Ndiaye * soccer ball with check mark Kanté * soccer ball with red X C. Ndiaye * soccer ball with check mark Camara * soccer ball with check mark Diouf | Senegal  v  Mozambique | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 March 2023 AFCON qualification | **Senegal** | **5–1** | **Mozambique** | Dakar, Senegal | | 20:00 UTC±0 | * Sabaly 9' * Mané 15' * Ndiaye 32' * Dia 39' * Diallo 88' | Report | * Vilanculos 48' | Stadium: Diamniadio Olympic StadiumReferee: Ibrahim Mutaz (Libya) | Mozambique  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March 2023 AFCON qualification | **Mozambique** | **0–1** | **Senegal** | Maputo, Mozambique | | 18:00 UTC+2 | | Report | * Dia 18' | Stadium: Estádio do ZimpetoReferee: Blaise Yuven Ngwa (Cameroon) | Benin  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 17 June 2023 AFCON qualification | **Benin** | **1–1** | **Senegal** | Cotonou, Benin | | 20:00 UTC+1 | * Moumini 78' | Report | * Seck 43' | Stadium: Stade de l'AmitiéReferee: Jean Jacques Ndala Ngambo (DR Congo) | Brazil  v  Senegal | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June Friendly | **Brazil** | **2–4** | **Senegal** | Lisbon, Portugal | | 20:00 UTC+2 | * Paquetá 11' * Marquinhos 58' | Report | * H. Diallo 22' * Marquinhos 52' (o.g.) * Mané 55', 90+7' (pen.) | Stadium: Estádio José AlvaladeReferee: Gustavo Correia (Portugal) | Senegal  v  Rwanda | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 4 September 2023 AFCON qualification | **Senegal** | **v** | **Rwanda** | Dakar, Senegal | | --:-- UTC±0 | | Report | | Stadium: Diamniadio Olympic Stadium | Coaching staff -------------- | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head Coach | Senegal Aliou Cissé | | Assistant Coach | France Régis Bogaert | | Assistant Coach II | Senegal Naby Traoré | | Goalkeeping Coach | Senegal Tony Sylva | | Team Coordinator | Senegal Lamine Diatta | | Physical Trainer | Senegal Djibril Yattar | | Media Officer | Senegal Ciré Soumare | | Technical Director | Senegal Mayacine Mar | | Team Doctor | Senegal Abdourahmane Fédior | ### Coaching history | Manager | Period | Honours | | --- | --- | --- | | France Raoul Diagne | 1960–1961 | | | France Jules Vandooren | 1961–1963 | | | Senegal Habib Bâ --- Senegal Lybasse Diop | 1963–1965 | 1965 Africa Cup of Nations – Fourth place | | Senegal Lamine Diack | 1965–1968 | 1968 Africa Cup of Nations – Group stage | | West Germany Otto Pfister | 1979–1982 | | | Senegal Pape Alioune Diop | 1982–1986 | 1986 Africa Cup of Nations – Group stage 1986 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | Senegal Mawade Wade | 1986–1989 | 1988 Africa Cup of Nations – Failed to qualify 1990 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | France Claude Le Roy | 1989–1992 | 1990 Africa Cup of Nations – Fourth place 1992 Africa Cup of Nations – Quarter-finals | | Senegal Lamine Dieng | 1992–1993 | | | Senegal Boubacar Sarr | 1993–1994 | 1994 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | Senegal Jules Bocandé --- Senegal Boubacar Sarr | 1994–1995 | 1994 Africa Cup of Nations – Quarter-finals 1996 Africa Cup of Nations – Failed to qualify | | Germany Peter Schnittger | 1995–2000 | 1998 Africa Cup of Nations – Failed to qualify 1998 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify 2000 Africa Cup of Nations – Quarter-finals | | France Bruno Metsu | 2000–2002 | 2002 African Cup of Nations – Runners-up 2002 FIFA World Cup – Quarter-finals | | France Guy Stéphan | 2002–2005 | 2004 Africa Cup of Nations – Quarter-finals 2006 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | Senegal Abdoulaye Sarr | 2005–2006 | 2006 Africa Cup of Nations – Fourth place | | Poland Henryk Kasperczak | 2006–2008 | 2008 Africa Cup of Nations – Group stage | | Senegal Lamine N'Diaye | 2008 | | | Senegal Amsatou Fall | 2009 | 2010 Africa Cup of Nations – Failed to qualify 2010 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | Senegal Amara Traoré | 2009–2012 | 2012 Africa Cup of Nations – Group stage | | Senegal Karim Séga Diouf --- Senegal Aliou Cissé | 2012 | | | Senegal Joseph Koto | 2012 | 2013 Africa Cup of Nations – Failed to qualify | | Senegal Mayacine Mar | 2012–2013 | 2014 FIFA World Cup – Failed to qualify | | France Alain Giresse | 2013–2015 | 2015 Africa Cup of Nations – Group stage | | Senegal Aliou Cissé | 2015–present | 2017 Africa Cup of Nations – Quarter-finals 2018 FIFA World Cup – Group stage 2019 Africa Cup of Nations – Runners-up 2021 Africa Cup of Nations – **Champions** 2022 FIFA World Cup – Round of 16 2023 Africa Cup of Nations – Qualified | Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the 2023 Africa Cup of Nations qualification match against Benin and the friendly against Brazil on 17 and 20 June 2023, respectively. *Caps and goals updated as of 20 June 2023, after the match against  Brazil.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Seny Dieng | (1994-11-23) 23 November 1994 (age 28) | 5 | 0 | England Queens Park Rangers | | 16 | 1GK | Mory Diaw | (1993-06-22) 22 June 1993 (age 30) | 1 | 0 | France Clermont | | 23 | 1GK | Alfred Gomis | (1993-09-05) 5 September 1993 (age 29) | 16 | 0 | Italy Como | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Formose Mendy | (2001-01-02) 2 January 2001 (age 22) | 3 | 0 | France Amiens | | 3 | 2DF | Kalidou Koulibaly | (1991-06-20) 20 June 1991 (age 32) | 71 | 1 | Saudi Arabia Al-Hilal | | 4 | 2DF | Abdoulaye Seck | (1992-06-04) 4 June 1992 (age 31) | 8 | 1 | Israel Maccabi Haifa | | 12 | 2DF | Abdallah Ndour | (1993-12-20) 20 December 1993 (age 29) | 1 | 0 | France Sochaux | | 14 | 2DF | Ismail Jakobs | (1999-08-17) 17 August 1999 (age 23) | 8 | 0 | France Monaco | | 19 | 2DF | Moussa Niakhaté | (1996-03-08) 8 March 1996 (age 27) | 3 | 0 | England Nottingham Forest | | 21 | 2DF | Youssouf Sabaly | (1993-03-05) 5 March 1993 (age 30) | 31 | 1 | Spain Real Betis | | 22 | 2DF | Abdou Diallo | (1996-05-04) 4 May 1996 (age 27) | 23 | 2 | Germany RB Leipzig | | | 2DF | Fodé Ballo-Touré | (1997-01-03) 3 January 1997 (age 26) | 15 | 0 | Italy Milan | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Idrissa Gueye | (1989-09-26) 26 September 1989 (age 33) | 102 | 7 | England Everton | | 6 | 3MF | Nampalys Mendy | (1992-06-23) 23 June 1992 (age 31) | 27 | 0 | England Leicester City | | 8 | 3MF | Cheikhou Kouyaté | (1989-12-21) 21 December 1989 (age 33) | 86 | 4 | England Nottingham Forest | | 11 | 3MF | Pathé Ciss | (1994-03-16) 16 March 1994 (age 29) | 8 | 0 | Spain Rayo Vallecano | | 17 | 3MF | Dion Lopy | (2002-02-02) 2 February 2002 (age 21) | 2 | 0 | France Reims | | 20 | 3MF | Pape Gueye | (1999-01-24) 24 January 1999 (age 24) | 17 | 0 | Spain Sevilla | | | 3MF | Pape Matar Sarr | (2002-09-14) 14 September 2002 (age 20) | 14 | 0 | England Tottenham Hotspur | | --- | | 7 | 4FW | Habib Diallo | (1995-06-18) 18 June 1995 (age 28) | 18 | 4 | France Strasbourg | | 9 | 4FW | Nicolas Jackson | (2001-06-20) 20 June 2001 (age 22) | 3 | 0 | Spain Villarreal | | 10 | 4FW | Sadio Mané | (1992-04-10) 10 April 1992 (age 31) | 97 | 37 | Germany Bayern Munich | | 13 | 4FW | Pape Ousmane Sakho | (1996-12-21) 21 December 1996 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | Tanzania Simba | | 15 | 4FW | Krépin Diatta | (1999-02-25) 25 February 1999 (age 24) | 33 | 2 | France Monaco | | 18 | 4FW | Ismaïla Sarr | (1998-02-25) 25 February 1998 (age 25) | 54 | 11 | England Watford | | | 4FW | Iliman Ndiaye | (2000-03-06) 6 March 2000 (age 23) | 7 | 1 | England Sheffield United | ### Recent call-ups The following players have been called up for Senegal in the last 12 months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Édouard Mendy | (1992-03-01) 1 March 1992 (age 31) | 29 | 0 | England Chelsea | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | GK | Bingourou Kamara | (1996-10-21) 21 October 1996 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | France Montpellier | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | GK | Alioune Badara Faty | (1999-05-03)3 May 1999 (aged 22) | 0 | 0 | Senegal Casa Sports | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | --- | | DF | Cheikh Sidibé | (1999-04-25) 25 April 1999 (age 24) | 6 | 0 | Senegal Teungueth Rufisque | v.  Mozambique, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Noah Fadiga | (1999-12-03) 3 December 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | France Brest | v.  Mozambique, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Pape Abou Cissé | (1995-09-14) 14 September 1995 (age 27) | 16 | 1 | Greece Olympiacos | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Moussa N'Diaye | (2000-06-18) 18 June 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Belgium Anderlecht | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Saliou Ciss | (1989-09-15) 15 September 1989 (age 33) | 37 | 0 | *Unattached* | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | DF | Bouna Sarr | (1992-01-31) 31 January 1992 (age 31) | 13 | 0 | Germany Bayern Munich | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | --- | | MF | Moustapha Name | (1995-05-05) 5 May 1995 (age 28) | 6 | 0 | Cyprus Pafos | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Mamadou Loum | (1996-12-30) 30 December 1996 (age 26) | 3 | 0 | England Reading | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- | | FW | Boulaye Dia | (1996-11-16) 16 November 1996 (age 26) | 25 | 6 | Italy Salernitana | v.  Mozambique, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Bamba Dieng | (2000-03-23) 23 March 2000 (age 23) | 18 | 2 | France Lorient | v.  Mozambique, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Famara Diédhiou | (1992-12-15) 15 December 1992 (age 30) | 27 | 11 | Spain Granada | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | FW | Mame Thiam | (1992-10-09) 9 October 1992 (age 30) | 4 | 0 | Turkey Kayserispor | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | FW | Demba Seck | (2001-02-10) 10 February 2001 (age 22) | 1 | 0 | Italy Torino | v.  Iran, 27 September 2022 | | --- DEC Player refused to join the team after the call-up. INJ Player withdrew from the squad due to an injury. PRE Preliminary squad. RET Player has retired from international football. SUS Suspended from the national team. | Player records -------------- *As of 20 June 2023* *Players in **bold** are still active with Senegal.* ### Most appearances | | | | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | 1 | **Idrissa Gueye** | 102 | 7 | 2011–present | | 2 | Henri Camara | 99 | 29 | 1999–2008 | | 3 | **Sadio Mané** | 97 | 37 | 2012–present | | 4 | Roger Mendy | 87 | 3 | 1979–1995 | | 5 | **Cheikhou Kouyaté** | 86 | 4 | 2012–present | | 6 | Tony Sylva | 83 | 0 | 1999–2008 | | 7 | Jules Bocandé | 73 | 20 | 1979–1993 | | 8 | Lamine Diatta | 71 | 4 | 2000–2008 | | 9 | El Hadji Diouf | 70 | 24 | 2000–2008 | | **Kalidou Koulibaly** | 71 | 1 | 2015–present | ### Top goalscorers | | | | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | 1 | **Sadio Mané** (list) | 37 | 97 | 0.38 | 2012–present | | 2 | Henri Camara | 29 | 99 | 0.29 | 1999–2008 | | 3 | El Hadji Diouf | 24 | 70 | 0.34 | 2000–2008 | | 4 | Mamadou Niang | 20 | 54 | 0.37 | 2002–2012 | | Jules Bocandé | 20 | 73 | 0.27 | 1979–1993 | | 6 | Moussa Sow | 18 | 50 | 0.36 | 2009–2018 | | 7 | Papiss Cissé | 17 | 36 | 0.47 | 2009–2015 | | 8 | Mamadou Diallo | 15 | 35 | 0.43 | 1989–1999 | | 9 | Moussa Konaté | 12 | 34 | 0.35 | 2012–2019 | | 10 | Souleymane Sané | 11 | 23 | 0.48 | 1990–1997 | | **Famara Diédhiou** | 11 | 27 | 0.41 | 2014–present | | **Ismaïla Sarr** | 11 | 53 | 0.21 | 2016–present | | Papa Bouba Diop | 11 | 63 | 0.17 | 2001–2008 | Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup Senegal have appeared in the finals of the FIFA World Cup on three occasions, in 2002 where they reached the quarter-finals, in 2018, and in 2022. | FIFA World Cup record | | FIFA World Cup qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | *Part of  France* | *Declined participation* | | Italy 1934 | | France 1938 | | Brazil 1950 | | Switzerland 1954 | | Sweden 1958 | | Chile 1962 | | England 1966 | | Mexico 1970 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | | West Germany 1974 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | Argentina 1978 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | Spain 1982 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | Mexico 1986 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | Italy 1990 | *Did not enter* | *Declined participation* | | United States 1994 | *Did not qualify* | 8 | 3 | 1 | 4 | 11 | 12 | | France 1998 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 7 | 6 | Squad | 10 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 16 | 3 | | Germany 2006 | *Did not qualify* | 10 | 6 | 3 | 1 | 21 | 8 | | South Africa 2010 | 6 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 9 | 7 | | Brazil 2014 | 8 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 11 | 8 | | Russia 2018 | Group stage | 17th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | Squad | 8 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 15 | 5 | | Qatar 2022 | Round of 16 | 10th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 7 | Squad | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 16 | 5 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Quarter-finals | 3/22 | 12 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 16 | 17 | — | 71 | 32 | 23 | 16 | 106 | 61 | ### Africa Cup of Nations Historically, Senegal was seen as a weaker side in the strong West African region. Although they finished in fourth place in two AFCON editions, Senegalese performance was overall still deemed as poor. Senegal remained under the shadow of West African giants Nigeria, Ivory Coast and Ghana for the majority of the 20th century. In the 2000s, Senegal began to surge and became a more competitive opponent in the Africa Cup of Nations. Following a successful FIFA World Cup debut in 2002, in which the side reached the quarter-finals, Senegal established itself as a new powerhouse in Africa. The 2002 Africa Cup of Nations tournament marked a defeat to Cameroon 2–3 on penalties after a goalless draw in the final. Senegal once again finished as runners-up in 2019, losing the final 0–1 to Algeria, and finally won their first AFCON title in 2021. | Africa Cup of Nations record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Sudan 1957 | *Part of*  France | | Egypt 1959 | | Ethiopia 1962 | *Not affiliated to CAF* | | Ghana 1963 | | Tunisia 1965 | Fourth place | 4th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 2 | Squad | | Ethiopia 1968 | Group stage | 5th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | Squad | | Sudan 1970 | *Did not qualify* | | Cameroon 1972 | | Egypt 1974 | | Ethiopia 1976 | | Ghana 1978 | | Nigeria 1980 | *Did not enter* | | Libya 1982 | *Did not qualify* | | Ivory Coast 1984 | | Egypt 1986 | Group stage | 5th | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | Squad | | Morocco 1988 | *Did not qualify* | | Algeria 1990 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 3 | Squad | | Senegal 1992 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3 | Squad | | Tunisia 1994 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | Squad | | South Africa 1996 | *Did not qualify* | | Burkina Faso 1998 | | GhanaNigeria 2000 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 6 | Squad | | Mali 2002 | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 1 | Squad | | Tunisia 2004 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 2 | Squad | | Egypt 2006 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 8 | Squad | | Ghana 2008 | Group stage | 12th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 6 | Squad | | Angola 2010 | *Did not qualify* | | GabonEquatorial Guinea 2012 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 6 | Squad | | South Africa 2013 | *Did not qualify* | | Equatorial Guinea 2015 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | Squad | | Gabon 2017 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 2 | Squad | | Egypt 2019 | Runners-up | 2nd | 7 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 2 | Squad | | Cameroon 2021 | **Champions** | 1st | 7 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 9 | 2 | Squad | | Ivory Coast 2023 | *Qualified* | | 2025 | *To be determined* | | Total | 1 Title | 17/34 | 67 | 27 | 17 | 23 | 78 | 56 | — | ### African Nations Championship | African Nations Championship record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Ivory Coast 2009 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 3 | Squad | | Sudan 2011 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | Squad | | South Africa 2014 | *Did not qualify* | | Rwanda 2016 | | Morocco 2018 | | Cameroon 2020 | | Algeria 2022 | **Champions** | 1st | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 1 | Squad | | Total | Champions | 3/7 | 14 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 11 | 6 | — | ### Amílcar Cabral Cup | Amílcar Cabral Cup record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Guinea-Bissau 1979 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 1 | | The Gambia 1980 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 5 | 3 | | Mali 1981 | Third place | 3rd | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | Cape Verde 1982 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | | Mauritania 1983 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 4 | | Sierra Leone 1984 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 3 | | The Gambia 1985 | **Champions** | 1st | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 2 | | Senegal 1986 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 2 | | Guinea 1987 | Third place | 3rd | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | | Guinea-Bissau 1988 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 10 | 5 | | Mali 1989 | Group stage | 6th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | | Senegal 1991 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 0 | | Sierra Leone 1993 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 3 | | Mauritania 1995 | Group stage | 5th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | | The Gambia 1997 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 3 | | Cape Verde 2000 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 8 | 6 | | Mali 2001 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 11 | 3 | | Guinea 2005 | Runners-up | 2nd | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 3 | | Guinea-Bissau 2007 | Third place | 3rd | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | | Total | 8 Titles | 19/19 | 82 | 45 | 25 | 14 | 123 | 54 | ### WAFU Nations Cup | WAFU Nations Cup record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Nigeria 2010 | Runners-up | 2nd | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 4 | | Nigeria 2011 | *Withdrew* | | Ghana 2013 | Runners-up | 2nd | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 4 | | Ghana 2017 | Group stage | 5th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 2 | | Senegal 2019 | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 2 | | Nigeria 2021 | *To be determined* | | **Total** | **1 Title** | 4/5 | 17 | 9 | 4 | 4 | 24 | 12 | ### Other records | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Senegal 1963 Friendship Games | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 12 | 3 | | Niger Jeux de la Francophonie 2005 | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 11 | 3 | | Republic of the Congo 2015 African Games | **Champions** | 1st | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 5 | 2 | | South Africa 2021 COSAFA Cup | Runners-up | 2nd | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 6 | | **Total** | **2 Titles** | 1st | 20 | 13 | 5 | 2 | 36 | 14 | Head-to-head record ------------------- The list shown below shows the Senegal national football team **all−time international record against opposing nations**. *As of 20 June 2023 after match against  Brazil.* Key   Positive balance (more wins than losses)   Neutral balance (as many wins as losses)   Negative balance (more losses than wins) | Against | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Winning % | Confederation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Algeria | 23 | 4 | 6 | 13 | 18 | 32 | −14 | 017.39 | CAF | |  Angola | 7 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 7 | +0 | 028.57 | CAF | |  Benin | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 14 | 8 | +6 | 075.00 | CAF | |  Bolivia | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 | 100.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +0 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Botswana | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Brazil | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 3 | +2 | 050.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Burkina Faso | 13 | 4 | 7 | 2 | 21 | 15 | +6 | 030.77 | CAF | |  Burundi | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 2 | +4 | 075.00 | CAF | |  Cameroon | 13 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 11 | 9 | +2 | 038.46 | CAF | |  Cape Verde | 19 | 15 | 2 | 2 | 29 | 7 | +22 | 078.95 | CAF | |  Central African Republic | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Chile | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Chinese Taipei | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 | 100.00 | AFC | |  Colombia | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Congo | 11 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 13 | 5 | +8 | 054.55 | CAF | |  Croatia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Denmark | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 6 | −3 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  DR Congo | 7 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 9 | +2 | 057.14 | CAF | |  Ecuador | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Egypt | 15 | 5 | 3 | 7 | 7 | 9 | −2 | 033.33 | CAF | |  Equatorial Guinea | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 8 | 1 | +7 | 075.00 | CAF | |  Eritrea | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 2 | +6 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Eswatini | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 4 | +3 | 033.33 | CAF | |  England | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | −3 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Ethiopia | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 2 | +9 | 100.00 | CAF | |  France | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Gabon | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 4 | +3 | 066.67 | CAF | |  Gambia | 23 | 13 | 10 | 0 | 30 | 7 | +23 | 056.52 | CAF | |  Ghana | 13 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 16 | 17 | −1 | 030.77 | CAF | |  Greece | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Guinea | 53 | 24 | 13 | 16 | 67 | 60 | +7 | 045.28 | CAF | |  Guinea-Bissau | 16 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 31 | 7 | +24 | 068.75 | CAF | |  Hungary | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | −3 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Indonesia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | +0 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Iran | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | +0 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Ivory Coast | 23 | 7 | 3 | 13 | 23 | 28 | −5 | 030.43 | CAF | |  Japan | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 4 | +3 | 050.00 | AFC | |  Kenya | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 0 | +9 | 075.00 | CAF | |  Kosovo | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Lebanon | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Lesotho | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Liberia | 15 | 9 | 5 | 1 | 33 | 10 | +23 | 060.00 | CAF | |  Libya | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 7 | −1 | 033.33 | CAF | |  Luxembourg | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | +0 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Madagascar | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 4 | +5 | 050.00 | CAF | |  Malawi | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | +0 | 050.00 | CAF | |  Malaysia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Mali | 32 | 12 | 12 | 8 | 41 | 33 | +8 | 037.50 | CAF | |  Mauritania | 17 | 11 | 5 | 1 | 29 | 6 | +23 | 064.71 | CAF | |  Mauritius | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 9 | 0 | +9 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Mexico | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | −3 | 000.00 | CONCACAF | |  Morocco | 30 | 7 | 6 | 17 | 18 | 41 | −23 | 023.33 | CAF | |  Mozambique | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 9 | 2 | +7 | 066.67 | CAF | |  Namibia | 8 | 7 | 0 | 1 | 24 | 5 | +19 | 087.50 | CAF | |  Netherlands | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Niger | 8 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 13 | 5 | +8 | 075.00 | CAF | |  Nigeria | 18 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 20 | 20 | +0 | 027.78 | CAF | |  Norway | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Oman | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | 5 | −3 | 025.00 | AFC | |  Peru | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Poland | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Qatar | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 | 100.00 | AFC | | *Réunion* | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 | 000.00 | CAF | |  Rwanda | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Saudi Arabia | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | −2 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Sierra Leone | 22 | 10 | 6 | 6 | 27 | 21 | +6 | 045.45 | CAF | |  South Africa | 10 | 4 | 5 | 1 | 12 | 8 | +4 | 040.00 | CAF | |  South Korea | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 9 | 5 | +4 | 057.14 | AFC | |  Sudan | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 | 100.00 | CAF | |  Sweden | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 | 100.00 | UEFA | |  Tanzania | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 1 | +6 | 066.67 | CAF | |  Togo | 25 | 7 | 9 | 9 | 25 | 25 | +0 | 028.00 | CAF | |  Tunisia | 21 | 5 | 7 | 9 | 13 | 22 | −9 | 023.81 | CAF | |  Turkey | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 000.00 | UEFA | |  Uganda | 6 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 2 | +5 | 050.00 | CAF | |  United Arab Emirates | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 7 | +1 | 025.00 | AFC | |  Uruguay | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 3 | +0 | 000.00 | CONMEBOL | |  Uzbekistan | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | +0 | 000.00 | AFC | |  Yemen | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | −2 | 050.00 | AFC | |  Zambia | 14 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 10 | 12 | −2 | 028.57 | CAF | |  Zimbabwe | 10 | 6 | 0 | 4 | 13 | 8 | +5 | 060.00 | CAF | | Total | 620 | 293 | 160 | 167 | 754 | 531 | +223 | 047.26 | FIFA | Honours ------- *As of 6 February 2022* * **Africa Cup of Nations** **Champions**: 2021 Runners-up: 2002, 2019 * **African Nations Championship** **Champions**: 2022 * **African Games** **Gold Medal**: 2015 * **Amílcar Cabral Cup** 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions**: 1979, 1980, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1991, 2001 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 1982, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2005 * **WAFU Nations Cup** 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions**: 2019 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2010, 2013 * **Friendship Games** 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Champions**: 1963 * **Jeux de la Francophonie** 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2005 * **COSAFA Cup** 2nd place, silver medalist(s) Runners-up: 2021 See also -------- * Senegal national under-20 football team * Senegal national under-17 football team * Football in Senegal 1. ↑ "The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking". *FIFA*. 6 April 2023. Retrieved 6 April 2023. 2. ↑ https://www.11v11.com/teams/brazil/tab/opposingTeams/opposition/Senegal/ 3. ↑ "BBC SPORT | CUP OF NATIONS | Cameroon retain Cup". BBC News. 10 February 2002. Archived from the original on 30 March 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 4. ↑ "BBC SPORT | WORLD CUP | Senegal | Senegal return to heroes' welcome". BBC News. 26 June 2002. Archived from the original on 1 January 2013. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 5. ↑ "BBC SPORT | WORLD CUP | Senegal | Senegal press blasts Metsu". BBC News. 24 June 2002. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 7 July 2012. 6. ↑ "South Africa 0-2 Senegal - BBC Sport". *BBC Sport*. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020. 7. ↑ Tyers, Alan (19 June 2018). "Senegal World Cup 2018 squad list and team guide". *The Daily Telegraph*. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2018. 8. ↑ Shaban, Abdur Rahman Alfa (24 May 2018). "Road to Russia 2018: Senegal returns to World Cup after bright 2002 debut". *Africa News*. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2018. 9. ↑ Kozminski, Piotr; Nzetia, Cynthia (19 June 2018). "Teranga Lions roar to first African win at Russia 2018". *FIFA.com*. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018. 10. ↑ "Niang scores controversial Senegal goal". *BBC Sport*. BBC. 19 June 2018. Archived from the original on 20 June 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018. 11. ↑ Sridhar, Shrivathsa (24 June 2018). Trevelyan, Mark; Lawson, Hugh (eds.). "Honda salvages 2–2 draw for Japan against Senegal with late strike". *Reuters*. Yekaterinburg. Archived from the original on 25 June 2018. Retrieved 25 June 2018. 12. ↑ Petterson, Joel (27 June 2018). "Colombia Emerges From the World Cup Chaos, Booting Senegal". *New York Times*. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2018. 13. ↑ Mather, Victor (27 June 2018). "Japan Advances in World Cup 2018 Despite Losing to Poland". *New York Times*. Archived from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2018. 14. ↑ Grez, Matias (28 June 2018). "Colombia and Japan qualify for last 16 as Senegal crashes out of World Cup on fair play rule". *CNN Sports*. CNN. Archived from the original on 29 June 2018. Retrieved 28 June 2018. 15. ↑ "Senegal, Algeria face off in historic Africa Cup of Nations final". *france24.com*. France Médias Monde. 19 July 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2019. 16. ↑ "Senegal - Algeria - Africa Cup of Nations". *eurosport.com*. Eurosport. 19 July 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2019. 17. ↑ "Algeria claim second Afcon title after Bounedjah's lucky strike sinks Senegal". *theguardian.com*. Guardian News & Media Limited. 19 July 2019. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 21 July 2019. 18. ↑ "Afcon 2021: Senegal top Group B despite Malawi draw". *BBC Sport*. 18 January 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022. 19. ↑ "Senegal 2-0 Cape Verde: Sadio Mane scored but injured as Senegal reach AFCON quarter-finals". *Sky Sports*. 26 January 2022. Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022. 20. ↑ "Afcon 2021: Senegal 3-1 Equatorial Guinea: Senegal set up semi-final against Burkina Faso". *BBC Sport*. 30 January 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022. 21. ↑ "Mane and Senegal break Burkina Faso hearts to reach AFCON final". *RFI*. 2 February 2022. Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 5 February 2022. 22. ↑ "Senegal 0-0 Egypt (Senegal win 4-2 on penalties): Sadio Mane puts penalty miss behind him to score winning spot kick in shootout". *Sky Sports*. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022. 23. ↑ "Senegal victory parade in Dakar becomes biggest party in country's history". *MARCA*. 8 February 2022. Archived from the original on 9 February 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2022. 24. ↑ "Senegal vs. Egypt". *ESPN*. Retrieved 29 March 2022. 25. ↑ "Senegal vs Egypt controversy". 26. ↑ "La FSF rompt officiellement avec Romai". *galsenfoot.com* (in French). Galsenfoot. 28 September 2017. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017. 27. ↑ "Liste vs Benin and Brazil". *Instagram*. Football Senegal. Retrieved 17 June 2023. 28. ↑ Mamrud, Roberto. "Senegal – Record International Players". *RSSSF*. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2018. 29. ↑ "Turkey's golden delight". *BBC Sport*. 22 June 2002. Retrieved 7 March 2011. 30. ↑ "AFCON 1965 : Ivory Coast beats Senegal 1-0 to claim AFCON third place". *athlet.org*. 31. ↑ Copnall, James (11 February 2002). "Cameroon 0 - 0 Senegal (aet: Cameroon won 3 - 2 on penalties)". *The Guardian*. Guardian News & Media Limited. Retrieved 19 July 2019. 32. ↑ "Algeria claim second Afcon title after Bounedjah's lucky strike sinks Senegal". *The Guardian*. Guardian News & Media Limited. 19 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019.

Senegal national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal_national_football_team

The **Indian independence movement** was a series of historic events with the ultimate aim of ending British rule in India also known as British Raj. It lasted from 1857 to 1947. The first nationalistic revolutionary movement for Indian independence emerged from Bengal. It later took root in the newly formed Indian National Congress with prominent moderate leaders seeking the right to appear for Indian Civil Service examinations in British India, as well as more economic rights for natives. The first half of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards self-rule by the Lal Bal Pal triumvirate, Aurobindo Ghosh and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. The stages independence struggle in the 1920s were characterized by the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and Congress' adoption of Gandhi's policy of non-violence and civil disobedience. Some of the leading followers of Gandhi's ideology were Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Maulana Azad, and others. Intellectuals such as Rabindranath Tagore, Subramania Bharati, and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay spread patriotic awareness. Female leaders like Sarojini Naidu, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Pritilata Waddedar, and Kasturba Gandhi promoted the emancipation of Indian women and their participation in the freedom struggle. Few leaders followed a more violent approach. This became especially popular after the Rowlatt Act, which permitted indefinite detention. The Act sparked protests across India, especially in the Punjab province, where they were violently suppressed in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. The Indian independence movement was in constant ideological evolution. Essentially anti-colonial, it was supplemented by visions of independent, economic development with a secular, democratic, republican, and civil-libertarian political structure. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong socialist orientation. It culminated in the Indian Independence Act 1947, which ended Crown suzerainty and partitioned British Raj into Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan. India remained a Crown Dominion until 26 January 1950, when the Constitution of India established the Republic of India. Pakistan remained a dominion until 1956 when it adopted its first constitution. In 1971, East Pakistan declared its own independence as Bangladesh. Background ---------- ### Early British Colonialism in India The first European to reach India via the Atlantic Ocean was the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama, who reached Calicut in 1498 in search of spice. Just over a century later, the Dutch and English established trading outposts on the Indian subcontinent, with the first English trading post set up at Surat in 1613. Over the next two centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese and Dutch but remained in conflict with the French. The decline of the Mughal Empire in the first half of the eighteenth century allowed the British to establish a foothold in Indian politics. During the Battle of Plassey, the East India Company's Army defeated Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal, and the company established itself as a major player in Indian affairs. After the Battle of Buxar of 1764, it gained administrative rights over Bengal, Bihar and the Midnapur part of Odisha. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of southern India came either under the company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control in a subsidiary alliance. The Company subsequently seized control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire, after defeating them in a series of wars. Much of Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of Sikh armies in the First (1845–46) and Second (1848–49) Anglo-Sikh Wars. * Robert Clive with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar's betrayal towards the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal in Plassey made the battle one of the main factors of British supremacy in the sub-continent.Robert Clive with Mir Jafar after the Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar's betrayal towards the Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal in Plassey made the battle one of the main factors of British supremacy in the sub-continent. * The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c. 1800. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore, most of South India was now either under the company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control.*The Last Effort and Fall of Tipu Sultan* by Henry Singleton, c. 1800. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan of Mysore, most of South India was now either under the company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control. Early Rebellions ---------------- Maveeran Alagumuthu Kone was an early rebel against the British presence in Tamil Nadu. He became a military leader in the town of Ettayapuram and was defeated in battle against the British and Maruthanayagam's forces. He was executed in 1757. Puli Thevar opposed the Nawab of Arcot, who was supported by the British. In Eastern India and across the country, Indigenous communities organized numerous rebellions against the British and their fellow members, especially landlords and moneylenders. One of the earliest of these on record was led by Binsu Manki around 1771 over the transfer of Jharkhand to the East India Company. The Rangpur Dhing took place from 1782 to 1783 in nearby Rangpur, Bengal. Following the Binsu Manki's revolt in Jharkhand, numerous rebellions across the region took place including the Bhumij Revolt of Manbhum from 1798 to 1799; the Chero Uprising of Palamu in 1800 under the leadership of Bhukan Singh, and two uprising of the Munda community in Tamar region, during 1807 led by Dukan Mank, and 1819-20 under the leadership Bundu and Konta. The Ho Rebellion took place when the Ho community first came in contact with the British, from 1820 to 1821 near Chaibasa on the Roro River in West Singhbhum, but were defeated by the technologically enhanced colonial cavalry. A larger Bhumij Revolt occurred near Midnapur in Bengal, under the leadership of Ganga Narain Singh who had previously also been involved in co-leading the Chuar Rebellions in these regions from 1771 to 1809. Syed Mir Nisar Ali Titumir was an Islamic preacher who led a peasant uprising against the Hindu Zamindars of Bengal and the British during the 19th century. Along with his followers, he built a bamboo fort (*Bansher Kella* in Bengali) in Narkelberia Village, which gained a prominent place into Bengali folk legend. After the storming of the fort by British soldiers, Titumir died of his wounds on 19 November 1831. These rebellions lead to larger regional movements in Jharkhand and beyond such as the Kol Insurrection led by Singhray and Binray Manki, where the Kol (Munda, Oraon, Bhumij and Ho communities) united to rebel against the "outsiders" from 1830 -1833. The Santhal Hul was a movement of over 60,000 Santhals that happened from 1855 to 1857 (but started as early as 1784) and was particularly led by siblings - brothers Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand and Bhairav and their sisters Phulo and Jhano from the Murmu clan in its most fervent years that lead up to the Revolt of 1857. More than 100 years of such escalating rebellions created grounds for a large, impactful, millenarian movement in Eastern India that again shook the foundations of British rule in the region, under the leadership of Birsa Munda. Birsa Munda belonged to the Munda community and lead thousands of people from Munda, Oraon, and Kharia communities in "Ulgulaan" (revolt) against British political expansion and those who advanced it, against forceful conversions of Indigenous peoples into Christianity (even creating a Birsaite movement), and against the displacement of Indigenous peoples from their lands. To subdue these rising tensions which were getting increasingly out of control of the British, they aggressively set out to search for Birsa Munda, even setting up a reward for him. They brutally attacked the Dombari Hills where Birsa had repaired a water tank and made his revolutionary headquarters between January 7–9, 1900, murdering a minimum of 400 of the Munda warriors who had congregated there, akin to the attacks on the people at Jallianwallah Bagh, however, receiving much less attention. The hills are known as "Topped Buru" today - the mound of the dead. Birsa was ultimately captured in the Jamkopai forest in Singhbhum, and assassinated by the British in jail in 1900, with a rushed cremation/burial conducted to ensure his movement was subdued. The toughest resistance the Company experienced was offered by Mysore. The Anglo-Mysore Wars were a series of wars fought in over the last three decades of the 18th century between the Kingdom of Mysore on the one hand, and the British East India Company (represented chiefly by the Madras Presidency), and Maratha Confederacy and the Nizam of Hyderabad on the other. Hyder Ali and his successor Tipu Sultan fought a war on four fronts with the British attacking from the west, south, and east, while the Marathas and the Nizam's forces attacked from the north. The fourth war resulted in the overthrow of the house of Hyder Ali and Tipu (who was killed in the final war, in 1799), and the dismantlement of Mysore to the benefit of the East India Company, which won and took control of much of India. Pazhassi Raja was the prince regent of the princely state of Cotiote in North Malabar, near Kannur, India between 1774 and 1805. He fought a guerrilla war with tribal people from Wynad supporting him. He was captured by the British and his fort was razed to the ground. In 1766 the Nizam of Hyderabad transferred the Northern Circars to the British authority. The independent king Jagannatha Gajapati Narayan Deo II of Paralakhemundi estate situated in today's Odisha and in the northernmost region of the then political division was continuously revolting against the French occupants since 1753 as per the Nizam's earlier handover of his estate to them on similar grounds. Narayan Deo II fought the British at Jelmur fort on 4 April 1768 and was defeated due to superior firepower of the British. He fled to the tribal hinterlands of his estate and continued his efforts against the British until his natural death on the Fifth of December 1771. Rani Velu Nachiyar (1730–1796), was a queen of Sivaganga from 1760 to 1790. Rani Nachiyar was trained in war match weapons usage, martial arts like Valari, Silambam (fighting using stick), horse riding and archery. She was a scholar in many languages and she had proficiency with languages like French, English, and Urdu. When her husband, Muthuvaduganathaperiya Udaiyathevar, was killed in battle with British soldiers and the forces of the Nawab of Arcot, she was drawn into battle. She formed an army and sought an alliance with Gopala Nayaker and Hyder Ali with the aim of attacking the British, whom she successfully challenged in 1780. When the inventories of the Britishers were discovered, she is said to have arranged a suicide attack by a faithful follower, Kuyili, dousing herself in oil and setting herself alight and walking into the storehouse. Rani formed a women's army named "Udaiyaal" in honour of her adopted daughter, who had died detonating a British arsenal. Rani Nachiyar was one of the few rulers who regained her kingdom, and ruled it for a decade more**.** Veerapandiya Kattabomman was an eighteenth-century Polygar and chieftain from Panchalankurichi in Tamil Nadu, India who waged the Polygar war against the East India Company. He was captured by the British and hanged in 1799 CE. Kattabomman refused to accept the sovereignty of East India Company, and fought against them. Dheeran Chinnamalai was a Kongu Nadu chieftain and Palayakkarar from Tamil Nadu who fought against the East India Company. After Kattabomman and Tipu Sultan's deaths, Chinnamalai sought the help of Marathas and Maruthu Pandiyar to attack the British at Coimbatore in 1800. The British forces managed to stop the armies of the allies, forcing Chinnamalai to attack Coimbatore on his own. His army was defeated and he escaped from the British forces. Chinnamalai engaged in guerrilla warfare and defeated the British in battles at Cauvery in 1801, Odanilai in 1802 and Arachalur in 1804. In 1804 the King of Khordha, Kalinga was deprived of his traditional rights to the Jagannath Temple. In retaliation, a group of armed Paiks attacked the British at Pipili. Jayee Rajguru, the chief of Army of Kalinga requested a common alliance against the British. After Rajguru's death, Bakshi Jagabandhu launched an armed rebellion against the East India Company's rule in Odisha. This is now known as the Paik Rebellion, the first Rebellion against the British East India Company. * Puli ThevarPuli Thevar * Pazhassi Raja, fought the British in a series of continuous struggles for 13 years during the Cotiote War.Pazhassi Raja, fought the British in a series of continuous struggles for 13 years during the Cotiote War. * Velu Nachiyar, was one of the earliest Indian queens to fight against the British colonial power in India.Velu Nachiyar, was one of the earliest Indian queens to fight against the British colonial power in India. * Veerapandiya KattabommanVeerapandiya Kattabomman * Maveeran Azhagu MuthukonMaveeran Azhagu Muthukon * Statue of Bakshi Jagabandhu, the leader of Paika RebellionStatue of Bakshi Jagabandhu, the leader of Paika Rebellion * Ganga Narayan Singh, leader of Bhumij rebellionGanga Narayan Singh, leader of Bhumij rebellion * Birsa Munda, leader of Munda rebellion (Ulgulan)Birsa Munda, leader of Munda rebellion (Ulgulan) * Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, leaders of Santhal rebellionSidhu and Kanhu Murmu, leaders of Santhal rebellion ### Rebellion of 1857 The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large uprising in northern and central India against the East India Company. The conditions of service in the company's army and cantonments had increasingly come into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices of the sepoys. The predominance of members from the upper castes in the army, perceived loss of caste due to overseas deployment, and rumours of secret designs of the government to convert them to Christianity led to growing discontent. The sepoys were also disillusioned by their low salaries and the racial discrimination practised by British officers in matters of promotion and privileges. The indifference of the British towards native Indian rulers and the annexation of Oudh furthered dissent. The Marquess of Dalhousie's policy of annexation, the doctrine of lapse and the projected removal of the Mughals from their ancestral palace at Red Fort also led to popular anger. The final spark was provided by the rumoured use of tallow (from cows) and lard (pig fat) in the newly introduced Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to bite the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their rifles, ingesting the fat. This was sacrimonious to both Hindus and Muslims. Mangal Pandey was sepoy who played a key part in the events immediately preceding the outbreak of the Indian rebellion of 1857. His defiance to his British superiors and later his execution ignited the fire for 1857 Indian Rebellion. On 10 May 1857, the sepoys at Meerut broke ranks and turned on their commanding officers, killing some of them. They reached Delhi on 11 May, set the company's toll house on fire, and marched into the Red Fort, where they asked the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to become their leader and reclaim his throne. The emperor eventually agreed and was proclaimed *Shahenshah-e-Hindustan* by the rebels. The rebels also murdered much of the European, Eurasian, and Christian population of the city. Revolts broke out in other parts of Oudh and the North-Western Provinces as well, where civil rebellion followed the mutinies, leading to popular uprisings. The British were initially caught off-guard and were thus slow to react, but eventually responded with force. The lack of effective organisation among the rebels, coupled with the military superiority of the British, brought an end to the rebellion. The British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi, and after prolonged fighting and a siege, defeated them and reclaimed the city on 20 September 1857. Subsequently, revolts in other centres were also crushed. The last significant battle was fought in Gwalior on 17 June 1858, during which Rani Lakshmibai was killed. Sporadic fighting and guerrilla warfare, led by Tatya Tope, continued until spring 1859, but most of the rebels were eventually subdued. The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a turning point. While affirming the military and political power of the British, it led to a significant change in how India was to be controlled by them. Under the Government of India Act 1858, the East India Company's territory was transferred to the British government. At the apex of the new system was a Cabinet minister, the Secretary of State for India, who was to be formally advised by a statutory council; the Governor-General of India (Viceroy) was made responsible to him, while he in turn was responsible to the government. In a royal proclamation made to the people of India, Queen Victoria promised equal opportunity of public service under British law, and also pledged to respect the rights of native princes. The British stopped the policy of seizing land from the princes, decreed religious tolerance and began to admit Indians into the civil service. However, they also increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native Indian ones, and allowed only British soldiers to handle artillery. Bahadur Shah II was exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862. In 1876 the British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli proclaimed Queen Victoria the Empress of India. The British Liberals objected as the title was foreign to British traditions. * Map of India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.Map of India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. * Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse.Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of Lapse. * Attack of the mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, 30 July 1857.Attack of the mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, 30 July 1857. * Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English, which depicts the execution of mutineers by blowing from a gun by the British.*Suppression of the Indian Revolt by the English*, which depicts the execution of mutineers by blowing from a gun by the British. Rise of organized movements --------------------------- The decades following the Rebellion were a period of growing political awareness, the manifestation of Indian public opinion and the emergence of Indian leadership at both national and provincial levels. Dadabhai Naoroji formed the East India Association in 1867 and Surendranath Banerjee founded the Indian National Association in 1876. Inspired by a suggestion made by A.O. Hume, a retired Scottish civil servant, seventy-two Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and founded the Indian National Congress. They were mostly members of the upwardly mobile and successful western-educated provincial elites, engaged in professions such as law, teaching and journalism. At its inception, Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the resources essential to a political organization. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met annually to express its loyalty to the British and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights or opportunities in government (especially in the civil service). These resolutions were submitted to the Indian government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were slight. "Despite its claim to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other social and economic backgrounds remained negligible. However, this period of history is still crucial because it represented the first political mobilization of Indians, coming from all parts of the subcontinent and the first articulation of the idea of India as one nation, rather than a collection of independent princely states. Religious groups played a role in reforming Indian society. These were of several religions from Hindu groups such as the *Arya Samaj*, the *Brahmo Samaj*, to other religions, such as the Namdhari (or *Kuka*) sect of Sikhism. The work of men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Sri Aurobindo, V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Rabindranath Tagore and Dadabhai Naoroji, as well as women such as the Scots–Irish Sister Nivedita, spread the passion for rejuvenation and freedom. The rediscovery of India's indigenous history by several European and Indian scholars also fed into the rise of nationalism among Indians. The triumvirate also is known as Lal Bal Pal (Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai), along with V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, Sri Aurobindo, Surendranath Banerjee, and Rabindranath Tagore were some of the prominent leaders of movements in the early 20th century. The Swadeshi movement was the most successful. The name of Lokmanya began spreading around and people started following him in all parts of the country. The Indian textile industry also played an important role in the freedom struggle of India. The merchandise of the textile industry pioneered the Industrial Revolution in India and soon England was producing cotton cloth in such great quantities that the domestic market was saturated, and the products had to be sold in foreign markets. On the other hand, India was rich in cotton production and was in a position to supply British mills with the raw material they required. This was the time when India was under British rule and the East India Company had already established its roots in India. Raw materials were exported to England at very low rates while cotton cloth of refined quality was imported to India and sold at very high prices. This was draining India's economy, causing the textile industry of India to suffer greatly. This led to great resentment among cotton cultivators and traders. After Lord Curzon announced the partition of Bengal in 1905, there was massive opposition from the people of Bengal. Initially, the partition plan was opposed through press campaign. The total follower of such techniques led to the boycott of British goods and the people of India pledged to use only swadeshi or Indian goods and to wear only Indian cloth. Imported garments were viewed with hate. At many places, public burnings of foreign cloth were organized. Shops selling foreign cloths were closed. The cotton textile industry is rightly described as the Swadeshi industry. The period witnessed the growth of swadeshi textile mills. Swadeshi factories came into existence everywhere. According to Surendranath Banerji, the Swadeshi movement changed the entire texture of Indian social and domestic life. The songs composed by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikanta Sen and Syed Abu Mohd became the moving spirit for the nationalists. The movement soon spread to the rest of the country and the partition of Bengal had to be firmly inhaled on the first of April, 1912. Rise of Indian nationalism -------------------------- By 1900, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political organisation, it did not have the support of most Indian Muslims. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion, cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a movement for Muslim regeneration that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed Aligarh Muslim University in 1920). Its objective was to educate students by emphasising the compatibility of Islam with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India's Muslims, however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual regeneration. Nationalistic sentiments among Congress members led to a push to be represented in the bodies of government, as well as to have a say in the legislation and administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists, but wanted an active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was personified by Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, becoming its first Indian member. Dadabhai Naoroji was the first Indian nationalist to embrace *Swaraj* as the destiny of the nation. Bal Gangadhar Tilak deeply opposed a British education system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history, and values. He resented the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians. In 1907, Congress was split into two factions: The *radicals*, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The *moderates*, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view. Under them, India's three great states – Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. Gokhale criticised Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the Congress of 1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party. But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Indian National Congress lost credibility with the people. A Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy, Minto (1905–10), seeking concessions from the impending constitutional reforms, including special considerations in government service and electorates. The British recognised some of the Muslim League's petitions by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the Indian Councils Act 1909. The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as the voice of a "nation within a nation". The Ghadar Party was formed overseas in 1913 to fight for the Independence of India with members coming from the United States and Canada, as well as Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Singapore. Members of the party aimed for Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim unity against the British. In colonial India, the All India Conference of Indian Christians (AICIC), which was founded in 1914, played a role in the Indian independence movement, advocating for swaraj and opposing the partition of India. The AICIC also was opposed to separate electorates for Christians, believing that the faithful "should participate as common citizens in the one common, national political system". The All India Conference of Indian Christians and the All India Catholic Union formed a working committee with M. Rahnasamy of Andhra University serving as president and B.L. Rallia Ram of Lahore serving as general secretary. In its meeting on 16 and 17 April 1947, the joint committee prepared a 13-point memorandum that was sent to the Constituent Assembly of India, which asked for religious freedom for both organisations and individuals; this came to be reflected in the Constitution of India. The temperance movement in India became aligned with Indian nationalism under the direction of Mahatma Gandhi, who saw alcohol as a foreign importation to the culture of the subcontinent. * Dadabhai Naoroji, was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress.Dadabhai Naoroji, was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress. * Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab, Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Bombay, and Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal, changed the political discourse of the Indian independence movement.Lala Lajpat Rai of Punjab, Bal Gangadhar Tilak of Bombay, and Bipin Chandra Pal of Bengal, the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal, changed the political discourse of the Indian independence movement. * Surendranath Banerjee, founded the Indian National Association and founding members of the Indian National Congress.Surendranath Banerjee, founded the Indian National Association and founding members of the Indian National Congress. * Gopal Krishna Gokhale, was a senior leader of the Indian National Congress and the founder of the Servants of India Society.Gopal Krishna Gokhale, was a senior leader of the Indian National Congress and the founder of the Servants of India Society. Movements --------- ### Partition of Bengal, 1905 * Khudiram Bose was one of the youngest Indian revolutionaries tried and executed by the British.Khudiram Bose was one of the youngest Indian revolutionaries tried and executed by the British. * Prafulla Chaki was associated with the Jugantar. He carried out assassinations against British colonial officials in an attempt to secure Indian independence.Prafulla Chaki was associated with the Jugantar. He carried out assassinations against British colonial officials in an attempt to secure Indian independence. * Bhupendranath Datta was an Indian revolutionary who was privy to the Indo-German Conspiracy.Bhupendranath Datta was an Indian revolutionary who was privy to the Indo-German Conspiracy. In July 1905, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899–1905), ordered the partition of the province of Bengal. The stated aim was to improve administration. However, this was seen as an attempt to quench nationalistic sentiment through divide and rule. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Widespread agitation ensued in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of *swadeshi*, or indigenous industries. A growing movement emerged, focussing on indigenous Indian industries, finance, and education, which saw the founding of National Council of Education, the birth of Indian financial institutions and banks, as well as an interest in Indian culture and achievements in science and literature. Hindus showed unity by tying Rakhi on each other's wrists and observing *Arandhan* (not cooking any food). During this time, Bengali Hindu nationalists like Sri Aurobindo, Bhupendranath Datta, and Bipin Chandra Pal began writing virulent newspaper articles challenging the legitimacy of British rule in India in publications such as *Jugantar* and *Sandhya*, and were charged with sedition. The Partition also precipitated increasing activity from the then still Nascent militant nationalist revolutionary movement, which was particularly gaining strength in Bengal and Maharashtra from the last decade of the 1800s. In Bengal, Anushilan Samiti, led by brothers Aurobindo and Barin Ghosh organised a number of attacks of figureheads of the Raj, culminating in the attempt on the life of a British judge in Muzaffarpur. This precipitated the Alipore bomb case, whilst a number of revolutionaries were killed, or captured and put on trial. Revolutionaries like Khudiram Bose, Prafulla Chaki, Kanailal Dutt who were either killed or hanged became household names. The British newspaper, *The Empire*, wrote: > Khudiram Bose was executed this morning;... it is alleged that he mounted the scaffold with his body erect. He was cheerful and smiling. > > ### Jugantar * Aurobindo Ghose was one of the founding member of Jugantar, as well as being involved with nationalist politics in the Indian National Congress and the nascent revolutionary movement in Bengal with the Anushilan Samiti.Aurobindo Ghose was one of the founding member of Jugantar, as well as being involved with nationalist politics in the Indian National Congress and the nascent revolutionary movement in Bengal with the Anushilan Samiti. * Barindra Kumar Ghosh, was one of the founding members of Jugantar and younger brother of Sri Aurobindo.Barindra Kumar Ghosh, was one of the founding members of Jugantar and younger brother of Sri Aurobindo. * Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin) in 1910; was the principal leader of the Jugantar Party that was the central association of revolutionary Indian independence fighters in Bengal.Jatindranath Mukherjee (Bagha Jatin) in 1910; was the principal leader of the Jugantar Party that was the central association of revolutionary Indian independence fighters in Bengal. Jugantar was a paramilitary organization. Led by Barindra Ghosh, with 21 revolutionaries, including Bagha Jatin, started to collect arms and explosives and manufactured bombs. Some senior members of the group were sent abroad for political and military training. One of them, Hemchandra Kanungo obtained his training in Paris. After returning to Kolkata he set up a combined religious school and bomb factory at a garden house in Maniktala suburb of Calcutta. However, the attempted murder of district Judge Kingsford of Muzaffarpur by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki (30 April 1908) initiated a police investigation that led to the arrest of many of the revolutionaries. Benoy Basu, Badal Gupta, and Dinesh Gupta were noted for launching an attack on the Secretariat Building - the Writers' Building in the Dalhousie square in Kolkata. Bagha Jatin was one of the senior leaders in Jugantar. He was arrested, along with several other leaders, in connection with the Howrah-Sibpur Conspiracy case. They were tried for treason, the charge being that they had incited various regiments of the army against the ruler. Benoy Basu, Badal Gupta and Dinesh Gupta, who are noted for launching an attack on the Secretariat Building - the Writers' Building in the Dalhousie square in Kolkata, were Jugantar members. ### Alipore bomb conspiracy case Several leaders of the Jugantar party including Aurobindo Ghosh were arrested in connection with bomb-making activities in Kolkata and Hare Krishna Konar was one of the founding member of Communist Party of India (Marxist) and Communist Consolidation were arrested for connection with Calcutta arms act case in 1932 and deported to Cellular Jail. Several others were also deported to the Andaman Cellular Jail for doing Indian independence movement. * The trial room, Alipore Sessions Court, Calcutta, depiction from 1997.The trial room, Alipore Sessions Court, Calcutta, depiction from 1997. * Muraripukur garden house, in the Manicktolla suburbs of Calcutta. This served as the headquarters of Barindra Kumar Ghosh and his associates.Muraripukur garden house, in the Manicktolla suburbs of Calcutta. This served as the headquarters of Barindra Kumar Ghosh and his associates. * Hare Krishna Konar, was connected with Civil disobedience and Calcutta arms act case and was deported to Cellular Jail. There he founded Communist Consolidation.Hare Krishna Konar, was connected with Civil disobedience and Calcutta arms act case and was deported to Cellular Jail. There he founded Communist Consolidation. * A wing of the Cellular Jail, Port Blair; showing the central tower where many revolutionaries for Indian independence were held imprisoned.A wing of the Cellular Jail, Port Blair; showing the central tower where many revolutionaries for Indian independence were held imprisoned. ### Communist Consolidation Several leaders of Jugantar group were imprisoned in various jails, one of which was a prominent jail of British India, Cellular Jail. The Cellular jail was also referred to as *Kalapani*. In 1932 many freedom fighters from Bengal were imprisoned in cellular jail as a result of the *Calcutta arms act case*. The prisoners of cellular jail carried out their first hunger strike in 1933 due to inhumane treatment in jail. The prisoners encountered Marxist and Communist ideology in jail and in 1935 a Communist Consolidation party was formed by Hare Krishna Konar, Shiv Verma, Batukeshwar Dutt and other prisoners of Cellular jail who were attracted to Marxist ideology. This party also led the second hunger strike in Cellular Jail, which demanded the designation of these prisoners as political prisoners rather than a freedom fighters. ### Delhi-Lahore conspiracy case The Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy, hatched in 1912, planned to assassinate the then Viceroy of India, Lord Hardinge, on the occasion of transferring the capital of British India from Calcutta to New Delhi. Involving revolutionary underground in Bengal and headed by Rash Behari Bose along with Sachin Sanyal, the conspiracy culminated on the attempted assassination on 23 December 1912, when the ceremonial procession moved through the Chandni Chowk suburb of Delhi. The Viceroy escaped with his injuries, along with Lady Hardinge, although the Mahout was killed. The investigations in the aftermath of the assassination attempt led to the Delhi Conspiracy trial. Basant Kumar Biswas was convicted of having thrown the bomb and executed, along with Amir Chand and Avadh Behari for their roles in the conspiracy. * Basanta Kumar Biswas threw a bomb at the Viceroy's Parade in what came to be known as the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy.Basanta Kumar Biswas threw a bomb at the Viceroy's Parade in what came to be known as the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy. * Amarendranath Chatterjee was in charge of raising funds for the Jugantar movement, his activities largely covered revolutionary centres in Bihar, Odisha and the United Provinces.Amarendranath Chatterjee was in charge of raising funds for the Jugantar movement, his activities largely covered revolutionary centres in Bihar, Odisha and the United Provinces. ### Howrah gang case Most of the eminent Jugantar leaders including Bagha Jatin alias Jatindra Nath Mukherjee who were not arrested earlier, were arrested in 1910, in connection with the murder of Shamsul Alam. Thanks to Bagha Jatin's new policy of a decentralised federated action, most of the accused were released in 1911. All India Muslim League ----------------------- The All-India Muslim League was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dacca (now Dhaka, Bangladesh), in 1906. Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim in British India, the Muslim League played a decisive role behind the creation of Pakistan in the Indian subcontinent. In 1916, Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress, which was the largest Indian political organisation. Like most of the Congress at the time, Jinnah did not favour outright self-rule, considering British influences on education, law, culture, and industry as beneficial to India. Jinnah became a member of the sixty-member Imperial Legislative Council. The council had no real power or authority, and included a large number of unelected pro-Raj loyalists and Europeans. Nevertheless, Jinnah was instrumental in the passing of the *Child Marriages Restraint Act*, the legitimisation of the Muslim waqf (religious endowments) and was appointed to the Sandhurst committee, which helped establish the Indian Military Academy at Dehradun. During the First World War, Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort. First World War --------------- * Indian cavalry on the Western Front during World War I.Indian cavalry on the Western Front during World War I. * Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem 1917.Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem 1917. * Rash Behari Bose, was one of the key organisers of the Ghadar Mutiny and later the Indian National Army.Rash Behari Bose, was one of the key organisers of the Ghadar Mutiny and later the Indian National Army. * Punjabi Sikhs aboard the SS Komagata Maru in Vancouver's Burrard Inlet, 1914. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and the ship was forced to return to India. The events surrounding the Komagata Maru incident served as a catalyst for the Ghadarite cause.Punjabi Sikhs aboard the SS *Komagata Maru* in Vancouver's Burrard Inlet, 1914. Most of the passengers were not allowed to land in Canada and the ship was forced to return to India. The events surrounding the Komagata Maru incident served as a catalyst for the Ghadarite cause. The First World War began with an unprecedented outpouring of support towards Britain from within the mainstream political leadership. Contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt, Indians contributed considerably to the British war effort by providing men and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and ammunition. Nonetheless, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti-colonial activities. Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly associated with the unrest in Punjab, was of significant ferocity to almost complete the paralysis of the regional administration. Meanwhile, failed conspiracies were triggered by revolutionaries lack of preparedness to organise a nationalist revolt. None of the revolutionary conspiracies made a significant impact inside India. The prospect that subversive violence would have an effect on a popular war effort drew support from the Indian population for special measures against anti-colonial activities in the form of Defence of India Act 1915. There were no major mutinies occurring during wartime, yet conspiracies exacerbated profound fears of insurrection among British officials, preparing them to use extreme force to frighten Indians into submission. ### Hindu–German Conspiracy The Hindu–German Conspiracy, was a series of plans between 1914 and 1917 by Indian nationalist groups to attempt Pan-Indian rebellion against the British Raj during World War I, formulated between the Indian revolutionary underground and exiled or self-exiled nationalists who formed, in the United States, the Ghadar Party, and in Germany, the Indian independence committee, in the decade preceding the Great War. The conspiracy was drawn up at the beginning of the war, with extensive support from the German Foreign Office, the German consulate in San Francisco, as well as some support from Ottoman Turkey and the Irish republican movement. The most prominent plan attempted to foment unrest and trigger a Pan-Indian mutiny in the British Indian Army from Punjab to Singapore. This plot was planned to be executed in February 1915 with the aim of overthrowing British rule over the Indian subcontinent. The February mutiny was ultimately thwarted when British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadarite movement and arrested key figures. Mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed. Other related events include the 1915 Singapore Mutiny, the Annie Larsen arms plot, the Jugantar–German plot, the German mission to Kabul, the mutiny of the Connaught Rangers in India, as well as, by some accounts, the Black Tom explosion in 1916. Parts of the conspiracy included efforts to subvert the British Indian Army in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. ### Ghadar Mutiny The Ghadar Mutiny was a plan to initiate a pan-Indian mutiny in the British Indian Army in February 1915 to end the British Raj in India. The plot originated at the onset of World War I, between the Ghadar Party in the United States, the Berlin Committee in Germany, the Indian revolutionary underground in British India and the German Foreign Office through the consulate in San Francisco. The incident derives its name from the North American Ghadar Party, whose members of the Punjabi Sikh community in Canada and the United States were among the most prominent participants in the plan. It was the most prominent amongst a number of plans of the much larger Hindu–German Mutiny, formulated between 1914 and 1917 to initiate a Pan-Indian rebellion against the British Raj during World War I. The mutiny was planned to start in the key state of Punjab, followed by mutinies in Bengal and rest of India. Indian units as far as Singapore were planned to participate in the rebellion. The plans were thwarted through a coordinated intelligence and police response. British intelligence infiltrated the Ghadarite movement in Canada and in India, and last-minute intelligence from a spy helping to crush the planned uprising in Punjab before it started. Key figures were arrested, mutinies in smaller units and garrisons within India were also crushed. Intelligence about the threat of the mutiny led to a number of important war-time measures introduced in India, including the passages of Ingress into India Ordinance, 1914, the Foreigners act 1914, and the Defence of India Act 1915. The conspiracy was followed by the First Lahore Conspiracy Trial and Benares Conspiracy Trial which saw death sentences awarded to a number of Indian revolutionaries, and exile to a number of others. After the end of the war, fear of a second Ghadarite uprising led to the recommendations of the Rowlatt Acts and thence the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. ### 1st Christmas Day and 2nd Christmas Day plot The first Christmas Day plot was a conspiracy made by the Indian revolutionary movement in 1909: during the year-ending holidays, the Governor of Bengal organised at his residence a ball in the presence of the Viceroy, the Commander-in-Chief and all the high-ranking officers and officials of the Capital (Calcutta). The 10th Jat Regiment was in charge of the security. Indoctrinated by Jatindranath Mukherjee, its soldiers decided to blow up the ballroom and take advantage of destroying the colonial Government. In keeping with his predecessor Otto (William Oskarovich) von Klemm, a friend of Lokamanya Tilak, on 6 February 1910, M. Arsenyev, the Russian Consul-General, wrote to St Petersburg that it had been intended to "arouse in the country a general perturbation of minds and, thereby, afford the revolutionaries an opportunity to take the power in their hands." According to R. C. Majumdar, "The police had suspected nothing and it is hard to say what the outcome would have been had the soldiers not been betrayed by one of their comrades who informed the authorities about the impending coup". The second Christmas Day plot was to initiate an insurrection in Bengal in British India during World War I with German arms and support. Scheduled for Christmas Day, 1915, the plan was conceived and led by the Jugantar group under the Bengali Indian revolutionary Jatindranath Mukherjee, to be coordinated with simultaneous uprising in the British colony of Burma and Kingdom of Siam under direction of the Ghadar Party, along with a German raid on the South Indian city of Madras and the British penal colony in Andaman Islands. The aim of the plot was to seize the Fort William, isolate Bengal and capture the capital city of Calcutta, which was then to be used as a staging ground for a pan-Indian revolution. The Christmas Day plot was one of the later plans for pan-Indian mutiny during the war that were coordinated between the Indian nationalist underground, the "Indian independence committee" set up by the Germans in Berlin, the Ghadar Party in North America, and the German Foreign office. The plot was ultimately thwarted after British intelligence uncovered the plot through German and Indian double agents in Europe and Southeast Asia. ### Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition The Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition was a diplomatic mission to Afghanistan sent by the Central Powers in 1915–1916. The purpose was to encourage Afghanistan to declare full independence from the British Empire, enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers, and attack British India. The expedition was part of the Hindu–German Conspiracy, a series of Indo-German efforts to provoke a nationalist revolution in India. Nominally headed by the exiled Indian prince Raja Mahendra Pratap, the expedition was a joint operation of Germany and Turkey and was led by the German Army officers Oskar Niedermayer and Werner Otto von Hentig. Other participants included members of an Indian nationalist organisation called the Berlin Committee, including Maulavi Barkatullah and Chempakaraman Pillai, while the Turks were represented by Kazim Bey, a close confidante of Enver Pasha. Britain saw the expedition as a serious threat. Britain and its ally, the Russian Empire, unsuccessfully attempted to intercept it in Persia during the summer of 1915. Britain waged a covert intelligence and diplomatic offensive, including personal interventions by the Viceroy Lord Hardinge and King George V, to maintain Afghan neutrality. The mission failed in its main task of rallying Afghanistan, under Emir Habibullah Khan, to the German and Turkish war effort, but it influenced other major events. In Afghanistan, the expedition triggered reforms and drove political turmoil that culminated in the assassination of the Emir in 1919, which in turn precipitated the Third Afghan War. It influenced the Kalmyk Project of nascent Bolshevik Russia to propagate socialist revolution in Asia, with one goal being the overthrow of the British Raj. Other consequences included the formation of the Rowlatt Committee to investigate sedition in India as influenced by Germany and Bolshevism, and changes in the Raj's approach to the Indian independence movement immediately after World War I. ### Nationalist response to war In the aftermath of the First World War, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a widespread influenza pandemic and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India. The pre-war nationalist movement revived moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their differences in order to stand together as a unified front. They argued that their enormous services to the British Empire during the war demanded a reward to demonstrate Indian capacity for self-rule. In 1916, Congress succeeded in forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the All India Muslim League over the issues of devolution and the future of Islam in the region. ### British reforms The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the war and in response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, Secretary of state for India, made an historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy was for: "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." The means of achieving the proposed measures were later enshrined in the Government of India Act, 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual-mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and, appointed British officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise considerably. The diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or "transferred" portfolios, such as agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were handed over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained by the provincial British administrators. Gandhi arrives in India ----------------------- * Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda Satyagraha and Champaran Satyagraha.Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda Satyagraha and Champaran Satyagraha. * (Sitting L to R) Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha during Mahatma Gandhi's 1917 Champaran Satyagraha.(Sitting L to R) Rajendra Prasad and Anugrah Narayan Sinha during Mahatma Gandhi's 1917 Champaran Satyagraha. * The Martyrs' Well of Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Jallianwala Bagh. 120 bodies were recovered from this well as per inscription on it.*The Martyrs' Well* of Jallianwala Bagh massacre, at Jallianwala Bagh. 120 bodies were recovered from this well as per inscription on it. * Sidney Rowlatt, best remembered for his controversial presidency of the Rowlatt Committee, a sedition committee appointed in 1918 by the British Indian Government to evaluate the links between political terrorism in India, the actions indirectly led to the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.Sidney Rowlatt, best remembered for his controversial presidency of the Rowlatt Committee, a sedition committee appointed in 1918 by the British Indian Government to evaluate the links between political terrorism in India, the actions indirectly led to the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919. Gandhi had been a leader of the Indian nationalist movement in South Africa. He had also been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive labour treatment as well as suppressive police control such as the Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept of *satyagraha*. In January 1914 (well before the First World War began) Gandhi was successful. The legislation against Indians was repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General Jan Smuts. Gandhi accomplished this through extensive use of non-violent protests, such as boycotting, protest marching, and fasting by him and his followers. Gandhi returned to India on 9 January 1915, and initially entered the political fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and educational development that the Europeans had brought were long required to alleviate many of India's chronic problems. Gopal Krishna Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non-violent civil disobedience initially appeared impractical to some Indians and their Congress leaders. In the Mahatma's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of immoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out non-violently by withdrawing co-operation with the corrupt state. Gandhi had great respect for Lokmanya Tilak. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak's "Chatusutri" programme. The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Committee. The commission was set up to look into the war-time conspiracies by the nationalist organisations and recommend measures to deal with the problem in the post-war period. Rowlatt recommended the extension of the war-time powers of the Defence of India act into the post-war period. The war-time act had vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press, detaining political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a warrant. It was increasingly reviled within India due to widespread and indiscriminate use. Many popular leaders, including Annie Besant and Ali brothers had been detained. The Rowlatt Act was, therefore, passed in the face of universal opposition among the (non-official) Indian members in the Viceroy's council. The extension of the act drew widespread critical opposition. A nationwide cessation of work (*hartal*) was called, marking the beginning of widespread, although not nationwide, popular discontent. The agitation unleashed by the acts led to demonstrations and British repressions, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. In response to agitation in Amritsar, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer blocked the main, and only entrance, and ordered troops under his command to fire into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women, and children. They had assembled peacefully at Jallianwala Bagh, a walled courtyard, but Dyer had wanted to execute the imposed ban on all meetings and proposed to teach all protestors a lesson the harsher way. A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official British commission; Indian officials' estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the massacre.) Dyer was forced to retire but was hailed as a hero by some in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationalists that the Empire was beholden to public opinion in Britain, but not in India. The episode dissolved wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill and opened a rift that could not be bridged short of complete self-rule. ### First non-co-operation movement From 1920 to 1922, Gandhi started the Non-Cooperation Movement. At the Kolkata session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a non-co-operation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for dominion status. The first satyagraha movement urged the use of khadi and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to boycott British educational institutions and law courts, resign from government employment, refuse to pay taxes, and forsake British titles and honors. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new *Government of India Act 1919*, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement because he was scared after the Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty-two policemen at the hands of an angry mob that India would descend into anarchy. Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, a hierarchy of committees was established, made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The party was transformed from an elite organisation to one of mass national appeal and participation. Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years in prison, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison, he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad. On the banks of the river Sabarmati, he established the newspaper *Young India*, introducing a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society — the rural poor, and the untouchables. This era saw the emergence of a new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including Maulana Azad, C. Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhas Chandra Bose and others- who would, later on, come to form the most prominent voices of the Indian self-rule movement, whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or, as in the case of Bose's Indian National Army, diverging from it. The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid-1920s by the emergence of both moderate and militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organisations also continued to represent the interests of non-Brahmins in Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab. However, people like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi, Vanchinathan, and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil Nadu in both self-rule struggle and fighting for equality for all castes and communities. Many women participated in the movement, including Kasturba Gandhi (Gandhi's wife), Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Muthulaxmi Reddy, Aruna Asaf Ali, and many others. ### Result of movements by Gandhi The mass movements sparked nationalist sentiment with the Indian populace and figures like Mahatma Gandhi united a nation behind his non-violence movement; philosophy and undoubtedly put crucial pressure on the British occupation. The movements failed in their primary objective, achieving independence for India, as they were often called off before they naturally concluded due to laws and punishment. While in the later years of the Raj economic factors like the reversing trade fortunes between Britain and India and the cost of fielding the Indian armed forces abroad lumped on the British taxpayer by the 1935 Government of India act, had mounting implications for British administration, united resistance further drew light on the growing disparity of the British failures to achieve solidarity over India. On 14 July 1942 the Congress Working Committee (Indian National Congress, whose president Abul Kalam Azad supported Gandhi, passed a resolution demanding complete independence from the British government, and proposed massive civil disobedience if the British did not accede to the demands. On 8 August 1942 the Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) began, a civil disobedience movement in India in response to Mahatma Gandhi's call for immediate self-rule by Indians and against sending Indians to World War II. Other major parties rejected the Quit India plan, and most cooperated closely with the British, as did the princely states, the civil service, and the police. The Muslim League supported the Raj and grew rapidly in membership, and in influence with the British. The British swiftly responded to the Quit India Movement with mass arrests. Over 100,000 arrests were made, massive fines were levied, and demonstrators were subjected to public flogging. Hundreds of civilians were killed in violence many shot by the police army. Tens of thousands of leaders were also arrested and imprisoned until 1945. Ultimately, the British government realised that India was ungovernable in the long run, and the question for the postwar era became how to exit gracefully and peacefully. Purna Swaraj ------------ * Chauri Chaura Shahid Samarak, which is a memorial to the Chauri Chaura incident, when a large group of protesters, participating in the Non-cooperation movement, clashed with police, who opened fire.Chauri Chaura Shahid Samarak, which is a memorial to the Chauri Chaura incident, when a large group of protesters, participating in the Non-cooperation movement, clashed with police, who opened fire. * C. Rajagopalachari, was an Indian nationalist who participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining the Non-cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil disobedience movement.C. Rajagopalachari, was an Indian nationalist who participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining the Non-cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil disobedience movement. * Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929 demanded "complete independence from Great Britain."Jawaharlal Nehru in 1929 demanded "complete independence from Great Britain." * Vallabhbhai Patel was appointed as the 49th President of Indian National Congress, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937 while promoting the Quit India Movement.Vallabhbhai Patel was appointed as the 49th President of Indian National Congress, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937 while promoting the Quit India Movement. * The flag adopted, during the Purna Swaraj movement, in 1931 and used by Provisional Government during the subsequent years of Second World War.The flag adopted, during the Purna Swaraj movement, in 1931 and used by Provisional Government during the subsequent years of Second World War. Congress leader and famous poet Hasrat Mohani and Communist Party of India leader Swami Kumaranand were the first activists to demand complete independence (Purna Swaraj) from the British in 1921 resolution from an All-India Congress Forum at the Ahmedabad Session of AICC. Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi supported the 'Purna Swaraj' motion demanded by Hasrat Mohani. Following the rejection of the Simon Commission's rejections, an all-party conference was held at Mumbai in May 1928 to instill a sense of camaraderie. The conference appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru to create a constitution for India. The Kolkata session of the Indian National Congress asked the British government to accord India dominion status by December 1929, or face a countrywide civil disobedience movement. Amid rising discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, a call for complete sovereignty and an end to British rule found greater support from the people. At the Lahore session in December 1929, the Indian National Congress adopted the aim of complete self-rule. It authorized the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the *Purna Swaraj* (complete self-rule) Day. The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in March 1931, and the government agreed to release political prisoners. Gandhi managed to have over 90,000 political prisoners released under this pact. Though the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two comrades was not taken back by the British. For the next few years, Congress and the government negotiated until the Government of India Act 1935 emerged. The Muslim League disputed the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to voice the aspirations of all Muslims. The Civil Disobedience Movement launched a new chapter in the Indian independence movement. It did not succeed by itself, but it brought the Indian population together, under the Indian National Congress's leadership. The movement resulted in self rule being a talking point once again, and recruited more Indians to the idea. The movement allowed the Indian independence community to revive their inner confidence and strength against the British Government. In addition, the movement weakened the authority of the British and aided in the end of the British Empire in India. Overall, the civil disobedience Movement was an essential achievement in the history of Indian self-rule because it persuaded New Delhi of the role of the masses in self-determination. Elections and the Lahore resolution ----------------------------------- The Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final constitutional effort at governing British India, articulated three major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite princely states and British India at the centre, were not implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim League performed poorly. In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India's entrance into the Second World War without consulting provincial governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the president of the All-India Muslim League, persuaded participants at the annual Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940 to adopt what later came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. In opposition to the Lahore Resolution, the All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for a united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates; the "attendance at the Nationalist meeting was about five times than the attendance at the League meeting." The All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of Pakistan. Revolutionary movement ---------------------- > There is no real connection between these two unrests, labour, and Congress opposition. But their very existence and coexistence, explains and fully justifies the attention, which Lord Irwin gave to the labour problems. > > > - London Times, 29 January 1928 Bhagat Singh (left), Sukhdev (center), and Rajguru (right) are considered among the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement.Front page of the *Tribune* (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British. Apart from a few stray incidents, armed rebellions against the British rulers did not occur before the beginning of the 20th century. The Indian revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first decade of the 20th century, with groups arising in Bengal, Maharashtra, Odisha, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the Madras Presidency including what is now called South India. More groups were scattered around India. Particularly notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in Punjab after 1907. In the former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban middle class *Bhadralok* community that came to form the "classic" Indian revolutionary, while the latter had an immense support base in the rural and military society of Punjab. In Bengal, the *Anushilan Samiti* emerged from conglomerations of local youth groups and gyms (*Akhra*) in Bengal in 1902, forming two prominent and somewhat independent arms in East and West Bengal identified as *Dhaka Anushilan Samiti* in Dhaka (modern-day Bangladesh), and the *Jugantar* group (centred at Calcutta) respectively. Led by nationalists of the likes of Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barindra Ghosh, the *Samiti* was influenced by philosophies as diverse as Hindu *Shakta* philosophy propounded by Bengali literature Bankim and Vivekananda, Italian Nationalism, and Pan-Asianism of Kakuzo Okakura. The *Samiti* was involved in a number of noted incidences of revolutionary terrorism against British interests and administration in India within the decade of its founding, including early attempts to assassinate Raj officials whilst led by Ghosh brothers. In the meantime, in Maharashtra and Punjab arose similarly militant nationalist feelings. The District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson was shot dead by Anant Kanhere in December 1909, followed by the death of Robert D'Escourt Ashe at the hands of Vanchi Iyer.[*citation not found*] Indian nationalism made headway through Indian societies as far as Paris and London. In London India House under the patronage of Shyamji Krishna Verma came under increasing scrutiny for championing and justifying violence in the cause of Indian nationalism, which found in Indian students in Britain and from Indian expatriates in Paris Indian Society avid followers. By 1907, through Indian nationalist Madame Bhikaji Rustom Cama's links to Russian revolutionary Nicholas Safranski, Indian groups including Bengal revolutionaries as well as India House under V.D. Savarkar were able to obtain manuals for manufacturing bombs. India House was also a source of arms and seditious literature that was rapidly distributed in India. In addition to *The Indian Sociologist*, pamphlets like *Bande Mataram* and *Oh Martyrs!* by Savarkar extolled revolutionary violence. Direct influences and incitement from India House were noted in several incidents of political violence, including assassinations, in India at the time. One of the two charges against Savarkar during his trial in Bombay was for abetting the murder of the District Magistrate of Nasik, A.M.T. Jackson, by Anant Kanhere in December 1909. The arms used were directly traced through an Italian courier to India House. Ex-India House residents M.P.T. Acharya and V.V.S. Aiyar were noted in the Rowlatt report to have aided and influenced political assassinations, including the murder of Robert D'Escourt Ashe. The Paris-Safranski link was strongly suggested by French police to be involved in a 1907 attempt in Bengal to derail the train carrying the Lieutenant-Governor Sir Andrew Fraser. * Shyamji Krishna Varma, who founded the Indian Home Rule Society, India House and The Indian Sociologist in London.Shyamji Krishna Varma, who founded the Indian Home Rule Society, India House and *The Indian Sociologist* in London. * Madan Lal Dhingra, while studying in England, assassinated William Hutt Curzon Wyllie, a British official who was "old unrepentant foes of India who have fattened on the misery of the Indian peasant every [sic] since they began their career".Madan Lal Dhingra, while studying in England, assassinated William Hutt Curzon Wyllie, a British official who was "old unrepentant foes of India who have fattened on the misery of the Indian peasant every [sic] since they began their career". * V. V. S. Aiyar subscribed to the militant form of resistance against the British.V. V. S. Aiyar subscribed to the militant form of resistance against the British. * Pandurang Mahadev Bapat, acquired the title of Senapati, meaning commander, as a consequence of his leadership during the Mulshi Satyagraha.Pandurang Mahadev Bapat, acquired the title of *Senapati*, meaning *commander*, as a consequence of his leadership during the Mulshi Satyagraha. * Chandra Shekhar Azad reorganised the Hindustan Republican Association under its new name of Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) after the death of its founder, Ram Prasad Bismil.Chandra Shekhar Azad reorganised the Hindustan Republican Association under its new name of Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) after the death of its founder, Ram Prasad Bismil. The activities of nationalists abroad is believed to have shaken the loyalty of a number of native regiments of the British Indian Army. The assassination of William Hutt Curzon Wyllie in the hands of Madanlal Dhingra was highly publicised and saw increasing surveillance and suppression of Indian nationalism. These were followed by the 1912 attempt on the life of Viceroy of India. Following this, the nucleus of networks formed in India House, the Anushilan Samiti, nationalists in Punjab, and the nationalism that arose among Indian expatriates and labourers in North America, a different movement began to emerge in the North American Ghadar Party, culminating in the Sedetious conspiracy of World War I led by Rash Behari Bose and Lala Hardayal. However, the emergence of the Gandhian movement slowly began to absorb the different revolutionary groups. The Bengal *Samiti* moved away from its philosophy of violence in the 1920s, when a number of its members identified closely with the Congress and Gandhian non-violent movement. Revolutionary nationalist violence saw a resurgence after the collapse of Gandhian non-cooperation movement in 1922. In Bengal, this saw reorganisation of groups linked to the *Samiti* under the leadership of Surya Sen and Hem Chandra Kanungo. A spate of violence led up to the enactment of the Bengal Criminal Law Amendment in the early 1920s, which recalled the powers of incarceration and detention of the Defence of India Act. In north India, remnants of Punjab and Bengalee revolutionary organisations reorganised, notably under Sachindranath Sanyal, founding the Hindustan Republican Association with Chandrashekhar Azad in north India. The HSRA had strong influences from leftist ideologies. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad. Kakori train robbery was done largely by the members of HSRA. A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by the British Government of having links with and allowing patronage to the revolutionary organisations during this time. The violence and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when revolutionaries of the *Samiti* and the HSRA were involved in the Chittagong armoury raid and the Kakori conspiracy and other attempts against the administration in British India and Raj officials. Sachindra Nath Sanyal mentored revolutionaries in the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA), including Bhagat Singh and Jatindra Nath Das, among others; including arms training and how to make bombs. Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of "Inquilab Zindabad", though no one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Bhagat Singh surrendered after the bombing incident and a trial was conducted. Sukhdev and Rajguru were also arrested by police during search operations after the bombing incident. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct particularly the Muslims towards the self-rule movement. Some of its members left for the Indian National Congress then led by Subhas Chandra Bose, while others identified more closely with Communism. The *Jugantar* branch formally dissolved in 1938. On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer (the last political murder outside India), generally held responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in London. However, the revolutionary movement gradually disseminated into the Gandhian movement. As the political scenario changed in the late 1930s — with the mainstream leaders considering several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play — revolutionary activities gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining Congress and other parties, especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country. Indians who were based in the UK, joined the India League and the Indian Workers Association, partaking in revolutionary activities in Britain. Within a short time of its inception, these organisations became the focus of an extensive police and intelligence operations. Operations against *Anushilan Samiti* saw founding of the Special Branch of Calcutta Police. The intelligence operations against India House saw the founding of the Indian Political Intelligence Office which later grew to be the Intelligence Bureau in independent India. Heading the intelligence and missions against Ghadarite movement and India revolutionaries was the MI5(g) section, and at one point involved the Pinkerton's detective agency. Notable officers who led the police and intelligence operations against Indian revolutionaries, or were involved in it, at various time included John Arnold Wallinger, Sir Robert Nathan, Sir Harold Stuart, Vernon Kell, Sir Charles Stevenson-Moore and Sir Charles Tegart, as well as W. Somerset Maugham. The threat posed by the activities of the *Samiti* in Bengal during World War I, along with the threat of a Ghadarite uprising in Punjab, saw the passage of Defence of India Act 1915. These measures saw the arrest, internment, transportations, and execution of a number of revolutionaries linked to the organisation, and was successful in crushing the East Bengal Branch. In the aftermath of the war, the Rowlatt committee recommended extending the Defence of India Act (as the Rowlatt act) to thwart any possible revival of the *Samiti* in Bengal and the Ghadarite movement in Punjab. In the 1920s, Alluri Sitarama Raju led the ill-fated Rampa Rebellion of 1922–24, during which a band of tribal leaders and other sympathisers fought against the British Raj. Local people referred to him as "Manyam Veerudu" ("Hero of the Jungles"). After the passage of the 1882 Madras Forest Act, its restrictions on the free movement of tribal peoples in the forest prevented them from engaging in their traditional *podu* (Slash-and-burn) agricultural system, which involved shifting cultivation. Raju started a protest movement in the border areas of the Godavari Agency part of Madras Presidency (present-day Andhra Pradesh). Inspired by the patriotic zeal of revolutionaries in Bengal, Raju raided police stations in and around Chintapalle, Rampachodavaram, Dammanapalli, Krishna Devi Peta, Rajavommangi, Addateegala, Narsipatnam and Annavaram. Raju and his followers stole guns and ammunition and killed several British Indian Army officers, including Scott Coward near Dammanapalli. The British campaign lasted for nearly a year from December 1922. Raju was eventually trapped by the British in the forests of Chintapalli then tied to a tree and shot dead with a rifle. The Kallara-Pangode Struggle was one of some 39 agitations against the Government of India. The Home department has later notified about 38 movements/struggles across Indian territories as the ones that culminated in self-rule ended the British Raj. * Jatindra Nath Das was arrested for revolutionary activities and was imprisoned in Lahore jail to be tried under the supplementary Lahore Conspiracy Case and died in Lahore jail after a 63-day hunger strike.Jatindra Nath Das was arrested for revolutionary activities and was imprisoned in Lahore jail to be tried under the supplementary Lahore Conspiracy Case and died in Lahore jail after a 63-day hunger strike. * Chempakaraman Pillai was involved in the Hindu-German Conspiracy along with the Ghadar Party in the United States.Chempakaraman Pillai was involved in the Hindu-German Conspiracy along with the Ghadar Party in the United States. * Surya Sen, best known for leading the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid.Surya Sen, best known for leading the 1930 Chittagong armoury raid. * Bhikaiji Cama, raised "Flag of Indian Independence" in Stuttgart, Germany.Bhikaiji Cama, raised "Flag of Indian Independence" in Stuttgart, Germany. Vanchinathan, in a letter found in his pocket, stated the following: > I dedicate my life as a small contribution to my motherland. I am alone responsible for this. > > The mlechas of England having captured our country, tread over the Sanatana Dharma of the Hindus and destroy them. Every Indian is trying to drive out the English and get *swarajyam* and restore Sanatana Dharma. Our Raman, Sivaji, Krishnan, Guru Govindan, Arjuna ruled our land protecting all dharmas, but in this land, they are making arrangements to crown George V, a mlecha, and one who eats the flesh of cows. > > Three thousand *Madrasees* have taken a vow to kill George V as soon as he lands in our country. In order to make others know our intention, I who am the least in the company, have done this deed this day. This is what everyone in Hindustan should consider it as his duty. > > I will kill Ashe, whose arrival here is to celebrate the crowning of cow-eater King George V in this glorious land which was once ruled by great Samrats. This I do to make them understand the fate of those who cherish the thought of enslaving this sacred land. > I, as the least of them, wish to warn George by killing Ashe. > > Vande Mataram. Vande Mataram. Vande Mataram > > > > -Vanchinathan Final process of Indian self-rule movement ------------------------------------------ * Ram Prasad Bismil Udyan (Park) in Greater Noida, was dedicated to Ram Prasad Bismil, who participated in Mainpuri conspiracy of 1918, and the Kakori conspiracy of 1925, and struggled against British imperialism.Ram Prasad Bismil Udyan (Park) in Greater Noida, was dedicated to Ram Prasad Bismil, who participated in Mainpuri conspiracy of 1918, and the Kakori conspiracy of 1925, and struggled against British imperialism. * Rajendra Lahiri was the mastermind behind Kakori conspiracy and Dakshineshwar bombing.Rajendra Lahiri was the mastermind behind Kakori conspiracy and Dakshineshwar bombing. * Roshan Singh, was sentenced to death, along with Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan and Rajendra Lahiri.Roshan Singh, was sentenced to death, along with Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan and Rajendra Lahiri. * Bhagwati Charan Vohra, died in Lahore on 28 May 1930 while testing a bomb on the banks of the River Ravi.Bhagwati Charan Vohra, died in Lahore on 28 May 1930 while testing a bomb on the banks of the River Ravi. In 1937, provincial elections were held and the Congress came to power in seven of the eleven provinces. This was a strong indicator of the Indian people's support for complete self-rule. When the Second World War started, Viceroy Linlithgow unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. In opposition to Linlithgow's action, the entire Congress leadership resigned from the provincial and local governments. The Muslims and Sikhs, by contrast, strongly supported the war effort and gained enormous stature in London. Defying Congress, millions of Indians supported the war effort, and indeed the British Indian Army became the largest volunteer force, numbering 2,500,000 men during the war. * National celebration at the founding of the Provisional National Indian government at the Free India Center, Berlin, with Secretary of State Wilhelm Keppler speaking, on 16 November 1943.National celebration at the founding of the Provisional National Indian government at the Free India Center, Berlin, with Secretary of State Wilhelm Keppler speaking, on 16 November 1943. * Greater East Asia Conference in November 1943, participants left to right: Ba Maw, Zhang Jinghui, Wang Jingwei, Hideki Tojo, Wan Waithayakon, José P. Laurel, Subhas Chandra Bose.Greater East Asia Conference in November 1943, participants left to right: Ba Maw, Zhang Jinghui, Wang Jingwei, Hideki Tojo, Wan Waithayakon, José P. Laurel, Subhas Chandra Bose. * Unreleased postage stamps of the Azad Hind government.Unreleased postage stamps of the Azad Hind government. * Lal Bahadur Shastri, was sent to prison for one year, for offering individual Satyagraha support to the independence movement.Lal Bahadur Shastri, was sent to prison for one year, for offering individual Satyagraha support to the independence movement. Especially during the Battle of Britain in 1940, Gandhi resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that came from within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's self-rule out of the ashes of a destroyed Britain. In 1942, the Congress launched the Quit India movement. There was some violence but the Raj cracked down and arrested tens of thousands of Congress leaders, including all the main national and provincial figures. They were not released until the end of the war was in sight in 1945. The self-rule movement included the Kakori conspiracy (9 August 1925) led by Indian youth under the leadership of Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil and masterminded by Rajendra Lahiri; and the Azad Hind movement, whose main protagonist Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was a former leader of Congress. From its earliest wartime inception, Bose joined the Axis Powers to fight Britain. ### Quit India Movement The Quit India Movement *(Bharat Chhodo Andolan)* or the *August Movement* was a civil disobedience movement in India which commenced on 8 August 1942 in response to Gandhi's call for immediate self-rule by Indians and against sending Indians to World War II. He asked all teachers to leave their schools, and other Indians to leave their respective jobs and take part in this movement. Due to Gandhi's political influence, his request was followed by a significant proportion of the population. In addition, Congress-led the Quit India Movement to demand the British to leave India and transfer the political power to a representative government. During the movement, Gandhi and his followers continued to use non-violence against British rule. This movement was where Gandhi gave his famous message, "Do or Die!", and this message spread towards the Indian community. In addition, this movement was addressed directly to women as "disciplined soldiers of Indian freedom" and they had to keep the war for independence to go on (against British rule). At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had during the Wardha meeting of the working-committee in September 1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked for self-rule in return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war situation in Europe and South East Asia, and with growing dissatisfactions among Indian troops- especially in Europe- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent, the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the Cripps' Mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total co-operation during the war, in return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a timeframe towards self-government, and of the definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially portraying an offer of limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement. To force the British Raj to meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on total self-rule, the Congress took the decision to launch the Quit India Movement. The aim of the movement was to force the British Government to the negotiating table by holding the Allied war effort hostage. The call for determined but passive resistance that signified the certitude that Gandhi foresaw for the movement is best described by his call to *Do or Die*, issued on 8 August at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay, since renamed *August Kranti Maidan* (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire Congress leadership, and not merely at the national level, was put into confinement less than 24 hours after Gandhi's speech, and the greater number of the Congress were to spend the rest of the war in jail. On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Mumbai session of the All India Congress Committee (AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to follow non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as citizens of a sovereign nation and not to follow the orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India–Burma border, responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress Party's Working Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also banned the party altogether. All the major leaders of the INC were arrested and detained. As the masses were leaderless the protest took a violent turn. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire, electricity lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed. The disruptions were under control in a few weeks and had little impact on the war effort. The movement soon became a leaderless act of defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country, the local underground organisations took over the movement. All the other major parties rejected the Quit India plan, and most cooperated closely with the British, as did the princely states, the civil service, and the police. The Muslim League supported the Raj and grew rapidly in membership, and in influence with the British. There was opposition to the Quit India Movement from several political quarters who were fighting for Indian self-rule. Hindu nationalist parties like the Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call and boycotted the Quit India Movement. Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, the president of the Hindu Mahasabha at that time, even went to the extent of writing a letter titled "Stick to your Posts", in which he instructed Hindu Sabhaites who happened to be "members of municipalities, local bodies, legislatures or those serving in the army...to stick to their posts" across the country, and not to join the Quit India Movement at any cost. The other Hindu nationalist organisation, and Mahasabha affiliate Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) had a tradition of keeping aloof from the anti-British Indian self-rule movement since its founding by K.B. Hedgewar in 1925. In 1942, the RSS, under M.S. Golwalkar completely abstained from joining in the Quit India Movement as well. The Bombay government (British) appreciated the RSS as such, by noting that, > The Sangh has scrupulously kept itself within the law, and in particular, has refrained from taking part in the disturbances that broke out in August 1942. > > The British Government stated that the RSS was not at all supporting any civil disobedience against them, and as such their other political activities(even if objectionable) can be overlooked. Further, the British Government also asserted that at Sangh meetings organised during the times of anti-British movements started and fought by the Indian National Congress, > Speakers urged the Sangh members to keep aloof from the congress movement and these instructions were generally observed. > > > As such, the British government did not crackdown on the RSS and Hindu Mahasabha at all. The RSS head (*sarsanghchalak*) during that time, M.S. Golwalkar later openly admitted to the fact that the RSS did not participate in the Quit India Movement. However, such an attitude during the Indian independence movement also led to the Sangh being viewed with distrust and anger, both by the general Indian public, as well as certain members of the organisation itself. In Golwalkar's own words, > In 1942 also, there was a strong sentiment in the hearts of many. At that time too, the routine work of the Sangh continued. Sangh decided not to do anything directly. ‘Sangh is the organisation of inactive people, their talks have no substance’ was the opinion uttered not only by outsiders but also our own *swayamsevaks*. > > > A number of violent incidents against British officials also took place during the Quit India movement around the country. The British arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. Ultimately, the British government realised that India was ungovernable in the long run, and the question for the postwar era became how to exit gracefully and peacefully. ### Others * Major Iwaichi Fujiwara greets Mohan Singh, leader of the First Indian National Army. Circa April 1942.Major Iwaichi Fujiwara greets Mohan Singh, leader of the First Indian National Army. *Circa* April 1942. * Subhas Chandra Bose founded the Indian Legion and revamped the Indian National Army.Subhas Chandra Bose founded the Indian Legion and revamped the Indian National Army. * Sikh soldiers of the Indian Legion guarding the Atlantic Wall in France in March 1944.Sikh soldiers of the Indian Legion guarding the Atlantic Wall in France in March 1944. India's entry into the war was strongly opposed by Subhas Chandra Bose. Bose had been elected President of the Congress in 1938 and 1939 but later resigned owing to differences of opinion with Gandhi, however he remained emotionally attached to Congress for the remainder of his life. After his resignation he formed his own wing separated from the mainstream Congress leadership known as Forward bloc which was a *loci* focus for ex-congress leaders holding socialist views. Bose then founded the All India Forward Bloc. In 1940 the British authorities in Calcutta placed Bose under house arrest. However, he escaped and made his way through Afghanistan to Nazi Germany to seek Hitler and Mussolini's help for raising an army to fight the British. The Free India Legion comprising Erwin Rommel's Indian POWs was formed. After a dramatic decline in Germany's military fortunes, a German land invasion of India became untenable. Hitler advised Bose to go to Japan where a submarine was arranged to transport Bose, who was ferried to Japanese Southeast Asia, where he formed the Azad Hind Government. The Provisional Free Indian Government in exile reorganised the Indian National Army composed of Indian POWs and volunteer Indian expatriates in South-East Asia, with the help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire revolt among Indian soldiers of the Raj. The INA was to see action against the Allies, including the British Indian Army, in the forests of Arakan, Burma, and in Assam, laying siege to Imphal and Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army. During the war, the Andaman and Nicobar islands were captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to the INA. While a number of Japanese officers, even those like Fujiwara, who were devoted to the Indian cause, observed Bose as a military incompetent as well as an unrealistic and stubborn man who sees only his own needs and problems and could not observe the larger picture of the war as the Japanese had to. The INA failed owing to disrupted logistics, poor supplies from the Japanese, and lack of training. The Azad Hind Fauj surrendered unconditionally to the British in Singapore in 1945. In the consensus of scholarly opinion, Subhas Chandra Bose's death occurred from third-degree burns on 18 August 1945 after his overloaded Japanese plane crashed in Japanese-ruled Formosa (now Taiwan). Trials against members of the INA began in late 1945, and included the infamous joint court-martial of key figures Shah Nawaz Khan and Prem Sahgal. The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was a failed insurrection which encompassed a total strike and subsequent mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai) harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support throughout British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 sailors. The agitations, mass strikes, demonstrations and consequently support for the mutineers, therefore continued several days even after the mutiny had been called off. Along with this, the assessment may be made that it described in crystal clear terms to the government that the British Indian Armed forces could no longer be universally relied upon for support in crisis, and even more it was more likely itself to be the source of the sparks that would ignite trouble in a country fast slipping out of the scenario of political settlement. The mutiny ended with the surrender of revolting the sailors to British officials. Congress and the Muslim League had convinced Indian sailors to surrender. They condemned the mutiny due to the political and military risks of unrest. Impact of World War II ---------------------- World War II was one of the most significant factors in accelerating Indian independence, and the independence of many British and non-British colonies. In the period 1945–1965, decolonization led to more than three dozen countries getting freedom from their colonial powers. Many factors contributed to the downfall of the British Empire. When Britain reached out to the US asking for help in the war, the US offered help contingent on Britain decolonizing post-WWII, and that agreement was codified in the Atlantic Charter. The decolonization of Britain (post-war) also meant that the US and other countries could possibly have access to markets to sell goods that were previously under the British Empire - which were not accessible to them then To bring about these changes, the establishment of the UN following WWII codified sovereignty for nations, and encouraged free trade. The war also forced the British to come to an agreement with Indian leaders to grant them independence if they helped with war efforts since India had one of the largest armies. Also, following WWII, it was untenable for Britain to raise capital on its own to keep its colonies. They needed to rely on America and did so via the Marshall Plan to rebuild their country. Sovereignty and partition of India ---------------------------------- On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning of British India into India and Pakistan. With the speedy passage of the Indian Independence Act 1947, at 11:57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was declared a separate nation. Then at 12:02 A.M., on 15 August 1947 India became a sovereign and democratic nation. Eventually, 15 August became Independence Day for India marking the end of British India. Also on 15 August, both Pakistan and India had the right to remain in or remove themselves from the British Commonwealth. But in 1949, India took the decision to remain in the commonwealth. Violent clashes between Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims followed. Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru and deputy prime minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel had invited Mountbatten to continue as Governor General of India during the period of transition. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. In May 1947, Nehru declared that any princely state which refused to join the Constituent Assembly would be treated as an enemy state. Patel took on the responsibility for bringing princely states into the Union of India, steering efforts by his "iron fist in a velvet glove" policies. There was the use of military force to integrate Junagadh, Hyderabad State (Operation Polo) and Kashmir (Instrument of Accession) to India. The Constituent Assembly, headed by the prominent lawyer, reformer and Dalit leader, B.R. Ambedkar was tasked heading the creation of the constitution of independent India, and the constitution was drafted by B. N. Rau. The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January 1950, the Republic of India was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Rajendra Prasad was the first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently, the French ceded Chandernagore in 1951, and Pondichéry and its remaining Indian colonies by 1954. Indian troops annexed Goa and Portugal's other Indian enclaves in 1961, and Sikkim voted to join the Indian Union in 1975 after the Indian victory over China in Nathu La and Cho La. Following self-rule in 1947, India remained in the Commonwealth of Nations, and relations between the UK and India have since become friendly. There are many areas in which the two countries seek stronger ties for mutual benefit, and there are also strong cultural and social ties between the two nations. The UK has an ethnic Indian population of over 1.6 million. In 2010, Prime Minister David Cameron described Indian – British relations as a "New Special Relationship". See also -------- * * * * Partition of India * Partition of Bengal (1947) * Independence Day (India) * Independence Day (Pakistan) * Revolutionary movement for Indian independence * Women of the Indian independence movement * Communist involvement in Indian Independence movement References ---------- ### Sources and further reading * Amstutz, Andrew (27 May 2019). "Review essay: Alternative histories of revolutionaries in modern South Asia: context, chronology, and archives". *India Review*. **18** (3): 324–342. doi:10.1080/14736489.2019.1616262. S2CID 199354334. * Bose, Nirmal (October–December 1985). "Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Congress". *Indian Journal of Political Science*. **46** (4): 438–450. JSTOR 41855198. * Brown, Giles (August 1948). "The Hindu Conspiracy, 1914–1917". *The Pacific Historical Review*. **17** (3): 299–310. doi:10.2307/3634258. JSTOR 3634258. * Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Mridula; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mahajan, Sucheta; Panikkar, K. N. (1989). *India's Struggle for Independence*. New Delhi: Penguin Books. p. 600. ISBN 978-0-14-010781-4. * Chandra, Bipan (2008). *Communalism in Modern India*. Har-Anand. pp. 140–. ISBN 978-81-241-1416-2. * Collett, Nigel (2005). *The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer*. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-85285-457-7. * David, Saul (2002). *The Indian Mutiny: 1857*. Viking. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-670-91137-0. * Fischer-Tiné, Harald; Tschurenev, Jana, eds. (2014). *A History of Alcohol and Drugs in Modern South Asia: Intoxicating Affairs*. Taylor & Francis. pp. 255–257. ISBN 978-1-317-91681-9. * Fraser, Thomas G. (April 1977). "Germany and Indian Revolution, 1914-18". *Journal of Contemporary History*. **12** (2): 255–272. doi:10.1177/002200947701200203. JSTOR 260216. S2CID 161813088. * Ghosh, Durba. *Gentlemanly Terrorists: Political Violence and the Colonial State in India, 1919-1947* (Cambridge University Press, 2017.) * Gupta, Amit Kumar (September–October 1997). "Defying Death: Nationalist Revolutionism in India, 1897-1938". *Social Scientist*. **25** (9/10): 3–27. doi:10.2307/3517678. JSTOR 3517678. * Heehs, Peter (1998). *India's Freedom Struggle: A Short History*. Delhi: Oxford University Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0-19-562798-5. * Heehs, Peter (2008). *The Lives of Sri Aurobindo*. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14098-0. * Hoover, Karl (May 1985). "The Hindu Conspiracy in California, 1913–1918". *German Studies Review*. **8** (2): 245–261. doi:10.2307/1428642. JSTOR 1428642. * Hopkirk, Peter (1994). *On Secret Service East of Constantinope*. John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5017-1. * Jalal, Ayesha (1994). *The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-45850-4. * Lahiri, Shompa (2000). *Indians in Britain: Anglo-Indian Encounters, Race and Identity, 1880–1930*. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7146-4986-3. * Lloyd, Nick (2011). *The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of One Fateful Day*. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-723-0. * Maclean, Kama. *A Revolutionary History of Interwar India: Violence, Image, Voice and Text* (Oxford University Press, 2015.) * Majumdar, Bimanbehari (1966). *Militant nationalism in India and its socio-religious background (1897-1917)*. General Printers & Publishers. OCLC 8793353. * Majumdar, Ramesh C (1975). *History of the Freedom Movement in India*. Vol. II. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. ISBN 978-81-7102-099-7. * Mitra, Subrata K. (July 1997). "Nehru's policy towards Kashmir: Bringing politics back in again". *Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics*. **35** (2): 55–74. doi:10.1080/14662049708447745. * Mukherjee, Prithwindra (2010). *Les racines intellectuelles du mouvement d'indépendance de l'Inde (1893-1918)*. Editions Codex. ISBN 978-2-918783-02-2. * Patel, Hitendra (2008). *Khudiram Bose: Revolutionary Extraordinaire*. New Delhi: Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India. ISBN 978-81-230-2278-9. * Plowman, Matthew (Autumn 2003). "Irish Republicans and the Indo-German Conspiracy of World War I". *New Hibernia Review*. **7** (3): 81–105. doi:10.1353/nhr.2003.0069. S2CID 144632198. * Popplewell, Richard James (1995). *Intelligence and Imperial Defence: British Intelligence and the Defence of the Indian Empire, 1904-1924*. London, England: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-4580-3. * Puniyani, Ram (2005). *Religion, Power and Violence: Expression of Politics in Contemporary Times*. SAGE Publications. pp. 134–. ISBN 978-0-7619-3338-0. Further reading --------------- * Brown, Judith M. (1972). *Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915–1922*. Cambridge South Asian Studies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-08353-9. * Brown, Judith M. (2009). "Gandhi and Civil Resistance in India, 1917–47". In Roberts, Adam; Ash, Timothy Garton (eds.). *Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6. * Brown, Theodore (January 2008). "Spinning for India's Independence". *Am J Public Health*. **98** (1): 39. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.120139. PMC 2156064. PMID 18048775. * Gonsalves, Peter (2012). *Khadi: Gandhi's Mega Symbol of Subversion*. Sage Publications. ISBN 9788132107354. * Gopal, Sarvepalli (1975). *Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography*. Vol. One. Johnathan Cape. ISBN 978-0-224-01029-0. * Majumdar, R. C. (1988) [First published 1962]. *History of the Freedom movement in India*. South Asia Books. ISBN 978-0-8364-2376-1. * Sarkar, Sumit (1983). *Modern India: 1885–1947*. Madras: Macmillan. p. 486. ISBN 978-0-333-90425-1. * Seal, Anil (2007) [First published 1968]. *Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century*. London, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06274-9. * Singh, Jaswant (2009). *Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence*. Rupa & Co. ISBN 9788129113788. * Sofri, Gianni (1995–1999). *Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus*. Janet Sethre Paxia (translator) (English edition translated from the Italian ed.). Gloucestershire: The Windrush Press. ISBN 978-1-900624-12-1. * Wolpert, Stanley A. (1984). *Jinnah of Pakistan*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503412-7. * Wolpert, Stanley A. (2001). *Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513060-7. ### Primary sources * Gandhi, Mohandas (1993). *An Autobiography: The Story of My Experiments With Truth*. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-5909-8. * Prasad, Bimal ed. *Towards Freedom, 1945: Documents on the Movement for Independence in India* (2008) online * Yadav, B.D. (1992). *M.P.T. Acharya: Reminiscences of an Indian Revolutionary*. New Delhi: Anmol. ISBN 81-7041-470-9.

Indian independence movement

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_independence_movement

A **motherboard** (also called **mainboard**, **main** **circuit board**, **MB**, **mboard**, **backplane board**, **base board**, **system board**, **mobo**; or in Apple computers **logic board**) is the main printed circuit board (PCB) in general-purpose computers and other expandable systems. It holds and allows communication between many of the crucial electronic components of a system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals. Unlike a backplane, a motherboard usually contains significant sub-systems, such as the central processor, the chipset's input/output and memory controllers, interface connectors, and other components integrated for general use. *Motherboard* means specifically a PCB with expansion capabilities. As the name suggests, this board is often referred to as the "mother" of all components attached to it, which often include peripherals, interface cards, and daughterboards: sound cards, video cards, network cards, host bus adapters, TV tuner cards, IEEE 1394 cards, and a variety of other custom components. Similarly, the term *mainboard* describes a device with a single board and no additional expansions or capability, such as controlling boards in laser printers, television sets, washing machines, mobile phones, and other embedded systems with limited expansion abilities. History ------- Prior to the invention of the microprocessor, the CPU of a digital computer consisted of multiple circuit boards in a card-cage case with components connected by a backplane containing a set of interconnected sockets into which the circuit boards are plugged; In very old designs, copper wires were the discrete connections between card connector pins, but printed circuit boards soon became the standard practice. The central processing unit (CPU), memory, and peripherals were housed on individually printed circuit boards, which were plugged into the backplane. In older microprocessor-based systems, the CPU and some support circuitry would fit on a single CPU board, with memory and peripherals on additional boards, all plugged into the backplane. The ubiquitous S-100 bus of the 1970s is an example of this type of backplane system. The most popular computers of the 1980s such as the Apple II and IBM PC had published schematic diagrams and other documentation which permitted rapid reverse-engineering and third-party replacement motherboards. Usually intended for building new computers compatible with the exemplars, many motherboards offered additional performance or other features and were used to upgrade the manufacturer's original equipment. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, it became economical to move an increasing number of peripheral functions onto the motherboard. In the late 1980s, personal computer motherboards began to include single ICs (also called Super I/O chips) capable of supporting a set of low-speed peripherals: PS/2 keyboard and mouse, floppy disk drive, serial ports, and parallel ports. By the late 1990s, many personal computer motherboards included consumer-grade embedded audio, video, storage, and networking functions without the need for any expansion cards at all; higher-end systems for 3D gaming and computer graphics typically retained only the graphics card as a separate component. Business PCs, workstations, and servers were more likely to need expansion cards, either for more robust functions, or for higher speeds; those systems often had fewer embedded components. Laptop and notebook computers that were developed in the 1990s integrated the most common peripherals. This even included motherboards with no upgradeable components, a trend that would continue as smaller systems were introduced after the turn of the century (like the tablet computer and the netbook). Memory, processors, network controllers, power source, and storage would be integrated into some systems. Design ------ A motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components of the system communicate. Unlike a backplane, it also contains the central processing unit and hosts other subsystems and devices. A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other essential components connected to the motherboard. Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in cards or via cables; in modern microcomputers, it is increasingly common to integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself. An important component of a motherboard is the microprocessor's supporting chipset, which provides the supporting interfaces between the CPU and the various buses and external components. This chipset determines, to an extent, the features and capabilities of the motherboard. Modern motherboards include: * CPU sockets (or CPU slots) in which one or more microprocessors may be installed. In the case of CPUs in ball grid array packages, such as the VIA Nano and the Goldmont Plus, the CPU is directly soldered to the motherboard. * Memory slots into which the system's main memory is to be installed, typically in the form of DIMM modules containing DRAM chips can be DDR3, DDR4, DDR5, or onboard LPDDRx. * The chipset which forms an interface between the CPU, main memory, and peripheral buses * Non-volatile memory chips (usually flash memory in modern motherboards) containing the system's firmware or BIOS * The clock generator which produces the system clock signal to synchronize the various components * Slots for expansion cards (the interface to the system via the buses supported by the chipset) * Power connectors, which receive electrical power from the computer power supply and distribute it to the CPU, chipset, main memory, and expansion cards. As of 2007[update], some graphics cards (e.g. GeForce 8 and Radeon R600) require more power than the motherboard can provide, and thus dedicated connectors have been introduced to attach them directly to the power supply * Connectors for hard disk drives, optical disc drives, or solid-state drives, typically SATA and NVMe now[*when?*]. Additionally, nearly all motherboards include logic and connectors to support commonly used input devices, such as USB for mouse devices and keyboards. Early personal computers such as the Apple II or IBM PC included only this minimal peripheral support on the motherboard. Occasionally video interface hardware was also integrated into the motherboard; for example, on the Apple II and rarely on IBM-compatible computers such as the IBM PC Jr. Additional peripherals such as disk controllers and serial ports were provided as expansion cards. Given the high thermal design power of high-speed computer CPUs and components, modern motherboards nearly always include heat sinks and mounting points for fans to dissipate excess heat. ### Form factor Motherboards are produced in a variety of sizes and shapes called form factors, some of which are specific to individual computer manufacturers. However, the motherboards used in IBM-compatible systems are designed to fit various case sizes. As of 2005[update], most desktop computer motherboards use the ATX standard form factor — even those found in Macintosh and Sun computers, which have not been built from commodity components. A case's motherboard and power supply unit (PSU) form factor must all match, though some smaller form factor motherboards of the same family will fit larger cases. For example, an ATX case will usually accommodate a microATX motherboard. Laptop computers generally use highly integrated, miniaturized, and customized motherboards. This is one of the reasons that laptop computers are difficult to upgrade and expensive to repair. Often the failure of one laptop component requires the replacement of the entire motherboard, which is usually more expensive than a desktop motherboard. ### CPU sockets A CPU socket (central processing unit) or slot is an electrical component that attaches to a printed circuit board (PCB) and is designed to house a CPU (also called a microprocessor). It is a special type of integrated circuit socket designed for very high pin counts. A CPU socket provides many functions, including a physical structure to support the CPU, support for a heat sink, facilitating replacement (as well as reducing cost), and most importantly, forming an electrical interface both with the CPU and the PCB. CPU sockets on the motherboard can most often be found in most desktop and server computers (laptops typically use surface mount CPUs), particularly those based on the Intel x86 architecture. A CPU socket type and motherboard chipset must support the CPU series and speed. ### Integrated peripherals With the steadily declining costs and size of integrated circuits, it is now possible to include support for many peripherals on the motherboard. By combining many functions on one PCB, the physical size and total cost of the system may be reduced; highly integrated motherboards are thus especially popular in small form factor and budget computers. * Disk controllers for SATA drives, and historical PATA drives * Historical floppy-disk controller * Integrated graphics controller supporting 2D and 3D graphics, with VGA, DVI, HDMI, DisplayPort, and TV output * integrated sound card supporting 8-channel (7.1) audio and S/PDIF output * Ethernet network controller for connection to a LAN and to receive Internet * USB controller * Wireless network interface controller * Bluetooth controller * Temperature, voltage, and fan-speed sensors that allow software to monitor the health of computer components. ### Peripheral card slots A typical motherboard will have a different number of connections depending on its standard and form factor. A standard, modern ATX motherboard will typically have two or three PCI-Express x16 connection for a graphics card, one or two legacy PCI slots for various expansion cards, and one or two PCI-E x1 (which has superseded PCI). A standard EATX motherboard will have two to four PCI-E x16 connection for graphics cards, and a varying number of PCI and PCI-E x1 slots. It can sometimes also have a PCI-E x4 slot (will vary between brands and models). Some motherboards have two or more PCI-E x16 slots, to allow more than 2 monitors without special hardware, or use a special graphics technology called SLI (for Nvidia) and Crossfire (for AMD). These allow 2 to 4 graphics cards to be linked together, to allow better performance in intensive graphical computing tasks, such as gaming, video editing, etc. In newer motherboards, the M.2 slots are for SSD and/or wireless network interface controller. ### Temperature and reliability Motherboards are generally air cooled with heat sinks often mounted on larger chips in modern motherboards. Insufficient or improper cooling can cause damage to the internal components of the computer, or cause it to crash. Passive cooling, or a single fan mounted on the power supply, was sufficient for many desktop computer CPU's until the late 1990s; since then, most have required CPU fans mounted on heat sinks, due to rising clock speeds and power consumption. Most motherboards have connectors for additional computer fans and integrated temperature sensors to detect motherboard and CPU temperatures and controllable fan connectors which the BIOS or operating system can use to regulate fan speed. Alternatively computers can use a water cooling system instead of many fans. Some small form factor computers and home theater PCs designed for quiet and energy-efficient operation boast fan-less designs. This typically requires the use of a low-power CPU, as well as a careful layout of the motherboard and other components to allow for heat sink placement. A 2003 study found that some spurious computer crashes and general reliability issues, ranging from screen image distortions to I/O read/write errors, can be attributed not to software or peripheral hardware but to aging capacitors on PC motherboards. Ultimately this was shown to be the result of a faulty electrolyte formulation, an issue termed capacitor plague. Modern motherboards use electrolytic capacitors to filter the DC power distributed around the board. These capacitors age at a temperature-dependent rate, as their water based electrolytes slowly evaporate. This can lead to loss of capacitance and subsequent motherboard malfunctions due to voltage instabilities. While most capacitors are rated for 2000 hours of operation at 105 °C (221 °F), their expected design life roughly doubles for every 10 °C (18 °F) below this. At 65 °C (149 °F) a lifetime of 3 to 4 years can be expected. However, many manufacturers deliver substandard capacitors, which significantly reduce life expectancy. Inadequate case cooling and elevated temperatures around the CPU socket exacerbate this problem. With top blowers, the motherboard components can be kept under 95 °C (203 °F), effectively doubling the motherboard lifetime. Mid-range and high-end motherboards, on the other hand, use solid capacitors exclusively. For every 10 °C less, their average lifespan is multiplied approximately by three, resulting in a 6-times higher lifetime expectancy at 65 °C (149 °F). These capacitors may be rated for 5000, 10000 or 12000 hours of operation at 105 °C (221 °F), extending the projected lifetime in comparison with standard solid capacitors. In desktop PCs and notebook computers, the motherboard cooling and monitoring solutions are usually based on a super I/O chip or an embedded controller. Bootstrapping ------------- Motherboards contain a ROM (and later EPROM, EEPROM, NOR flash) that stores to initialize hardware devices and boot an operating system from a peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used ROM chips mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor unit would load its program counter with the address of the Boot ROM and start executing instructions from the Boot ROM. These instructions initialized and tested the system hardware, displayed system information on the screen, performed RAM checks, and then attempts to boot an operating system from a peripheral device. If no peripheral device containing an perating system was available, then the computer would perform tasks from other ROM stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer. For example, both the Apple II and the original IBM PC had Cassette BASIC (ROM BASIC) and would start that if no operating system could be loaded from the floppy disk or hard disk. The boot firmware in modern IBM PC compatible motherboard designs contains either a BIOS, as did the boot ROM on the original IBM PC, or UEFI. UEFI is a successor to BIOS that became popular after Microsoft began requiring it for a system to be certified to run Windows 8. When the computer is powered on, the boot firmware tests and configures memory, circuitry, and peripherals. This Power-On Self Test (POST) may include testing some of the following things: * Video card * Expansion cards inserted into slots, such as conventional PCI and PCI Express * Historical floppy drive * Temperatures, voltages, and fan speeds for hardware monitoring * CMOS memory used to store BIOS configuration * Keyboard and mouse * Sound card * Network adapter * Optical drives: CD-ROM or DVD-ROM * Hard disk drive and solid-state drive * Security devices, such as a fingerprint reader * USB devices, such as a USB mass storage device See also -------- * Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) * Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) * Chip creep * CMOS battery * Computer case screws * Expansion card * List of computer hardware manufacturers * M.2 * Overclocking * Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) + PCI-X + PCI Express (PCIe) * Single-board computer * Switched-mode power supply#Applications * Symmetric multiprocessing * U.2 * UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)

Motherboard

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard

**Al-Fatiha** (alternatively transliterated **Al-Fātiḥa** or **Al-Fātiḥah**; Arabic: ألْفَاتِحَة, IPA: [ʔal faːtiħah]; lit. 'The Opening' or 'The Opener'), is the first *surah* (chapter) of the Quran. It consists of 7 *ayah* (verses) which are a prayer for guidance and mercy. Al-Fatiha is recited in Muslim obligatory and voluntary prayers, known as *salah*. Quranic chapter titles are not considered by Muslims to be part of the divine revelation of the Quran. The primary literal meaning of the expression "Al-Fatiha" is "The Opener/The Key", which could refer to this Surah being the first in the Quran, the first chapter recited in full in every *rakat* of *salah*, or to the manner in which it serves as an opening for many functions in everyday Islamic life. Some Muslims interpret it as a reference to an implied ability of the Surah to open a person to faith in God. Summary ------- Surah Al-Fatiha is narrated in the Hadith to have been divided into two halves between God and His servant (the person reciting), the first three verses being His half and last three being the servant's. There is disagreement as to whether the *Bismillah* is the first verse of the *surah,* or even a verse in the first place. The chapter begins by praising God with the phrase *Alhamdulillah*, and stating that it is God who has full authority over all creations (verse 1/2), that He is *Ar-Rahman Ar-Rahim* or the Most Gracious and Most Merciful (verse 2/3), and that He is and will be the true owner of everything and everyone on the Day of Judgement (verse 3/4). The final three verses, which comprise the servant's half, begin with the servant stating that they worship and seek only God's help (verse 4/5), asking Him to guide them to the *Sirat al-Mustaqim* (the Straight Path) of those who God has been bountiful to, and not of those who have earned His anger (verses 5-6/6-7). Some Muslim commentators believe Jews and Christians are examples of those evoking God's anger and those who went astray, respectively. Others view this as an exclusive condemnation of *all* Jews and Christians from all times. The Noble Quran (Hilali–Khan), which is said to be the most widely disseminated Quran in most Islamic bookstores and Sunni mosques throughout the English-speaking world, defines the two groups as Jews and Christians respectively. Other Muslim commentators have not interpreted these verses as referring exclusively to a specific group of people, but instead interpret these in the more general sense. Verses and meaning ------------------ **بِسْمِ اللّٰهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ** ۝١‎ [*Bismi l-lāhi r-raḥmāni r-raḥīm(i)*] 1 In the name of God, the Most Compassionate, Most Merciful. **اَلْحَمْدُ لِلّٰهِ رَبِّ الْعٰلَمِيْنَ** ۝٢‎ [*’alḥamdu lil-lāhi rab-bi l-‘ālamīn(a)*] 2 All praise is for God - Lord of all worlds – **الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ** ۝٣‎ [*’ar-raḥmāni r-raḥīm(i)*] 3 the Most Compassionate, Most Merciful, **مَالِكِ** **يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ** ۝٤‎ [*Māliki yawmi d-dīn(i)*] 4 Owner of the Day of Judgement. **إِيَّاكَ نَعْبُدُ وَإِيَّاكَ نَسْتَعِينُ** ۝٥‎ [*’iy-yāka na‘budu wa’iy-yāka nasta‘īn(u)*] 5 You ˹alone˺ we worship and You ˹alone˺ we ask for help.. **ٱهْدِنَا ٱلصِّرَاطَ ٱلْمُسْتَقِيمَ** ۝٦‎ [*’ihdinā ṣ-ṣirāṭa l-mustaqīm(a)*] 6 Guide us along the straight path – **صِرَاطَ الَّذِينَ أَنعَمتَ عَلَيهِمْ غَيرِ المَغضُوبِ عَلَيهِمْ وَلاَ الضَّالِّينَ** ۝٧‎ [*Ṣirāṭa l-ladhīna ’an‘amta ‘alayhim, ghayri l-maghḍūbi ‘alayhim wala ḍ-ḍāl-līn(a)*] 7 the Path of those You have blessed — not those You are displeased with, or those who are astray. **With full tajweed symbols** بِسۡمِ ٱللَّهِ ٱلرَّحۡمَـٰنِ ٱلرَّحِیمِ ۝١ ٱلۡحَمۡدُ لِلَّهِ رَبِّ ٱلۡعَـٰلَمِینَ ۝٢ ٱلرَّحۡمَـٰنِ ٱلرَّحِیمِ ۝٣ مَـٰلِكِ یَوۡمِ ٱلدِّینِ ۝٤ إِیَّاكَ نَعۡبُدُ وَإِیَّاكَ نَسۡتَعِینُ ۝٥ ٱهۡدِنَا ٱلصِّرَ ٰ⁠طَ ٱلۡمُسۡتَقِیمَ ۝٦ صِرَ ٰ⁠طَ ٱلَّذِینَ أَنۡعَمۡتَ عَلَیۡهِمۡ غَیۡرِ ٱلۡمَغۡضُوبِ عَلَیۡهِمۡ وَلَا ٱلضَّاۤلِّینَ ۝٧ Background ---------- The most commonly accepted view about the origins of the *surah* is the view of Ibn Abbas, among others, that Al-Fatiha is a Meccan *surah*, although some believe that it is either a Medinan surah or was revealed in both Mecca and Medina. Most narrators recorded that al-Fātiḥah was the first complete Surah revealed to Muhammad. The name Al-Fatiha ("the Opener") could refer to the *surah* being the first in the Mus'hafs, the first to be recited in each *rakat* of *salah*, or to the manner of its usage in many Islamic traditions as an opening prayer. The word itself comes from the root *f-t-ḥ* (‏ف ت ح‎), which means "to open, explain, disclose, conquer", etc. Al-Fatiha is also known by several other names, such as Al-Hamd (The Praise), As-Salah (The Prayer), Umm al-Kitab (Mother of the Book), Umm al-Quran (Mother of the Quran), Sab'a min al-Mathani (Seven Repeated Ones, from Quran 15:87), and Ash-Shifa' (The Cure). Benefits and virtues -------------------- Muslims attribute special significance to some *surahs* for their virtues and benefits (فضائل, *faḍā’il*) described in the hadith. Acceptance of the different hadith varies between Sunni and Shia Muslims, and there is a variety of terms to classify the different levels of confirmed authenticity of a hadith. However, both Sunnis and Shia believe Al-Fatiha to be one of the greatest *surahs* in the Quran, and a cure for several diseases and poisons. See also -------- * Basmala 1. ↑ Qira’at: All except for ʻAsem, Al-Kesa’i, Yaʻqub and Khalaf in one of his narrations read it as: **مَلِك يَوْمِ ٱلدِّينِ** ۝٤‎ *Maliki yawmi d-dīn(i)* 4 Master of the Day of Judgement.

Al-Fatiha

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Fatiha

**Pornography** (colloquially known as **porn** or **porno**) has been defined as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text," that is considered sexually arousing. Indicated for the consumption by adults, pornography depictions have evolved from cave paintings, some forty millennia ago, to virtual reality presentations in modern-day. Pornography use is considered a widespread recreational activity among people in-line with other digitally mediated activities such as use of social media or video games. A distinction is often made regarding adult content classifying it as either pornography or erotica. The oldest artifacts that are considered pornographic were discovered in Germany in 2008 CE and are dated to be at least 35,000 years old. Throughout the history of erotic depictions, various people have regarded them as noxious and made attempts to suppress them under obscenity laws, censor, or make them illegal. Such grounds and even the definition of pornography have differed in various historical, cultural, and national contexts. The Indian Sanskrit text *Kama Sutra* (3rd century CE), contained prose, poetry, and illustrations regarding sexual behavior, and the book was celebrated; while the British English text *Fanny Hill* (1748), considered "the first original English prose pornography," has been one of the most prosecuted and banned books. In the late 19th century, a film by Thomas Edison that depicted a kiss was denounced as obscene in the United States, whereas Eugène Pirou's 1896 film *Bedtime for the Bride* was received very favorably in France. Starting from the mid-twentieth century on, societal attitudes towards sexuality became more lenient in the Western world where legal definitions of obscenity were made limited. In 1969, *Blue Movie* became the first film to depict unsimulated sex that received a wide theatrical release in the United States. This was followed by the "Golden Age of Porn" (1969–1984). The introduction of home video and the World Wide Web in the late 20th century led to global growth in the pornography business. Starting in the 21st century, greater access to the internet and affordable smartphones made pornography more mainstream. Pornography supposedly provides a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual release in people who do not have a partner. It has been equated with journalism, as both offer a view into the unknown or the hidden aspects of people. Motivations for using pornography may include fantasy, habitual use, mood management, and using it as part of a relationship. Studies have indicated that sexual function is greater in women who consume pornography frequently than in women who do not; no such association was noticed in men. Pornography has been claimed to serve the purpose of an anti-depressant for the unhappy. People who regard porn as sex education material were identified as more likely to not use condoms in their own sex life, assuming a higher risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs); performers working for pornographic studios undergo regular testing for STIs, unlike much of the general public. Comparative studies have noted that instances of higher "pornography consumption" and "pornography tolerance" among people tend to be associated with their greater support for gender equality; those who support regulated pornography were distinguished as being more egalitarian than those who support pornography ban. While some feminist groups seek to abolish pornography, believing it to be harmful, other feminist groups oppose censorship efforts insisting pornography is benign. A longitudinal study had ascertained that pornography use is not a predictive factor in intimate partner violence. Called an "erotic engine," pornography has been noted for its key role in the development of various communication and media processing technologies. By being an early adopter of innovations ahead of other industries and as a provider of financial capital, the pornography industry has been cited to be a contributing factor in the adoption and popularization of many technologies. The accurate economic size of the porn industry in the early twenty-first century is unknown. Kassia Wosick, a sociologist from New Mexico State University, estimated the worldwide market value of porn to be at US$97 billion in 2015, with the US revenue estimated between $10 and $12 billion. IBISWorld, a leading industry market researcher, projected the total US revenue to reach US$3.3 billion in the year 2020. In 2018, pornography in Japan was estimated to be worth over $20 billion. The US pornography industry employs numerous performers along with production and support staff, and has its own industry-specific publications: *XBIZ* and *AVN*; a trade association, the Free Speech Coalition; and award shows, XBIZ Awards and AVN Awards. From the mid 2010s, unscrupulous pornography such as deepfake pornography and revenge porn have become issues of concern. Etymology and definition ------------------------ The word *pornography* is a conglomerate of two ancient Greek words: πόρνος (*pórnos*) "fornicators," and γράφειν (*gráphein*) "writing, recording, or description." The modern word *pornography* entered the English language as the familiar word in 1842, from the French "*pornographie*," from Greek "*pornographos*". The term *porn* is an abbreviation of pornography. The related term πόρνη (*pórnē*) "prostitute" in Greek, originally meant "bought, purchased" similar to *pernanai* "to sell," from the proto-Indo-European root *per-*, "to hand over" – alluding to the notion of selling. In ancient Greece a brothel was called a "porneion". In Greek language, the term *pornography* connotes depiction of sexual activity. No date is known for the first use of the word *pornography* in Greek; the earliest attested, most related word one could find in Greek is πορνογράφος (*pornographos*), i.e. "someone writing about harlots" in the 3rd century CE work *Deipnosophists* by Athenaeus. The oldest published reference to the term *pornography* as in 'new pornographie,' is dated back to 1638 and is credited to Nathaniel Butter in a history of the Fleet newspaper industry. The word *pornography* was originally introduced by classical scholars as "a bookish, and therefore nonoffensive, term for writing about prostitutes", but its meaning was quickly expanded to include all forms of "objectionable or obscene material in art and literature." In 1864, *Webster's Dictionary* published the meaning for the word *pornography* as "a licentious painting," and the *Oxford English Dictionary* as: "obscene painting" (1842), "description of obscene matters, obscene publication" (1977 or earlier). Another term generally used to identify sexual material is *erotica*. Sometimes used as a synonym for "pornography," "erotica" is derived from the feminine form of the ancient Greek adjective: ἐρωτικός (*erōtikós*), from ἔρως (*érōs*)—words used to indicate lust, and sexual love. Definitions for the term "pornography" are varied, with people from both pro- and anti-pornography groups defining it either favorably or unfavourably, thus making any definition of the term "pornography" very stipulative. Nevertheless, academic researchers have defined pornography as sexual subject material "such as a picture, video, or text," that is primarily intended to assist sexual arousal in the consumer and is made and supplied with "the consent of all persons involved." Arousal is considered the primary objective, the *raison d'etre,* that a material must fulfill for it to be treated as pornographic. As some people can feel aroused by an image that is not meant to be sexually arousing and conversely cannot feel aroused by material that is clearly intended for arousal, the material that can be considered as pornography becomes subjective. In 1964, when the US Supreme Court faced a controversy over whether Louis Malle's French film, *The Lovers*, violated the First Amendment prohibition against obscene speech, Justice Potter Stewart, in determining what exactly distinguishes pornography from obscenity, famously stated that he could never certainly succeed in precisely defining porn but knew what counts as porn when he encounters it: "I know it when I see it," he said. Pornography throughout history ------------------------------ ### Pornography from ancient times As the very definition of pornography is subjective, a specified history of pornography is inconceivable. Depictions of a sexual nature have existed since prehistoric times, as seen in the venus figurines and rock art. People across various civilizations have created works that depicted explicit sex; these works included artifacts, music, poetry, and murals among other things that are often interwined with religious and supernatural themes. The oldest artifacts, including the venus of Hohle Fels, which are considered to be pornographic were discovered in 2008 CE at a cave near Stuttgart in Germany, radiocarbon dating suggests they are at least 35,000 years old, belonging to the aurignacian period. Vast number of artifacts that have been discovered in the ancient mesopotamia region had depictions of explicit heterosexual sex. Glyptic art from the Sumerian Early Dynastic Period frequently shows scenes of frontal sex in the missionary position. In Mesopotamian votive plaques, from the early second millennium BCE, a man is usually shown penetrating a woman from behind while she bends over drinking beer through a straw. Middle Assyrian lead votive figurines often represented a man standing and penetrating a woman as she rests on the top of an altar. Plaques depicting sexual activity between a male and a female. From Iraq, Old Babylonian Period, (c. 2000-1500 BCE). Scholars have traditionally interpreted all these depictions as scenes of hieros gamos (an ancient sacred marriage between a god and a goddess), but they are more likely to be associated with the cult of Inanna, the goddess of sex and prostitution. Many sexually explicit images were found in the temple of Inanna at Assur, which also contained models of male and female sexual organs. Depictions of sexual intercourse were not part of the general repertory of ancient Egyptian formal art, but rudimentary sketches of heterosexual intercourse have been found on pottery fragments and in graffiti. The final two thirds of the Turin Erotic Papyrus (Papyrus 55001), an Egyptian papyrus scroll discovered at Deir el-Medina, consists of a series of twelve vignettes showing men and women in various sexual positions. The scroll was probably painted in the Ramesside period (1292–1075 BCE) and its high artistic quality indicates that it was produced for a wealthy audience. No other similar scrolls have yet been discovered. > > pornography is sometimes characterised as the symptom of a degenerate society, but anyone even noddingly familiar with Greek vases or statues on ancient Hindu temples will know that so-called unnatural sex acts, orgies and all manner of complex liaisons have for millennia past been represented in art for the pleasure and inspiration of the viewer everywhere. The desire to ponder images of love-making is clearly innate in the human – perhaps particularly the male – psyche. > > > — Tom Hodgkinson The society of ancient Greece was recognized for its lenient attitudes towards sexual representation in the fields of art and literature. The Greek poet Sappho's Ode to Aphrodite (600 BCE) is considered an earliest example of lesbian poetry. Red-figure pottery invented in Greece (530 BCE) often portrayed images that displayed eroticism. The fifth-century BC comic Aristophanes elaborated 106 ways of describing the male genitalia and in 91 ways the female genitalia. Lysistrata (411 BCE) is a sex-war comedy play performed in ancient Greece. Red-figure pottery invented in ancient Greece (c. 530/520 BCE) portrayed erotic imagery as part of art work. In India, Hinduism embraced an inquisitive attitude towards sex as an art and a spiritual ideal. Some ancient Hindu temples incorporated various aspects of sexuality into their art work. The temples at Khajuraho and Konark are particularly renowned for their sculptures, which had detailed representations of human sexual activity. These depictions were viewed with a spiritual outlook as sexual arousal is believed to denote the embodying of the divine. Kama, the word used to connote sexual desire, was explored in Indian literary works such as the *Kama Sutra*, which dealt with practical as well as psychological aspects of human courtship and sexual intercourse. The Sanskrit text Kama sutra was compiled by the sage Vatsyayana into its final form sometime during the second half of the third century CE. This text included prose, poetry, as well as illustrations regarding erotic love and sexual behaviour, and is one of the most celebrated Indian erotic works. Another medieval Indian work that explored sexuality is the *Koka shastra*. Woman on topGroup sexDouble penetrationIllustrations depicting various human sexual activities, from the ancient Indian Sanskrit text *Kama Sutra* (c. 3rd century CE). Other examples of early art and literature of sexual nature include: *Ars Amatoria (Art of Love)*, a second-century CE treatise on the art of seduction and sensuality by the Roman poet Ovid; the artifacts of the Moche people in Peru (100 CE to 800 CE); *The Decameron*, a collection of short stories, some of which are sexual in nature by the 14th-century Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio; and the fifteenth-century Arabic sex manual *The Perfumed Garden.* ### Pornography in early modern era A highly developed culture of visual erotica flourished in Japan during the early modern era. From at least the 17th century, erotic materials became part of the mainstream social culture with depictions of sexual intercourse presented on pictures that were meant to provide sex education for medical professionals, courtesans, and married couples. Makura-e (pillow pictures) were made for entertainment as well as for guidance to married couples. The ninth-century Japanese art form called "Shunga" that depicted sexual acts on woodblock prints and paintings became so popular by the 18th century that the Japanese government began to issue official edicts against it. Even so, Japanese erotica flourished with the works of artists such as Suzuki Harunobu achieving worldwide recognition. Censorship laws enacted in 1870 made their production difficult. The laws remained until the end of the pacific war in 1945. In Europe, the Italian Renaissance work from 16th century *I Modi* (The Ways) also known as *The Sixteen Pleasures* or by its Latin title *De omnibus Veneris Schematibus*, is a famous erotic book in which a series of sexual positions were explicitly depicted on engravings. With the development of printing press in Europe, the publication of written and visual material, which was essentially pornographic began. *Heptaméron* written in French by Marguerite de Navarre and published posthumously in 1558 is one of the earliest examples of salacious works from this period. Starting with the age of enlightenment in the 18th century and with further advances in printing technology, the production of erotic material became popular enough that an underground marketplace for such works developed in England with a separate publishing and bookselling business. The book *Fanny Hill* (1748), considered "the first original English prose pornography, and the first pornography to use the form of the novel," was an erotic literary work by John Cleland, first published in England as *Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure*. The novel has been one of the most prosecuted and banned books in history. The author John Cleland was charged for "corrupting the King's subjects." At around the same time, erotic graphic art that began to be extensively produced in Paris came to be known in the Anglosphere as "French postcards". Apart from its sexual component, pornography became a medium for protest against the social and political norms of the time. It was used to explore the ideas of sexual freedom for women and men, the various methods of contraception, and to expose the offences of powerful royals and elites. One of the most important authors of socially radical pornography was the French aristocrat Marquis de Sade (1740–1814), whose name helped derive the words "sadism" and "sadist". He advocated libertine sexuality and published writings that were critical of authorities, many of which contained pornographic content. His work *Justine* (1791) interlaced orgiastic scenes along with extensive debates on the ills of property and traditional hierarchy in society. When large-scale archaeological excavations were undertaken in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii during the 18th century, much of the erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum came to light, shocking the authorities who endeavored to hide them away from the general public. In 1821, the moveable objects were locked away in the Secret Museum in Naples, and what could not be removed was either covered or cordoned off from public view. During the Victorian era (1837–1901) the invention of the rotary printing press made publication of books easier, many works of lascivious nature were published during this period, often under pen names or anonymity. In 1837, the Holywell Street (known as “Booksellers’ Row”) in London had more than 50 shops that sold pornographic material. Many of the Works published in the Victorian era are considered bold and graphic even by today's lenient standards. Some of the popular publications from this era include: *The Pearl* (magazine of erotic tales and poems published from 1879 to 1881); *Gamiani, or Two Nights of Excess* (1870) by Alfred de Musset; and *Venus in Furs* (1870) by Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, from whose name the term "masochism" was derived. *The Sins of the Cities of the Plain* (1881) is one of the first sole male homosexual literary work published in English, this work is said to have inspired another gay literary work *Teleny, or The Reverse of the Medal* (1893), whose authorship has often been attributed to Oscar Wilde. *The Romance of Lust*, written anonymously and published in four volumes during 1873–1876, contained graphical descriptions of themes detailing incest, homosexuality, and orgies. Other publications from the Victorian era that included fetish and taboo themes like sadomasochism and 'cross-generational sex' are: *My Secret Life* (1888–1894) and *Forbidden Fruit* (1898). On accusations of obscenity many of these works had been outlawed until the 1960s. ### Criminalization The world's first law that criminalized pornography was the English Obscene Publications Act 1857, which was enacted at the urging of the Society for the Suppression of Vice. The Act, passed by the British Parliament in 1857 applied to the United Kingdom and Ireland, made the sale of obscene material a statutory offence, and gave authorities the power to seize and destroy any offending material. When pornographic material flourished in the Victorian-era England, the affluent classes believed they are sensible enough to deal with it, unlike the lower working classes whom they thought would get distracted by such material and cease to be productive. Beliefs that masturbation would make people ill, insane, or become blind also flourished. The obscenity act gave government officials the power to interfere in the private lives of people unlike any other law before. Some of the people suspected for masturbation were forced to wear chastity devices. "Cures" and "treatment" for masturbation involved such measures like giving electric shock and applying carbolic acid to the clitoris. The law was criticised for being established on still yet unproven claims that sexual material is noxius for people or public health. In 1865, the US postal service was seen as a "vehicle" for the transmission of materials that were deemed obscene by the American lawmakers. An act relating to the postal services was passed, which made people pay a fine of $500 for knowingly mailing any "obscene book, pamphlet, picture print, or other publication." From 1865 to up until the first three months of 1872, a total number of nine people were held for various charges of obscenity, with one person sentenced to prison for a year; while in the next ten months fifteen people were arrested under this law. This was partly due to the efforts of Anthony Comstock, who became a major figure in 1872 and held great power to control sexual related activities of people including the choice of abortion. The Comstock Act of 1873 is the American equivalent of the English Obscene Act. The anti-obscenity bill, drafted by Anthony Comstock, was debated for less than an hour in the US Congress before being passed into law. Apart from the power to seize and destroy any material alleged to be obscene, the law made it possible for the authorities to make arrests over any perceived act of obscenity, which included possession of contraceptives by married couples. Reportedly in the US, 15 tonnes of books and 4 million pictures were destroyed, and about 15 people were driven to suicide with 4,000 arrests. At least 55 people, whom Comstock identified as abortionists, got indicted under the Comstock act. The English Act did not apply to Scotland where the common law continued to apply. Before the English Act, publication of obscene material was treated as a common law misdemeanour, this made effectively prosecuting authors and publishers difficult even in cases where the material was clearly intended as pornography. However, neither the English, nor the United States Act defined what constituted "obscene," leaving this for the courts to determine. For implementing the Comstock act, the US courts used the British Hicklin test to define obscenity, the definition of which became cemented in 1896 and continued until the mid-twentieth century. Starting from 1957 to 1997, the US Supreme Court made numerous judgements that redefined Obscenity. The nineteenth-century legislation eventually outlawed the publication, retail and trafficking of certain writings and images that were deemed pornographic. Although laws ordered the destruction of shop and warehouse stock meant for sale, the private possession and viewing of (some forms of) pornography was not made an offence until the twentieth century. Historians have explored the role of pornography in determining social norms. The Victorian attitude that pornography was only for a select few is seen in the wording of the Hicklin test, stemming from a court case in 1868, where it asked: "whether the tendency of the matter charged as obscenity is to deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences." Although officially prohibited, the sale of sexual material nevertheless continued through "under the counter" means. Magazines specialising in a genre called "saucy and spicy" became popular during this time (1896 to 1955), titles of few popular magazines include; *Wink: A Whirl of Girls*, *Flirt: A FRESH Magazine*, and *Snappy*. Cover stories in these magazines featured segments such as "perky pin-ups" and "high-heel cuties." Some of the popular erotic literary works from the twentieth century include the novels: *Story of the Eye* (1928), *Tropic of Cancer* (1934), *Tropic of Capricorn* (1938), the French *Histoire d'O* (*Story of O*) (1954); and the short stories: *Delta of Venus* (1977), and *Little Birds* (1979). After the invention of photography, the birth of erotic photography followed. The oldest surviving image of a pornographic photo is dated back to about 1846, described as to depict "a rather solemn man gingerly inserting his penis into the vagina of an equally solemn and middle-aged woman." The Parisian demimonde included Napoleon III's minister, Charles de Morny, an early patron who delighted in acquiring and displaying erotic photos at large gatherings. Pornographic film production commenced almost immediately after the invention of the motion picture in 1895. A pioneer of the motion picture camera, Thomas Edison, released various films, including *The Kiss* that were denounced as obscene in late 19th century America. Two of the earliest pioneers of pornographic films were Eugène Pirou and Albert Kirchner. Kirchner directed the earliest surviving pornographic film for Pirou under the trade name "Léar". The 1896 film, *Le Coucher de la Mariée*, showed Louise Willy performing a striptease. Pirou's film inspired a genre of risqué French films that showed women disrobing, and other filmmakers realised profits could be made from such films. ### Legalization Sexually explicit films opened producers and distributors to prosecution. Such films were produced illicitly by amateurs, starting in the 1920s, primarily in France and the United States. Processing the film was risky as was their distribution, which was strictly private. In the western world, during the 1960s, social attitudes towards sex and pornography slowly changed. In 1967, Denmark repealed the obscenity laws on literature, this led to a decline in the sale of pornographic and erotic literature. Hoping for a similar effect, in the summer of 1969, legislators in Denmark abolished censorship on picture pornography, thereby effectively becoming the first country to legalize pornography, including child pornography, which was later prohibited in 1980. The 1969 legislation, instead of resulting in a decline in pornography production, led to an explosion of investment in, and commercial production of pornography in Denmark, making the country's name synonymous with sex and pornography. The total retail turnover of pornography in Denmark for the year 1969 was estimated at $50 million. Much of the pornographic material produced in Denmark was smuggled into other countries around the world. Nonetheless, and also in 1969, *Blue Movie* by Andy Warhol became the first feature film to depict explicit sexual intercourse that received a wide theatrical release in the United States. > > *Blue Movie* was *real*. But it wasn't done as pornography—it was done as an exercise, an experiment. But I really do think movies *should* arouse you, should get you excited about people, should be prurient. Prurience is part of the machine. It keeps you happy. It keeps you running." > > > — Andy Warhol Film scholar Linda Williams remarked that *prurience* "is a key term in any discussion of moving-image sex since the sixties. Often it is the "interest" to which no one wants to own up." In 1970, the United States President's Commission on Obscenity and Pornography, set up to study the effects of pornography, found that there was "no evidence to date that exposure to explicit sexual materials plays a significant role in the causation of delinquent or criminal behavior among youths or adults." The report further recommended against placing any restriction on the access of pornography by adults and suggested that legislation "should not seek to interfere with the right of adults who wish to do so to read, obtain, or view explicit sexual materials." Regarding the notion that sexually explicit content is improper, the Commission found it "inappropriate to adjust the level of adult communication to that considered suitable for children." The Supreme Court supported this view. In 1971, Sweden removed its obscenity clause. Further relaxation of legislations during the early 1970s in the US, West Germany and other countries led to rise in pornography production. The 1970s were described, by Linda Williams, as 'the "Classical" Era of Theatrically Exhibited Porn', a time period when people from different walks of life watched various pornographic films together in theatres. In 1979, the British Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship better known as the Williams Committee, formed to review the laws concerning obscenity reported that pornography could not be harmful and to think anything else is to see pornography "out of proportion". The committee declared that existing variety of laws in the field should be scrapped and so long as it is prohibited from children, adults should be free to consume pornography as they see fit. The Meese Report in 1986, argued against loosening restrictions on pornography in the US. The report was criticized as biased, inaccurate, and not credible. In 1988, the Supreme Court of California ruled in the *People v. Freeman* case that "filming sexual activity for sale" does not amount to procuring or prostitution and shall be given protection under the first amendment. This ruling effectively legalized the production of X-rated adult content in the Los Angeles county, which by 2005 had emerged as the largest centre in the world for the production of pornographic films. Pornographic films appeared throughout the twentieth century. First as stag films (1900–1940s), then as porn loops or short films for peep shows (1960s), followed by as feature films for theatrical release in adult movie theaters (1970s), and as home videos (1980s). Pornographic magazines published during the mid-twentieth century have been noted for playing an important role in the sexual revolution and the liberalization of laws and attitudes towards sexual representation in the Western world. Hugh Hefner, in 1953, published the first US issue of the *Playboy*, a magazine which as Hefner described is a "handbook for the urban male". The magazine contained images of nude women along with articles and interviews covering politics and culture. Twelve years later, in 1965, Bob Guccione in the UK started his publication *Penthouse*, and published its first American issue in 1969 as a direct competitor to Playboy. In its early days, the images of naked women published in Playboy did not show any pubic hair or genitals. Penthouse became the first magazine to show pubic hair in 1970. Playboy followed the lead and there ensued a competition between the two magazines over publication of more racy pictures, a contest that eventually got labelled as the "Pubic wars". > > "We were the first to show full frontal nudity. The first to expose the clitoris completely. I think we made > a very serious contribution to the liberalization of laws and attitudes. HBO would not have gone as far as it does if it wasn't for us breaking the barriers. Much that has happened now in the Western world with respect to sexual advances is directly due to steps that we took." — Bob Guccione, Penthouse founder in 2004. > > > The tussle between Playboy and Penthouse paled into obscurity when Larry Flynt started *Hustler*, which became the first magazine to publish labial "pink shots" in 1974. Hustler projected itself as the magazine for the working classes as opposed to the urban centered Playboy and Penthouse. During the same time in 1972, Helen Gurley Brown, editor of the *Cosmopolitan* magazine, published a centerfold that featured actor Burt Reynolds in nude. His popular pose has been later emulated by many other famous people. The success of Cosmo led to the launch of *Playgirl* in 1973. At their peak, Playboy sold close to six million copies a month in the US, while Penthouse nearly five million. In the 2010s, as the market for printed versions of pornographic magazines declined, with Playboy selling about a million and Penthouse about a hundred thousand, many magazines became online publications. The best-selling US adult magazines maintain greater reach compared to most other non-pornographic magazines, and often rank among top-sellers. ### Modern-day pornography The seeds of modern-day pornography were planted in the mid 1980s when the first desktop computers and public computer networks were released. Since the 1990s, the Internet has made pornography more accessible and culturally visible. Before the 90s, Usenet newsgroups served as the base for what has been called the "amateur revolution" where non-professionals from the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the help of digital cameras and the internet, created and distributed their own pornographic content independent of mainstream networks. The use of the World Wide Web became popular with the introduction of Netscape navigator in 1994. This development paved the way for newer methods of pornography distribution and consumption. The internet became a popular medium for the consumption of pornography and was called "Triple A-Engine" that offered "anonymity, affordability, and accessibility," to the consumers of pornography. The notion of the internet as a medium to consume pornography became so popular that in 1995 *Time* published a cover story titled "Cyberporn". To have better control over their content some professional pornographers maintain their own websites. *Danni's Hard Drive* started in 1995 by Danni Ashe is considered to be one of the earliest online pornographic websites, coded by Ashe, a former stripper and nude model, the website was reported by CNN in 2000 to have made revenues of $6.5 million. Ashe told in an interview that her website employs 45 people and she expects to earn $8 million in 2001 alone. In 2000, the total number of pornographic websites were estimated at 60,000. In 2012, the total number of pornographic websites were estimated to be around 25 million comprising 12% of all the websites. Starting in the 21st century, greater internet access and affordable smartphones among people, made pornography more easily accessible and culturally mainstream. With the introduction of broadband connections, much of the distribution networks moved online, giving consumers anonymous access to a wide range of pornographic material. The development of streaming sites, peer-to-peer file sharing (P2P) networks, and tube sites led to a subsequent decline in the sale of DVDs and adult magazines. About 75 percent of households in the US gained access to the internet by 2012. The availability of phones, tablets, and laptops provided easy access to pornography over the internet. Data from 2015 suggests an increase in pornography viewing over the past few decades, this has been attributed to the growth of internet pornography. Through the 2010s, many pornographic production companies and top pornographic websites such as Pornhub, RedTube and YouPorn have been acquired by MindGeek, a company that has been described as "a monopoly" in the pornography business. As of 2022, the total pornographic content accessible online is estimated to be over 10,000 terabytes. Xvideos.com and Pornhub.com are the two most visited pornographic websites. Technological advancements such as laptops, digital cameras, smartphones, and Wi-Fi have democratized the production and accessibility of pornography in the modern world. Subscription-based service providers such as OnlyFans, founded in 2016, are increasingly becoming popular as the platforms for pornography distribution in the digital era. Apart from professional pornographers, content creators on such platforms include others: from a physics teacher, to a race car driver, to a woman undergoing cancer treatment. *AVN* and *XBIZ* are the two industry-specific organizations based in the US that provide legal news and information about the adult entertainment business. XBIZ Awards and AVN Awards are the two prominent award shows of the adult industry. The scholarly study of pornography, notably in cultural studies is limited. *Porn Studies*, which began in 2014, is the first international, peer-reviewed academic journal to critically study the "products and services" that are deemed pornographic. Classification and commercialism -------------------------------- A general distinction is often made regarding adult content classifying it as either pornography or erotica. The distinctness between erotica and pornography is considered to be mostly subjective. ### Types Based on the depicted content, pornography is classified into two types — softcore or hardcore. Hardcore pornography contains explicit depiction of sexual activity, while softcore pornography contains portrayal of nudity but without explicit depiction of sexual activity. Softcore porn was popular between the 1970s and 1990s. Based on the production methods and the intended consumers, pornography is classified as either mainstream or indie. Mainstream pornography mostly caters to the hetrosexual consumers, and involves performers working for corporate film studios in their respective productions. Pornography featuring heterosexual acts comprise the bulk of the mainstream porn, marking the industry more or less as "heteronormative." Indie or independent pornography refers to the pornography productions by performers who work independent of mainstream studios. These productions often feature different scenarios and sexual activity compared to the mainstream porn, and cater to a more specific audience. The performers in indie porn sometimes work in partnership with other performers. Apart from content creation they do the background work, such as videography, editing, and web development themselves, and distribute under their own brand. ### Genres Pornography encompasses a wide variety of genres, providing for an enormous range of consumer tastes. Examples of the pornography genres include: alt, bondage, bisexual, convent, ethnic, gonzo, gay, mormon, parody, reality, rape, transgender, zombie etc. The most searched for pornography genres on the internet are: lesbian, hentai, fauxcest, milf, big ass, and creampie. Popular pornographic website porn hub reported that the two most searched terms worldwide are "MILF" and "stepmom". Pornography also features numerous fetishes like: "'fat' porn, amateur porn, disabled porn, porn produced by women, queer porn, BDSM and body modification." ### Commercialism Pornography is commercialized mainly through the sale of pornographic films. The release of VCR by Sony corporation for mass market in 1975, marked the shift of people from watching porn in adult movie theatres, to the confines of their home. The introduction of pay-per-view model enabled people to buy adult content directly from cable and satellite television service providers. According to Showtime Television network report, in 1999 adult pay-per-view services made $367 million, which was six times more than the $54 million earned in 1993. Retail stores or Sex shops engaged in the sale of adult entertainment material, ranging from videos to magazines, sex toys and other products, significantly contributed to the overall commercialization of pornography. Sex shops sell their products on both online shopping platforms such as Amazon and on specialized websites. Sex shops engaged in the sale of adult entertainment products helped in the commercialization of pornography. In 2000, total estimates from the sales and rentals of pornographic material in the US was worth over $4 billion annually; the hotel industry through the sale of adult movies to their customers as part of room service, over pay-per-view channels, had generated an annual income of about $180-$190 million. Some of the major companies and hotel chains that were involved in the sale of adult films over pay-per-view platforms include; AT&T, Time Warner, DirecTV from General Motors, EchoStar, Liberty Media, Marriott International, Westin and Hilton Worldwide. The companies said their services are in response to a growing American market that wanted pornography delivered at home. The rise of internet pornography starting in the 1990s eased the access of pornography. Although this development resulted in the decline of Video rentals, the revenues generated from pay-per-view models over the internet provided much financial gains for pornography producers and credit card companies among others. According to some of the leading pornography providers on the internet, the subscription rates for a website would be about one in a thousand people who visit the site, for a monthly average fees of around $20. Online pornography is available both for a fee and free of charge. The easy availability of pornography over free "tube sites" on the internet has lead to a decline in the business of pornography production. Reportedly, applications by established pornography companies for porn-shoot permits fell by 95 percent during the period 2012 to 2015. Commercial webcamming, which emerged in the 1990s, as a niche sector in the pornography industry grew to become a multi billion dollar business by the mid 2020s. | | | --- | | Commercialization of pornography | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Pornography** | | | | | --- | --- | | | *magazines* | | | | | *artwork* | | | | | *photography* | | | | | *literature* | | | | | *audio* | | | | | *film/videos* | | | | | *animation* | | | | | *video games* | | | | | *(commercialized via)* | | #### Technology Pornographers have taken advantage of each major technological advancement for the production and distribution of their services. Pornography has been called an "erotic engine" and a driving force in the development of various media related technologies from the printing press, through photography (still and motion), to satellite TV, Home video, and streaming media. One of the world's leading anti-pornography campaigners, Gail Dines, has stated that "the demand for porn has driven the development of core cross-platform technologies for data compression, search, transmission and micro-payments." Many of the technological developments that had been led by pornography have benefited other fields of human activitiy too. In the early 2000s, Wicked Pictures pushed for the adoption of the MPEG-4 file format ahead of others, this later became the most commonly used format across high-speed internet connections. In 2009, Pink Visual became one of the first companies to license and produce content with a software introduced by a small toronto-based company called "Spatial view", which later made it possible to view 3-D content on iphones. As an early adopter of innovations, the pornography industry has been cited to be a crucial factor in the development and popularization of various media processing and communication technologies. From innovative smaller film cameras, to the VCR's, and the internet, the porn industry has employed newer technologies much ahead than other commercial industries, this early adoption provided the developers their early financial capital, which aided in the further development of these technologies. The success of innovative technologies is predicted by their greater use in the porn industry. > > The way you know if your technology is good and solid is if it's doing well in the porn world. > > > — Susan Struble, spokesperson of Sun Microsystems The pornography industry has been considered an influential factor in deciding the format wars in media, including being a factor in the VHS vs. Betamax format war (the videotape format war) and the Blu-ray vs. HD DVD format war (the high-def format war). Piracy, the illegal copying and distribution of material, is of great concern to the porn industry. The industry is the subject of many litigations and formalized anti-piracy efforts. Many of the innovative data rendering procedures, enhanced payment systems, customer service models, and security methods developed by pornography companies have been co-opted by other mainstream businesses. Pornography companies served as the basis for a large number of innovations in web development. Much of the IT work in porn companies is done by people who are referred to as a "porn webmaster", often paid well in what are small businesses, they have more freedom to test innovations compared to other IT employees in larger organizations who tend to be risk-averse. Some pornography is produced without human actors at all. The idea of computer-generated pornography was conceived very early as one of the obvious areas of application for computer graphics. Until the late 1990s, digitally manipulated pornography could not be produced cost-effectively. In the early 2000s, it became a growing segment as the modelling and animation software matured, and the rendering capabilities of computers improved. Further advances in technology allowed increasingly photorealistic 3D figures to be used in interactive pornography. The first pornographic film to be shot in 3D was *3D Sex and Zen: Extreme Ecstasy*, released on 14 April 2011, in Hong Kong. The various mediums for pornography depictions have evolved throughout the course of history, starting from prehistoric cave paintings, about forty millennia ago, to futuristic virtual reality renditions. Experts in the pornography business predict more people in the future would consume porn through virtual reality headsets, these are expected to give consumers better personal experiences than they can have in the real world. #### Consumption Pornography is a product made by adults for the consumption by adults. About 90% of pornography is consumed on the internet with consumers preferring content that's in tune with their sexuality. Pornographic websites rank among the top 50 most visited websites worldwide. A vast majority of men and considerable number of women in the US use porn. A study in 2008 found that among University students aged 18 to 26 located in six college sites across the United States, 67% of young men and 49% of young women approved pornography viewing, with nearly 9 out of 10 men (87%) and 31% women reportedly using pornography. The Huffington Post reported in 2013 that porn websites registered higher number of visitors than Netflix, Amazon, and Twitter combined. A 2014 poll, which asked Americans when they had "last intentionally looked at pornography," elicited response that 46% of men and 16% of women in the age group of 18–39 did so in the past week. The popular pornographic website porn hub reported that for the year 2016, the website was visited about 23 billion times, and viewers watched a cumulative total of 4.599 billion hours of pornographic videos online. In 2017 pornhub reportedly registered 28.5 billion visits with an average of 81 million visits per day. Majority of adult consumers tend to be male, unmarried, with higher levels of education. Younger people are more frequent consumers of porn than older people. There's been a gradual increase in the consumption rates across different age groups with increased availability of free porn on the internet. Researchers at McGill University ascertained that on viewing pornographic content, men reached their maximum arousal in about 11 minutes and women in about 12 minutes. An average visit to a pornographic website lasts for 11.6 minutes. Both marriage and divorce are found to be associated with lower subscription rates for adult entertainment websites. Subscriptions are more widespread in regions that have higher measures of social capital. Pornographic websites are often visited during office hours. No correlation has been found between the practice of sexual consent or lack thereof and pornography consumption. A 2006 study of Norwegian adults found that over 80% of the respondents used pornography at some point in their lives. A difference of 20% between men and women was observed in their respective use. Since the late 1960s, attitudes towards pornography have become more positive in Nordic countries, in Sweden and Finland the consumption of pornography has increased over the years. In 2012 and 2013, interviews with large number of Australians revealed that in the past year 63% of men and 20% of women had viewed pornography. In 2022, a national survey in Japan, of men and women aged 20 to 69 revealed that 76% of men and 29% of women had used pornography as part of their sexual activity. #### Economics The production and distribution of pornography are economic activities of some importance. In the United States, pornography industry employs about 20,000 people, including 2000 to 3000 performers, and is centered in the San Fernando Valley of Los Angeles. By 2005, it became the largest pornography production centre in the world. Apart from regular media coverage, the industry in the US receives considerable attention from private organizations, government agencies, and political organizations. In Europe, Budapest is regarded as the industry center. Other pornography production centres in the world are located in Florida (US), Brazil, Czech Republic, and Japan. Revenues of the adult industry in the United States are difficult to determine. In 1970, a federal study estimated the total retail value of hardcore pornography in the United States was no more than $5 million to $10 million. In 1998, Forrester Research published a report on the online "adult content" industry, estimating annual revenue at $750 million to $1 billion. Studies in 2001 put the total (including video, pay-per-view, Internet and magazines) between $2.6 billion and $3.9 billion. The introduction of home video and the World Wide Web in the late twentieth century led to a global growth in the business of pornography. As of 2011, pornography was becoming one of the biggest businesses in the United States. In 2014, the porn industry was believed to bring in more than $13 billion on a yearly basis in the United States. The exact economic size of the porn industry in the early-twenty-first century is unknown to anyone. Kassia Wosick, a sociologist from New Mexico State University, estimated the global porn market value at $97 billion in 2015, with the US revenue estimated at $10 and $12 billion. IBISWorld, a leading researcher of various markets and industries, calculated total US revenue to reach $3.3 billion by 2020. Legality and regulations ------------------------ The legal status of pornography varies widely from country to country. Regulating hardcore pornography is more common than regulating softcore pornography. Child pornography is illegal in almost all countries, some countries have restrictions on rape pornography and animal pornography. Pornography in the United States is legal provided it does not depict minors, and is not obscene. The community standards, as indicated in the Supreme Court decision, of the 1973 Miller v. California case determine what constitutes as "obscene". The US courts do not have jurisdiction over content produced in other countries, but anyone distributing it in the US is liable to prosecution under the same community standards. As the courts consider community standards foremost in deciding any obscenity charge, the changing nature of community standards over the course of time and place makes instances of prosecution limited. In the United States, a person receiving unwanted commercial mail that he or she deems pornographic (or otherwise offensive) may obtain a Prohibitory Order. Many online sites require the user to tell the website they are a certain age and no other age verification is required. The Child Online Protection Act would have restricted access to minors any material on the Internet that is considered harmful to them, but it did not take effect. A total of 16 states and the Republican Party have passed resolutions declaring pornography a "public health" threat. These resolutions are symbolic and do not put any restrictions but are made to sway the public opinion on pornography. The notion of pornography as a threat to public health is not supported by any international health organization. The adult film industry regulations in California require that all actors and actresses practice safe sex using condoms. It is rare to see condom use in pornography. As porn does better financially when actors are without condoms, many companies film in other states. Miami is a major area for amateur porn. Twitter is the popular social media platform used by the performers in porn industry as it does not censor content unlike Instagram and Facebook. Pornography in Canada, as in the US, criminalizes the "production, distribution, or possession" of materials that are deemed obscene. Obscenity, in the Canadian context, is defined as "the undue exploitation of sex" provided it is connected to images of "crime, horror, cruelty, or violence." As to what is considered "undue" is decided by the courts, which assess the community standards in deciding whether exposure to the given material may result in any harm, with harm defined as "predisposing people to act in an anti-social manner." Pornography in the United Kingdom does not have the concept of community standards. In 2009, the UK government has criminalized possession of what it terms "extreme pornography," following the highly publicized murder of Jane Longhurst. The courts decide whether any material is legally extreme or not, conviction for penalty includes fines or incarceration up to three years. Content that is banned include representations that are considered "grossly offensive, disgusting, or otherwise of an obscene character." In most of Southeast Asia, Middle East, and China, the production, distribution, and possession of pornography is illegal and outlawed. In Russia and Ukraine, webcam modeling is allowed provided it contains no explicit performances; in other parts of the world commercial webcamming is banned as a form of pornography. Disseminating pornography to a minor is generally illegal. There are various measures to restrict minors' any access to pornography, including protocols for pornographic stores. Pornography can infringe into basic human rights of those involved, especially when sexual consent was not obtained. Revenge porn is a phenomenon where disgruntled sexual partners release images or video footage of intimate sexual activity of their partners, usually on the internet, without authorization or consent of the individuals involved. In many countries there has been a demand to make such activities specifically illegal carrying higher punishments than mere breach of privacy, or image rights, or circulation of prurient material. As a result, some jurisdictions have enacted specific laws against "revenge porn". ### What is not pornography In the US, a July 2014 criminal case decision in Massachusetts — Commonwealth v. Rex, 469 Mass. 36 (2014), made a legal determination as to what was not to be considered "pornography" and in this particular case "child pornography". It was determined that photographs of naked children that were from sources such as National Geographic magazine, a sociology textbook, and a nudist catalog were not considered pornography in Massachusetts even while in the possession of a convicted and (at the time) incarcerated sex offender. Drawing the line depends on time, place and context. Occidental mainstream culture has been increasingly getting "pornified" (i.e. influenced by pornographic themes, with mainstream films often including unsimulated sexual acts). Since the very definition of pornography is subjective, material that is considered erotic or even religious in one society may be denounced as pornography in another. When European travellers visited India in the 19th century, they were dismayed at the religious representation of sexuality on the Hindu temples and deemed them as pornographic. Similarly many films and television programs that are unobjectionable in contemporary Western societies are labelled as "pornography" in Muslim societies. Thus, assessing a material as pornography is very much personalized; to rehash a cliché, "pornography is very much in the eye of the beholder." ### Copyright status In the United States, some courts have applied US copyright protection to pornographic materials. Some courts have held that copyright protection effectively applies to works, whether they are obscene or not, but not all courts have ruled the same way. The copyright protection rights of pornography in the United States has again been challenged as late as February 2012. STIs prevention and safer sex practices --------------------------------------- Performers working in pornographic film studios undergo regular testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs) every two weeks. They have to test negative for: HIV, trichomoniasis, chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, and hepatitis B and C before showing up on a set who are then inspected for sores on their mouths, hands, and genitals before commencing work. The industry believes this method of testing to be a viable practice for safer sex as its medical consultants claim that since 2004, about 350,000 pornographic scenes have been filmed without condoms and HIV has not been transmitted even once because of performance on set. However, some studies suggest that adult film performers have high rates of chlamydia and/or gonorrhea infection, and many of these cases may be missed by industry screening because these bacteria can colonize many sites on the body. Allan Ronald, a Canadian doctor and HIV/AIDS specialist who did groundbreaking studies on the transmission of STIs among prostitutes in Africa, said there's no doubt about the efficiency of the testing method, but he felt a little uncomfortable: "because it's giving the wrong message — that you can have multiple sex partners without condoms — but I can't say it doesn't work." Relatedly, it has been found that individuals who have received little sex education and/or perceive pornography as a source of information about sex are less apt to use condoms. In 2020, the US National Sex Education Standards, released recommendations to incorporate porn literacy to students from grade 6 to 12 as part of sex education in the United States. Veteran pornographic actress and former nurse Nina Hartley, who has a degree in nursing, stated that the amount of time involved in shooting for a scene can be very long, and with condoms in place it becomes a painful proposition as their usage is uncomfortable despite the use of lube, causes friction burn, and opens up lesions in the genital mucosa. Advocating the testing method for performers in the industry, Hartley said, "Testing works for us, and condoms work for outsiders." > > "We’re tested every fourteen days. That is literally twenty-three more times than the average American. If that person makes it to their yearly physical. I have met tons of people that haven’t been to the doctor in years. That scares me because they have no idea what their status is.… I don’t hook up with people outside of the porn industry because I’m terrified. And I’m not the only one. There’s many performers that know: if you go out into the wild, you will come back with something." — Ash Hollywood, Pornographic actress. > > > Emphasizing that performers in the industry take necessary precautions like PrEP and are at lower risk to contract HIV than most sexually active persons outside the industry, many prominent female performers have vehemently opposed regulatory measures like Measure B that sought to make the use of condoms mandatory in pornographic films. Professional female performers have called the use of condoms on a daily basis at work an occupational hazard as they cause micro-tears, friction burn, swelling, and yeast infections, which altogether, they say, makes them more susceptible to contract STIs. Views on pornography -------------------- ### General Pornography supposedly provides a safe outlet for sexual desires that may not be satisfied within relationships and be a facilitator of sexual release in people who cannot or do not want to have real-life partners. Pornography is viewed by people in general for various reasons; varying from a need to enrich their sexual arousal, to facilitate orgasm, as an aid for masturbation, learn about sexual techniques, reduce stress, alleviate boredom, enjoy themselves, see representation of people like themselves, know their sexual orientation, improve their romantic relationships, or simply because their partner wants them to. Researchers had suggested four broad motivations in people for using pornography, namely: "using pornography for fantasy, habitual use, mood management, and as part of a relationship." Men are found to consume pornography more frequently than women, with the intent for consumption that may vary with men more likely to use pornography as a stimulant for sexual arousal, during solitary sexual activity; while women are more likely to use pornography as a source of information or entertainment, and rather prefer using it together with a partner to enhance sexual stimulation during partnered sexual activity. Studies have found that sexual functioning defined as "a person's ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure" is greater in women who consume pornography frequently than in women who do not. No such association was noticed in men. Women who consume pornography are more likely to know about their own sexual interests and desires, and in turn be willing and able to communicate them during partnered sexual activity, it has been reported that in women the ability to communicate their sexual preferences is associated with greater sexual satisfaction for themselves. Pornographic material is found to expand the sexual repertoire in women by making them learn new rewarding sexual behaviours such as clitoral stimulation and enhance their overall 'sexual flexibility'. Women who consume pornography frequently are more easily aroused during partnered sex and are more likely to engage in oral sex compared to the women who do not view pornography. Women users of pornography had reported (almost 50%) to have had engaged in cunnilingus, which research suggests is related to female orgasm, and to have had experienced orgasms more frequently than women who do not use pornography (87% vs. 64%). A two year long survey (2018-2020) conducted to assess the role of pornography in the lives of highly educated medical university students, with median age of 24, in Germany found that pornography served as an inspiration for many students in their sex life. Pornography use among students was higher in males than in females, among the male students those who did not cheat on their partner or contracted an STI were found to be more frequent consumers of pornography. Although pornography use was more common among men, associations between pornography use and sexuality were more apparent in women. Among the female students, those who reported to be satisfied with their physical appearance have consumed three times as much pornography than the female students who had reported to be dissatisfied with their body. A feeling of physical inadequacy was found to be a restraining factor in the consumption of pornography. Female students who consume pornography more often had reported to have had multiple sexual partners. Both female and male students who enjoyed the experience of anal intercourse in their life were reported to be frequent consumers of pornography. Sexual content depicting bondage, domination, or violence was consumed by only a minority of 10%. More sexual openness and less sexual anxiety was observed in students who regularly consumed pornography. No association was noticed between regular pornography use and experience of sexual dissatisfaction in either female or male students. This finding was in concurrence with another finding from a longitudinal study, which demonstrated most pornography consumers differentiate pornographic sex from real partnered sex and do not experience diminishing satisfaction in their sex life. Pornography has been equated with Journalism as both offer a view of the unknown or hidden aspects of people in a society. French philosopher Michel Foucault remarked that, "it is in pornography that we find information about the hidden, the forbidden and the taboo." Pornography has been referred by people as a means to explore their own sexuality. People have reported porn being helpful in learning about human sexuality in general. Studies have encouraged clinical practitioners to use pornography as an instruction material to show clients new and alternative sexual behaviours as part of their psychosexual therapy. British psychologist, Oliver James, known for his work on 'happiness', stated that "a high proportion of men use porn as a distraction or to reduce stress … It serves an anti-depressant purpose for the unhappy." Surveys have found a gradual increase in acceptance of pornography over the years among the general American public. ### Feminist Feminist movements in the late 1970s and 1980s dealt with the issues of pornography and sexuality in debates that are referred to as the "sex wars". While some feminist groups sought to abolish pornography believing it to be harmful, other feminist groups have opposed censorship efforts insisting it is benign. A large scale study of data from the General Social Survey (2010–2018) refuted the argument that pornography is inherently anti-woman or anti-feminist and that it drives sexism. The study did not find a relationship between "pornography viewing" and "pornography tolerance" with higher sexism—a posit that was held by some feminists; it instead found them to be associated with greater support for gender equality. The study concluded that "pornography is more likely to be about the sex rather than the sexism." People who supported regulated pornography expressed lesser attitudes of sexism than people who sought to abolish pornography. Notably, non-feminists are found more likely to support a ban on pornography than feminists. Many feminists, both male and female, have reflected that the effects of pornography on society are neutral. Users of pornography were found more egalitarian than nonusers; they are more likely to hold favorable attitudes towards women in positions of power and in workplaces outside home than the nonusers. Black feminist scholars have criticised the American adult entertainment industry for what they perceive as omission and exclusion of non-white women. Mainstream porn studios feature Black women for lesser number of times than white women in their productions. Mireille Miller-Young in her research on porn industry had found that black women make less money then their white counterparts. White women have historically made 75 percent more per scene and sometimes still make 50 percent more compared to the black women. Black feminists have identified the non representation of black women in interracial pornography, which happens to be one of the most financially prosperous genres in contemporary American commercial pornography, and the creation of another category "reverse IR," as reflective of the larger societal ideals of beauty and body that render women of color as "not merely invisible but also inhuman." As pornography becomes a kind of manual on how bodies in pleasure can look, and is "one of the few places where we see our bodies--and other people's bodies," it becomes imperative on pornography to represent "variety of forms," stated the black feminist scholars. Prominent anti-pornography feminists such as Andrea Dworkin and Catharine MacKinnon argue that all pornography is demeaning to women, or that it contributes to violence against women–both in its production and in its consumption. The production of pornography, they argue, entails the physical, psychological, or economic coercion of the women who perform in it. They charged that pornography eroticizes the domination, humiliation and coercion of women, and reinforces sexual and cultural attitudes that are complicit in rape and sexual harassment. Other sex work exclusionary feminists have insisted that pornography presents a severely distorted image of sexual consent, and that it reinforces sexual myths like: women are readily available–and desire to engage in sex at any time–with any man–on men's terms–and always respond positively to men's advances. In contrast to the objections, other feminist scholars "ranging from Betty Friedan and Kate Millett to Karen DeCrow, Wendy Kaminer and Jamaica Kincaid" have supported the right to consume pornography. Wendy McElroy has noted that both feminism and pornography are mutually related, with both thriving in environments of tolerance, and both repressed anytime regulations are placed on sexual expression. Societies where pornography and sexual expression is prohibited are more likely to be the places where women are often subjected to violence and sexual abuse. > > Women's rights are far stronger in societies with liberal attitudes to sex – think of conservative countries such as Afghanistan, Yemen or China, and the place of women there. And yet, anti-porn campaigners neglect such issues entirely. A recent study by the US department of justice compared the four states that had highest broadband access and found there was a 27 per cent decrease in rape and attempted rape, and the four with the lowest had a 53 per cent increase over the same period. > > > — Anna Span The lesbian feminist movement of the 1980s is considered a seminal moment for the women in the porn industry as more women entered into the developmental side of the industry. This allowed women to gear porn more towards women as they knew what women wanted, both from the perspective of actresses as well as the female audience. This change has been considered a good development as for a long time the porn industry has been directed by men for men. This move also sparked the arrival of making lesbian porn for lesbians instead of men. Furthermore, the advent of Vcr, home video, and affordable consumer video cameras allowed for the possibility of feminist pornography. Consumer video made it possible for the distribution and consumption of video pornography; and to locate women as legitimate consumers of pornography. Feminist porn directors are interested in challenging representations of men and women, as well as providing sexually-empowering imagery that features many kinds of bodies. Tristan Taormino says that feminist porn is "all about creating a fair working environment and empowering everyone involved." Porn for women is identified by factors like greater attention to "sensual surroundings" and "soft focus camerawork," rather than on the explicit depiction of sexual activity, making the productions more warm and humane compared to the traditional porn made for hetrosexual men. Women are more likely to consume pornography that is "female-centered" and feature acts such as cunnilingus, most often made by women, in these works the initiation of sexual activity is done by the female. > > "If feminists define pornography, per se, as the enemy, the result will be to make a lot of women ashamed of their sexual feelings and afraid to be honest about them. And the last thing women need is more sexual shame, guilt, and hypocrisy—this time served up by feminism" — Ellen Willis. > > Porn industry has been noted for being one of the few industries where women enjoy a power advantage in the workplace. "Actresses have the power," Alec Metro, one of the men in line, ruefully noticed of the X-rated industry. A former firefighter who claimed to have lost a bid for a job to affirmative action, Metro was already divining that porn might not be the ideal career choice for escaping the forces of what he called 'reverse discrimination.' Female performers can often dictate which male actors they will and will not work with. Porn—at least, porn produced for a heterosexual audience—is one of the few contemporary occupations where the pay gap operates in the favour of women. The average actress makes fifty to a hundred per cent more money than her male counterpart. ### Religious As most religions have long and vehemently opposed sexual natured things in general, religious people are found highly susceptible to experience great distress in their use of pornography. Religious people who use pornography tend to feel sexually ashamed. Sexual shame — which arises from a person's perception of their self in other peoples mind, and a negative assessment of their own sexuality — is considered a powerful factor that over time governs individual behaviour. As sexuality is interwoven into one's personal identity, sexual shame or sexual embarrassment are found to attack a person's very sense of self. When a sexual shaming event occurs, the person attributes causation to oneself, resulting in self condemnation and experience feelings of sadness, loneliness, anger, unworthiness, and rejection, along with a perceived judgment of their self by others. In this mental landscape, a fear arises that ones sexual self needs to be hiden. This psychological process initiates and fuels further shame and lowers one's self-esteem. Sexual shame constricts the "psychic space for free play with one's sexuality". Sexual shame in people begets more shame, and leads to a cycle of powerlessness culminating in deepening negative emotions. Those who tend to feel shame easily are found to be at greater risk for depression and anxiety disorders. The cause of attributing shame to sexuality is traced back to the biblical interpretation of nakedness being shameful. Much of the Christian mythology presented sexuality as an obstacle to be surmounted in the way of salvation. The major abrahamic religions condemn and consider all forms of nonmarital and nonreproductive sexual pleasure as unacceptable. In Hinduism, bhoga (sexual pleasure) is celebrated as a value in itself and is considered one of the two ways to nirvana, the other being the more demanding yoga. One of the central concepts in Hinduism is that of Purushartha, which is defined as the objective or purpose of human existence. It essentially advocates pursuit of the four main proper goals for a happy life, they being: Dharma (virtue, performance of one's duty), Artha (acquiring wealth, prosperity), Kama (desires, sensory pleasures) and Moksha (spiritual knowledge, liberation). The pursuit of Kama was elaborated by the sage Vatsyayana in his treatise *Kama Sutra*, which states that sexual pleasure just like food is essential for the well being of the body, and that on both of them are founded virtue and prosperity. Food, despite causing indigestion sometimes, would still be consumed regularly, and so it must be with pleasure, which must be pursued with caution while eliminating any unwanted or harmful effects. Just as no one abstains from cooking food worrying about beggars who ask for it, or restrain from sowing wheat fearing animals that may destroy the crop, similarly claims Vatsyayana, one must pursue kama even though dangers exist; and the man accomplished in *Dharma*, *Artha*, and *Kama* would attain happiness in this world and hereafter. According to Indonesia's foremost Islamic preacher, Abdullah Gymnastiar, shame is a noble emotion commanded in the Qur'an and was held high by the prophet Muhammad, who had been quoted as saying "Faith is compiled of seventy branches… and shame is one of them." To cultivate shame in the believers, sexual gaze needs to be checked as unchecked gaze is believed to be the door through which Satan enters and soils the believers heart. In 2006, when anti-pornography protests erupted in Indonesia, the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, over the publication of the inaugural Indonesian edition of *Playboy* – Abdullah called for a legislation to ban pornography and embarked on a mission to shroud the state with a sense of shame, giving the slogan "the more shameful, the more faithful." During these protests, Indonesia's foremost Islamic newspaper, *Republika*, published daily front page editorials which featured a logo of the word pornografi crossed out with a red X. The Jakarta office of *Playboy Indonesia* was ransacked by the members of Islamic Defenders Front (Front Pembela Islam or FPI), and bookstore owners were threatened to not sell any issue of the magazine. Consequently in December 2008, Indonesian lawmakers signed an anti-pornography bill into law with overwhelming political support. Highly religious people are more likely to support policies against pornography such as censorship than least religious people. Religious people are prone to having obsessive thoughts regarding sin and punishment by God over their pornography use causing them to feel ashamed, and perceive themselves to have pornography addiction while also suffering from OCD related symptoms. States that are highly religious and conservative were found to search for more internet pornography. Most people, probably do not consider pornography use by a partner as indulging in infidelity. ### Critical Neuroscience has noted that minds of the young are in developmental stages and exposure to emotionally charged material such as pornography would likely have an impact on them unlike on adults, and has suggested caution while enabling potential access to such material. Data from pornographic websites regarding the viewing habits of people is studied by academics to analyse the sexual preferences and mating choices of men and women. More often men look for women who have larger chest and hips with a smaller Waist–hip ratio. Women are found to prefer taller and stronger men who appear highly masculine, and are in roles that can provide resources and be protective (ceo, doctor, athlete). As per evaluation by medical professionals, pornography can neither be good nor bad as it does not endorse or advocate a single set of values regarding sex. As such, a person must circumspect their own values with regards to sex while evaluating whether porn is good or bad. The relationship between pornography and its audience is found to be complex. While many pornography users reported their use to have had positive effects, other users especially women were found to get body image issues, which is attributed to the unrealistic image of "beauty" that is portrayed in pornography. The increasing prevalence of alleged beauty enhancing procedures such as breast augmentation and labiaplasty among the common populace has been attributed to the popularity of pornography. Studies on harmful effects of pornography include finding any potential influence of pornography on rape, domestic violence, sexual dysfunction, difficulties with sexual relationships, and child sexual abuse. A 2020 study that analyzed depictions in video-pornography found that normative sexual behaviors (eg, vaginal intercourse, fellatio) were the most commonly depicted, while depictions of extreme acts of violence and rape were very rare. A longitudinal study had ascertained that pornography use cannot be a perpetrating factor in intimate partner violence. Several studies conclude that liberalization of porn in society may be associated with decreased rape and sexual violence rates, while others suggest no effect, or are inconclusive. Scholars have stated that pornography use has no implication on public health as pornography use does not meet the definition of a public health crisis. While some literature reviews suggest pornographic images and films can be addictive, insufficient evidence exists to draw conclusions. Mental health experts are divided over the issue of pornography use being a problem for people. While it has not been proven that either porn or masturbation addiction exist, porn or masturbation compulsion may probably exist. Some issues of doxing and revenge porn have been linked to a few pornography websites. Deepfake pornography has become an issue of concern for women in general. See also -------- * Adult animation * Cartoon pornography * Erotic comics * Erotic hypnosis * History of human sexuality * Mobile porn * Pornotopia * Pornocracy * Right to sexuality * Sex in advertising * Sex worker * Sexual fantasy * Sexual and reproductive health and rights References ---------- ### Works cited #### Books * Athenaeus (1927) [3rd CE]. "Book 13.567b". *The Deipnosophists* (in Greek). Translated by Gulick, Charles Burton. Harvard University Press, London. ISBN 9780674993617. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. * Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992). *Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary*. The British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1705-6. Archived from the original on 17 March 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2020. * Browne, Pat (2001). *The Guide to United States Popular Culture*. Popular Press. ISBN 0-87972-821-3. * Barss, Patchen (2010). *The Erotic Engine: How Pornography has Powered Mass Communication, from Gutenberg to Google*. Doubleday Canada. ISBN 9780307375995. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Bockris, Victor (2003). *Warhol: the Biography*. *Da Capo Press*. New York City. ISBN 9780786730285. * Bullough, Vern; Bullough, Bonnie, eds. (2014). "RELIGION AND SEXUALITY". *Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia*. Vol. 685 of Garland reference library of social science. Routledge. ISBN 9781135825027. * Cleland, John (2010) [1986]. Wagner, Peter (ed.). *Fanny Hill: Or, Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure*. Penguin Publishing Group. ISBN 9780140432497. * Clingbine, Graham (2016). *What You Need to Know About Human Sex*. Troubador Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1785893735. * Comella, Lynn; Erickson, Loree (2013). "'From text to context.' 'Out of line: the sexy femmegimp politics of flaunting it!'". In Taormino, Tristan; Parreñas Shimizu, Celine; Penley, Constance; Miller-Young, Mireille (eds.). *The feminist porn book: the politics of producing pleasure*. New York City: Feminist Press at the City University of New York. ISBN 9781558618183. * Cartledge, Paul (2002). *The Greeks A Portrait of Self and Others*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0191577833. * Drake, Miriam A (2003). *Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science, Second Edition*. Vol. 1. London: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8247-2077-3. * Dukore, Bernard F. (6 October 2020). *Bernard Shaw and the Censors: Fights and Failures, Stage and Screen*. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783030521868. * Desmond, Kathleen K. (2011). *Ideas About Art*. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1444396003. * Doniger, Wendy; Kakar, Sudhir (2002). *Kamasutra*. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283982-9. * Diamond, Milton (1999). "The Effects of Pornography: An International Perspective". In Elias, James; Bullough, Vern L.; Elias, Veronica Diehl; Brewer, Gwen; Douglas, Jeffrey J.; Jarvis, Will (eds.). *Porn 101: Eroticism, Pornography, and the First Amendment*. G - Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-750-5. Archived from the original on 6 February 2007. Retrieved 5 September 2022. * Eskridge, William N. (2002). *Gaylaw: challenging the apartheid of the closet*. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674008045. * Edwards, Catharine (1993). *The Politics of Immorality in Ancient Rome*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780511518553. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 1 May 2023. * Foxon, David Fairweather (1965). *Libertine Literature in England, 1660–1745*. University Books. ISBN 9780821601068. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Flood, Gavin (1996). *An Introduction to Hinduism*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. * Ferguson, Christopher J (2013). *Adolescents, Crime, and the Media: A Critical Analysis*. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1461467410. * Geltzer, Jeremy (2016). *Dirty Words and Filthy Pictures: Film and the First Amendment*. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9781477307434. * Giesberg, Judith Ann (2017). *Sex and the Civil War: Soldiers, Pornography, and the Making of American Morality*. United States: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 9781469631288. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. * Hyde, H. Montgomery (1964). *A History of Pornography*. London: New English Library. OCLC 1331692. * Hester, Helen (2014). *Beyond Explicit: Pornography and the Displacement of Sex*. State University of New York Press. ISBN 9781438449623. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Hambleton, Alexandra (2019). "Gendered desires". In Coates, Jennifer; Fraser, Lucy; Pendleton, Mark (eds.). *The Routledge Companion to Gender and Japanese Culture*. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 361-369. ISBN 9781138895201. * Joseph Behun, Richard; Owens, Eric W. (2019). *Youth and Internet Pornography: The impact and influence on adolescent development*. Routledge. ISBN 978-0429751097. * Karabell, Zachary (2003). *Parting the desert: the creation of the Suez Canal*. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40883-5. * Kaliski, Burton S. (2007). *Encyclopedia of Business and Finance: A-I*. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0028660622. * Kopp, David M. (13 June 2020). *Human Resource Management in the Pornography Industry* (1 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-37659-8. ISBN 978-3-030-37658-1. S2CID 243258192. Archived from the original on 24 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023. * Kimmel, Michael (2005). *The Gender of Desire: Essays on Male Sexuality*. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791463376. * Kutchinsky, Berl (1992). "Pornography, sex crime and public policy". In Gerull, Sally-Anne; Halstead, Boronia (eds.). *Sex industry and public policy: proceedings of a conference held 6–8 May 1991*. Canberra, ACT: Australian Institute of Criminology. pp. 41–55. Archived from the original on 7 October 2015. ISBN 9780642182913 Pdf. Archived 26 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine * Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940). *A Greek–English Lexicon*. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-864226-8. Archived from the original on 12 February 2023. * Lane, Frederick S (2000). *Obscene Profits: The Entrepreneurs of Pornography in the Cyber Age*. Routledge. ISBN 9780415920964. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * MacKinnon, Catharine A. (1989a). "Pornography: on morality and politics". In MacKinnon, Catharine A. (ed.). *Toward a Feminist Theory of the State*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp. 195–214. ISBN 978-0674896468. * Mikkola, Mari (2019). *Pornography: A Philosophical Introduction*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190640088. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * McKee, Alan; Litsou, Katerina; Byron, Paul; Ingham, Roger (17 June 2022). *What Do We Know About the Effects of Pornography After Fifty Years of Academic Research* (1 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781032140315. Archived from the original on 24 February 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2023. * McElroy, Wendy (1995). *XXX: A Woman's Right to Pornography*. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312136260. Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. * McNair, Brian (2013). *Porno? Chic!: How Pornography Changed the World and Made it a Better Place*. Routledge. ISBN 9780415572903. * Nemet-Nejat, Karen Rhea (1998). *Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia*. Daily Life. Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood. ISBN 978-0313294976. * Nowak, Peter (2011). *Sex, Bombs, and Burgers: How War, Pornography, and Fast Food Have Shaped Modern Technology*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9780762776108. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Parrinder, Geoffrey (1996). *Sexual Morality in the World's Religions*. Oneworld Publications, Oxford. ISBN 9781851681082. * Paasonen, Susanna (2011). *Carnal Resonance: Affect and Online Pornography* (illustrated ed.). MIT Press. ISBN 9780262016315. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Pomeroy, Sarah B.; Burstein, Stanley M.; Donlan, Walter; Roberts, Jennifer Tolbert (1999). *Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195097436. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Rudgley, Richard (2000). *Venus Figurines: Sex Objects or Symbols?*. *The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age*. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86270-5. Retrieved 28 September 2017. * Robins, Gay (1993). *Women in Ancient Egypt*. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-95469-6. Turin erotic papyrus. * Rathus, Spencer A; Nevid, Jeffrey S.; Fichner-Rathus, Lois (2018). *Human Sexuality in a Changing World*. Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-134-52506-8. * Rodriguez, Junius P. (2011). *Slavery in the Modern World: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppression [2 volumes]: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppression*. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851097883. * Rothman, Emily F. (2021). *Pornography and Public Health*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190075491. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Sutherland, John (1983). *Offensive Literature: Decensorship in Britain, 1960-1982*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-87972-821-3. * Salmon, Catherine; Fisher, Maryanne L.; Burch, Rebecca L. (2020). "The Internet Is for Porn: Evolutionary Perspectives on Online Pornography". In Workman, Lance; Reader, Will; Barkow, Jerome H. (eds.). *The Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior*. Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 548–57. doi:10.1017/9781108131797.046. ISBN 9781108131797. * Talvacchia, Bette (2010). "Pornography". In Grafton, Anthony; Most, Glenn W.; Settis, Salvatore (eds.). *The Classical Tradition*. Cambridge, Mass. and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03572-0. * Thomson, C. Claire; Thorsen, Isak; Chow, Pei-Sze, eds. (2021). *A History Of Danish Cinema* (illustrated ed.). Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9781474461122. * Tarrant, Shira (2016). *The pornography industry : what everyone needs to know*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190205126. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2023. * Tatalovich, Raymond; Daynes, Byron W. (1998). *Moral controversies in American politics: cases in social regulatory policy*. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 1563249936. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 25 March 2023. * Vatsyayana (1994) [3rd CE]. *The Complete Kama Sutra*. Translated by Danielou, Alain. Inner Traditions. ISBN 0-89281-492-6. * Weitzer, Ronald, ed. (2023). *Sex For Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and Erotic Dancing* (third ed.). Routledge. ISBN 9781032133157. Archived from the original on 31 May 2023. Retrieved 31 May 2023. * Wiley, Richard; Rivera, Henry; Wadlow, R Clark (2004). *Annual Institute on Telecommunications Policy and Regulation, Volume 22*. Practising Law Institute. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023. Retrieved 21 February 2023. * Williams, Bernard (2015). *Obscenity and Film Censorship: An Abridgement of the Williams Report*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781316432464. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 29 March 2023. * *Bhagavad Gita As It Is*. Translated by Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. Macmillan Publishers. 1972. #### Journals and magazines * Beck, Marianna (May 2003). "The Roots of Western Pornography: Victorian Obsessions and Fin-de-Siècle Predilections". Libido, The Journal of Sex and Sensibility. Archived from the original on 6 September 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2006. * Brand, Matthias; Young, Kimberly; Laier, Christian; Wölfling, Klaus; Potenza, Marc N. (2016). "Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model". *Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews*. **71**: 252–266. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033. PMID 27590829. * Bőthe, Beáta; Tóth-Király, István; Zsila, Ágnes; Griffiths, Mark D.; Demetrovics, Zsolt; Orosz, Gábor (6 March 2017). "The Development of the Problematic Pornography Consumption Scale (PPCS)". *The Journal of Sex Research*. **55** (3): 395–406. doi:10.1080/00224499.2017.1291798. * Bonner, Mehera (18 November 2021). *The 21 Best Softcore Porn Movies Ever*. marie claire. Archived from the original on 28 April 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2023. * Coopersmith, Jonathan (March 2006). "Does Your Mother Know What YouReallyDo? The Changing Nature and Image of Computer‐Based Pornography". *History and Technology*. **22** (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/07341510500508610. ISSN 0734-1512. S2CID 143713545. * Corliss, Richard (29 March 2005). *That Old Feeling: When Porno Was Chic*. *Time*. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 16 October 2006. * Carroll, Jason S.; Padilla-Walker, Laura M.; Nelson, Larry J.; Olson, Chad D.; McNamara Barry, Carolyn; Madsen, Stephanie D. (January 2008). "Generation XXX: Pornography Acceptance and Use Among Emerging Adults". *Journal of Adolescent Research*. **23** (1): 6–30. doi:10.1177/0743558407306348. ISSN 0743-5584. S2CID 145395436. * Chude-Sokei, Louis; Cruz, Ariane; Musser, Amber Jamilla; Nash, Jennifer C.; Stallings, L.H.; Wachter-Grene, Kirin (December 2016). "Race, Pornography, and Desire: A TBS Roundtable". *Journal of Black Studies and Research*. **46** (4): 49–64. doi:10.1080/00064246.2016.1223484. S2CID 152089704. * Carol, Avedon (1995). "The Harm of Porn: Just Another Excuse to Censor". *The Law*. London. ISSN 1360-807X. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. * Cole, Kristen L (24 July 2014). "Pornography, censorship, and public sex: exploring feminist and queer perspectives of (public) pornography through the case of Pornotopia". *Porn Studies*. **1** (3): 227–241. doi:10.1080/23268743.2014.927708. * Citron, Danielle Keats; Franks, Mary Anne (2014). "Criminalizing Revenge Porn". *Wake Forest Law Review*. **49** (2): 345–392. * Carrotte, Elise R; Davis, Angela C; Lim, Megan SC (14 May 2020). "Sexual Behaviors and Violence in Pornography: Systematic Review and Narrative Synthesis of Video Content Analyses". *Journal of Medical Internet Research*. **22** (5). doi:10.2196/16702. * D'Orlando, Fabio (1 March 2011). "The Demand for Pornography". *Journal of Happiness Studies*. **12** (1): 51–75. doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9175-0. ISSN 1573-7780. S2CID 145125342. * D'Amato, Anthony (23 June 2006). "Porn up, rape down". *Northwestern Public Law (Research Paper No. 913013)*. doi:10.2139/ssrn.913013. SSRN 913013. * De Jong, David C.; Cook, Casey (February 2021). "Roles of Religiosity, Obsessive-Compulsive Symptoms, Scrupulosity, and Shame in Self-Perceived Pornography Addiction: A Preregistered Study". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. **50** (2): 695–709. doi:10.1007/s10508-020-01878-6. PMID 33403534. S2CID 254265756. * Droubay, Brian A; Butters, Robert P; Shafer, Kevin (June 2021). "The Pornography Debate: Religiosity and Support for Censorship". *Journal of Religion and Health*. **60** (3): 1652–1667. doi:10.1007/s10943-018-0732-x. PMID 30465262. S2CID 53720632. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2023. * Döring, Nicola M. (1 September 2009). "The Internet's impact on sexuality: A critical review of 15 years of research". *Computers in Human Behavior*. **25** (5): 1089–1101. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.04.003. * Edelman, Benjamin (1 January 2009). "Markets: Red Light States: Who Buys Online Adult Entertainment?" (PDF). *Journal of Economic Perspectives*. American Economic Association. **23** (1): 209–220. doi:10.1257/jep.23.1.209. ISSN 0895-3309. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2013. * Fritz, Niki; Malic, Vinny; Fu, Tsung-chieh; Paul, Bryant; Zhou, Yanyan; Dodge, Brian; Fortenberry, J. Dennis; Herbenick, Debby (14 February 2022). "Porn Sex versus Real Sex: Sexual Behaviors Reported by a U.S. Probability Survey Compared to Depictions of Sex in Mainstream Internet-Based Male-Female Pornography". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. **51** (2): 1187–1200. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02175-6. PMC 8853281. PMID 35165802. * Faludi, Susan (30 October 1995). *The Money Shot*. *The New Yorker*. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 22 July 2016. * Grubbs, Joshua B.; Floyd, Christopher G.; Kraus, Shane W. (January 2023). "Pornography Use and Public Health: Examining the Importance of Online Sexual Behavior in the Health Sciences". *American Journal of Public Health*. **113** (1): 22–26. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2022.307146. PMC 9755930. PMID 36516393. * Grubbs, Joshua B.; Perry, Samuel L.; Grant Weinandy, Jennifer T.; Kraus, Shane W. (19 July 2021). "Porndemic? A Longitudinal Study of Pornography Use Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Nationally Representative Sample of Americans". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. **51** (1): 123–137. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02077-7. ISSN 0004-0002. PMC 8288831. PMID 34282505. * Goldstein, B. Y.; Steinberg, J. K.; Aynalem, G.; Kerndt, P. R. (2011). "High Chlamydia and gonorrhea incidence and reinfection among performers in the adult film industry". *Sexually Transmitted Diseases*. **38** (7): 644–648. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e318214e408. PMID 21844714. S2CID 2855793. * Gordon, A.M. (2018). "How Men Experience Sexual Shame: The Development and Validation of the Male Sexual Shame Scale". *The Journal of Men's Studies*. **26** (1): 105–123. doi:10.1177/1060826517728303. * Hatch, S. Gabe; Esplin, Charlotte R.; Aaron, Sean C.; Dowdle, Krista K.; Fincham, Frank D.; Hatch, H. Dorian; Braithwaite, Scott R. (December 2020). "Does pornography consumption lead to intimate partner violence perpetration? Little evidence for temporal precedence". *Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality*. **29** (3): 289–296. doi:10.3138/cjhs.2019-0065. S2CID 225728859. * Hoesterey, James Bourk (November 2016). "Vicissitudes of Vision: Piety, Pornography, and Shaming the State in Indonesia". *Visual Anthropology Review*. **32** (2): 133–143. doi:10.1111/var.12105. * Jahnen, Matthias; Zeng, Leopold; Kron, Martina; Meissner, Valentin H; Korte, Alexander; Schiele, Stefan; Schulwitz, Helga; Dinkel, Andreas; Gschwend, Jürgen E; Herkommer, Kathleen (4 July 2022). "The role of pornography in the sex life of young adults-a cross-sectional cohort study on female and male German medical students". *BMC Public Health*. **22** (1): 1471–2458. doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13699-4. PMC 9252028. PMID 35787262. * Komlenac, Nikola; Hochleitner, Margarethe (4 January 2022). "Associations Between Pornography Consumption, Sexual Flexibility, and Sexual Functioning Among Austrian Adults". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. **51** (2): 1323–1336. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02201-7. PMC 8888391. PMID 34984569. * Kraus, Shane W.; Voon, Valerie; Potenza, Marc N. (19 February 2016). "Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?". *Addiction*. **111** (12): 2097–2106. doi:10.1111/add.13297. PMC 4990495. PMID 26893127. * Kohut, Taylor; Baer, Jodie L.; Watts, Brendan (January 2016). "Is Pornography Really about "Making Hate to Women"? Pornography Users Hold More Gender Egalitarian Attitudes Than Nonusers in a Representative American Sample". *Journal of Sex Research*. **53** (1): 1–11. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1023427. PMID 26305435. S2CID 23901098. * Kühn, S; Gallinat, J (2016). *Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality*. International Review of Neurobiology. Vol. 129. pp. 67–83. doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002. ISBN 978-0128039144. PMID 27503448. * Levendowski, Amanda M. (2014). "Using Copyright to Combat Revenge Porn". *NYU Journal of Intellectual Property & Entertainment Law*. Social Science Research Network. **3**. SSRN 2374119. * Lieberman, Hallie (8 December 2020). *Black Performers Make Millions for Porn Sites—While Being Underpaid, Verbally Abused, and Subjected to Racism*. Cosmopolitan. Archived from the original on 18 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2023. * Mulholland, Monique (March 2011). "When Porno Meets Hetero". *Australian Feminist Studies*. Taylor & Francis. **26** (67): 119–135. doi:10.1080/08164649.2011.546332. S2CID 142218966. * McKee, Alan; Byron, Paul; Litsou, Katerina; Ingham, Roger (April 2020). "An Interdisciplinary Definition of Pornography: Results from a Global Delphi Panel". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. **49**: 1085–1091. doi:10.1007/s10508-019-01554-4. * Perry, Samuel L.; Schleifer, Cyrus (November 2018). "Are the Sanctified Becoming the Pornified? Religious Conservatism, Commitment, and Pornography Use, 1984–2016\*". *Social Science Quarterly (Wiley-Blackwell)*. **99** (5): 1614–1626. doi:10.1111/ssqu.12524. S2CID 149581888. * Regnerus, Mark; Gordon, David; Price, Joseph (18 December 2015). "Documenting Pornography Use in America: A Comparative Analysis of Methodological Approaches". *The Journal of Sex Research*. Informa UK Limited. **53** (7): 873–881. doi:10.1080/00224499.2015.1096886. ISSN 0022-4499. PMID 26683998. S2CID 24115571. * Rosen, David (February 2023). "Pornography and the Erotic Phantasmagoria". *Sexuality & Culture*. **27** (1): 242–265. doi:10.1007/s12119-022-10011-9. PMC 9485786. PMID 36157715. * Rodriguez-Hart, C.; Chitale, R. A.; Rigg, R.; Goldstein, B. Y.; Kerndt, P. R.; Tavrow, P. (2012). "Sexually transmitted infection testing of adult film performers: is disease being missed?". *Sexually Transmitted Diseases*. **39** (12): 989–994. doi:10.1097/OLQ.0b013e3182716e6e. PMID 23191956. S2CID 11721333. * Speed, David; MacDonald, Jordan; Parks, Alyssa; Doucette, Hannah; Munagapati, Keerthana (March–April 2021). "Pornography Consumption and Attitudes Towards Pornography Legality Predict Attitudes of Sexual Equality". *Journal of Sex Research*. **58** (3): 396–408. doi:10.1080/00224499.2020.1864263. PMID 33428456. S2CID 231586724. * Szymanski, Dawn M.; Stewart-Richardson, Destin N. (January 2014). "Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships". *The Journal of Men's Studies*. Sage. **22** (1): 64–82. doi:10.3149/jms.2201.64. S2CID 146523196. * Træen, Bente; Toril Sørheim, Nilsen; Hein, Stigum (August 2006). "Use of Pornography in Traditional Media and on the Internet in Norway". *Journal of Sex Research*. **43** (3): 245–254. doi:10.1080/00224490609552323. PMID 17599247. S2CID 143660968. * Turner, James Grantham (December 2004). "Marcantonio's Lost Modi and their Copies". *Print Quarterly*. **21** (4): 363–384. JSTOR 41826241. * Volk, Fred; Thomas, John; Sosin, Lisa; Jacob, Victoria; Moen, Carolyn (April–September 2016). "Religiosity, Developmental Context, and Sexual Shame in Pornography Users: A Serial Mediation Model". *Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity*. **23** (2/3): 244–259. doi:10.1080/10720162.2016.1151391. S2CID 147808068. * Wright, P. J.; Herbenick, D.; Paul, B. (2020). "Adolescent Condom Use, Parent-adolescent Sexual Health Communication, and Pornography: Findings from a U.S. Probability Sample". *Health Communication*. **35** (13): 1576–1582. doi:10.1080/10410236.2019.1652392. PMID 31403326. S2CID 199540715. * Wright, P. J.; Sun, C.; Steffen, N. (2018). "Pornography Consumption, Perceptions of Pornography as Sexual Information, and Condom Use". *Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy*. **44** (8): 800–805. doi:10.1080/0092623X.2018.1462278. PMID 29634458. S2CID 4794350. * Wilcox, Brian L. (1987). "Pornography, social science, and politics: When research and ideology collide". *American Psychologist*. **42** (10): 941–943. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.42.10.941. * Webber, Valerie (September 2021). "Crossovers and Consent: Underlying Assumptions in Porn Health Protocol". *Synoptique*. **9** (2): 183–200. * Yushun, Okabe; Daisuke, Ito (February 2022). "Psychometric Properties of the Problematic Pornography Use Scale in a Japanese Sample". *Archives of Sexual Behavior*. **51** (2): 1573–2800. doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02141-2. PMID 34853978. S2CID 254262176. * Ziv, Amalia (October 2014). "Girl meets boy: cross-gender queer and the promise of pornography". *Sexualities*. **17** (7): 885–905. doi:10.1177/1363460714532937. S2CID 145460606. #### News and websites * Auerbach, David (23 October 2014). "Vampire Porn". *Slate*. Archived from the original on 19 December 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2014. * Amis, Martin (17 March 2001). "A rough trade". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 24 May 2020. Retrieved 29 February 2012. * Ackman, Dan (25 May 2001). "How Big Is Porn?". *Forbes*. Archived from the original on 9 June 2001. Retrieved 8 November 2007. * Anthony, Sebastian (4 April 2012). "Just how big are porn sites?". *ExtremeTech*. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 13 July 2022. * Aucoin, Don (24 January 2006). "The pornification of America". *The Boston Globe*. Archived from the original on 10 November 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018. * Broster, Alice (27 August 2019). "#NotYourPorn Is The Campaign Fighting To Get Non-Consensual Content Removed From UK Porn Sites". *Bustle*. Archived from the original on 14 September 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2020. * Bottomore, Stephen (1996a). Stephen Herbert; Luke McKernan (eds.). "Léar (Albert Kirchner)". *Who's Who of Victorian Cinema*. British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 10 October 2006. Retrieved 15 October 2006. * Bottomore, Stephen (1996b). Stephen Herbert; Luke McKernan (eds.). "Eugène Pirou". *Who's Who of Victorian Cinema*. British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012. Retrieved 15 October 2006. * Barford, Vanessa (14 October 2015). "Why America loved Playboy". *BBC*. Archived from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Bridge, Adrian (20 July 1996). "Sex trade moguls thrive by the Blue Danube". *The Independent*. Archived from the original on 14 October 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2011. * Blue, Violet (24 July 2009). "Are more women OK with watching porn?". *CNN.com*. Archived from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022. * Baxter, Sarah; Brooks, Richard (8 August 2004). "Porn is vital to freedom, says Rushdie". *The Times*. London. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 8 November 2007. * Brown, Jessica (26 September 2017). "Is porn harmful?". BBC. Archived from the original on 17 July 2019. Retrieved 27 September 2017. * Castleman, Michael (15 September 2013). "The Real Kama Sutra: More Than An Ancient Sex Manual". Psychology Today. Retrieved 1 May 2023. * Cole, Samantha; Maiberg, Emanuel (16 July 2019). "How Pornhub Enables Doxing and Harassment". *Vice*. Archived from the original on 16 July 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2020. * Cole, Samantha (6 February 2020). "How to Remove Non-Consensual Videos From Pornhub". *Vice*. Archived from the original on 3 September 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2020. * Canby, Vincent (22 July 1969). "Movie Review – Blue Movie (1968) Screen: Andy Warhol's 'Blue Movie'". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 29 December 2015. * Dugdale, John (2 May 2013). "Porn studies is the new discipline for academics". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2013. * Dugan, Andrew (5 June 2018). "More Americans Say Pornography Is Morally Acceptable". *Gallup.com*. Archived from the original on 19 May 2020. Retrieved 12 March 2020. * Dunn, Emma (2 March 2023). "'Men love my bald head': OnlyFans model diagnosed with rare cancer still makes £66,000 a year". *The Independent*. Archived from the original on 3 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023. * Egan, Timothy (23 October 2000). "EROTICA INC. -- A special report.; Technology Sent Wall Street Into Market for Pornography". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 12 November 2017. Retrieved 4 June 2023. * Ferguson, Sian (27 January 2020). Litner, Jennifer (ed.). "Is 'Masturbation Addiction' Possible?". *Healthline*. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2021. * Gardiner, Bryan (22 January 2007). "Porn Industry May Decide DVD Format War". *FOXNews.com – Technology News*. Archived from the original on 10 February 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. * Griffin, Andrew (9 November 2017). "Virtual reality pornography is allowing for more 'intimate' and 'personal' experiences but could bring horrors, warn experts". *The Independent*. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2019. * Goussé, Caroline (16 February 2012). ""No Copyright Protection for Pornography: A Daring Response to File-Sharing Litigation"". Intellectual Property Brief. Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2012. * Goodwin, Sam (21 August 2020). "Father's staggering reaction to Renee Gracie's X-rated switch". *au.sports.yahoo.com*. Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 6 June 2023. * Hymes, Tom (3 November 2009). "Adult Tube Sites Now Spamming Through Google News". *avn.com*. Archived from the original on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014. * Hay, Mark (27 September 2019). "The Rift in the Porn World About How to Approach HIV". rewire news group. Archived from the original on 11 October 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022. * Hay, Mark (11 January 2021). "How to watch VR porn: Everything you need to know". *mashable.com*. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023. * Jenkins, John Philip (16 April 2023). "pornography". *www.britannica.com*. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023. * Joseph, Manu (24 July 2015). "The Kama Sutra as a Work of Philosophy". *The New York Times*. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2023. * Jacobs, Tom (28 August 2015). "Pornography Consumption on the Rise". *Pacific Standard*. The Miller-McCune Center for Research, Media and Public Policy. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 30 November 2015. * Jeffries, Stuart (12 April 2006). "Are women human? (Interview with Catharine MacKinnon)". *The Guardian*. London. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2012. * Jackman, Myles (8 August 2012). "Extreme porn trial: consensual sex and the state". *The Guardian*. London. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2013. * Koga (25 February 2010). "XBIZ Awards 2010: Red Carpet". LAist. Archived from the original on 26 January 2016. Retrieved 4 June 2023. * Klein, Marty (30 October 2016). "Kids Need Porn Literacy". Psychology Today. Retrieved 30 April 2023. * Kernes, Mark (12 April 2014a). "Nightline Takes a Look at Porn Piracy, and Targets MindGeek". *avn.com*. Archived from the original on 28 July 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014. * Krueger, Alyson (28 October 2017). "Virtual Reality Gets Naughty". *New York Times*. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2019. * Kleinman, Alexis (4 May 2013). "Porn Sites Get More Visitors Than Netflix, Amazon And Twitter Combined". *HuffPost*. Archived from the original on 25 August 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021. * Kernes, Mark (11 July 2014b). "MA Supremes Rule National Geographic Photos Not Kid Porn". *avn.com*. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2014. * Kernes, Mark (24 June 2014c). "Adult Actresses Deliver Petitions to Isadore Hall Office". *avn.com*. Archived from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 24 June 2014. * Kämmerer, Annette (9 August 2019). *The Scientific Underpinnings and Impacts of Shame*. *Scientific American*. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 14 February 2023. * Kutchinsky, Berl. "Denmark - the first country to legalize pornography". *www.fanny-hill.net*. Denmark. Archived from the original on 8 November 2005. Retrieved 28 May 2023. * Lynch, Martin (17 January 2007). "Blu-ray loves porn after all". *The Inquirer*. Incisive Media Investments. Archived from the original on 21 June 2007. Retrieved 8 November 2007. * Leith, Sam (6 June 2014). "From teledildonics to interactive porn: the future of sex in a digital age". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 5 March 2023. Retrieved 28 May 2023. * McGivern, Mark; Cosic, Milica (1 December 2022). "Teacher quits after pupils find OnlyFans page she made to pay for sick son's care". *Mirror.co.uk*. Archived from the original on 30 April 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023. * Mearian, Lucas (2 May 2006). "Porn industry may be decider in Blu-ray, HD-DVD battle". *MacWorld*. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. Retrieved 8 November 2007. * McNeil Jr., Donald G. (5 November 2012). "Unlikely Model in H.I.V. Efforts: Sex Film Industry". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2022. * Morris, Chris (20 January 2016). "Porn's dirtiest secret: What everyone gets paid". *www.cnbc.com*. Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2023. * Nygaard, Else Marie (14 February 2023). "Inge Krogh er død: Hun kæmpede mod børnepornografi, mens andre kaldte et forbud nyvictoriansk". *Kristeligt Dagblad* (in Danish). Archived from the original on 15 February 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023. * Pietrangelo, Ann (30 January 2019). Legg, Timothy J. (ed.). "How to Identify and Treat a Pornography Addiction". *Healthline*. Archived from the original on 11 June 2021. Retrieved 11 June 2021. * Reign, Tasha (8 April 2013). "Tasha Tells All...On LA County's Measure B Condom Law". *OC Weekly*. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2014. * Seltzer, Leon F (6 April 2011). "What Distinguishes Erotica from Pornography?". Psychology Today. Retrieved 2 February 2016.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: url-status (link) * Spina, Francis X (9 July 2014). "469 Mass. 0036. Commonwealth vs. John Rex". *archives.lib.state.ma.us*. Massachusetts. Supreme Judicial Court. Archived from the original on 19 June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023. * Strusiewicz, Cezary Jan (16 February 2018). "The Japanese Porn Industry: 5 Things We Learned at Japan Adult Expo". Tokyo Weekender. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2022. * Sutherland, John (14 August 2017). "Fanny Hill: why would anyone ban the racy novel about 'a woman of pleasure'?". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 15 March 2023. * Shultz, David (31 December 2014). *Religious and conservative states search for more Internet pornography*. *Science.org*. Archived from the original on 16 February 2023. Retrieved 16 February 2023. * Segal, David (28 March 2014). "Does porn hurt children?". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 22 November 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2014. * Smith, Helena (9 December 2009). "Laid bare: the sex life of the ancient Greeks in all its physical glory". *The Guardian*. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Somaiya, Ravi (18 January 2015). "As Playboy and Penthouse Fade, Newer Magazines Tilt Artistic". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 6 March 2023. * Shane, Charlotte (18 May 2021). "OnlyFans Isn't Just Porn ;)". *The New York Times*. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2023. * Shrage, Laurie (18 February 2004). "Feminist Perspectives on Sex Markets". *Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy*. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 31 January 2012. * Trøiborg, Ida (18 July 2020). "I 11 år var Danmark hele verdens børnepornomekka: Hvorfor greb ingen ind?". *Jyllands-Posten* (in Danish). Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 17 February 2023. * Vogels, Josey (21 April 2009). "Female-friendly porn". *Metro News*. Canada: Metro International. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 9 December 2015. * Villines, Zawn; Litner, Jennifer (27 August 2020). "Porn: Is it bad for you?". MedicalNewsToday. Archived from the original on 25 May 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023. * Weiss, Robert (2 July 2020). "The Evolution of Pornography". Psychology Today. Retrieved 14 October 2022. * Wagner, Mitch (26 May 2007). "Sex in Second Life". InformationWeek. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2023. * Zook, Matthew (19 September 2005). "The Art and Politics of Netporn". *Networkcultures.org*. institute of network cultures. Archived from the original on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2011. * Zane, Zachary (4 May 2021). "The Most Popular Genres of Porn, Explained". Men's Health. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2023. * "American Porn". *FRONTLINE*. PBS. February 2002. Archived from the original on 17 April 2023. Retrieved 1 February 2014. * "Are the effects of pornography negligible? - UdeMNouvelles". *nouvelles.umontreal.ca* (in French). 1 December 2009. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2022. * "A Conversation With Catherine MacKinnon (transcript)". *ThinkTANK*. 1995. PBS. Retrieved 1 September 2009. * "Gabinetto Segreto" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 11 April 2011. Retrieved 2 May 2023. * "Green light for porn films". BBC News. 22 May 2000. Archived from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 23 June 2023. * "Hot Girls Wanted". *www.netflix.com*. 2015. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 17 April 2020. * "Hong Kong filmmakers shoot 'first' 3D porn film". *The Independent*. 10 August 2010. Archived from the original on 9 February 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2023. * "Movie Day at the Supreme Court or "I Know It When I See It": A History of the Definition of Obscenity". *findlaw.com*. 26 April 2016. Archived from the original on 28 May 2023. Retrieved 26 June 2023. * "Magnet Media Holds Porn/Tech Event in NYC This Tuesday". *avn.com*. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2014. * "New offence of possession of extreme pornographic images". Ministry of Justice. 26 November 2008. Archived from the original on 10 December 2008. Retrieved 6 December 2008. * "Professor Sir Bernard Williams". *The Times*. 14 June 2003. Archived from the original on 4 January 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2023. * "pornography". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 21 April 2011. * "porn (n.)". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2 April 2023. Retrieved 2 April 2023. * "pornography". Oxford English Dictionary. 1989. Archived from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2023. * "'Revenge porn' Facebook post leads to jail sentence". *BBC News*. 3 December 2014. Archived from the original on 13 January 2021. Retrieved 9 October 2015. * "Safety in the Adult Film Industry". *www.dir.ca.gov*. June 2020. Archived from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022. * "The Earliest Pornography?". *Science.org*. 13 May 2009. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2023. * "The 1000 most-visited sites on the web". July 2011. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2023. * "The Truth About California's Adult Entertainment Industry White Paper 1999". *avn.com*. 15 July 1999. Archived from the original on 29 April 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2014. * "Takedown Piracy Celebrates Fifth Anniversary". *avn.com*. 13 May 2014. Archived from the original on 21 August 2014. Retrieved 20 August 2014. * "'They Can't Stop Us:' People Are Having Sex With 3D Avatars of Their Exes and Celebrities". Vice. 20 November 2019. Archived from the original on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 29 December 2019. * "Things Are Looking Up in America's Porn Industry". *www.nbcnews.com*. 20 January 2015. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 26 January 2018. * "Warhol's Red Hot and 'Blue' Movie. D1. Print. (behind paywall)". *The New York Times*. 10 August 1969. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 29 December 2015. * "29% Accessed Porn on Work Computers Last Month - CBS News". *cbsnews.com*. 23 April 2010. Archived from the original on 25 June 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2022. Further reading ---------------

Pornography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornography

**Madame Tussauds** (UK: /tuːˈsɔːdz/, US: /tuːˈsoʊz/) is a wax museum founded in 1835 (188 years ago) (1835) by French wax sculptor Marie Tussaud in London, spawning similar museums in major cities around the world. While it used to be spelled as "Madame Tussaud's", the apostrophe is no longer used. A major tourist attraction in London since the Victorian era, Madame Tussauds displays the waxworks of famous and historical figures, as well as popular film and television characters played by famous actors. Operated by the British entertainment company Merlin Entertainments, the museum now has locations in cities across four continents, with the first overseas branch opening in Amsterdam in 1970. History ------- ### Background Marie Tussaud was born as Marie Grosholtz in 1761 in Strasbourg, France. Her mother worked for Philippe Curtius in Bern, Switzerland, who was a physician skilled in wax modeling. Curtius taught Tussaud the art of wax modelling beginning when she was a child. He moved to Paris and took his young apprentice, then only 6 years old, with him. Grosholtz created her first wax sculpture in 1777 of Voltaire. At the age of 17, she became the art tutor to Madame Elizabeth, the sister of King Louis XVI of France, at the Palace of Versailles. During the French Revolution, she was imprisoned for three months and awaiting execution, but was released after the intervention of an influential friend. During the Revolution, she made models of many prominent victims. Waxwork of Marie Tussaud (sculpting a waxwork) and her memorial plaque at the wax museum she founded in London Grosholtz inherited Curtius's vast collection of wax models following his death in 1794. For the next 33 years, she travelled around Europe with a touring show from the collection. She married Francois Tussaud in 1795 and took his surname. She renamed her show as Madame Tussaud's. In 1802, she accepted an invitation from Paul Philidor, a lantern and phantasmagoria pioneer, to exhibit her work alongside his show at the Lyceum Theatre, London. She did not fare particularly well financially, with Philidor taking half of her profits. She was unable to return to France because of the Napoleonic Wars, so she traveled throughout Great Britain and Ireland exhibiting her collection. From 1831, she took a series of short leases on the upper floor of "Baker Street Bazaar" (on the west side of Baker Street, Dorset Street, and King Street in London). This site was later featured in the Druce-Portland case sequence of trials of 1898–1907. This became Tussaud's first permanent home in 1836. ### Origins By 1835, Marie Tussaud had settled down in Baker Street, London and opened a museum. One of the main attractions of her museum was the Chamber of Horrors. The name is often credited to a contributor to *Punch* in 1845, but Tussaud appears to have originated it herself, using it in advertising as early as 1843. This part of the exhibition included victims of the French Revolution and newly created figures of murderers and other criminals. Other famous people were added, including Lord Nelson, the Duke of Wellington, Henry VIII and Queen Victoria. Some sculptures still exist that were made by Marie Tussaud herself. The gallery originally contained some 400 different figures, but fire damage in 1925, coupled with bombs during the Blitz on London in 1941, severely damaged most of such older models. The casts themselves have survived, allowing the historical waxworks to be remade, and these can be seen in the museum's history exhibit. The oldest figure on display is that of Madame du Barry, the work of Curtius from 1765 and part of the waxworks left to Grosholtz at his death. Other faces from the time of Tussaud include Robespierre and George III. In 1842, she made a self-portrait, which is now on display at the entrance of her museum. She died in her sleep in London on 16 April 1850. By 1883, the restricted space and rising cost of the Baker Street site prompted her grandson Joseph Randall to commission construction of a building at the museum's current location on Marylebone Road. The new exhibition galleries were opened on 14 July 1884 and were a great success. But Randall had bought out his cousin Louisa's half share in the business in 1881, and that plus the building costs resulted in his having too little capital. He formed a limited company in 1888 to attract fresh capital but it had to be dissolved after disagreements between the family shareholders. In February 1889 Tussaud's was sold to a group of businessmen, led by Edwin Josiah Poyser. The first wax sculpture of a young Winston Churchill was made in 1908; a total of ten have been made since. The first overseas branch of Madame Tussauds was opened in Amsterdam in 1970. ### Ownership changes In 2005, Madame Tussauds was sold to a company in Dubai, Dubai International Capital, for £800m (US$1.5bn). In May 2007, The Blackstone Group purchased The Tussauds Group from then-owner Dubai International Capital for US$1.9 billion; the company was merged with Blackstone's Merlin Entertainments and operation of Madame Tussauds was taken over by Merlin. After the Tussauds acquisition, Dubai International Capital gained 20% of Merlin Entertainment. On 17 July 2007, as part of the financing for the Tussauds deal, Merlin sold the freehold of Madame Tussauds to private investor Nick Leslau and his investment firm Prestbury under a sale and leaseback agreement. Although the attraction sites are owned by Prestbury, they are operated by Merlin based on a renewable 35-year lease. ### Recent status Madame Tussaud's wax museum became a major tourist attraction in London. Until 2010, it incorporated the London Planetarium in its west wing. A large animated dark ride, *The Spirit of London*, opened in 1993. Today's wax figures at Tussauds include historical and royal figures, film stars, sports stars, and famous murderers. It has been known since 2007 as "Madame Tussauds" museums (no apostrophe). In July 2008, Madame Tussauds' Berlin branch became embroiled in controversy when a 41-year-old German man brushed past two guards and decapitated a wax figure depicting Adolf Hitler. This was believed to be an act of protest against showing the ruthless dictator alongside sports heroes, movie stars, and other historical figures. The statue has since been repaired, and the perpetrator has admitted that he attacked the statue to win a bet. The original model of Hitler was unveiled in Madame Tussauds London in April 1933; it was frequently vandalised and a 1936 replacement had to be carefully guarded. In January 2016, the statue of Adolf Hitler was removed from the Chamber of Horrors section in the London museum in response to an open letter sent by a staff writer of *The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles*, followed by significant support for its removal from social media. The first Madame Tussauds in India opened in New Delhi on 1 December 2017. Its operator, Merlin Entertainments, planned an investment of 50 million pounds over the next 10 years. It features over 50 wax models, including political and entertainment figures such as Ariana Grande, Amitabh Bachchan, Salman Khan, Katrina Kaif, Sachin Tendulkar, Kim Kardashian, Tom Cruise, Leonardo DiCaprio, Scarlett Johansson, Angelina Jolie, Asha Bhosle, Kapil Dev, and Mary Kom. On 30 December 2020, the holding company of Madame Tussauds Wax Museum in Delhi, India confirmed a temporary shutdown of the Museum. It is scheduled to reopen in 2022. Museum locations ---------------- ### Asia * China Beijing, China (2014) * China Chongqing, China (2016) * China Shanghai, China (2006) * China Wuhan, China (2013) * Hong Kong Hong Kong (2000) * India Delhi, India (2017-2023) * Japan Tokyo, Japan (2013) * Singapore Singapore (2014) * Thailand Bangkok, Thailand (2010) * United Arab Emirates Dubai, United Arab Emirates (2021) ### Europe * Netherlands Amsterdam, Netherlands (1970) * Germany Berlin, Germany (2008) * United Kingdom Blackpool, United Kingdom (2011) * Hungary Budapest, Hungary (2023) * Turkey Istanbul, Turkey (2016) * United Kingdom London, United Kingdom (1835) * Czech Republic Prague, Czech Republic (2019) * Austria Vienna, Austria (2011) ### North America * United States Hollywood, United States (2009) * United States Las Vegas, United States (1999) * United States Nashville, United States (2017) * United States New York City, United States (2000) * United States Orlando, United States (2015) * United States San Francisco, United States (2014) * United States Washington, D.C., United States (2007-2021) ### Oceania * Australia Sydney, Australia (2012) In popular culture ------------------ ### Celebrity poses with their wax figures Celebrities have often posed like their wax figures as pranks and publicity stunts: * On 3 November 2009, the museum's New York City branch was featured in a segment on NBC's *Today* in which weatherman Al Roker posed in place of his lifelike wax figure for two hours and startled unsuspecting visitors, who were at first led to believe they were viewing Roker's wax counterpart. * In 2010, Ozzy Osbourne did similarly in New York to promote his album *Scream* (2010). * NBA players Carmelo Anthony and Jeremy Lin pranked fans during the unveiling of their statues at the New York and San Francisco museums, respectively. * In 2015, Arnold Schwarzenegger posed as the Terminator statue in the Hollywood museum, to promote a charity event. * Ant and Dec pranked Olly Murs by tricking him into using a machine that will "scan every part of Olly's face and body to create the most accurate wax figure ever" as a part of their annual Undercover segment on their show, *Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway*. ### Films * Some sequences of the film *Housefull 3* were shot in the Madame Tussauds, London. * Parts of the film *Fan* (2016) were shot at Madame Tussauds, making it the first Indian film to be shot there. * Madame Tussauds features in the film *Shanghai Knights* (2003). ### Games * Marie Tussaud is featured in an *Assassin's Creed Unity* side mission, where the player is tasked with retrieving the severed heads of which Madame Tussaud was commissioned to make replicas. * Madame Tussaud is referenced as "Madame Tusspell" in *The Great Ace Attorney 2: Resolve*, where the player is tasked to investigate in the wax museum. ### Literature * In Thomas Hardy's novel *The Return of the Native* (published 1878) the Christmas congregation at a country church is likened to "a Tussaud collection of [local] celebrities". * There is a brief reference to Madame Tussaud's work in the Sherlock Holmes story "The Mazarin Stone". * In Jules Verne's novel *Around the World in Eighty Days*, his author says that the only thing the wax figures sculpted by Madame Tussaud lack is speech. * In Elizabeth Bowen's novel *The Death of the Heart* (1938), Portia and Eddie have tea at Madame Tussaud's and Portia is disappointed that the waitresses are real and not made of wax. * In the novel *Edgar Allan Poe and the London Monster* (2016) by Karen Lee Street, Madame Tussaud meets twice with Edgar Allan Poe and C. Auguste Dupin at her exhibition halls. ### Music * In Gilbert and Sullivan's song "My Object All Sublime", from *The Mikado* (1885), the title character sings of punishments fitting the crime, including: > The amateur tenor, whose vocal villainies > > All desire to shirk, > > Shall, during off-hours > > Exhibit his powers > > To Madame Tussaud's waxwork. > > * Madame Tussauds is the focus of Steve Taylor's song "Meltdown (at Madame Tussauds)", which describes someone turning up the thermostat and causing the wax figures to melt. Taylor wrote the song as "a new metaphor to ask [the] same question" as Jesus, "What good is it for a man to gain the whole world, yet forfeit his soul?" * The Beatles had their wax figures featured along with cardboard cutouts of various famous people in the cover art for *Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band* (1967). * Several sculptures from the London branch (including George Bush and Tony Blair) appear in the music video "Pop!ular" by singer-songwriter Darren Hayes. * Madame Tussauds sculptures are used on the cover of Rick Wakeman's album *The Six Wives of Henry VIII*. A waxwork of Richard Nixon also appears in the background. ### Stage productions * Marie Tussaud is mentioned in *The Scarlet Pimpernel* (first run on stage in 1903, first publication 1905). List of notable wax figures --------------------------- ### London | Film | Music | Sports | Leaders and History | Marvel | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Hrithik Roshan | Amy Winehouse | Jessica Ennis-Hill | Napoleon Bonaparte | Black Panther | | Terminator | Michael Jackson | Muhammad Ali | King Charles III | Captain Marvel | | Darth Vader | Lady Gaga | Mo Farah | Queen Camilla | Hawkeye | | E.T. | Madonna | David Beckham | William, Prince of Wales | Captain America | | Steven Spielberg | Miley Cyrus | Rafael Nadal | Catherine, Princess of Wales | Hulk | | Katniss Everdeen | Taylor Swift | Usain Bolt | Elizabeth II | Spider-Man | | Audrey Hepburn | Adele | Tom Daley | Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh | Iron Man | | Kate Winslet | Britney Spears | Sachin Tendulkar | Richard Branson | Nick Fury | | Madhuri Dixit | Rihanna | Virat Kohli | Nelson Mandela | Thor | | Alfred Hitchcock | Bob Marley | Cristiano Ronaldo | Vincent van Gogh | Invisible Woman | | Michael Caine | Freddie Mercury | Bobby Moore | Donald Trump | Wolverine | | Aishwarya Rai Bachchan | Mariah Carey | Olga Korbut | Barack Obama | Shang-Chi | | Daniel Craig | Dua Lipa | Jonah Lomu | Albert Einstein | | | Robert Pattinson | Kylie Minogue | Lionel Messi | Charles Dickens | | | Shah Rukh Khan | The Beatles | Mohamed Salah | Stephen Hawking | | | Anthony Hopkins | Little Mix | | Pablo Picasso | | | Benedict Cumberbatch | Drake | | Mahatma Gandhi | | | Zendaya | Ariana Grande | | Diana, Princess of Wales | | | John Boyega | Stormzy | | Narendra Modi | | | | | | Elizabeth I | | | Notes: | ### Hollywood | The '90s | Spirit of Hollywood | Modern Classics | Movies | Pop Icons | Marvel | Country | A-List Party | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sarah Michelle Gellar | Bette Davis | Sylvester Stallone | Robin Williams | Whitney Houston | Iron Man | Paul Newman | Jennifer Lopez | | Whoopi Goldberg | Marilyn Monroe | Tom Hanks | Edward Scissorhands | Michael Jackson | Thor | Clint Eastwood | Betty White | | Britney Spears | Alfred Hitchcock | John Travolta | Jim Carrey | Madonna | Wolverine | John Wayne | Lady Gaga | | Selena Quintanilla | Elvis Presley | | E.T. | Aaliyah | | | Jason Derulo | | | Audrey Hepburn | | | Lil Nas X | | | Demi Lovato | | | Joan Rivers | | | | | | Ariana Grande | | | Judy Garland | | | | | | Zoe Saldana | | | | | | | | | Kylie Jenner | | | | | | | | | Justin Timberlake | | | | | | | | | Snoop Dogg | | | | | | | | | Rihanna | | | | | | | | | Taylor Swift | ### New York City | Actors | Musicians | Athletes | Leaders | Icons | Characters | Television | Fashion | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Jennifer Aniston | Pharrell Williams | Carmelo Anthony | Barack Obama | Albert Einstein | ET | Jimmy Fallon | Adriana Lima | | Leonardo DiCaprio | Lady Gaga | Lionel Messi | Ronald Reagan | Marilyn Monroe | Iron Man | Michael Strahan | Sofía Vergara | | Jodie Foster | Rihanna | Muhammad Ali | Abraham Lincoln | Charlie Chaplin | Captain Marvel | Jon Hamm | | | Angelina Jolie | Jennifer Hudson | Eli Manning | John F. Kennedy | Jacqueline Kennedy | The Incredible Hulk | Anderson Cooper | | | Whoopi Goldberg | Taylor Swift | Derek Jeter | Mahatma Gandhi | James Dean | King Kong | Tyra Banks | | | Julia Roberts | Katy Perry | Cristiano Ronaldo | Martin Luther King Jr. | Jenna Marbles | Nick Fury | | | | Priyanka Chopra | Avicii | Michael Jordan | Dalai Lama | Michael Jackson | | | | | Salman Khan | Ed Sheeran | | | | | | | | Deepika Padukone | Bad Bunny | | | | | | | | | Selena Gomez | | | | | | | | | Ariana Grande | | | | | | | | Notes: | ### Nashville | Admissions | Recording Studio | Soul/Jazz | MTV | Opry Finale | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Taylor Swift | Elvis Presley | Louis Armstrong | Rihanna | Keith Urban | | Johnny Cash | Carl Perkins | Diana Ross | Beyonce | Reba McEntire | | | Jerry Lee Lewis | Stevie Wonder | Katy Perry | Carrie Underwood | | | Avril Lavigne | Ella Fitzgerald | Miley Cyrus | Alan Jackson | | | | | Justin Timberlake | Eric Church | | | | | Bruno Mars | Jason Aldean | | | | | Michael Jackson | Trisha Yearwood | | | | | | Kid Rock | ### Beijing | Leaders and History | Sports | Music Industry | Entertainment Industry | Film | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Elizabeth II | David Beckham | Lady Gaga | Nicky Wu | Benedict Cumberbatch | | William, Prince of Wales | Li Xiaopeng | Elvis Presley | Yang Lan | Johnny Depp | | Catherine, Princess of Wales | Lang Ping | Cui Jian | Liu Xiao Ling Tong | Leonardo DiCaprio | | Barack Obama | Kobe Bryant | Luhan | Yang Mi | Kate Winslet | | Vladimir Putin | | Zhang Yixing | Leslie Cheung | | | Lao She | | Avril Lavigne | Jackie Chan | | | Yang Liwei | | Michael Jackson | Deng Chao | | | Mei Lanfang | | | Liu Wen | | | Hou Baolin | | | Yang Yang | | | | | | Zhao Liying | | | | | | Huang Xiaoming | | | Notes: | ### Washington, D.C. | U.S Presidents | First Ladies | Cultural Icons | A-List | Music | Sports | Entertainment | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Donald Trump | Michelle Obama | Uncle Sam | Marilyn Monroe | Marvin Gaye | Babe Ruth | Jimmy Fallon | | Abraham Lincoln | Hillary Clinton | Rosa Parks | Zac Efron | Taylor Swift | | Tyra Banks | | Barack Obama | Nancy Reagan | | George Clooney | Miley Cyrus | | | | George Washington | | | Brad Pitt | Beyonce | | | | | | | Angelina Jolie | Rihanna | | | | | | | Johnny Depp | Justin Bieber | | | | | | | | Michael Jackson | | | ### Bangkok | History | Leaders | Arts/Sciences | Sport | Music | Film | Indian Film | TV | Hollywood | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Diana, Princess of Wales | Elizabeth II | Albert Einstein | Wayne Rooney | Katy Perry | Jackie Chan | Shah Rukh Khan | Oprah Winfrey | Hugh Jackman | | Mahatma Gandhi | Michelle Obama | Mark Zuckerberg | Yao Ming | Madonna | Mario Maurer | Katrina Kaif | Anne Thongprasom | Vin Diesel | | Mahidol Adulyadej | Aung San Suu Kyi | Ludwig van Beethoven | Serena Williams | Nichkun Horvejkul | Leonardo DiCaprio | Hrithik Roshan | Theeradej Wongpuapan | Brad Pitt | | Srinagarindra | Barack Obama | Pablo Picasso | Cristiano Ronaldo | Lady Gaga | Johnny Depp | Prabhas | | Lady Gaga | | Bhumibol Adulyadej | Plaek Phibunsongkhram | Sunthorn Phu | David Beckham | Michael Jackson | Nicole Kidman | Sridevi | | Bruce Lee | | Sirikit | Pridi Banomyong | Silpa Bhirasri | Khaosai Galaxy | Tata Young | Will Smith | Ranveer Singh | | Angelina Jolie | | Marie Tussaud | Vajiralongkorn | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart | | Ariana Grande | | | | Chris Evans | | | Suthida | | | Beyonce | | | | Ryan Reynolds | | | Charles III | | | Yinglee Srijumpol | | | | | | | William, Prince of Wales | | | Justin Timberlake | | | | | | | Catherine, Princess of Wales | | | Kelly Clarkson | | | | | | | Joe Biden | | | | | | | | | | Jill Biden | | | | | | | | ### Blackpool | Music Stars | Sports | Comedy | Best of British | Gaming stars | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Lady Gaga | Joe Hart | John Bishop | Charles III | DanTDM | | Michael Jackson | | Ken Dodd | William, Prince of Wales | | Britney Spears | | Alan Carr | Catherine, Princess of Wales | | Freddie Mercury | | The Two Ronnies | Joanna Lumley | | The Beatles | | Morecambe and Wise | Hugh Bonneville | | Shirley Bassey | | Paddy McGuinness | Jane Horrocks | | Tom Jones | | Keith Lemon | Susan Boyle | | Johnny Rotten | | Tommy Cooper | Cheryl | | Ariana Grande | | Benny Hill | Simon Cowell | | Lewis Capaldi | | | Dame Helen Mirren | | Justin Timberlake | | | Elizabeth II | | Marvel Super Heroes | Strictly Come Dancing | Coronation Street | I'm A Celebrity... Get Me Out Of Here! | | Captain Marvel | Bruce Forsyth | Deirdre Barlow | Anthony McPartlin | | Thor | Craig Revel Horwood | Bet Lynch | Declan Donnelly | | Hulk | Tess Daly | Ken Barlow | Bushtucker trial | | Spider-Man | Claudia Winkleman | Jack and Vera Duckworth | | | Groot | | Hilda Ogden | | | Rocket Raccoon | | Michelle Connor | | | Iron Man | | David Platt | | | Notes: | ### Las Vegas | TV Stars | Hollywood Stars | Pop Stars | Athletes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sofia Vergara | Sandra Bullock | Britney Spears | Muhammad Ali | | Simon Cowell | Leonardo DiCaprio | Whitney Houston | Chuck Liddell | | Eva Longoria | Halle Berry | Lady Gaga | Tiger Woods | | Kathy Griffin | Hugh Hefner | Michael Jackson | Shaquille O'Neal | | | | Lizzo | | | Notes: | ### Orlando | Justice League | Film | Party | History & World Leaders | Sports | Music | TV | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Aquaman | Audrey Hepburn | Selena Gomez | Donald Trump | David Beckham | Lady Gaga | Neil Patrick Harris | | Wonder Woman | Kung Fu Panda | Anne Hathaway | Albert Einstein | Serena Williams | Pitbull | Jim Parsons | | Superman | Marilyn Monroe | Ryan Gosling | Abraham Lincoln | Tiger Woods | Miley Cyrus | Oprah Winfrey | | Batman | Jackie Chan | Jennifer Aniston | Madame Marie Tussaud | Shaquille O'Neal | Ricky Martin | Jimmy Fallon | | The Flash | E.T | Will Smith | Neil Armstrong | Derek Jeter | Madonna | Sofia Vergara | | | Shrek and Princess Fiona | Angelina Jolie | Walt Disney | Neymar | Katy Perry | | | | Jennifer Lawrence | Brad Pitt | Uncle Sam | Dan Marino | Rihanna | | | | Dwayne Johnson | Channing Tatum | Barack Obama | Peyton Manning | Michael Jackson | | | | John Travolta | Johnny Depp | Thomas Edison | | Elvis Presley | | | | Olivia Newton-John | Tom Hanks | Martin Luther King Jr. | | Taylor Swift | | | | Vin Diesel | Samuel L. Jackson | | | Ariana Grande | | | | Steven Spielberg | Emma Watson | | | Justin Bieber | | ### San Francisco | Sports | History and Leaders | Music | Film | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Jeremy Lin | Edwin Lee | Jimi Hendrix | Leonardo DiCaprio | | Muhammed Ali | Steve Jobs | Adele | Alfred Hitchcock | | Joe Montana | Barack Obama | Michael Jackson | Whoopi Goldberg | | Tiger Woods | Abraham Lincoln | Lady Gaga | Steven Spielberg | | Serena Williams | George Washington | Madonna | Marilyn Monroe | | Stephen Curry | Martin Luther King Jr. | Rihanna | Audrey Hepburn | | | | Mariah Carey | | | Notes: | ### Shanghai | Sports | History and leaders | Music | Film | TV show | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sun Yang | Vladimir Putin | Teresa Teng | Bruce Lee | He Jiong | | David Beckham | Barack Obama | Elvis Presley | Brad Pitt | Kangxi Lai Le | | Michael Jordan | Nelson Mandela | Michael Jackson | Nicole Kidman | Zhou Libo | | Ronaldo | Bill Clinton | Lady Gaga | Angelina Jolie | Fan Bingbing | | Kobe Bryant | Winston Churchill | Madonna | Marilyn Monroe | Nicky Wu | | Liu Xiang | | Kylie Minogue | Audrey Hepburn | Sun Li | | Yao Ming | | Wu Yifan | Donnie Yen | Hu Ge | | | | S.H.E | Jackie Chan | Yang Yang | | | | Andy Lau | Yao Chen | William Chan | | | | Nicholas Tse | Chen Kun | Lee Minho | | | | Joker Xue | | Zhang Yixing | | | | | | Gong Jun | | Notes: | ### Hong Kong | Sports | History and Leaders | Music | Film | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | David Beckham | Mao Zedong | Elvis Presley | Nicole Kidman | | Yao Ming | Deng Xiaoping | Madonna | Brad Pitt | | Tiger Woods | Elizabeth II | Beyonce | Angelina Jolie | | Ronaldinho | Diana, Princess of Wales | Britney Spears | Sir Alfred Hitchcock | | Rudy Hartono | Sukarno | Lady Gaga | Johnny Depp | | Maria Sharapova | Joko Widodo | Anita Mui | Jackie Chan | | | William Shakespeare | Anggun | Bruce Lee | | | Mahatma Gandhi | Lang Lang | Michelle Yeoh | | | Jiang Zemin | Siwon Choi | Amitabh Bachchan | | | Pablo Picasso | Nichkhun | Donnie Yen | | | Saddam Hussein | Jay Chou | Andy Lau | | | Adolf Hitler | One Direction | Jacky Cheung | | | Narendra Modi | Michael Jackson | Leslie Cheung | | | | The Beatles | Leon Lai | | | | Jackson Wang | Audrey Hepburn | | | | Zhang Yixing | Kim Soo-hyun | | | | Ariana Grande | Bae Yong-joon | | | | | Hugh Jackman (as Wolverine) | | | | | Astroboy | | | | | Pia Wurtzbach | | | | | Varun Dhawan | ### Amsterdam | A-list | Music | Marvel | Fashion | Sport | World Leaders | DJ's | Film | Royal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | George Clooney | Lady Gaga | Loki | Justin Bieber | Rafael van der Vaart | Barack Obama | Martin Garrix | E.T. | King Willem-Alexander | | Zayn Malik | Ariana Grande | Thor | Doutzen Kroes | Rafael Nadal | Angela Merkel | Afrojack | Marilyn Monroe | Queen Máxima | | Ryan Gosling | Adele | Hulk | Kate Moss | Lionel Messi | Dalai Lama | | Chris Pratt | Wilhelmina | | Angelina Jolie | Taylor Swift | Captain America | Michael Jackson | | | | | | | Johnny Depp | Dua Lipa | Iron Man | | | | | | | | Daniel Craig | Elettra Lamborghini | | | | | | | | ### Budapest | Film | Music | Sports | Leaders and History | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Angelina Jolie | Ariana Grande | Cristiano Ronaldo | Donald Trump | | Barbara Palvin | Beyoncé | Ferenc Puskás | Harry Houdini | | Bela Lugosi | Franz Liszt | Katinka Hosszú | István Széchenyi | | Brad Pitt | Freddie Mercury | Lionel Messi | John von Neumann | | Bruce Willis | Jimmy Zámbó | László Papp | King Saint Stephen | | Bud Spencer | Lady Gaga | | Lajos Kossuth | | Chuck Norris | Madonna | | Matthias Corvinus | | George Clooney | Rihanna | | Mihály Munkácsy | | Jennifer Lopez | Whitney Houston | | Mikhail Gorbachev | | Katalin Karády | | | Ronald Reagan | | Leonardo DiCaprio | | | Sisi | | Marilyn Monroe | | | Sándor Petőfi | | Penelope Cruz | | | Xi Jinping | | Peter Falk | | | | | Robert Downey Jr. | | | | | Ryan Gosling | | | | | Sandra Bullock | | | | | Scarlett Johansson | | | | | Steven Spielberg | | | | | Tom Cruise | | | | | Tom Hanks | | | | | Will Smith | | | | | Notes: | ### Vienna | World War II | Party & Hollywood | Sport | Film | Politicians & Visionaries | Arts & Culture | Music | History | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Oskar Schindler | Angelina Jolie | Renate Götschl | Julie Andrews | Dalai Lama | Gottfried Helnwein | Freddie Mercury | Marie Antoinette | | Winston Churchill | Quentin Tarantino | David Alaba | Daniel Craig | Elizabeth II | Friedensreich Hundertwasser | Taylor Swift | Napoleon | | Leopold Figl | Benedict Cumberbatch | Hermann Maier | Alfred Hitchcock | Barack Obama | Ludwig van Beethoven | Udo Jürgens | Maria Theresia | | Karl Renner | Morgan Freeman | Herbert Prohaska | Sandra Bullock | Angela Merkel | Gustav Klimt | Michael Jackson | Franz Joseph | | Anne Frank | Kate Winslet | Franz Klammer | Peter Alexander | Bruno Kreisky | Luciano Pavarotti | Katy Perry | Sisi | | | Will Smith | Gerhard Berger | Audrey Hepburn | Heinz Fischer | Sigmund Freud | Hansi Hinterseer | | | | Leonardo DiCaprio | Dominic Thiem | Romy Schneider | | | Elvis Presley | | | | Johnny Depp | | | | | Conchita Wurst | | | | Chris Hemsworth | | | | | | | ### Sydney | Justice League | Pride | Film & TV | History & World Leaders | Marvel | Music | Lights, Camera, Bollywood! | Party | Sports | Fashion | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Superman | Courtney Act | Eric Bana | Dalai Lama | Wolverine | Pink | Shah Rukh Khan | Chris Hemsworth and Liam Hemsworth | Layne Beachley | Megan Gale | | Aquaman | Guy Pearce | Jackie Chan | Mahatma Gandhi | Spider-Man | Adele | Kareena Kapoor Khan | Meghan, Duchess of Sussex and Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex | Dylan Alcott | Miranda Kerr | | Wonder Woman | Dua Lipa | Mel Gibson | King Charles III | Iron Man | Taylor Swift | | Rebel Wilson | Tim Cahill | Elle Macpherson | | Batman | Lady Gaga | Audrey Hepburn | William, Prince of Wales and Catherine, Princess of Wales | Captain Marvel | John Farnham | | Nicole Kidman | Don Bradman | | | The Flash | | Alfred Hitchcock | Bob Hawke | | Kylie Minogue | | Ryan Gosling | Cathy Freeman | | | | | Steve Irwin | Ned Kelly | | Justin Bieber | | Johnny Depp | Lleyton Hewitt | | | | | Heath Ledger | Arthur Phillip | | Keith Urban | | Rove McManus | Rod Laver | | | | | Olivia Newton-John | James Cook | | Katy Perry | | Dannii Minogue | Glenn McGrath | | | | | Ray Meagher | Banjo Patterson | | Jimmy Barnes | | Angelina Jolie | Sally Pearson | | | | | Marilyn Monroe | Charles Kingsford Smith | | Michael Hutchence | | Cate Blanchett | Ian Thorpe | | | | | Olivia Newton-John | Queen Elizabeth II | | Ricky Martin | | Delta Goodrem | Shane Warne | | | | | Ian Smith | Julia Gillard | | Rihanna | | Leonardo DiCaprio | Mark Webber | | | | | Curtis Stone | Hu Jintao | | Michael Jackson | | | Sachin Tendulkar | | | | | E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial | Barack Obama | | Troye Sivan | | | Yao Ming | | | | | Jacob Elordi | Eddie Mabo | | Elvis Presley | | | | | | | | | Nelson Mandela | | | | | | | | | | | Albert Einstein | | | | | | | | | | | Madame Marie Tussaud | | | | | | | | | | | Mary MacKillop | | | | | | | | ### Istanbul | Music | Cinema | Sport | Science and Culture | VIP Party | History and Leaders | Stars of The Middle East | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Michael Jackson | Marilyn Monroe | Arda Turan | Marie Tussaud | Angelina Jolie | Mehmed the Conqueror | Maya Diab | | Madonna | Audrey Hepburn | Maria Sharapova | Albert Einstein | Brad Pitt | Mimar Sinan | Bin Baz | | Beyoncé | Jennifer Lawrence | Rafael Nadal | Leonardo da Vinci | Johnny Depp | Mustafa Kemal Atatürk | Nancy Ajram | | Lady Gaga | Steven Spielberg | Lionel Messi | Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart | Julia Roberts | Tansu Çiller | Elie Saab | | Demi Lovato | Tom Cruise | Hedo Türkoğlu | Sabiha Gökçen | Leonardo DiCaprio | Rumi | | | Bob Marley | Tarık Akan | Cristiano Ronaldo | Steve Jobs | Beren Saat | Suleiman the Magnificent | | | Zeki Müren | Jackie Chan | Muhammad Ali | Yaşar Kemal | Kıvanç Tatlıtuğ | | | | Müslüm Gürses | Spider-Man | Usain Bolt | | Tolga Çevik | | | | Murat Boz | Harun | Neymar | | Kerem Bürsin | | | | Aleyna Tilki | Vin Diesel | Yasemin Dalkılıç | | Demet Akbağ | | | | Justin Bieber | Bruce Willis | Mesut Özil | | David Beckham | | | | MFÖ | Shrek | | | Ayşe Arman | | | | Edis | E.T. | | | Victoria Beckham | | | | Barış Manço | Adile Naşit | | | Will Smith | | | | Neşet Ertaş | | | | Tuba Büyüküstün | | | | Rihanna | | | | | | | | Notes: | ### Dubai | Music Party | Fashion | Media | Leaders | Bollywood | Film | Sport | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Ed Sheeran | Zendaya | Ahmed Fahmi | Queen Elizabeth II | Salman Khan | Spider-Man | Lewis Hamilton | | Nancy Ajram | Cara Delevingne | Kris Fade | Xi Jinping | Katrina Kaif | Audrey Hepburn | Virat Kohli | | Balqees Ahmed Fathi | David and Victoria Beckham | Hassan El Shafei | Narendra Modi | Shah Rukh Khan | Jennifer Lawrence as Katniss Everdeen | Cristiano Ronaldo | | Taylor Swift | Kylie Jenner | | Madame Marie Tussaud | Kareena Kapoor Khan | Jackie Chan | Lionel Messi | | Justin Bieber | Huda and Mona Kattan | | Vladimir Putin | Hrithik Roshan | Vin Diesel | Muhammad Ali | | Miley Cyrus | Kendall Jenner | | Donald Trump | Deepika Padukone | Chris Pratt | | | Hussain Al Jassmi | | | King Salman | Priyanka Chopra | Chris Evans | | | Maya Diab | | | Sheikh Hasina | Ranveer Singh | | | | Michael Jackson | | | Mohammed bin Salman | Aishwarya Rai Bachchan | | | Gallery ------- * The Sleeping Beauty is the oldest existing figure on display. It was modeled after Madame du Barry. She appears asleep and a device in her chest makes it seem as if she were breathing.*The Sleeping Beauty* is the oldest existing figure on display. It was modeled after Madame du Barry. She appears asleep and a device in her chest makes it seem as if she were breathing. * Madame Tussaud herself at Madame Tussauds in LondonMadame Tussaud herself at Madame Tussauds in London * Alfred HitchcockAlfred Hitchcock * The BeatlesThe Beatles * Benny HillBenny Hill * King Charles III and Queen CamillaKing Charles III and Queen Camilla * Charlie ChaplinCharlie Chaplin * Queen Elizabeth II and Prince PhilipQueen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip * Pope John Paul II, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the Dalai Lama, and Archbishop Makarios IIIPope John Paul II, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the Dalai Lama, and Archbishop Makarios III * Princess DianaPrincess Diana * John Wayne (London)John Wayne (London) * Olga Korbut (London)Olga Korbut (London) * Johnny Depp as Jack SparrowJohnny Depp as Jack Sparrow * Keira KnightleyKeira Knightley * Kylie MinogueKylie Minogue * Lady GagaLady Gaga * Marilyn MonroeMarilyn Monroe * Marlon BrandoMarlon Brando * Nelson MandelaNelson Mandela * Pierce Brosnan as James BondPierce Brosnan as James Bond * Sachin TendulkarSachin Tendulkar * Mahatma GandhiMahatma Gandhi * Adolf Hitler (formerly in the Chamber of Horrors section in London)Adolf Hitler (formerly in the Chamber of Horrors section in London) * Angelina JolieAngelina Jolie * Spider-ManSpider-Man * Kate WinsletKate Winslet See also -------- * Chamber of Horrors (Madame Tussauds), London * Marie Tussaud * Madame Tussauds Amsterdam * Madame Tussauds Beijing * Madame Tussauds Blackpool * Madame Tussauds Delhi * Madame Tussauds Hollywood * Madame Tussauds Hong Kong * Madame Tussauds Las Vegas * Madame Tussauds New York * Madame Tussauds Rock Circus (1989–2001, London) * Madame Tussauds San Francisco * Madame Tussauds Shanghai * Madame Tussauds Singapore * Madame Tussauds Sydney * Madame Tussauds Vienna * Madame Tussauds Washington D.C. * Merlin Entertainments 51°31′22″N 0°09′19″W / 51.52278°N 0.15528°W / 51.52278; -0.15528

Madame Tussauds

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Tussauds

The **plastid** (Greek: πλαστός; *plastós*: formed, molded – plural **plastids**) is a membrane-bound organelle found in the cells of plants, algae, and some other eukaryotic organisms. They are considered to be intracellular endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. Examples include chloroplasts (used for photosynthesis), chromoplasts (used for pigment synthesis and storage), and leucoplasts (non-pigmented plastids that can sometimes differentiate). The event which led to permanent endosymbiosis in the Archaeplastida clade (of land plants, red algae, and green algae) probably occurred with a cyanobiont (a symbiotic cyanobacteria) related to the genus *Gloeomargarita*, around 1.5 billion years ago. A later primary endosymbiosis event occurred in photosynthetic *Paulinella* amoeboids about 90–140 million years ago. This plastid belongs to the "PS-clade" (of the cyanobacteria genera *Prochlorococcus* and *Synechococcus*). Secondary and tertiary endosymbiosis has also occurred, in a wide variety of organisms; additionally, some organisms sequester ingested plastids in a process that is known as kleptoplasty. A. F. W. Schimper was the first to name and provide a clear definition of plastids. They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of pigments in a plastid determine the cell's color. They are also the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical compounds used by the cells of autotrophic eukaryotes. They possess a double-stranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of the circular chromosome of prokaryotic cells. Even in organisms where the plastids have lost their photosynthetic properties, the plastid is kept because of its essential role in the production of molecules like the isoprenoids. In land plants -------------- In land plants, plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. For example, the components of the plant cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the epidermal cells from palmitic acid, which is synthesized in the chloroplasts of the mesophyll tissue. All plastids are derived from proplastids, which are present in the meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids and young chloroplasts commonly divide by binary fission, but more mature chloroplasts also have this capacity. Plant *proplastids* (undifferentiated plastids) may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which function they perform in the cell. They may develop into any of the following variants: * Chloroplasts: typically green plastids used for photosynthesis. + Etioplasts are the precursors of chloroplasts * Chromoplasts: coloured plastids for pigment synthesis and storage * Gerontoplasts: control the dismantling of the photosynthetic apparatus during plant senescence * Leucoplasts: colourless plastids for monoterpene synthesis; leucoplasts sometimes differentiate into more specialized plastids: + Amyloplasts: for starch storage and detecting gravity (for geotropism) + Elaioplasts: for storing fat + Proteinoplasts: for storing and modifying protein + Tannosomes: for synthesizing and producing tannins and polyphenols Depending on their morphology and function, plastids have the ability to differentiate, or redifferentiate, between these and other forms. Each plastid creates multiple copies of a circular 10–250 kilobase plastome. The number of genome copies per plastid is variable, ranging from more than 1000 in rapidly dividing cells, which, in general, contain few plastids, to 100 or fewer in mature cells, where plastid divisions have given rise to a large number of plastids. The plastome contains about 100 genes encoding ribosomal and transfer ribonucleic acids (rRNAs and tRNAs) as well as proteins involved in photosynthesis and plastid gene transcription and translation. However, these proteins only represent a small fraction of the total protein set-up necessary to build and maintain the structure and function of a particular type of plastid. Plant nuclear genes encode the vast majority of plastid proteins, and the expression of plastid genes and nuclear genes is tightly co-regulated to coordinate proper development of plastids in relation to cell differentiation. Plastid DNA exists as large protein-DNA complexes associated with the inner envelope membrane and called 'plastid nucleoids'. Each nucleoid particle may contain more than 10 copies of the plastid DNA. The proplastid contains a single nucleoid located in the centre of the plastid. The developing plastid has many nucleoids, localized at the periphery of the plastid, bound to the inner envelope membrane. During the development of proplastids to chloroplasts, and when plastids convert from one type to another, nucleoids change in morphology, size and location within the organelle. The remodelling of nucleoids is believed to occur by modifications to the composition and abundance of nucleoid proteins. Many plastids, particularly those responsible for photosynthesis, possess numerous internal membrane layers. In plant cells, long thin protuberances called stromules sometimes form and extend from the main plastid body into the cytosol and interconnect several plastids. Proteins, and presumably smaller molecules, can move within stromules. Most cultured cells that are relatively large compared to other plant cells have very long and abundant stromules that extend to the cell periphery. In 2014, evidence of possible plastid genome loss was found in *Rafflesia lagascae*, a non-photosynthetic parasitic flowering plant, and in *Polytomella*, a genus of non-photosynthetic green algae. Extensive searches for plastid genes in both *Rafflesia* and *Polytomella* yielded no results, however the conclusion that their plastomes are entirely missing is still controversial. Some scientists argue that plastid genome loss is unlikely since even non-photosynthetic plastids contain genes necessary to complete various biosynthetic pathways, such as heme biosynthesis. In spite of the loss of the plastid genome in the Rafflesiaceae, the plastids still occur as "shells" without DNA content. This looks suggestively reminiscent of hydrogenosomes in various organisms. In algae and protists --------------------- Plastid types in algae and protists include: * Chloroplasts: found in the green algae (plants) and other organisms who derived their ones from the green algae. * Muroplasts: also known as cyanoplasts or cyanelles, the plastids of glaucophyte algae are similar to plant chloroplasts, except that they have a peptidoglycan cell wall that is similar to that of prokaryote. * Rhodoplasts: the red plastids found in red algae, that allow them to photosynthesize to a depth of up to 268 m. The chloroplasts of plants differ from the rhodoplasts in their ability to synthesize starch, which is stored in the form of granules within the plastids. In red algae, floridean starch is synthesized and stored outside the plastids in the cytosol. * Secondary and tertiary plastids: from endosymbiosis of green algae and red algae. * Leucoplast: in algae, the term is used for all unpigmented plastids. Their function differs from the leucoplasts of plants. * Apicoplast: the non-photosynthetic plastids of Apicomplexa derived from secondary endosymbiosis. The plastid of photosynthetic *Paulinella* species is often referred to as the 'cyanelle' or chromatophore, and is used in photosynthesis; it had a much more recent endosymbiotic event about 90–140 million years ago, and is the only other known primary endosymbiosis event of cyanobacteria. Etioplasts, amyloplasts and chromoplasts are plant-specific and do not occur in algae. Plastids in algae and hornworts may also differ from plant plastids in that they contain pyrenoids. Inheritance ----------- Most plants inherit the plastids from only one parent. In general, angiosperms inherit plastids from the female gamete, whereas many gymnosperms inherit plastids from the male pollen. Algae also inherit plastids from only one parent. The plastid DNA of the other parent is, thus, completely lost. In normal intraspecific crossings (resulting in normal hybrids of one species), the inheritance of plastid DNA appears to be quite strictly 100% uniparental. In interspecific hybridisations, however, the inheritance of plastids appears to be more erratic. Although plastids inherit mainly maternally in interspecific hybridisations, there are many reports of hybrids of flowering plants that contain plastids of the father. Approximately 20% of angiosperms, including alfalfa (*Medicago sativa*), normally show biparental inheritance of plastids. DNA damage and repair --------------------- Plastid DNA of maize seedlings is subject to increased damage as the seedlings develop. The DNA is damaged in oxidative environments created by photo-oxidative reactions and photosynthetic/respiratory electron transfer. Some DNA molecules are repaired while DNA with unrepaired damage appears to be degraded to non-functional fragments. DNA repair proteins are encoded by the cell's nuclear genome but can be translocated to plastids where they maintain genome stability/integrity by repairing the plastid's DNA. As an example, in chloroplasts of the moss *Physcomitrella patens*, a protein employed in DNA mismatch repair (Msh1) interacts with proteins employed in recombinational repair (RecA and RecG) to maintain plastid genome stability. Origin ------ Plastids are thought to be descended from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The primary endosymbiotic event of the Archaeplastida is hypothesized to have occurred around 1.5 billion years ago and enabled eukaryotes to carry out oxygenic photosynthesis. Three evolutionary lineages in the Archaeplastida have since emerged in which the plastids are named differently: chloroplasts in green algae and/or plants, rhodoplasts in red algae, and muroplasts in the glaucophytes. The plastids differ both in their pigmentation and in their ultrastructure. For example, chloroplasts in plants and green algae have lost all phycobilisomes, the light harvesting complexes found in cyanobacteria, red algae and glaucophytes, but instead contain stroma and grana thylakoids. The glaucocystophycean plastid—in contrast to chloroplasts and rhodoplasts—is still surrounded by the remains of the cyanobacterial cell wall. All these primary plastids are surrounded by two membranes. The plastid of photosynthetic *Paulinella* species is often referred to as the 'cyanelle' or chromatophore, and had a much more recent endosymbiotic event about 90–140 million years ago; it is the only known primary endosymbiosis event of cyanobacteria outside of the Archaeplastida. The plastid belongs to the "PS-clade" (of the cyanobacteria genera *Prochlorococcus* and *Synechococcus*), which is a different sister clade to the plastids belonging to the Archaeplastida. In contrast to primary plastids derived from primary endosymbiosis of a prokaryoctyic cyanobacteria, complex plastids originated by secondary endosymbiosis in which a eukaryotic organism engulfed another eukaryotic organism that contained a primary plastid. When a eukaryote engulfs a red or a green alga and retains the algal plastid, that plastid is typically surrounded by more than two membranes. In some cases these plastids may be reduced in their metabolic and/or photosynthetic capacity. Algae with complex plastids derived by secondary endosymbiosis of a red alga include the heterokonts, haptophytes, cryptomonads, and most dinoflagellates (= rhodoplasts). Those that endosymbiosed a green alga include the euglenids and chlorarachniophytes (= chloroplasts). The Apicomplexa, a phylum of obligate parasitic protozoa including the causative agents of malaria (*Plasmodium* spp.), toxoplasmosis (*Toxoplasma gondii*), and many other human or animal diseases also harbor a complex plastid (although this organelle has been lost in some apicomplexans, such as *Cryptosporidium parvum*, which causes cryptosporidiosis). The 'apicoplast' is no longer capable of photosynthesis, but is an essential organelle, and a promising target for antiparasitic drug development. Some dinoflagellates and sea slugs, in particular of the genus *Elysia*, take up algae as food and keep the plastid of the digested alga to profit from the photosynthesis; after a while, the plastids are also digested. This process is known as kleptoplasty, from the Greek, *kleptes*, thief. Plastid development cycle ------------------------- In 1977 J.M Whatley proposed a plastid development cycle which said that plastid development is not always unidirectional but is instead a complicated cyclic process. Proplastids are the precursor of the more differentiated forms of plastids, as shown in the diagram to the right. See also -------- * Mitochondrion – Organelle in eukaryotic cells responsible for respiration * Cytoskeleton – Network of filamentous proteins that forms the internal framework of cells Further reading --------------- * Hanson MR, Köhler RH. "A Novel View of Chloroplast Structure". *Plant Physiology Online*. Archived from the original on 2005-06-14. * Wycliffe P, Sitbon F, Wernersson J, Ezcurra I, Ellerström M, Rask L (October 2005). "Continuous expression in tobacco leaves of a Brassica napus PEND homologue blocks differentiation of plastids and development of palisade cells". *The Plant Journal*. **44** (1): 1–15. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2005.02482.x. PMID 16167891. * Birky CW (2001). "The inheritance of genes in mitochondria and chloroplasts: laws, mechanisms, and models" (PDF). *Annual Review of Genetics*. **35**: 125–48. doi:10.1146/annurev.genet.35.102401.090231. PMID 11700280. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-22. Retrieved 2009-03-01. * Chan CX, Bhattacharya D (2010). "The origins of plastids". *Nature Education*. **3** (9): 84. * Bhattacharya D, ed. (1997). *Origins of Algae and their Plastids*. New York: Springer-Verlag/Wein. ISBN 978-3-211-83036-9. * Gould SB, Waller RF, McFadden GI (2008). "Plastid evolution". *Annual Review of Plant Biology*. **59**: 491–517. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092915. PMID 18315522. S2CID 30458113. * Keeling PJ (March 2010). "The endosymbiotic origin, diversification and fate of plastids". *Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences*. **365** (1541): 729–48. doi:10.1098/rstb.2009.0103. PMC 2817223. PMID 20124341.

Plastid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastid

**Italians** (Italian: *Italiani*, pronounced [itaˈljaːni]) are an ethnic group native to the Italian geographical region. Italians share a common culture, history, ancestry and language. Their predecessors differ regionally, but generally include native populations such as the Etruscans, the Rhaetians, the Ligurians, the Adriatic Veneti, and the Italic peoples, including the Latins, from which the Romans emerged and helped create and evolve the modern Italian identity. Foreign influences include the ancient Greeks in Magna Graecia, and the Phoenicians, who had a presence in Sicily and Sardinia, the Celts, who settled in parts of the north, the Germanics and the Slavs. Legally, Italian nationals are citizens of Italy, regardless of ancestry or nation of residence (in effect, however, Italian nationality is largely based on jus sanguinis) and may be distinguished from ethnic Italians in general or from people of Italian descent without Italian citizenship and ethnic Italians living in territories adjacent to the Italian peninsula without Italian citizenship. The Latin equivalent of the term Italian had been in use for natives of the geographical region since antiquity. The majority of Italian nationals are native speakers of the country's official language, Italian, a Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from the Vulgar Latin, or a variety thereof, that is regional Italian. However, many of them also speak a regional or minority language native to Italy, the existence of which predates the national language. Although there is disagreement on the total number, according to UNESCO, there are approximately 30 languages native to Italy, although many are often misleadingly referred to as "Italian dialects". Since 2017, in addition to the approximately 55 million Italians in Italy (91% of the Italian national population), Italian-speaking autonomous groups are found in neighboring nations; about a half million are in Switzerland, as well as in France, the entire population of San Marino. In addition, there are also clusters of Italian speakers in the former Yugoslavia, primarily in Istria, located between in modern Croatia and Slovenia (see: *Istrian Italians*), and Dalmatia, located in present-day Croatia and Montenegro (see: *Dalmatian Italians*). Due to the wide-ranging diaspora following Italian unification in 1861, World War I and World War II, (with over 5 million Italian citizens that live outside of Italy) over 80 million people abroad claim full or partial Italian ancestry. This includes about 60% of Argentina's population (*Italian Argentines*), 1/3 of Uruguayans (*Italian Uruguayans*), 15% of Brazilians (*Italian Brazilians,* the largest Italian community outside Italy), more than 18 million *Italian Americans*, and people in other parts of Europe (e.g. *Italians in Germany, Italians in France* and *Italians in the United Kingdom*), the American Continent (such as *Italian Venezuelans*, *Italian Canadians*, *Italian Colombians* and Italians in Paraguay, among others), Australasia (*Italian Australians* and *Italian New Zealanders*), and to a lesser extent in the Middle East (Italians in the United Arab Emirates). Italians have influenced and contributed to fields like arts and music, science, technology, fashion, cinema, cuisine, restaurants, sports, jurisprudence, banking and business. Furthermore, Italian people are generally known for their attachment to their locale, expressed in the form of either regionalism or municipalism. Name ---- Expansion of the territory called *Italy* from ancient Greece until DiocletianSilver coin minted in Corfinium during the Social War (91–87 BC), displaying the inscription *ITALIA* on the verge of the personification of Italy, represented as a goddess with laurel wreath Hypotheses for the etymology of the Latin name "Italia" are numerous. One is that it was borrowed via Greek from the Oscan *Víteliú* 'land of calves' (*cf.* Lat *vitulus* "calf", Umb *vitlo* "calf"). Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. According to Antiochus of Syracuse, the term Italy was used by the Greeks to initially refer only to the southern portion of the Bruttium peninsula corresponding to the modern province of Reggio and part of the provinces of Catanzaro and Vibo Valentia in Southern Italy. Nevertheless, by his time the larger concept of Oenotria and "Italy" had become synonymous and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. According to Strabo's *Geographica*, before the expansion of the Roman Republic, the name was used by Greeks to indicate the land between the Strait of Messina and the line connecting the Gulf of Salerno and Gulf of Taranto, corresponding roughly to the current region of Calabria. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name "Italia" to a larger region In addition to the "Greek Italy" in the south, historians have suggested the existence of an "Etruscan Italy" covering variable areas of central Italy. The borders of Roman Italy are better established. Cato the Elder's *Origines*, the first work of history composed in Latin, described Italy as the entire peninsula south of the Alps. According to Cato and several Roman authors, the Alps formed the "walls of Italy". In 264 BC, Roman Italy extended from the Arno and Rubicon rivers of the centre-north to the entire south. The northern area of Cisalpine Gaul was occupied by Rome in the 220s BC and became considered geographically and *de facto* part of Italy, but remained politically and *de jure* separated. It was legally merged into the administrative unit of Italy in 42 BC by the triumvir Octavian as a ratification of Julius Caesar's unpublished acts (*Acta Caesaris*). Under Emperor Diocletian the Roman region called "Italia" was further enlarged with the addition in 292 AD of the three big islands of the western Mediterranean Sea: Sicily (with the Maltese archipelago), Sardinia and Corsica, coinciding with the whole Italian geographical region. All its inhabitants were considered *Italic* and *Roman*. The Latin term *Italicus* was used to describe "a man of Italy" as opposed to a provincial. For example, Pliny the Elder notably wrote in a letter *Italicus es an provincialis*? meaning "are you an Italian or a provincial?". The adjective *italianus*, from which are derived the Italian (and also French and English) name of the Italians, is medieval and was used alternatively with Italicus during the early modern period. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, which was caused by the invasion of the Ostrogoths, the Kingdom of Italy was created. After the Lombard invasions, "Italia" was retained as the name for their kingdom, and for its successor kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire, which nominally lasted until 1806, although it had *de facto* disintegrated due to factional politics pitting the empire against the ascendant city republics in the 13th century. History ------- ### Roman era The Italian peninsula was divided into a multitude of tribal or ethnic territory prior to the Roman conquest of Italy in the 3rd century BC. After a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and completed the conquest of the Italian peninsula by 218 BC. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, beginning with the First Punic War against Carthage. In the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, Rome became the dominant power in the Mediterranean. The process of Italian unification, and the associated Romanization, culminated in 88 BC, when, in the aftermath of the Social War, Rome granted its fellow Italian allies full rights in Roman society, extending Roman citizenship to all fellow Italic peoples. From its inception, Rome was a republican city-state, but four famous civil conflicts destroyed the Roman Republic: Lucius Cornelius Sulla against Gaius Marius and his son (88–82 BC), Julius Caesar against Pompey (49–45 BC), Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus against Mark Antony and Octavian (43 BC), and Mark Antony against Octavian. Octavian, the final victor (31 BC), was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman Emperor. Augustus created for the first time an administrative region called *Italia* with inhabitants called "Italicus populus", stretching from the Alps to Sicily: for this reason historians like Emilio Gentile called him *Father of Italians*. In the 1st century BC, *Italia* was still a collection of territories with different political statuses. Some cities, called *municipia*, had some independence from Rome, while others, the *coloniae*, were founded by the Romans themselves. Around 7 BC, Augustus divided Italy into eleven *regiones*. During the Crisis of the Third Century, the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasions, military anarchy and civil wars, and hyperinflation. In 284, emperor Diocletian restored political stability. The importance of Rome declined, because the city was far from the troubled frontiers. The seats of the Caesars became Augusta Treverorum (on the River Rhine frontier) for Constantius Chlorus and Sirmium (on the River Danube frontier) for Galerius, who also resided at Thessaloniki. Under Diocletian, Italy became the *Dioecesis Italiciana*, subdivided into thirteen provinces, now including Raetia. Under Constantine the Great, Italy became the Praetorian prefecture of Italy (*praefectura praetoria Italiae*), and was subdivided into two dioceses. *Diocesis Italia annonaria* (Italy of the annona, governed from Milan) and *Diocesis Italia Suburbicaria* (Italy "under the government of the *urbs*", i.e. governed from Rome). Christianity became the Roman state religion in AD 380, under Emperor Theodosius I. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy, Odoacer. His defeat marked the end of the Western Roman Empire, and the end of the political unification of Italy until the establishment of the modern Kingdom of Italy in 1861. ### The Middle Ages Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, the Ostrogoths. Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian. After the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak. By 553, emperor Justinian I expelled the Ostrogoths, and Italy was included into the Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty. Byzantine rule in much of Italy collapsed by 572 as a result of invasions by another Germanic tribe, the Lombards. Much of the peninsula was now politically dominated by the Kingdom of the Lombards; however, remnants of Byzantine control remained, especially in Southern Italy, where the Byzantine Empire retained control into the 11th century until the Norman conquest of Southern Italy. In addition to the Normans, Arabs conquered parts of Southern Italy in the 9th century, establishing an Emirate of Sicily that lasted until it was also eventually overtaken by the Normans in the 11th century. The subsequent interaction between Latin, Byzantine, Arab, and Norman cultures resulted in the formation of a Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture in Southern Italy. During the 5th and 6th centuries, the popes increased their influence in both religious and political matters in Italy. It was usually the popes who led attempts to protect Italy from invasion or to soften foreign rule. For about 200 years the popes opposed attempts by the Lombards, who had captured most of Italy, to take over Rome as well. The popes finally defeated the Lombards with the aid of two Frankish kings, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne. Using land won for them by Pepin in 756, the popes established political rule in what were called the Papal States in central Italy. The Lombards remained a threat to papal power, however, until they were crushed by Charlemagne in 774. Charlemagne added the Kingdom of the Lombards to his vast realm. In recognition of Charlemagne's power, and to cement the church's alliance with him, Charlemagne was crowned emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III in 800. After Charlemagne's death in 814, his son Louis the Pious succeeded him. Louis divided the empire among his sons, and Frankish Italy became part of Middle Francia, extending as far south as Rome and Spoleto. This Kingdom of Italy became part of the Holy Roman Empire in the 10th century, while southern Italy was under the rule of the Lombard Principality of Benevento or of the Byzantine Empire, in the 12th century absorbed into the Kingdom of Sicily. ### Rise of the city-states and the Renaissance From the 11th century on, Italian cities began to grow rapidly in independence and importance. They became centres of political life, banking, and foreign trade. Some became wealthy, and many, including Florence, Rome, Genoa, Milan, Pisa, Siena and Venice, grew into nearly independent city-states and maritime republics. Each had its own foreign policy and political life. They all resisted, with varying degrees of success, the efforts of noblemen, emperors, and larger foreign powers to control them. The emergence of identifiable Italian dialects from Vulgar Latin, and as such the possibility of a specifically "Italian" ethnic identity, has no clear-cut date, but began in roughly the 12th century. Modern standard Italian derives from the written vernacular of Tuscan writers of the 12th century. The recognition of Italian vernaculars as literary languages in their own right began with *De vulgari eloquentia*, an essay written by Dante Alighieri at the beginning of the 14th century. During the 14th and 15th centuries, some Italian city-states ranked among the most important powers of Europe. Venice, in particular, had become a major maritime power, and the city-states as a group acted as a conduit for goods from the Byzantine and Islamic empires. In this capacity, they provided great impetus to the developing Renaissance, began in Florence in the 14th century, and led to an unparalleled flourishing of the arts, literature, music, and science. However, the city-states were often troubled by violent disagreements among their citizens. The most famous division was between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The Guelphs supported supreme rule by the pope, and the Ghibellines favoured the emperor. City-states often took sides and waged war against each other. During the Renaissance, Italy became an even more attractive prize to foreign conquerors. After some city-states asked for outside help in settling disputes with their neighbours, King Charles VIII of France marched into Italy in 1494; he soon withdrew, showing that the Italian peninsula's delicate equilibrium could be taken advantage of. After the Italian Wars, Spain emerged as the dominant force in the region. Venice, Milan, and other city-states retained at least some of their former greatness during this period, as did Savoy-Piedmont, protected by the Alps and well defended by its vigorous rulers. Italian explorers and navigators from the dominant maritime republics, eager to find an alternative route to the Indies in order to bypass the Ottoman Empire, offered their services to monarchs of Atlantic countries and played a key role in ushering the Age of Discovery and the European colonization of the Americas. The most notable among them were: Christopher Columbus (Italian: *Cristoforo Colombo* [kriˈstɔːforo koˈlombo]), colonist in the name of Spain, who is credited with discovering the New World and the opening of the Americas for conquest and settlement by Europeans; John Cabot (Italian: *Giovanni Caboto* [dʒoˈvanni kaˈbɔːto]), sailing for England, who was the first European to set foot in "New Found Land" and explore parts of the North American continent in 1497; Amerigo Vespucci, sailing for Portugal, who first demonstrated in about 1501 that the New World (in particular Brazil) was not Asia as initially conjectured, but a fourth continent previously unknown to people of the Old World (the name of "America" derives from his first name); and Giovanni da Verrazzano, at the service of France, renowned as the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of North America between Florida and New Brunswick in 1524. ### The French Revolution and Napoleon Laura Bassi, the first chairwoman of a university in a scientific field of studiesGiuseppe Compagnoni, considered the "father of the flag of Italy" The French Revolution and Napoleon influenced Italy more deeply than they affected any other outside country of Europe. The French Revolution began in 1789 and immediately found supporters among the Italian people. The local Italian rulers, sensing danger in their own country, drew closer to the European kings who opposed France. After the French king was overthrown and France became a republic, secret clubs favouring an Italian republic were formed throughout Italy. The armies of the French Republic began to move across Europe. In 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte led a French army into northern Italy and drove out the Austrian rulers. Once again, Italy was the scene of battle between the Habsburgs and the French. Wherever France conquered, Italian republics were set up, with constitutions and legal reforms. Napoleon made himself emperor in 1804, and part of northern and central Italy was unified under the name of the Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon as king. The rest of northern and central Italy was annexed by France. Only Sicily, where the Bourbon king had taken refuge upon the French invasion of Naples, and the island of Sardinia, which had been ceded to the Alpine House of Savoy in 1720 and had remained under their rule ever since, were not under French control. French domination lasted less than 20 years, and it differed from previous foreign control of the Italian peninsula. In spite of heavy taxation and frequent harshness, the French introduced representative assemblies and new laws that were the same for all parts of the country. For the first time since the days of ancient Rome, Italians of different regions used the same money and served in the same army. Many Italians began to see the possibility of a united Italy free of foreign control. During the Napoleonic era, in 1797, the first official adoption of the Italian tricolour as a national flag by a sovereign Italian state, the Cispadane Republic, a Napoleonic sister republic of Revolutionary France, took place, on the basis of the events following the French Revolution (1789–1799) which, among its ideals, advocated the national self-determination. This event is celebrated by the Tricolour Day. The Italian national colours appeared for the first time on a tricolour cockade in 1789, anticipating by seven years the first green, white and red Italian military war flag, which was adopted by the Lombard Legion in 1796. The first red, white and green national flag of a sovereign Italian state was adopted on 7 January 1797, when the Fourteenth Parliament of the Cispadane Republic (1797), on the proposal of deputy Giuseppe Compagnoni, decreed "to make universal the ... standard or flag of three colours, green, white, and red ...": For having proposed the green, white and red tricolour flag, Giuseppe Compagnoni is considered the "father of the Italian flag". ### Italian unification and the Kingdom of Italy Goffredo MameliMichele NovaroOn the left, Goffredo Mameli, author of the lyrics; on the right, Michele Novaro, composer of the music, of the song *Il Canto degli Italiani*, the Italian national anthem since 1946 After the Battle of Waterloo, the reaction set in with the Congress of Vienna allowed the restoration of many of the old rulers and systems under Austrian domination. The concept of nationalism continued strong, however, and sporadic outbreaks led by such inveterate reformers as Giuseppe Mazzini occurred in several parts of the peninsula down to 1848–49. In this context, in 1847, the first public performance of the song *Il Canto degli Italiani*, the Italian national anthem since 1946, took place. *Il Canto degli Italiani*, written by Goffredo Mameli set to music by Michele Novaro, is also known as the *Inno di Mameli*, after the author of the lyrics, or *Fratelli d'Italia*, from its opening line. The unification of Italy was brought to a successful conclusion under the guidance of Camillo Benso, conte di Cavour, prime minister of Piedmont. Cavour managed to unite most of Italy under the headship of Victor Emmanuel II of the house of Savoy, and on 17 March 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as king. Giuseppe Garibaldi, the popular republican hero of Italy, contributed much to this achievement with the Expedition of the Thousand and to the subsequent incorporation of the Papal States under the Italian monarch. Victor Emmanuel II (*left*) and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour (*right*), leading figures in the Italian unification, became respectively the first king and first Prime Minister of unified Italy. Cavour handed Savoy and Nice over to France at the Treaty of Turin, a decision that was the consequence of the Plombières Agreement, on 24 March 1860, an event that caused the Niçard exodus, which was the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers. Italian troops occupied Rome in 1870, and in July 1871, this formally became the capital of the kingdom. Pope Pius IX, a longtime rival of Italian kings, stated he had been made a "prisoner" inside the Vatican walls and refused to cooperate with the royal administration. Only in 1929 did the Roman Pope accept the unified Italy with Rome as capital. World War I has been interpreted as completing the process of Italian unification, with the annexation of Trieste, Istria, Trentino-Alto Adige and Zara. After World War I, Italy emerged as one of the four great powers after the victory of the Allies. In the decades following unification, Italy began creating colonies in Africa, and under Benito Mussolini's fascist regime conquered Ethiopia, founding the Italian Empire in 1936. The population of Italy grew to 45 million in 1940 and the economy, which had been based upon agriculture until that time, started its industrial development, mainly in northern Italy. World War II soon severely damaged Italy and destroyed its colonial power. ### The Italian Republic Between 1945 and 1948, the outlines of a new Italy began to appear. Victor Emmanuel III gave up the throne on 9 May 1946, and his son, Umberto II, became king. On 2 June Italy held its first free election after 20 years of Fascist rule (the so-called *Ventennio*). Italians chose a republic to replace the monarchy, which had been closely associated with Fascism. They elected a Constituent Assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War, to prepare a new democratic constitution. The Assembly approved the new Italian constitution in 1947, which came into force on 1 January 1948. Under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, 1947, Istria, Kvarner, most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship. In 1949 Italy became a member of NATO. The Marshall Plan helped to revive the Italian economy which, until the late 1960s, enjoyed a period of sustained economic growth commonly called the "Economic Miracle". In 1957, Italy was a founding member of the European Economic Community (EEC), which became the European Union (EU) in 1993. Italy faced several terror attacks between 1992 and 1993 perpetrated by the Sicilian Mafia as a consequence of several life sentences pronounced during the "Maxi Trial", and of the new anti-mafia measures launched by the government. In 1992, two major dynamite attacks killed the judges Giovanni Falcone (23 May in the Capaci bombing) and Paolo Borsellino (19 July in the Via D'Amelio bombing). One year later (May–July 1993), tourist spots were attacked, such as the Via dei Georgofili in Florence, Via Palestro in Milan, and the Piazza San Giovanni in Laterano and Via San Teodoro in Rome, leaving 10 dead and 93 injured and causing severe damage to cultural heritage such as the Uffizi Gallery. The Catholic Church openly condemned the Mafia, and two churches were bombed and an anti-Mafia priest shot dead in Rome. Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino were named as heroes of the last 60 years in the 13 November 2006 issue of *Time*. Culture ------- Italy is considered one of the birthplaces of Western civilization and a cultural superpower. Italian culture is the culture of the Italians and is incredibly diverse spanning the entirety of the Italian peninsula and the islands of Sardinia and Sicily. Italy has been the starting point of phenomena of international impact such as the Roman Republic, Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church, the Maritime republics, Romanesque art, Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Age of Discovery, Mannerism, the Scientific revolution, the Baroque, Neoclassicism, the Risorgimento, Fascism, and European integration. Italy also became a seat of great formal learning in 1088 with the establishment of the University of Bologna, the oldest university in continuous operation, and the first university in the sense of a higher-learning and degree-awarding institute, as the word *universitas* was coined at its foundation. Many other Italian universities soon followed. For example, the Schola Medica Salernitana, in southern Italy, was the first medical school in Europe. These great centres of learning presaged the *Rinascimento*: the European Renaissance began in Italy and was fueled throughout Europe by Italian painters, sculptors, architects, scientists, literature masters and music composers. Italy continued its leading cultural role through the Baroque period and into the Romantic period, when its dominance in painting and sculpture diminished but the Italians re-established a strong presence in music. Italian explorers and navigators in the 15th and 16th centuries left a perennial mark on human history with the modern "discovery of America", due to the Genoese explorer Christopher Columbus (Italian: *Cristoforo Colombo* [kriˈstɔːforo koˈlombo]). In addition, the name of "America" derives from the geographer Amerigo Vespucci's first name. Also noted is Marco Polo, explorer of the 13th century, who recorded his 24 years-long travels in the *Book of the Marvels of the World*, introducing Europeans to Central Asia and China. The country boasts several world-famous cities. Rome was the ancient capital of the Roman Empire, seat of the Pope of the Catholic Church, capital of reunified Italy and artistic, cultural and cinematographic centre of world relevance. Florence was the heart of the Renaissance, a period of great achievements in the arts at the end of the Middle Ages. Other important cities include Turin, which used to be the capital of Italy, and is now one of the world's great centers of automobile engineering. Milan is the industrial and financial capital of Italy and one of the world's fashion capitals. Venice, former capital of a major financial and maritime power from the Middle Ages to the early modern period, with its intricate canal system attracts tourists from all over the world especially during the Venetian Carnival and the Biennale. Naples, with the largest historic city centre in Europe and the oldest continuously active public opera house in the world (Teatro di San Carlo). Bologna is the main transport hub of the country, as well as the home of a worldwide famous cuisine. Due to comparatively late national unification, and the historical autonomy of the regions that comprise the Italian peninsula, many traditions and customs of the Italians can be identified by their regions of origin. Despite the political and social isolation of these regions, Italy's contributions to the cultural and historical heritage of the Western world remain immense. Famous elements of Italian culture are its opera and music, its iconic gastronomy and food, which are commonly regarded as amongst the most popular in the world, its cinema (with filmmakers such as Federico Fellini, Michelangelo Antonioni, Mario Monicelli, Sergio Leone, etc.), its collections of priceless works of art and its fashion (Milan and Florence are regarded as some of the few fashion capitals of the world). National symbols of Italy are the symbols that uniquely identify Italy reflecting its history and culture. They are used to represent the Nation through emblems, metaphors, personifications, allegories, which are shared by the entire Italian people. Some of them are official, i.e. they are recognized by the Italian state authorities, while others are part of the identity of the country without being defined by law. Traditions of Italy are sets of traditions, beliefs, values, and customs that belongs within the culture of Italian people. These traditions have influenced life in Italy for centuries, and are still practiced in modern times. Italian traditions are directly connected to Italy's ancestors, which says even more about Italian history. Folklore of Italy refers to the folklore and urban legends of Italy. Within the Italian territory, various peoples have followed one another over time, each of which has left its mark on current culture. Some tales also come from Christianization, especially those concerning demons, which are sometimes recognized by Christian demonology. Italian folklore also includes Italian folk dance, Italian folk music and folk heroes. Women in Italy refers to females who are from (or reside in) Italy. The legal and social status of Italian women has undergone rapid transformations and changes during the past decades. This includes family laws, the enactment of anti-discrimination measures, and reforms to the penal code (in particular with regard to crimes of violence against women). After World War II, women were given the right to vote in 1946 Italian institutional referendum. The new Italian Constitution of 1948 affirmed that women had equal rights. It was not however until the 1970s that women in Italy scored some major achievements with the introduction of laws regulating divorce (1970), abortion (1978), and the approval in 1975 of the new family code. Today, women have the same legal rights as men in Italy, and have mainly the same job, business, and education opportunities. Italian cuisine is a Mediterranean cuisine consisting of the ingredients, recipes and cooking techniques developed across the Italian Peninsula since antiquity, and later spread around the world together with waves of Italian diaspora. Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common to the whole country, as well as all the regional gastronomies, different from each other, especially between the north, the centre and the south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Italian cuisine offers an abundance of taste, and has influenced several other cuisines around the world, chiefly that of the United States. The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than by chefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and daily cooking, respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality. Philosophy ---------- Over the ages, Italian literature had a vast influence on Western philosophy, beginning with the Greeks and Romans, and going onto Renaissance, The Enlightenment and modern philosophy. Italian Medieval philosophy was mainly Christian, and included several important philosophers and theologians such as St Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas was the student of Albert the Great, a brilliant Dominican experimentalist, much like the Franciscan, Roger Bacon of Oxford in the 13th century. Aquinas reintroduced Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. He believed that there was no contradiction between faith and secular reason. He believed that Aristotle had achieved the pinnacle in the human striving for truth and thus adopted Aristotle's philosophy as a framework in constructing his theological and philosophical outlook. He was a professor at the prestigious University of Paris. Italy was also affected by the Enlightenment, a movement which was a consequence of the Renaissance and changed the road of Italian philosophy. Followers of the group often met to discuss in private salons and coffeehouses, notably in the cities of Milan, Rome and Venice. Cities with important universities such as Padua, Bologna and Naples, however, also remained great centres of scholarship and the intellect, with several philosophers such as Giambattista Vico (1668–1744) (who is widely regarded as being the founder of modern Italian philosophy) and Antonio Genovesi. Italian society also dramatically changed during the Enlightenment, with rulers such as Leopold II of Tuscany abolishing the death penalty. The church's power was significantly reduced, and it was a period of great thought and invention, with scientists such as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani discovering new things and greatly contributing to Western science. Cesare Beccaria was also one of the greatest Italian Enlightenment writers and is now considered one of the fathers of classical criminal theory as well as modern penology. Beccaria is famous for his masterpiece *On Crimes and Punishments* (1764), a treatise (later translated into 22 languages) that served as one of the earliest prominent condemnations of torture and the death penalty and thus a landmark work in anti-death penalty philosophy. Some of the most prominent philosophies and ideologies in Italy during the late 19th and 20th centuries include anarchism, communism, socialism, futurism, fascism, and Christian democracy. Antonio Rosmini, instead, was the founder of Italian idealism. Both futurism and fascism (in its original form, now often distinguished as Italian fascism) were developed in Italy at this time. From the 1920s to the 1940s, Italian Fascism was the official philosophy and ideology of the Italian government led by Benito Mussolini. Giovanni Gentile was one of the most significant 20th-century Idealist/Fascist philosophers. Meanwhile, anarchism, communism, and socialism, though not originating in Italy, took significant hold in Italy during the early 20th century, with the country producing numerous significant Italian anarchists, socialists, and communists. In addition, anarcho-communism first fully formed into its modern strain within the Italian section of the First International. Antonio Gramsci remains an important philosopher within Marxist and communist theory, credited with creating the theory of cultural hegemony. Early Italian feminists include Sibilla Aleramo, Alaide Gualberta Beccari, and Anna Maria Mozzoni, though proto-feminist philosophies had previously been touched upon by earlier Italian writers such as Christine de Pizan, Moderata Fonte, and Lucrezia Marinella. Italian physician and educator Maria Montessori is credited with the creation of the philosophy of education that bears her name, an educational philosophy now practiced throughout the world. Giuseppe Peano was one of the founders of analytic philosophy and contemporary philosophy of mathematics. Recent analytic philosophers include Carlo Penco, Gloria Origgi, Pieranna Garavaso and Luciano Floridi. Literature ---------- Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in Rome. Latin literature was, and still is, highly influential in the world, with numerous writers, poets, philosophers, and historians, such as Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Younger, Virgil, Horace, Propertius, Ovid and Livy. The Romans were also famous for their oral tradition, poetry, drama and epigrams. In early years of the 13th century, St. Francis of Assisi was considered the first Italian poet by literary critics, with his religious song *Canticle of the Sun*. Italian literature may be unearthed back to the Middle Ages, with the most significant poets of the period being Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio. During the Renaissance, humanists such as Leonardo Bruni, Coluccio Salutati and Niccolò Machiavelli were great collectors of antique manuscripts. Many worked for the organized Church and were in holy orders (like Petrarch), while others were lawyers and chancellors of Italian cities, like Petrarch's disciple, Salutati, the Chancellor of Florence, and thus had access to book copying workshops. In the 18th century, the political condition of the Italian states began to improve, and philosophers disseminated their writings and ideas throughout Europe during the Age of Enlightenment. Apostolo Zeno and Metastasio are two of the notable figures of the age. Carlo Goldoni, a Venetian playwright and librettist, created the comedy of character. The leading figure of the 18th-century Italian literary revival was Giuseppe Parini. One of the most remarkable poets of the early 19th and 20th century writers was Giacomo Leopardi, who is widely acknowledged to be one of the most radical and challenging thinkers of the 19th century. The main instigator of the reform was the Italian poet and novelist Alessandro Manzoni, notable for being the author of the historical novel *I promessi sposi* (*The Betrothed*, 1827–1842). Italo Svevo, the author of *La coscienza di Zeno* (1923), and Luigi Pirandello (winner of the 1934 Nobel Prize in Literature), who explored the shifting nature of reality in his prose fiction and such plays as *Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore* (*Six Characters in Search of an Author*, 1921). Federigo Tozzi and Giuseppe Ungaretti were well-known novelists, critically appreciated only in recent years, and regarded one of the forerunners of existentialism in the European novel. Modern literary figures and Nobel laureates are Gabriele D'Annunzio from 1889 to 1910, nationalist poet Giosuè Carducci in 1906, realist writer Grazia Deledda in 1926, modern theatre author Luigi Pirandello in 1936, short stories writer Italo Calvino in 1960, poets Salvatore Quasimodo in 1959 and Eugenio Montale in 1975, Umberto Eco in 1980, and satirist and theatre author Dario Fo in 1997. Theatre ------- Italian theatre originates from the Middle Ages, with its background dating back to the times of the ancient Greek colonies of Magna Graecia, in Southern Italy, the theatre of the Italic peoples and the theatre of ancient Rome. It can therefore be assumed that there were two main lines of which the ancient Italian theatre developed in the Middle Ages. The first, consisting of the dramatization of Catholic liturgies and of which more documentation is retained, and the second, formed by pagan forms of spectacle such as the staging for city festivals, the court preparations of the jesters and the songs of the troubadours. The Renaissance theatre marked the beginning of the modern theatre due to the rediscovery and study of the classics, the ancient theatrical texts were recovered and translated, which were soon staged at the court and in the curtensi halls, and then moved to real theatre. In this way the idea of theatre came close to that of today: a performance in a designated place in which the public participates. In the late 15th century two cities were important centers for the rediscovery and renewal of theatrical art: Ferrara and Rome. The first, vital center of art in the second half of the fifteenth century, saw the staging of some of the most famous Latin works by Plautus, rigorously translated into Italian. During the 16th century and on into the 18th century, *Commedia dell'arte* was a form of improvisational theatre, and it is still performed today. Travelling troupes of players would set up an outdoor stage and provide amusement in the form of juggling, acrobatics and, more typically, humorous plays based on a repertoire of established characters with a rough storyline, called *canovaccio*. Plays did not originate from written drama but from scenarios called lazzi, which were loose frameworks that provided the situations, complications, and outcome of the action, around which the actors would improvise. The characters of the *commedia* usually represent fixed social types and stock characters, each of which has a distinct costume, such as foolish old men, devious servants, or military officers full of false bravado. The main categories of these characters include servants, old men, lovers, and captains. The Ballet dance genre also originated in Italy. It began during the Italian Renaissance court as an outgrowth of court pageantry, where aristocratic weddings were lavish celebrations. Court musicians and dancers collaborated to provide elaborate entertainment for them. At first, ballets were woven in to the midst of an opera to allow the audience a moment of relief from the dramatic intensity. By the mid-seventeenth century, Italian ballets in their entirety were performed in between the acts of an opera. Over time, Italian ballets became part of theatrical life: ballet companies in Italy's major opera houses employed an average of four to twelve dancers; in 1815 many companies employed anywhere from eighty to one hundred dancers. Noteworthy Italian theater actors and playwrights are Jacopone da Todi, Angelo Beolco, Isabella Andreini, Carlo Goldoni, Eduardo Scarpetta, Ettore Petrolini Eleonora Duse, Eduardo De Filippo, Carmelo Bene and Giorgio Strehler. Law and justice --------------- Since the Roman Empire, most western contributions to Western legal culture was the emergence of a class of Roman jurists. During the Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas, the most influential Western scholar of the period, integrated the theory of natural law with the notion of an eternal and Biblical law. During the Renaissance, Prof. Alberico Gentili, the founder of the science of international law, authored the first treatise on public international law and separated secular law from canon law and Catholic theology. Enlightenment's greatest legal theorists, Cesare Beccaria, Giambattista Vico and Francesco Mario Pagano, are well remembered for their legal works, particularly on criminal law. Francesco Carrara, an advocate of abolition of the death penalty, was one of the foremost European criminal lawyers of the 19th century. During the last periods, numerous Italians have been recognised as the prominent prosecutor magistrates. Science and technology ---------------------- Italians have been the central figures of countless inventions and discoveries and they made many predominant contributions to various fields. During the Renaissance, Italian polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Michelangelo (1475–1564) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404–72) made important contributions to a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642), a physicist, mathematician and astronomer, played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include the invention of the thermometer and key improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations, and ultimately the triumph of Copernicanism over the Ptolemaic model. Other astronomers such as Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625–1712) and Giovanni Schiaparelli (1835–1910) made many important discoveries about the Solar System. In biology, Francesco Redi was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in detail; Marcello Malpighi founded microscopic anatomy; Lazzaro Spallanzani conducted important research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory; Camillo Golgi, whose many achievements include the discovery of the Golgi complex, paved the way to the acceptance of the Neuron doctrine; Rita Levi-Montalcini discovered the nerve growth factor (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine); Angelo Ruffini first described the Ruffini endings and was known for his work in histology and embryology; Filippo Pacini discovered the Pacinian corpuscles and was the first to isolate the cholera bacillus *Vibrio cholerae* in 1854, before Robert Koch's more widely accepted discoveries 30 years later. Prominent scientists, engineers and inventors were: Amedeo Avogadro (most noted for his contributions to molecular theory, in particular Avogadro's law and the Avogadro constant), Evangelista Torricelli (inventor of the barometer), Alessandro Volta (inventor of the electric battery), Guglielmo Marconi (inventor of radio), Antonio Meucci (known for developing a voice-communication apparatus, often credited as the inventor of the first telephone before even Alexander Graham Bell), Galileo Ferraris (one of the pioneers of AC power system, invented the first induction motor), Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci (as inventors of the first version of the internal combustion engine in 1853). In chemistry, Giulio Natta, the inventor of the first catalyst for the production of isotactic propylene and among the fathers of macromolecular chemistry, in 1963 received the Nobel prize for chemistry, along with Karl Ziegler, for work on high polymers. In physics, Enrico Fermi, a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that built the first nuclear reactor and is also noted for his many other contributions to physics, including the co-development of the quantum theory. He and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by Fascist laws against Jews, including Emilio G. Segrè (1905–89) (who discovered the elements technetium and astatine, and the antiproton), and Bruno Rossi (1905–93), a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy. Other notable physicists were also Ettore Majorana (who discovered the Majorana fermions), Giuseppe Occhialini (who received the Wolf Prize in Physics for the discovery of the pion or pi-meson decay in 1947) and Carlo Rubbia (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the W and Z particles at CERN). Mathematics ----------- During the Middle Ages, Leonardo Fibonacci, the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages, introduced the Hindu–Arabic numeral system to the Western world. He also introduced the sequence of Fibonacci numbers, which he used as an example in *Liber Abaci*. Gerolamo Cardano established the foundation of probability and introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem; he also invented several mechanical devices. During the Renaissance, Luca Pacioli introduced accounting to the world, publishing the first work on Double-entry bookkeeping system. Galileo Galilei made several significant advances in mathematics. Bonaventura Cavalieri's works partially anticipated integral calculus and popularized logarithms in Italy. Jacopo Riccati, who was also a jurist, invented the Riccati equation. Maria Gaetana Agnesi, the first woman to write a mathematics handbook, become the first woman mathematics professor at a university. Gian Francesco Malfatti, posed the problem of carving three circular columns out of a triangular block of marble, using as much of the marble as possible, and conjectured that three mutually-tangent circles inscribed within the triangle would provide the optimal solution, which are now known as Malfatti circles. Paolo Ruffini is credited for his innovative work in mathematics, creating Ruffini's rule and co-creating the Abel–Ruffini theorem. Joseph-Louis Lagrange, who was one of the most influential mathematicians of his time, made essential contributions to analysis, number theory, and both classical and celestial mechanics. Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro invented tensor calculus and absolute differential calculus, which were popularized in a work he co-wrote with Tullio Levi-Civita, and used in the development of the theory of relativity; Ricci-Curbastro also wrote meaningful works on algebra, infinitesimal analysis, and papers on the theory of real numbers. Giuseppe Peano, was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory; alongside John Venn, he drew the first Venn diagram. Beniamino Segre is one of the major contributors to algebraic geometry and one of the founders of finite geometry. Ennio de Giorgi, a Wolf Prize in Mathematics recipient in 1990, solved Bernstein's problem about minimal surfaces and the 19th Hilbert problem on the regularity of solutions of elliptic partial differential equations. Politics -------- The politics of Italy are conducted through a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. Italy has been a democratic republic since 2 June 1946, when the monarchy was abolished by popular referendum and a constituent assembly, which was formed by the representatives of all the anti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the Italian Civil War, was elected to draft a constitution, which was promulgated on 1 January 1948. Executive power is exercised by the Council of Ministers, which is led by the Prime Minister, officially referred to as "President of the Council" (*Presidente del Consiglio*). Legislative power is vested primarily in the two houses of Parliament and secondarily in the Council of Ministers, which can introduce bills and holds the majority in both houses. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislative branches. It is headed by the High Council of the Judiciary, a body presided over by the President, who is the head of state, though this position is separate from all branches. The Presidents of Italy were Enrico De Nicola, Luigi Einaudi, Giovanni Gronchi, Antonio Segni, Giuseppe Saragat, Giovanni Leone, Sandro Pertini, Francesco Cossiga, Oscar Luigi Scalfaro, Carlo Azeglio Ciampi, Giorgio Napolitano and Sergio Mattarella. Economy ------- The economy of Italy is a highly developed social market economy. It is the third-largest national economy in the European Union, the 10th-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the 12th-largest by GDP (PPP). Italy is a founding member of the European Union, the Eurozone, the OECD, the G7 and the G20; it is the eighth-largest exporter in the world, with $611 billion exported in 2021. Its closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. The largest trading partners, in order of market share in exports, are Germany (12.5%), France (10.3%), the United States (9%), Spain (5.2%), the United Kingdom (5.2%) and Switzerland (4.6%). In the post-World War II period, Italy saw a transformation from an agricultural based economy which had been severely affected by the consequences of the World Wars, into one of the world's most advanced nations, and a leading country in world trade and exports. Italy is the world's seventh-largest manufacturing country, characterised by a smaller number of global multinational corporations than other economies of comparable size and many dynamic small and medium-sized enterprises, notoriously clustered in several industrial districts, which are the backbone of the Italian industry. Italy is a large manufacturer and exporter of a significant variety of products. Its products include machinery, vehicles, pharmaceuticals, furniture, food and clothing. Noteworthy Italian entrepreneurs are Alessandro Martini, Luigi Lavazza, Pietro Ferrero, Giovanni Agnelli, Piero Pirelli, Gaspare Campari, Adriano Olivetti, Enzo Ferrari, Ferruccio Lamborghini, Enrico Mattei, Luciano Benetton, and Giovanni Rana. Cuisine ------- Italian cuisine is a Mediterranean cuisine consisting of the ingredients, recipes and cooking techniques developed across the Italian Peninsula since antiquity, and later spread around the world together with waves of Italian diaspora. Italian cuisine includes deeply rooted traditions common to the whole country, as well as all the regional gastronomies, different from each other, especially between the north, the centre and the south of Italy, which are in continuous exchange. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated with variations throughout the country. Italian cuisine offers an abundance of taste, and has influenced several other cuisines around the world, chiefly that of the United States. Italian cuisine has developed through centuries of social and political changes, it has its roots in ancient Rome. One of the main characteristics of Italian cuisine is its simplicity, with many dishes made up of few ingredients, and therefore Italian cooks often rely on the quality of the ingredients, rather than the complexity of preparation. The most popular dishes and recipes, over the centuries, have often been created by ordinary people more so than by chefs, which is why many Italian recipes are suitable for home and daily cooking, respecting regional specificities, privileging only raw materials and ingredients from the region of origin of the dish and preserving its seasonality. Noteworthy Italian chefs are Bartolomeo Scappi, Gualtiero Marchesi, Lidia Bastianich, Antonio Carluccio, Cesare Casella, Carlo Cracco, Antonino Cannavacciuolo, Gino D'Acampo, Gianfranco Chiarini, Massimiliano Alajmo, Massimo Bottura and Bruno Barbieri. Visual art ---------- The history of Italian visual arts is significant to the history of Western painting. Roman art was influenced by Greece and can in part be taken as a descendant of ancient Greek painting. Roman painting does have its own unique characteristics. The only surviving Roman paintings are wall paintings, many from villas in Campania, in Southern Italy. Such paintings can be grouped into four main "styles" or periods and may contain the first examples of trompe-l'œil, pseudo-perspective, and pure landscape. Panel painting becomes more common during the Romanesque period, under the heavy influence of Byzantine icons. Towards the middle of the 13th century, Medieval art and Gothic painting became more realistic, with the beginnings of interest in the depiction of volume and perspective in Italy with Cimabue and then his pupil Giotto. From Giotto onwards, the treatment of composition in painting became much more free and innovative. The Italian Renaissance is said by many to be the golden age of painting; roughly spanning the 14th through the mid-17th centuries with a significant influence also out of the borders of modern Italy. In Italy artists like Paolo Uccello, Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Piero della Francesca, Andrea Mantegna, Filippo Lippi, Giorgione, Tintoretto, Sandro Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Giovanni Bellini, and Titian took painting to a higher level through the use of perspective, the study of human anatomy and proportion, and through their development of refined drawing and painting techniques. Michelangelo was active as a sculptor from about 1500 to 1520; works include his *David*, *Pietà*, *Moses*. Other Renaissance sculptors include Lorenzo Ghiberti, Luca Della Robbia, Donatello, Filippo Brunelleschi and Andrea del Verrocchio. In the 15th and 16th centuries, the High Renaissance gave rise to a stylised art known as Mannerism. In place of the balanced compositions and rational approach to perspective that characterised art at the dawn of the 16th century, the Mannerists sought instability, artifice, and doubt. The unperturbed faces and gestures of Piero della Francesca and the calm Virgins of Raphael are replaced by the troubled expressions of Pontormo and the emotional intensity of El Greco. In the 17th century, among the greatest painters of Italian Baroque are Caravaggio, Annibale Carracci, Artemisia Gentileschi, Mattia Preti, Carlo Saraceni and Bartolomeo Manfredi. Subsequently, in the 18th century, Italian Rococo was mainly inspired by French Rococo, since France was the founding nation of that particular style, with artists such as Giovanni Battista Tiepolo and Canaletto. Italian Neoclassical sculpture focused, with Antonio Canova's nudes, on the idealist aspect of the movement. In the 19th century, major Italian Romantic painters were Francesco Hayez, Giuseppe Bezzuoli and Francesco Podesti. Impressionism was brought from France to Italy by the *Macchiaioli*, led by Giovanni Fattori, and Giovanni Boldini; Realism by Gioacchino Toma and Giuseppe Pellizza da Volpedo. In the 20th century, with Futurism, primarily through the works of Umberto Boccioni and Giacomo Balla, Italy rose again as a seminal country for artistic evolution in painting and sculpture. Futurism was succeeded by the metaphysical paintings of Giorgio de Chirico, who exerted a strong influence on the Surrealists and generations of artists to follow like Bruno Caruso and Renato Guttuso. Architecture ------------ As Italy is home to the greatest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites (58) to date and it is home to half the world's great art treasures, Italians are known for their significant architectural achievements, such as the construction of arches, domes and similar structures during ancient Rome, the founding of the Renaissance architectural movement in the late-14th to 16th centuries, and being the homeland of Palladianism, a style of construction which inspired movements such as that of Neoclassical architecture, and influenced the designs which noblemen built their country houses all over the world, notably in the UK, Australia and the US during the late 17th to early 20th centuries. Several of the finest works in Western architecture, such as the Colosseum, the Milan Cathedral and Florence cathedral, the Leaning Tower of Pisa and the building designs of Venice are found in Italy. Italian architecture has also widely influenced the architecture of the world. British architect Inigo Jones, inspired by the designs of Italian buildings and cities, brought back the ideas of Italian Renaissance architecture to 17th-century England, being inspired by Andrea Palladio. Additionally, Italianate architecture, popular abroad since the 19th century, was used to describe foreign architecture which was built in an Italian style, especially modelled on Renaissance architecture. Italian modern and contemporary architecture refers to architecture in Italy during 20th and 21st centuries. During the Fascist period the so-called "Novecento movement" flourished, with figures such as Gio Ponti, Peter Aschieri, Giovanni Muzio. This movement was based on the rediscovery of imperial Rome. Marcello Piacentini, who was responsible for the urban transformations of several cities in Italy, and remembered for the disputed Via della Conciliazione in Rome, devised a form of "simplified Neoclassicism". The fascist architecture (shown perfectly in the EUR buildings) was followed by the *Neoliberty* style (seen in earlier works of Vittorio Gregotti) and Brutalist architecture (Torre Velasca in Milan group BBPR, a residential building via Piagentina in Florence, Leonardo Savioli and works by Giancarlo De Carlo). Music ----- PavarottiHistory's most successful tenors, Enrico Caruso (above) and Luciano Pavarotti (below) From folk music to classical, music has always played an important role in Italian culture. Instruments associated with classical music, including the piano and violin, were invented in Italy, and many of the prevailing classical music forms, such as the symphony, concerto, and sonata, can trace their roots back to innovations of 16th- and 17th-century Italian music. Italians invented many of the musical instruments, including the piano and violin. Most notable Italians composers include the Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, Claudio Monteverdi, the Baroque composers Scarlatti, Corelli and Vivaldi, the Classical composers Paganini and Rossini, and the Romantic composers Verdi and Puccini, whose operas, including *La bohème*, *Tosca*, *Madama Butterfly*, and *Turandot*, are among the most frequently worldwide performed in the standard repertoire. Modern Italian composers such as Berio and Nono proved significant in the development of experimental and electronic music. While the classical music tradition still holds strong in Italy, as evidenced by the fame of its innumerable opera houses, such as La Scala of Milan and San Carlo of Naples, and performers such as the pianist Maurizio Pollini and the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, Italians have been no less appreciative of their thriving contemporary music scene. Italians are amply known as the mothers of opera. Italian opera was believed to have been founded in the early 17th century, in Italian cities such as Mantua and Venice. Later, works and pieces composed by native Italian composers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, such as Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Verdi and Puccini, are among the most famous operas ever written and today are performed in opera houses across the world. La Scala operahouse in Milan is also renowned as one of the best in the world. Famous Italian opera singers include Enrico Caruso and Alessandro Bonci. Introduced in the early 1920s, jazz took a particularly strong foothold among Italians, and remained popular despite the xenophobic cultural policies of the Fascist regime. Today, the most notable centres of jazz music in Italy include Milan, Rome, and Sicily. Later, Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s, with bands like PFM and Goblin. Italy was also an important country in the development of disco and electronic music, with Italo disco, known for its futuristic sound and prominent usage of synthesizers and drum machines, being one of the earliest electronic dance genres, as well as European forms of disco aside from Euro disco (which later went on to influence several genres such as Eurodance and Nu-disco). Producers and songwriters such as Giorgio Moroder, who won three Academy Awards for his music, were highly influential in the development of EDM (electronic dance music). Today, Italian pop music is represented annually with the Sanremo Music Festival, which served as inspiration for the Eurovision song contest, and the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto. Singers such as pop diva Mina, classical crossover artist Andrea Bocelli, Grammy winner Laura Pausini, and European chart-topper Eros Ramazzotti have attained international acclaim. Cinema ------ Since the development of the Italian film industry in the early 1900s, Italian filmmakers and performers have, at times, experienced both domestic and international success, and have influenced film movements throughout the world. The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumière brothers began motion picture exhibitions. The first Italian director is considered to be Vittorio Calcina, a collaborator of the Lumière Brothers, who filmed Pope Leo XIII in 1896. In the 1910s the Italian film industry developed rapidly. *Cabiria*, a 1914 Italian epic film directed by Giovanni Pastrone, is considered the most famous Italian silent film. It was also the first film in history to be shown in the White House. The oldest European avant-garde cinema movement, Italian futurism, took place in the late 1910s. After a period of decline in the 1920s, the Italian film industry was revitalized in the 1930s with the arrival of sound film. A popular Italian genre during this period, the Telefoni Bianchi, consisted of comedies with glamorous backgrounds. Calligrafismo was instead in a sharp contrast to Telefoni Bianchi-American style comedies and is rather artistic, highly formalistic, expressive in complexity and deals mainly with contemporary literary material. Vittorio De Sica, one of the world's most acclaimed and influential filmmakers of all timeSergio Leone, widely regarded as one of the most influential directors in the history of cinema A new era took place at the end of World War II, with the Italian film that was widely recognised and exported until an artistic decline around the 1980s. Notable Italian film directors from this period include Vittorio De Sica, Federico Fellini, Sergio Leone, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luchino Visconti, Michelangelo Antonioni, Dussio Tessari and Roberto Rossellini; some of these are recognised among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time. Movies include world cinema treasures such as *Bicycle Thieves*, *La dolce vita*, *8½*, *The Good, the Bad and the Ugly*, and *Once Upon a Time in the West*. The mid-1940s to the early 1950s was the heyday of neorealist films, reflecting the poor condition of post-war Italy. Actresses such as Sophia Loren, Giulietta Masina and Gina Lollobrigida achieved international stardom during this period. Since the early 1960s they also popularized a large number of genres and subgenres, such as Peplum, Macaroni Combat, Musicarello, Poliziotteschi and Commedia sexy all'italiana. The Spaghetti Western achieved popularity in the mid-1960s, peaking with Sergio Leone's *Dollars Trilogy*, which featured enigmatic scores by composer Ennio Morricone. Erotic Italian thrillers, or Giallos, produced by directors such as Mario Bava and Dario Argento in the 1970s, influenced the horror genre worldwide. In recent years, directors such as Ermanno Olmi, Bernardo Bertolucci, Giuseppe Tornatore, Gabriele Salvatores, Roberto Benigni, Matteo Garrone, Paolo Sorrentino and Luca Guadagnino brought critical acclaim back to Italian cinema. The Venice International Film Festival, awarding the "Golden Lion" and held annually since 1932, is the oldest film festival in the world and one of the "Big Three" alongside Cannes and Berlin. The country is also famed for its prestigious David di Donatello. Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 28 nominations. As of 2016[update], Italian films have also won 12 Palmes d'Or (the second-most of any country), 11 Golden Lions and 7 Golden Bears. The list of the 100 Italian films to be saved was created with the aim to report "100 films that have changed the collective memory of the country between 1942 and 1978". Fashion and design ------------------ Italian fashion has a long tradition. Milan, Florence and Rome are Italy's main fashion capitals. According to *Top Global Fashion Capital Rankings* 2013 by Global Language Monitor, Rome ranked sixth worldwide when Milan was twelfth. Previously, in 2009, Milan was declared as the "fashion capital of the world" by Global Language Monitor itself. Currently, Milan and Rome, annually compete with other major international centres, such as Paris, New York, London, and Tokyo. The Italian fashion industry is one of the country's most important manufacturing sectors. The majority of the older Italian couturiers are based in Rome. However, Milan is seen as the fashion capital of Italy because many well-known designers are based there and it is the venue for the Italian designer collections. Major Italian fashion labels, such as Gucci, Armani, Prada, Versace, Valentino, Dolce & Gabbana, Missoni, Fendi, Moschino, Max Mara, Trussardi, Benetton, and Ferragamo, to name a few, are regarded as among the finest fashion houses in the world. Accessory and jewelry labels, such as Bulgari, Luxottica, Buccellati have been founded in Italy and are internationally acclaimed, and Luxottica is the world's largest eyewear company. Also, the fashion magazine Vogue Italia, is considered one of the most prestigious fashion magazines in the world. The talent of young, creative fashion is also promoted, as in the ITS young fashion designer competition in Trieste. Italy is also prominent in the field of design, notably interior design, architectural design, industrial design, and urban design. The country has produced some well-known furniture designers, such as Gio Ponti and Ettore Sottsass, and Italian phrases such as *Bel Disegno* and *Linea Italiana* have entered the vocabulary of furniture design. Examples of classic pieces of Italian white goods and pieces of furniture include Zanussi's washing machines and fridges, the "New Tone" sofas by Atrium, and the post-modern bookcase by Ettore Sottsass, inspired by Bob Dylan's song "Stuck Inside of Mobile with the Memphis Blues Again". Italy is recognized as being a worldwide trendsetter and leader in design. Italy today still exerts a vast influence on urban design, industrial design, interior design, and fashion design worldwide. Today, Milan and Turin are the nation's leaders in architectural design and industrial design. The city of Milan hosts the FieraMilano, Europe's biggest design fair. Milan also hosts major design and architecture-related events and venues, such as the *Fuori Salone* and the Salone del Mobile, and has been home to the designers Bruno Munari, Lucio Fontana, Enrico Castellani, and Piero Manzoni. Notable Italian fashion designers are Guccio Gucci, Salvatore Ferragamo, Giorgio Armani, Gianni Versace, Valentino, Ottavio Missoni, Nicola Trussardi, Mariuccia Mandelli, Rocco Barocco, Roberto Cavalli, Renato Balestra, Laura Biagiotti, Stefano Gabbana and Domenico Dolce. Sport ----- Italians have a long tradition in sport. In numerous sports, both individual and team, Italy has been very successful. Association football is the most popular sport in Italy. Italy is one of the most successful national teams in association football having four FIFA World Cups, two UEFA European Championship and one Olympic tournament. Amongst the players who won the FIFA World Cup there are Giuseppe Meazza, Silvio Piola (to date the highest goalscorer in Italian first league history), Dino Zoff, Paolo Rossi, Marco Tardelli, Bruno Conti, Gianluigi Buffon, Fabio Cannavaro, Alessandro Del Piero, Andrea Pirlo and Francesco Totti. Amongst those who did not win the World Cup but laureated as European champions are Gianni Rivera, Luigi Riva (to date Italy's leading scorer of all time), Sandro Salvadore, Giacomo Bulgarelli, Pietro Anastasi and Giacinto Facchetti. Other prominent players who achieved success at club level are Giampiero Boniperti, Romeo Benetti, Roberto Boninsegna, Roberto Bettega, Roberto Baggio and Paolo Maldini. Of the above-mentioned, the goalkeeper Dino Zoff, who served in the National team from 1968 to 1983, is to date the only Italian player to have won both the European championship (in 1968) and the FIFA World Cup (in 1982), apart from being the oldest winner ever of the World Cup. At club level, to date Italy has won a total of 12 European Cup / Champions' Leagues, 9 UEFA Cups / UEFA Europa League and 7 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. Motorcycle racers such as Giacomo Agostini and Valentino Rossi are recognized as some of the greatest sportstars of all time. Federica Pellegrini, one of the few female swimmers to have set world records in more than one event has been one of the world's most successful swimmers. Italian athletes have won 549 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 114 medals at the Winter Olympic Games. Jessica Rossi scored a Shooting sport world record of 75 in the qualification and a world record of 99. As for Olympic games, 663 Italians won medals, particularly in Swordsmanship, which makes them the 6th most successful ethnic group in Olympic history. There are more than 2,000,000 Italian skiers in the world, most of them, thanks to the presence of the Alps and the Apennines, in Northern and in Central Italy. Italian skiers received good results in the Winter Olympic Games, World Cup, and World Championships. Italians are the second of the most who have won the World Cycling Championship more than any other country after Belgium. The Giro d'Italia is a world-famous long-distance cycling race held every May, and constitutes one of the three Grand Tours, along with the Tour de France and the Vuelta a España, each of which last approximately three weeks. Tennis has a significant following near courts and on television. Italian professional tennis players are almost always in the top 100 world ranking of male and female players. Beach tennis with paddle racquet was invented by Italians, and is practised by many people across the country. Basketball is also quite followed in Italy. The Italian national basketball team's best results were gold at Eurobasket 1983 and EuroBasket 1999, as well as silver at the Olympics in 2004. Lega Basket Serie A is widely considered one of the most competitive in Europe. Volleyball is played by a lot of amateur players and professional players compete in the Italian Volleyball League, regarded as the best and most difficult volleyball league in the world. The male and female national teams are often in the top 4 ranking of teams in the world. Athletics is a popular sport for Italians, as the Italian World and Olympic champions are very celebrated people. In wrestling, one of the most remarkable wrestlers is Bruno Sammartino, who held the record of the WWWF (World) Heavyweight Championship for over 11 years across two reigns, the first of which is the longest single reign in the promotion's history. Rugby union was imported from France in the 1910s and has been regularly played since the 1920s; the National team has progressed slowly but significantly during the decades and thanks to the good results achieved in the second half of the 1990s, when they managed to beat historical teams like Scotland, Ireland and eventually France, Italy gained the admission to the Five Nation Championship, later renamed Six Nations; Italy has taken part to the Rugby World Cup since its inauguration in 1987 and never missed an edition though to date has never gone past the group stage. Women ----- Women in Italy refers to females who are from (or reside in) Italy. The legal and social status of Italian women has undergone rapid transformations and changes during the past decades. This includes family laws, the enactment of anti-discrimination measures, and reforms to the penal code (in particular with regard to crimes of violence against women). After World War II, women were given the right to vote in 1946 Italian institutional referendum. The new Italian Constitution of 1948 affirmed that women had equal rights. It was not however until the 1970s that women in Italy scored some major achievements with the introduction of laws regulating divorce (1970), abortion (1978), and the approval in 1975 of the new family code. Today, women have the same legal rights as men in Italy, and have mainly the same job, business, and education opportunities. Famous women of the period include politicians Nilde Iotti, Tina Anselmi, and Emma Bonino; actresses Anna Magnani, Sofia Loren, and Gina Lollobrigida; soprano Renata Tebaldi; ballet dancer Carla Fracci; costume designer Milena Canonero; sportwomen Sara Simeoni, Deborah Compagnoni, Valentina Vezzali, and Federica Pellegrini; writers Natalia Ginzburg, Elsa Morante, Alda Merini, and Oriana Fallaci; architect Gae Aulenti; scientist and 1986 Nobel Prize winner Rita Levi-Montalcini; astrophysicist Margherita Hack; astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti; pharmacologist Elena Cattaneo; and CERN Director-General Fabiola Gianotti. In 2022, Giorgia Meloni became the first female Prime Minister of Italy. Nobel Prizes ------------ | Year | Winner | Branch | Contribution | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1906 | Giosuè Carducci | Literature | "Not only in consideration of his deep learning and critical research, but above all as a tribute to the creative energy, freshness of style, and lyrical force which characterize his poetic masterpieces". | | 1906 | Camillo Golgi | Medicine | "In recognition of his work on the structure of the nervous system". | | 1907 | Ernesto Teodoro Moneta | Peace | "For his work in the press and in peace meetings, both public and private, for an understanding between France and Italy". | | 1909 | Guglielmo Marconi | Physics | "In recognition of his contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". | | 1926 | Grazia Deledda | Literature | "For her idealistically inspired writings which with plastic clarity picture the life on her native island and with depth and sympathy deal with human problems in general." | | 1934 | Luigi Pirandello | Literature | "For his bold and ingenious revival of dramatic and scenic art." | | 1938 | Enrico Fermi | Physics | "For his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons." | | 1957 | Daniel Bovet | Medicine | "For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles." | | 1959 | Salvatore Quasimodo | Literature | "For his lyrical poetry, which with classical fire expresses the tragic experience of life in our own times." | | 1959 | Emilio Gino Segrè | Physics | "For his discovery of the anti-proton." | | 1963 | Giulio Natta | Chemistry | "For his discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers." | | 1969 | Salvatore Luria | Medicine | "For his discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses." | | 1975 | Renato Dulbecco | Medicine | "For his discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell." | | 1975 | Eugenio Montale | Literature | "For his distinctive poetry which, with great artistic sensitivity, has interpreted human values under the sign of an outlook on life with no illusions." | | 1984 | Carlo Rubbia | Physics | "For his decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction." | | 1985 | Franco Modigliani | Economics | "For his pioneering analyses of saving and of financial markets"." | | 1986 | Rita Levi-Montalcini | Medicine | "For his discoveries in growth factors." | | 1997 | Dario Fo | Literature | "Who emulates the jesters of the Middle Ages in scourging authority and upholding the dignity of the downtrodden." | | 2002 | Riccardo Giacconi | Physics | "For pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources." | | 2007 | Mario Capecchi | Medicine | "For his discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells." | | 2021 | Giorgio Parisi | Physics | "For the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales." | Ethnogenesis ------------ Due to historic demographic shifts in the Italian peninsula throughout history, its geographical position in the center of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as Italy's regional ethnic diversity since ancient times, modern Italians are genetically diverse. The Iron Age tribes of Italy are pre-Indo-European-speaking peoples, such as the Etruscans, Rhaetians, Camuni, Nuragics, Sicani, Elymians and the Ligures, and pre-Roman Indo-European-speaking peoples, like the Celts (Gauls and Lepontii) mainly in Northern Italy, and Iapygians, the Italic peoples throughout the peninsula (such as the Latino-Faliscans, the Osco-Umbrians, the Sicels and the Veneti), and a significant number of Greeks in Southern Italy and Sicily (Magna Graecia). Sicilians were also influenced by the Arabs, specially during the Emirate of Sicily. Italians originate mostly from these primary elements and, like the rest of Romance-speaking Southern Europe, share a common Latin heritage and history. There are also elements like the Bronze and Iron Age Middle Eastern admixture, characterized by high frequencies of Iranian and Anatolian Neolithic ancestries, including several other ancient signatures derived ultimately from the Caucasus, with a lower incidence in Northern Italy compared to Central and Southern Italy. Ancient and Medieval North African admixture is also found in mainland Southern Italy and Sardinia, with the highest incidence being in Sicily. In their admixtures, Sicilians and Southern Italians are closest to modern Greeks (as the historical region of *Magna Graecia*, "Greater Greece", bears witness to), while Northern Italians are closest to the Spaniards and southern French. ### Stone Age Italians, like most Europeans, largely descend from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture; Neolithic Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe pastoralists who expanded into Europe from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago. The earliest modern humans inhabiting Italy are believed to have been Paleolithic peoples that may have arrived in the Italian Peninsula as early as 35,000 to 40,000 years ago. Italy is believed to have been a major Ice Age refuge from which Paleolithic humans later colonized Europe. The Neolithic colonization of Europe from Western Asia and the Middle East beginning around 10,000 years ago reached Italy, as most of the rest of the continent although, according to the demic diffusion model, its impact was most in the southern and eastern regions of the European continent. ### Indo-European migrations Starting in the early Bronze Age, the first wave of migrations into Italy of Indo-European-speaking peoples occurred from Central Europe, with the appearance of the Bell Beaker culture. These were later (from the 14th century BC) followed by others that can be identified as Italo-Celts, with the appearance of the Celtic-speaking Canegrate culture and the Italic-speaking Proto-Villanovan culture, both deriving from the Proto-Italo-Celtic Urnfield culture. Recent DNA studies confirmed the arrival of Steppe-related ancestry in Northern Italy to at least 2000 BCE and in Central Italy by 1600 BCE, with this ancestry component increasing through time. In the Iron Age and late Bronze Age, Celtic-speaking La Tène and Hallstatt cultures spread over a large part of Italy, with related archeological artifacts found as far south as Apulia. Italics occupied northeastern, southern and central Italy: the "West Italic" group (including the Latins) were the first wave. They had cremation burials and possessed advanced metallurgical techniques. Major tribes included the Latins and Falisci in Lazio; the Oenotrians and Italii in Calabria; the Ausones, Aurunci and Opici in Campania; and perhaps the Veneti in Veneto and the Sicels in Sicily. They were followed, and largely displaced by the East Italic (Osco-Umbrians) group. ### Pre-Roman By the beginning of the Iron Age the Etruscans emerged as the dominant civilization on the Italian peninsula. The Etruscans, whose primary home was in Etruria, expanded over a large part of Italy, covering a territory, at its greatest extent, of roughly what is now Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio, as well as what are now the Po Valley, Emilia-Romagna, south-eastern Lombardy, southern Veneto, and western Campania. On the origins of the Etruscans, the ancient authors report several hypotheses, one of which claims that the Etruscans come from the Aegean Sea. Modern archaeological and genetic research concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and they had a genetic profile similar to their Latin neighbors. Both Etruscans and Latins joined firmly the European cluster lacking recent admixture with Anatolia or the Eastern Mediterranean. The Ligures are said to have been one of the oldest populations in Italy and Western Europe, possibly of Pre-Indo-European origin. According to Strabo they were not Celts, but later became influenced by the Celtic culture of their neighbours, and thus are sometimes referred to as Celticized Ligurians or Celto-Ligurians. Their language had affinities with both Italic (Latin and the Osco-Umbrian languages) and Celtic (Gaulish). They primarily inhabited the regions of Liguria, Piedmont, northern Tuscany, western Lombardy, western Emilia-Romagna and northern Sardinia, but are believed to have once occupied an even larger portion of ancient Italy as far south as Sicily. They were also settled in Corsica and in the Provence region along the southern coast of modern France. During the Iron Age, prior to Roman rule, the peoples living in the area of modern Italy and the islands were: * **Etruscans** (Camunni, Lepontii, Raeti); * **Sicani**; * **Elymians**; * **Ligures** (Apuani, Bagienni, Briniates, Corsi, Friniates, Garuli, Hercates, Ilvates, Insubres, Orobii, Laevi, Lapicini, Marici, Statielli, Taurini); * **Italics** (Latins, Falisci, Marsi, Umbri, Volsci, Marrucini, Osci, Aurunci, Ausones, Campanians, Paeligni, Sabines, Bruttii, Frentani, Lucani, Samnites, Pentri, Caraceni, Caudini, Hirpini, Aequi, Fidenates, Hernici, Picentes, Vestini, Morgeti, Sicels, Veneti); * **Iapygians** (Messapians, Daunians, Peucetians); * **Celts** (Allobroges, Ausones, Boii, Carni, Cenomani, Ceutrones, Graioceli, Lepontii, Lingones, Segusini, Senones, Salassi, Veragri, Vertamocorii); * **Greeks** of Magna Graecia; * **Sardinians** (Nuragic tribes), in Sardinia; Italy was, throughout the pre-Roman period, predominantly inhabited by Italic tribes who occupied the modern regions of Lazio, Umbria, Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania, Basilicata, Calabria, Apulia and Sicily. Sicily, in addition to having an Italic population in the Sicels, also was inhabited by the Sicani and the Elymians, of uncertain origin. The Veneti, most often regarded as an Italic tribe, chiefly inhabited the Veneto, but extended as far east as Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Istria, and had colonies as far south as Lazio. Beginning in the 8th century BC, Greeks arrived in Italy and founded cities along the coast of southern Italy and eastern Sicily, which became known as Magna Graecia ("Greater Greece"). The Greeks were frequently at war with the native Italic tribes, but nonetheless managed to Hellenize and assimilate a good portion of the indigenous population located along eastern Sicily and the Southern coasts of the Italian mainland. According to Beloch the number of Greek citizens in south Italy at its greatest extent reached only 80,000–90,000, while the local people subjected by the Greeks were between 400,000 and 600,000. By the 4th and 3rd century BC, Greek power in Italy was challenged and began to decline, and many Greeks were pushed out of peninsular Italy by the native Oscan, Brutti and Lucani tribes. The Gauls crossed the Alps and invaded northern Italy in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, settling in the area that became known as Cisalpine Gaul ("Gaul on this side of the Alps"). Although named after the Gauls, the region was mostly inhabited by indigenous tribes, namely the Ligures, Etruscans, Veneti and Euganei. Estimates by Beloch and Brunt suggest that in the 3rd century BC the Gaulish settlers of north Italy numbered between 130,000 and 140,000 out of a total population of about 1.4 million. The Northern half of Cisalpine Gaul was already inhabited by the Celtic Lepontii since the Bronze Age. Speaking about the Alpine region, the Greek historian Strabo, wrote: > *The Alps are inhabited by numerous nations, but all Keltic with the exception of the Ligurians, and these, though of a different race, closely resemble them in their manner of life.* > > According to Pliny and Livy, after the invasion of the Gauls, some of the Etruscans living in the Po Valley sought refuge in the Alps and became known as the Raeti. The Raeti inhabited the region of Trentino-Alto Adige, as well as eastern Switzerland and Tyrol in western Austria. The Ladins of north-eastern Italy and the Romansh people of Switzerland are said to be descended from the Raeti. ### Roman The Romans—who according to legend originally consisted of three ancient tribes: Latins, Sabines and Etruscans—would go on to conquer the whole Italian peninsula. During the Roman period hundreds of cities and colonies were established throughout Italy, including Florence, Turin, Como, Pavia, Padua, Verona, Vicenza, Trieste and many others. Initially many of these cities were colonized by Latins, but later also included colonists belonging to the other Italic tribes who had become Latinized and joined to Rome. After the Roman conquest of Italy "the whole of Italy had become Latinized". After the Roman conquest of Cisalpine Gaul and the widespread confiscations of Gallic territory, some of the Gaulish population was either killed or expelled. Many colonies were established by the Romans in the former Gallic territory of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then settled by Roman and Italic people. These colonies included Bologna, Modena, Reggio Emilia, Parma, Piacenza, Cremona and Forlì. According to Strabo: > *The Cispadane peoples occupy all that country which is encircled by the Apennine Mountains towards the Alps as far as Genua and Sabata. The greater part of the country used to be occupied by the Boii, Ligures, Senones, and Gaesatae; but since the Boii have been driven out, and since both the Gaesatae and the Senones have been annihilated, only the Ligurian tribes and the Roman colonies are left.* > > The Boii, the most powerful and numerous of the Gallic tribes, were expelled by the Romans after 191 BC and settled in Bohemia, while the Insubres still lived in Mediolanum in the 1st century BC. Population movement and exchange among people from different regions was not uncommon during the Roman period. Latin colonies were founded at Ariminum in 268 and at Firmum in 264, while large numbers of Picentes, who previously inhabited the region, were moved to Paestum and settled along the river Silarus in Campania. Between 180 and 179 BC, 47,000 Ligures belonging to the Apuani tribe were removed from their home along the modern Ligurian-Tuscan border and deported to Samnium, an area corresponding to inland Campania, while Latin colonies were established in their place at Pisa, Lucca and Luni. Such population movements contributed to the rapid Romanization and Latinization of Italy. ### Middle Ages and modern period A large Germanic confederation of Sciri, Heruli, Turcilingi and Rugians, led by Odoacer, invaded and settled Italy in 476. They were preceded by Alemanni, including 30,000 warriors with their families, who settled in the Po Valley in 371, and by Burgundians who settled between Northwestern Italy and Southern France in 443. The Germanic tribe of the Ostrogoths led by Theoderic the Great conquered Italy and presented themselves as upholders of Latin culture, mixing Roman culture together with Gothic culture, in order to legitimize their rule amongst Roman subjects who had a long-held belief in the superiority of Roman culture over foreign "barbarian" Germanic culture. Since Italy had a population of several million, the Goths did not constitute a significant addition to the local population. At the height of their power, there were several thousand Ostrogoths in a population of 6 or 7 million. Before them, Radagaisus led tens of thousands of Goths in Italy in 406, though figures may be too high as ancient sources routinely inflated the numbers of tribal invaders. After the Gothic War, which devastated the local population, the Ostrogoths were defeated. Nevertheless, according to Roman historian Procopius of Caesarea, the Ostrogothic population was allowed to live peacefully in Italy with their Rugian allies under Roman sovereignty. But in the sixth century, another Germanic tribe known as the Longobards invaded Italy, which in the meantime had been reconquered by the East Roman or Byzantine Empire. The Longobards were a small minority compared to the roughly four million people in Italy at the time. They were later followed by the Bavarians and the Franks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy. Some groups of Slavs settled in parts of the northern Italian peninsula between the 7th and the 8th centuries, while Bulgars led by Alcek settled in Sepino, Bojano and Isernia. These Bulgars preserved their speech and identity until the late 8th century. Following Roman rule, Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia were conquered by the Vandals, then by the Ostrogoths, and finally by the Byzantines. At one point, Sardinia grew increasingly autonomous from the Byzantine rule to the point of organizing itself into four sovereign Kingdoms, known as "Judicates", that would last until the Aragonese conquest in the 15th century. Corsica came under the influence of the Kingdom of the Lombards and later under the maritime Republics of Pisa and Genoa. In 687, Sicily became the Byzantine Theme of Sicily; during the course of the Arab–Byzantine wars, Sicily gradually became the Emirate of Sicily (831–1072). Later, a series of conflicts with the Normans would bring about the establishment of the County of Sicily, and eventually the Kingdom of Sicily. The Lombards of Sicily (not to be confused with the *Longobards*), coming from Northern Italy, settled in the central and eastern part of Sicily. After the marriage between the Norman Roger I of Sicily and Adelaide del Vasto, descendant of the Aleramici family, many Northern Italian colonisers (known collectively as *Lombards*) left their homeland, in the Aleramici's possessions in Piedmont and Liguria (then known as *Lombardy*), to settle on the island of Sicily. Before them, other *Lombards* arrived in Sicily, with an expedition departed in 1038, led by the Byzantine commander George Maniakes, which for a very short time managed to snatch Messina and Syracuse from Arab rule. The Lombards who arrived with the Byzantines settled in Maniace, Randazzo and Troina, while a group of Genoese and other *Lombards* from Liguria settled in Caltagirone. During the subsequent Swabian rule under the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II, who spent most of his life as king of Sicily in his court in Palermo, Moors were progressively eradicated until the massive deportation of the last Muslims of Sicily. As a result of the Arab expulsion, many towns across Sicily were left depopulated. By the 12th century, Swabian kings granted immigrants from northern Italy (particularly Piedmont, Lombardy and Liguria), Latium and Tuscany in central Italy, and French regions of Normandy, Provence and Brittany (all collectively known as *Lombards*.) settlement into Sicily, re-establishing the Latin element into the island, a legacy which can be seen in the many Gallo-Italic dialects and towns found in the interior and western parts of Sicily, brought by these settlers. It is believed that the Lombard immigrants in Sicily over a couple of centuries were a total of about 200,000. An estimated 20,000 Swabians and 40,000 Normans settled in the southern half of Italy during this period. Additional Tuscan migrants settled in Sicily after the Florentine conquest of Pisa in 1406. Some of the expelled Muslims were deported to Lucera (Lugêrah, as it was known in Arabic). Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called *Lucaera Saracenorum* because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of the Angevin Charles II of Naples. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery, with many finding asylum in Albania across the Adriatic Sea. After the expulsions of Muslims in Lucera, Charles II replaced Lucera's Saracens with Christians, chiefly Burgundian and Provençal soldiers and farmers, following an initial settlement of 140 Provençal families in 1273. A remnant of the descendants of these Provençal colonists, still speaking a Franco-Provençal dialect, has survived until the present day in the villages of Faeto and Celle di San Vito. Giuseppe Mazzini *(left)*, highly influential leader of the Italian revolutionary movement; and Giuseppe Garibaldi *(right)*, celebrated as one of the greatest generals of modern times and as the "Hero of the Two Worlds", who commanded and fought in many military campaigns that led to Italian unification Substantial migrations of Lombards to Naples, Rome and Palermo, continued in the 16th and 17th centuries, driven by the constant overcrowding in the north. Beside that, minor but significant settlements of Slavs (the so-called Schiavoni) and Arbereshe in Italy have been recorded, while Scottish soldiers - the *Garde Ecossaise* - who served the French King, Francis I, settled in the mountains of Piedmont. The geographical and cultural proximity with Southern Italy pushed Albanians to cross the Strait of Otranto, especially after Skanderbeg's death and the conquest of the Balkans by the Ottomans. In defense of the Christian religion and in search of soldiers loyal to the Spanish crown, Alfonso V of Aragon, also king of Naples, invited Arbereshe soldiers to move to Italy with their families. In return the king guaranteed to Albanians lots of land and a favourable taxation. Arbereshe and Schiavoni were used to repopulate abandoned villages or villages whose population had died in earthquakes, plagues and other catastrophes. Albanian soldiers were also used to quell rebellions in Calabria. Slavic colonies were established in eastern Friuli, Sicily and Molise (Molise Croats). Between the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, there were several waves of immigration of Albanians into Italy, in addition to another in the 20th century. The descendants of these Albanian emigrants, many still retaining the Albanian language, the Arbëresh dialect, have survived throughout southern Italy, numbering about 260,000 people, with roughly 80,000 to 100,000 speaking the Albanian language. Italian surnames ---------------- Most of Italy's surnames (*cognomi*), with the exception of a few areas marked by linguistic minorities, derive from Italian and arose from an individual's peculiar (physical, etc.) qualities (e.g. *Rossi*, *Bianchi*, *Quattrocchi*, *Mancini*, *Grasso*, etc.), occupation (*Ferrari*, *Auditore*, *Sartori*, *Tagliabue*, etc.), relation of fatherhood or lack thereof (*De Pretis*, *Orfanelli*, *Esposito*, *Trovato*, etc.), and geographic location (*Padovano*, *Pisano*, *Leccese*, *Lucchese*, etc.). Some of them also indicate a remote foreign origin (*Greco*, *Tedesco*, *Moro*, *Albanese*, etc.). | Most common surnames | | --- | | 1 | Rossi | | 2 | Ferrari | | 3 | Russo | | 4 | Bianchi | | 5 | Romano | | 6 | Gallo | | 7 | Costa | | 8 | Fontana | | 9 | Conti | | 10 | Esposito | | 11 | Ricci | | 12 | Bruno | | 13 | Rizzo | | 14 | Moretti | | 15 | De Luca | | 16 | Marino | | 17 | Greco | | 18 | Barbieri | | 19 | Lombardi | | 20 | Giordano | | Italian diaspora ---------------- Italian migration outside Italy took place, in different migrating cycles, for centuries. A diaspora in high numbers took place after Italy's unification in 1861 and continued through 1914 with the beginning of the First World War. This rapid outflow and migration of Italian people across the globe can be attributed to factors such as the internal economic slump that emerged alongside Italy's unification, family, and the industrial boom that occurred in the world surrounding Italy. Italy after its unification did not seek nationalism but sought work instead. However, a unified state did not automatically constitute a sound economy. The global economic expansion, ranging from Britain's Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and through mid 19th century, to the use of slave labor in the Americas did not hit Italy until much later (with the exception of the "industrial triangle" between Milan, Genoa and Turin) This lag resulted in a deficit of work available in Italy and the need to look for work elsewhere. The mass industrialization and urbanization globally resulted in higher labor mobility and the need for Italians to stay anchored to the land for economic support declined. Moreover, better opportunities for work were not the only incentive to move; family played a major role and the dispersion of Italians globally. Italians were more likely to migrate to countries where they had family established beforehand. These ties are shown to be stronger in many cases than the monetary incentive for migration, taking into account a familial base and possibly an Italian migrant community, greater connections to find opportunities for work, housing etc. Thus, thousands of Italian men and women left Italy and dispersed around the world and this trend only increased as the First World War approached. Napoleon, the most notable Italian French personality. He was ethnically Italian of Corsican origin, whose family was of Genoese and Tuscan ancestry.Pope Francis, Argentine of Italian descent. About 60% of Argentina's population has Italian ancestry. Notably, it was not as if Italians had never migrated before; internal migration between North and Southern Italy before unification was common. Northern Italy caught on to industrialization sooner than Southern Italy, therefore it was considered more modern technologically, and tended to be inhabited by the bourgeoisie. Alternatively, rural and agro-intensive Southern Italy was seen as economically backward and was mainly populated by lower class peasantry. Given these disparities, prior to unification (and arguably after) the two sections of Italy, North and South were essentially seen by Italians and other nations as separate countries. So, migrating from one part of Italy to next could be seen as though they were indeed migrating to another country or even continent. Furthermore, large-scale migrations phenomena did not recede until the late 1920s, well into the Fascist regime, and a subsequent wave can be observed after the end of the Second World War. Another wave is currently happening due to the ongoing debt crisis. Over 80 million people of full or part Italian descent live outside Europe, with about 50 million living in South America (mostly in Brazil, which has the largest number of Italian descendants outside Italy, and Argentina, where over 62.5% of the population have at least one Italian ancestor), about 23 million living in North America (United States and Canada) and 1 million in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand). Others live in other parts of Europe (primarily the United Kingdom, Germany, France and Switzerland). A historical Italian community has also existed in Gibraltar since the 16th century. To a lesser extent, people of full or partial Italian descent are also found in Africa (most notably in the former Italian colonies of Eritrea, which has 100,000 descendants, Somalia, Libya, Ethiopia, and in others countries such as South Africa, with 77,400 descendants, Tunisia and Egypt), in the Middle East (in recent years the United Arab Emirates has maintained a desirable destination for Italian immigrants, with currently 10,000 Italian immigrants), and Asia (Singapore is home to a sizeable Italian community). Regarding the diaspora, there are many individuals of Italian descent who are possibly eligible for Italian citizenship by method of jus sanguinis, which is from the Latin meaning "by blood". However, just having Italian ancestry is not enough to qualify for Italian citizenship. To qualify, one must have at least one Italian-born citizen ancestor who, after emigrating from Italy to another country, had passed citizenship onto their children before they naturalized as citizens of their newly adopted country. The Italian government does not have a rule regarding on how many generations born outside of Italy can claim Italian nationality. Geographic distribution of Italian speakers ------------------------------------------- The majority of Italian nationals are native speakers of the country's official language, Italian, or a variety thereof, that is regional Italian. However, many of them also speak a regional or minority language native to Italy, the existence of which predates the national language. Although there is disagreement on the total number, according to UNESCO, there are approximately 30 languages native to Italy, although many are often misleadingly referred to as "Italian dialects". Italian is an official language of Italy and San Marino and is spoken fluently by the majority of the countries' populations. Italian is the third most spoken language in Switzerland (after German and French; see Swiss Italian), though its use there has moderately declined since the 1970s. It is official both on the national level and on regional level in two cantons: Ticino and Grisons. In the latter canton, however, it is only spoken by a small minority, in the Italian Grisons. Ticino, which includes Lugano, the largest Italian-speaking city outside Italy, is the only canton where Italian is predominant. Italian is also used in administration and official documents in Vatican City. Italian is also spoken by a minority in Monaco and France, especially in the southeastern part of the country. Italian was the official language in Savoy and in Nice until 1860, when they were both annexed by France under the Treaty of Turin, a development that triggered the "Niçard exodus", or the emigration of a quarter of the Niçard Italians to Italy, and the Niçard Vespers. Italian was the official language of Corsica until 1859. Italian is generally understood in Corsica by the population resident therein who speak Corsican, which is an Italo-Romance idiom similar to Tuscan. Italian was the official language in Monaco until 1860, when it was replaced by the French. This was due to the annexation of the surrounding County of Nice to France following the Treaty of Turin (1860). Marked in red, the municipalities in which the Italian language is co-official in SloveniaPercent of inhabitants with Italian native tongue in the Croatian Istria It formerly had official status in Montenegro (because of the Venetian Albania), parts of Slovenia and Croatia (because of the Venetian Istria and Venetian Dalmatia), parts of Greece (because of the Venetian rule in the Ionian Islands and by the Kingdom of Italy in the Dodecanese). Italian is widely spoken in Malta, where nearly two-thirds of the population can speak it fluently. Italian served as Malta's official language until 1934, when it was abolished by the British colonial administration amid strong local opposition. Italian language in Slovenia is an officially recognized minority language in the country. The official census, carried out in 2002, reported 2,258 ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians) in Slovenia (0.11% of the total population). Italian language in Croatia is an official minority language in the country, with many schools and public announcements published in both languages. The 2001 census in Croatia reported 19,636 ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians) in the country (some 0.42% of the total population). Their numbers dropped dramatically after World War II following the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which caused the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians. Italian was the official language of the Republic of Ragusa from 1492 to 1807. It formerly had official status in Albania due to the annexation of the country to the Kingdom of Italy (1939–1943). Albania has a large population of non-native speakers, with over half of the population having some knowledge of the Italian language. The Albanian government has pushed to make Italian a compulsory second language in schools. The Italian language is well-known and studied in Albania, due to its historical ties and geographical proximity to Italy and to the diffusion of Italian television in the country. Due to heavy Italian influence during the Italian colonial period, Italian is still understood by some in former colonies. Although it was the primary language in Libya since colonial rule, Italian greatly declined under the rule of Muammar Gaddafi, who expelled the Italian Libyan population and made Arabic the sole official language of the country. A few hundred Italian settlers returned to Libya in the 2000s. Italian was the official language of Eritrea during Italian colonisation. Italian is today used in commerce, and it is still spoken especially among elders; besides that, Italian words are incorporated as loan words in the main language spoken in the country (Tigrinya). The capital city of Eritrea, Asmara, still has several Italian schools, established during the colonial period. In the early 19th century, Eritrea was the country with the highest number of Italians abroad, and the Italian Eritreans grew from 4,000 during World War I to nearly 100,000 at the beginning of World War II. In Asmara there are two Italian schools, the Italian School of Asmara (Italian primary school with a Montessori department) and the Liceo Sperimentale "G. Marconi" (Italian international senior high school). Italian was also introduced to Somalia through colonialism and was the sole official language of administration and education during the colonial period but fell out of use after government, educational and economic infrastructure were destroyed in the Somali Civil War. Italian is also spoken by large immigrant and expatriate communities in the Americas and Australia. Although over 17 million Americans are of Italian descent, only a little over one million people in the United States speak Italian at home. Nevertheless, an Italian language media market does exist in the country. In Canada, Italian is the second most spoken non-official language when varieties of Chinese are not grouped together, with 375,645 claiming Italian as their mother tongue in 2016. Italian immigrants to South America have also brought a presence of the language to that continent. According to some sources, Italian is the second most spoken language in Argentina after the official language of Spanish, although its number of speakers, mainly of the older generation, is decreasing. Italian bilingual speakers can be found in the Southeast of Brazil as well as in the South, corresponding to 2.07% of the total population of the country. In Venezuela, Italian is the most spoken language after Spanish and Portuguese, with around 200,000 speakers. In Uruguay, people that speak Italian as their home language is 1.1% of the total population of the country. In Australia, Italian is the second most spoken foreign language after Chinese, with 1.4% of the population speaking it as their home language. The main Italian-language newspapers published outside Italy are the *L'Osservatore Romano* (Vatican City), the *L'Informazione di San Marino* (San Marino), the *Corriere del Ticino* and the *laRegione Ticino* (Switzerland), the *La Voce del Popolo* (Croatia), the *Corriere d'Italia* (Germany), the *L'italoeuropeo* (United Kingdom), the *Passaparola* (Luxembourg), the *America Oggi* (United States), the *Corriere Canadese* and the *Corriere Italiano* (Canada), the *Il punto d'incontro* (Mexico), the *L'Italia del Popolo* (Argentina), the *Fanfulla* (Brazil), the *Gente d'Italia* (Uruguay), the *La Voce d'Italia* (Venezuela), the *Il Globo* (Australia) and the *La gazzetta del Sud Africa* (South Africa). ### Education Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first foreign language. In the 21st century, technology also allows for the continual spread of the Italian language, as people have new ways to learn how to speak, read, and write languages at their own pace and at any given time. For example, the free website and application Duolingo has 4.94 million English speakers learning the Italian language. According to the Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, every year there are more than 200,000 foreign students who study the Italian language; they are distributed among the 90 Institutes of Italian Culture that are located around the world, in the 179 Italian schools located abroad, or in the 111 Italian lecturer sections belonging to foreign schools where Italian is taught as a language of culture. As of 2022, Australia had the highest number of students learning Italian in the world. This occurred because of support by the Italian community in Australia and the Italian Government and also because of successful educational reform efforts led by local governments in Australia. ### Influence and derived languages From the late 19th to the mid-20th century, thousands of Italians settled in Argentina, Uruguay, Southern Brazil and Venezuela, as well as in Canada and the United States, where they formed a physical and cultural presence. In some cases, colonies were established where variants of regional languages of Italy were used, and some continue to use this regional language. Examples are Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, where Talian is used, and the town of Chipilo near Puebla, Mexico; each continues to use a derived form of Venetian dating back to the nineteenth century. Another example is Cocoliche, an Italian–Spanish pidgin once spoken in Argentina and especially in Buenos Aires, and Lunfardo. ### Lingua franca Starting in late medieval times in much of Europe and the Mediterranean, Latin was replaced as the primary commercial language by Italian language variants (especially Tuscan and Venetian). These variants were consolidated during the Renaissance with the strength of Italy and the rise of humanism and the arts. During that period, Italy held artistic sway over the rest of Europe. It was the norm for all educated gentlemen to make the Grand Tour, visiting Italy to see its great historical monuments and works of art. It thus became expected to learn at least some Italian. In England, while the classical languages Latin and Greek were the first to be learned, Italian became the second most common modern language after French, a position it held until the late 18th century when it tended to be replaced by German. John Milton, for instance, wrote some of his early poetry in Italian. Within the Catholic Church, Italian is known by a large part of the ecclesiastical hierarchy and is used in substitution for Latin in some official documents. Italian loanwords continue to be used in most languages in matters of art and music (especially classical music including opera), in the design and fashion industries, in some sports like football and especially in culinary terms. See also -------- * Demographics of Italy * Sicilians * Sardinians * Ladins * List of Italians * List of Sardinians * List of Sicilians * Sammarinese

Italians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italians

The **Chuvash people** (UK: /ˈtʃuːvɑːʃ/ *CHOO-vahsh*, US: /tʃʊˈvɑːʃ/ *chuu-VAHSH*; Chuvash: чӑваш [tɕəˈʋaʃ]; *çăvaş* [tɕʊˈvaʂɨ]), чӑвашсем, *çăvaşsem*, are a Turkic ethnic group, a branch of Onogurs, native to an area stretching from the Volga-Ural region to Siberia. Most of them live in Chuvashia and the surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout the Russian Federation. They speak Chuvash, a unique Turkic language that diverged from other languages in the family more than a millennium ago. Etymology --------- There is no universally accepted etymology of the word *Chuvash*, but there are three main theories. The popular theory accepted by Chuvash people suggests that *Chuvash* is a Shaz-Turkic adaptation of Lir-Turkic *Suvar* (Sabir people), an ethnonym of people that are widely considered to be the ancestors of modern Chuvash people. Compare Lir-Turkic Chuvash: *huran* to Shaz-Turkic Tatar: *qazan* (‘cauldron’). One theory suggests that the word *Chuvash* may be derived from Common Turkic *jăvaš* ('friendly', 'peaceful'), as opposed to *şarmăs* ('warlike'). Another theory is that the word is derived from the *Tabghach*, an early medieval Xianbei clan and founders of the Northern Wei dynasty in China. The Old Turkic name *Tabghach* (*Tuoba* in Mandarin) was used by some Inner Asian peoples to refer to China long after this dynasty. Gerard Clauson has shown that through regular sound changes, the clan name Tabghach may have transformed to the ethnonym Chuvash. Language -------- The Chuvash language is a member of the Turkic language family and is the only Oghur Turkic language that survives. It's spoken in Chuvashia and nearby regions along the middle course of the Volga River, in the central part of European Russia. Chuvash is the sole living representative of Volga Bulgar language. It is considered to share a linguistic connection with the Khazar language in Oghuric languages, which itself constitutes a significantly divergent principal group. Since the surviving literary records for the non-Chuvash members of Oghuric are scant, the exact position of Chuvash within the Oghuric family cannot be determined. Oghuric languages are so divergent that they were not easily recognized as Turkic. Some scholars suggest Hunnish had strong ties with Bulgar and to modern Chuvash and refer to this extended grouping as separate Hunno-Bulgar languages. Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Onoguric (Bulgharic) family similiar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes. Chuvash language is agglutinative in the structure of grammar, phonetically it is synharmonic. In this respect, it's almost no different from other Turkic and Uralic languages. Oghuric family is distinguished from the rest of the Turkic family by sound changes and it has a special place. Distinct character of Chuvash and its relation with Finnic languages formerly led some scholars to think Chuvash is a Uralic language. Conversely, other scholars were regard it as an Oghuric language significantly influenced by Finnic languages. Tatar language and the neighboring Mari language influenced the Chuvash language. Russian loans are also notable. Chuvash language has two to three dialects. Phenotypically, there is no particular differences among the Chuvash, as more Caucasoid or more Mongoloid phenotypes can be found among all subgroups. The subdivision of the Chuvash people are as below: * *Virjal or Turji* (вирьял, тури, 'upper') * *Anat jenchi* (анат енчи, 'mid-lower') * *Anatri* (анатри, 'lower') * *Hirti* (хирти, 'steppe') (this is a sub-group that is recognized by some researchers) History ------- **Origins** There are two rival schools of thought on the origin of the Chuvash people. One is that they originated from a mixing between the Suar and Sabir tribes of Volga Bulgaria and also, according to some research, mixing with Volga Finns. The other is that Chuvash may have descendant from the Khazars, based on linguistic and ancestral connections. The closest ancestors of the Chuvash people seem to be the Volga Bulgars. Throughout history, they have experienced significant infusion and influence, not only from Russian and Turkic peoples but also from neighboring Finnic tribes with whom they were persistently and mistakenly identified for centuries. Ancestors of Chuvash people, the Sabirs are believed to have come from Western Siberia, they lived there at least the end of the third millennium BC. They were skilled in warfare, used siege machinery, had a large army (including women) and were boat-builders. They were also referred to as Huns, a title applied to various Eurasian nomadic tribes in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe during late antiquity. Sabirs led incursions into Transcaucasia in the late-400s/early-500s, but quickly began serving as soldiers and mercenaries during the Byzantine-Sasanian Wars on both sides. Their alliance with the Byzantines laid the basis for the later Khazar-Byzantine alliance. **Early History** In the early first century AD the Bulgars started moving west through Zhetysu and the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan, reaching the North Caucasus in the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD. There they established several states (Old Bulgaria on the Black Sea coast and the Suar Duchy in modern-day Dagestan). Old Bulgaria broke up in the second half of the 7th century after a series of successful Khazar invasions. Sabirs who were a tribe within the Khazar Khanate, subsequently undertook a migration to the Volga-Kama region along with other Oghuric tribes, ultimately founded the Volga Bulgaria, which eventually became extremely wealthy: its capital then being the 4th-largest city in the world. Shortly after that, another state founded by Sabirs in Caucasus known as Suar Principality was forced to become a vassal state of Khazaria. About half a century later, the Suars took part in the Arab–Khazar wars of 732–737. The adoption of Islam in the early tenth century in Volga Bulgaria led to most of its people embracing that religion. After the Mongols destroyed Volga Bulgaria in 1236, the Golden Horde kept control of the region until its slow dissolution from c. 1438. The Kazan Khanate then became the new authority of the region and of the Chuvash. The modern name "Chuvash" began to appear in records starting from the sixteenth century from Russian and other foreign sources. In 1552, the Russians conquered the Kazan Khanate and its territories. The Chuvash, required to pay yasak, gradually became dispossessed of much of their land. Many Chuvash who traditionally engaged in agriculture were forced to become bonded laborers in the timber industry or to work in barges due to growing poverty. The subsequent centuries saw the Christianization and Russification of the Chuvash. During this period, most Chuvash converted to Orthodox Christianity, but the Tsars never achieved their complete Russification. [*need quotation to verify*] After conversion, Russian Historian Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev personally visited the lands of Volga Bulgaria and wrote his travel in 1768 claim that Bulgars also migrated to Bashkortostan and North of Kazan (i.e modern-day Chuvashia). > Down the Volga River, the Chuvash, the ancient Bulgars, filled the entire county of Kazan and Simbirsk. Now, after receiving baptism, very few of them remain, because many, not wanting to be baptized, moved to the Bashkirs and settled in other counties. > > — *V. N. Tatishchev. "Russian History". Part I. Chapter 22.* **Modern History** The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw the revival of Chuvash culture and the publication of many educational, literary, and linguistic works, along with the establishment of schools and other programs. The Chuvash language began to be used in local schools, and a special written script for the Chuvash language was created in 1871. On June 24, 1920, the Bolshevik government of the RSFSR established the Chuvash Autonomous Region; it became the Chuvash Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on April 21, 1925. Around this time Chuvash nationalism grew, but the Soviet authorities attempted to suppress nationalist movements by re-drawing the borders of the republic, leaving many Chuvash living in neighboring republics or in Russian districts. During most of the Soviet period of 1917-1991, the Chuvash were subjected to Russification campaigns and propaganda. The Chuvash language vanished from educational and public use. In 1989, another Chuvash cultural revival began - partly in response to these changes. Soon the Chuvash language once again came into use in educational, public, and political life. As of 2005[update], schools in the Chuvash Republic and in areas outside that have large Chuvash populations teach the Chuvash language and culture. Chuvash people around Russia also have media available to them in their local communities.[*need quotation to verify*] Genetics -------- Physical anthropologists using the racial frameworks of the early 20th century saw the Chuvash as a mixed Finno-Ugric and Turkic people. An autosomal analysis (2015) detected an indication of Oghur and possibly Bulgar ancestry in modern Chuvash. These Oghur and Bulgar tribes brought the Chuvash language with them. Another study found some Finno-Ugric components in Chuvash people. In 2017 a full genome study found Chuvash largely show a Finno-Ugric genetic component despite having a common Turkic component with Bashkir and Tatar peoples. This study supported elite domination hypothesis among Volga Turkic populations. A genomic research found that Chuvashes have a linear relationship between Northeastern Europe and Western Siberia. Volga-Uralic Turkic peoples (including Chuvashes, Tatars, and Bashkirs) displayed membership in the k5 cluster, which contained the Uralic populations. However, most of the time, the Volga Turkic peoples showed a higher combined presence of the “eastern components” k6 and k8 than did their geographic neighbors. In comparison with their neighbors, Chuvash has a foremost in the sharply increased frequency of haplogroups E and J which led geneticists to see the uniqueness of the gene pool. These haplogroups are typical to Near East and Caucasus. In mtDNA, Volga-Ural variants belonged to haplogroups H, U, T, J, W, I, R, and N1 characteristic of West Eurasian populations. The most frequent were haplogroups H (12–42%) which may related to Caucasus, and U (18–44%) which may found in North and Northeastern European populations. East Eurasian mtDNA types (A, B, Y, F, M, N9) were also observed. In this study, haplogroup U5, related to mesolithic WHG, was not only observed in the Finno-Ugric populations, it also occurred at a high frequency in Bashkirs, Tatars, and Chuvash. Culture ------- They speak the Chuvash language and have some pre-Christian traditions. The Chuvash have specific patterns used in embroidery, which is found in their traditional clothing. Many people also use the Russian and Tatar language. Spoken in Chuvashia and nearby regions along the middle course of the Volga River, in the central part of European. Religion -------- Most Chuvash people are Eastern Orthodox Christians and belong to the Russian Orthodox Church while a minority are Sunni Muslims or practitioners of Vattisen Yaly. After the Russian subjugation of the Chuvash in the 16th century, a campaign of Christianization began. However, most Chuvash did not convert until the mid-19th century. The Chuvash retain some pre-Christian and pre-Islamic shamanism traditions in their cultural activities. A minority of Chuvash may have been exposed to Islam as early as the Volga Bulgaria era but most of those Chuvash likely converted during the Golden Horde period. An inscription dated at 1307 indicates that some Chuvash were converted to Islam, and religious terms occur in Chuvash in the form of Tatar loanwords. However, sources do not specify the practices of the Chuvash during this period. Some Chuvash who converted to Christianity following the Russian conquest converted to Islam during the 19th and early 20th century. Parallel pray in the shrines called *keremet* and sacrifice geese there. One of the main shrines is located in the town of Bilyarsk. Vattisen Yaly is a contemporary revival of the ethnic religion of the Chuvash people. See also -------- * List of Chuvashes * Chuvash National Congress * Chuvash National Museum * Chuvash national symbols * Chuvash State Academic Song and Dance Ensemble * Chuvash Wikipedia * ChuvashTet * Society for the study of the native land

Chuvash people

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuvash_people

The **Jamaica national football team**, nicknamed the "Reggae Boyz", represents Jamaica in international football. The team's first match was against Haiti in 1925. The squad is under the supervising body of the Jamaica Football Federation (JFF), which is a member of the Caribbean Football Union (CFU), Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF), and the global jurisdiction of FIFA. Jamaica's home matches have been played at Independence Park since its opening in 1962. Their sole appearance in the FIFA World Cup was in 1998, where the team finished third in its group and failed to advance. The team also competed in the Caribbean Cup winning six times. Jamaica also competes in the CONCACAF Gold Cup, appearing thirteen times and finishing twice as runners-up to Mexico in 2015 and the United States in 2017. They were also invited to the Copa América in 2015 and 2016, being eliminated in the group stage on both occasions. History ------- ### Early history (1893–1962) In 1893, Jamaica's first football club, the Kingston Cricket Club, was formed. In 1910, the Jamaica Football Federation (JFF) was formed and controlled all of the games; in 1925, Jamaica was invited to play Haiti in a three match series with the team winning all three games 1–0, 2–1, and 3–0. In 1926, Jamaica hosted Haiti at Sabina Park and won 6–0. At the 1930 Central American Games in Cuba, Jamaica made its first international tournament appearance and lost both games in its group. From 1925 to 1962, Jamaica had regular games with teams from Trinidad and Tobago, Haiti, and Cuba, as well as with clubs like the Haitian Racing CH and Violette AC, the British Corinthians, and the Argentinean Tigers. In 1952, the Caribbean All-Star team was formed with players from Trinidad, Cuba, Haiti, and Suriname. The team played four matches against Jamaica in Sabina Park. Jamaica won the second game 2–1 and the fourth 1–0, and the All-Stars won the first game 5–1 and the third 1–0. ### Post-independence (1962–1989) In 1962, the same year Jamaica became independent, the JFF became a member of FIFA. At the 1962 Central American and Caribbean Games played in Jamaica, the national team was led by Brazilian coach Jorge Penna. Jamaica finished in fourth place, with two wins over Puerto Rico and Cuba. A year later, Jamaica competed in the first CONCACAF Championship in El Salvador, where the team finished last in its group, which included Mexico, the Netherlands Antilles, and eventual winner Costa Rica. In 1965, Jamaica attempted to qualify for the 1966 FIFA World Cup in England. After finishing first in its preliminary group that included Cuba and the Netherlands Antilles; Jamaica faced Costa Rica and Mexico in the final round, where the winner would qualify for the World Cup. Opening the final round campaign with a 3–2 loss at home against Mexico, Jamaica lost the return match 8–0, with Isidoro Díaz getting a hat-trick for Mexico. Jamaica then lost 7–0 to Costa Rica and ended with a draw at home in the return match, ultimately finishing with a single point. In January 1967, Jamaica attempted to qualify for the CONCACAF Championship but was eliminated after finishing third in the group of five. In 1968, George Hamilton became the new coach as Jamaica attempted to qualify for the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. Most of the squad for the campaign was young with only a few remaining players from its previous attempt at qualifying being in the team. This was due to most of its players being either retired or migrated abroad. Jamaica finished last with zero points from four games. After finishing last in the 1969 CONCACAF Championship and not qualifying for the following championship, Jamaica had to withdraw from qualifying for the 1973 CONCACAF Championship after 17 players were suspended for poor behavior during a tour to Bermuda. In 1977, Jamaica competed in qualifying for the 1977 CONCACAF Championship, which was also the qualifier for the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Taking on Cuba in the first round, Jamaica lost both of its games 5–1 on aggregate. Jamaica did not attempt to qualify for the 1982 and 1986 due to insufficient funds and a poorly prepared team. The team returned to international competition after qualifying for the 1989 CONCACAF Championship, which was part of the qualifiers for the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. After defeating Puerto Rico 3–1 on aggregate in the preliminary round, Jamaica played the United States for a spot in the finals. After a 0–0 draw at home, Jamaica lost 5–1 in the US and was eliminated. ### Caribbean triumph and World Cup appearance (1990–2000) In 1990, Carl Brown was signed as head coach and led Jamaica into qualifying for the 1990 Caribbean Cup, finishing tied for third place after the final round was abandoned due to Tropical Storm Arthur. In 1991, Jamaica defeated Trinidad and Tobago 2–0 to win the Caribbean Cup and qualify for the CONCACAF Gold Cup. In the Gold Cup, Jamaica finished last with zero points in a group consisting of Honduras, Mexico, and Canada. After the Jamaicans lost to Trinidad and Tobago in the final of the 1992 Caribbean Cup, they started their campaign in preliminary rounds of qualifying for the 1994 World Cup. After defeating Puerto Rico 3–1 on aggregate in the second preliminary round, Jamaica eliminated Trinidad and Tobago and was grouped with Bermuda, Canada, and El Salvador, two of which would advance to the final round. Jamaica opened the second round with two 1–1 draws against Canada and Bermuda, but the team lost its return match in Canada after a single goal from Dale Mitchell. After a 3–2 home win over Bermuda and two losses to El Salvador, Jamaica finished in third place and was eliminated. In 1993, Jamaica finished in second place after losing on penalties to Martinique in the final of the Caribbean Cup, which was a qualifier for the CONCACAF Gold Cup which was held later that year. During this tournament, the team opened with a 1–0 loss to the US before recording their first Gold Cup win against Honduras. After qualifying in second place with a 1–1 draw against Honduras, Jamaica lost 6–1 to Mexico in the semi-final in Mexico City. After not qualifying for the final round of the 1994 Caribbean Cup despite recording its largest-ever win margin in a 12–0 win against the British Virgin Islands, the team decided to hire Brazilian René Simões to assist Brown with the goal of qualifying for the 1998 World Cup. After being eliminated in the group stage of both the 1995 Caribbean Cup by virtue of head-to-head and the 1996 Caribbean Cup, Jamaica opened its 1998 World Cup qualifiers with an 2–0 aggregate win over Suriname and defeated Barbados 3–0 in the following round. In 1997, Simões, by then promoted to head coach, scouted for players in England that had Jamaican heritage to join the national team. Paul Hall, Fitzroy Simpson, Deon Burton and Robbie Earle were all named in the squad due their heritage. The term 'UB40' became used in Jamaica and more widely to describe their British-born players such as Hall and Gayle, the term is a nod to the English band UB40, who perform reggae, a genre of music that originated in Jamaica. After finishing winless in the first four games of the final qualifying round, Jamaica recorded three 1–0 wins over El Salvador, Canada, and Costa Rica, with Burton scoring the winning goal in each of the latter two matches. After a 0–0 draw against Mexico, Jamaica secured its qualification and made its first-ever World Cup appearance, and the following day was declared a national holiday. In 1998, Jamaica competed at the 1998 CONCACAF Gold Cup, finishing first in a group comprising World Cup champion Brazil, Guatemala, and El Salvador. With the help of goalkeeper Warren Barrett, Jamaica opened with a 0–0 tie against Brazil. After wins over Guatemala and El Salvador, Jamaica advanced to the semi-final against Mexico. The match went into overtime before Mexican player Luis Hernandez scored the winning goal. In the third-place playoff, Jamaica lost 1–0 to Brazil, ending in fourth place. At the 1998 FIFA World Cup, Jamaica finished third in Group H with three points from a 2–1 win against Japan in Lyon. Theodore Whitmore scored both goals in the victory. The following month, Jamaica competed in the finals of the 1998 Caribbean Cup, which was a qualifier for the 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup. After finishing first in its group, Jamaica won the final 2–1 against Trinidad and Tobago, with goals from Oneil McDonald and Dean Sewell. In 1999, Jamaica experienced its biggest defeat in a 9–0 loss against Costa Rica. After finishing second in its group, Jamaica was eliminated by Cuba in the semi-finals of the 1999 Caribbean Cup. At the Gold Cup, Jamaica finished last in its group, losing against Colombia and Honduras 2–0 and 1–0, respectively. ### Struggles at continental level (2001–2009) In the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification semi-finals, Jamaica faced Honduras, El Salvador, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines in the second group. Jamaica finished second, securing a spot in the final round despite losing two games to Honduras and El Salvador. In the final round of qualifying, Jamaica finished in fifth place after being eliminating by Honduras. Between the two rounds of World Cup qualifying, Jamaica was eliminated in the group stage of the 2001 Caribbean Cup by goal-difference and missed out on qualifying for the Gold Cup the following year. Jamaica qualified for the 2003 Gold Cup, reaching the quarter-finals before being eliminated by Mexico 5–0 at the Estadio Azteca. Jamaica started its 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign in the second round with a 4–1 aggregate win over Haiti to reach the third round. Jamaica finished third in group play, with a 1–1 draw against the US and one point away from reaching the next round. Coach Sebastião Lazaroni was sacked due to the team's performance. In the 2005 Caribbean Cup, Jamaica tied its largest-ever win margin record with a 12–0 win over Saint Martin, with Luton Shelton and Roland Dean both getting hat-tricks. After reaching the final with wins against Saint Lucia and French Guiana, Jamaica claimed its third title and a spot at the Gold Cup. At the Gold Cup, Jamaica reached the quarter-finals before losing to the US 3–1 in Foxborough, with American player DaMarcus Beasley scoring two goals. In 2006 and 2007, Jamaica continued to struggle, with one Jamaican journalist dubbing the team "The Reggae Toyz". The team failed to qualify for the 2007 Caribbean Cup after being eliminated due to goals scored, with St. Vincent and the Grenadines scoring three more goals than Jamaica. Two managers later, the team only earned a single point from three matches in the third round of qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. With coach Theodore Whitmore, Jamaica secured three wins from its remaining matches, jumping from 116th to 83rd place in the world rankings. Despite the team's final win over Canada, Jamaica was eliminated by goal difference after Mexico finished three goals ahead. Jamaica won the 2008 Caribbean Cup, with Luton Shelton scoring both goals in the victory against Grenada to qualify for the Gold Cup. At the Gold Cup, Jamaica finished third in its group; with a single win over El Salvador, the side finished last among the third-place teams and was eliminated. ### Continental finals appearances (2010–2019) Jamaica entered the final round of the 2010 Caribbean Cup after a 0–0 draw with Costa Rica. After finishing first in its group, Jamaica won against Grenada in the semi-finals, then defeating first-time finalists Guadeloupe in a penalty shoot-out. Jamaica earned its fifth title, and coach Theodore Whitmore became the first to win the Caribbean Cup as both player and coach. In the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup, Jamaica finished first in its group, beating Grenada 4–0, Guatemala 2–0, and Honduras 1–0 before being eliminated by the US, with goals from American players Jermaine Jones and Clint Dempsey. In qualifying for the 2014 FIFA World Cup, Jamaica started in the third round and earned seven points in the first three games, which included a historic 2–1 win over the United States at home which was their first win over the Americans. Jamaica later qualified with a 4–1 win over Antigua and Barbuda, finishing two goals ahead of Guatemala in its group. After the team finished last in its group for the 2012 Caribbean Cup and failed to record a win in six matches in the fourth round of qualifying, team manager Theodore Whitmore resigned and was replaced by German coach Winfried Schäfer. After a 2–0 loss to the US, Jamaica finished in last place and was eliminated. After qualifying for the 2015 Gold Cup due to winning the 2014 Caribbean Cup, Jamaica was invited to compete in the 2015 edition of the Copa América in Chile. At the Copa America, Jamaica was drawn in Group B with Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina. Jamaica finished last after losing all three of its matches 1–0, with Jobi McAnuff saying, "I don't think many people would have given us that chance." A few weeks later in the 2015 Gold Cup, Jamaica finished first in its group and defeated Haiti in the quarter-finals with a goal from Giles Barnes to qualify for the semi-finals for the first time since 1998. In the semi-final, Jamaica defeated the US 2–1 with goals from Darren Mattocks and Giles Barnes, reaching its first-ever Gold Cup final. In the final, Jamaica lost to Mexico 3–1. In qualifying for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, Jamaica started in the third round and defeated Nicaragua 4–3 on aggregate to reach the fourth round. In the fourth round, Jamaica started off strong with a 1–0 win over Haiti and a 1–1 draw with Costa Rica, earning four points after three games. However, three straight losses, including a 2–0 loss against Panama, eliminated Jamaica from World Cup qualifying. Between the fourth-round matches, Jamaica competed in the Copa América Centenario after qualifying through the 2014 Caribbean Cup. Jamaica finished with no points from their three games, scoring no goals and conceding six. After Whitmore returned to the team, Jamaica qualified for the 2017 Caribbean Cup, reaching the final before losing to first-time finalists Curaçao 2–1, with Elson Hooi scoring both of Curaçao's goals. In the 2017 Gold Cup, Jamaica upset Mexico 1–0 in the semi-finals, with Kemar Lawrence scoring the goal. In the final against the US, Jamaica conceded the opening goal at the end of the first half before Je-Vaughn Watson tied the score in the 50th minute. However, after a goal in the 88th minute from Jordan Morris, the US won the title, and Jamaica finished as runner-up. ### Post-pandemic (2020–present) In 2020, Jamaica played a single international friendly versus Bermuda before all international football was placed on hold by FIFA due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, Jamaica reached the 2021 Gold Cup quarterfinals, where they lost 0–1 to the USA. On 9 December 2021, Theodore Whitmore was dismissed as senior national team head coach. Stadium ------- Between 1926 and 1962. Jamaica played its matches at Sabina Park, which is also home to the West Indies cricket team. In 1962, the football team moved to Independence Park, which was built for the 1962 Central American and Caribbean Games held after the country gained independence; the first home match was a 6–1 victory over Puerto Rico. The stadium is nicknamed *The Office* while the team plays. The team has also played at Jarrett Park and Trelawny Stadium at the 2008 Caribbean Cup. They have also played at the Montego Bay Sports Complex in the 2014 Caribbean Cup. Kits ---- The national team have used four clothing manufacturers to supply the official kit for Jamaica. The team's first supplier was Italian manufacturer Lanzera in 1995 before it merged with Kappa a year later. This deal was terminated after the 1998 World Cup. In 2000, the JFF signed a deal with German sporting brand Uhlsport, which lasted until 2006. After another three-year contract with Kappa between 2012 and 2014, the JFF signed a four-year deal with Emirati sportswear company Romai Sports for US$4.8 million. In 2021, Umbro was the kit provider for Jamaica. In 2022, Adidas signed a deal to become the new kit provider for Jamaica starting in 2023. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Ghana  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 August 2022 Friendly | **Ghana** | **Cancelled** | **Jamaica** | Vienna, Austria | | 17:00 UTC+1 | | | | Stadium: Ernst-Happel-Stadion | Jamaica  v  Morocco | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 August 2022 Friendly | **Jamaica** | **0–3** | **Morocco** | Vienna, Austria | | 17:00 UTC+2 | | Report | * Hamoudan 33' * Nahiri 74' (pen.) * Slim 80' | Stadium: Ernst-Happel-StadionReferee: Manuel Schüttengruber (Austria) | Qatar  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 August 2022 Friendly | **Qatar** | **1–1** | **Jamaica** | Wiener Neustadt, Austria | | 17:00 UTC+2 | * Mazeed 83' | Report | * Fletcher 70' | Stadium: Stadion Wiener NeustadtReferee: Sebastian Gishamer (Austria) | Jamaica  v  Argentina | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September 2022 (2022-09-27) Friendly | **Jamaica** | **0–3** | **Argentina** | Harrison, United States | | 20:00 UTC−4 | | Report | * Álvarez 13' * Messi 86', 89' | Stadium: Red Bull ArenaReferee: Marco Antonio Ortíz Nava (Mexico) | Cameroon  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 9 November 2022 Friendly | **Cameroon** | **1–1** | **Jamaica** | Yaoundé, Cameroon | | 17:00 UTC+1 | * Kaiba 75' | Report | * McMaster 60' | Stadium: Olembe StadiumReferee: Jean-Jacques Ndala Ngambo (Democratic Republic of the Congo) | ### 2023 Jamaica  v  Trinidad and Tobago | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 11 March 2023 Friendly | **Jamaica** | **0–1** | **Trinidad and Tobago** | Montego Bay, Jamaica | | 16:00 UTC−5 | | Report | * Moore 67' | Stadium: Montego Bay Sports Complex | Jamaica  v  Trinidad and Tobago | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 14 March 2023 Friendly | **Jamaica** | **0–0** | **Trinidad and Tobago** | Kingston, Jamaica | | 17:00 UTC−5 | | Report | | Stadium: National Stadium | Mexico  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 26 March 2023 2022–23 Nations League | **Mexico** | **2–2** | **Jamaica** | Mexico City, Mexico | | 18:00 UTC−6 | * Pineda 17' * Lozano 45+2' (pen.) | Report | * Decordova-Reid 8' * Álvarez 33' (o.g.) | Stadium: Estadio AztecaReferee: Ismail Elfath (United States) | Qatar  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 15 June 2023 Friendly | **Qatar** | **2–1** | **Jamaica** | Wiener Neustadt, Austria | | 18:00 UTC+2 | Al Amin 31'Muntari 39' | Report | Nicholson 61' (pen.) | Stadium: Stadion Wiener NeustadtReferee: Stefan Ebner (Austria) | Jordan  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 19 June 2023 Friendly | **Jordan** | **2–1** | **Jamaica** | Wiener Neustadt, Austria | | --:-- UTC+2 | | Report | | Stadium: Stadion Wiener Neustadt | United States  v  Jamaica | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 June 2023 Gold Cup GS | **United States** | **1–1** | **Jamaica** | Chicago, United States | | 21:06 UTC−5 | Vázquez 88' | Report | Lowe 13' | Stadium: Soldier FieldAttendance: 36,666Referee: César Arturo Ramos (Mexico) | Jamaica  v  Trinidad and Tobago | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 June 2023 Gold Cup GS | **Jamaica** | **v** | **Trinidad and Tobago** | St. Louis, United States | | 18:30 UTC−5 | | | | Stadium: CityPark | Jamaica  v  Saint Kitts and Nevis | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 July 2023 Gold Cup GS | **Jamaica** | **v** | **Saint Kitts and Nevis** | Santa Clara, United States | | 16:00 UTC−7 | | | | Stadium: Levi's Stadium | Coaching staff -------------- **Coaching staff** | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head of Delegation | Jamaica Sheridan Samuels | | Head coach | Iceland Heimir Hallgrímsson | | Assistant coach | Sweden John Wall | | Assistant coach | Jamaica Merron Gordon | | Assistant coach | Iceland Helgi Kolvidsson | | Goalkeeper coach | Iceland Gudmundur Hreidarsson | | Fitness coach | Germany Sebastian Boxleitner | | Team Doctor | Jamaica Dr. Bersha Cole | | Physiotherapist | Jamaica Dr. Kevin Christie | | Physiotherapist | Jamaica Christopher Kelly | | Trainer | Jamaica Lamar Morgan | | Press Officer | Jamaica Earl Bailey | | Kit & Equipment | Jamaica Norman Stone | | Massage Therapist | Jamaica Devin Lawson | | Massage Therapist | Jamaica Rory Rhoden | **Technical staff** | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Technical Director | Jamaica Wendell Downswell | | General Manager | Jamaica Roy Simpson | ### Coaching history Caretaker managers are listed in *italics*. * Brazil Jorge Penna (1962) * Haiti Antoine Tassy (1962–1964) * Brazil Jorge Penna (1965–1967) * Jamaica George Hamilton (1967) * Jamaica George Thomson (1967–1974) * Jamaica George Prescod (1974–1975) * West Germany Otmar Calder (1975) * Jamaica George Prescod (1975–1978) * Jamaica Jackie Bell (1978–1982) * Jamaica Carl Brown (1983–1986) * Jamaica Aldrick McNab (1987) * Jamaica Delroy Scott (1987–1988) * Jamaica Geoffrey Maxwell (1988–1990) * Jamaica Carl Brown (1990–1994) * Brazil René Simões (1994–2000) * Brazil Sebastião Lazaroni (2000) * Brazil Clovis de Oliveira (2000–2001) * Jamaica Carl Brown (2001–2004) * Brazil *Sebastião Lazaroni* (2004–2005) * Jamaica Wendell Downswell (2005–2006) * Jamaica *Carl Brown* (2006) * Serbia Bora Milutinović (2006–2007) * Brazil René Simões (2008) * England John Barnes (2008–2009) * Jamaica Theodore Whitmore (2009–2013) * Germany Winfried Schäfer (2013–2016) * Jamaica Theodore Whitmore (2016–2021) * Jamaica *Paul Hall* (2021–2022) * Jamaica *Merron Gordon* (2022) * Iceland Heimir Hallgrímsson (2022–present) Players ------- ### Current squad The following players were called up for the 2023 CONCACAF Gold Cup. *Caps and goals correct as of 24 June 2023.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 1GK | Andre Blake | (1990-11-21) 21 November 1990 (age 32) | 64 | 0 | United States Philadelphia Union | | | 1GK | Jahmali Waite | (1998-12-24) 24 December 1998 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | United States Pittsburgh Riverhounds | | | 1GK | Coniah Boyce-Clarke | (2003-03-01) 1 March 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | England Reading | | --- | | | 2DF | Kemar Lawrence | (1992-09-17) 17 September 1992 (age 30) | 75 | 3 | United States Minnesota United | | | 2DF | Adrian Mariappa | (1986-10-03) 3 October 1986 (age 36) | 68 | 1 | England Salford City | | | 2DF | Damion Lowe | (1993-05-05) 5 May 1993 (age 30) | 52 | 2 | United States Philadelphia Union | | | 2DF | Javain Brown | (1999-03-09) 9 March 1999 (age 24) | 20 | 0 | Canada Vancouver Whitecaps | | | 2DF | Amari'i Bell | (1994-05-05) 5 May 1994 (age 29) | 9 | 0 | England Luton Town | | | 2DF | Ethan Pinnock | (1993-05-29) 29 May 1993 (age 30) | 6 | 0 | England Brentford | | | 2DF | Dexter Lembikisa | (2003-11-04) 4 November 2003 (age 19) | 3 | 0 | England Wolverhampton Wanderers | | | 2DF | Di'Shon Bernard | (2000-10-14) 14 October 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | England Manchester United | | | 2DF | Joel Latibeaudiere | (2000-01-06) 6 January 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Wales Swansea City | | --- | | | 3MF | Kevon Lambert | (1997-03-22) 22 March 1997 (age 26) | 19 | 0 | United States Phoenix Rising | | | 3MF | Bobby Decordova-Reid | (1993-02-02) 2 February 1993 (age 30) | 18 | 3 | England Fulham | | | 3MF | Daniel Johnson | (1992-10-08) 8 October 1992 (age 30) | 11 | 2 | England Preston North End | | | 3MF | Jon Russell | (2000-10-09) 9 October 2000 (age 22) | 1 | 0 | England Barnsley | | --- | | | 4FW | Shamar Nicholson | (1997-02-16) 16 February 1997 (age 26) | 33 | 10 | Russia Spartak Moscow | | | 4FW | Cory Burke | (1991-12-28) 28 December 1991 (age 31) | 28 | 7 | United States New York Red Bulls | | | 4FW | Leon Bailey | (1997-08-09) 9 August 1997 (age 25) | 19 | 3 | England Aston Villa | | | 4FW | Kaheem Parris | (2000-01-06) 6 January 2000 (age 23) | 7 | 0 | Ukraine Dynamo Kyiv | | | 4FW | Michail Antonio | (1990-03-28) 28 March 1990 (age 33) | 6 | 3 | England West Ham United | | | 4FW | Dujuan Richards | (2005-10-11) 11 October 2005 (age 17) | 2 | 0 | Jamaica Phoenix All Stars | | | 4FW | Demarai Gray | (1996-06-28) 28 June 1996 (age 26) | 1 | 0 | England Everton | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the team in the past 12 months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Amal Knight | (1993-11-19) 19 November 1993 (age 29) | 12 | 0 | United States Lexington | v.  Mexico, 26 March 2023 | | GK | Kemar Foster | (1992-08-30) 30 August 1992 (age 30) | 1 | 0 | Jamaica Waterhouse | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | GK | Asher Hutchinson | (2004-12-04) 4 December 2004 (age 18) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Arnett Gardens | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | GK | Dillon Barnes | (1996-04-08) 8 April 1996 (age 27) | 2 | 0 | *Free agent* | v.  Argentina, 27 September 2022 | | GK | Eric Edwards | (1997-09-24) 24 September 1997 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Arnett Gardens | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | --- | | DF | Richard King | (2001-11-27) 27 November 2001 (age 21) | 11 | 0 | Iceland ÍBV | | | DF | Ricardo Thomas | (1997-08-30) 30 August 1997 (age 25) | 12 | 0 | Jamaica Dunbeholden | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | DF | Jamoi Topey | (2000-01-13) 13 January 2000 (age 23) | 8 | 0 | Jamaica Mount Pleasant | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | DF | Fitzroy Cummings | (1997-11-23) 23 November 1997 (age 25) | 1 | 0 | Jamaica Vere United | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | DF | Sue-Lae McCalla | (1992-11-24) 24 November 1992 (age 30) | 1 | 0 | Jamaica Mount Pleasant | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | DF | Oshane Staple | (1998-09-03) 3 September 1998 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | Jamaica Harbour View | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | DF | Maliek Howell | (1999-01-27) 27 January 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | *Free agent* | v.  Cameroon, 9 November 2022 | | DF | Curtis Tilt | (1991-08-03) 3 August 1991 (age 31) | 2 | 0 | England Wigan Athletic | v.  Argentina, 27 September 2022 | | DF | Tarick Ximines | (2004-10-07) 7 October 2004 (age 18) | 2 | 0 | Belgium Cercle Brugge | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | DF | Kymani Campbell | (1999-07-23) 23 July 1999 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Waterhouse | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | DF | Damani Osei | (2000-10-21) 21 October 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | United States Santa Clara Broncos | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | DF | Earl Simpson | (2000-10-30) 30 October 2000 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Arnett Gardens | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | --- | | MF | Delano Splatt | (2004-10-11) 11 October 2004 (age 18) | 1 | 0 | England Fulham | | | MF | Brandon Cover | (2003-09-25) 25 September 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | England Leicester City | | | MF | Ravel Morrison | (1993-02-02) 2 February 1993 (age 30) | 18 | 2 | United States D.C. United | v.  Mexico, 26 March 2023 | | MF | Demario Phillips | (1998-11-10) 10 November 1998 (age 24) | 3 | 0 | Jamaica Mount Pleasant | v.  Mexico, 26 March 2023 | | MF | Lamar Walker | (2000-09-26) 26 September 2000 (age 22) | 19 | 1 | Jamaica Portmore United | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Jahshaun Anglin | (2001-05-06) 6 May 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 0 | Jamaica Harbour View | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Dwayne Atkinson | (2002-05-05) 5 May 2002 (age 21) | 3 | 0 | Iceland ÍBV | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Alwayne Harvey | (1997-11-03) 3 November 1997 (age 25) | 3 | 0 | Jamaica Mount Pleasant | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Omari Hutchinson | (2003-10-29) 29 October 2003 (age 19) | 2 | 0 | England Chelsea | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Delano McCoy-Splatt | (2004-10-11) 11 October 2004 (age 18) | 1 | 0 | England Fulham | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Dante Cassanova | (2004-06-21) 21 June 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | England Tottenham Hotspur | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | MF | Devon Williams | (1992-04-08) 8 April 1992 (age 31) | 35 | 1 | United States Colorado Springs Switchbacks | v.  Cameroon, 9 November 2022 | | MF | Maalique Foster | (1996-11-04) 4 November 1996 (age 26) | 9 | 4 | United States Colorado Springs Switchbacks | v.  Argentina, 27 September 2022 | | MF | Ramone Howell | (1995-04-15) 15 April 1995 (age 28) | 4 | 0 | Jamaica Waterhouse | v.  Argentina, 27 September 2022 | | MF | Oquassa Chong | (2000-03-06) 6 March 2000 (age 23) | 1 | 0 | Denmark Esbjerg | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | MF | Shamari Dyer | (1995-03-31) 31 March 1995 (age 28) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Harbour View | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | MF | Venton Evans | (1998-06-19) 19 June 1998 (age 25) | 0 | 0 | United States Greenville Triumph | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | MF | Fabion McCarthy | (1990-05-21) 21 May 1990 (age 33) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Dunbeholden | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | MF | Odean Pennycooke | (1996-10-30) 30 October 1996 (age 26) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Tivoli Gardens | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | MF | Denardo Thomas | (1994-11-22) 22 November 1994 (age 28) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Waterhouse | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | --- | | FW | Jamal Lowe | (1994-07-21) 21 July 1994 (age 28) | 6 | 2 | England Queens Park Rangers | v.  Mexico, 26 March 2023 | | FW | Trivante Stewart | (2000-03-22) 22 March 2000 (age 23) | 2 | 0 | Jamaica Mount Pleasant | v.  Mexico, 26 March 2023 | | FW | Jourdaine Fletcher | (1998-08-23) 23 August 1998 (age 24) | 8 | 2 | India NEROCA | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | FW | Collin Anderson | (1999-04-17) 17 April 1999 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | Jamaica Cavalier | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | FW | Tyler Roberts | (2003-12-22) 22 December 2003 (age 19) | 1 | 0 | England Wolverhampton Wanderers | v.  Trinidad and Tobago, 14 March 2023 | | FW | Peter McGregor | (2001-01-02) 2 January 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Dunbeholden | v.  Cameroon, 9 November 2022 | | FW | Justin McMaster | (1999-06-30) 30 June 1999 (age 23) | 1 | 1 | *Free agent* | v.  Cameroon, 9 November 2022 | | FW | Colorado Murray | (1995-01-23) 23 January 1995 (age 28) | 2 | 0 | Jamaica Harbour View | v.  Cameroon, 9 November 2022 | | FW | Andre Gray | (1991-06-26) 26 June 1991 (age 32) | 12 | 3 | Greece Aris | v.  Argentina, 27 September 2022 | | FW | Jevani Brown | (1994-10-16) 16 October 1994 (age 28) | 0 | 0 | England Exeter City | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | FW | Nicholas Hamilton | (1996-03-16) 16 March 1996 (age 27) | 1 | 0 | Finland Jaro | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | FW | Trayvon Reid | (2000-02-25) 25 February 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Harbour View | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | FW | Ronaldo Webster | (2001-07-04) 4 July 2001 (age 21) | 0 | 0 | Jamaica Cavalier | v.  Qatar, 26 August 2022 | | --- COV Withdrew from the squad due to COVID-19. INJ Withdrew from the squad due to injury. WD Withdrew from the squad for personal reasons. PRE Preliminary squad / standby. RET Retired from the national team. | Player records -------------- *As of 20 January 2022* *Players in **bold** are still active with Jamaica.* ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Ian Goodison | 128 | 10 | 1996–2008 | | 2 | Linval Dixon | 127 | 3 | 1993–2003 | | 3 | Theodore Whitmore | 120 | 24 | 1993–2004 | | 4 | Ricardo Gardner | 111 | 9 | 1997–2012 | | 5 | Warren Barrett | 108 | 0 | 1990–2000 | | 6 | Andy Williams | 107 | 22 | 1997–2008 | | 7 | Durrant Brown | 102 | 0 | 1984–1998 | | 8 | Jermaine Taylor | 101 | 0 | 2004–2017 | | 9 | Donovan Ricketts | 100 | 0 | 1999–2013 | | 10 | Jevaughn Watson | 95 | 4 | 2008–2022 | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Luton Shelton | 35 | 75 | 0.47 | 2004–2013 | | 2 | Onandi Lowe | 27 | 81 | 0.33 | 1995–2004 | | 3 | Theodore Whitmore | 24 | 120 | 0.2 | 1993–2004 | | 4 | Paul Young | 22 | 49 | 0.45 | 1989–1997 | | Andy Williams | 22 | 107 | 0.21 | 1997–2008 | | 6 | Walter Boyd | 19 | 75 | 0.25 | 1991–2001 | | 7 | Paul Davis | 18 | 61 | 0.3 | 1983–1997 | | Darren Mattocks | 18 | 50 | 0.36 | 2012–2019 | | 9 | Hector Wright | 16 | 71 | 0.23 | 1988–1997 | | 10 | Paul Hall | 14 | 48 | 0.29 | 1997–2003 | Competitive record ------------------ | Overview | | --- | | Event | 1st place | 2nd place | 3rd place | 4th place | | World Cup | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Gold Cup | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | | Caribbean Cup | 6 | 3 | 2 | 0 | | Copa América | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ### FIFA World Cup Jamaica's only appearance at the FIFA World Cup was in 1998. The team opened with a 3–1 loss against Croatia in Lens. After falling behind in the 27th minute, Robbie Earle scored the equalizer to close the first half. In the second half, Croatia scored two goals, causing Jamaica to lose the match. The second match against Argentina saw Gabriel Batistuta getting a second half hat-trick, aiding in Jamaica's second defeat and elimination from the World Cup. In the final match of the tournament, Theodore Whitmore scored a double, securing Jamaica's first World Cup win with a 2–1 win over Japan, whilst also allows Jamaica to become the second team from the Caribbean after Cuba to have won a World Cup game. | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | *Part of  United Kingdom* | *Part of  United Kingdom* | | Italy 1934 | | France 1938 | | Brazil 1950 | | Switzerland 1954 | | Sweden 1958 | | Chile 1962 | | England 1966 | *Did not qualify* | 8 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 8 | 11 | | Mexico 1970 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 11 | | West Germany 1974 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Argentina 1978 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | | Spain 1982 | *Did not enter* | *Declined participation* | | Mexico 1986 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Italy 1990 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 | | United States 1994 | 8 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 9 | 11 | | France 1998 | Group stage | 22nd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 9 | Squad | 20 | 11 | 6 | 3 | 24 | 15 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | *Did not qualify* | 16 | 6 | 2 | 8 | 14 | 18 | | Germany 2006 | 8 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 11 | 6 | | South Africa 2010 | 8 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 19 | 6 | | Brazil 2014 | 16 | 3 | 6 | 7 | 14 | 19 | | Russia 2018 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 6 | 21 | | Qatar 2022 | 14 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 12 | 22 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | Group stage | 1/22 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 9 | | 116 | 37 | 33 | 46 | 124 | 161 | | FIFA World Cup history | | --- | | First Match |  Jamaica 1–3 Croatia  (14 June 1998; Lens, France) | | Biggest Win |  Japan 1–2 Jamaica  (26 June 1998; Lyon, France) | | Biggest Defeat |  Argentina 5–0 Jamaica  (21 June 1998; Paris, France) | | Best Result | Group stage (1998) | | Worst Result | — | ### CONCACAF Gold Cup *CONCACAF Championship 1963–1989, CONCACAF Gold Cup 1991–present* | CONCACAF Championship & Gold Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | El Salvador 1963 | Group stage | 8th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 16 | Squad | *Qualified automatically* | | Guatemala 1965 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Honduras 1967 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | | Costa Rica 1969 | Round-robin | 6th | 5 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | 10 | Squad | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | | Trinidad and Tobago 1971 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | Haiti 1973 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Mexico 1977 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | Honduras 1981 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | 1985 | *Withdrew* | *Withdrew* | | 1989 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 | | United States 1991 | Group stage | 8th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 12 | Squad | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 2 | | Mexico United States 1993 | **Third place** | **3rd** | **5** | **1** | **2** | **2** | **6** | **10** | **Squad** | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 1 | | United States 1996 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | | United States 1998 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **5** | **2** | **1** | **2** | **5** | **4** | **Squad** | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 18 | 5 | | United States 2000 | Group stage | 12th | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | Squad | 5 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 4 | | United States 2002 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | | United States 2003 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 6 | Squad | 6 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 17 | 4 | | United States 2005 | Quarter-finals | 8th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 10 | Squad | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 38 | 5 | | United States 2007 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | United States 2009 | Group stage | 10th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | Squad | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 11 | 2 | | United States 2011 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | Squad | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 12 | 3 | | United States 2013 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | | Canada United States 2015 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **4** | **1** | **1** | **8** | **6** | **Squad** | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 1 | | United States 2017 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **7** | **4** | **Squad** | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 5 | | Costa Rica Jamaica United States 2019 | **Fourth place** | **4th** | **5** | **2** | **2** | **1** | **6** | **6** | **Squad** | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 12 | 3 | | United States 2021 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3 | Squad | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 21 | 1 | | Canada United States 2023 | *ongoing* | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | Squad | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 5 | | Total | Runners-up | 15/27 | 59 | 20 | 11 | 28 | 62 | 95 | | 93 | 61 | 22 | 10 | 211 | 65 | | CONCACAF Championship & Gold Cup history | | --- | | First Match |  Costa Rica 6–0 Jamaica  (24 March 1963; Santa Ana, El Salvador) | | Biggest Win |  Jamaica 4–0 Grenada  (6 June 2011; Carson, United States) | | Biggest Defeat |  Mexico 8–0 Jamaica  (28 March 1963; Santa Ana, El Salvador) | | Best Result | **Runners-up** (2015, 2017) | | Worst Result | Group stage (1963, 1991, 2000, 2009) | ### CONCACAF Nations League | CONCACAF Nations League record | | --- | | Season | Division | Group | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | P/R | RK | | United States 2019−20 | B | C | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 21 | 1 | Rise | 13th | | United States 2022–23 | A | A | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 7 | 5 | Same position | 5th | | Total | 10 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 28 | 6 | 13th | | CONCACAF Nations League history | | --- | | First Match |  Jamaica 6–0 Antigua and Barbuda  (6 September 2019; Montego Bay, Jamaica) | | Biggest Win |  Jamaica 6–0 Antigua and Barbuda  (6 September 2019; Montego Bay, Jamaica)  Aruba 0–6 Jamaica  (15 October 2019; Willemstad, Curaçao) | | Biggest Defeat | — | | Best Result | — | | Worst Result | — | ### Copa América Jamaica was invited to the Copa América for the first time in 2015, finishing last among Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. The following year, the team competed in the Copa América Centenario as winners of the 2014 Caribbean Cup, again finishing last in the group stage with a 3–0 loss to Uruguay. Copa América record| Year | Result | Position | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Chile 2015 | Group stage | 12th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 3 | Squad | | United States 2016 | Group stage | 15th | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 6 | Squad | | Total | Invitation | 0 titles | 6 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 9 | | ### CFU Caribbean Cup | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | CFU Championship & Caribbean Cup record | | Qualification record | | Year | Result | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Trinidad and Tobago 1978 | *Did not qualify* | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 3 | | Suriname 1979 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 9 | | Puerto Rico 1981 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 4 | | French Guiana 1983 | *Did not enter* | *Did not enter* | | Barbados 1985 | | Martinique 1988 | | Barbados 1989 | *Did not qualify* | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | | Trinidad and Tobago 1990 | *Abandoned* | 2 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 0 | Squad | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | | Jamaica 1991 | **Champions** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **13** | **2** | **Squad** | *Qualified as host* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1992 | **Runners-up** | **5** | **3** | **1** | **1** | **4** | **3** | **Squad** | *Qualified as champions* | | Jamaica 1993 | **Runners-up** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **17** | **4** | **Squad** | *Qualified as host* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1994 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 18 | 5 | | Cayman Islands Jamaica 1995 | Group stage | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | Squad | *Qualified as host* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1996 | Group stage | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 5 | Squad | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | | Antigua and Barbuda Saint Kitts and Nevis 1997 | **Third place** | **4** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **8** | **3** | **Squad** | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 10 | 2 | | Jamaica Trinidad and Tobago 1998 | **Champions** | **5** | **5** | **0** | **0** | **12** | **4** | **Squad** | *Qualified as host* | | Trinidad and Tobago 1999 | **Third place** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **2** | **7** | **5** | **Squad** | *Qualified as champions* | | Trinidad and Tobago 2001 | Group stage | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | Squad | *Qualified automatically* | | Barbados 2005 | **Champions** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **4** | **1** | **Squad** | 7 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 34 | 4 | | Trinidad and Tobago 2007 | *Did not qualify* | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | Jamaica 2008 | **Champions** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **11** | **2** | **Squad** | *Qualified as host* | | Martinique 2010 | **Champions** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **12** | **3** | **Squad** | *Qualified as champions* | | Antigua and Barbuda 2012 | Group stage | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | Squad | *Qualified as champions* | | Jamaica 2014 | **Champions** | **4** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **6** | **1** | **Squad** | *Qualified as host* | | Martinique 2017 | **Runners-up** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **1** | **2** | **3** | **Squad** | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 2 | | Total | 16/25 | 60 | 38 | 12 | 10 | 110 | 45 | | 35 | 19 | 6 | 10 | 89 | 39 | Head-to-head record ------------------- As of 17 November 2021, the national team has played in 569 matches, with 227 wins, 124 draws, and 218 losses since their first international match in 1925. In total, the team has scored 752 goals and conceded 744 goals. Jamaica's highest winning margin is twelve goals, which has been achieved on two occasions: against the British Virgin Islands in 1994 (12–0) and against Saint Martin in 2004 (12–0). Their longest winning streak is seven wins and their unbeaten record is 22 consecutive official matches. The following table shows Jamaica's all-time international record, correct as of 2 February 2022. Teams in *italics* aren't member of FIFA.   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Opponents | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Antigua and Barbuda | 13 | 10 | 2 | 1 | 29 | 5 | |  Argentina | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 9 | |  Aruba | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 14 | 0 | |  Australia | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 7 | |  Bahamas | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 13 | 0 | |  Barbados | 14 | 10 | 2 | 2 | 24 | 10 | |  Belize | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Bermuda | 7 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 11 | 6 | |  Bolivia | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 6 | | *Bonaire* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | |  Brazil | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 2 | |  British Virgin Islands | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0 | |  Bulgaria | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Canada | 23 | 7 | 7 | 9 | 19 | 24 | |  Cayman Islands | 11 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 35 | 8 | |  Chile | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | |  China | 3 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 5 | |  Colombia | 5 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 7 | |  Costa Rica | 31 | 4 | 12 | 15 | 19 | 56 | |  Croatia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | |  Cuba | 27 | 10 | 6 | 11 | 34 | 31 | |  Curaçao | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 3 | |  Ecuador | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 4 | |  Egypt | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |  El Salvador | 32 | 10 | 7 | 5 | 25 | 15 | |  England | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 6 | |  France | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 8 | | *French Guiana* | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Ghana | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 6 | |  Grenada | 11 | 8 | 2 | 1 | 29 | 8 | | *Guadeloupe* | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 10 | 2 | |  Guatemala | 16 | 10 | 3 | 3 | 30 | 18 | |  Guyana | 6 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 20 | 3 | |  Haiti | 31 | 18 | 3 | 10 | 45 | 32 | |  Honduras | 26 | 9 | 5 | 12 | 30 | 46 | |  India | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | |  Indonesia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  Iran | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 9 | |  Japan | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 7 | |  Malaysia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | | *Martinique* | 5 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 2 | |  Mexico | 29 | 5 | 3 | 21 | 17 | 69 | |  Morocco | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  New Zealand | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 3 | |  Nicaragua | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 3 | |  Nigeria | 6 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 5 | 7 | |  North Macedonia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  Norway | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 7 | |  Panama | 20 | 3 | 7 | 10 | 15 | 27 | |  Paraguay | 6 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 7 | 11 | |  Peru | 5 | 0 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 12 | |  Puerto Rico | 7 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 17 | 3 | |  Republic of Ireland | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |  Saint Kitts and Nevis | 10 | 8 | 2 | 0 | 23 | 7 | |  Saint Lucia | 10 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 30 | 6 | | *Saint Martin* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 0 | |  Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | 9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 22 | 7 | |  Saudi Arabia | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 6 | 14 | |  Serbia | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | | *Sint Maarten* | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 2 | |  South Africa | 5 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 6 | |  South Korea | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 8 | |  Suriname | 7 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 11 | 9 | |  Sweden | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | |  Switzerland | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 3 | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 67 | 28 | 12 | 27 | 81 | 86 | |  Uruguay | 5 | 1 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 9 | |  United States | 31 | 3 | 9 | 19 | 20 | 52 | |  U.S. Virgin Islands | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 1 | |  Venezuela | 7 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 9 | |  Vietnam | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | |  Wales | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |  Zambia | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 7 | FIFA World Ranking ------------------ *Last update was on 27 May 2021* Source:   **Best Ranking**    **Worst Ranking**    **Best Mover**    **Worst Mover**   | Jamaica's FIFA World Ranking History | | --- | | Rank | Year | Best | Worst | | Rank | Move | Rank | Move | | 45 | 2021 | — | — | — | — | | 47 | 2020 | 47 | Increase 1 | 48 | Steady | | 48 | 2019 | 45 | Increase 5 | 56 | Decrease 3 | | 54 | 2018 | 48 | Increase 5 | 59 | Decrease 4 | | 54 | 2017 | 54 | Increase 19 | 79 | Decrease 5 | | 77 | 2016 | 46 | Increase 9 | 80 | Decrease 16 | | 54 | 2015 | 52 | Increase 21 | 79 | Decrease 11 | | 75 | 2014 | 71 | Increase 42 | 113 | Decrease 15 | | 80 | 2013 | 49 | Increase 4 | 82 | Decrease 28 | | 56 | 2012 | 50 | Increase 8 | 66 | Decrease 9 | | 54 | 2011 | 38 | Increase 17 | 64 | Decrease 16 | | 58 | 2010 | 58 | Increase 24 | 83 | Decrease 3 | | 81 | 2009 | 64 | Increase 11 | 81 | Decrease 7 | | 65 | 2008 | 65 | Increase 33 | 116 | Decrease 14 | | 97 | 2007 | 56 | Increase 3 | 103 | Decrease 25 | | 57 | 2006 | 42 | Increase 20 | 78 | Decrease 32 | | 42 | 2005 | 40 | Increase 5 | 47 | Decrease 3 | | 49 | 2004 | 46 | Increase 4 | 54 | Decrease 5 | | 46 | 2003 | 45 | Increase 2 | 51 | Decrease 1 | | 51 | 2002 | 51 | Increase 8 | 60 | Decrease 2 | | 53 | 2001 | 43 | Increase 3 | 54 | Decrease 7 | | 48 | 2000 | 39 | Increase 14 | 60 | Decrease 5 | | 41 | 1999 | 39 | Increase 3 | 44 | Decrease 6 | | 33 | 1998 | 27 | Increase 6 | 33 | Decrease 3 | | 39 | 1997 | 30 | Increase 2 | 40 | Decrease 7 | | 32 | 1996 | 32 | Increase 7 | 58 | Decrease 2 | | 56 | 1995 | 51 | Increase 30 | 95 | Decrease 7 | | 96 | 1994 | 70 | Increase 5 | 96 | Decrease 10 | | 80 | 1993 | 76 | Increase 7 | 83 | Decrease 16 | Honours ------- **Major competitions** * **CONCACAF Gold Cup** * Runners-up (2): 2015, 2017 * Third place: 1993 * Fair Play Award: 2015 **Other competitions** * **Caribbean Cup** * **Champions (6):** 1991, 1998, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2014 * Runners-up (3): 1992, 1993, 2017 * Third place (2): 1997, 1999 See also -------- * National Premier League (top league in Jamaica) * Jamaica national under-20 football team * Jamaica national under-17 football team * Football in Jamaica

Jamaica national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica_national_football_team

**Atherosclerosis** is a pattern of the disease arteriosclerosis in which the wall of the artery develops abnormalities, called lesions. These lesions may lead to narrowing due to the buildup of atheromatous plaque. At onset there are usually no symptoms, but if they develop, symptoms generally begin around middle age. When severe, it can result in coronary artery disease, stroke, peripheral artery disease, or kidney problems, depending on which arteries are affected. The exact cause is not known and is proposed to be multifactorial. Risk factors include abnormal cholesterol levels, elevated levels of inflammatory markers, high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, obesity, family history, genetic, and an unhealthy diet. Plaque is made up of fat, cholesterol, calcium, and other substances found in the blood. The narrowing of arteries limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to parts of the body. Diagnosis is based upon a physical exam, electrocardiogram, and exercise stress test, among others. Prevention is generally by eating a healthy diet, exercising, not smoking, and maintaining a normal weight. Treatment of established disease may include medications to lower cholesterol such as statins, blood pressure medication, or medications that decrease clotting, such as aspirin. A number of procedures may also be carried out such as percutaneous coronary intervention, coronary artery bypass graft, or carotid endarterectomy. Atherosclerosis generally starts when a person is young and worsens with age. Almost all people are affected to some degree by the age of 65. It is the number one cause of death and disability in the developed world. Though it was first described in 1575, there is evidence that the condition occurred in people more than 5,000 years ago. Signs and symptoms ------------------ Atherosclerosis is asymptomatic for decades because the arteries enlarge at all plaque locations, thus there is no effect on blood flow. Even most plaque ruptures do not produce symptoms until enough narrowing or closure of an artery, due to clots, occurs. Signs and symptoms only occur after severe narrowing or closure impedes blood flow to different organs enough to induce symptoms. Most of the time, patients realize that they have the disease only when they experience other cardiovascular disorders such as stroke or heart attack. These symptoms, however, still vary depending on which artery or organ is affected. Abnormalities associated with atherosclerosis begin in childhood. Fibrous and gelatinous lesions have been observed in the coronary arteries of children aged 6–10. Fatty streaks have been observed in the coronary arteries of juveniles aged 11–15, though they appear at a much younger age within the aorta. Clinically, given enlargement of the arteries for decades, symptomatic atherosclerosis is typically associated with men in their 40s and women in their 50s to 60s. Sub-clinically, the disease begins to appear in childhood and rarely is already present at birth. Noticeable signs can begin developing at puberty. Though symptoms are rarely exhibited in children, early screening of children for cardiovascular diseases could be beneficial to both the child and his/her relatives. While coronary artery disease is more prevalent in men than women, atherosclerosis of the cerebral arteries and strokes equally affect both sexes. Marked narrowing in the coronary arteries, which are responsible for bringing oxygenated blood to the heart, can produce symptoms such as chest pain of angina and shortness of breath, sweating, nausea, dizziness or light-headedness, breathlessness or palpitations. Abnormal heart rhythms called arrhythmias—the heart beating either too slowly or too quickly—are another consequence of ischemia. Carotid arteries supply blood to the brain and neck. Marked narrowing of the carotid arteries can present with symptoms such as: a feeling of weakness; being unable to think straight; difficulty speaking; dizziness; difficulty in walking or standing up straight; blurred vision; numbness of the face, arms and legs; severe headache; and loss of consciousness. These symptoms are also related to stroke (death of brain cells). Stroke is caused by marked narrowing or closure of arteries going to the brain; lack of adequate blood supply leads to the death of the cells of the affected tissue. Peripheral arteries, which supply blood to the legs, arms and pelvis, also experience marked narrowing due to plaque rupture and clots. Symptoms of the narrowing are numbness within the arms or legs, as well as pain. Another significant location for plaque formation is the renal arteries, which supply blood to the kidneys. Plaque occurrence and accumulation lead to decreased kidney blood flow and chronic kidney disease, which, like in all other areas, is typically asymptomatic until late stages. According to United States data for 2004, in about 66% of men and 47% of women, the first symptom of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease is a heart attack or sudden cardiac death (death within one hour of onset of the symptom). Cardiac stress testing, traditionally the most commonly performed non-invasive testing method for blood flow limitations, in general, detects only lumen narrowing of ≈75% or greater, although some physicians claim that nuclear stress methods can detect as little as 50%. Case studies have included autopsies of U.S. soldiers killed in World War II and the Korean War. A much-cited report involved the autopsies of 300 U.S. soldiers killed in Korea. Although the average age of the men was 22.1 years, 77.3 percent had "gross evidence of coronary arteriosclerosis". Other studies done of soldiers in the Vietnam War showed similar results, although often worse than the ones from the earlier wars. Theories include high rates of tobacco use and (in the case of the Vietnam soldiers) the advent of processed foods after World War II. Risk factors ------------ The atherosclerotic process is not well understood. Atherosclerosis is associated with inflammatory processes in the endothelial cells of the vessel wall associated with retained low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. This retention may be a cause, an effect, or both, of the underlying inflammatory process. The presence of the plaque induces the muscle cells of the blood vessel to stretch, compensating for the additional bulk. The endothelial lining then thickens, increasing the separation between the plaque and lumen. The thickening somewhat offsets the narrowing caused by the growth of the plaque, but moreover, it causes the wall to stiffen and become less compliant to stretching with each heartbeat. ### Modifiable * Western pattern diet * Abdominal obesity * Insulin resistance * Diabetes * Dyslipidemia * Hypertension * Trans fat * Tobacco smoking * Bacterial infections * HIV/AIDS ### Nonmodifiable * South Asian descent * Advanced age * Genetic abnormalities * Family history * Coronary anatomy and branch pattern ### Lesser or uncertain * Thrombophilia * Saturated fat * Excessive carbohydrates * Elevated triglycerides * Systemic inflammation * Hyperinsulinemia * Sleep deprivation * Air pollution * Sedentary lifestyle * Arsenic poisoning * Alcohol * Chronic stress * Hypothyroidism * Periodontal disease ### Dietary The relation between dietary fat and atherosclerosis is controversial. The USDA, in its food pyramid, promotes a diet of about 64% carbohydrates from total calories. The American Heart Association, the American Diabetes Association and the National Cholesterol Education Program make similar recommendations. In contrast, Prof Walter Willett (Harvard School of Public Health, PI of the second Nurses' Health Study) recommends much higher levels of fat, especially of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat. These dietary recommendations reach a consensus, though, against consumption of trans fats. The role of eating oxidized fats (rancid fats) in humans is not clear. Rabbits fed rancid fats develop atherosclerosis faster. Rats fed DHA-containing oils experienced marked disruptions to their antioxidant systems, and accumulated significant amounts of phospholipid hydroperoxide in their blood, livers and kidneys. Rabbits fed atherogenic diets containing various oils were found to undergo the most oxidative susceptibility of LDL via polyunsaturated oils. In another study, rabbits fed heated soybean oil "grossly induced atherosclerosis and marked liver damage were histologically and clinically demonstrated." However, Fred Kummerow claims that it is not dietary cholesterol, but oxysterols, or oxidized cholesterols, from fried foods and smoking, that are the culprit. Rancid fats and oils taste very unpleasant in even small amounts, so people avoid eating them. It is very difficult to measure or estimate the actual human consumption of these substances. Highly unsaturated omega-3 rich oils such as fish oil, when being sold in pill form, can hide the taste of oxidized or rancid fat that might be present. In the US, the health food industry's dietary supplements are self-regulated and outside of FDA regulations. To properly protect unsaturated fats from oxidation, it is best to keep them cool and in oxygen-free environments. Pathophysiology --------------- Atherogenesis is the developmental process of atheromatous plaques. It is characterized by a remodeling of arteries leading to subendothelial accumulation of fatty substances called plaques. The buildup of an atheromatous plaque is a slow process, developed over a period of several years through a complex series of cellular events occurring within the arterial wall and in response to a variety of local vascular circulating factors. One recent hypothesis suggests that, for unknown reasons, leukocytes, such as monocytes or basophils, begin to attack the endothelium of the artery lumen in cardiac muscle. The ensuing inflammation leads to the formation of atheromatous plaques in the arterial tunica intima, a region of the vessel wall located between the endothelium and the tunica media. The bulk of these lesions is made of excess fat, collagen, and elastin. At first, as the plaques grow, only wall thickening occurs without any narrowing. Stenosis is a late event, which may never occur and is often the result of repeated plaque rupture and healing responses, not just the atherosclerotic process by itself. ### Cellular Early atherogenesis is characterized by the adherence of blood circulating monocytes (a type of white blood cell) to the vascular bed lining, the endothelium, then by their migration to the sub-endothelial space, and further activation into monocyte-derived macrophages. The primary documented driver of this process is oxidized lipoprotein particles within the wall, beneath the endothelial cells, though upper normal or elevated concentrations of blood glucose also plays a major role and not all factors are fully understood. Fatty streaks may appear and disappear. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles in blood plasma invade the endothelium and become oxidized, creating risk of cardiovascular disease. A complex set of biochemical reactions regulates the oxidation of LDL, involving enzymes (such as Lp-LpA2) and free radicals in the endothelium. Initial damage to the endothelium results in an inflammatory response. Monocytes enter the artery wall from the bloodstream, with platelets adhering to the area of insult. This may be promoted by redox signaling induction of factors such as VCAM-1, which recruit circulating monocytes, and M-CSF, which is selectively required for the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages. The monocytes differentiate into macrophages, which proliferate locally, ingest oxidized LDL, slowly turning into large "foam cells" – so-called because of their changed appearance resulting from the numerous internal cytoplasmic vesicles and resulting high lipid content. Under the microscope, the lesion now appears as a fatty streak. Foam cells eventually die and further propagate the inflammatory process. In addition to these cellular activities, there is also smooth muscle proliferation and migration from the tunica media into the intima in response to cytokines secreted by damaged endothelial cells. This causes the formation of a fibrous capsule covering the fatty streak. Intact endothelium can prevent this smooth muscle proliferation by releasing nitric oxide. ### Calcification and lipids Calcification forms among vascular smooth muscle cells of the surrounding muscular layer, specifically in the muscle cells adjacent to atheromas and on the surface of atheroma plaques and tissue. In time, as cells die, this leads to extracellular calcium deposits between the muscular wall and outer portion of the atheromatous plaques. With the atheromatous plaque interfering with the regulation of the calcium deposition, it accumulates and crystallizes. A similar form of intramural calcification, presenting the picture of an early phase of arteriosclerosis, appears to be induced by many drugs that have an antiproliferative mechanism of action (Rainer Liedtke 2008). Cholesterol is delivered into the vessel wall by cholesterol-containing low-density lipoprotein (LDL) particles. To attract and stimulate macrophages, the cholesterol must be released from the LDL particles and oxidized, a key step in the ongoing inflammatory process. The process is worsened if it is insufficient high-density lipoprotein (HDL), the lipoprotein particle that removes cholesterol from tissues and carries it back to the liver. The foam cells and platelets encourage the migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells, which in turn ingest lipids, become replaced by collagen, and transform into foam cells themselves. A protective fibrous cap normally forms between the fatty deposits and the artery lining (the intima). These capped fatty deposits (now called 'atheromas') produce enzymes that cause the artery to enlarge over time. As long as the artery enlarges sufficiently to compensate for the extra thickness of the atheroma, then no narrowing ("stenosis") of the opening ("lumen") occurs. The artery becomes expanded with an egg-shaped cross-section, still with a circular opening. If the enlargement is beyond proportion to the atheroma thickness, then an aneurysm is created. ### Visible features Although arteries are not typically studied microscopically, two plaque types can be distinguished: 1. The fibro-lipid (fibro-fatty) plaque is characterized by an accumulation of lipid-laden cells underneath the intima of the arteries, typically without narrowing the lumen due to compensatory expansion of the bounding muscular layer of the artery wall. Beneath the endothelium, there is a "fibrous cap" covering the atheromatous "core" of the plaque. The core consists of lipid-laden cells (macrophages and smooth muscle cells) with elevated tissue cholesterol and cholesterol ester content, fibrin, proteoglycans, collagen, elastin, and cellular debris. In advanced plaques, the central core of the plaque usually contains extracellular cholesterol deposits (released from dead cells), which form areas of cholesterol crystals with empty, needle-like clefts. At the periphery of the plaque are younger "foamy" cells and capillaries. These plaques usually produce the most damage to the individual when they rupture. Cholesterol crystals may also play a role. 2. The fibrous plaque is also localized under the intima, within the wall of the artery resulting in thickening and expansion of the wall and, sometimes, spotty localized narrowing of the lumen with some atrophy of the muscular layer. The fibrous plaque contains collagen fibers (eosinophilic), precipitates of calcium (hematoxylinophilic), and rarely, lipid-laden cells. In effect, the muscular portion of the artery wall forms small aneurysms just large enough to hold the atheroma that are present. The muscular portion of artery walls usually remains strong, even after they have remodeled to compensate for the atheromatous plaques. However, atheromas within the vessel wall are soft and fragile with little elasticity. Arteries constantly expand and contract with each heartbeat, i.e., the pulse. In addition, the calcification deposits between the outer portion of the atheroma and the muscular wall, as they progress, lead to a loss of elasticity and stiffening of the artery as a whole. The calcification deposits, after they have become sufficiently advanced, are partially visible on coronary artery computed tomography or electron beam tomography (EBT) as rings of increased radiographic density, forming halos around the outer edges of the atheromatous plaques, within the artery wall. On CT, >130 units on the Hounsfield scale (some argue for 90 units) has been the radiographic density usually accepted as clearly representing tissue calcification within arteries. These deposits demonstrate unequivocal evidence of the disease, relatively advanced, even though the lumen of the artery is often still normal by angiography. ### Rupture and stenosis Although the disease process tends to be slowly progressive over decades, it usually remains asymptomatic until an atheroma ulcerates, which leads to immediate blood clotting at the site of the atheroma ulcer. This triggers a cascade of events that leads to clot enlargement, which may quickly obstruct the flow of blood. A complete blockage leads to ischemia of the myocardial (heart) muscle and damage. This process is the myocardial infarction or "heart attack". If the heart attack is not fatal, fibrous organization of the clot within the lumen ensues, covering the rupture but also producing stenosis or closure of the lumen, or over time and after repeated ruptures, resulting in a persistent, usually localized stenosis or blockage of the artery lumen. Stenoses can be slowly progressive, whereas plaque ulceration is a sudden event that occurs specifically in atheromas with thinner/weaker fibrous caps that have become "unstable". Repeated plaque ruptures, ones not resulting in total lumen closure, combined with the clot patch over the rupture and healing response to stabilize the clot is the process that produces most stenoses over time. The stenotic areas tend to become more stable despite increased flow velocities at these narrowings. Most major blood-flow-stopping events occur at large plaques, which, before their rupture, produced very little if any stenosis. From clinical trials, 20% is the average stenosis at plaques that subsequently rupture with resulting complete artery closure. Most severe clinical events do not occur at plaques that produce high-grade stenosis. From clinical trials, only 14% of heart attacks occur from artery closure at plaques producing a 75% or greater stenosis before the vessel closing. If the fibrous cap separating a soft atheroma from the bloodstream within the artery ruptures, tissue fragments are exposed and released. These tissue fragments are very clot-promoting, containing collagen and tissue factor; they activate platelets and activate the system of coagulation. The result is the formation of a thrombus (blood clot) overlying the atheroma, which obstructs blood flow acutely. With the obstruction of blood flow, downstream tissues are starved of oxygen and nutrients. If this is the myocardium (heart muscle) angina (cardiac chest pain) or myocardial infarction (heart attack) develops. ### Accelerated growth of plaques The distribution of atherosclerotic plaques in a part of arterial endothelium is inhomogeneous. The multiple and focal development of atherosclerotic changes is similar to that in the development of amyloid plaques in the brain and that of age spots on the skin. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that misrepair mechanisms play an important role in the focal development of atherosclerosis. Development of a plaque is a result of repair of injured endothelium. Because of the infusion of lipids into sub-endothelium, the repair has to end up with altered remodeling of local endothelium. This is the manifestation of a misrepair. Important is this altered remodeling makes the local endothelium have increased fragility to damage and have reduced repair efficiency. As a consequence, this part of endothelium has an increased risk factor of being injured and improperly repaired. Thus, the accumulation of misrepairs of endothelium is focalized and self-accelerating. In this way, the growing of a plaque is also self-accelerating. Within a part of the arterial wall, the oldest plaque is always the biggest, and is the most dangerous one to cause blockage of a local artery. ### Components The plaque is divided into three distinct components: 1. The atheroma ("lump of gruel", from Greek ἀθήρα *(athera)* 'gruel'), which is the nodular accumulation of a soft, flaky, yellowish material at the center of large plaques, composed of macrophages nearest the lumen of the artery 2. Underlying areas of cholesterol crystals 3. Calcification at the outer base of older or more advanced lesions. Atherosclerotic lesions, or atherosclerotic plaques, are separated into two broad categories: Stable and unstable (also called vulnerable). The pathobiology of atherosclerotic lesions is very complicated, but generally, stable atherosclerotic plaques, which tend to be asymptomatic, are rich in extracellular matrix and smooth muscle cells. On the other hand, unstable plaques are rich in macrophages and foam cells, and the extracellular matrix separating the lesion from the arterial lumen (also known as the fibrous cap) is usually weak and prone to rupture. Ruptures of the fibrous cap expose thrombogenic material, such as collagen, to the circulation and eventually induce thrombus formation in the lumen. Upon formation, intraluminal thrombi can occlude arteries outright (e.g., coronary occlusion), but more often they detach, move into the circulation, and eventually occlude smaller downstream branches causing thromboembolism. Apart from thromboembolism, chronically expanding atherosclerotic lesions can cause complete closure of the lumen. Chronically expanding lesions are often asymptomatic until lumen stenosis is so severe (usually over 80%) that blood supply to downstream tissue(s) is insufficient, resulting in ischemia. These complications of advanced atherosclerosis are chronic, slowly progressive, and cumulative. Most commonly, soft plaque suddenly ruptures (see vulnerable plaque), causing the formation of a thrombus that will rapidly slow or stop blood flow, leading to the death of the tissues fed by the artery in approximately five minutes. This event is called an infarction. Diagnosis --------- Areas of severe narrowing, stenosis, detectable by angiography, and to a lesser extent "stress testing" have long been the focus of human diagnostic techniques for cardiovascular disease, in general. However, these methods focus on detecting only severe narrowing, not the underlying atherosclerosis disease. As demonstrated by human clinical studies, most severe events occur in locations with heavy plaque, yet little or no lumen narrowing present before debilitating events suddenly occur. Plaque rupture can lead to artery lumen occlusion within seconds to minutes, and potential permanent debility, and sometimes sudden death. Plaques that have ruptured are called complicated lesions. The extracellular matrix of the lesion breaks, usually at the shoulder of the fibrous cap that separates the lesion from the arterial lumen, where the exposed thrombogenic components of the plaque, mainly collagen, will trigger thrombus formation. The thrombus then travels downstream to other blood vessels, where the blood clot may partially or completely block blood flow. If the blood flow is completely blocked, cell deaths occur due to the lack of oxygen supply to nearby cells, resulting in necrosis. The narrowing or obstruction of blood flow can occur in any artery within the body. Obstruction of arteries supplying the heart muscle results in a heart attack, while the obstruction of arteries supplying the brain results in an ischaemic stroke. Lumen stenosis that is greater than 75% was considered the hallmark of clinically significant disease in the past because recurring episodes of angina and abnormalities in stress tests are only detectable at that particular severity of stenosis. However, clinical trials have shown that only about 14% of clinically debilitating events occur at sites with more than 75% stenosis. The majority of cardiovascular events that involve sudden rupture of the atheroma plaque do not display any evident narrowing of the lumen. Thus, greater attention has been focused on "vulnerable plaque" from the late 1990s onwards. Besides the traditional diagnostic methods such as angiography and stress-testing, other detection techniques have been developed in the past decades for earlier detection of atherosclerotic disease. Some of the detection approaches include anatomical detection and physiologic measurement. Examples of anatomical detection methods include coronary calcium scoring by CT, carotid IMT (intimal media thickness) measurement by ultrasound, and intravascular ultrasound (IVUS). Examples of physiologic measurement methods include lipoprotein subclass analysis, HbA1c, hs-CRP, and homocysteine. Both anatomic and physiologic methods allow early detection before symptoms show up, disease staging, and tracking of disease progression. Anatomic methods are more expensive and some of them are invasive in nature, such as IVUS. On the other hand, physiologic methods are often less expensive and safer. But they do not quantify the current state of the disease or directly track progression. In recent years, developments in nuclear imaging techniques such as PET and SPECT have provided ways of estimating the severity of atherosclerotic plaques. Prevention ---------- Up to 90% of cardiovascular disease may be preventable if established risk factors are avoided. Medical management of atherosclerosis first involves modification to risk factors–for example, via smoking cessation and diet restrictions. Prevention then is generally by eating a healthy diet, exercising, not smoking, and maintaining a normal weight. ### Diet Changes in diet may help prevent the development of atherosclerosis. Tentative evidence suggests that a diet containing dairy products has no effect on or decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease. A diet high in fruits and vegetables decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease and death. Evidence suggests that the Mediterranean diet may improve cardiovascular results. There is also evidence that a Mediterranean diet may be better than a low-fat diet in bringing about long-term changes to cardiovascular risk factors (e.g., lower cholesterol level and blood pressure). ### Exercise A controlled exercise program combats atherosclerosis by improving circulation and functionality of the vessels. Exercise is also used to manage weight in patients who are obese, lower blood pressure, and decrease cholesterol. Often lifestyle modification is combined with medication therapy. For example, statins help to lower cholesterol. Antiplatelet medications like aspirin help to prevent clots, and a variety of antihypertensive medications are routinely used to control blood pressure. If the combined efforts of risk factor modification and medication therapy are not sufficient to control symptoms or fight imminent threats of ischemic events, a physician may resort to interventional or surgical procedures to correct the obstruction. Treatment --------- Treatment of established disease may include medications to lower cholesterol such as statins, blood pressure medication, or medications that decrease clotting, such as aspirin. A number of procedures may also be carried out such as percutaneous coronary intervention, coronary artery bypass graft, or carotid endarterectomy. Medical treatments often focus on alleviating symptoms. However measures which focus on decreasing underlying atherosclerosis—as opposed to simply treating symptoms—are more effective. Non-pharmaceutical means are usually the first method of treatment, such as stopping smoking and practicing regular exercise. If these methods do not work, medicines are usually the next step in treating cardiovascular diseases and, with improvements, have increasingly become the most effective method over the long term. The key to the more effective approaches is to combine multiple different treatment strategies. In addition, for those approaches, such as lipoprotein transport behaviors, which have been shown to produce the most success, adopting more aggressive combination treatment strategies taken on a daily basis and indefinitely has generally produced better results, both before and especially after people are symptomatic. ### Statins The group of medications referred to as statins are widely prescribed for treating atherosclerosis. They have shown benefit in reducing cardiovascular disease and mortality in those with high cholesterol with few side effects. Secondary prevention therapy, which includes high-intensity statins and aspirin, is recommended by multi-society guidelines for all patients with history of ASCVD (atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease) to prevent recurrence of coronary artery disease, ischemic stroke, or peripheral arterial disease. However, prescription of and adherence to these guideline-concordant therapies is lacking, particularly among young patients and women. Statins work by inhibiting HMG-CoA (hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A) reductase, a hepatic rate-limiting enzyme in cholesterol's biochemical production pathway. By inhibiting this rate-limiting enzyme, the body is unable to produce cholesterol endogenously, therefore reducing serum LDL-cholesterol. This reduced endogenous cholesterol production triggers the body to then pull cholesterol from other cellular sources, enhancing serum HDL-cholesterol. These data are primarily in middle-age men and the conclusions are less clear for women and people over the age of 70. ### Surgery When atherosclerosis has become severe and caused irreversible ischemia, such as tissue loss in the case of peripheral artery disease, surgery may be indicated. Vascular bypass surgery can re-establish flow around the diseased segment of artery, and angioplasty with or without stenting can reopen narrowed arteries and improve blood flow. Coronary artery bypass grafting without manipulation of the ascending aorta has demonstrated reduced rates of postoperative stroke and mortality compared to traditional on-pump coronary revascularization. ### Other There is evidence that some anticoagulants, particularly warfarin, which inhibit clot formation by interfering with Vitamin K metabolism, may actually promote arterial calcification in the long term despite reducing clot formation in the short term. Also, small molecules such as 3-hydroxybenzaldehyde and protocatechuic aldehyde have shown vasculoprotective effects to reduce risk of atherosclerosis. Epidemiology ------------ Cardiovascular disease, which is predominantly the clinical manifestation of atherosclerosis, is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Almost all children older than age 10 in developed countries have aortic fatty streaks, with coronary fatty streaks beginning in adolescence. In 1953, a study was published which examined the results of 300 autopsies performed on U.S. soldiers who had died in the Korean War. Despite the average age of the soldiers being just 22 years old, 77% of them had visible signs of coronary atherosclerosis. This study showed that heart disease could affect people at a younger age and was not just a problem for older individuals. In 1992, a report had shown that microscopic fatty streaks were seen in the left anterior descending artery in over 50% of children aged 10–14 and 8% had even more advanced lesions with more accumulations of extracellular lipid. In a 2005 report of a study done between 1985–1995, it was found that around 87% of aortas and 30% of coronary arteries in age group 5–14 years had fatty streaks which increased with age. Etymology --------- The following terms are similar, yet distinct, in both spelling and meaning, and can be easily confused: arteriosclerosis, arteriolosclerosis, and atherosclerosis. *Arteriosclerosis* is a general term describing any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of medium or large arteries (from Greek ἀρτηρία *(artēria)* 'artery', and σκλήρωσις *(sklerosis)* 'hardening'); *arteriolosclerosis* is any hardening (and loss of elasticity) of arterioles (small arteries); *atherosclerosis* is a hardening of an artery specifically due to an atheromatous plaque (from Ancient Greek ἀθήρα *(athḗra)* 'gruel'). The term *atherogenic* is used for substances or processes that cause formation of atheroma. Economics --------- In 2011, coronary atherosclerosis was one of the top ten most expensive conditions seen during inpatient hospitalizations in the US, with aggregate inpatient hospital costs of $10.4 billion. Research -------- ### Lipids An indication of the role of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) on atherosclerosis has been with the rare Apo-A1 Milano human genetic variant of this HDL protein. A small short-term trial using bacterial synthesized human Apo-A1 Milano HDL in people with unstable angina produced a fairly dramatic reduction in measured coronary plaque volume in only six weeks vs. the usual increase in plaque volume in those randomized to placebo. The trial was published in *JAMA* in early 2006. Ongoing work starting in the 1990s may lead to human clinical trials—probably by about 2008.[*needs update*] These may use synthesized Apo-A1 Milano HDL directly, or they may use gene-transfer methods to pass the ability to synthesize the Apo-A1 Milano HDLipoprotein. Methods to increase HDL particle concentrations, which in some animal studies largely reverses and removes atheromas, are being developed and researched. However, increasing HDL by any means is not necessarily helpful. For example, the drug torcetrapib is the most effective agent currently known for raising HDL (by up to 60%). However, in clinical trials, it also raised deaths by 60%. All studies regarding this drug were halted in December 2006. The actions of macrophages drive atherosclerotic plaque progression. *Immunomodulation of atherosclerosis* is the term for techniques that modulate immune system function to suppress this macrophage action. Involvement of lipid peroxidation chain reaction in atherogenesis triggered research on the protective role of the heavy isotope (deuterated) polyunsaturated fatty acids (D-PUFAs) that are less prone to oxidation than ordinary PUFAs (H-PUFAs). PUFAs are essential nutrients – they are involved in metabolism in that very form as they are consumed with food. In transgenic mice, that are a model for human-like lipoprotein metabolism, adding D-PUFAs to diet indeed reduced body weight gain, improved cholesterol handling and reduced atherosclerotic damage to the aorta. ### miRNA MicroRNAs (miRNAs) have complementary sequences in the 3' UTR and 5' UTR of target mRNAs of protein-coding genes, and cause mRNA cleavage or repression of translational machinery. In diseased vascular vessels, miRNAs are dysregulated and highly expressed. miR-33 is found in cardiovascular diseases. It is involved in atherosclerotic initiation and progression including lipid metabolism, insulin signaling and glucose homeostatis, cell type progression and proliferation, and myeloid cell differentiation. It was found in rodents that the inhibition of miR-33 will raise HDL level and the expression of miR-33 is down-regulated in humans with atherosclerotic plaques. miR-33a and miR-33b are located on intron 16 of human sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2 (SREBP2) gene on chromosome 22 and intron 17 of SREBP1 gene on chromosome 17. miR-33a/b regulates cholesterol/lipid homeostatis by binding in the 3'UTRs of genes involved in cholesterol transport such as ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters and enhance or represses its expression. Study have shown that ABCA1 mediates transport of cholesterol from peripheral tissues to Apolipoprotein-1 and it is also important in the reverse cholesterol transport pathway, where cholesterol is delivered from peripheral tissue to the liver, where it can be excreted into bile or converted to bile acids prior to excretion. Therefore, we know that ABCA1 plays an important role in preventing cholesterol accumulation in macrophages. By enhancing miR-33 function, the level of ABCA1 is decreased, leading to decrease cellular cholesterol efflux to apoA-1. On the other hand, by inhibiting miR-33 function, the level of ABCA1 is increased and increases the cholesterol efflux to apoA-1. Suppression of miR-33 will lead to less cellular cholesterol and higher plasma HDL level through the regulation of ABCA1 expression. The sugar, cyclodextrin, removed cholesterol that had built up in the arteries of mice fed a high-fat diet. ### DNA damage Aging is the most important risk factor for cardiovascular problems. The causative basis by which aging mediates its impact, independently of other recognized risk factors, remains to be determined. Evidence has been reviewed for a key role of DNA damage in vascular aging. 8-oxoG, a common type of oxidative damage in DNA, is found to accumulate in plaque vascular smooth muscle cells, macrophages and endothelial cells, thus linking DNA damage to plaque formation. DNA strand breaks also increased in atherosclerotic plaques. Werner syndrome (WS) is a premature aging condition in humans. WS is caused by a genetic defect in a RecQ helicase that is employed in several repair processes that remove damages from DNA. WS patients develop a considerable burden of atherosclerotic plaques in their coronary arteries and aorta: calcification of the aortic valve is also frequently observed. These findings link excessive unrepaired DNA damage to premature aging and early atherosclerotic plaque development (see DNA damage theory of aging). ### Microorganisms The microbiota – all the microorganisms in the body, can contribute to atherosclerosis in many ways: modulation of the immune system, changes in metabolism, processing of nutrients and production of certain metabolites that can get into blood circulation. One such metabolite, produced by gut bacteria, is trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). Its levels have been associated with atherosclerosis in human studies and animal research suggest that there can be a causal relation. An association between the bacterial genes encoding trimethylamine lyases — the enzymes involved in TMAO generation — and atherosclerosis has been noted. ### Vascular smooth muscle cells Vascular smooth muscle cells play a key role in atherogenesis and were historically considered to be beneficial for plaque stability by forming a protective fibrous cap and synthesising strength-giving extracellular matrix components. However, in addition to the fibrous cap, vascular smooth muscle cells also give rise to many of the cell types found within the plaque core and can modulate their phenotype to both promote and reduce plaque stability. Vascular smooth muscle cells exhibit pronounced plasticity within atherosclerotic plaque and can modify their gene expression profile to resemble various other cell types, including macrophages, myofibroblasts, mesenchymal stem cells and osteochondrocytes. Importantly, genetic lineage‐tracing experiments have unequivocally shown that 40-90% of plaque-resident cells are vascular smooth muscle cell derived, therefore, it is important to research the role of vascular smooth muscle cells in atherosclerosis to identify new therapeutic targets.

Atherosclerosis

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atherosclerosis

The **Hindu calendar**, **Panchanga** (Sanskrit: पञ्चाङ्ग) or **Panjika** is one of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, with further regional variations for social and Hindu religious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, but differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka (Based on the King Shalivahana, also the Indian national calendar) found in the Deccan region of Southern India and the Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in Nepal and the North and Central regions of India – both of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In regions such as Tamil Nadu and Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Tamil calendar (though Tamil Calendar uses month names like in Hindu Calendar) and Malayalam calendar and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchangam (पञ्चाङ्गम्), which is also known as Panjika in Eastern India. The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Hebrew calendar, the Chinese calendar, and the Babylonian calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike the Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to the month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but inserts an extra full month, once every 32–33 months, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season. The Hindu calendars have been in use in the Indian subcontinent since Vedic times, and remain in use by the Hindus all over the world, particularly to set Hindu festival dates. Early Buddhist communities of India adopted the ancient Vedic calendar, later Vikrami calendar and then local Buddhist calendars. Buddhist festivals continue to be scheduled according to a lunar system. The Buddhist calendar and the traditional lunisolar calendars of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Thailand are also based on an older version of the Hindu calendar. Similarly, the ancient Jain traditions have followed the same lunisolar system as the Hindu calendar for festivals, texts and inscriptions. However, the Buddhist and Jain timekeeping systems have attempted to use the Buddha and the Mahavira's lifetimes as their reference points. The Hindu calendar is also important to the practice of Hindu astrology and zodiac system. It is also employed for observing the auspicious days of deities and occasions of fasting, such as Ekadashi. Origins ------- > > **Time keeping** > > > [The current year] minus one, > > multiplied by twelve, > > multiplied by two, > > added to the elapsed [half months of current year], > > increased by two for every sixty [in the sun], > > is the quantity of half-months (syzygies). > > > — Rigveda Jyotisha-vedanga 4 Translator: Kim Plofker The Vedic culture developed a sophisticated time keeping methodology and calendars for Vedic rituals, and timekeeping as well as the nature of solar and moon movements are mentioned in Vedic texts. For example, Kaushitaki Brahmana chapter 19.3 mentions the shift in the relative location of the sun towards north for 6 months, and south for 6 months. Time keeping was important to Vedic rituals, and *Jyotisha* was the Vedic era field of tracking and predicting the movements of astronomical bodies in order to keep time, in order to fix the day and time of these rituals. This study is one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Vedic Sanatan Sanskriti. Yukio Ohashi states that this Vedanga field developed from actual astronomical studies in ancient Vedic Period. The texts of Vedic Jyotisha sciences were translated into the Chinese language in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, and the Rigvedic passages on astronomy are found in the works of Zhu Jiangyan and Zhi Qian. According to Subhash Kak, the beginning of the Hindu calendar was much earlier. He cites Greek historians describing Maurya kings referring to a calendar which originated in 6676 BCE known as *Saptarsi* calendar. The Vikrami calendar is named after king Vikramaditya and starts in 57 BCE. Texts ----- Hindu scholars kept precise time by observing and calculating the cycles of Surya (the sun), moon and the planets. These calculations about the sun appear in various astronomical texts in Sanskrit, such as the 5th-century *Aryabhatiya* by Aryabhata, the 6th-century *Romaka* by Latadeva and *Panca Siddhantika* by Varahamihira, the 7th-century *Khandakhadyaka* by Brahmagupta and the 8th-century *Sisyadhivrddida* by Lalla. These texts present Surya and various planets and estimate the characteristics of the respective planetary motion. Other texts such as *Surya Siddhanta* dated to have been completed sometime between the 5th century and 10th century present their chapters on various deified planets with stories behind them. The manuscripts of these texts exist in slightly different versions. They present Surya, planet-based calculations and Surya's relative motion to earth. These vary in their data, suggesting that the text were open and revised over their lives. For example, the 1st millennium CE Hindu scholars calculated the sidereal length of a year as follows, from their astronomical studies, with slightly different results: Length of year in various Sanskrit texts| **Hindu text** | **Estimated length of the sidereal year** | | *Surya Siddhanta* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36.56 seconds | | *Paulica Siddhanta* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36 seconds | | *Paracara Siddhanta* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 31.50 seconds | | *Arya Siddhanta* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30.84 seconds | | *Laghu Arya Siddhanta* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 30 seconds | | *Siddhanta Shiromani* | 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 9 seconds | The Hindu texts used the lunar cycle for setting months and days, but the solar cycle to set the complete year. This system is similar to the Jewish and Babylonian ancient calendars, creating the same challenge of accounting for the mismatch between the nearly 354 lunar days in twelve months, versus over 365 solar days in a year. They tracked the solar year by observing the entrance and departure of *Surya* (sun, at sunrise and sunset) in the constellation formed by stars in the sky, which they divided into 12 intervals of 30 degrees each. Like other ancient human cultures, Hindus innovated a number of systems of which intercalary months became most used, that is adding another month every 32.5 months on average. As their calendar keeping and astronomical observations became more sophisticated, the Hindu calendar became more sophisticated with complex rules and greater accuracy. According to Scott Montgomery, the *Siddhanta* tradition at the foundation of Hindu calendars predate the Christian era, once had 18 texts of which only 5 have survived into the modern era. These texts provide specific information and formulae on motions of sun, moon and planets, to predict their future relative positions, equinoxes, rise and set, with corrections for prograde, retrograde motions, as well as parallax. These ancient scholars attempted to calculate their time to the accuracy of a *truti* (29.63 microseconds). In their pursuit of accurate tracking of relative movements of celestial bodies for their calendar, they had computed the mean diameter of the earth, which was very close to the actual 12,742 km (7,918 mi). Hindu calendars were refined during the Gupta era astronomy by Āryabhaṭa and Varāhamihira in the 5th to 6th century. These, in turn, were based in the astronomical tradition of *Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa*, which in the preceding centuries had been standardised in a number of (non-extant) works known as *Sūrya Siddhānta*. Regional diversification took place in the medieval period. The astronomical foundations were further developed in the medieval period, notably by Bhāskara II (12th century). ### Astrology Later, the term *Jyotisha* evolved to include Hindu astrology. The astrological application of the Hindu calendar was a field that likely developed in the centuries after the arrival of Greek astrology with Alexander the Great, because their zodiac signs are nearly identical. The ancient Hindu texts on Jyotisha only discuss timekeeping, and never mention astrology or prophecy. These ancient texts predominantly cover astronomy, but at a rudimentary level. Later medieval era texts such as the *Yavana-jataka* and the *Siddhanta* texts are more astrology-related. ### Balinese Hindu calendar Hinduism and Buddhism were the prominent religions of southeast Asia in the 1st millennium CE, prior to the Islamic conquest that started in the 14th century. The Hindus prevailed in Bali, Indonesia, and they have two types of Hindu calendar. One is a 210-day based Pawukon calendar which likely is a pre-Hindu system, and another is similar to lunisolar calendar system found in South India and it is called the Balinese saka calendar which uses Hindu methodology. The names of month and festivals of Balinese Hindus, for the most part, are different, though the significance and legends have some overlap. Astronomical basis ------------------ The Hindu calendar is based on a geocentric model of the solar system. A large part of this calendar is defined based on the movement of the sun and the moon around the earth (saura māna and cāndra māna respectively). Furthermore, it includes synodic, sidereal, and tropical elements. Many variants of the Hindu calendar have been created by including and excluding these elements (solar, lunar, lunisolar etc.) and are in use in different parts of India. Elements of the Hindu calendar| | synodic elements | sidereal elements | tropical elements | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **saura māna** | | rāśi, sauramāsa, varṣa | uttarāyaṇa, dakṣiṇāyana, devayāna, pitṛyāṇa, ṛtu | | **cāndra māna** | tithi, pakṣa, candramāsa, varṣa | | | | **nākṣatra māna** | | dina, ghaṭikā (aka nāḍī), vighaṭikā (aka vināḍī), prāṇa (aka asu) | | | **sāvana māna** | dina | | | Year: Samvat ------------ *Samvat* refers to era of the several Hindu calendar systems in Nepal and India, in a similar manner to the Christian era. There are several *samvat* found in historic Buddhist, Hindu and Jain texts and epigraphy, of which three are most significant: Vikrama era, Old Shaka era and Shaka era of 78 CE. * Vikram Samvat (Bikram Sambat): A northern Indian almanac which started in 57 BCE, and is also called the *Vikrama Era*. It is related to the Bikrami calendar, and is apocryphally linked to Vikramaditya. The year starts from the month of Baishakh / Vaishakha. This system is common in epigraphic evidence from northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent, particularly after the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE. * Shaka Samvat: There are two Shaka era systems in scholarly use, one is called *Old Shaka Era*, whose epoch is uncertain, probably sometime in the 1st millennium BCE because ancient Buddhist, Jain and Hindu inscriptions and texts use it. However, the starting point of Old Shaka Era is a subject of dispute among scholars. The second system is called *Saka Era of 78 AD*, or simply *Saka Era*, a system that is common in epigraphic evidence from southern India. * Saka era of Southeast Asia: The Hindu calendar system in Indonesia is attributed to the legend of Hindus arriving with a sage Aji Saka in 1st-century Java, in March 78 CE. Numerous ancient and medieval era texts and inscriptions found in Indonesian islands use this reference year. In mainland southeast Asia, the earliest verifiable use of Hindu Saka methodology in inscriptions is marked *Saka 533* in Ankor Borei, which corresponds to 611 CE, while the Kedukan Bukit inscription in Sumatra, containing three dates in *Saka 604* (682 CE), is the earliest known use of the Shaka era in the Indonesian islands. However, these inscriptions only set the floruit for the use of the Shaka era in these places, and the Hindu calendar likely existed in southeast Asia before these dates to be used in important monuments. Further, the Hindu calendar system remained popular among the Hindus through to the 15th century, and thereafter in Bali. * Indian national calendar (modern): combines many Hindu calendars into one official standardized one, but old ones remain in use. Months ------ ### Solar month and seasons The Hindu calendar divides the zodiac into twelve division called *rāśi*. The time taken by the Sun to transit through a *rāśi* is a solar month whose name is identical to the name of the *rāśi.* In practice, solar months are mostly referred as *rāśi* (not months). The solar months are named differently in different regional calendars. While the Malayalam calendar broadly retains the phonetic Sanskrit names, the Bengali and Tamil calendars repurpose the Sanskrit *lunar month names* (Chaitra, Vaishaka etc.) as follows: * The Tamil calendar replaces Mesha, Vrisha etc. with Chithirai, Vaigasi etc. * The Bengali calendar is similar to the Tamil calendar except in that it starts the year with Boiśākh (instead of Choitrô), followed by Jyoisthô etc. The Assamese and Odia calendars too are structured the same way. The solar months (*rāśi*) along with their equivalent names in the Bangali, Malayalam and Tamil calendar are given below: Solar month names in different Hindu calendars| # | Vikrami(solar) | Assamese | Bengali | Malayalam | Odia | Tamil | Tulu | Gregorian | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Mina | চ’ত (Söt) | চৈত্র (Choitrô) | മീനം (Mīnaṃ) | ଚୈତ୍ର (Caitra) | பங்குனி (Paṅguṉi) | Suggi | March–April | | 2 | Mēsha | ব’হাগ (Böhag) | বৈশাখ (Boiśākh) | മേടം (Mēḍaṃ) | ବୈଶାଖ (Baiśākha) | சித்திரை (Śittirai) | Paggu | April–May | | 3 | Vrisha | জেঠ (Zeth) | জ্যৈষ্ঠ (Jyoisthô) | ഇടവം (Iḍavaṃ) | ଜ୍ୟେଷ୍ଠ (Jyēṣṭha) | வைகாசி (Vaigāsi) | Beshya | May–June | | 4 | Mithuna | আহাৰ (Ahar) | আষাঢ় (Āsādh) | മിഥുനം (Mithunaṃ) | ଆଷାଢ଼ (Āṣāḍha) | ஆனி (Āṉi) | Kaarthel | June–July | | 5 | Karka | শাওণ (Xaün) | শ্রাবণ (Śrābôṇ) | കർക്കടകം (Karkkaṭakam) | ଶ୍ରାବଣ (Śrābaṇa) | ஆடி (Āḍi) | Aati | July–August | | 6 | Singa | ভাদ (Bhado) | ভাদ্র (Bhādrô) | ചിങ്ങം (Ciṅṅaṃ) | ଭାଦ୍ରବ (Bhādraba) or ଭାଦ୍ର (Bhādra) | ஆவணி (Āvaṇi) | Sōna | August–September | | 7 | Kanya | আহিন (Ahin) | আশ্বিন (Āśhshin) | കന്നി (Kanni) | ଆଶ୍ୱିନ (Āśvina) | புரட்டாசி (Puraṭṭāsi) | Nirnaal | September–October | | 8 | Tula | কাতি (Kati) | কার্তিক (Kārtik) | തുലാം (Tulāṃ) | କାର୍ତ୍ତିକ (Kārttika) | ஐப்பசி (Aippasi) | Bonthel | October–November | | 9 | Vrischika | আঘোণ (Aghün) | অগ্রহায়ণ (Ôgrôhāyôn) | വൃശ്ചികം (Vr̥ścikaṃ) | ମାର୍ଗଶିର (Mārgaśira) | கார்த்திகை (Kārttigai) | Jaarde | November–December | | 10 | Dhanus | পোহ (Puh) | পৌষ (Poush) | ധനു (Dhanu) | ପୌଷ (Pauṣa) | மார்கழி (Mārgaḻi) | Perarde | December–January | | 11 | Makara | মাঘ (Magh) | মাঘ (Māgh) | മകരം (Makaram) | ମାଘ (Māgha) | தை (Tai) | Puyinthel | January–February | | 12 | Kumbha | ফাগুন (Phagun) | ফাল্গুন (Phālgun) | കുംഭം (Kumbham) | ଫାଲ୍‌ଗୁନ (Phālguna) or ଫଗୁଣ (Phaguṇa) | மாசி (Māsi) | Maayi | February–March | The solar months (*rāśi*) along with the approximate correspondence to Hindu seasons and Gregorian months are: | Rāśi | Sidereal signs | Gregorianmonths | Ṛtu(season) | Ṛtu in Devanagari script | Bengali name for Ṛtu | Gujarati name for Ṛtu | Kannada name for Ṛtu | Kashmiri name for Ṛtu | Malayalam name for Ṛtu | Odia name for Ṛtu | Tamil name for Ṛtu | Telugu name for Ṛtu | Tibetan name for Ṛtu | Kalachakra tantra Tibetan-name for Ṛtu | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Mīna Mesh | ♓ ♈ | Mid March– Mid May | Vasanta (Spring) | वसन्त | বসন্ত (Bôsôntô) | વસંત ઋતુ (Vasaṃta r̥tu) | ವಸಂತ ಋತು (Vasaṃta Ṛtu) | سونٛتھ [sõ:tʰ] | വസന്തം‌ (Vasaṃtam) | ବସନ୍ତ (Basanta) | இளவேனில் (ilavenil) | వసంత ఋతువు (Vasaṃta Ṛtuvu) | དཔྱིད་ར་བ་དང་དཔྱིད་བར་མ (shid rawa, thang, shid warma) | དཔྱིད་ཀ (shid ka) | | Vṛṣabha Mithuna | ♉ ♊ | Mid May– Mid July | Grīṣma (Summer) | ग्रीष्म | গ্রীষ্ম (Grishsho) | ગ્રીષ્મ ઋતુ (Grīṣma r̥tu) | ಗ್ರೀಷ್ಮ ಋತು (Grīṣma Ṛtu) | گرٛێشِم [greʃim] | ഗ്രീഷ്മം (Grīṣmam) | ଗ୍ରୀଷ୍ମ (Grīṣma) | முதுவேனில் (mudhuvenil) | గ్రీష్మ ఋతువు (Grīṣma Ṛtuvu) | དཔྱིད་ཐ་མ་དང་དབྱར་ར་བ། (shid dama, thang, yar rawa) | སོ་ག(soga) | | Karkaṭa Siṃha | ♋ ♌ | Mid July– Mid Sep | Varṣā (Monsoon) | वर्षा | বর্ষা (Bôrsha) | વર્ષા ઋતુ (Varṣa r̥tu) | ವರ್ಷ ಋತು (Varṣa Ṛtu) | ؤہراتھ [wəhraːtʰ] | വര്‍ഷം‌ (Varṣām) | ବର୍ଷା (Barṣā) | கார் (kaar) | వర్ష ఋతువు (Varṣa Ṛtuvu) | དབྱར་བར་མ་དང་དབྱར་ཐ་མ (yarwarma, thang, yardama) | དབྱར་ག (yarka) | | Kanyā Tulā | ♍ ♎ | Mid Sep– Mid Nov | Śarada (Autumn) | शरद् | শরৎ(Shôrôt) | શરદ ઋતુ (Śarad r̥tu) | ಶರದೃತು (Śaradṛtu) | ہَرُد [harud] | ശരത്‌ (Śarat) | ଶରତ (Śarata) | குளிர் (kulir) | శరదృతువు (Śaradṛtuvu) | སྟོན་ར་བ་དང་སྟོན་བར་མ (ston rawa, thang, ston warma) | སྟོན་ཁ (stonka) | | Vṛścika Dhanu | ♏ ♐ | Mid Nov– Mid Jan | Hemanta (Pre-Winter) | हेमन्त | হেমন্ত (Hemôntô) | હેમંત ઋતુ (Hēmaṃta r̥tu) | ಹೇಮಂತ ಋತು (Hēmaṃta Ṛtu) | وَنٛدٕ [wandɨ] | ഹേമന്തം‌ (Hemantam) | ହେମନ୍ତ (Hemanta) | முன்பனி (munpani) | హేమంత ఋతువు (Hēmaṃta Ṛtuvu) | སྟོན་ཐ་མ་དང་དགུན་ར་བ (ston da ma, thang, dgun rawa) | དགུན་སྟོད (dgun stod) | | Makara Kumbha | ♑ ♒ | Mid Jan– Mid March | Śiśira (Winter) | शिशिर | শীত (Śeet) | શિશિર ઋતુ (Śiśira r̥tu) | ಶಿಶಿರ ಋತು (Śiśira Ṛtu) | شِشُر [ʃiʃur] | ശിശിരം‌ (Śiśiram) | ଶୀତ/ଶିଶିର (Śīta/Śiśira) | பின்பனி (pinpani) | శిశిర ఋతువు (Śiśira Ṛtuvu) | དགུན་བར་མ་དང་དགུན་ཐ་མ (dgun warma, thang, dgun dama) | དགུན་སྨད (dgun smad) | The names of the solar months are also used in the Darian calendar for the planet Mars. ### Lunar months Lunar months are defined based on lunar cycles, i.e. the regular occurrence of new moon and full moon and the intervening waxing and waning phases of the moon. #### Paksha A lunar month contains two fortnights called *pakṣa* (पक्ष, literally "side"). One fortnight is the bright, waxing half where the moon size grows and it ends in the full moon. This is called "Gaura Paksha" or *Shukla Paksha*. The other half is the darkening, waning fortnight which ends in the new moon. This is called "Vadhya Paksha" or *Krishna Paksha*. The Hindu festivals typically are either on or the day after the full moon night or the darkest night (*amavasya*, अमावास्या), except for some associated with Krishna, Durga or Rama. The lunar months of the hot summer and the busy major cropping-related part of the monsoon season typically do not schedule major festivals. #### Amanta and Purnimanta systems Two traditions have been followed in the Indian subcontinent with respect to lunar months: the amanta tradition, which ends the lunar month on new moon day (similar to the Islamic calendar) and the purnimanta tradition, which ends it on full moon day. As a consequence, in the amanta tradition, Shukla paksha precedes Krishna paksha in every lunar month, whereas in the purnimanta tradition, Krishna paksha precedes Shukla paksha in every lunar month. As a result, a Shukla paksha will always belong to the same month in both traditions, whereas a Krishna paksha will always be associated with different (but succeeding) months in each tradition. Variations in the naming of lunar months| | Krishna Paksha | Shukla Paksha | Krishna Paksha | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Amanta** | Phalguna | Chaitra | | **Purnimanta** | Chaitra | Vaishaka | The amanta (also known as Amavasyanta or Mukhyamana) tradition is followed by most Indian states that have a peninsular coastline (except Assam, West Bengal, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and Kerala, which use their own solar calendars). These states are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Nepal and most Indian states north of the Vindhya mountains follow the purnimanta (or Gaunamana) tradition. The purnimanta tradition was being followed in the Vedic era. It was replaced with the amanta tradition as the Hindu calendar system prior to the 1st century BCE, but the Purnimanta tradition was restored in 57 BCE by Vikramaditya, who wanted to return to the Vedic roots. The presence of this system is one of the factors considered in dating ancient Indian manuscripts and epigraphical evidence that have survived into the modern era. The two traditions of Amanta and Purnimanta systems have led to alternate ways of dating any festival or event that occurs in a Krishna paksha in the historic Hindu, Buddhist or Jain literature, and contemporary regional literature or festival calendars. For example, the Hindu festival of Maha Shivaratri falls on the fourteenth lunar day of *Magha's* Krishna paksha in the Amanta system, while the same exact day is expressed as the fourteenth lunar day of *Phalguna's* Krishna paksha in the Purnimanta system. Both lunisolar calendar systems are equivalent ways of referring to the same date, and they continue to be in use in different regions, though the Purnimanta system is now typically assumed as implied in modern Indology literature if not otherwise specified. #### List of Lunar Months The names of the Hindu months vary by region. Those Hindu calendars which are based on lunar cycle are generally phonetic variants of each other, while the solar cycle are generally variants of each other too, suggesting that the timekeeping knowledge travelled widely across the Indian subcontinent in ancient times. During each lunar month, the Sun transits into a sign of the zodicac (sankranti). The lunar month in which the Sun transits into Mesha is named Chaitra and designated as the first month of the lunar year. A few major calendars are summarized below: Lunar calendar month names in different Hindu calendars| # | Vikrami(lunar) | Sankranti | Hindi/Marathi | Kannada | Kashmiri | Maithili | Meitei (Manipuri) | Nepali | Punjabi | Sindhi | Telugu | Tulu | Tibetan | Gregorian | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Chaitra | Mēsha | चैत्र | ಚೈತ್ರ (Chaitra) | ژِتھٕر [t͡sitʰɨr] or ژٕتھٕر [t͡sɨtʰɨr] | 𑒔𑒻𑒞𑒱 (Chait) | ꯂꯝꯇꯥ (Lamta) | चैत (Chait) | ਚੇਤ (Chēt) | چيٽُ‎ (Chēṭu) | చైత్రము (Chaitramu) | Suggi | ནག་པ་ཟླ་བ | March–April | | 2 | Vaisākha | Vrisha | वैशाख | ವೈಶಾಖ (Vaisākha) | وَہؠکھ [wahʲakʰ] or بیساکھ [beːsaːkʰ] | 𑒥𑒻𑒮𑒰𑒐 (Baishakh) | ꯁꯖꯤꯕꯨ (Sajibu) | वैशाख (Baishākh) | ਵਸਾਖ (Vasākh) | ويساکُ‎ (Vēsāku) or وِهاءُ‎ (Vihāu) | వైశాఖము (Vaiśākhamu) | Paggu | ས་ག་ཟླ་བ | April–May | | 3 | Jyeshta | Mithuna | ज्येष्ठ | ಜ್ಯೇಷ್ಠ (Jyeshta) | زیٹھ [zeːʈʰ] | 𑒖𑒹𑒚 (Jeth) | ꯀꯥꯂꯦꯟ (Kalen) | जेठ (Jēṭh) | ਜੇਠ (Jēṭh) | ڄيٺُ (Jēṭhu) | జ్యేష్ఠము (Jyēsṭhamu) | Bēsha | སྣྲོན་ཟླ་བ | May–June | | 4 | Āshāda | Karka | आषाढ़ / आषाढ | ಆಷಾಢ (Āshāda) | ہار [haːr] | 𑒁𑒮𑒰𑒜𑓃 (Asadh) | ꯏꯉꯥ (Eenga) | असार (Asār) | ਹਾੜ੍ਹ (Hāṛh) | آکاڙُ‎ (Ākhāṛu) or آهاڙُ‎ (Āhāṛu) | ఆషాఢము (Āṣāḍhamu) | Kārtel | ཆུ་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ | June–July | | 5 | Shraavana | Singa | श्रावण | ಶ್ರಾವಣ (Shrāvana) | شرٛاوُن [ʃraːwun] | 𑒮𑒰𑒍𑒢 (Saon) | ꯏꯉꯦꯟ (Eengen) | साउन (Sāun) | ਸਾਓਣ (Sāoṇ) | سانوَڻُ (Sānvaṇu) | శ్రావణము (Śrāvaṇamu) | Aaṭi | གྲོ་བཞིན་ཟླ་བ | July–August | | 6 | Bhādra | Kanya | भाद्र / भाद्रपद | ಭಾದ್ರಪದ (Bhādrapada) | بٲدٕرپؠتھ [bəːdɨrpʲatʰ] or بٲدرؠتھ [bəːdrʲatʰ] or بٲدٕر [bəːdɨr] | 𑒦𑒰𑒠𑒼 (Bhado) | ꯊꯧꯋꯥꯟ (Thouwan) | भदौ (Bhadau) | ਭਾਦੋਂ (Bhādōn) or ਭਾਦਰੋਂ (Bhādrōn) | بَڊو‎ (Baḍo) or بَڊرو (Baḍro) | భద్రపదము (Bhadrapadamu) | Sona | ཁྲིམས་སྟོད་ཟླ་བ | August–September | | 7 | Ashwina | Tula | आश्विन | ಆಶ್ವಯುಜ (Āswayuja) | ٲشِد [əːʃid] | 𑒂𑒮𑒱𑒢 (Aasin) | ꯂꯥꯡꯕꯟ (Langban) | असोज (Asoj) | ਅੱਸੂ (Assū) | اَسُو (Asū) | ఆశ్వయుజము (Āśvayujamu) | Kanya/Nirnāl | ཐ་སྐར་ཟླ་བ | September–October | | 8 | Kartika | Vrischika | कार्तिक | ಕಾರ್ತೀಕ (Kārtika) | کارتِکھ [kaːrtikʰ] | 𑒏𑒰𑒞𑒱𑒏 (Katik) | ꯃꯦꯔꯥ (Mera) | कात्तिक (Kāttik) | ਕੱਤਕ (Kattak) | ڪَتِي (Katī) | కార్తికము (Kārtikamu) | Bontel | སྨིན་དྲུག་ཟླ་བ | October–November | | 9 | Mārgasirsa (Agrahayana) | Dhanus | मार्गशीर्ष | ಮಾರ್ಗಶಿರ (Mārgasira) | مَنٛجہۆر [mand͡ʒhor] or مۄنٛجہِ ہور [mɔnd͡ʒihoːr] or مَگَر [magar] | 𑒁𑒑𑒯𑒢 (Agahan) | ꯍꯤꯌꯥꯡꯀꯩ (Heeyangkei) | मंसिर (Mangsir) | ਮੱਘਰ (Magghar) | ناهرِي (Nāhrī) or مَنگهِرُ‎ (Manghiru) | మార్గశిరము(Mārgaśiramu) | Jārde | མགོ་ཟླ་བ | November–December | | 10 | Pausha | Makara | पौष | ಪುಷ್ಯ (Pushya) | پوہ [poːh] or پۄہ [pɔh] | 𑒣𑒴𑒮 (Poos) | ꯄꯣꯢꯅꯨ (Poinu) | पुष (Puṣ) | ਪੋਹ (Poh) | پوهُه (Pohu) | పుష్యము(Puṣyamu) | Perarde | རྒྱལ་ཟླ་བ | December–January | | 11 | Māgha | Kumbha | माघ | ಮಾಘ (Magha) | ماگ [maːg] | 𑒧𑒰𑒒 (Magh) | ꯋꯥꯛꯆꯤꯡ (Wakching) | माघ (Magh) | ਮਾਘ (Māgh) | مانگھُه (Mānghu) | మాఘము(Māghamu) | Puyintel | མཆུ་ཟླ་བ | January–February | | 12 | Phālguna | Mina | फाल्गुण / फाल्गुन | ಫಾಲ್ಗುಣ (Phalguna) | پھاگُن [pʰaːgun] | 𑒤𑒰𑒑𑒳𑒢 (Fagun) | ꯐꯥꯢꯔꯦꯜ (Fairel) | फागुन (Phagun) | ਫੱਗਣ (Phaggaṇ) | ڦَڳُڻُ (Phaguṇu) | ఫాల్గుణము (Phālguṇamu) | Māyi | དབོ་ཟླ་བ | February–March | ### Corrections between lunar and solar months Twelve Hindu mas (māsa, lunar month) are equal to approximately 354 days, while the length of a sidereal (solar) year is about 365 days. This creates a difference of about eleven days, which is offset every (29.53/10.63) = 2.71 years, or approximately every 32.5 months. Purushottam Maas or Adhik Maas is an extra month that is inserted to keep the lunar and solar calendars aligned. The twelve months are subdivided into six lunar seasons timed with the agriculture cycles, blooming of natural flowers, fall of leaves, and weather. To account for the mismatch between lunar and solar calendar, the Hindu scholars adopted intercalary months, where a particular month just repeated. The choice of this month was not random, but timed to sync back the two calendars to the cycle of agriculture and nature. The repetition of a month created the problem of scheduling festivals, weddings and other social events without repetition and confusion. This was resolved by declaring one month as *Shudha* (pure, clean, regular, proper, also called *Deva* month) and the other *Mala* or *Adhika* (extra, unclean and inauspicious, also called Asura masa). The Hindu mathematicians who calculated the best way to adjust the two years, over long periods of a *yuga* (era, tables calculating 1000 of years), they determined that the best means to intercalate the months is to time the intercalary months on a 19-year cycle, similar to the Metonic cycle used in the Hebrew calendar. This intercalation is generally adopted in the 3rd, 5th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 16th and 19th year of this cycle. Further, the complex rules rule out the repetition of Mārgasirsa (also called *Agrahayana*), Pausha and Maagha lunar months. The historic Hindu texts are not consistent on these rules, with competing ideas flourishing in the Hindu culture. #### Rare corrections The Hindu calendar makes further rare adjustments, over a cycle of centuries, where a certain month is considered *kshaya* month (dropped). This occurs because of the complexity of the relative lunar, solar and earth movements. Underhill (1991) describes this part of Hindu calendar theory: "when the sun is in perigee, and a lunar month being at its longest, if the new moon immediately precedes a samkranti, then the first of the two lunar months is deleted (called *nija* or *kshaya*)." This, for example, happened in the year 1 BCE, when there was no new moon between Makara samkranti and Kumbha samkranti, and the month of Pausha was dropped. Day --- Just like months, the Hindu calendar has two measures of a day, one based on the lunar movement and the other on solar. The solar (*saura*) day or civil day, called *divasa* (दिवस), has been what most Hindus traditionally use, is easy and empirical to observe, with or without a clock, and it is defined as the period from one sunrise to another. The lunar day is called *tithi* (तिथि), and this is based on complicated measures of lunar movement. A lunar day or *tithi* may, for example, begin in the middle of an afternoon and end next afternoon. Both these days do not directly correspond to a mathematical measure for a day such as equal 24 hours of a solar year, a fact that the Hindu calendar scholars knew, but the system of *divasa* was convenient for the general population. The *tithi* have been the basis for timing rituals and festivals, while *divasa* for everyday use. The Hindu calendars adjust the mismatch in *divasa* and *tithi*, using a methodology similar to the solar and lunar months. A *tithi* is technically defined in Vedic texts, states John E. Cort, as "the time required by the combined motions of the sun and moon to increase (in a bright fortnight) or decrease (in a dark fortnight) their relative distance by twelve degrees of the zodiac. These motions are measured using a fixed map of celestial zodiac as reference, and given the elliptical orbits, a duration of a *tithi* varies between 21.5 and 26 hours, states Cort. However, in the Indian tradition, the general population's practice has been to treat a tithi as a solar day between one sunrise to next. A lunar month has 30 *tithi*. The technical standard makes each *tithi* contain different number of hours, but helps the overall integrity of the calendar. Given the variation in the length of a solar day with seasons, and moon's relative movements, the start and end time for *tithi* varies over the seasons and over the years, and the *tithi* adjusted to sync with *divasa* periodically with intercalation. ### Weekday/Vāsara *Vāsara* refers to the weekdays in Sanskrit. Also referred to as *Vara* and used as a suffix. The correspondence between the names of the week in Hindu and other Indo-European calendars are exact. This alignment of names probably took place sometime during the 3rd century CE. The weekday of a Hindu calendar has been symmetrically divided into 60 *ghatika*, each *ghatika* (24 minutes) is divided into 60 *pala*, each *pala* (24 seconds) is subdivided into 60 *vipala*, and so on. Names of the weekdays in different languages| No. | Sanskrit | Latin weekday | Celestial object | Assamese | Bengali | Bhojpuri | Gujarati | Hindi | Kannada | Kashmiri | Konkani | Malayalam | Maithili | Marathi | Meitei(Manipuri) | Nepali | Odia | Punjabi(Hindus and Sikhs) | Sindhi | Sylheti | Tamil | Telugu | Urdu | Balinese | Cham | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | Ravivāsara रविवासर or Aditya vāsara आदित्य वासर | Sunday/dies Solis | Ravi, Aditya = Sun | Dêûbār/Rôbibār দেওবাৰ/ৰবিবাৰ | Rôbibār রবিবার | Aitwār अतवार | Ravivār રવિવાર | Ravivār रविवार | Bhānuvāra ಭಾನುವಾರ | [aːtʰwaːr] آتھوار | Āytār आयतार | Njaayar ഞായർ | Ravidin 𑒩𑒫𑒱𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Ravivāra रविवार | Nongmaijingꯅꯣꯡꯃꯥꯏꯖꯤꯡ | Aaitabar आइतवार | Rabibāra ରବିବାର | Aitvār ਐਤਵਾਰ | Ācharu آچَرُ or Ārtvāru آرتوارُ‎ | Rôibbār ꠞꠂꠛ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ | Nyayiru ஞாயிறு | Ādivāraṁ ఆదివారం | Itvār اتوار | Redite ᬋᬤᬶᬢᭂ | Adit | | 2 | Somavāsara सोमवासर or Indu vāsara इन्दु वासर | Monday/dies Lunae | Soma (deity), Chandra = Moon | Xûmbār সোমবাৰ | Śombār সোমবার | Somār सोमार | Sōmavār સોમવાર | Somavār सोमवार | Sōmavāra ಸೋಮವಾರ | [t͡səndrɨwaːr] ژٔنٛدرٕوار | Somaar सोमार | Thinkal തിങ്കൾ | Somdin 𑒮𑒼𑒧𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Somavāra सोमवार | Ningthoukabaꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧꯀꯥꯕ | Sombar सोमवार | Somabāra ସୋମବାର | Somavār ਸੋਮਵਾਰ | Sūmaru سُومَرُ | Śombār ꠡꠝ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ | Thingal திங்கள் | Sōmavāraṁ సోమవారం | Somvār سوموار or Pīr پیر | Soma ᬲᭀᬫ | Thom | | 3 | Maṅgalavāsara मङ्गलवासर or Bhaumavāsara भौम वासर | Tuesday/dies Martis | Maṅgala = Mars | Môṅôlbār/Môṅgôlbār মঙলবাৰ/মঙ্গলবাৰ | Môṅgôlbār মঙ্গলবার | Mangar मंगर | Maṅgaḷavār મંગળવાર | Maṅgalavār मंगलवार | Maṁgaḷavāra ಮಂಗಳವಾರ | [boːmwaːr] بوموار or [bɔ̃waːr] بۄنٛوار | Mangaḷār मंगळार | Chovva ചൊവ്വ | Maṅgaldin 𑒧𑓀𑒑𑒪𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Maṅgaḷavāra मंगळवार | Leipakpokpaꯂꯩꯄꯥꯛꯄꯣꯛꯄ | Mangalbar मङ्गलवार | Maṅgaḷabāra ମଙ୍ଗଳବାର | Maṅgalavār ਮੰਗਲਵਾਰ | Mangalu مَنگلُ or Angāro اَنڱارو | Môṅgôlbār ꠝꠋꠉꠟ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ | Chevvai செவ்வாய் | Maṁgaḷavāraṁ మంగళవారం | Mangal منگل | Anggara ᬳᬂᬕᬭ | Angar | | 4 | Budhavāsara बुधवासर or Saumya vāsara सौम्य वासर | Wednesday/dies Mercurii | Budha = Mercury | Budhbār বুধবাৰ | Budhbār বুধবার | Buddh बुध | Budhavār બુધવાર | Budhavāra बुधवार | Budhavāra ಬುಧವಾರ | [bɔdwaːr] بۄدوار | Budhavār बुधवार | Budhan ബുധൻ | Budhdin 𑒥𑒳𑒡𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Budhavāra बुधवार | Yumsakeisaꯌꯨꯝꯁꯀꯩꯁ | Budhabar बुधवार | Budhabāra ବୁଧବାର | Buddhavār ਬੁੱਧਵਾਰ | Budharu ٻُڌَرُ or Arbā اَربع | Budbār ꠛꠥꠗ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ | Budhan புதன் | Budhavāraṁ బుధవారం | Budh بدھ | Buda ᬩᬸᬤ | But | | 5 | Guruvāsara गुरुवासर or Brhaspati vāsara बृहस्पतिवासर | Thursday/dies Iovis/Jupiter | Deva-Guru Bṛhaspati = Jupiter | Brihôspôtibār বৃহস্পতিবাৰ | Brihôśpôtibār বৃহস্পতিবার | Bi'phey बियफे | Guruvār ગુરુવાર | Guruvār गुरुवार or Brihaspativāra बृहस्पतिवार | Guruvāra ಗುರುವಾರ | [braswaːr] برَٛسوار or [brʲaswaːr] برٛؠسوار | Birestār बिरेस्तार | Vyaazham വ്യാഴം | Brihaspatidin 𑒥𑒵𑒯𑒮𑓂𑒣𑒞𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Guruvāra गुरुवार | Sagolsenꯁꯒꯣꯜꯁꯦꯟ | Bihibar बिहीवार | Gurubāra ଗୁରୁବାର | Vīravār ਵੀਰਵਾਰ | Vispati وِسپَتِ‎ or Khamīsa خَميِسَ‎ | Birôiśôtbār ꠛꠤꠡꠥꠗꠛꠣꠞ | Vyazhan வியாழன் | Guruvāraṁ, Br̥haspativāraṁ గురువారం, బృహస్పతివారం, లక్ష్మీవారం | Gurūvār گرووار or Jume'rāt جمعرات | Wrespati ᬯ᭄ᬭᭂᬲ᭄ᬧᬢᬶ | Jip | | 6 | Śukravāsara शुक्रवासर | Friday/dies Veneris | Śukra = Venus | Xukurbār/Xukrôbār শুকুৰবাৰ/শুক্রবাৰ | Śukrôbār শুক্রবার | Sukkar सुक्कर | Śukravār શુક્રવાર | Śukravār शुक्रवार | Śukravāra ಶುಕ್ರವಾರ | [ʃokurwaːr] شۆکُروار or [jumaːh] جُمعہ | Shukrār शुक्रार | Velli വെള്ളി | Śukradin 𑒬𑒳𑒏𑓂𑒩𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Śukravāra शुक्रवार | Eeraiꯏꯔꯥꯢ | Sukrabar शुक्रवार | Sukrabāra ଶୁକ୍ରବାର | Śukkaravār ਸ਼ੁੱਕਰਵਾਰ | Śukru شُڪرُ or Jum'o جُمعو | Śukkurbār ꠡꠥꠇ꠆ꠇꠥꠞ꠆ꠛꠣꠞ/ꠎꠥꠝ꠆ꠝꠣꠛꠣꠞ | Velli வெள்ளி | Śukravāraṁ శుక్రవారం | Śukarvār شکروار or Juma'a جمع | Sukra ᬲᬸᬓ᭄ᬭ | Suk | | 7 | Śanivāsara शनिवासर Or Śaniścaravāsara शनिश्चरवासर | Saturday/dies Saturnis | Śani = Saturn | Xônibār শনিবাৰ | Śônibār শনিবার | Sanichchar सनिच्चर | Śanivār શનિવાર | Śanivār शनिवार | Śanivāra ಶನಿವಾರ | [baʈɨwaːr] بَٹہٕ وار | Shenvār शेनवार | Shani ശനി | Śanidin 𑒬𑒢𑒲𑒠𑒱𑒢 | Śanivāra शनिवार | Thangjaꯊꯥꯡꯖ | Sanibar शनिवार | Sanibāra ଶନିବାର | Śanīvār ਸ਼ਨੀਵਾਰ orŚaniccharvār ਸ਼ਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ orSaniccharvār ਸਨਿੱਚਰਵਾਰ orSanīvār ਸਨੀਵਾਰ | Chancharu ڇَنڇَرُ‎ or Śanscharu شَنسچَرُ | Śônibār ꠡꠘꠤꠛꠣꠞ | Shani சனி | Śanivāraṁ శనివారం | Sanīchar سنیچر or Haftah ہفتہ | Saniscara ᬲᬦᬶᬲ᭄ᬘᬭ | Thanchar | 1. ↑ Punjabi Muslims use Urdu/Arabic words for Friday / Saturday etc. The term **-vāsara** is often realised as **vāra** or **vaar** in Sanskrit-derived and influenced languages. There are many variations of the names in the regional languages, mostly using alternate names of the celestial bodies involved. ### Five limbs of time The complete Vedic calendars contain five *angas* or parts of information: lunar day (tithi), solar day (diwas), asterism (naksatra), planetary joining (yoga) and astronomical period (karanam). This structure gives the calendar the name *Panchangam*. The first two are discussed above. #### Yoga The Sanskrit word Yoga means "union, joining, attachment", but in astronomical context, this word means latitudinal and longitudinal information. The longitude of the sun and the longitude of the moon are added, and normalised to a value ranging between 0° to 360° (if greater than 360, one subtracts 360). This sum is divided into 27 parts. Each part will now equal 800' (where ' is the symbol of the arcminute which means 1/60 of a degree). These parts are called the *yogas*. They are labelled: 1. Viṣkambha 2. Prīti 3. Āyuśmān 4. Saubhāgya 5. Śobhana 6. Atigaṇḍa 7. Sukarma 8. Dhrti 9. Śūla 10. Gaṇḍa 11. Vṛddhi 12. Dhruva 13. Vyāghatā 14. Harṣaṇa 15. Vajra 16. Siddhi 17. Vyatipāta 18. Variyas 19. Parigha 20. Śiva 21. Siddha 22. Sādhya 23. Śubha 24. Śukla 25. Brahma 26. Māhendra 27. Vaidhṛti Again, minor variations may exist. The *yoga* that is active during sunrise of a day is the prevailing *yoga* for the day. #### Karaṇa A **karaṇa** is half of a **tithi**. To be precise, a karaṇa is the time required for the angular distance between the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6° starting from 0°. (Compare with the definition of a tithi.) Since the tithis are 30 in number, and since 1 tithi = 2 karaṇas, therefore one would logically expect there to be 60 karaṇas. But there are only 11 such karaṇas which fill up those slots to accommodate for those 30 tithis. There are actually 4 "fixed" (sthira) karaṇas and 7 "repeating" (cara) karaṇas. The 4 "fixed" karaṇas are: 1. Śakuni (शकुनि) 2. Catuṣpāda (चतुष्पाद) 3. Nāga (नाग) 4. Kiṃstughna (किंस्तुघ्न) The 7 "repeating" karaṇas are: 1. Vava or Bava (बव) 2. Valava or Bālava (बालव) 3. Kaulava (कौलव) 4. Taitila or Taitula (तैतिल) 5. Gara or Garaja (गरज) 6. Vaṇija (वणिज) 7. Viṣṭi (Bhadra) (भद्रा) * Now the first half of the 1st *tithi* (of Śukla Pakṣa) is always *Kiṃtughna karaṇa*. Hence this **karaṇa** is "fixed". * Next, the 7-repeating karaṇas repeat eight times to cover the next 56 half-*tithis*. Thus these are the "repeating" (cara) karaṇas. * The 3 remaining half-*tithis* take the remaining "fixed" karaṇas in order. Thus these are also "fixed" (sthira). * Thus one gets 60 karaṇas from those 11 preset karaṇas. The Vedic day begins at sunrise. The karaṇa at sunrise of a particular day shall be the prevailing karaṇa for the whole day. (citation needed ) #### Nakshatra Nakshatras are divisions of ecliptic, each 13° 20', starting from 0° Aries. Festival calendar: Solar and Lunar dates ---------------------------------------- Many holidays in the Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina traditions are based on the lunar cycles in the lunisolar timekeeping with foundations in the Hindu calendar system. A few holidays, however, are based on the solar cycle, such as the Vaisakhi, Pongal and those associated with Sankranti. The dates of the lunar cycle based festivals vary significantly on the Gregorian calendar and at times by several weeks.The solar cycle based ancient Hindu festivals almost always fall on the same Gregorian date every year and if they vary in an exceptional year, it is by one day. Regional variants ----------------- The Hindu Calendar Reform Committee, appointed in 1952, identified more than thirty well-developed calendars, in use across different parts of India. Variants include the lunar emphasizing *Vikrama*, the *Shalivahana* calendars, as well as the solar emphasizing Tamil calendar and Malayalam calendar. The two calendars most widely used today are the *Vikrama* calendar, which is in followed in western and northern India and Nepal, the Shalivahana Shaka calendar which is followed in the Deccan region of India (Comprising present day Indian states of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Goa). ### Lunar Calendars based on lunar cycle (lunar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates and new year): * Vikram Samvat + Vikrami era – North and Central India (Lunar) + Gujarati samvat – Gujarat, Rajasthan + Sindhi samvat – Sindhis * Shalivahana calendar (Shaka era) – Used in Deccan region states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana * Saptarishi era calendar – Kashmiri Pandits * Nepal Sambat – Nepal, Sikkim * Meitei calendar – Manipur ### Solar Calendars based on solar cycle (solar months in solar year, lunar phase for religious dates but new year which falls on solar date – South and Southeast Asian solar New Year): * Assamese calendar – Assam * Bengali calendar – West Bengal * Odia calendar – Odisha * Tirhuta Panchang – Maithilis * Tripuri calendar – Tripura * Malayalam calendar – Kerala * Tamil calendar – Tamil Nadu * Tulu calendar – Tulus * Vikram Samvat calendar - Nepal + + Vi– North and Central India (Solar) + Bikram Sambat – Nepal, Sikkim ### Other related calendars across India and Asia * Indian national calendar – used by Indian Government (civil calendar based on solar months) * Vira Nirvana Samvat (Lunar) – Jain * * Buddhist calendar (Lunar) – Buddhist * Tibetan calendar (Lunar) – Tibet, Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh * Pawukon calendar – Bali * Balinese saka calendar (Lunar) – Bali * Cham calendar (Lunar) – Chams * Chula Sakarat (Lunar) – Myanmar * Thai solar calendar – Thailand * Thai lunar calendar – Thailand * Khmer calendar (Lunar & Solar) – Cambodia See also -------- * Hinduism * Panjika * Sankranti * Ekadashi * Panchangam * Kollam era * Hindu astrology * Hindu units of time * Malayalam calendar * List of Hindu festivals * Hindu units of measurement * List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties * Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar Further reading --------------- * Reingold and Dershowitz, *Calendrical Calculations, Millennium Edition*, Cambridge University Press, latest 2nd edition 3rd printing released November 2004. ISBN 0-521-77752-6 * S. Balachandra Rao, *Indian Astronomy: An Introduction*, Universities Press, Hyderabad, 2000. * Rai Bahadur Pandit Gaurishankar Hirachand Ojha, *The Paleography of India*, 2 ed., Ajmer, 1918, reprinted Manshuram Manoharlal publishers, 1993. **This article contains Indic text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks or boxes, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Indic text.

Hindu calendar

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_calendar

**Kish** (Sumerian: Kiš; transliteration: Kiški; cuneiform: 𒆧𒆠; Akkadian: kiššatu, near modern **Tell al-Uhaymir**) is an important archaeological site in Babil Governorate (Iraq), located 80 kilometers south of Baghdad and 12 kilometers east of the ancient city of Babylon. The Ubaid period site of Ras al-Amiyah is 8 kilometers away. It was occupied from the Ubaid to Hellenistic periods. In Early Dynastic times the city's patron deity was Inanna with her consort Enki. Her temple, at Tell Ingharra, was (E)-hursag-kalama. By Old Babylonian times the patron deities had become Zababa, along with his consort, the goddess Bau and Istar. His temple Emeteursag (later Ekišiba) was at Uhaimir. History ------- Kish was occupied from the Ubaid period (c.5300-4300 BC), gaining prominence as one of the pre-eminent powers in the region during the Early Dynastic Period when it reached its maximum extent of 230 hectares. ### 3rd MIllennium BC The *Sumerian king list* states that Kish was the first city to have kings following the deluge, beginning with Ĝushur. Ĝushur's successor is called Kullassina-bel, but this is actually a sentence in Akkadian meaning "All of them were lord". Thus, some scholars have suggested that this may have been intended to signify the absence of a central authority in Kish for a time. The names of the next nine kings of Kish preceding Etana are Nanĝišlišma, En-tarah-ana, Babum, Puannum, Kalibum, Kalumum, Zuqaqip, Aba, Mašda, and Arwium. Archaeological finds from the Uruk period indicate that the site was part of the Uruk Expansion and hence originally Sumerian and Sumerian language speaking. Ignace Gelb identified Kish as the center of the earliest East Semitic culture which he calls the Kish civilization, however the concept was discarded by more recent scholarship in 2021. The twenty-first king of Kish on the list, Enmebaragesi, who is said to have captured the weapons of Elam, is the first name confirmed by archaeological finds from his reign. He is also known through other literary references, in which he and his son Aga of Kish are portrayed as contemporary rivals of Dumuzid, the Fisherman, and Gilgamesh, early rulers of Uruk. Some early kings of Kish are known through archaeology, but are not named on the King list. It can be difficult to determine if these are actually rulers of Kish or had merely adopted the common appellation "King of Kish". These include Utug or Uhub, said to have defeated Hamazi in the earliest days, and Mesilim, who built temples in Adab and Lagash, where he seems to have exercised some control. Two other examples were the sleeve of a Early Dynatic II bronze sword found at Girsu which read "Lugal-namni[r]-sum (is) king of Kis" and a statue fragment found at Nippur which read "Enna-il, king of Kis". After its early supremacy, Kish declined economically and militarily, but retained a strong political and symbolic significance. Its influence reached as far west as the city of Ebla near the Mediterranean Sea, as shown by the Ebla tablets. Just as with Nippur to the south, control of Kish was a prime element in legitimizing dominance over the north of Mesopotamia. Because of the city's symbolic value, strong rulers later claimed the traditional title "*King of Kish*", even if they were from Akkad, Ur, Assyria, Isin, Larsa or Babylon. One of the earliest to adopt this title upon subjecting Kish to his empire was King Mesannepada of Ur. Sargon of Akkad, the founder of the Akkadian Empire, came from the area near Kish, called Azupiranu according to a much later Neo-Assyrian text purporting to be an autobiography of Sargon. ### Old Babylonian period By the early part of the First Dynasty of Babylon Kish was under the control of Babylon with the tenth year name of ruler Sumu-abum (c. 1897–1883 BC) being "Year in which (Sumu-abum) made for Kish its city wall (reaching) heaven" (repeated in following year). Not long afterward, Kish was conquered by Sumuel of Larsa as reflected in his eleventh year name "Year the army of Kisz was smitten by weapons", repeated in the following three year names. In the 13th year of Sumu-la-El he reports destroying Kish (repeated in following four years) and then destroying the city wall of Kish in his 19th year and in his 30th year "Year the temple of Zababa, the Emeteursag / the house, ornament of the heros (Zababa), was built". At this point Kish came under the control of the city-state of Eshnunna under rulers DIpiq-Adad II and DNaram-Sin. By the time of Babylon ruler Sin-Muballit (c. 1813-1792 BC), father of Hammurabi, Kish was firmly under the control of Babylon and would stay that way until the waning days of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The rulers of Babylon at its peak of power, Hammurabi and Samsu-iluna, are known to have done extensive construction at Kish including rebuilding the city wall. By this time, the eastern settlement at Hursagkalama had become viewed as a distinct city, and it was probably not included in the walled area. At some period or periods during the Old Babylonian time Kish was under the control of a series of rulers generally called the "Manana Synasty". Most of what is known comes from two illicitly excavated archive thought to be from the town of Damrum, near Kish. These rulers include Iawian, Halium, Abdi-Erah, Manana, and four others. Several year names of Iawium are known including "Year Sumu-ditana died". Samsu-Ditana was the last ruler of the First Dynaty of Babylon. One ruler, Ashduniarim is known from a long inscription on a clay foundation cone found at Kish. > "Ašdũni-iarīm, the mighty man, beloved of Ištar, favored by Zababa, king of Kiš, when the world quarters four became hostile to me, for eight years battle I waged, and in the eighth year my opponent to clay indeed turned. ... " > > ### Later history The succeeding Kassite dynasty moved the capital from Babylon to Dur-Kurigalzu and Kish was diminished though there is some evidence of Kassite activity there. Afterward Kish appears to have significantly declined in importance as it is only mentioned in a few documents from the later second millennium BC. During the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, Kish is mentioned more frequently in texts. However, by this time, Kish proper (Tell al-Uhaymir) had been almost completely abandoned, and the settlement that texts from this period call "Kish" was probably Hursagkalama (Tell Ingharra). After the Achaemenid period, Kish completely disappears from the historical record; however, archaeological evidence indicates that the town remained in existence for a long time thereafter. Although the site at Tell al-Uhaymir was mostly abandoned, Tell Ingharra was revived during the Parthian period, growing into a sizeable town with a large mud-brick fortress. During the Sasanian period, the site of the old city was completely abandoned in favor of a string of connected settlements spread out along both sides of the Shatt en-Nil canal. This last incarnation of Kish prospered under Sasanian and then Islamic rule, before finally abandoned during the later years of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258). Archaeology ----------- Kish is located 12 kilometers east of the ancient city of Babylon and 80 km (50 mi) south of modern Baghdad. The Kish archaeological site is an oval area roughly 8 by 3 km (5 by 2 mi), transected into east and west sections by the dry former bed of the Euphrates River, encompassing around 40 mounds scattered over an area of about 24 square kilometers, the largest being Uhaimir and Ingharra. After irregularly excavated tablets began appearing at the beginning of the twentieth century, François Thureau-Dangin identified the site as being Kish. Those tablets ended up in a variety of museums. Because of its close proximity to Babylon (of which early explorers believed it was part) the site was visited by a number of explorers and travelers in the 19th century, some involving excavation, most notably by the foreman of Hormuzd Rassam who dug there with a crew of 20 men for a number of months. Austen Henry Layard and also Julius Oppert dug some trenches there in the early 1852 though the finds were lost in the Qurnah Disaster. None of this early work was published. The name of the site as Kish was determined by George Smith in 1872 based on an inscribed brick of Adad-apla-iddina which had been discovered 60 years before. A French archaeological team under Henri de Genouillac excavated at Tell Uhaimir for three months in January 1912, finding some 1,400 Old Babylonian tablets which were distributed to the Istanbul Archaeology Museum and the Louvre. He also excavated at a Neo-Babylonian monumental building on Tell Ingharra. At Tell Bander he uncovered Parthian materials. Later, a joint Field Museum and University of Oxford team under Stephen Langdon excavated from 1923 to 1933, with the recovered materials split between Chicago and the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. Seventeen different mounds were excavated but the main focus of the excavations was at Tell Ingharra and Tell Uhaimir. The actual excavations at Tell Uhaimir were led initially by E. MacKay and later by L. C. Watelin. Work on the faunal and flora remains was conducted by Henry Field. A bone awl from Phase 2 in the YWN area, the transition between Early Dynastic and Akkadian periods, was accelerator radiocarbon dated to 2471–2299 BC (3905 ± 27 C14 years BP). A surface survey of Kish and the area around it was conducted in 1966-1967. It showed that there were villages at Uhaimir and Ingharra in the Ubaid and Protoliterate periods. These expanded into two cites in ED I and reached a peak in Ed III with Ingharra becoming the larger city at that time. The site was lightly occupied in the Akkadian period with modest towns on Ingharra and Mound W. During Ur III, Isin-Larsa, and Old Babylonian times there was a revival mostly centered around Uhaimir. The later half of the 2nd millennium BC showed light occupation , all on Mound W. In the Neo-Babylonian period the rivercourse shifted from north to west, with Uhaimir having a large temple with associated fort, a major temple on Ingharra, and a major town on Mound W. The Achaemenid/Seleucid settlement was limited to the western end of Uhaimir. The Parthian and Sassanian periods showed light occupation, except for Tell Bandar. More recently, a Japanese team from the Kokushikan University led by Hideo Fuji and Ken Matsumoto excavated at Tell Uhaimir in 1989-89, 2000, and 2001. The final season lasted only one week. Work was focused mainly on Tell A with some time spent at the plano-convex building. In the Chicago expedition to Kish in 1923-1933, several other sections are included: * Tell Ingharra – Twin ziggurats and Neo-Babylonian Temple Complex. * Area P: Located in the Northern part of Kish which the Plano-convex Building resided * Mound A, which includes a palace and a cemetery * Tell H, identified roughly as "The Sasanian Settlement" ### Tell Uhaimir This site consists of three subtells (T, X, and Z). Tell Z was the location of one of the main ziggurats and where temples had been built and rebuilt from the Old Babylonian to the Neo-Babylonian periods. At Tell X a 1st Millennium BC fort was uncovered and at Tell T some Old Babylonian structures were found. Between Uhaimir and Ingharra are three smaller tells and further east Tell W where Neo-Assyrian tablets as well as an entire Neo-Babylonian archive was found consisting of about 1000 tablets. ### Tell Ingharra Located in the eastern side of the ancient Kish, Tell Ingharra was extensively explored during the Chicago excavation and provided the best known archaeological sequence in the 3rd millennium BC site. The site consists of several subtells (A, B, D, E, F, G, H, and Tell Bandar which is made up of Tells C and V). In particular, the 1923 excavation concentrated heavily on mound E with its twin ziggurats, while the roughly 130 meter square Neo-Babylonian temple, built on an Early Dynastic plano-copnvex platform, was one of the two buildings that was properly described in a published report. The twin ziggurats were built of small plano-convex bricks in a herringbone fashion on the summit of Tell Ingharra. The larger one is located on the south-west side of the temple and the smaller one on the south-east side. The excavation report mainly focused on the larger ziggurat while there had been only one report on the smaller one by Mackay. Based on the findings from the larger ziggurat, it is suggested that the structures were built at the end of the Early Dynastic IIIa period to commemorate the city. The fascination of the ziggurats was interesting to the excavators as it was the only Early Dynastic structure that was not destroyed or obscured by later reconstructions, which was why it provided valuable evidence of that time period. As for the temple complex, the findings of the temple had determined that the mound was part of the city of Hursagkalama. It was used as an active religious centre until after 482 BC. They also had identified the builder as Nabonidus or Nebuchadnezzar II based on the bricks with inscriptions and barrel cylinder fragments reported in the temple. A Early Dynastic I/IIIa cemetery extended to the south towards Mound A with a number of high status graves containing multiple burials and carts drawn by equids or bovids and are considered as predecessors to the royal burials at Ur. ### Area P This area, north of tell W, was unearthed during the second excavation season (1923-1924) led by Mackay, which uncovered the 'Plano-convex building' (PCB). But outstanding discoveries in Palace A rapidly overshadowed the contemporary excavation here, and the building remained partially uncovered. Revealed by its stratigraphy and pottery assemblage was the existence of three distinct architectural phases. The earliest archaeological occupation dates back to the ED II period. Above it, rested the massive ED III construction – the PCB. Multiple rooms in the PCB exhibited layers of ashes and charcoals with arrowheads and copper blades, attested that the PCB suffered significant destruction twice during the late ED III period. After its destruction, the PCB was abandoned. Located above later floors of the PCB were scattered burials during the Akkadian period. #### The 'Plano-convex building' The Plano-convex building was a fortified construction built extensively with plano-convex bricks. It displayed the socio-economic dynamics at Kish during the ED III period. No characteristic linking the building to a religious construct. Instead, the Plano-convex building is recognized as a public building associated with the economical production of beer, textile and oil. The PCB might have also housed the administrative center powered by the elites. First recognized by Margueron, scholars have divided the building into four main sectors based on the architectural layout: * Sector A: Production area * Sector B: Inconclusive but arguably an administration area * Sector C: Unknown but exhibit a high degree of segregation * Sector D: Private, domestic area for housing activities ### Mound A Mound A, which includes a cemetery and an Early Dynastic III palace, was discovered during 1922-1925 excavations conducted by Ernest Mackay, under the Field Museum and Oxford University. Although it was earlier a part of the Ingharra mounds lying about 70 meters to the north, it is now separated by an alluvial valley. The seals and other artifacts found in the graves, dating back to a later age than the palace, show that the site was used as a cemetery from the end of the Early Dynastic period until the early Akkadian Empire period. #### The Sumerian Palace The palace, which was unearthed beneath the mound, had fallen into decay and was used as a burial ground during Early Dynastic III. It comprises three sections - the original building, the eastern wing and stairway, and the annex. The original building, which was composed of unbaked plano-convex bricks (23 x 15 x 3.50-6 cm), had extremely thick walls, while the annex, which was added later to the south of the building, had comparatively thinner walls. A 2.30 m wide passage was constructed within the outer wall of the original building to prevent invaders from entering the structure. The archaeological findings within the palace lack pottery items, the most remarkable among them was a fragment of slate and limestone inlay work, which represents the scene of a king punishing a prisoner. ### Tell H In the 1923-1933 Expedition, Tell H became the focus of its final three seasons (1930-1933). Due to personal reasons of the excavators, the Kish material in this section remained selective, mainly yielding Sasanian pottery, coins, incantation bowls and so on. The dating of this section crossed a range of periods, with layer upon layer built on the site. Evidence shows that in the Early Dynastic III Period, there once even existed a twin city. Therefore, the city occupies a relatively unsettled presence in chronology. But from the excavation, eight buildings were identified as from the Sasanian period, thus making this place primarily identified as the Sasanian Settlement. Researchers suspect that some of the buildings might function together as a complex serving different purposes, including royal residence, storage, and administration. The most prominent finding is the stucco decoration in the first two buildings, while the 1923-1933 team also figured out the floor plan and architectural structure of others. It was partly through these stucco decorations that researchers identified the royal resident to be Bahram V (420-438 AD)—Sasanian kings had their distinctive crowns separately, and the unique crown pattern on stucco served as evidence to support this argument. In Kish, which once functioned as a transfer station between Ctesiphon and Hira, Bahram V built palaces for summer entertainment, which explains why one of the buildings has a huge water tank in the middle, probably functioning to cool down the court in summers. Around Bahram V's palaces, a group of Sasanian people also took residence and developed a system of settlement and commercial activities. Gallery ------- * Ruins of a ziggurat at the Sumerian city of Kish. Babel Governorate, Iraq.Ruins of a ziggurat at the Sumerian city of Kish. Babel Governorate, Iraq. * An ancient mound at Kish, Babel Governorate, IraqAn ancient mound at Kish, Babel Governorate, Iraq * An ancient mound at the city of Kish, Mesopotamia, Babel Governorate, IraqAn ancient mound at the city of Kish, Mesopotamia, Babel Governorate, Iraq * Pottery fragments, illegal exavations at the ancient city of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, IraqPottery fragments, illegal exavations at the ancient city of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Iraq * Ancient mound at the city of Kish, Mesopotamia, Babil Governorate, IraqAncient mound at the city of Kish, Mesopotamia, Babil Governorate, Iraq * Ruins near the ziggurat of Kish at Tell al-Uhaymir, Mesopotamia, Babel Governorate, IraqRuins near the ziggurat of Kish at Tell al-Uhaymir, Mesopotamia, Babel Governorate, Iraq * Ruins near the ziggurat of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Babylon Governorate, IraqRuins near the ziggurat of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Babylon Governorate, Iraq * Ruins near the ziggurat of the city of Kish at Tell al-Uhaymir, Babel Governorate, IraqRuins near the ziggurat of the city of Kish at Tell al-Uhaymir, Babel Governorate, Iraq * Ruins of the ziggurat of the ancient city of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Mesopotamia, IraqRuins of the ziggurat of the ancient city of Kish, Tell al-Uhaymir, Mesopotamia, Iraq * Indus Valley civilisation "Unicorn" seal excavated in Kish, early Sumerian period, c. 3000 BC. An example of ancient Indus-Mesopotamia relations.Indus Valley civilisation "Unicorn" seal excavated in Kish, early Sumerian period, c. 3000 BC. An example of ancient Indus-Mesopotamia relations. See also -------- * Cities of the Ancient Near East * Tell (archaeology) * Short chronology timeline

Kish (Sumer)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kish_(Sumer)

The **zenith** (UK: /ˈzɛnɪθ/, US: /ˈziːnɪθ/) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction (plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location (nadir). The zenith is the "highest" point on the celestial sphere. Origin ------ The word "zenith" derives from an inaccurate reading of the Arabic expression سمت الرأس (*samt al-ras*), meaning "direction of the head" or "path above the head", by Medieval Latin scribes in the Middle Ages (during the 14th century), possibly through Old Spanish. It was reduced to "samt" ("direction") and miswritten as "senit"/"cenit", the "m" being misread as "ni". Through the Old French "cenith", "zenith" first appeared in the 17th century. Relevance and use ----------------- The term *zenith* sometimes means the highest point, way, or level reached by a celestial body on its daily apparent path around a given point of observation. This sense of the word is often used to describe the position of the Sun ("The sun reached its zenith..."), but to an astronomer, the Sun does not have its own zenith and is at the zenith only if it is directly overhead. In a scientific context, the zenith is the direction of reference for measuring the **zenith angle** (or **zenith angular distance**), the angle between a direction of interest (e.g. a star) and the local zenith - that is, the complement of the altitude angle (or elevation angle). The Sun reaches the observer's zenith when it is 90° above the horizon, and this only happens between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. In Islamic astronomy, the passing of the Sun over the zenith of Mecca becomes the basis of the qibla observation by shadows twice a year on 27/28 May and 15/16 July. At a given location during the course of a day, the Sun reaches not only its zenith but also its nadir, at the antipode of that location 12 hours from solar noon. In astronomy, the altitude in the horizontal coordinate system and the zenith angle are complementary angles, with the horizon perpendicular to the zenith. The astronomical meridian is also determined by the zenith, and is defined as a circle on the celestial sphere that passes through the zenith, nadir, and the celestial poles. A zenith telescope is a type of telescope designed to point straight up at or near the zenith, and used for precision measurement of star positions, to simplify telescope construction, or both. The NASA Orbital Debris Observatory and the Large Zenith Telescope are both zenith telescopes, since the use of liquid mirrors meant these telescopes could only point straight up. On the International Space Station, *zenith* and *nadir* are used instead of *up* and *down*, referring to directions within and around the station, relative to the earth. ### Zenith star Zenith stars (also "star on top", "overhead star", "latitude star") are stars which culminate (pass) through the zenith. Used in celestial navigation it allowed the navigator to determine their latitudal position, since at every latitude different stars pass one's zenith, or with other words lie on the great circle of the zenith ("zenith circle"). Zenith stars are not to be confused with "steering stars" of a sidereal compass rose of a sidedreal compass. See also -------- * Azimuth * Geodesy * History of geodesy * Horizon zenith angle * Keyhole problem * Midheaven * Subsolar point * Vertical deflection * Horizontal coordinate system * Analemma Literature ---------- * Glickman, Todd S. (2000). *Glossary of meteorology*. American Meteorological Society. ISBN 978-1-878220-34-9. * McIntosh, D. H. (1972). *Meteorological Glossary* (5th ed.). ISBN 978-0-8206-0228-8. * Picoche, Jacqueline (2002). *Dictionnaire étymologique du français*. Paris: Le Robert. ISBN 978-2-85036-458-7.

Zenith

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenith

**Patriotism** is the feeling of love, devotion, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, language relating to one's own homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism. Terminology and usage --------------------- An excess of patriotism in the defense of a nation is called chauvinism; another related term is *jingoism*. The English word 'Patriot' derived from "Compatriot," in the 1590s, from Middle French "Patriote" in the 15th century. The French word's "Compatriote" and "Patriote" originated directly from Late Latin Patriota "fellow-countryman" in the 6th century. From Greek Patriotes "fellow countryman," from Patrios "of one's fathers," Patris "fatherland." The term Patriot was "applied to barbarians who were perceived to be either uncivilized or primitive and who had only a common Patris or fatherland." The original European meaning of Patriots applied to anyone who was a fellow countryman originated from that country regardless of the social-economic status. History ------- The general notion of civic virtue and group dedication has been attested in culture globally throughout the historical period. For the Enlightenment thinkers of 18th-century Europe, loyalty to the state was chiefly considered in contrast to loyalty to the Church. It was argued that clerics should not be allowed to teach in public schools since their *patrie* was heaven, so that they could not inspire love of the homeland in their students. One of the most influential proponents of this classical notion of patriotism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Enlightenment thinkers also criticized what they saw as the excess of patriotism. In 1774, Samuel Johnson published *The Patriot*, a critique of what he viewed as false patriotism. On the evening of 7 April 1775, he made the famous statement, "Patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel." James Boswell, who reported this comment in his *Life of Johnson*, does not provide context for the quote, and it has therefore been argued that Johnson was in fact attacking the false use of the term "patriotism" by contemporaries such as John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (the patriot-minister) and his supporters; Johnson spoke elsewhere in favor of what he considered "true" patriotism. However, there is no direct evidence to contradict the widely held belief that Johnson's famous remark was a criticism of patriotism itself. Cultural aspects ---------------- Culture is often an integral aspect of patriotism. Many patriotic people take pride in sharing a distinct, common culture, believing it to be central to their national identity and unity. Many are devoted to the preservation of their traditional culture and encourage cultural assimilation. However, some of the more civic forms of patriotism tend to de-emphasize ethnic culture in favor of a shared political culture. Philosophical issues -------------------- Patriotism may be strengthened by adherence to a national religion (a civil religion or even a theocracy). This is the opposite of the separation of church and state demanded by the Enlightenment thinkers who saw patriotism and faith as similar and opposed forces. Michael Billig and Jean Bethke Elshtain have both argued that the difference between patriotism and faith is difficult to discern and relies largely on the attitude of the one doing the labelling. Christopher Heath Wellman, professor of philosophy at Washington University in St. Louis, describes that a popular view of the "patriotist" position is robust obligations to compatriots and only minimal samaritan responsibilities to foreigners. Wellman calls this position "patriotist" rather than "nationalist" to single out the members of territorial, political units rather than cultural groups. George Orwell, in his influential essay *Notes on Nationalism* distinguished patriotism from the related concept of nationalism: > By 'patriotism' I mean devotion to a particular place and a particular way of life, which one believes to be the best in the world but has no wish to force upon other people. Patriotism is of its nature defensive, both militarily and culturally. Nationalism, on the other hand, is inseparable from the desire for power. The abiding purpose of every nationalist is to secure more power and more prestige, *not* for himself but for the nation or other unit in which he has chosen to sink his own individuality. > > ### Opposition Voltaire stated that "It is lamentable, that to be a good patriot one must become the enemy of the rest of mankind." Arthur Schopenhauer wrote in his *The World as Will and Representation* that “The cheapest sort of pride is national pride; for if a man is proud of his own nation, it argues that he has no qualities of his own of which a person can be proud” Kōtoku Shūsui, a famous Japanese anarchist of the late 19th/early 20th century, devoted a large section of his widely read *Imperialism, Monster of the Twentieth Century* to a condemnation of patriotism. One of the many arguments is based on the Confucian value of empathy: "I am as convinced as Mencius that any man would rush without hesitation to rescue a child who was about to fall into a well... A human being moved by such selfless love and charity does not pause to think whether the child is a family member or a close relative. When he rescues the child from danger, he does not even ask himself whether the child is his own or belongs to another." Patriotism is used to dehumanize others who we would naturally have empathy for. He argues, "[P]atriotism is a discriminating and arbitrary sentiment confined to those who belong to a single nation state or live together within common national borders", a sentiment cultivated and used by militarists in their drive for war. Marxists have taken various stances regarding patriotism. On one hand, Karl Marx famously stated that "The working men have no country" and that "the supremacy of the proletariat will cause them [national differences] to vanish still faster." The same view is promoted by present-day Trotskyists such as Alan Woods, who is "in favour of tearing down all frontiers and creating a socialist world commonwealth." On the other hand, Marxist-Leninists and Maoists are usually in favour of socialist patriotism based on the theory of socialism in one country. Anarchists are known for their tendency to oppose patriotism, as exemplified by Emma Goldman, who stated: > Indeed, conceit, arrogance, and egotism are the essentials of patriotism. Let me illustrate. Patriotism assumes that our globe is divided into little spots, each one surrounded by an iron gate. Those who have had the fortune of being born on some particular spot, consider themselves better, nobler, grander, more intelligent than the living beings inhabiting any other spot. It is, therefore, the duty of everyone living on that chosen spot to fight, kill, and die in the attempt to impose his superiority upon all the others. > > ### Region-specific issues In the European Union, thinkers such as Jürgen Habermas have advocated a "Euro-patriotism", but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the nation-state and more often than not coincides with "Euroscepticism". Surveys ------- Several surveys have tried to measure patriotism for various reasons, such as the Correlates of War project which found some correlation between war propensity and patriotism. The results from different studies are time dependent. For example, according to the project, patriotism in Germany before World War I ranked at or near the top, whereas today it ranks at or near the bottom of patriotism surveys. However, there are also other surveys according to which modern Germany is indeed very patriotic. Since 1981, the World Values Survey explores people's national values and beliefs and refer to the average answer "for high income residents" of a country to the question "Are you proud to be [insert nationality]?". It ranges from 1 (not proud) to 4 (very proud). See also -------- * Collective narcissism * Cultural identity * Patriot movement Further reading --------------- * Charles Blatberg, *From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First*, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-829688-6. * Craig Calhoun, *Is it Time to Be Postnational?*, in *Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights*, (eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. pp. 231–56. * Paul Gomberg, “Patriotism is Like Racism,” in Igor Primorac, ed., *Patriotism*, Humanity Books, 2002, pp. 105–12. ISBN 1-57392-955-7. * Jürgen Habermas, “Appendix II: Citizenship and National Identity,” in *Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy*, trans. William Rehg, MIT Press, 1996. * Johan Huizinga, “Patriotism and Nationalism in European History”. In *Men and Ideas. History, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance*. Transl. by James S. Holmes and Hans van Marle. New York: Meridian Books, 1959. * Alasdair MacIntyre, 'Is Patriotism a Virtue?', in: R. Beiner (ed.), *Theorizing Citizenship*, 1995, State University of New York Press, pp. 209–28. * Joshua Cohen and Martha C. Nussbaum, *For Love of Country: Debating the Limits of Patriotism*, Beacon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8070-4313-3. * George Orwell, "Notes on Nationalism" in *England Your England and Other Essays*, Secker and Warburg, 1953. * Igor Primoratz, ed., *Patriotism*, Humanity Books, 2002. ISBN 1-57392-955-7. * Daniel Bar-Tal and Ervin Staub, *Patriotism*, Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-8304-1410-X. * Maurizio Viroli, *For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism*, Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-829358-5. * Gilbert K. Chesterton 1922 that America is "the only nation in the world that is founded on a creed. That creed is set forth with dogmatic and even theological lucidity in the Declaration of Independence." * John Witherspoon The Dominion of Providence Over The Passions of Man, Princeton May 17, 1776. 1. ↑ May, Stephen; Modood, Tariq; Squires, Judith, eds. (2004). *11 – Is it time to be postnational? – University Publishing Online*. Ebooks.cambridge.org. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489235. ISBN 9780511489235. Retrieved 2013-11-03. 2. ↑ "George Orwell: Notes on Nationalism" (in Russian). Orwell.ru. Retrieved 2013-11-03.

Patriotism

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotism

**Instant messaging** (**IM**) technology is a type of online chat allowing real-time text transmission over the Internet or another computer network. Messages are typically transmitted between two or more parties, when each user inputs text and triggers a transmission to the recipient(s), who are all connected on a common network. It differs from email in that conversations over instant messaging happen in real-time (hence "instant"). Most modern IM applications (sometimes called "social messengers", "messaging apps" or "chat apps") use push technology and also add other features such as emojis (or graphical smileys), file transfer, chatbots, voice over IP, or video chat capabilities. Instant messaging systems tend to facilitate connections between specified known users (often using a contact list also known as a "buddy list" or "friend list"), and can be standalone applications or integrated into e.g. a wider social media platform, or a website where it can for instance be used for conversational commerce. IM can also consist of conversations in "chat rooms". Depending on the IM protocol, the technical architecture can be peer-to-peer (direct point-to-point transmission) or client–server (an IM service center retransmits messages from the sender to the communication device). It is usually distinguished from text messaging which is typically simpler and normally uses cellular phone networks. Instant messaging applications can store messages with either local-based device storage (e.g WhatsApp, Viber, Line, WeChat, Signal etc.) or cloud-based server storage (e.g Telegram, Skype, Facebook Messenger, Google Meet/Chat, Discord, Slack etc.). Instant messaging was pioneered in the early Internet era; the IRC protocol was the earliest to achieve wide adoption. Later in the 1990s, ICQ was among the first closed and commercialized instant messengers, and several rival services appeared afterwards as it became a popular use of the Internet. Beginning with its first introduction in 2005, BlackBerry Messenger, which initially had been available only on BlackBerry smartphones, soon became one of the most popular mobile instant messaging apps worldwide. BBM was for instance the most used mobile messaging app in the United Kingdom and Indonesia. Instant messaging remains very popular today; IM apps are the most widely used smartphone apps: in 2018 there were over 50 million Signal users, 980 million monthly active users of WeChat and 1.3 billion monthly users of WhatsApp Messenger. Overview -------- Instant messaging is a set of communication technologies used for text-based communication between two (private messaging) or more (chat room) participants over the Internet or other types of networks (see also LAN messenger). IM chat happens in real-time. Of importance is that online chat and instant messaging differ from other technologies such as email due to the perceived quasi-synchrony of the communications by the users. Some systems permit messages to be sent to users not then 'logged on' (*offline messages*), thus removing some differences between IM and email (often done by sending the message to the associated email account). IM allows effective and efficient communication, allowing immediate receipt of acknowledgment or reply. However IM is basically not necessarily supported by transaction control. In many cases, instant messaging includes added features which can make it even more popular. For example, users may see each other via webcams, or talk directly for free over the Internet using a microphone and headphones or loudspeakers. Many applications allow file transfers, although they are usually limited in the permissible file-size. It is usually possible to save a text conversation for later reference. Instant messages are often logged in a local message history, making it similar to the persistent nature of emails. Major IM services are controlled by their corresponding companies. They usually follow the client–server model when all clients have to first connect to the central server. This requires users to trust this server because messages can generally be accessed by the company. Companies can be compelled to reveal their user's communication. Companies can also suspend user accounts for any reason. Non-IM types of chat include multicast transmission, usually referred to as "chat rooms", where participants might be anonymous or might be previously known to each other (for example collaborators on a project that is using chat to facilitate communication). An instant message service center (IMSC) is a network element in the mobile telephone network which delivers instant messages. When a user sends an IM message to another user, the phone sends the message to the IMSC. The IMSC stores the message and delivers it to the destination user when they are available. The IMSC usually has a configurable time limit for how long it will store the message. Few companies who make many of the IMSCs in use in the GSM world are Miyowa, Followap and OZ. Other players include Acision, Colibria, Ericsson, Nokia, Comverse Technology, Now Wireless, Jinny Software, Miyowa, Feelingk and few others. The term "Instant Messenger" is a service mark of Time Warner and may not be used in software not affiliated with AOL in the United States. For this reason, in April 2007, the instant messaging client formerly named Gaim (or gaim) announced that they would be renamed "Pidgin". ### Clients Each modern IM service generally provides its own client, either a separately installed piece of software, or a browser-based client. They are normally centralised networks run by the servers of the platform's operators, unlike peer-to-peer protocols like XMPP. These usually only work within the same IM network, although some allow limited function with other services. Third party client software applications exist that will connect with most of the major IM services. There is the class of instant messengers that uses the serverless model, which doesn't require servers, and the IM network consists only of clients. There are several serverless messengers: RetroShare, Tox, Bitmessage, Ricochet, Ring. Some examples of popular IM services today include Signal, Telegram, WhatsApp Messenger, WeChat, QQ Messenger, Viber, Line, and Snapchat. The popularity of certain apps greatly differ between different countries. Certain apps have emphasis on certain uses - for example Skype focuses on video calling, Slack focuses on messaging and file sharing for work teams, and Snapchat focuses on image messages. Some social networking services offer messaging services as a component of their overall platform, such as Facebook's Facebook Messenger, who also own WhatsApp. While others have a direct messaging function as an additional adjunct component of their social networking platforms, like Instagram, Reddit, Tumblr, TikTok, Clubhouse and Twitter, either directly or through chat rooms. ### Features #### Private and group messaging Private chat allows private conversation with another person or a group. The privacy aspect can also be enhanced in a number of ways such as end to end encryption by default like Signal. Or some applications have a timer feature, like Snapchat, where messages, conversations or files such as photos are automatically deleted from the users phone once the time limit is reached. Public and group chat features allow users to communicate with multiple people at a time. #### Calling Many major IM services and applications offer the call feature for user-to-user calls, conference calls, and voice messages. The call functionality is useful for professionals who utilize the application for work purposes and as a hands-free method. Videotelephony using a webcam is also possible by some. #### Games and entertainment Some IM applications include in-app games for entertainment. Yahoo! Messenger for example introduced these where users could play a game and viewed by friends in real-time. The Messenger application has a built in option to play computer games with people in a chat, including games like Tetris and Blackjack. #### Payments Though a relatively new feature, peer-to-peer payments are available on major messaging platforms. This functionality allows individuals to use one application for both communication and financial tasks. The lack of a service fee also makes messaging apps advantageous to financial applications. Major platforms such as Facebook messenger and WeChat already offer a payment feature, and this functionality is likely to become a standard amongst IM apps competing in the market. History ------- Release years of instant messengers| 1988 | Internet Relay Chat | | 1989 | | 1990 | | 1991 | | 1992 | | 1993 | | 1994 | | 1995 | | 1996 | ICQ | | 1997 | AIM | | 1998 | Yahoo! Messenger | | 1999 | XMPPMSN Messenger | | 2000 | | 2001 | | 2002 | | 2003 | Xfire | | 2004 | | 2005 | | 2006 | | 2007 | | 2008 | | 2009 | WhatsApp | | 2010 | Kik Messenger | | 2011 | Facebook MessengerSnapchat | | 2012 | | 2013 | Telegram | | 2014 | Facebook buys WhatsAppSignal | | 2015 | Discord | Though the term dates from the 1990s, instant messaging predates the Internet, first appearing on multi-user operating systems like Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS) and Multiplexed Information and Computing Service (Multics) in the mid-1960s. Initially, some of these systems were used as notification systems for services like printing, but quickly were used to facilitate communication with other users logged into the same machine. CTSS facilitated communication via text message for up to 30 people. Parallel to instant messaging were early online chat facilities, the earliest of which was Talkomatic (1973) on the PLATO system, which allowed 5 people to chat simultaneously on a 512 x 512 plasma display (5 lines of text + 1 status line per person). During the bulletin board system (BBS) phenomenon that peaked during the 1980s, some systems incorporated chat features which were similar to instant messaging; Freelancin' Roundtable was one prime example. The first such general-availability commercial online chat service (as opposed to PLATO, which was educational) was the CompuServe CB Simulator in 1980, created by CompuServe executive Alexander "Sandy" Trevor in Columbus, Ohio. As networks developed, the protocols spread with the networks. Some of these used a peer-to-peer protocol (e.g. talk, ntalk and ytalk), while others required peers to connect to a server (see talker and IRC). The Zephyr Notification Service (still in use at some institutions) was invented at MIT's Project Athena in the 1980s to allow service providers to locate and send messages to users. Early instant messaging programs were primarily real-time text, where characters appeared as they were typed. This includes the Unix "talk" command line program, which was popular in the 1980s and early 1990s. Some BBS chat programs (i.e. Celerity BBS) also used a similar interface. Modern implementations of real-time text also exist in instant messengers, such as AOL's Real-Time IM as an optional feature. In the latter half of the 1980s and into the early 1990s, the Quantum Link online service for Commodore 64 computers offered user-to-user messages between concurrently connected customers, which they called "On-Line Messages" (or OLM for short), and later "FlashMail." Quantum Link later became America Online and made AOL Instant Messenger (AIM, discussed later). While the Quantum Link client software ran on a Commodore 64, using only the Commodore's PETSCII text-graphics, the screen was visually divided into sections and OLMs would appear as a yellow bar saying "Message From:" and the name of the sender along with the message across the top of whatever the user was already doing, and presented a list of options for responding. As such, it could be considered a type of graphical user interface (GUI), albeit much more primitive than the later Unix, Windows and Macintosh based GUI IM software. OLMs were what Q-Link called "Plus Services" meaning they charged an extra per-minute fee on top of the monthly Q-Link access costs. Modern, Internet-wide, GUI-based messaging clients as they are known today, began to take off in the mid-1990s with PowWow, ICQ, and AOL Instant Messenger. Similar functionality was offered by CU-SeeMe in 1992; though primarily an audio/video chat link, users could also send textual messages to each other. AOL later acquired Mirabilis, the authors of ICQ; establishing dominance in the instant messaging market. A few years later ICQ (then owned by AOL) was awarded two patents for instant messaging by the U.S. patent office. Meanwhile, other companies developed their own software; (Excite, MSN, Ubique, and Yahoo!), each with its own proprietary protocol and client; users therefore had to run multiple client applications if they wished to use more than one of these networks. In 1998, IBM released IBM Lotus Sametime, a product based on technology acquired when IBM bought Haifa-based Ubique and Lexington-based Databeam. In 2000, an open-source application and open standards-based protocol called Jabber was launched. The protocol was standardized under the name Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP). XMPP servers could act as gateways to other IM protocols, reducing the need to run multiple clients. Multi-protocol clients can use any of the popular IM protocols by using additional local libraries for each protocol. IBM Lotus Sametime's November 2007 release added IBM Lotus Sametime Gateway support for XMPP. Video calling using a webcam also started taking off during this time. Microsoft NetMeeting was one of the earliest, but Skype released in 2003 was one of the first that focused on this features and brought it to a wider audience. By 2006, AIM controlled 52 percent of the instant messaging market, but rapidly declined shortly thereafter as the company struggled to compete with other services. By 2010, instant messaging over the Web was in sharp decline in favor of messaging features on social networks. Social networking providers often offer IM abilities, for example Facebook Chat, while Twitter can be thought of as a Web 2.0 instant messaging system. Similar server-side chat features are part of most dating websites, such as OkCupid or PlentyofFish. The former most popular IM platforms were terminated in later years, such as AIM. The popularity of instant messaging was soon revived with new services in the form of mobile applications, notable examples of the time being BlackBerry Messenger (first released in 2005; today available as BlackBerry Messenger Enterprise) and WhatsApp (first released in 2009). Unlike previous IM applications, these newer ones usually ran only on mobile devices and coincided with the rising popularity of Internet-enabled smartphones; this led to IM surpassing SMS in message volume by 2013. By 2014, IM had more users than social networks. In January 2015, the service WhatsApp alone accommodated 30 billion messages daily in comparison to about 20 billion for SMS. In 2016, Google introduced a new intelligent messaging app that incorporated machine learning technology called Allo. Google Allo was shut down on March 12, 2019. Interoperability ---------------- Standard complementary instant messaging applications offer functions like file transfer, contact list(s), the ability to hold several simultaneous conversations, etc. These may be all the functions that a small business needs, but larger organizations will require more sophisticated applications that can work together. The solution to finding applications capable of this is to use enterprise versions of instant messaging applications. These include titles like XMPP, Lotus Sametime, Microsoft Office Communicator, etc., which are often integrated with other enterprise applications such as workflow systems. These enterprise applications, or enterprise application integration (EAI), are built to certain constraints, namely storing data in a common format. There have been several attempts to create a unified standard for instant messaging: IETF's Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) and SIP for Instant Messaging and Presence Leveraging Extensions (SIMPLE), Application Exchange (APEX), Instant Messaging and Presence Protocol (IMPP), the open XML-based Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP), and Open Mobile Alliance's Instant Messaging and Presence Service developed specifically for mobile devices. Most attempts at producing a unified standard for the major IM providers (AOL, Yahoo! and Microsoft) have failed, and each continues to use its own proprietary protocol. However, while discussions at IETF were stalled, Reuters signed the first inter-service provider connectivity agreement in September 2003. This agreement enabled AIM, ICQ and MSN Messenger users to talk with Reuters Messaging counterparts and vice versa. Following this, Microsoft, Yahoo! and AOL agreed to a deal in which Microsoft's Live Communications Server 2005 users would also have the possibility to talk to public instant messaging users. This deal established SIP/SIMPLE as a standard for protocol interoperability and established a connectivity fee for accessing public instant messaging groups or services. Separately, on October 13, 2005, Microsoft and Yahoo! announced that by the 3rd quarter of 2006 they would interoperate using SIP/SIMPLE, which was followed, in December 2005, by the AOL and Google strategic partnership deal in which Google Talk users would be able to communicate with AIM and ICQ users provided they have an AIM account. There are two ways to combine the many disparate protocols: * Combine the many disparate protocols inside the IM *client application*. * Combine the many disparate protocols inside the IM *server* application. This approach moves the task of communicating with the other services to the server. Clients need not know or care about other IM protocols. For example, LCS 2005 Public IM Connectivity. This approach is popular in XMPP servers; however, the so-called transport projects suffer the same reverse engineering difficulties as any other project involved with closed protocols or formats. Some approaches allow organizations to deploy their own, private instant messaging network by enabling them to restrict access to the server (often with the IM network entirely behind their firewall) and administer user permissions. Other corporate messaging systems allow registered users to also connect from outside the corporation LAN, by using an encrypted, firewall-friendly, HTTPS-based protocol. Usually, a dedicated corporate IM server has several advantages, such as pre-populated contact lists, integrated authentication, and better security and privacy. Certain networks have made changes to prevent them from being used by such multi-network IM clients. For example, Trillian had to release several revisions and patches to allow its users to access the MSN, AOL, and Yahoo! networks, after changes were made to these networks. The major IM providers usually cite the need for formal agreements, and security concerns as reasons for making these changes. The use of proprietary protocols has meant that many instant messaging networks have been incompatible and users have been unable to reach users on other networks. This may have allowed social networking with IM-like features and text messaging an opportunity to gain market share at the expense of IM. Effects of IM on communication ------------------------------ Messaging applications have affected the way people communicate on their devices. A survey conducted by MetrixLabs showed that 63% of Baby Boomers, 63% of Generation X, and 67% of Generation Y said that they used messaging applications in place of texting. A Facebook survey showed that 65% of people surveyed thought that messaging applications made group messaging easier. ### Effects on workplace communication Messaging applications have also changed how people communicate in the workplace. Enterprise messaging applications like Slack, TeleMessage, Teamnote and Yammer allow companies to enforce policies on how employees message at work and ensure secure storage of sensitive data. Message applications allow employees to separate work information from their personal emails and texts. Messaging applications may make workplace communication efficient, but they can also have consequences on productivity. A study at Slack showed on average, people spend 10 hours a day on Slack, which is about 67% more time than they spend using email. ### IM language Users sometimes make use of internet slang or text speak to abbreviate common words or expressions to quicken conversations or reduce keystrokes. The language has become widespread, with well-known expressions such as 'lol' translated over to face-to-face language. Emotions are often expressed in shorthand, such as the abbreviation LOL, BRB and TTYL; respectively laugh(ing) out loud, be right back, and talk to you later. Some, however, attempt to be more accurate with emotional expression over IM. Real time reactions such as (*chortle*) (*snort*) (*guffaw*) or (*eye-roll*) are becoming more popular. Also there are certain standards that are being introduced into mainstream conversations including, '#' indicates the use of sarcasm in a statement and '\*' which indicates a spelling mistake and/or grammatical error in the prior message, followed by a correction. Business application -------------------- Instant messaging has proven to be similar to personal computers, email, and the World Wide Web, in that its adoption for use as a business communications medium was driven primarily by individual employees using consumer software at work, rather than by formal mandate or provisioning by corporate information technology departments. Tens of millions of the consumer IM accounts in use are being used for business purposes by employees of companies and other organizations. In response to the demand for business-grade IM and the need to ensure security and legal compliance, a new type of instant messaging, called "Enterprise Instant Messaging" ("EIM") was created when Lotus Software launched IBM Lotus Sametime in 1998. Microsoft followed suit shortly thereafter with Microsoft Exchange Instant Messaging, later created a new platform called Microsoft Office Live Communications Server, and released Office Communications Server 2007 in October 2007. Oracle Corporation also jumped into the market with its Oracle Beehive unified collaboration software. Both IBM Lotus and Microsoft have introduced federation between their EIM systems and some of the public IM networks so that employees may use one interface to both their internal EIM system and their contacts on AOL, MSN, and Yahoo. As of 2010, leading EIM platforms include IBM Lotus Sametime, Microsoft Office Communications Server, Jabber XCP and Cisco Unified Presence. Industry-focused EIM platforms such as Reuters Messaging and Bloomberg Messaging also provide IM abilities to financial services companies. The adoption of IM across corporate networks outside of the control of IT organizations creates risks and liabilities for companies who do not effectively manage and support IM use. Companies implement specialized IM archiving and security products and services to mitigate these risks and provide safe, secure, productive instant messaging abilities to their employees. IM is increasingly becoming a feature of enterprise software rather than a stand-alone application. IM products can usually be categorised into two types: Enterprise Instant Messaging (EIM) and Consumer Instant Messaging (CIM). Enterprise solutions use an internal IM server, however this is not always feasible, particularly for smaller businesses with limited budgets. The second option, using a CIM provides the advantage of being inexpensive to implement and has little need for investing in new hardware or server software. For corporate use, encryption and conversation archiving are usually regarded as important features due to security concerns. There are also a bunch of open source encrypting messengers. Sometimes the use of different operating systems in organizations requires use of software that supports more than one platform. For example, many software companies use Windows in administration departments but have software developers who use Linux. Comparison to SMS ----------------- SMS is the acronym for “short message service” and allows mobile phone users to send text messages without an Internet connection, while instant messaging provides similar services through an Internet connection. SMS was a much more dominant form of communication before smartphones became widely used globally. While SMS relied on traditional paid telephone services, instant messaging apps on mobiles were available for free or a minor data charge. In 2012 SMS volume peaked, and in 2013 chat apps surpassed SMS in global message volume. Easier group messaging was another advantage of smartphone messaging apps and also contributed to their adoption. Before the introduction of messaging apps, smartphone users could only participate in single-person interactions via mobile voice calls or SMS. With the introduction of messaging apps, the group chat functionality allows all the members to see an entire thread of everyone's responses. Members can also respond directly to each other, rather than having to go through the member who started the group message, to relay the information. However, SMS still remains popular in the United States because it is usually included free in monthly phone bundles. While SMS volumes in some countries like Denmark, Spain and Singapore dropped up to two-thirds from 2011 to 2013, in the United States SMS use only dropped by about one quarter. Security and archiving ---------------------- Crackers (malicious or black hat hackers) have consistently used IM networks as vectors for delivering phishing attempts, drive-by URLs, and virus-laden file attachments from 2004 to the present, with over 1100 discrete attacks listed by the IM Security Center in 2004–2007. Hackers use two methods of delivering malicious code through IM: delivery of viruses, trojan horses, or spyware within an infected file, and the use of "socially engineered" text with a web address that entices the recipient to click on a URL connecting him or her to a website that then downloads malicious code. Viruses, computer worms, and trojans usually propagate by sending themselves rapidly through the infected user's contact list. An effective attack using a poisoned URL may reach tens of thousands of users in a short period when each user's contact list receives messages appearing to be from a trusted friend. The recipients click on the web address, and the entire cycle starts again. Infections may range from nuisance to criminal, and are becoming more sophisticated each year. IM connections sometimes occur in plain text, making them vulnerable to eavesdropping. Also, IM client software often requires the user to expose open UDP ports to the world, raising the threat posed by potential security vulnerabilities. In the early 2000s, a new class of IT security provider emerged to provide remedies for the risks and liabilities faced by corporations who chose to use IM for business communications. The IM security providers created new products to be installed in corporate networks for the purpose of archiving, content-scanning, and security-scanning IM traffic moving in and out of the corporation. Similar to the e-mail filtering vendors, the IM security providers focus on the risks and liabilities described above. With rapid adoption of IM in the workplace, demand for IM security products began to grow in the mid-2000s. By 2007, the preferred platform for the purchase of security software had become the "computer appliance", according to IDC, who estimated that by 2008, 80% of network security products would be delivered via an appliance. By 2014 however, the level of safety offered by instant messengers was still extremely poor. According to a scorecard made by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, only 7 out of 39 instant messengers received a perfect score, whereas the most popular instant messengers at the time only attained a score of 2 out of 7. A number of studies have shown that IM services are quite vulnerable for providing user privacy. ### Encryption Encryption is the primary method that messaging apps use to protect user's data privacy and security. SMS messages are not encrypted, making them insecure, as the content of each SMS message is visible to mobile carriers and governments and can be intercepted by a third party. SMS messages also leak metadata, or information about the message that is not the message content itself, such as phone numbers of the sender and recipient, which can identify the people involved in the conversation. SMS messages can also be spoofed and the sender of the message can be edited to impersonate another person. Messaging applications on the market that use end-to-end encryption include Signal, WhatsApp, Wire and iMessage. Applications that have been criticized for lacking or poor encryption methods include Telegram and Confide, as both are prone to error or not having encryption enabled by default. ### Compliance risks In addition to the malicious code threat, the use of instant messaging at work also creates a risk of non-compliance to laws and regulations governing use of electronic communications in businesses. In the United States alone there are over 10,000 laws and regulations related to electronic messaging and records retention. The better-known of these include the Sarbanes–Oxley Act, HIPAA, and SEC 17a-3. Clarification from the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) was issued to member firms in the financial services industry in December, 2007, noting that "electronic communications", "email", and "electronic correspondence" may be used interchangeably and can include such forms of electronic messaging as *instant messaging* and text messaging. Changes to Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, effective December 1, 2006, created a new category for electronic records which may be requested during discovery in legal proceedings. Most nations also regulate use of electronic messaging and electronic records retention in similar fashion as the United States. The most common regulations related to IM at work involve the need to produce archived business communications to satisfy government or judicial requests under law. Many instant messaging communications fall into the category of business communications that must be archived and retrievable. User base --------- As of March 2022, the most used messaging apps worldwide include: Signal with 100 million, Line with 217 million, Viber with 260 million, Telegram with 700 million, WeChat with 1.2 billion, Facebook Messenger with 1.3 billion, and WhatsApp with 2.0 billion users. There are 25 countries in the world where WhatsApp messenger is not the market leader in messaging apps, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Philippines, and China. Messaging apps have varying levels of adoption in different countries. As of April 2022: * WhatsApp by Meta Platforms is the most popular messaging app in several countries in South America, Western Europe, Africa, Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. * Facebook Messenger by Meta Platforms is the most popular messaging app in North America, Northern Europe, some Central Europe countries, and Oceania. * Telegram is the most popular messaging app in several Eastern Europe countries, and the second preferred option after WhatsApp in several countries in Western Europe, Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, Central and South America. * Viber by Rakuten has a strong presence in Central and Eastern Europe (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Ukraine, Russia). It is also moderately successful in Philippines and Vietnam. * Line by Naver Corporation is used widely in some countries in Asia (Japan, Taiwan, Thailand). * Messaging apps that are predominately used in only one country include: KakaoTalk in South Korea, Zalo in Vietnam, WeChat in China, and imo in Qatar. * While not the dominant app for one-to-one messaging in any country, Discord is commonly used among online communities due to its ability to support chats with a large amount of members, topic-based channels, and cloud-based storage. ### More than 100 million users | Instant messenger client | Company | Usage | | --- | --- | --- | | Discord | Discord Inc. | 250 million users (May 2019) | | eBuddy XMS | eBuddy | 250 million users (September 2011) | | Facebook Messenger | Meta Platforms | 900 million active users (April 2016), 1.3 billion monthly active users (September 2017) | | Google Meet/Chat | Google LLC | ? | | iMessage | Apple Inc. | 140 million users (June 2012) | | Kik Messenger | Kik Interactive | 300 million users (May 2016) | | Line | Naver Corporation | 217 million monthly active users (2016) | | RCS (protocol) | GSM Association | 1200 million users(January 2021), about 500 million daily active users (December 2020) | | Signal | Signal Foundation | 100 million 2022 | | Skype | Microsoft Corporation | 300 million monthly active users (5 June 2019), 1.55 billion registered users (2019), 4.9 million daily active users (2 March 2014), 34 million peak online (February 2012). | | Snapchat | Snap Inc. | 301 million monthly active users (2016) | | Telegram | Telegram Messenger LLP | 700 million monthly active users (June 2022), 500 million monthly active users (January 2021) over 1 billion registered users (2021) | | Tencent QQ | Tencent Holdings Limited | 823 million monthly active users (July 2019) | | Viber | Rakuten | 260 million monthly active users (January 2019), 1.169 billion registered users (March 2020) | | WeChat | Tencent Holdings Limited | 1300 million monthly active users (September 2022) | | WhatsApp | Meta Platforms | 1200 million monthly active users (January 2017), 2000 million registered users (12 February 2020), 500 million daily active users (March 2019). | | XMPP (Protocol used by multiple clients) | XMPP Standards Foundation | 1200+ million (September 2011) | ### Other platforms | Instant messenger client | Company | Usage | | --- | --- | --- | | BlackBerry Messenger | BlackBerry | 91 million total users (October 2014) | | Element | New Vector | 20+ million users (November 2020) | | Gadu-Gadu | GG Network S.A. | 6.5 million users active daily (majority in Poland) (June 2010) | | IBM Sametime | IBM Corp. | 20 million users (February 2006) | | ICQ | ICQ LLC. | 11 million total users (July 2014) | | IMVU | IMVU, inc. | 1 million users (June 2007) | | IRC (protocol) | | 400,000 (2013) | | Paltalk | Paltalk.com | 5.5 million monthly unique users (August 2013) | ### Closed services and such with unclear activity | Instant messenger client | Company | Usage | | --- | --- | --- | | AIM | AOL, Inc | Closed in December 2017 | | Hike Messenger | Hike Messenger | Closed in January 2021 | | MXit | MXit Lifestyle (Pty) Ltd. | Closed in September 2016 | | RTC | rtcim.com | 10 million users | | Windows Live Messenger | Microsoft Corporation | Closed in April 2013, China in October 2014 | | Xfire | Xfire, Inc. | Closed in June 2015 | | Yahoo! Messenger | Yahoo!, Inc. | Closed in July 2018 | See also -------- ### Terms * Ambient awareness * Communication protocol * Mass collaboration * Message-oriented middleware * Operator messaging * Social media * Text messaging * SMS * Unified communications / Messaging ### Lists * Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients * Comparison of instant messaging protocols * Comparison of user features of messaging platforms ### Other * Code Shikara

Instant messaging

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging

**Austrian Airlines AG**, often shortened to **Austrian**, is the flag carrier of Austria and a subsidiary of the Lufthansa Group. The airline is headquartered on the grounds of Vienna International Airport in Schwechat where it also maintains its hub. As of July 2016, the airline flew to six domestic and more than 120 international year-round and seasonal destinations in 55 countries and is a member of the Star Alliance. The airline was formed in 1957 by the merger of Air Austria and Austrian Airways, but traces its history back to 1923 at the founding of Austrian Airways. Throughout much of the company's existence, it was a state-owned entity. On 31 March 1958, the airline performed its scheduled service, flying a leased Vickers Viscount from Vienna to Zurich and London; it subsequently purchased its own Viscount fleet. On 18 February 1963, Austrian ordered its first jet-powered airliner, the Sud Aviation Caravelle. It subsequently introduced various models and derivatives of the Douglas DC-9 jetliner; by the end of 1971, Austrian was an all-jet operator. During the 1980s, it introduced the DC-9-80, otherwise known as the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, to its fleet. Various airliners produced by Airbus, Boeing, Fokker and other manufacturers were introduced across the 1980s and 1990s. Throughout the 1990s, the airline sought out new strategic alliances, as well to expand its presence in the long-haul market, launching new services to China and South Africa. In 2000, Austrian became a member of Star Alliance; a few years prior, it had also joined the Qualiflyer Group. During the 2000s, the airline expanded through the acquisitions of Rheintalflug and Lauda Air and adopted the shortened *Austrian* name in 2003. Throughout the 2000s, Austrian sustained several years of losses; during 2008, the airline's then-owner, the Austrian government, was advised to privatise Austrian via its sale to a foreign company. During 2009, the Lufthansa Group purchased Austrian after receiving approval from the European Commission following an investigation into the tendering process. Following its privatisation, both fleet expansion and cost-saving initiatives were enacted as the business was restructured; visible changes included route alterations, a new corporate design, and a revised aircraft livery. Following labour disputes over several of the cost cutting measures, all Austrian Airlines' flights were transferred on 1 July 2012 to its subsidiary, Tyrolean Airways, which operated under the Austrian name. On 1 April 2015, after a new labour agreement had been reached, all flights transferred back to Austrian, and Tyrolean Airways was merged into its parent. During the late 2010s, restructuring of both its fleet and route network continued. History ------- ### Early years On 3 May 1923, Walter Barda-Bardenau received approval by the Austrian government for establishing an airline. He participated in the newly formed Austrian Airlines (German: **Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG**) with one percent, with the remaining shares going to the Austrian railway transportation company (50%) and the Junkers-Werke (49%). The company's initial fleet consisted of Junkers F 13s. On 14 May 1923, the first flight performed by the fledging airline was conducted between Vienna and Munich, piloted by Hans Baur. The landing took place in Vienna Jedlesee; there occurred a conversion to float and the connecting flight to Budapest. The company was operated by Junkers Trans European Union. Its destinations included Munich, Budapest, Nuremberg, Graz, Klagenfurt, and St. Wolfgang. Some targets in Austria were served with seaplanes. The union was dissolved in September 1926. From 1927, the company procured new aircraft with support from the government. During the same year, it formed an operating partnership agreement with Deutsche Luft Hansa. Line connections were planned and operated jointly by the two companies, while a route network to Berlin, Budapest, and Milan Vienna was created. In 1932, Luft Hansa Junkers held a 49% interest in the company. After recovering from the global economic fallout from the Great Depression, the firm's fleet was expanded via the addition of several Junkers Ju 52/3 m. The rapid growth of the firm throughout the 1930s led to it becoming the fourth-largest airline in Europe at one point. In 1938, the company began planning routes to Rome, Paris, and London, using a fleet of Junkers Ju 90 aircraft. Following the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in March 1938, these plans were promptly abandoned. From 1 January 1939, the airline was fully under the control of Lufthansa. During June 1939, the company was deleted from the commercial register. After the Second World War, Austria was once again separated from Germany. While it regained its independence as a result of the Austrian State Treaty of 1955, the newly reconstituted nation was initially lacking a national airline. During 1955, two separate companies, *Air Austria* and *Austrian Airways*, were quickly established to start filling this vacant niche. On 4 April 1957, Austrian Airlines was formed under the corporate name *Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG* through the merger of Air Austria and Austrian Airways. On 30 September 1957, the new entity commenced operations, performing its maiden flight on 31 March 1958 when a leased Vickers Viscount 779 took off from Vienna for a scheduled service to Zurich and London. During early 1960, six new-build Viscount 837s were delivered to Austrian Airlines; unlike earlier aircraft, which had been leased, these were owned by the company and quickly displaced the former. Operations expanded quickly, opting to launch domestic services for the first time on 1 May 1963. Within ten years of operations, Austrian Airlines' financial situation had improved considerably; its share capital had reportedly increased from an initial ATS 60 million to reach ATS 290 million in 1957. ### Jet era During its first decade of operation, Austrian Airlines experienced competition from Adria Airways; passengers from the Austrian provinces of Styria and Carinthia were routinely commuting to neighbouring Yugoslavia to use airports in what is now Slovenia. On 18 February 1963, Austrian ordered its first jet airliner, the Sud Aviation Caravelle, which it operated in an 80-seat configuration. During 1969, the airline broke new ground with the launch of its first long-distance route to New York City in the United States (early flights were made in co-operation with Belgian Sabena with a layover in Brussels). The Caravelle formed a core part of Austrian Airlines' fleet up until 1973. Deliveries of the American-built jetliner, the Douglas DC-9, commenced during 1971. Starting in 1971, Austrian opted to standardise its fleet. By the end of that year, all Viscounts had been permanently withdrawn, leaving the firm with an all-jet fleet. Its new fleet centered around a core of nine DC-9-32s, these would be operated by Austrian Airlines for both short- and medium-haul flights for many years. During 1975, the first of five DC-9-51s, an improved model, was introduced to service. On 13 October 1977, Austrian became the first customer for the DC-9-80, otherwise known as the McDonnell Douglas MD-80, having placed an initial order for eight. On 26 October 1980, the first MD-81, which was capable of longer-range flights than earlier models, made its first commercial flight with the airline, flying from Vienna to Zurich. During 1984, Austrian became the first customer for the MD-87 and played an influential role in its development. The first MD-87 entered service at the end of 1987, as did the MD-83 from 1990, while six of the airline's MD-81s were upgraded to MD-82 standards. During 1988, Austrian Airlines underwent an initial public offering upon the Vienna Stock Exchange, although the majority of shares in the company remained held by the Austrian government at this time. ### Developments from 1990 to 2008 Throughout the 1990s, many airlines focused on co-operation and alliances. Austrian was one of the first companies to join the Qualiflyer Group, founded by Swissair. This was also a period of quick expansion in the long-haul market, launching new flight paths to China and South Africa. During the late 1990s, Austrian Airlines developed an appetite for acquisitions; during March 1997, it bought a 35 percent stake in Lauda Air while an 85.7 percent shareholding in Tyrolean Airways was acquired in December of that year. Two years later, the airline wholly acquired Tyrolean Airways, making it a subsidiary During 1999, Austrian Airlines launched the ability for customers to book flights via the internet. On 26 March 2000, Austrian became a member of Star Alliance. During January 2001, it acquired a majority of the shares in Lauda Air; one month later, the airline also bought all of the shares in Rheintalflug. Austrian Airlines' operating name was shortened to *Austrian* in September 2003, it also renamed its three constituent carriers during this rebranding. On 1 October 2004, the flight operations departments of Austrian and Lauda Air were merged into a single unit, leaving Lauda Air as a brand name only for charter flights. It had 6,394 employees. Another subsidiary of Austrian Airlines, Tyrolean Airways, specialised in regional flights, having been merged with Rheintalflug during 2002. During March 2004, it launched its *Focus East* plan, expanding the airline's destinations across Central and Eastern Europe to 38; as a consequence, the Austrian Airlines Group became a market leader within this region. In October 2006, Austrian was forced to adopt a stringent cost-saving policy, and in 2007, it eliminated over 500 jobs. Many long-haul destinations were cancelled, such as Sydney via Kuala Lumpur, Melbourne via Singapore, Kathmandu or Shanghai. Three remaining Fokker 70s were sent to Tyrolean Airways. It was also decided to abandon the long-haul Airbus planes, consisting of four Airbus A340s and four Airbus A330s, to standardise the fleet in favour of Boeing 777s and Boeing 767s. Austrian Airlines removed complimentary in-flight meals and alcoholic drinks on short-haul services, introducing what was called a "Self Select Bistro Service", except on flights from London and any flights above 100 minutes in duration. Head office moved from Oberlaa in Vienna's Favoriten district to Vienna International Airport in 2007, whereas headquarters remained in Vienna. After recording a small profit of €3.3 million in 2007, financial guidance for 2008 had to be changed negatively several times, to a loss of €475 million expected as of the end of November. ### Takeover by Lufthansa In June 2008, Merrill Lynch advised the Austrian government to sell the airline to a foreign company. Interest was shown by Lufthansa, Air France–KLM, Royal Jordanian, Air China, Turkish Airlines, Aeroflot, S7 Airlines, and Singapore Airlines. Of those, Lufthansa, Air France-KLM, and S7 emerged as potential bidders. On 13 November 2008, state holding ÖIAG announced that Lufthansa was selected. The German company was to enter Austrian's capital with a 41.6% share, for which it would pay €366,268.75. AUA CEO Alfred Ötsch and OIAG chairman Peter Michaelis were heavily criticised for revealing to Lufthansa that it had to take over the €500 million debt only when the deal had been made binding. Michaelis refused a new tendering procedure, but was made a scapegoat with his shareholder rights removed, and Ötsch resigned on 29 January 2013. On 1 July 2009, the European Commission initiated investigation on the acquisition for breach of free-trade rules, suspecting that the tendering process was a fake one, everything being already decided in favour of Lufthansa. Finally, following approval from the European Commission, Lufthansa purchased Austrian Airlines during September 2009. Shares in Austrian Airlines AG were suspended on the Vienna Stock Exchange on 4 February 2010. After a time of uncertainty following the demission of appointed CEO Thierry Antinori, the arrival of Jaan Albrecht as the new CEO in 2011 signalled the beginning of a new era for the airline, with improving passenger numbers and a more strategic position within the Lufthansa framework. The completion of extension works at the Vienna International Airport will give the airline more room for expansion. As a result, in January 2012, a new strategy was implemented, with the addition of 11 new aircraft in the next three years, leading to a renewal of the fleet on the long term, with Airbus planes serving medium-haul routes and Boeings serving long-haul routes. During December 2011, a new cost-saving plan was revealed, as the company was still losing money despite eliminating 2,500 jobs. Lufthansa refused to provide financial support. In March 2012, Austrian called once more for recapitalisation. Lufthansa approved a capital increase of €140 million, providing effective measure to be taken to address the structural deficiencies. The Lauda Air subsidiary was merged into Austrian Airlines on 1 July 2012. ### Operational transition to Tyrolean from 2012 On 30 April 2012, after failure of negotiations over cost-cutting measures, AUA operations were taken over by subsidiary Tyrolean Airways. After this date, all Austrian flights were operated by Tyrolean. However, 110 pilots and 250 flight personnel chose not to go to Tyrolean, but to instead leave the group. During April 2013, Austrian Airlines retired its final Boeing 737, a 737-800 variant in Lauda Air markings, as part of its fleet-consolidation exercise. The airline's 11 Boeing 737s were replaced by seven Airbus A320s, it was reportedly expected to achieve annual saving of €17 million through the move to a single type. In March 2014, it was announced that Austrian had returned to profitability for the first time in six years. This same year, management intensified efforts to end a long-running labour dispute. ### Merger of Austrian and Tyrolean in 2015 In October 2014, it was announced that Tyrolean's flight operations and staff were to be reintegrated into Austrian Airlines by 31 March 2015, this move was a consequence of a new labour agreement having been recently reached. Ahead of this merger, Austrian announced an overhauled concept, initially called "my Austrian", on 26 March 2015; it included a new corporate design, a revised aircraft livery, and a number of new routes. However, in January 2016, Austrian Airlines announced it would revise its new branding introduced in spring 2015 by dropping the word "my" in front of Austrian; this new feature had been severely criticised. In June 2015, Austrian Airlines announced the purchase of 17 Embraer 195s from within the Lufthansa Group. These Embraer aircraft, which had been owned by Lufthansa CityLine, replaced the ageing Fokker 70s and 100s. By August 2016, eight of 17 Embraer aircraft had been delivered while 9 of 23 Fokker left the fleet. By late July 2017, all of the remaining Fokker 70s had been phased out; the Fokker 100s followed by the end of the year. That same year, Austrian began offering Internet on board its short-haul and medium-haul flights for the first time. Due to increasing competition from low-cost carriers at its Vienna base and the need to streamline operations to avoid financial losses, in 2019, the airline announced a restructuring to its fleet and network. All Bombardier Q400 turboprop aircraft are being replaced with Airbus A320s by March 2021, with all crew bases outside of Vienna shut down and routes not going through Vienna airport moved to either Lufthansa or Eurowings. In January 2020, Austrian announced the further retirement of three of its six Boeing 767-300ER long-haul aircraft scheduled, the last of which will leave the fleet by fall 2021. ### Developments since the COVID-19 pandemic From 18 March to 15 June 2020, Austrian Airlines was officially suspended all the regularly scheduled flights as the global air traffic collapsed due to the COVID-19 pandemnic. With regular operations suspended, the airline carried out several repatriation flights to carry home Austrians stranded abroad, as well as freight flights to carry medical supplies. Such flights were launched to Abuja, Bali, Lima, Mexico City, and Sydney. In summer 2020, the airline received €600 million in financial aid from Lufthansa and the Austrian government to help it weather the pandemic; in return, Austrian committed to, among others, reducing CO2 emissions in Austria by 50% by 2030. Overall, the airline ended 2020 flying 3.1 million passengers, a 79% drop from the prior year. In September 2021, it has been announced that Austrian Airlines will terminate all of its remaining scheduled services originating from Austrian airports outside of Vienna. These will be either cancelled or transferred to sister company Eurowings. In fall of 2022 Austrian announced an order of four new Airbus A320neo. The first of which joined the fleet in October of the same year, the other 3 will be gradually phased in until spring 2023. In April 2023, Austrian additionally announced that their current long haul fleet consisting of 3 Boeing 767-300ER and 6 Boeing 777-200ER will be replaced by 10 Boeing 787-9 from early 2024 to 2028. 5 of these jets will be transferred from Lufthansa, the other 5 will be delivered to Austrian from the existing Lufthansa Group order. Corporate affairs ----------------- ### Ownership and subsidiaries Austrian Airlines Group is wholly owned by Lufthansa. Austrian owns shares in 24 companies, including: * Austrian Technik Bratislava, a maintenance company located at Bratislava Airport equipped for overhauls on Fokker and Embraer regional jets, Airbus A220 and the Airbus A320 family. * Gulet-Touropa-Touristik * AVS-Versicherungen * TUI Austria * Traviaustria * AirPlus Kreditkarteninstitut * Wiener Börse AG * SCA Schedule Coordination Austria * ACS AirContainerService GmbH * Avicon Aviation Consult GmbH * Austrian Lufthansa Cargo GmbH * Austrian Airlines Tele Sales & Service GmbH ### Business trends Until 2008, full detailed accounts for Austrian Airlines were published in their annual reports; following the takeover by Lufthansa, only summary information for Austrian is now made available, usually by way of press release. Figures for years ending 31 December are: | | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Turnover (€m) | 2,551 | 2,531 | 2,083 | 2,150 | 2,163 | 2,259 | 2,198 | 2,164 | 2,243 | 2,285 | 2,466 | 2,149 | 2,108 | 460 | 743 | 1,871 | | Profit before interest, tax, depreciation, etc. (EBITDA) (€m) | | | −72 | 170 | 107 | 157 | 201 | 109 | | | | 83 | 19 | −319 | −264 | 3 | | Profit before interest and tax (EBIT) (€m) | 25.6 | −312.1 | −293.9 | −64.7 | −59.4 | 65 | 25 | 10 | 54 | 65 | 101 | 91 | 15 | −379 | −238 | −2 | | Net profit (€m) | 3.3 | −429.5 | −325.9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Number of employees (at year end) | 8,031 | 7,914 | 7,066 | 5,934 | 6,777 | 6,236 | 6,208 | 6,067 | 5,984 | 6,450 | 6,914 | 7,083 | 6,989 | 6,443 | 5,793 | 5,659 | | Number of passengers (m) | 10.8 | 10.7 | 9.9 | 10.9 | 11.3 | 11.5 | 11.3 | 11.2 | 10.8 | 11.4 | 12.9 | 13.9 | 14.7 | 3.1 | 5.0 | 11.1 | | Passenger load factor (%) | 75.1 | 74.4 | 74.0 | 76.8 | 73.7 | 77.5 | 78.6 | 78.9 | 78.0 | 76.1 | 76.8 | 79.3 | 80.8 | 61.9 | 61.9 | 79.4 | | Number of aircraft (at year end) | 98 | 99 | | | 78 | 77 | 74 | 75 | 77 | 81 | 83 | 83 | 82 | 79 | 61 | 63 | | *Notes/sources* | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ### Livery Citing the colours of the national flag of Austria, Austrian Airlines' colour scheme has always been a pattern of red, white, and red. Aircraft bellies were silver from the 1950s to 1980s, the upper part was white with the Austrian Airlines arrow and the text "Austrian Airlines" (until 1972, again from 1995 to 2003) or "Austrian" (1972–1995, from 2003 onwards). Austrian Airlines' slogan was "the friendly airline" at the time. As part of the 2015 rebranding, the blue belly and engine painting of the livery were replaced by white and red. The Austrian Airlines' arrow ("Austrian Chevron") has seen several design modifications over the years. When created in 1960 it was redolent of the shape of a flying bird; the design became more formal in 1972. As part of a rebranding exercise in 1995, the "Chevron" was placed on the red-white-red tail fin. In the new corporate design, in use since 2003, the old "Chevron" shape was used again, this time in a more modern style and with a drop shadow placed underneath. Several special colour schemes have been used throughout the decades. Since joining Star Alliance, a few aeroplanes have flown with Star Alliance markings. For the Mozart year in 2006, an Airbus A320 was decorated in a Mozart design, and an Airbus A340-300 was coated with an *hommage* to the Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. A Boeing 737-600 was given a glacier look for a Tyrol advertisement. Three designs were put on aeroplanes to mark Euro 2008. An Airbus A320 was given a retro livery to mark the company's 50th anniversary. Austrian's slogan is "the charming way to fly". Destinations ------------ ### Route development In 2006, Austrian decided to retire its A330 and A340 fleet, which consisted of four Airbus A330-200s, two Airbus A340-200s, and two Airbus A340-300s. These aircraft were sold to TAP Air Portugal, the French Air Force, and SWISS respectively. As a result of having less long-haul capacity, Austrian suspended some of its long-haul flights to East Asia. Flights to Shanghai (resumed 2016), Phuket, Colombo, Mauritius (resumed in 2014), Malé (resumed 2018), and Kathmandu ended in 2007. Both Australia routes - Melbourne via Singapore and Sydney via Kuala Lumpur - were terminated in March 2007, ending operations on the Kangaroo Route. Austrian was the last European-based airline offering direct flights from Melbourne to Europe. It started with Lauda aircraft, and later used Austrian Airlines aircraft. Austrian has temporarily restarted the Vienna to Sydney route in March 2020, as part of their repatriation flights to retrieve people stranded in other countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. The flight from Vienna to Sydney will be non-stop and the return flight will make a stopover in Penang, Malaysia to refuel and onload additional cargo. Using a Boeing 777, the non-stop flight will cover a distance of over 16,000 kilometers or 9,940 miles and it will last almost 18 hours, making it the longest flight in the history of Austrian Airlines. Austrian was one of the few airlines to fly to post-war Iraq when it began flights to Erbil in December 2006. New flights to Mumbai began in November 2010 and Austrian resumed flights to Baghdad on 8 June 2011. On 13 January 2013, Austrian Airlines suspended flights to Tehran due to a lack of demand. Austrian Airlines resumed flights to Chicago on 17 May 2013, and launched Newark in 2014. Austrian Airlines started service to Mauritius in the beginning of the 2015 winter schedule. The expansion of the intercontinental network seems to indicate improving results for Austrian, with Lufthansa placing its confidence in the airline. Austrian Airlines began service to Mauritius and Miami in October 2015. Austrian Airlines commenced service to Los Angeles on 10 April 2017, covering a distance of over 9,877 kilometers or 6,137 miles; the flight takes about 12 hours and 30 minutes, using Boeing 777-200ER aircraft. Austrian Airlines announced it would commence service (four times a week) to Shiraz which began on 2 July 2017, with a stopover in Isfahan using Airbus A320 aircraft. ### Codeshare agreement Austrian Airlines codeshares with the following airlines: * airBaltic * Air Canada * Air China * Air France * Air India * Air Malta * All Nippon Airways * Asiana Airlines * Azerbaijan Airlines * Bangkok Airways * Belavia * Brussels Airlines * Cathay Pacific * Croatia Airlines * Egyptair * Ethiopian Airlines * Eurowings * Georgian Airways * Iran Air * ITA Airways * LOT Polish Airlines * Lufthansa * Luxair * Scandinavian Airlines * Swiss International Air Lines * TAP Air Portugal * TAROM * Thai Airways International * Ukraine International Airlines * United Airlines Fleet ----- ### Current fleet As of June 2023[update], Austrian Airlines operates the following aircraft: **Austrian Airlines fleet**| Aircraft | In service | Orders | Passengers | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | B | E+ | E | Total | Refs | | Airbus A320-200 | 29 | — | var. | — | var. | 174 | | | | 180 | | Airbus A320neo | 3 | 1 | var. | — | var. | 180 | | To be delivered by June 2023. | | Airbus A321-100 | 3 | — | var. | — | var. | 200 | | | | Airbus A321-200 | 3 | | | Boeing 767-300ER | 3 | — | 24 | 30 | 157 | 211 | | To be replaced with Boeing 787-9 by 2028. | | Boeing 777-200ER | 6 | — | 38 | 24 | 244 | 306 | | To be reconfigured to 330 seats. | | 32 | 40 | 258 | 330 | | To be replaced with Boeing 787-9 by 2028. | | Boeing 787-9 | — | 10 | TBA | To be delivered from early 2024 until 2028.5 to be delivered new and 5 to be transferred from Lufthansa. | | Embraer 195 | 17 | — | var. | — | var. | 120 | | | | Total | 64 | 11 | | | Airbus A320-200 in the current liveryAirbus A321-200 in the current liveryBoeing 767-300ER in the short-lived *myAustrian* liveryBoeing 777-200ER in an older liveryEmbraer 195 in an older livery ### Historical fleet Over the years, Austrian Airlines operated the following aircraft types. Other aircraft types previously operated by the airline included the British Aerospace 146, Douglas DC-3, Hawker Siddeley HS 748 and Aero Commander (Grand Commander 680FL model). **Austrian Airlines historical fleet**| Aircraft | Introduced | Retired | Notes/Refs | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Airbus A310-300 | 1988 | 2004 | | | Airbus A319-100 | 2004 | 2022 | Relocated to Lufthansa CityLine | | Airbus A330-200 | 1998 | 2007 | Relocated to TAP Air Portugal | | Airbus A340-200 | 1995 | 2007 | Relocated to French Air Force | | Airbus A340-300 | 1997 | 2007 | Relocated to Swiss International Air Lines | | Boeing 707-320 | 1969 | 1971 | | | Boeing 737-600 | 2008 | 2012 | Former Lauda Air fleet | | Boeing 737-700 | 2008 | 2012 | Former Lauda Air fleet | | Boeing 737-800 | 2010 | 2013 | Former Lauda Air fleet | | Bombardier CRJ100 | 1994 | 2010 | Former Lauda Air and Tyrolean Airways fleets | | Bombardier CRJ200 | 1996 | | De Havilland Canada Dash 8-400 | 2012 | 2021 | Former Tyrolean Airways fleet. | | Douglas DC-8-63CF | 1973 | 1974 | | | Fokker 50 | 1988 | 1996 | | | Fokker 70 | 1995 | 2017 | Former Tyrolean Airways fleet | | Fokker 100 | 2004 | 2017 | Former Tyrolean Airways fleet | | McDonnell Douglas DC-9-32 | 1971 | 1990 | | | McDonnell Douglas DC-9-51 | 1975 | 1985 | | | McDonnell Douglas MD-81 | 1980 | 1999 | | | McDonnell Douglas MD-82 | 1983 | 2005 | | | McDonnell Douglas MD-83 | 1993 | 2005 | | | McDonnell Douglas MD-87 | 1987 | 2005 | | | Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle | 1963 | 1973 | | | Vickers Viscount | 1958 | 1971 | | Hawker Siddeley HS 748Airbus A310-300Airbus A330-200 in an early Star Alliance liveryAirbus A340-300 (OE-LAL, *America*) wearing a Wiener Philharmoniker special liveryBoeing 737-600 Service ------- Austrian operates several lounges at its hub in Vienna. There are three Business, two Senator and two HON-Circle lounges. It also operates a Business lounge at Domodedovo International Airport in Moscow. In other cities, business class passengers are welcome to use Star Alliance business class lounges. Do & Co has handled catering for Austrian Airlines since 2007. On long-haul flights, Business Class meals are prepared by a chef on board. As of 2011 all Austrian planes of the Airbus A320 family are equipped with new seats and a new cabin design. By September 2013, Austrian's entire long-haul-fleet (Boeing 767 and Boeing 777) also got new seats and a new cabin design. It contains full-flat-beds with a pneumatics-system and aisle access from nearly every seat in Business Class, and new seats with video-on-demand for every passenger in Economy Class. myAustrian Holidays ------------------- Austrian myHoliday replaced Lauda Air as Austrian Airlines' holiday brand in April 2013 and was renamed into myAustrian Holidays in mid-2015. It operates seasonal charter flights at own risk and in co-operation with tour operators as well as exclusive ad hoc charter flights. All charter flights are operated by Austrian Airlines aircraft and crew. A Do & Co board service is served on all flights. Seasonal holiday flights in 2017–18 were offered to 40 destinations in ten countries. myAustrian Holidays flights cover a dedicated range of flight numbers: * OS2000-OS2999: full charter flights & exclusive charter flights * OS4000-OS4999 & OS9000-OS9999: seasonal holiday flights Incidents and accidents ----------------------- The following is a list of incidents and accidents involving Austrian Airlines mainline aircraft. It excludes occurrences with subsidiaries, such as Tyrolean Airways or Austrian Air Services. * On 26 September 1960 at 21:40 local time, an Austrian Airlines Vickers Viscount (registered OE-LAF) crashed during approach of Sheremetyevo International Airport, killing 26 of the 31 passengers on board, as well as five of the six crew members. The aircraft had been operating Flight 901 from Vienna to Moscow with an intermediate stop at Warsaw. An altimeter malfunction was given as a probable cause for the only fatal accident for the airline to date. * On 21 February 1970, a bomb explosion occurred in the cargo hold of an Austrian Airlines Sud Aviation Caravelle (registered OE-LCU) during a flight from Frankfurt to Vienna with 33 passengers and five crew on board, creating a hole in the fuselage. The pilots managed to return the aircraft safely to Frankfurt Airport. On the same day, another bomb had been planted on Swissair Flight 330, causing it to crash, killing 47 people. The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine claimed the responsibility for both assaults. * On 7 January 1997, Austrian Airlines Flight 104 from Berlin to Vienna was hijacked by a Bosnian man who had forced his way into the cockpit armed with a knife (which was of a size small enough not to be banned from aeroplanes under regulations in force at the time). The pilots obeyed the perpetrator's demands to return to Berlin, so that he could negotiate with the local authorities over the renewal of his visa. Back at Berlin Tegel Airport, the McDonnell Douglas MD-87 was stormed by special police forces, and the hijacker was overpowered. * On 5 January 2004 at 08:17 local time, an Austrian Airlines Fokker 70 (registered OE-LFO) crash-landed on a snow-covered field near Munich International Airport. The aircraft had been operating Flight 111 from Vienna to Munich, with 28 passengers and four crew on board, when its engines failed during landing descent due to icing. The aircraft was severely damaged, however only three passengers suffered minor injuries.

Austrian Airlines

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_Airlines

***Monopoly*** is a multi-player economics-themed board game. In the game, players roll two dice to move around the game board, buying and trading properties and developing them with houses and hotels. Players collect rent from their opponents and aim to drive them into bankruptcy. Money can also be gained or lost through *Chance* and *Community Chest* cards and tax squares. Players receive a salary every time they pass "Go" and can end up in jail, from which they cannot move until they have met one of three conditions. House rules, hundreds of different editions, many spin-offs, and related media exist. *Monopoly* has become a part of international popular culture, having been licensed locally in more than 103 countries and printed in more than 37 languages. As of 2015[update], it was estimated that the game had sold 275 million copies worldwide. *Monopoly* is derived from *The Landlord's Game*, created by Lizzie Magie in the United States in 1903 as a way to demonstrate that an economy that rewards individuals is better than one where monopolies hold all the wealth and to promote the economic theories of Henry George—in particular, his ideas about taxation. *The Landlord's Game* originally had two sets of rules, one with tax and another on which the current rules are mainly based. When Parker Brothers first published *Monopoly* in 1935, the game did not include the less capitalistic taxation rule, resulting in a more aggressive game. Parker Brothers were eventually absorbed into Hasbro in 1991. The game is named after the economic concept of a monopoly—the domination of a market by a single entity. History ------- ### Early history The history of *Monopoly* can be traced back to 1903, when American anti-monopolist Lizzie Magie created a game that she hoped would explain the single-tax theory of Henry George. It was intended as an educational tool, to illustrate the negative aspects of concentrating land in private monopolies. She took out a patent in 1904. Her game, *The Landlord's Game*, was self-published, beginning in 1906. Magie created two sets of rules: an anti-monopolist set in which all were rewarded when wealth was created, and a monopolist set in which the goal was to create monopolies and crush opponents. Several variant board games, based on her concept, were developed from 1906 through the 1930s; they involved both the process of buying land for its development, and the sale of any undeveloped property. Cardboard houses were added, and rents increased as they were added to a property. Magie patented the game again in 1923. According to an advertisement placed in *The Christian Science Monitor*, Charles Todd of Philadelphia recalled the day in 1932 when his childhood friend Esther Jones and her husband, Charles Darrow, came to their house for dinner. After the meal, the Todds introduced Darrow to *The Landlord's Game*, which they then played several times. The game was entirely new to Darrow, and he asked the Todds for a written set of the rules. After that night, Darrow went on to utilize this, and distribute the game himself as *Monopoly*. The Parker Brothers bought the game's copyrights from Darrow. When the company learned Darrow was not the sole inventor of the game, it bought the rights to Magie's patent for $500. Parker Brothers began marketing the game on November 5, 1935. Cartoonist F. O. Alexander contributed the design. U.S. patent number *US 2026082 A* was issued to Charles Darrow on December 31, 1935, for the game board design and was assigned to Parker Brothers Inc. The original version of the game in this format was based on the streets of Atlantic City, New Jersey. ### 1936–1970 Parker Brothers began licensing the game for sale outside the United States in 1936. In 1941, the British Secret Intelligence Service had John Waddington Ltd., the licensed manufacturer of the game in the United Kingdom, create a special edition for World War II prisoners of war held by the Nazis. Hidden inside these games were maps, compasses, real money, and other objects useful for escaping. They were distributed to prisoners by fake charity organizations created by the British Secret Service. ### 1970s–1980s Economics professor Ralph Anspach published *Anti-Monopoly* in 1973, and was sued for trademark infringement by Parker Brothers in 1974. The case went to trial in 1976. Anspach won on appeals in 1979, as the 9th Circuit Court determined that the trademark *Monopoly* was generic and therefore unenforceable. The United States Supreme Court declined to hear the case, allowing the appellate court ruling to stand. This decision was overturned by the passage of Public Law 98-620 in 1984. With that law in place, Parker Brothers and its parent company, Hasbro, continue to hold valid trademarks for the game *Monopoly*. However, *Anti-Monopoly* was exempted from the law and Anspach later reached a settlement with Hasbro and markets his game under license from them. ### Hasbro ownership Hasbro acquired Parker Bros. and thus *Monopoly* in 1991. Before the Hasbro acquisition, Parker Bros. acted as a publisher only issuing two versions at a time, a regular and deluxe. Hasbro moved to create and license many other versions of *Monopoly* and sought public input in varying the game. A new wave of licensed products began in 1994, when Hasbro granted a license to USAopoly to begin publishing a San Diego Edition of *Monopoly*, which has since been followed by more than a hundred more licensees including Winning Moves Games (since 1995) and Winning Solutions, Inc. (since 2000) in the United States. The company held a national tournament on a chartered train going from Chicago to Atlantic City (see § U.S. National Championship) in 2003. Also that year, Hasbro sued the maker of Ghettopoly and won. In February 2005, the company sued RADGames over their Super Add-On accessory board game that fit in the center of the board. The judge initially issued an injunction on February 25, 2005, to halt production and sales before ruling in RADGames' favor in April 2005. The Speed Die was added to all regular Monopoly sets in 2008. After polling their Facebook followers, Hasbro Gaming took the top house rules and added them to a House Rule Edition released in the fall of 2014 and added them as optional rules in 2015. In January 2017, Hasbro invited Internet users to vote on a new set of game pieces, with this new regular edition to be issued in March 2017. On May 1, 2018, the Monopoly Mansion hotel agreement was announced by Hasbro's managing director for South-East Asia, Hong Kong and Taiwan, Jenny Chew Yean Nee with M101 Holdings Sdn Bhd. M101 has the five-star, 225-room hotel, then under construction, located at the M101 Bukit Bintang in Kuala Lumpur and would have a 1920s Gatsby feel. M101's Sirocco Group would manage the hotel when it opened in 2019. Hasbro announced in March 2021 that it plans to update the Community Chest cards with ones that will be more socially aware, inviting fans of the game to vote on the new versions. In April 2022, Hasbro announced another poll. This vote would see the reintroduction of one previously retired token in exchange for an existing token. The result of this will see the Thimble token return and the T-Rex phased out by fall 2022. Board ----- The *Monopoly* game board consists of forty spaces containing twenty-eight properties—twenty-two streets (grouped into eight distinct color groups), four railroads, and two utilities—three Chance spaces, three Community Chest spaces, a Luxury Tax space, an Income Tax space, and the four corner squares: GO, (In) Jail/Just Visiting, Free Parking, and Go to Jail. ### US versions There have since been some changes to the board. Not all of the Chance and Community Chest cards as shown in the 1935 patent were used in editions from 1936/1937 onwards. Graphics with the Mr. Monopoly character (then known as "Rich Uncle Pennybags") were added in that same time-frame. A graphic of a chest containing coins was added to the Community Chest spaces, as were the flat purchase prices of the properties. Traditionally, the Community Chest cards were yellow (although they were sometimes printed on blue stock) with no decoration or text on the back; the Chance cards were orange with no text or decoration on the back. Hasbro commissioned a major graphic redesign to the U.S. Standard Edition of the game in 2008 along with some minor revisions. Among the changes: the colors of Mediterranean and Baltic Avenues changed from purple to brown, and the colors of the GO square changed from red to black. The Luxury Tax amount increased to $100 from $75, and a flat $200 Income Tax was imposed (formerly the player's choice of $200 or 10% of their total holdings, which they could not calculate until after making their final decision). Originally the amount was $300 but was changed a year after the game's debut. There were also changes to the Chance and Community Chest cards; for example, the "poor tax", "receive for services", "Xmas fund matures", and "grand opera opening" cards became "speeding fine", "receive $25 consultancy fee", "holiday fund matures", and "it is your birthday", respectively; though their effects remained the same; the player must pay only $50 instead of $150 for the school tax. In addition, a player now gets $50 instead of $45 for sale of stock, and the Advance to Illinois Avenue card now has the added text indicating a player collects $200 if they pass Go on the way there. All the Chance and Community Chest cards received a graphic upgrade in 2008 as part of the graphic refresh of the game. Mr. Monopoly's classic line illustration was also now usually replaced by renderings of a 3D Mr. Monopoly model. The backs of the cards have their respective symbols, with Community Chest cards in blue, and Chance cards in orange. Additionally, recent versions of *Monopoly* replace the dollar sign ($) with an M with two horizontal strokes through it. In the US versions shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, New Jersey. Atlantic City's Illinois Avenue was renamed Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd. in the 1980s. St. Charles Place no longer exists, as the Showboat Atlantic City was developed where it once ran. The values on the board reflect real estate property values of 1930s Atlantic City: the two cheapest properties, Baltic Avenue and Mediterranean Avenue, were situated in a low-income, African-American neighborhood. Higher-value properties, such as Pennsylvania Avenue, Park Place and Ventnor Avenue, were situated in wealthier neighborhoods. Different versions have been created based on various current consumer interests such as: *Dog-opoly*, *Cat-opoly*, *Bug-opoly*, and TV/movie games among others. Standard (American Edition) *Monopoly* board layout as of September 2008 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Free Parking | Kentucky Avenue$220 | Chance? | Indiana Avenue$220 | Illinois Avenue$240 | B&O Railroad$200 | Atlantic Avenue$260 | Ventnor Avenue$260 | Water Works$150 | Marvin Gardens$280 | Go To Jail | | New York Avenue$200 | *MONOPOLY* | Pacific Avenue$300 | | Tennessee Avenue$180 | North Carolina Avenue$300 | | Community Chest | Community Chest | | St. James Place$180 | Pennsylvania Avenue$320 | | Pennsylvania Railroad$200 | Short Line$200 | | Virginia Avenue$160 | Chance? | | States Avenue$140 | Park Place$350 | | Electric Company$150 | Luxury tax(pay $100) | | St. Charles Place$140 | Boardwalk$400 | | In Jail/Just Visiting | Connecticut Avenue$120 | Vermont Avenue$100 | Chance? | Oriental Avenue$100 | Reading Railroad$200 | Income tax(pay $200) | Baltic Avenue$60 | Community Chest | Mediter-ranean Avenue$60 | Collect $200 salary as you pass**GO** | Marvin Gardens, the farthest yellow property, is a misspelling of its actual name, *Marven Gardens*. The misspelling was introduced by Charles and Olive Todd, who taught the game to Charles Darrow. It was passed on when their homemade *Monopoly* board was copied by Darrow and then by Parker Brothers. The Todds also changed the Atlantic City Quakers' Arctic Avenue to Mediterranean, and shortened the Shore Fast Line to the Short Line. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged the misspelling of *Marvin Gardens*, formally apologizing to the residents of Marven Gardens. Short Line refers to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City. The B&O Railroad did not serve Atlantic City. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid-1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad (now part of Norfolk Southern & CSX), and the Pennsylvania Railroad. The Baltimore & Ohio (now part of CSX) was the parent of the Reading. There is a tunnel in Philadelphia where track to the south was B. & O. and track to the north is Reading. The Central of N.J. did not have a track to Atlantic City but was the daughter of the Reading (and granddaughter of the B. & O.) Their track ran from the New York City area to Delaware Bay and some trains ran on the Reading-controlled track to Atlantic City. The actual "Electric Company" and "Water Works" serving the city are respectively Atlantic City Electric Company (a subsidiary of Exelon) and the Atlantic City Municipal Utilities Authority. ### UK version In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd., known as Waddingtons, was a printing company in Leeds that had branched out into packaging and the production of playing cards. Waddingtons had sent the card game *Lexicon* to Parker Brothers hoping to interest it in publishing the game in the United States. In a similar fashion, Parker Brothers sent over a copy of *Monopoly* to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States. Victor Watson, the managing director of Waddingtons, gave the game to his son Norman, head of the card games division, to test over a weekend. Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning—transatlantic calls then being almost unheard of. This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside the United States. Watson felt that for the game to be a success in the United Kingdom, the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary Marjory Phillips went to London to scout out locations. The Angel, Islington is not a street in London but a building (and the name of the road intersection where it is located). It had been a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road. By the 1930s, the inn had become a J. Lyons and Co. tea room and is today offices and a Co-operative Bank. Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the *Monopoly* board. In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson, who is also named Victor. During World War II, the British Secret Service contacted Waddingtons, as the company could also print on silk, to make *Monopoly* sets that included escape maps, money, a compass and file, all hidden in copies of the game sent by fake POW relief charities to prisoners of war. The standard British board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth, except Canada, where the US edition with Atlantic City-area names was reprinted. Local variants of the board are now also found in several Commonwealth countries. In 1998, Winning Moves procured the *Monopoly* license from Hasbro and created new UK city and regional editions with sponsored squares. Initially, in December 1998, the game was sold in just a few W H Smith stores, but demand was high, with almost 50,000 games sold in the four weeks before Christmas. Winning Moves still produces new city and regional editions annually. The original income tax choice from the 1930s US board is replaced by a flat rate on the UK board, and the $75 Luxury Tax space is replaced with the £100 Super Tax space, the same as the current German board. In 2008, the US edition was changed to match the UK and various European editions, including a flat $200 Income Tax value and an increased $100 Luxury Tax amount. In cases where a national company produced the game, the $ (dollar) sign was replaced with the £ (pound), but the place names were unchanged. UK edition *Monopoly* board layout | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Free Parking | Strand£220 | Chance? | Fleet Street£220 | Trafalgar Square£240 | Fenchurch Street station£200 | Leicester Square£260 | Coventry Street£260 | Water Works£150 | Piccadilly£280 | Go To Jail | | Vine Street£200 | MONOPOLY | Regent Street£300 | | Marlborough Street£180 | Oxford Street£300 | | Community Chest | Community Chest | | Bow Street£180 | Bond Street£320 | | Marylebone station£200 | Liverpool Street station£200 | | Northumberland Avenue£160 | Chance? | | Whitehall£140 | Park Lane£350 | | Electric Company£150 | Super Tax(pay £100) | | Pall Mall£140 | Mayfair£400 | | In Jail/Just Visiting | Pentonville Road£120 | Euston Road£100 | Chance? | The Angel, Islington£100 | King's Cross station£200 | Income Tax(pay £200) | Whitechapel Road£60 | Community Chest | Old Kent Road£60 | Collect £200 salary as you pass**GO** | ### Post-2005 variations Beginning in the UK in 2005, a revised version of the game, titled *Monopoly Here and Now*, was produced, replacing game scenarios, properties, and tokens with newer equivalents. Similar boards were produced for Germany and France. Variants of these first editions appeared with Visa-branded debit cards taking the place of cash—the later US "Electronic Banking" edition has unbranded debit cards. The success of the first *Here and Now* editions prompted Hasbro US to allow online voting for twenty-six landmark properties across the United States to take their places along the game-board. The popularity of this voting, in turn, led to the creation of similar websites, and secondary game-boards per popular vote to be created in the UK, Canada, France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations. Winning Moves Games released the *Mega Edition*, with a 30% larger game-board and revised game play, in 2006. Other streets from Atlantic City (eight, one per color group) were included, along with a third utility, the Gas Company. In addition, $1,000 denomination notes (first seen in Winning Moves' *Monopoly: The Card Game*) are included. Game play is further changed with bus tickets (allowing non-dice-roll movement along one side of the board), a speed die (itself adopted into variants of the *Atlantic City standard edition*; see below), skyscrapers (after houses and hotels), and train depots that can be placed on the Railroad spaces. This edition was adapted for the U.K. market in 2007, and is sold by Winning Moves UK. After the initial US release, critiques of some of the rules caused the company to issue revisions and clarifications on their website. #### *Monopoly Here and Now* The US edition of *Monopoly Here and Now* was released in September 2006. This edition features top landmarks across the US. The properties were decided by votes over the Internet in the spring of 2006. Monetary values are multiplied by 10,000 (e.g., one collects $2,000,000 instead of $200 for passing GO and pays that much for Income Tax (or 10% of their total, as this edition was launched prior to 2008), each player starts with $15,000,000 instead of $1,500, etc.). Also, the Chance and Community Chest cards are updated, the Railroads are replaced by Airports (Chicago O'Hare, Los Angeles International, New York City's JFK, and Atlanta's Hartsfield–Jackson), and the Utilities (Electric Company and Water Works) are replaced by Service Providers (Internet Service Provider and Cell Phone Service Provider). The houses and hotels are blue and silver, not green and red as in most editions of *Monopoly*. The board uses the traditional US layout; the cheapest properties are purple, not brown, and "Interest on Credit Card Debt" replaces "Luxury Tax". Despite the updated Luxury Tax space, and the Income Tax space no longer using the 10% option, this edition uses paper *Monopoly* money, and not an electronic banking unit like the *Here and Now World Edition*. However, a similar edition of *Monopoly*, the *Electronic Banking* edition, does feature an electronic banking unit and bank cards, as well as a different set of tokens. Both *Here and Now* and *Electronic Banking* feature an updated set of tokens from the Atlantic City edition. One landmark, Texas Stadium, has been demolished and no longer exists. Another landmark, Jacobs Field, still exists, but was renamed Progressive Field in 2008. *Monopoly Here and Now: The U.S. Edition* (2006) | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Free Parking | Camelback Mountains, Phoenix$2.2M | Chance? | Waikiki Beach, Honolulu$2.2M | Walt Disney World, Orlando$2.4M | JFK Airport, New York City$2M | French Quarter, New Orleans$2.6M | Hollywood, Los Angeles$2.6M | Internet Service$1.5M | Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco$2.8M | Go To Jail | | Pioneer Square, Seattle$2M | MONOPOLYHere and Now:The U.S. Edition | Las Vegas Blvd, Las Vegas$3M | | Johnson Space Center, Houston$1.8M | Wrigley Field, Chicago$3M | | Community Chest | Community Chest | | South Beach, Miami$1.8M | White House, Washington$3.2M | | Los Angeles International Airport$2M | Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport$2M | | Liberty Bell, Philadelphia$1.6M | Chance? | | Red Rocks Amphitheatre, Denver$1.4M | Fenway Park, Boston$3.5M | | Cell Phone Service$1.5M | Interest On Credit Card Debtpay $750K | | Centennial Olympic Park, Atlanta$1.4M | Times Square, New York City$4M | | In Jail/Just Visiting | Mall of America, Minneapolis$1.2M | Gateway Arch, St. Louis$1M | Chance? | Grand Ole Opry, Nashville$1M | O'Hare Airport, Chicago$2M | Income taxpay $2M or 10% | Texas Stadium, Dallas$600K | Community Chest | Jacobs Field, Cleveland$600K | Collect $2M salary as you pass**GO** | In 2015, in honor of the game's 80th birthday, Hasbro held an online vote to determine which cities would make it into an updated version of *Here and Now*. This second edition is more a spin-off as the winning condition has changed to completing a passport instead of bankrupting opponents. Community Chest is replaced with Here and Now cards, while the Here and Now space replaced the railroads. Houses and hotels have been removed. Hasbro released a *World* edition with the top voted cities from all around the world, as well as at least a *Here and Now* edition with the voted-on U.S. cities. #### *Monopoly Empire* *Monopoly Empire* has uniquely branded tokens and places based on popular brands. Instead of buying properties, players buy popular brands one by one and slide their billboards onto their Empire towers. Instead of building houses and hotels, players collect rent from their rivals based on their tower height. The first player to fill their tower with billboards wins. Every space on the board is a brand name, such as Xbox, Coca-Cola, McDonald's and Samsung. ***Monopoly Token Madness*** This version of Monopoly contains an extra eight golden tokens. That includes a penguin, a television, a race car, a Mr. Monopoly emoji, a rubber duck, a watch, a wheel and a bunny slipper. ***Monopoly Jackpot*** During the game, players travel around the gameboard buying properties and collecting rent. If they land on a Chance space, or roll the Chance icon on a die, they can spin the Chance spinner to try to make more money. Players may hit the "Jackpot", go bankrupt, or be sent to Jail. The player who has the most cash when the bank crashes wins. ***Monopoly: Ultimate Banking Edition*** In this version, there is no cash. The Monopoly Ultimate Banking game features an electronic ultimate banking piece with touch technology. Players can buy properties instantly and set rents by tapping. Each player has a bankcard and their cash is tracked by the Ultimate Banking unit. It can scan the game's property cards and boost or crash the market. Event cards and Location spaces replace Chance and Community Chest cards. On an Event Space, rents may be raised or lowered, a player may earn or lose money, or someone could be sent to Jail. Location Spaces allow players to pay and move to any property space on the gameboard. ***Monopoly Voice Banking*** In this version, there are no cash or cards. *Voice Banking* allows the player to respond by voice to the Top Hat. The hat responds by purchasing properties, paying rent, and making buildings. #### *Ms. Monopoly* *Ms. Monopoly* is a feminist-oriented version of the game released in 2019 which gives bonuses to female players. #### *Monopoly Deal* *Monopoly Deal* is a card game derived from the board-game Monopoly introduced in 2008, produced and sold by Cartamundi under a license from Hasbro. Players attempt to collect three complete sets of cards representing the properties from the original board game, either by playing them directly, stealing them from other players, swapping cards with other players, or collecting them as rent for other properties they already own. The cards in the 110-card deck represent properties and wild cards, various denominations of Monopoly money used to pay rent, and special action cards which can either be played for their effects or banked as money instead. Equipment --------- All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until bought by the players. A standard set of *Monopoly* pieces includes: ### Cards A deck of thirty-two Chance and Community Chest cards (sixteen each) which players draw when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them. ### Deeds A title deed for each property is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rents depending on how developed the property is. Properties include: * Four railroads, players collect $25 rent if they own one railroad; $50 for two; $100 for three; $200 for all four. These are usually replaced by railroad stations in non-U.S. editions of Monopoly. * Twenty-two streets divided into eight color groups of two or three streets; a player must own all of a color group to build houses or hotels. Once achieved, color group properties must be improved or "broken down" evenly. See the section on Rules. * Two utilities, rent is four times the dice value if one utility is owned, but ten times if both are owned. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities or stations. Some country editions have a fixed rent for utilities; for example, the Italian editions has a L. 2,000 ($20) rent if one utility is owned, or L. 10,000 ($100) if both are owned. The purchase price for properties varies from $60 to $400 on a U.S. Standard Edition set. ### Dice A pair of six-sided dice is included, with a "speed die" added for variation in 2007. The 1999 Millennium Edition featured two jewel-like dice which were the subject of a lawsuit from Michael Bowling, owner of dice maker Crystal Caste. Hasbro lost the suit in 2008 and had to pay $446,182 in royalties. Subsequent printings of the game reverted to normal six-sided dice. ### Houses and hotels 32 houses and 12 hotels made of wood or plastic (the original and current *Deluxe Edition* have wooden houses and hotels; the current "base set" uses plastic buildings). Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed. In most editions, houses are green and hotels red. ### Money Older U.S. standard editions of the game included a total of **$15,140** in the following denominations: * 20 $500 bills (orange) * 20 $100 bills (beige) * 30 $50 bills (blue) * 50 $20 bills (green) * 40 $10 bills (yellow) * 40 $5 bills (pink) * 40 $1 bills (white) Newer (September 2008 and later) U.S. editions provide a total of **$20,580**—30 of each denomination instead. The colors of some of the bills are also changed: $10s are now blue instead of yellow, $20s are a brighter green than before, and $50s are now purple instead of blue. Each player begins the game with their token on the Go square, and $1,500 (or 1,500 of a localized currency) in play money ($2,500 with the Speed Die). Before September 2008, the money was divided with greater numbers of 20 and 10-dollar bills. Since then, the U.S. version has taken on the British version's initial cash distributions. | U.S. editions prior to 2008 | U.S. editions since 2008 / British editions | | --- | --- | | 2 × $500 | 2 × $/£500 | | 2 × $100 | 4 × $/£100 | | 2 × $50 | 1 × $/£50 | | 6 × $20 | 1 × $/£20 | | 5 × $10 | 2 × $/£10 | | 5 × $5 | 1 × $/£5 | | 5 × $1 | 5 × $/£1 | Although the U.S. version is indicated as allowing eight players, the cash distribution shown above is not possible with all eight players since it requires 32 $100 bills and 40 $1 bills. However, the amount of cash contained in the game is enough for eight players with a slight alteration of bill distribution. #### International currencies Pre-Euro German editions of the game started with 30,000 "Spielmark" in eight denominations (abbreviated as "M."), and later used seven denominations of the Deutsche Mark ("DM."). In the classic Italian game, each player received L. 350,000 ($3500) in a two-player game, but L. 50,000 ($500) less for each player more than two. Only in a six-player game does a player receive the equivalent of $1,500. The classic Italian games were played with only four denominations of currency. Both Spanish editions (the Barcelona and Madrid editions) started the game with 150,000 in play money, with a breakdown identical to that of the American version. #### Extra currency According to the Parker Brothers rules, Monopoly money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money it may issue as much as needed "by merely writing on any ordinary paper". However, Hasbro's published Monopoly rules make no mention of this. Additional paper money can be bought at certain locations, notably game and hobby stores, or downloaded from various websites and printed and cut by hand. One such site has created a $1,000 bill; while a $1,000 bill can be found in *Monopoly: The Mega Edition* and *Monopoly: The Card Game*, both published by Winning Moves Games, this note is not a standard denomination for classic versions of Monopoly. #### Electronic banking In several countries there is also a version of the game that features electronic banking. Instead of receiving paper money, each player receives a plastic bank card that is inserted into a calculator-like electronic device that keeps track of the player's balance. Besides demonstrating the dangers of land rents and monopolies, Lizzie Magie also intended this game for children to learn how to add and subtract through the usage of paper money. However, now with the new innovations of credit cards implemented in these games, many consumers are worried that this purpose of the game is ruined. ### Tokens #### Classic Each player is represented by a small metal or plastic token that is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two six-sided dice. The number of tokens (and the tokens themselves) have changed over the history of the game with many appearing in special editions only, and some available with non-game purchases. After prints with wood tokens in 1937, a set of eight tokens was introduced. Two more were added in late 1937, and tokens changed again in 1942. During World War II, the game tokens were switched back to wood. Early localized editions of the standard edition (including some Canadian editions, which used the U.S. board layout) did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic wooden pawns identical to those that *Sorry!* had. Many of the early tokens were created by companies such as Dowst Miniature Toy Company, which made metal charms and tokens designed to be used on charm bracelets. The battleship and cannon were also used briefly in the Parker Brothers war game *Conflict* (released in 1940), but after the game failed on the market, the premade pieces were recycled for *Monopoly* usage. By 1943, there were ten tokens which included the Battleship, Boot, Cannon, Horse and rider, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow. These tokens remained the same until the late 1990s, when Parker Brothers was sold to Hasbro. In 1998, a Hasbro advertising campaign asked the public to vote on a new playing piece to be added to the set. The candidates were a bag of money, a bi-plane, and a piggy bank. The bag ended up winning 51 percent of the vote compared to the other two which failed to go above 30%. This new token was added to the set in 1999, bringing the number of tokens to eleven. Another 1998 campaign poll asked people which monopoly token was their favorite. The most popular was the Race Car at 18%, followed by the Dog (16%), Cannon (14%) and Top Hat (10%). The least favorite in the poll was the Wheelbarrow, at 3%, followed by Thimble (7%) and the Iron (7%). The Cannon, and Horse and rider were both retired in 2000 with no new tokens taking their place. Another retirement came in 2007 with the sack of money, bringing the total token count back down to eight again. In 2013, a similar promotional campaign was launched encouraging the public to vote on one of several possible new tokens to replace an existing one. The choices were a guitar, a diamond ring, a helicopter, a robot, and a cat. This new campaign was different from the one in 1998, as the least-popular existing piece would be retired and replaced with a new one. Both were chosen by a vote that ran on Facebook from January 8 to February 5, 2013. The cat took the top spot with 31% of the vote, while the iron proved to be the least-popular classic piece and was swapped out for the cat. In January 2017, Hasbro placed the line of tokens in the regular edition with another vote which included a total of 64 options. The eight playable tokens at the time included the Battleship, Boot, Cat, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat, and Wheelbarrow. By March 17, 2017, Hasbro retired three additional tokens, namely the thimble, wheelbarrow, and boot; these were replaced by a penguin, a Tyrannosaurus and a rubber duck. In April 2022, it was announced that a previously retired token would return to Monopoly sets. The candidates for reintroduction were the wheelbarrow, thimble, iron, horse & rider, boot, and money bag. One existing token would also be dropped from the line-up. Based on the results of the vote, Hasbro announced that starting in Spring 2023, the T-Rex would be replaced by the Thimble in regular sets of Monopoly. #### Special editions Over the years, Hasbro has released tokens for special or collector's editions of the game. One of the first tokens to come out included the Steam Locomotive, which was only released in Deluxe Editions. A Director's Chair token was released in 2011 in limited edition copies of *Under the Boardwalk: The Monopoly Story*. Shortly after the 2013 Facebook voting campaign, a limited-edition Golden Token set was released exclusively at various national retailers, such as Target in the U.S., and Tesco in the U.K. The set contained the Battleship, Boot, Iron, Racecar, Scottie Dog, Thimble, Top hat and Wheelbarrow as well as the iron's potential replacements. These replacement tokens included the cat, the guitar, the diamond ring, the helicopter, and the robot. Hasbro released a 64-token limited edition set in 2017 called *Monopoly Signature Token Collection* to include all of the candidates that were not chosen in the vote held that year. Rules ----- ### Official rules Each player starts with $1,500 in their bank. Players take turns in order, with the initial player determined by chance before the game. A typical turn begins with the dice rolling and advancing a piece clockwise around the board the corresponding number of squares. If players roll doubles, they move again after completing that portion of their turn. A player who rolls three consecutive sets of doubles on one turn has been "caught speeding" and is immediately sent to jail instead of moving the amount shown on the dice for the third roll. A player who lands on or passes the "Go" space collects $200 from the bank. Players who land on either Income Tax or Luxury Tax pay the indicated amount to the bank. In older editions of the game, two options were given for Income Tax: either pay a flat fee of $200 or 10% of total net worth (including the current values of all the properties and buildings owned). No calculation could be made before the choice, and no latitude was given for reversing an unwise decision. In 2008, the calculation option was removed from the official rules; simultaneously, the Luxury Tax was increased from $75 to $100. No reward or penalty is given for landing on Free Parking. Properties can only be developed once a player owns all the properties in that color group. They then must be developed equally. A house must be built on each property of that color before a second can be built. Each property within a group must be within one house level of all the others within that group. #### Chance/Community Chest If a player lands on a Chance or Community Chest space, they draw the top card from the respective deck and follow its instructions. This may include collecting or paying money to the bank or another player or moving to a different space on the board. Two types of cards that involve jail, "Go to Jail" and "Get Out of Jail Free", are explained below. #### Jail A player is sent to jail for doing any of the following: * Landing directly on the "Go to Jail" space * Throwing three consecutive doubles in one turn * Drawing a "Go (Directly) to Jail" card from Chance or Community Chest When a player is sent to Jail, they move directly to the "In Jail" part of the "In Jail/Just Visiting" space, and their turn ends ("Do not pass Go. Do not collect $200."). If an ordinary dice roll (not one of the above events) ends with the player's token on the Jail corner, they are "Just Visiting" and can move ahead on their next turn without penalty. If a player is in Jail, they do not take a normal turn and must either pay a fine of $50 to be released, use a Chance or Community Chest Get Out of Jail Free card, or attempt to roll doubles on the dice. If a player fails to roll doubles, they lose their turn. Failing to roll doubles for three consecutive turns requires the player to either pay the $50 fine or use a Get Out of Jail Free card, after which they move ahead according to the total rolled. Players in Jail may not buy properties directly from the bank since they cannot move. This does not impede any other transaction, meaning they can engage in, for example, mortgaging properties, selling/trading properties to other players, buying/selling houses and hotels, collecting rent, and bidding on property auctions. A player who rolls doubles to leave jail does not roll again; however, if the player pays the fine or uses a card to get out and then rolls doubles, they take another turn. The odds of rolling doubles are 6 in 36 (1 in 6) in any given roll, hence the odds of rolling into jail due to three consecutive doubles are 1 in 216 (the cube of 6.) #### Properties If the player lands on an unowned property, whether street, railroad, or utility, they can buy the property for its listed purchase price. If they decline this purchase, the property is auctioned off by the bank to the highest bidder, including the player who declined to buy. If the property landed on is already owned and unmortgaged, they must pay the owner a given rent; the amount depends on whether the property is part of a set or its level of development. Players may trade properties or sell them to other players at any time in any deal that is mutually agreed upon, with the exception that properties with buildings may not be traded or sold. When a player owns all the properties in a color group and none of them are mortgaged, they may develop them during their turn or in between other player's turns. Development involves buying miniature houses or hotels from the bank and placing them on the property spaces; this must be done uniformly across the group. Therefore, a second house cannot be built on any property within a group until all of them have one house. Once the player owns an *entire* group, they can collect double rent for any undeveloped properties within it. Although houses and hotels cannot be built on railroads or utilities, the given rent increases if a player owns more than one of either type. If there is a housing shortage (more demand for houses to be built than what remains in the bank), then a housing auction is conducted to determine who will get to purchase each house. #### Mortgaging Properties can also be mortgaged, although all developments on a monopoly must be sold before any property of that color can be mortgaged or traded. The player receives half the purchase price from the bank for each mortgaged property. This must be repaid with 10% interest to clear the mortgage. Houses and hotels can be sold back to the bank for half their purchase price. Players cannot collect rent on mortgaged properties and may not give improved property away to others; however, trading mortgaged properties is allowed. The player receiving the mortgaged property must immediately pay the bank the mortgage price plus 10% or pay just the 10% amount and keep the property mortgaged; if the player chooses the latter, they must pay the 10% again when they pay off the mortgage. #### Bankruptcy A player who cannot pay what they owe is bankrupt and eliminated from the game. If the bankrupt player owes the bank, they must turn all their assets over to the bank, who then auctions off their properties (if they have any), except buildings. If the debt is owed to another player instead, all assets are given to that opponent, except buildings, which must be returned to the bank. The new owner must either pay off any mortgages held by the bank on such properties received or pay a fee of 10% of the mortgaged value to the bank if they choose to leave the properties mortgaged. The winner is the player remaining after all of the others have gone bankrupt. In a 2-player game, if a player goes bankrupt to the other player or the bank, the game is over and there is no need for the bank to conduct the auction as the other player will have automatically won. The winning player only then needs to pay the final fees from the property transfer, in the event of a tournament where each dollar in net assets actually matters. If a player runs out of money but still has assets that can be converted to cash, they can do so by selling buildings, mortgaging properties, or trading with other players. To avoid bankruptcy the player must be able to raise enough cash to pay the full amount owed. A player cannot choose to go bankrupt; if there is *no* way to pay what they owe, even by returning all their buildings at a loss, mortgaging all their real estate and giving up all their cash, even knowing they are likely going bankrupt the next time, they must do so and immediately retire from the game. ### Official Short Game rules From 1936, the rules booklet included with each Monopoly set contained a short section at the end providing rules for making the game shorter, including dealing out two Title Deed cards to each player before starting the game, by setting a time limit or by ending the game after the second player goes bankrupt. A later version of the rules included this variant, along with the time limit game, in the main rules booklet, omitting the last, the second bankruptcy method, as a third short game. ### House rules > [V]irtually no one plays the game with the rules as written. > > — *Computer Gaming World*, 1994 Many house rules have emerged for the game throughout its history. Well-known is the "Free Parking jackpot rule", where all the money collected from Income Tax, Luxury Tax, Chance and Community Chest goes to the center of the board instead of the bank. Many people add $500 to start each pile of Free Parking money, guaranteeing a minimum payout. When a player lands on Free Parking, they may take the money. Another rule is that if a player lands directly on Go (rather than passing by it on their turn), they collect double the usual amount ($400 instead of $200). Other commonly-used house rules include: eliminating property auctions if a player declines to buy or cannot afford an unowned property on which they land; awarding additional money for rolling "snake eyes", allowing a player to loan money to another player; or enabling someone to grant rent immunity to someone else. Since these rules typically provide additional cash to players regardless of their property management choices, they can lengthen the game considerably and limit the role of strategy. Video game and computer game versions of *Monopoly* have options where popular house rules can be used. In 2014, Hasbro determined five popular house rules by public Facebook vote, and released a "House Rules Edition" of the board game. Rules selected include a "Free Parking" house rule without additional money and forcing players to traverse the board once before buying properties. Strategy -------- According to Jim Slater in *The Mayfair Set*, the Orange property group is the best to own because players land on them more often, as a result of the Chance cards "Go to Jail", "Advance to St. Charles Place (Pall Mall)", "Advance to Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station)" and "Go Back Three Spaces". In all, during game play, Illinois Avenue (Trafalgar Square) (Red), New York Avenue (Vine Street) (Orange), B&O Railroad (Fenchurch Street Station), and Reading Railroad (Kings Cross Station) are the most frequently landed-upon properties. Mediterranean Avenue (Old Kent Road) (brown), Baltic Avenue (Whitechapel Road) (brown), Park Place (Park Lane) (blue), and Oriental Avenue (The Angel, Islington) (light blue) are the least-landed-upon properties. Among the property groups, the Railroads are most frequently landed upon, as no other group has four properties; Orange has the next highest frequency, followed by Red. According to *Business Insider*, the best way to get the most out of every property is to build three houses on each as quickly as possible. In order to do so, the player must have all the corresponding properties of the color set. Once every possible property has three houses, it is advised they then upgrade to hotels. ### Trading Trading is a vital strategy in order to accumulate all the properties in a color set. Obtaining all the properties in a specific color set enables the player to buy houses and hotels which increase the rent another player has to pay when they land on the property. According to *Slate*, players trade to speed up the process and secure a win. Building at least 3 houses on each property allows the player to break even once at least one player lands on this property. ### End game One common criticism of *Monopoly* is that although it has carefully defined termination conditions, it may take an unlimited amount of time to reach them. Edward P. Parker, a former president of Parker Brothers, is quoted as saying, "We always felt that forty-five minutes was about the right length for a game, but *Monopoly* could go on for hours. Also, a game was supposed to have a definite end somewhere. In *Monopoly* you kept going around and around." Hasbro states that the longest game of *Monopoly* ever played lasted 70 days. Related games ------------- ### Add-ons Numerous add-ons have been produced for *Monopoly*, sold independently from the game both before its commercialization and after, with three official ones discussed below: #### *Stock Exchange* The original *Stock Exchange* add-on was published by Capitol Novelty Co. of Rensselaer, New York in early 1936. It was marketed as an add-on for *Monopoly*, *Finance*, or *Easy Money* games. Shortly after Capitol Novelty introduced *Stock Exchange*, Parker Brothers bought it from them then marketed their own, slightly redesigned, version as an add-on specifically for their "new" *Monopoly* game; the Parker Brothers version was available in June 1936. The Free Parking square is covered over by a new Stock Exchange space and the add-on included three Chance and three Community Chest cards directing the player to "Advance to Stock Exchange". The *Stock Exchange* add-on was later redesigned and re-released in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a larger number of new Chance and Community Chest cards. This version included ten new Chance cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and five other related cards) and eleven new Community Chest cards (five "Advance to Stock Exchange" and six other related cards; the regular Community Chest card "From sale of stock you get $45" is removed from play when using these cards). Many of the original rules applied to this new version (in fact, one optional play choice allows for playing in the original form by only adding the "Advance to Stock Exchange" cards to each deck). A *Monopoly Stock Exchange Edition* was released in 2001 (although not in the U.S.), this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures. This was a full edition, not just an add-on, that came with its own board, money and playing pieces. Properties on the board were replaced by companies on which shares could be floated, and offices and home offices (instead of houses and hotels) could be built. #### Playmaster Playmaster, another official add-on, released in 1982, is an electronic device that keeps track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur; for example when a player lands on a railroad it plays "I've Been Working on the Railroad", and a police car's siren sounds when a player goes to Jail. #### *Get Out of Jail* and *Free Parking* Minigames In 2009, Hasbro released two minigames that can be played as stand-alone games or combined with the *Monopoly* game. In *Get Out of Jail*, the goal is to manipulate a spade under a jail cell to flick out various colored prisoners. The game can be used as an alternative to rolling doubles to get out of jail. In *Free Parking*, players attempt to balance taxis on a wobbly board. The *Free Parking* add-on can also be used with the Monopoly game. When a player lands on the Free Parking, the player can take the Taxi Challenge, and if successful, can move to any space on the board. #### Speed Die First included in Winning Moves' *Monopoly: The Mega Edition* variant, this third, six-sided die is rolled with the other two, and accelerates game-play when in use. In 2007, Parker Brothers began releasing its standard version (also called the Speed Die Edition) of *Monopoly* with the same die (originally in blue, later in red). Its faces are: 1, 2, 3, two "Mr. Monopoly" sides, and a bus. The numbers behave as normal, adding to the other two dice, unless a "triple" is rolled, in which case the player can move to any space on the board. If "Mr. Monopoly" is rolled while there are unowned properties, the player advances forward to the nearest one. Otherwise, the player advances to the nearest property on which rent is owed. In the *Monopoly: Mega Edition*, rolling the bus allows the player to take the regular dice move, then either take a bus ticket or move to the nearest draw card space. Mega rules specifies that triples do not count as doubles for going to jail as the player does not roll again. Used in a regular edition, the bus (properly "get off the bus") allows the player to use only one of the two numbered dice or the sum of both, thus a roll of 1, 5, and bus would let the player choose between moving 1, 5, or 6 spaces. The Speed Die is used throughout the game in the "Mega Edition", while in the "Regular Edition" it is used by any player who has passed GO at least once. In these editions it remains optional, although use of the Speed Die was made mandatory for use in the 2009 U.S. and World Monopoly Championship, as well as the 2015 World Championship. ### Spin-offs Parker Brothers and its licensees have also sold several spin-offs of *Monopoly*. These are not add-ons, as they do not function as an addition to the *Monopoly* game, but are simply additional games with the flavor of *Monopoly*: * *Advance to Boardwalk* board game (1985): Focusing mainly on building the most hotels along the Boardwalk. * *Don't Go to Jail*: Dice game originally released by Parker Brothers; roll combinations of dice to create color groups for points before rolling the words "GO" "TO" and "JAIL" (which forfeits all earned points for the turn). * *Monopoly Express*: A deluxe, travel edition re-release of *Don't Go To Jail*, replacing the word dice with "Officer Jones" dice and adding an eleventh die, Houses & Hotels, and a self-contained game container/dice roller & keeper. In 2021, this game was re-released as ***Monopoly DICED!***, with the same elements and gameplay, but in a square container rather than the round one used for the *Express* version. * *Express Monopoly* card game (1994 U.S., 1995 U.K.): Released by Hasbro/Parker Brothers and Waddingtons in the U.K., now out of print. Basically a rummy-style card game based on scoring points by completing color group sections of the game-board. * *Free Parking* card game (1988) A more complex card game released by Parker Brothers, with several similarities to the card game *Mille Bornes*. Uses cards to either add time to parking meters, or spend the time doing activities to earn points. Includes a deck of Second Chance cards that further alter game-play. Two editions were made; minor differences in card art and Second Chance cards in each edition. * *Monopoly: The Card Game* (2000) an updated card game released by Winning Moves Games under license from Hasbro. Similar, but decidedly more complex, game-play to the *Express Monopoly* card game. * *Monopoly City*: Game-play retains similar flavor but has been made significantly more complex in this version. The traditional properties are replaced by "districts" mapped to the previously underutilized real estate in the centre of the board. * *Monopoly Deal*: The most recent card game version of *Monopoly*. Players attempt to complete three property groups by playing property, cash & event cards. * *Monopoly Junior* board game (first published 1990, multiple variations since): A simplified version of the original game for young children. * *Monopoly Town* by Parker Brothers / Hasbro (2008) a young children's game of racing designed to help them learn to count. * *The Mad Magazine Game* (1979): Gameplay is similar, but the goals and directions often opposite to those of Monopoly; the object is for players to lose all of their money. ### Monopoly for Sore Losers **Monopoly for Sore Losers** is a spin-off of Monopoly. It was published in 2020 by Hasbro and, according to the box, "creates—and celebrates—sore losers". Its main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of a sore loser mechanic, which allows players to temporarily assume control of a special token that protects them from most negative effects of landing on board spaces—at their opponents' expense. #### Gameplay differences from regular Monopoly During the initial roll to determine turn order, the player with the lowest total goes first. The main difference from standard Monopoly is the introduction of the sore loser mechanic. Each player is given 2 sore loser coins upon the start of the game, and the remainder are placed in the centre of the board. A player collects a sore loser coin from the Bank if they have to do any of the following: pay rent to another player, pay taxes and bills to the Bank, go to jail, land on a property that they own, or draw a Chance or Community Chest card that instructs them to collect a coin. If a player lands on Free Parking, they are allowed to steal a sore loser coin from another player, which could be traded. A player may not collect a sore loser coin if they have four. At the beginning of their turn, a player with four sore loser coins, may place them in the centre of the board. That player then takes the Mr. Monopoly token and replaces their token with the Mr. Monopoly token—their normal token being placed in the centre of the board. Whilst a player is Mr. Monopoly, they cannot collect sore loser coins, and the actions they take when landing on spaces are altered, including collecting money when landing on the properties of other players, collecting money from the bank when landing on a tax or bill space, not go to jail, and requiring other players to lose sore loser coins. Whenever any player, including Mr. Monopoly's owner, rolls doubles, Mr. Monopoly's owner is allowed to place one free house on any street on the board. The property selected for this free house does not need to be owned by Mr. Monopoly, nor does it need to be part of a complete set, and placing doubles houses unevenly is also allowed. However, Mr. Monopoly's owner may not place this free house on a street that already has four houses, nor may they upgrade to a hotel. Buildings are permanent and could not be sold. If a property with buildings on it is traded away, the buildings remain and start providing rent to the new owner. If Mr. Monopoly's dice roll makes him land on the same space as another player, the Mr. Monopoly token is placed over that other player's token, and Mr. Monopoly's owner is allowed to steal one property from the player he landed on—said property must not be part of a complete set. If a property with buildings on it is stolen, the buildings remain on the property and start providing rent to Mr. Monopoly's owner. In addition, whilst a player is under Mr. Monopoly, they are trapped—their turn will be skipped until Mr. Monopoly moves, but said players can still take part in auctions and trade. If Mr. Monopoly lands on the Jail space, he traps other players on both spaces. However, these actions could not be taken if a player becomes Mr. Monopoly whilst on the same space as another player. Once Mr. Monopoly is in play, if another player cashes in their sore loser coins to become him, the old owner restores their normal token to the space they are on, and Mr. Monopoly is transferred to the space of the new owner, whose token is placed in the centre of the board. If a player goes bankrupt, their sore loser coins are returned to the centre of the board. The game is ended through one of two means- bankruptcy or all of the properties have been purchased. If the latter happens, players must return to Go, with Mr. Monopoly's owner not allowed to steal a property when they land on Go for the final time. Players subsequently collect rent from all of their properties, according to full colour sets and development, and after that the player with the most capital is the winner. ### Video games Besides the many variants of the actual game (and the *Monopoly Junior* spin-off) released in either video game or computer game formats (e.g., Commodore 64, Macintosh, Windows-based PC, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo Entertainment System, iPad, Genesis, Super NES, etc.), two spin-off computer games have been created. An electronic hand-held version was marketed from 1997 to 2001. * *Monopoly*: The iPhone game designed by Electronic Arts. * *Monopoly Millionaires*: The Facebook game designed by Playfish. * *Monopoly Streets*: A video game played for the Xbox 360, Wii, and PlayStation 3. The video game includes properties now played on a street. * *Monopoly Tycoon*: A game where players build businesses on the properties they own. * *Monopoly Plus*: A game for the Xbox One and PlayStation 4 with high definition graphics. * *Monopoly*: The mobile game on iOS and Android devices designed by Marmalade Game Studios. ### Gambling games *Monopoly*-themed slot machines and lotteries have been produced by WMS Gaming in conjunction with International Game Technology for land-based casinos. WagerWorks, who have the online rights to *Monopoly*, have created online *Monopoly* themed games. London's Gamesys Group have also developed *Monopoly*-themed gambling games. The British quiz machine brand itbox also supports a *Monopoly* trivia and chance game. There was also a live, online version of *Monopoly*. Six painted taxis drive around London picking up passengers. When the taxis reach their final destination, the region of London that they are in is displayed on the online board. This version takes far longer to play than board-game *Monopoly*, with one game lasting 24 hours. Results and position are sent to players via e-mail at the conclusion of the game. ### Play-by-mail game Mail Games Inc. created a play-by-mail game (PBM) version of *Monopoly*, reviewed in the August–September 1990 issue of *White Wolf Magazine*. The PBM version was similar to the board game, although compared to many PBM games it was relatively simple. The game moderator processed players' turn orders simultaneously, but alternated the order that players' turns were initiated to allow sequential transactions as in the board game. Media ----- ### Commercial promotions The *McDonald's Monopoly* game is a sweepstakes advertising promotion of McDonald's and Hasbro that has been offered in Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Ireland, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, United Kingdom and United States. ### Television game show A short-lived *Monopoly* game show aired on Saturday evenings from June 16 to September 1, 1990, on ABC. The show was produced by Merv Griffin and hosted by Mike Reilly. The show was paired with a summer-long *Super Jeopardy!* tournament, which also aired during this period on ABC. From 2010 to 2014, The Hub aired the game show *Family Game Night* with Todd Newton. For the first two seasons, teams earned cash in the form of "Monopoly Crazy Cash Cards" from the "Monopoly Crazy Cash Corner", which was then inserted to the "Monopoly Crazy Cash Machine" at the end of the show. In addition, beginning with Season 2, teams won "Monopoly Party Packages" for winning the individual games. For Season 3, there was a Community Chest. Each card on Mr. Monopoly had a combination of three colors. Teams used the combination card to unlock the chest. If it was the right combination, they advanced to the Crazy Cash Machine for a brand-new car. For the show's fourth season, a new game was added called Monopoly Remix, featuring Park Place and Boardwalk, as well as Income Tax and Luxury Tax. To honor the game's 80th anniversary, a game show in syndication on March 28, 2015, called *Monopoly Millionaires' Club* was launched. It was connected with a multi-state lottery game of the same name and hosted by comedian Billy Gardell from *Mike & Molly*. The game show was filmed at the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino and at Bally's Las Vegas in Las Vegas, with players having a chance to win up to $1,000,000. However, the lottery game connected with the game show (which provided the contestants) went through multiple complications and variations, and the game show last aired at the end of April 2016. ### Films In November 2008, Ridley Scott was announced to direct Universal Pictures' film version of the game, based on a script written by Pamela Pettler. The film was being co-produced by Hasbro's Brian Goldner as part of a deal with Hasbro to develop movies based on the company's line of toys and games. The story was being developed by author Frank Beddor. However, Universal eventually halted development in February 2012 then opted out of the agreement and the rights reverted to Hasbro. In October 2012, Hasbro announced a new partnership with production company Emmett/Furla Films, and said they would develop a live-action version of *Monopoly*, along with Action Man and Hungry Hungry Hippos. Emmett/Furla/Oasis dropped out of the production of this satire version that was to be directed by Ridley Scott. In July 2015, Hasbro announced that Lionsgate will distribute a *Monopoly* film with Andrew Niccol writing the film as a family-friendly action adventure film co-financed and produced by Lionsgate and Hasbro's Allspark Pictures. In January 2019, it was announced that Allspark Pictures would now be producing an untitled *Monopoly* film in conjunction with Kevin Hart's company HartBeat Productions and The Story Company. Hart is attached to star in the film and Tim Story is attached to direct. No logline or writer for this iteration of the long-gestating project has been announced. The documentary *Under the Boardwalk: The MONOPOLY Story*, covering the history and players of the game, won an Audience Award for Best Documentary at the 2010 Anaheim International Film Festival. The film played theatrically in the U.S. beginning in March 2011 and was released on Amazon and iTunes on February 14, 2012. The television version of the film won four regional Emmy Awards from the Pacific Southwest Chapter of NATAS. The film is directed by Kevin Tostado and narrated by Zachary Levi. It is the subject of Stephen Ives' documentary film *Ruthless: Monopoly's Secret History* which first aired on *American Experience* on February 20, 2023. Tournaments ----------- ### U.S. National Championship Until 1999, U.S. entrants had to win a state/district/territory competition to represent that state/district/territory at the once every four-year national championship. The 1999 U.S. National Tournament had 50 contestants—49 State Champions (Oklahoma was not represented) and the reigning national champion. Qualifying for the National Championship has been online since 2003. For the 2003 Championship, qualification was limited to the first fifty people who correctly completed an online quiz. Out of concerns that such methods of qualifying might not always ensure a competition of the best players, the 2009 Championship qualifying was expanded to include an online multiple-choice quiz (a score of 80% or better was required to advance); followed by an online five-question essay test; followed by a two-game online tournament at Pogo.com. The process was to have produced a field of 23 plus one: Matt McNally, the 2003 national champion, who received a bye and was not required to qualify. However, at the end of the online tournament, there was an eleven-way tie for the last six spots. The decision was made to invite all of those who had tied for said spots. In fact, two of those who had tied and would have otherwise been eliminated, Dale Crabtree of Indianapolis, Indiana, and Brandon Baker, of Tuscaloosa, Alabama, played in the final game and finished third and fourth respectively. The 2009 *Monopoly* U.S. National Championship was held on April 14–15 in Washington, D.C. In his first tournament ever, Richard Marinaccio, an attorney from Sloan, New York (a suburb of Buffalo), prevailed over a field that included two previous champions to be crowned the 2009 U.S. National Champion. In addition to the title, Marinaccio took home $20,580—the amount of money in the bank of the board game—and competed in the 2009 World Championship in Las Vegas, Nevada, on October 21–22, where he finished in third place. In 2015, Hasbro used a competition that was held solely online to determine who would be the U.S. representative to compete at the 2015 *Monopoly* World Championship. Interested players took a twenty-question quiz on *Monopoly* strategy and rules and submitted a hundred-word essay on how to win a *Monopoly* tournament. Hasbro then selected Brian Valentine of Washington, D.C., to be the U.S. representative. ### World Championship Hasbro conducts a worldwide *Monopoly* tournament. The first *Monopoly* World Championships took place in Grossinger's Resort in New York, in November 1973, but they did not include competitors from outside the United States until 1975. It has been aired in the United States by ESPN. In 2009, forty-one players competed for the title of *Monopoly* World Champion and a cash prize of $20,580 (USD)—the total amount of Monopoly money in the current Monopoly set used in the tournament. The most recent World Championship took place September 2015 in Macau. Italian Nicolò Falcone defeated the defending world champion and players from twenty-six other countries. A World Championship had been planned for 2021 and 2022, but Hasbro has canceled it due to the Coronavirus pandemic. | Date | Location | Winner | Nationality | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1973 | United States Liberty, New York | Lee Bayrd |  United States | | 1974 | United States New York City | Alvin Aldridge |  United States | | 1975 | United States Washington, D.C. | John Mair |  Ireland | | 1977 | Monaco Monte Carlo | Chong Seng Kwa |  Singapore | | 1980 |  Bermuda | Cesare Bernabei |  Italy | | 1983 | United States Palm Beach | Greg Jacobs |  Australia | | 1985 | United States Atlantic City | Jason Bunn |  United Kingdom | | 1988 | United Kingdom London | Ikuo Hyakuta |  Japan | | 1992 | Germany Berlin | Joost van Orten |  Netherlands | | 1996 | Monaco Monte Carlo | Christopher Woo |  Hong Kong | | 2000 | Canada Toronto | Yutaka Okada |  Japan | | 2004 | Japan Tokyo | Antonio Zafra Fernández |  Spain | | 2009 | United States Las Vegas | Bjørn Halvard Knappskog |  Norway | | 2015 |  Macau | Nicolò Falcone |  Italy | Variants -------- Because *Monopoly* evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, *Monopoly* has seen many variant games. The game is licensed in 103 countries and printed in thirty-seven languages. Most of the variants are exact copies of the *Monopoly* games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. National boards have been released as well. Over the years, many specialty *Monopoly* editions, licensed by Parker Brothers/Hasbro, and produced by them, or their licensees (including USAopoly and Winning Moves Games) have been sold to local and national markets worldwide. Two well known "families" of -opoly like games, without licenses from Parker Brothers/Hasbro, have also been produced. Several published games like *Monopoly* include: * *Anti-Monopoly*, one of several games that are a sort of *Monopoly* backwards. The name of this game led to legal action between *Anti-Monopoly*'s creator, Ralph Anspach, and the owners of *Monopoly*. * *Business*, a *Monopoly*-like game not associated with Hasbro. In this version the "properties" to be bought are cities of India; Chance and Community Chest reference lists of results printed in the center of the board, keyed to the dice roll; and money is represented by counters, not paper. * *Dostihy a sázky*, a variant sold in Czechoslovakia. This game comes from the authoritarian communist era (1948–1989), when private business was abolished and mortgages did not exist, so the monopoly theme was changed to a horse racing theme. * *Ghettopoly*, released in 2003, was the subject of considerable outrage upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes. Hasbro sought and received an injunction against *Ghettopoly's* designer. * *Make Your Own -OPOLY*: This game allows players considerable freedom in customizing the board, money, and rules. * *Matador*: The unlicensed Danish version from BRIO with a round board instead of the square one, cars instead of tokens and includes breweries and ferries to buy. The game also has candy and a popular TV series *Matador* named after it. * *Turism*, a variant sold in Romania. * *Kleptopoly*, released in 2017 where users can be like Jho Low. Inspired by the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal. * *Monopoly for Millennials*, released by Hasbro in 2018. Other unlicensed editions include: *BibleOpoly*, *HomoNoPolis* and Petropolis, among others. ### Games by locale or theme There have been a large number of localized editions, broken down here by region: * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: Africa and Asia (including the Middle East and South-East Asia but excluding Russia and Turkey) * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: Europe (including Russia and Turkey) * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: North America (including Central America but excluding the United States of America) * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: Oceania (Australia and New Zealand) * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: South America * List of licensed and localized editions of *Monopoly*: USA (including the United States of America and all editions based on commercial brands) ### Unauthorized and parody games This list is of unauthorized, unlicensed games based on *Monopoly*: | Gay Monopoly | | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | **Copyright date:** 1983 | **Released by:** Fire Island Games, Inc. | | **Game description:** Gay Monopoly – A celebration of gay life.**Tokens:** Jeep, teddy bear, blow drier, leather cap, handcuffs, stiletto heel.**Other features:** Board layout is circular rather than square.  | Ghettopoly | Micropoly – The Microsoft Monopoly Game | | --- | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | **Copyright date:** Open source | **Released by:** The Micropoly Project | **Issued through:** Download | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Free Software | XEROX$220 | Download | SGI$220 | APPLE$240 | Internet Service ProviderAOL$200 | REAL NETWORKS$260 | AMAZON$260 | Television NetworkMSNBC$150 | YAHOO$280 | Corrupted Registry: Goto Reinstall | | 3COM$200 | Micropoly – The Microsoft Monopoly Game | HP$300 | | CISCO$180 | IBM$300 | | Open Sources | Open Sources | | NOVELL$180 | SUN$320 | | Internet Service ProviderUUNET$200 | Internet Service ProviderMSN$200 | | ADOBE$160 | Download | | ORACLE$140 | INTEL$350 | | Computer NetworkNETWORK SOLUTIONS$150 | Antitrust Ruling(pay $75) | | NETSCAPE$140 | MICROSOFT$400 | | Reinstall Windows/Just Rebooting | DELL$120 | COMPAQ$100 | Download | MOTOROLA$100 | Internet Service ProviderMINDSPRING$200 | Deposition(pay 10% or $200) | LUSH CREATIONS$60 | Open Sources | AETHER-SPHERE$60 | **Start**Collect $200 salary as you pass | **Game description:** A parody game based on Anti-Monopoly.**Other features:** Chance is Download, Community Chest is Open Sources and the Railroads are Internet Service Provider(s).  | Middopoly Memeopolis (Android app) ### World editions In 2008, Hasbro released *Monopoly Here and Now: The World Edition*. This world edition features top locations of the world. The locations were decided by votes over the Internet. The result of the voting was announced on August 20, 2008. Out of these, Gdynia is especially notable, as it is by far the smallest city of those featured and won the vote as a "wild card" along with Taipei thanks to its residents and supporters. The new game uses its own currency unit, the Monopolonian (a game-based take on the Euro; designated by **~~M~~**). It is also notable that three cities (Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver) are from Canada and three other cities (Beijing, Hong Kong, and Shanghai) are from the People's Republic of China. No other countries are represented by more than one city. Of the 68 cities listed on Hasbro Inc.'s website for the vote, Jerusalem was chosen as one of the 20 cities to be featured in the newest *Monopoly* World Edition. Before the vote took place, a Hasbro employee in the London office eliminated the country signifier "Israel" after the city, in response to pressure from pro-Palestinian advocacy groups. After the Israeli government protested, Hasbro Inc. issued a statement that read: "It was a bad decision, one that we rectified relatively quickly. This is a game. We never wanted to enter into any political debate. We apologize to our *Monopoly* fans." *Monopoly Here and Now: The World Edition* (2008) | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Free Parking | Sydney~~M~~2.2M | Chance? | New York City~~M~~2.2M | London~~M~~2.4M | *Monopoly* Cruise~~M~~2M | Beijing~~M~~2.6M | Hong Kong~~M~~2.6M | Wind Energy~~M~~1.5M | Jerusalem~~M~~2.8M | Go To Jail | | Vancouver~~M~~2M | MONOPOLYHere and Now:The World Edition | Paris~~M~~3M | | Shanghai~~M~~1.8M | Belgrade~~M~~3M | | Community Chest | Community Chest | | Rome~~M~~1.8M | Cape Town~~M~~3.2M | | *Monopoly* Air~~M~~2M | *Monopoly* Space~~M~~2M | | Toronto~~M~~1.6M | Chance? | | Kyiv~~M~~1.4M | Riga~~M~~3.5M | | Solar energy~~M~~1.5M | Super Taxpay ~~M~~1M | | Istanbul~~M~~1.4M | Montreal~~M~~4M | | In Jail/Just Visiting | Athens~~M~~1.2M | Barcelona~~M~~1M | Chance? | Tokyo~~M~~1M | *Monopoly* Rail~~M~~2M | Income taxpay ~~M~~2M | Taipei~~M~~600K | Community Chest | Gdynia~~M~~600K | Collect ~~M~~2M salary as you pass**GO** | A similar online vote was held in early 2015 for an updated version of the game. The resulting board was released worldwide in late 2015. Lima, Peru, won the vote to hold the Boardwalk space. ### Deluxe editions Hasbro sells a *Deluxe Edition*, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven, a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the *Deluxe Edition* include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink. In 1978, retailer Neiman Marcus manufactured and sold an all-chocolate edition of *Monopoly* through its *Christmas Wish Book* for that year. The entire set was edible, including the money, dice, hotels, properties, tokens and playing board. The set retailed for $600. In 2000, the FAO Schwarz store in New York City sold a custom version called *One-Of-A-Kind Monopoly* for $100,000. This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and features include: * 18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses, and hotels * Rosewood board * Street names written in gold leaf * Emeralds around the Chance icon * Sapphires around the Community Chest * Rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space * The money is real, negotiable United States currency The *Guinness Book of World Records* states that a set worth $2,000,000 and made of 23-carat gold, with rubies and sapphires atop the chimneys of the houses and hotels, is the most expensive *Monopoly* set ever produced. This set was designed by artist Sidney Mobell to honor the game's 50th anniversary in 1985, and is now in the Smithsonian Institution. Reception --------- Despite the game's legacy and forming a prominent aspect of modern culture, contemporary reviews of *Monopoly* are largely negative. On BoardGameGeek, the game is ranked in the bottom ten board games, with a mean rating of 4.4/10. *Wired* magazine believes *Monopoly* is a poorly designed game. Former Wall Streeter Derk Solko explains, "*Monopoly* has you grinding your opponents into dust. It's a very negative experience. It's all about cackling when your opponent lands on your space and you get to take all their money." *Wired* further observed that most of the three to four-hour average playing time is spent waiting for other players to play their turn, and there is usually little to no choice involved. "Board game enthusiasts disparagingly call this a 'roll your dice, move your mice' format." FiveThirtyEight also stated that the game suffers from issues of elimination and a runaway leader, problems that "most game designers nowadays try to avoid". The Guardian also describes Monopoly as "a collection of terrible design choices" combined with "an array of house rules that serve only to make the experience ever more interminable". *Games* magazine included *Monopoly* in their "Top 100 Games of 1980", praising it as "the original landlord game in which players buy, sell, and rent Atlantic City real estate at pre-casino prices" and noting that at the time it was "so popular that Parker Brothers prints more paper money each year than the U.S Government". *Games* magazine included *Monopoly* in their "Top 100 Games of 1981", noting that despite having been "Initially rejected by both Parker and Milton Bradley as containing 'fundamental errors' that the public would not accept", it became "one of the most popular games in the world, and deservedly so". *Games* magazine included *Monopoly* in their "Top 100 Games of 1982", commenting that "The orange monopoly is the best [...] Try counting how many times you land on it as you leave jail." Figurative language ------------------- Monopoly's popularity has led to it spawning a number of English turns of phrase. These include: * Rich Uncle Pennybags, also known as "Mr. Monopoly", the game's mascot character * Get Out of Jail Free card, a popular metaphor for something that will get one out of an undesired situation * Monopoly money, a derisive term to refer to money not really worth anything, or at least not being used as if it is worth anything. It could also allude to colorful currency notes used in some countries, such as Canada. * "Do not pass Go. Do not collect $200" is a phrase used in *Monopoly* that has become widely used in popular culture to describe an action forced upon a person that has only negative results. The phrase comes from the game's Chance and Community Chest cards, which a player must draw from if they land on specific spaces. Each deck has a card that reads "GO TO JAIL: Go directly to Jail. Do not pass Go. Do not collect $200." Early in the game, going to jail usually hurts a player as it prevents them from moving, which regularly leads to earning $200 from passing Go, and from landing on and buying property, though in the later game, jail prevents them from landing on others' developed property and having to pay rent. The cited phrase, "Do not pass Go. Do not collect $200", distinguishes the effect from other cards that move players; other cards use the phrasing "Advance to [a particular location]", which does allow the player to collect $200 if they pass Go during the advance. The phrase is used in popular culture to denote a situation in which there is only one immediate, highly unfavorable, irreversible outcome and has been described as a "harsh cliché".

Monopoly (game)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly_(game)

**This article contains Persian text.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **Dari** (/ˈdɑːri, ˈdæ-/; endonym: دری [d̪ɐˈɾiː]), also known as **Dari Persian** (فارسی دری, *Fārsii Darī*, [fʌːɾˌsiːjɪ d̪ɐˈɾiː]), is the variety of the Persian language spoken in Afghanistan. Dari is the term officially recognised and promoted since 1964 by the Afghan government for the Persian language, hence it is known as Afghan Persian or Eastern Persian in many Western sources. As Professor Nile Green remarks "the impulses behind renaming of Afghan Persian as Dari were more nationalistic than linguistic" in order to create an Afghan state narrative. Apart from a few basics of vocabulary, there is little difference between formal written Persian of Afghanistan and Iran. The term "Dari" is officially used for the characteristic spoken Persian of Afghanistan, but is best restricted to formal spoken registers. Afghanistan's Persian-speaking population still prefer to call their language "Farsi," asserting that the term "Dari" has been imposed upon them by the dominant Pashtun ethnic group as an effort to detach Afghanistan from its deep-rooted cultural, linguistic, and historical connections with the wider Persian-speaking world, encompassing Iran, Tajikistan, and parts of Uzbekistan. It serves as the lingua franca for interethnic communications in Afghanistan. As defined in the 2004 Constitution of Afghanistan, it is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan; the other is Pashto. Dari is the most widely spoken language in Afghanistan and the native language of approximately 40–45% of the population. Dari serves as the lingua franca of the country and is understood by up to 78% of the population. Dari served as the preferred literary and administrative language among non-native speakers, such as the Pashtuns and Mughals, for centuries before the rise of modern nationalism. Also, like Iranian Persian and Tajiki Persian, Dari Persian is a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of the Sassanian Empire (224–651 AD), itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids (550–330 BC). In historical usage, *Dari* refers to the Middle Persian court language of the Sassanids. Etymology --------- Dari is a name given to the New Persian language since the 10th century, widely used in Arabic (compare Al-Estakhri, Al-Muqaddasi and Ibn Hawqal) and Persian texts. Since 1964, it has been the official name in Afghanistan for the Persian spoken there. In Afghanistan, Dari refers to a modern dialect form of Persian that is the standard language used in administration, government, radio, television, and print media. Because of a preponderance of Dari native speakers, who normally refer to the language as *Farsi* (فارسی, "Persian"), it is also known as "Afghan Persian" in some Western sources. There are different opinions about the origin of the word *Dari*. The majority of scholars believe that *Dari* refers to the Persian word *dar* or *darbār* (دربار), meaning "court", as it was the formal language of the Sassanids. The original meaning of the word *dari* is given in a notice attributed to Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ (cited by Ibn al-Nadim in *Al-Fehrest*). According to him, "*Pārsī* was the language spoken by priests, scholars, and the like; it is the language of Fars." This language refers to Middle Persian. As for *Dari*, he says, "it is the language of the cities of Madā'en; it is spoken by those who are at the king's court. [Its name] is connected with presence at court. Among the languages of the people of Khorasan and the east, the language of the people of Balkh is predominant." The Dari language spoken in Afghanistan is not to be confused with the language of Iran called Dari or Gabri, which is a language of the Central Iranian subgroup spoken in some Zoroastrian communities. History ------- Dari comes from Middle Persian which was spoken during the rule of the Sassanid dynasty. In general, Iranian languages are known from three periods, usually referred to as Old, Middle, and New (Modern) periods. These correspond to three eras in Iranian history, the old era being the period from some time before, during, and after the Achaemenid period (that is, to 300 BC), the Middle Era being the next period, namely, the Sassanid period and part of the post-Sassanid period, and the New era being the period afterward down to the present day.[*unreliable source*] Although it is thought that the first person in Europe to use the term *Deri* for *Dari* was Thomas Hyde, at Oxford, in his chief work, *Historia religionis veterum Persarum* (1700). *Dari* or *Deri* has two meanings. It may mean the language of the court: "the Zebani Deri (Zeban i Deri or Zaban i Dari = the language of Deri), or the language of the court, and the Zebani Farsi, the dialect of Persia at large (...)" It may also indicate a form of poetry used from Rudaki to Jami. In the fifteenth century it appeared in Herat under the Persian-speaking Timurid dynasty. The Persian-language poets of the Mughal Empire who used the Indian verse methods or rhyme methods, like Bedil and Muhammad Iqbal, became familiar with the *araki* form of poetry. Iqbal loved both styles of literature and poetry, when he wrote: > گرچہ هندی در عذوبت شکر است 1 > > > *Garče Hendī dar uzūbat šakkar ast* > > > طرز گفتار دری شیرین تر است > > > *tarz-e goftār-e Darī šīrīn tar ast* > > This can be translated as: *Even though in euphonious Hindi is sugar* – *Rhyme method in Dari is sweeter* *Hendī* here refers more accurately to Urdu written in Perso-Arabic script. *Uzūbat* usually means "bliss", "delight", "sweetness"; in language, literature and poetry, *uzubat* also means "euphonious" or "melodic". Referring to the 14th-century Persian poet Hafez, Iqbal wrote: > شکرشکن شوند همه طوطیان هند > > > *Šakkar-šakan šavand hama tūtīyān-i Hind* > > > زین قند پارسی که به بنگاله می‌رود > > > *zīn qand-i Pārsī ki ba Bangāla mē-ravad* > > English translation: > > *All the parrots of India will crack sugar* > > > *Through this Persian Candy which is going to Bengal* > > Here *qand-e Pārsī* ("Rock candy of Persia") is a metaphor for the Persian language and poetry. Persian replaced the Central Asian languages of the Eastern Iranics. Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguistically Darified in originally Khorezmian and Soghdian areas during Samanid rule. Dari Persian spread around the Oxus River region, Afghanistan, and Khorasan after the Arab conquests and during Islamic-Arab rule. The replacement of the Pahlavi script with the Arabic script in order to write the Persian language was done by the Tahirids in 9th century Khorasan. The Dari Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages like Bactrian, Khwarezmian with only a tiny amount of Sogdian descended Yaghnobi speakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia, due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia also included some Persians who governed the region like the Sassanids. Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids. Persian phased out Sogdian. The role of lingua franca that Sogdian originally played was succeeded by Persian after the arrival of Islam. Geographical distribution ------------------------- Dari is one of the two official languages of Afghanistan (the other being Pashto). In practice though, it serves as the de facto lingua franca among the various ethnolinguistic groups. Dari is spoken natively by approximately twenty-five percent to eighty percent of the population of Afghanistan as a primary language. Tajiks, who comprise approximately 27% of the population, are the primary speakers, followed by Hazaras (9%) and Aymāqs (4%). Moreover, many Pashtuns living in Tajik and Hazara concentrated areas also use Dari as a first language. The World Factbook states that eighty percent of the Afghan population speaks the Dari language. About 2.5 million Afghans in Iran and Afghans in Pakistan, part of the wider Afghan diaspora, also speak Dari as one of their primary languages. Dari dominates the northern, western, and central areas of Afghanistan, and is the common language spoken in cities such as Mazar-i-Sharif, Herat, Fayzabad, Panjshir, Bamiyan, and the Afghan capital of Kabul where all ethnic groups are settled. Dari-speaking communities also exist in southwestern and eastern Pashtun-dominated areas such as in the cities of Ghazni, Farah, Zaranj, Lashkar Gah, Kandahar, and Gardez. Cultural influence ------------------ Dari has contributed to the majority of Persian borrowings in several Indo-Aryan languages, such as Urdu, Hindi, Punjabi, Bengali and others, as it was the administrative, official, cultural language of the Persianate Mughal Empire and served as the lingua franca throughout the Indian subcontinent for centuries. Often based in Afghanistan, Turkic Central Asian conquerors brought the language into South Asia. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian language into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianized Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties. The sizable Persian component of the Anglo-Indian loan words in English and in Urdu therefore reflects the Dari pronunciation. For instance, the words dopiaza and pyjama come from the Dari pronunciation; in Iranian Persian they are pronounced *do-piyāzeh* and *pey-jāmeh*. Persian lexemes and certain morphological elements (e.g., the *ezāfe*) have often been employed to coin words for political and cultural concepts, items, or ideas that were historically unknown outside the South Asian region, as is the case with the aforementioned "borrowings". The Dari language has a rich and colorful tradition of proverbs that deeply reflect Afghan culture and relationships, as demonstrated by U.S. Navy Captain Edward Zellem in his bilingual books on Afghan Dari proverbs collected in Afghanistan. Differences between Iranian and Afghan Persian ---------------------------------------------- There are phonological, lexical, and morphological differences between Afghan Persian and Iranian Persian. There are no significant differences in the written forms, other than regional idiomatic phrases. ### Phonological differences The phonology of Dari as spoken in Kabul, compared to Classical Persian, is overall more conservative than the standard accent of Iran. The principal differences between standard Iranian Persian and Afghan Persian as based on the Kabul dialect are: 1. The merging of *majhul* vowels /eː, iː/ and /oː, uː/ into /iː/ and /uː/ respectively in Iranian Persian, whereas in Afghan Persian, they are still kept separate. For instance, the identically written words شیر 'lion' and 'milk' are pronounced the same in Iranian Persian as /ʃiːr/, but /ʃeːr/ for 'lion' and /ʃiːr/ for 'milk' in Afghan Persian. The long vowel in زود "quick" and زور "strength" is realized as /uː/ in Iranian Persian, in contrast, these words are pronounced /zuːd/ and /zoːr/ respectively by Persian speakers in Afghanistan. 2. The Classical Persian high short vowels /i/ and /u/ tend to be lowered in Iranian Persian to [e] and [o], unlike in Dari where they might have both high and lowered allophones. 3. The treatment of the diphthongs of early Classical Persian "ay" (as "i" in English "size") and "aw" (as "ow" in Engl. "cow"), which are pronounced [ej] (as in English "day") and [ow] (as in Engl. "low") in Iranian Persian. Dari, on the other hand, is more conservative, e.g. نخیر 'no' is realized as /naχejr/ in Iranian but /naχajr/ in Afghan Persian, and نوروز 'Persian New Year' is /nowruːz/ in Iranian but /nawroːz/ in Afghan Persian. Moreover, [ow] is simplified to [o] in normal Iranian speech, thereby merging with the lowered Classical short vowel /u/ (see above). This does not occur in Afghan Persian. 4. The pronunciation of the labial consonant و, which is realized as a voiced labiodental fricative [v] in standard Iranian, is still pronounced with the (classical) bilabial pronunciation [w] in Afghanistan; [v] is found in Afghan Persian as an allophone of /f/ before voiced consonants and as variation of /b/ in some cases, along with [β]. 5. The convergence of the voiced uvular stop [ɢ] (ق) and the voiced velar fricative [ɣ] (غ) in Iranian Persian (presumably under the influence of Turkic languages like Azeri and Turkmen) is absent in Dari, where the two are still kept separate. 6. [a] and [e] in word-final positions are distinguished in Dari, whereas [e] is a word-final allophone of /æ/ in Iranian Persian. ### Dialect continuum The dialects of Dari spoken in Northern, Central, and Eastern Afghanistan, for example in Kabul, Mazar, and Badakhshan, have distinct features compared to Iranian Persian. However, the dialect of Dari spoken in Western Afghanistan stands in between the Afghan and Iranian Persian. For instance, the Herati dialect shares vocabulary and phonology with both Dari and Iranian Persian. Likewise, the dialect of Persian in Eastern Iran, for instance in Mashhad, is quite similar to the Herati dialect of Afghanistan. The Kabuli dialect has become the standard model of Dari in Afghanistan, as has the Tehrani dialect in relation to the Persian in Iran. Since the 1940s, Radio Afghanistan has broadcast its Dari programs in Kabuli Dari, which ensured the homogenization between the Kabuli version of the language and other dialects of Dari spoken throughout Afghanistan. Since 2003, the media, especially the private radio and television broadcasters, have carried out their Dari programs using the Kabuli variety. Phonology --------- ### Consonants | | Labial | Dental/Alveolar | Post-alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Stop/Affricate | p b | t d | tʃ dʒ | | k ɡ | q | (ʔ) | | Nasal | m | n | | | | | | | Fricative | f | s z | ʃ ʒ | | x ɣ | | h | | Tap | | ɾ | | | | | | | Approximant | | l | | j | w | | | * Stops /t, d/ are phonetically dental [t̪, d̪]. * A glottal stop /ʔ/ only appears in words of Arabic origin. * A flap sound /ɾ/ may be realized as a trill sound [r], in some environments, mostly word-final position; otherwise, they contrast between vowels wherein a trill occurs as a result of gemination (doubling) of [ɾ], especially in loanwords of Arabic origin. Only [ɾ] occurs before and after consonants; in word-final position, it is usually a free variation between a flap or a trill when followed by a consonant or a pause, but flap is more common, only flap before vowel-initial words. * As in many other languages, /n/ is realized as bilabial [m] before bilabial stops and as velar [ŋ] before velar stops. * /f/ is voiced to [v] before voiced consonants. ### Vowels | | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | High | i | | u | | | ʊ | | High-mid | e | | o | | Low-mid | ɛ | | | Low | a | ɑ | Diphthongs| | Front | Back | | --- | --- | --- | | High | au | ui | | Mid | | oi | | Low | ai | ɑi | * When occurring as lax, the open vowels /a, ɑ/ are raised to [ɐ, ʌ]. Political views and disputes on the language -------------------------------------------- Successive governments of Afghanistan have promoted New Persian as an official language of government since the time of the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), even as those governments were dominated by Pashtun people. Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dynasty (1826–1973) first introduced the Pashto language as an additional language of administration. The local name for the Persian variety spoken in Afghanistan was officially changed from Farsi to Dari, meaning "court language", in 1964. Zaher said there would be, as there are now, two official languages, Pashto and Farsi, though the latter would henceforth be named Dari. Within their respective linguistic boundaries, Dari and Pashto are the media of education. The term continues to divide opinion in Afghanistan today. While Dari has been the official name for decades, "Farsi" is still the preferred name to many Persian speakers of Afghanistan. Omar Samad, an Afghan analyst and ambassador, says of the dispute: > This debate pits those who look at language as a shared heritage that includes thinkers, writers, and poets of the Farsi language against those who believe that Dari has older roots and provides a distinct identity that cannot be confused with Iran's claim. > > See also -------- * Hazaragi dialect * Persian grammar * Tajik language Further reading --------------- * Lazard, G. "Darī – The New Persian Literary Language Archived 24 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine" in *Encyclopædia Iranica* Online Edition. * Phillott, Douglas Craven (1919). *Higher Persian grammar for the use of the Calcutta University, showing differences between Afgan and modern Persian; with notes on rhetoric*. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press. * Sakaria, S. (1967) *Concise English – Afghan Dari Dictionary*, Ferozsons, Kabul, OCLC 600815 * Farhadi, A. G. R.('Abd-ul-Ghafur Farhadi)(Abd-ul-ghafûr Farhâdi) (1955) *Le Persan Parlé en Afghanistan: Grammaire du Kâboli Accompagné d'un Recueil de Quatrains Populaires de la Région de Kâbol*, Centre national de la recherche scientifique or Librairie C. Klincksieck, Paris. * Farhadi, Rawan A. G. (1975) *The Spoken Dari of Afghanistan: A Grammar of Kaboli Dari (Persian) Compared to the Literary Language*, Peace Corps, Kabul, OCLC 24699677 * Zellem, Edward. 2015. "*Zarbul Masalha: 151 Afghan Dari Proverbs*, 3rd edition". Charleston: CreateSpace. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2012. * Zellem, Edward. 2012. "*Afghan Proverbs Illustrated*". Charleston: CreateSpace. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 9 November 2012. * *Afghanistan primary school text books for Dari language* (in Dari). 1979. doi:10.2458/azu\_acku\_pk6874\_qaaf42\_1365. * Baker, Adam (2016). "Dari (Afghan Persian)". Illustrations of the IPA. *Journal of the International Phonetic Association*. **46** (2): 229–234. doi:10.1017/S0025100315000390. * Harold F. Schiffman Language Policy and Language Conflict in Afghanistan and Its Neighbors (Brill's Studies in South and Southwest Asian Languages) BRILL, Leiden, 1.ed, 2011 ISBN 978-9004201453

Dari

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dari

**Dover** (/ˈdoʊvər/) is a town and major ferry port in Kent, South East England. It faces France across the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part of the English Channel at 33 kilometres (21 mi) from Cap Gris Nez in France. It lies south-east of Canterbury and east of Maidstone. The town is the administrative centre of the Dover District and home of the Port of Dover. Archaeological finds have revealed that the area has always been a focus for peoples entering and leaving Britain. The name derives from the River Dour that flows through it. In recent times the town has undergone transformations with a high-speed rail link to London, new retail in town with St James' area opened in 2018, and a revamped promenade and beachfront. This followed in 2019, with a new 500m Pier to the west of the Harbour, and new Marina unveiled as part of a £330m investment in the area. It has also been a point of destination for many illegal migrant crossings. The Port of Dover provides much of the town's employment, as does tourism including to the landmark White Cliffs of Dover. There were over 368,000 tourists visiting Dover castle in the year of 2019. Dover is classified as a Large-Port Town, due to its large volumes of port traffic and low urban population. History ------- Archaeological finds have shown that there were Stone Age people in the area, and that some Iron Age finds also exist. During the Roman period, the area became part of the Roman communications network. It was connected by road to Canterbury and Watling Street and it became *Portus Dubris*, a fortified port. Dover has a partly preserved Roman lighthouse (the tallest surviving Roman structure in Britain) and the remains of a villa with preserved Roman wall paintings. Dover later figured in Domesday Book (1086). Forts were built above the port and lighthouses were constructed to guide passing ships. It is one of the Cinque Ports. and has served as a bastion against various attackers: notably the French during the Napoleonic Wars and Germany during the Second World War. During the Cold War, a Regional Seat of Government was located within the White Cliffs beneath Dover Castle. This is omitted from the strategic objects appearing on the Soviet 1:10,000 city plan of Dover that was produced in 1974. The port would have served as an embarkation point for sending reinforcements to the British Army of the Rhine in the event of a Soviet ground invasion of Europe. In 1974 a discovery was made at Langdon Bay off the coast near Dover. It contained bronze axes of French design and is probably the remainder of the cargo of a sunken ship. At the same time, this find also shows that trade routes across the Channel between England and France existed already in the Bronze Age, or even earlier. In 1992, the so-called Dover boat from the Bronze Age was discovered in six metres depth underwater. This is one of the oldest finds of a seaworthy boat. Using the radiocarbon method of investigation, the boat's construction was dated to approximately 1550 BC. ### Etymology First recorded in its Latinised form of *Portus Dubris*, the name derives from the Brythonic word for water (*dwfr* in Middle Welsh, *dŵr* in Modern Welsh apart from *'dwfrliw'* (Watercolour) which has retained the old Welsh spelling, *dour* in Breton). The same element is present in the town's French name *Douvres* and the name of the river, *Dour*, which is also evident in other English towns such as Wendover. However, the modern Modern Welsh name *Dofr* is an adaptation of the English name *Dover*. The current name was in use at least by the time of Shakespeare's *King Lear* (between 1603 and 1606), in which the town and its cliffs play a prominent role. ### The Siege of Dover (1216) Louis VIII of France landed his army, seeking to depose King Henry III, on Dover's mainland beach. Henry III ambushed Louis' army with approximately 400 bowmen atop The White Cliffs of Dover and his cavalry attacking the invaders on the beach. However, the French slaughtered the English cavalry and made their way up the cliffs to disperse the bowmen. Louis' army seized Dover village, forcing the English back to Canterbury. French control of Dover lasted for three months after which English troops pushed back, forcing the French to surrender and return home. Geography and climate --------------------- Dover is in the south-east corner of Britain. From South Foreland, the nearest point to the European mainland, Cap Gris Nez is 34 kilometres (21 mi) away across the Strait of Dover. The site of its original settlement lies in the valley of the River Dour, sheltering from the prevailing south-westerly winds. This has led to the silting up of the river mouth by the action of longshore drift. The town has been forced into making artificial breakwaters to keep the port in being. These breakwaters have been extended and adapted so that the port lies almost entirely on reclaimed land. The higher land on either side of the valley – the Western Heights and the eastern high point on which Dover Castle stands – has been adapted to perform the function of protection against invaders. The town has gradually extended up the river valley, encompassing several villages in doing so. Little growth is possible along the coast, since the cliffs are on the sea's edge. The railway, being tunnelled and embanked, skirts the foot of the cliffs. Dover has an oceanic climate (Köppen classification *Cfb*) similar to the rest of the United Kingdom with mild temperatures year-round and a light amount of rainfall each month. The warmest recorded temperature was 37.4 °C (99.3 °F), recorded at Langdon Bay on 25 July 2019, Whilst the lowest recorded temperature was −9.5 °C (14.9 °F), recorded at Dover RMS on 31 January 1972. The temperature is usually between 3 °C (37 °F) and 21.1 °C (70.0 °F). | Climate data for Dover Harbour (Beach), elevation: 0 m (0 ft), 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1918–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 14.5(58.1) | 16.6(61.9) | 20.6(69.1) | 25.0(77.0) | 26.4(79.5) | 30.8(87.4) | 37.4(99.3) | 33.0(91.4) | 28.0(82.4) | 24.1(75.4) | 17.8(64.0) | 15.0(59.0) | 37.4(99.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 8.1(46.6) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.6(51.1) | 12.6(54.7) | 16.0(60.8) | 18.5(65.3) | 20.9(69.6) | 21.1(70.0) | 19.0(66.2) | 15.7(60.3) | 11.8(53.2) | 8.9(48.0) | 14.3(57.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.9(42.6) | 6.0(42.8) | 7.7(45.9) | 9.7(49.5) | 12.7(54.9) | 15.4(59.7) | 17.6(63.7) | 17.9(64.2) | 16.0(60.8) | 12.9(55.2) | 9.3(48.7) | 6.6(43.9) | 11.5(52.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.6(38.5) | 3.6(38.5) | 4.7(40.5) | 6.8(44.2) | 9.5(49.1) | 12.4(54.3) | 14.4(57.9) | 14.8(58.6) | 12.9(55.2) | 10.0(50.0) | 6.7(44.1) | 4.3(39.7) | 8.7(47.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | −9.5(14.9) | −8.4(16.9) | −7.2(19.0) | −3.4(25.9) | −0.1(31.8) | 2.2(36.0) | 5.0(41.0) | 7.2(45.0) | 1.7(35.1) | −1.1(30.0) | −3.9(25.0) | −6.1(21.0) | −9.5(14.9) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 79.1(3.11) | 64.7(2.55) | 45.9(1.81) | 56.6(2.23) | 49.3(1.94) | 55.1(2.17) | 52.5(2.07) | 63.7(2.51) | 64.3(2.53) | 98.7(3.89) | 107.6(4.24) | 95.0(3.74) | 832.4(32.77) | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 64.9 | 82.9 | 125.0 | 192.1 | 214.6 | 221.8 | 224.2 | 223.7 | 164.5 | 124.2 | 72.5 | 59.2 | 1,769.7 | | Source 1: Met Office | | Source 2: Starlings Roost Weather | Demography ---------- In 1800, the year before Britain's first national census, Edward Hasted (1732–1812) reported that the town had a population of almost 10,000 people. At the 2001 census, the town of Dover had 28,156 inhabitants, while the population of the whole urban area of Dover, as calculated by the Office for National Statistics, was 39,078 inhabitants. With the expansion of Dover, many of the outlying ancient villages have been incorporated into the town. Originally the parishes of Dover St. Mary's and Dover St. James, since 1836 Buckland and Charlton have become part Dover, and Maxton (a hamlet to the west), River, Kearsney, Temple Ewell, and Whitfield, all to the north of the town centre, are within its conurbation. Economy ------- ### Retail The town's main shopping streets are the High Street, Biggin Street, Market Square, Cannon Street, Pencester Road and Castle Street. The Castleton Retail Park is to the north-west of the town centre. The new St James' Retail and Leisure Park opened in 2018 and is a southern extension of the town centre and consists of shops, restaurants, a Travelodge Hotel and a Cineworld Cinema. ### Shipping The Dover Harbour Board is the responsible authority for the running of the Port of Dover. The English Channel, here at its narrowest point in the Straits of Dover, is the busiest shipping lane in the world. Ferries crossing between here and the Continent have to negotiate their way through the constant stream of shipping crossing their path. The *Dover Strait Traffic Separation Scheme* allots ships separate lanes when passing through the Strait. The Scheme is controlled by the Channel Navigation Information Service based at Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centre Dover. MRCC Dover is also charged with co-ordination of civil maritime search and rescue within these waters. The Port of Dover is also used by cruise ships. The old Dover Marine railway station building houses one passenger terminal, together with a car park. A second, purpose-built, terminal is located further out along the pier. The ferry lines using the port are (number of daily sailings in parentheses): * to Calais: P&O Ferries (25), DFDS Seaways (10). * to Dunkirk: DFDS Seaways (11). These services have been cut in recent years: * P&O Ferries sailings to Boulogne (5 daily) were withdrawn in 1993 and Zeebrugge (4 daily) in 2002. * SNCF withdrew their three train ferry sailings on the opening of the Channel Tunnel. * Regie voor Maritiem Transport moved their Ostend service of three sailings daily to Ramsgate in 1994; this route was operated by TransEuropa Ferries until April 2013. * Stena Line merged their 20 Calais sailings into the current P&O operation in 1998. * Hoverspeed ceased operations in 2005 and withdrew their 8 daily sailings. * SpeedFerries ceased operations in 2008 and withdrew their 5 daily sailings. * LD Lines ceased the Dover-Dieppe service on 29 June 2009 and Dover-Boulogne 5 September 2010. * SeaFrance ceased operations in 2012 of their Dover-Calais service which was their only service. Dover Harbour, from the white cliffs of Dover Dover Harbour, from the white cliffs of Dover Main sights ----------- * Blériot memorial: the outline of Louis Blériot's aircraft, marked with granite setts, at the exact spot where Blériot landed after the first cross-Channel flight, 1909 * Dover Castle * White Cliffs of Dover * Dover Western Heights * Dover Museum * Dover Marina * Dover Pier * Roman Painted House Museum * Maison Dieu, Dover * Samphire Hoe * South Foreland Lighthouse * Pines Garden * St Edmund's Chapel * St Mary's Church * St James' Church: preserved as a "tidy ruin" * St Paul's Church | Dover Castle | White Cliffs of Dover | Pines Garden | Samphire Hoe Country Park | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | Transport --------- ### Road Dover's main communications artery, the A2 road replicates two former routes, connecting the town with Canterbury. The Roman road was followed for centuries until, in the late 18th century, it became a toll road. Stagecoaches were operating: one description stated that the journey took all day to reach London, from 4 am to being "in time for supper". The other main roads, travelling west and east, are the A20 to Folkestone and thence the M20 to London, and the A258 through Deal to Sandwich. In December 2020, a long line of freight trucks formed due to sudden border closures with France, because of new strains of COVID-19 within the United Kingdom. ### Rail The railway reached Dover from two directions: the South Eastern Railway's main line connected with Folkestone in 1844, and the London, Chatham & Dover Railway opened its line from Canterbury in 1861. Southeastern trains run from Dover Priory to London Charing Cross, London Victoria or London St Pancras International stations in London, and Ramsgate or Sandwich in Kent. London is reached in 55 minutes by train from Dover. The Chatham Main Line into Priory was electrified under British Railways in 1959 as part of Stage 1 of Kent Coast Electrification, under the BR 1955 Modernisation Plan. The line up to Ramsgate, via Deal, was subsequently electrified under stage two of Kent Coast electrification in January 1961. The line from Folkestone into Priory was electrified in June 1961. A tram system operated in the town from 1897 to 1936. ### Walking Dover has two long distance footpaths: the Saxon Shore Way and the North Downs Way. The National Trust White Cliffs can be reached by foot from the town centre, with pathways to South Foreland Lighthouse, and St Margarets Bay along the cliff top . The walking routes from Dover pass the National Trust visitor centre on the landmark chalk cliffs overlooking the English Channel with views of France visible on a clear day. ### Cycling Two National Cycle Network routes begin their journey at the town. Route one goes from Dover to Canterbury. This route links with National Cycle Route 2 from Dover to St Austell, Regional route 16, and Regional route 17 in Dover. It passes three castles. Firstly from Dover on the steap incline past Dover Castle. ThenSouth Foreland Lighthouse is visible from the route. Mostly traffic-free along the east coast from Kingsdown to Deal, passing Walmer Castle and Deal Castle. Follows toll road (free to cyclists) through the Royal Cinque Ports Golf Club to the town of Sandwich. In Sandwich the route links with Regional route 15. Dover town centre is cycle friendly: There are dedicated cycle lanes along the seafront, cycle routes through the town's pedestrianised High Street area. ### Ferry The Port of Dover is a 20-minute walk from Dover Priory railway station. The Dover to Dunkirk ferry route was originally operated by ferry operator Norfolkline. This company was later acquired by the pan European operator DFDS Seaways in July 2010. The crossing time is approximately two hours. Due to this route not being as well known as Dover to Calais, prices are often cheaper. The location of Dunkirk is also more convenient for those travelling by road transport on to countries in Northern Europe including Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany and further afield. ### Bus Stagecoach in East Kent provide local bus services. Dover is on the Stagecoach Diamond network providing links to Canterbury and Deal. The Western Docks at the port of Dover are served from the town centre as well as Canterbury and Deal. Dover is the start of The Wave network to New Romney via Folkestone, Hythe and Dymchurch. There are services to Lydd via Lydd Airport, with one continuing from Lydd on to Hastings via Camber and Rye. There is a link to Sandwich. Buses run from Dover to Elvington via Eythorne. National Express runs coaches from Dover to other towns in Kent including Canterbury, Folkestone, Ashford, Kent, Maidstone, Gillingham at Hempsted Valley shopping centre and Greenhithe at Bluewater Shopping Centre for Dartford to London including Bexleyheath, Eltham, Walworth, Canary Wharf, Elephant & Castle, The City (The City of London) and to Victoria Coach Station. RNLI ---- The Dover lifeboat is a Severn class lifeboat based in the Western Docks. Dover Lifeboat station is based at crosswall quay in Dover Harbour. There is a Severn-class lifeboat, which is the biggest in the fleet. It belongs to the RNLI which covers all of Great Britain. The lifeboat number is 17-09 and has a lot of emergencies in the Channel. The Severn class is designed to lay afloat. Built from fibre reinforced composite (FRC) the boat is lightweight yet very strong and is designed to right itself in the event of a capsize. Education --------- There are seven secondary level schools serving Dover. **Public schools** * Dover College Dover College is a mixed public school founded in 1871 by a group of local business men. **Selective secondary schools** There are 2 single-sex grammar schools and a mixed military school. * Dover Grammar School for Boys (DGSB) * Dover Grammar School for Girls (DGGS) Both grammar schools require the Dover Test or the Kent Test for admission to Year 7. * Duke of York's Royal Military School Duke of York's Royal Military School is a selective secondary school with academy status and England's only military boarding school for children of service personnel (co-education ages 11–18), located next to the former site of Connaught Barracks. **Non-selective secondary schools** There are 3 ex-secondary modern mixed schools, all with academy status. * Astor Secondary School Astor Secondary School federated with St Radigunds Primary School (then renamed White Cliffs Primary College for the Arts) to form the Dover Federation for the Arts (DFA). Subsequently, Barton Junior School and Shatterlocks Nursery and Infant School joined the DFA. In 2014 the DFA was warned by the Department for Education about "unacceptably low standards of performance of pupils ". * St Edmund's Catholic School St Edmund's Catholic School federated with St Richards Catholic Primary School to form the Dover Federation of Catholic Schools. * Dover Christ Church Academy Dover Christ Church Academy is located in Whitfield, 4 miles north of Dover. **Technical College** Dover Technical College is part of the East Kent College (EKC) group. In addition, 16 primary schools and 2 special schools add to the educational offering. Public services --------------- Dover has one hospital, Buckland Hospital. Earlier hospitals included the Royal Victoria Hospital, the Isolation Hospital and the Eye Hospital. Local media ----------- ### Television Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC South East and ITV Meridian. Dover was the home to television studios and production offices of Southern Television Ltd, the company which operated the ITV franchise for South and South East England from 1958–1981. The studios were located on Russell Street and were home to programmes like 'Scene South East', 'Scene Midweek', 'Southern News', 'Farm Progress' and the nightly epilogue, 'Guideline'. The studios were operated by TVS in 1982 and home to 'Coast to Coast', however they closed a year later when the company moved their operations to the newly complete Television Centre in Maidstone. ### Newspapers Dover has two paid for newspapers, the *Dover Express* (published by Kent Regional News and Media) and the *Dover Mercury* (published by the KM Group). Free newspapers for the town previously included the *Dover and Deal Extra*, part of the KM Group; and *yourdover*, part of KOS Media. ### Radio Dover has one local commercial radio station, KMFM Shepway and White Cliffs Country, broadcasting to Dover on 106.8FM. The station was founded in Dover as Neptune Radio in September 1997 but moved to Folkestone in 2003 and was consequently rebranded after a takeover by the KM Group. Dover is also served by the county-wide stations Heart South, Gold and BBC Radio Kent. The Gateway Hospital Broadcasting Service, in Buckland Hospital radio, closed at the end of 2006. It was the oldest hospital radio station in East Kent being founded in 1968. DCR 104.9FM (Dover Community Radio) started broadcasting on 104.9FM in May 2022 and is Dover and White Cliffs Country's community radio station. The online station of the same name launched on 30 July 2011 offering local programmes, music and news for Dover and district. Prior to this DCR was an online podcasting service since 2010. . Dover Community Radio was awarded a community radio licence by OFCOM on 12 May 2020. As of November 2021, BFBS Gurkha Radio has been broadcasting on 90.8FM in Dover and can be picked up within 1 mile of its transmission site at the Dover Community Centre located at Burgoyne Heights. This is part of a trial broadcast of small scale FM services by OFCOM due to end in September 2022 but it maybe extended to serve the Gurkha community living at Burgoyne Heights. Culture ------- There are three museums: the main Dover Museum, the Dover Transport Museum and the Roman Painted House. The town has two cinemas, the Silver Screen Cinema located at the Dover Museum and the Cineworld Cinema opened in 2018 as part of the St James' Retail and Leisure complex. The Discovery Centre located off the Market Square houses Dover's library, Dover Museum, Silver Screen Cinema, the Roundhouse Community Theatre as well as adult education facilities. The Charlton Shopping Centre off the High Street has retail units, the Dover Local community hub, leisure facilities and the studios of Dover Community Radio. The White Cliffs Theatre opened in 2001 is based at Astor College. There is also a community theatre based at St Edmund's Catholic School Twin towns ---------- * France **Calais**, France * United States **Huber Heights**, Ohio, United States * Croatia **Split**, Croatia * Barbados Dover, Christ Church, Barbados Sports ------ Dover District Leisure Centre operated by Places Leisure located in Whitfield opened in March 2019 replacing the previous facility on Townwall Street, which was operated by Your Leisure, a not for profit charitable trust, which caters for sports and includes a swimming pool. There are sports clubs, amongst them Dover Athletic F.C., who play in the National League; rugby; swimming; water polo and netball (Dover and District Netball League). Dover Rowing Club is the oldest coastal rowing club in Britain and has a rich history, at one time becoming the best club on the south coast. More information can be found on the history page of the club's website. One event which gets media attention is that of swimming the English Channel. Sea fishing, from the beach, pier or out at sea, is carried out here. The so-called Dover sole (*solea solea*) is found all over European waters. Dover is now the host of a variety of watersports; such as paddle-boarding and kayaking. Notable people -------------- In literature ------------- * M.R. James located part of his 1911 ghost story "Casting the Runes", from *More Ghost Stories*, in the town's Lord Warden Hotel * Matthew Arnold used the setting of Dover in his 19th-century poem, *Dover Beach*. * Dover features several times in *A Tale of Two Cities* by Charles Dickens. * Russell Hoban repurposed Dover as "Do It Over" in his 1980, post apocalyptic novel *Riddley Walker*. Wye became "How"; Canterbury, "Cambry", and Ashford, "Bernt Arse". In song ------- * "(There'll Be Bluebirds Over) The White Cliffs of Dover" by Vera Lynn, recorded in 1942. * "Clover Over Dover" by British band Blur is track 12 on their 1994 album *Parklife*. * "Calais to Dover" by American band Bright Eyes is track 13 on their 2020 album *Down in the Weeds, Where the World Once Was*. * "Dover Beach" by Baby Queen is on her 2021 album *The Yearbook*. She wrote the song following a visit to Dover, taking inspiration from Matthew Arnold's poem of the same name, and filmed an accompanying music video at Samphire Hoe. See also -------- * Strait of Dover

Dover

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover

**Polish** (Polish: *język polski*, [ˈjɛ̃zɨk ˈpɔlskʲi] (), *polszczyzna* [pɔlˈʂt͡ʂɨzna] () or simply *polski*, [ˈpɔlskʲi] ()) is a West Slavic language of the Lechitic group written in the Latin script. It is spoken primarily in Poland and serves as the native language of the Poles. In addition to being the official language of Poland, it is also used by the Polish diaspora. There are over 50 million Polish speakers around the world. It ranks as the sixth most-spoken among languages of the European Union. Polish is subdivided into regional dialects and maintains strict T–V distinction pronouns, honorifics, and various forms of formalities when addressing individuals. The traditional 32-letter Polish alphabet has nine additions (*ą*, *ć*, *ę*, *ł*, *ń*, *ó*, *ś*, *ź*, *ż*) to the letters of the basic 26-letter Latin alphabet, while removing three (x, q, v). Those three letters are at times included in an extended 35-letter alphabet, although they are not used in native words. The traditional set comprises 23 consonants and 9 written vowels, including two nasal vowels (*ę*, *ą*) defined by a reversed diacritic hook called an *ogonek*. Polish is a synthetic and fusional language which has seven grammatical cases. It is one of very few languages in the world possessing continuous penultimate stress (with only a few exceptions) and the only in its group having an abundance of palatal consonants. Contemporary Polish developed in the 1700s as the successor to the medieval Old Polish (10th–16th centuries) and Middle Polish (16th–18th centuries). Among the major languages, it is most closely related to Slovak and Czech but differs in terms of pronunciation and general grammar. In addition, Polish was profoundly influenced by Latin and other Romance languages like Italian and French as well as Germanic languages (most notably German), which contributed to a large number of loanwords and similar grammatical structures. Extensive usage of nonstandard dialects has also shaped the standard language; considerable colloquialisms and expressions were directly borrowed from German or Yiddish and subsequently adopted into the vernacular of Polish which is in everyday use. Historically, Polish was a *lingua franca*, important both diplomatically and academically in Central and part of Eastern Europe. Today, Polish is spoken by approximately 38 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a second language in eastern Germany, northern Czech Republic and Slovakia, western parts of Belarus and Ukraine as well as in southeast Lithuania and Latvia. Because of the emigration from Poland during different time periods, most notably after World War II, millions of Polish speakers can also be found in countries such as Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Israel, Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States. History ------- Polish began to emerge as a distinct language around the 10th century, the process largely triggered by the establishment and development of the Polish state. Mieszko I, ruler of the Polans tribe from the Greater Poland region, united a few culturally and linguistically related tribes from the basins of the Vistula and Oder before eventually accepting baptism in 966. With Christianity, Poland also adopted the Latin alphabet, which made it possible to write down Polish, which until then had existed only as a spoken language. The closest relatives of Polish are the Elbe and Baltic Sea Lechitic dialects (Polabian and Pomeranian varieties). All of them, except Kashubian, are extinct. The precursor to modern Polish is the Old Polish language. Ultimately, Polish descends from the unattested Proto-Slavic language. The Book of Henryków (Polish: *Księga henrykowska*, Latin: *Liber fundationis claustri Sanctae Mariae Virginis in Heinrichau*), contains the earliest known sentence written in the Polish language: *Day, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai* (in modern orthography: *Daj, uć ja pobrusza, a ti pocziwaj*; the corresponding sentence in modern Polish: *Daj, niech ja pomielę, a ty odpoczywaj* or *Pozwól, że ja będę mełł, a ty odpocznij*; and in English: *Come, let me grind, and you take a rest*), written around 1280. The book is exhibited in the Archdiocesal Museum in Wrocław, and as of 2015 has been added to UNESCO's "Memory of the World" list. The medieval recorder of this phrase, the Cistercian monk Peter of the Henryków monastery, noted that "Hoc est in polonico" ("This is in Polish"). The earliest treatise on Polish orthography was written by Jakub Parkosz [pl] around 1470. The first printed book in Polish appeared in either 1508 or 1513, while the oldest Polish newspaper was established in 1661. Starting in the 1520s, large numbers of books in the Polish language were published, contributing to increased homogeneity of grammar and orthography. The writing system achieved its overall form in the 16th century, which is also regarded as the "Golden Age of Polish literature". The orthography was modified in the 19th century and in 1936. Tomasz Kamusella notes that "Polish is the oldest, non-ecclesiastical, written Slavic language with a continuous tradition of literacy and official use, which has lasted unbroken from the 16th century to this day." Polish evolved into the main sociolect of the nobles in Poland–Lithuania in the 15th century. The history of Polish as a language of state governance begins in the 16th century in the Kingdom of Poland. Over the later centuries, Polish served as the official language in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Congress Poland, the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, and as the administrative language in the Russian Empire's Western Krai. The growth of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's influence gave Polish the status of *lingua franca* in Central and Eastern Europe. Geographic distribution ----------------------- Poland is one of the most linguistically homogeneous European countries; nearly 97% of Poland's citizens declare Polish as their first language. Elsewhere, Poles constitute large minorities in areas which were once administered or occupied by Poland, notably in neighboring Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine. Polish is the most widely-used minority language in Lithuania's Vilnius County, by 26% of the population, according to the 2001 census results, as Vilnius was part of Poland from 1922 until 1939. Polish is found elsewhere in southeastern Lithuania. In Ukraine, it is most common in the western parts of Lviv and Volyn Oblasts, while in West Belarus it is used by the significant Polish minority, especially in the Brest and Grodno regions and in areas along the Lithuanian border. There are significant numbers of Polish speakers among Polish emigrants and their descendants in many other countries. In the United States, Polish Americans number more than 11 million but most of them cannot speak Polish fluently. According to the 2000 United States Census, 667,414 Americans of age five years and over reported Polish as the language spoken at home, which is about 1.4% of people who speak languages other than English, 0.25% of the US population, and 6% of the Polish-American population. The largest concentrations of Polish speakers reported in the census (over 50%) were found in three states: Illinois (185,749), New York (111,740), and New Jersey (74,663). Enough people in these areas speak Polish that PNC Financial Services (which has a large number of branches in all of these areas) offers services available in Polish at all of their cash machines in addition to English and Spanish. According to the 2011 census there are now over 500,000 people in England and Wales who consider Polish to be their "main" language. In Canada, there is a significant Polish Canadian population: There are 242,885 speakers of Polish according to the 2006 census, with a particular concentration in Toronto (91,810 speakers) and Montreal. The geographical distribution of the Polish language was greatly affected by the territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II and Polish population transfers (1944–46). Poles settled in the "Recovered Territories" in the west and north, which had previously been mostly German-speaking. Some Poles remained in the previously Polish-ruled territories in the east that were annexed by the USSR, resulting in the present-day Polish-speaking minorities in Lithuania, Belarus, and Ukraine, although many Poles were expelled or emigrated from those areas to areas within Poland's new borders. To the east of Poland, the most significant Polish minority lives in a long, narrow strip along either side of the Lithuania-Belarus border. Meanwhile, the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50), as well as the expulsion of Ukrainians and Operation Vistula, the 1947 forced resettlement of Ukrainian minorities to the Recovered Territories in the west of the country, contributed to the country's linguistic homogeneity. Geographic language distribution maps of Poland from pre-WWII to presentThe "Recovered Territories" (in pink) were parts of Germany, including the Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk), that became part of Poland after World War II. The territory shown in grey was lost to the Soviet Union, which expelled many Poles from the area.Geographical distribution of the Polish language (green) and other Central and Eastern European languages and dialects. A large Polish-speaking diaspora remains in the countries located east of Poland that were once the Eastern Borderlands of the Second Polish Republic (1918–1939).Knowledge of the Polish language within parts of Europe. Polish is not a majority language anywhere outside of Poland, though Polish minority groups are present in some neighboring countries. Dialects -------- The inhabitants of different regions of Poland still[update] speak Polish somewhat differently, although the differences between modern-day vernacular varieties and standard Polish (*język ogólnopolski*) appear relatively slight. Most of the middle aged and young speak vernaculars close to standard Polish, while the traditional dialects are preserved among older people in rural areas. First-language speakers of Polish have no trouble understanding each other, and non-native speakers may have difficulty recognizing the regional and social differences. The modern standard dialect, often termed as "correct Polish", is spoken or at least understood throughout the entire country. Polish has traditionally been described as consisting of four or five main regional dialects: * Greater Polish, spoken in the west * Lesser Polish, spoken in the south and southeast * Masovian, spoken throughout the central and eastern parts of the country * Silesian, spoken in the southwest (also considered a separate language, see comment below) Kashubian, spoken in Pomerania west of Gdańsk on the Baltic Sea, is thought of either as a fifth Polish dialect or a distinct language, depending on the criteria used. It contains a number of features not found elsewhere in Poland, e.g. nine distinct oral vowels (vs. the five of standard Polish) and (in the northern dialects) phonemic word stress, an archaic feature preserved from Common Slavic times and not found anywhere else among the West Slavic languages. However, it "lacks most of the linguistic and social determinants of language-hood". Many linguistic sources categorize Silesian as a dialect of Polish. However, many Silesians consider themselves a separate ethnicity and have been advocating for the recognition of a Silesian language. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, over half a million people declared Silesian as their native language. Many sociolinguists (e.g. Tomasz Kamusella, Agnieszka Pianka, Alfred F. Majewicz, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz) assume that extralinguistic criteria decide whether a lect is an independent language or a dialect: speakers of the speech variety or/and political decisions, and this is dynamic (i.e. it changes over time). Also, research organizations such as SIL International and resources for the academic field of linguistics such as *Ethnologue*, Linguist List and others, for example the Ministry of Administration and Digitization recognized the Silesian language. In July 2007, the Silesian language was recognized by ISO, and was attributed an ISO code of szl. Some additional characteristic but less widespread regional dialects include: 1. The distinctive dialect of the Gorals (*Góralski*) occurs in the mountainous area bordering the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Gorals ("Highlanders") take great pride in their culture and the dialect. It exhibits some cultural influences from the Vlach shepherds who migrated from Wallachia (southern Romania) in the 14th–17th centuries. 2. The Poznanski dialect, spoken in Poznań and to some extent in the whole region of the former Prussian Partition (excluding Upper Silesia), with noticeable German influences. 3. In the northern and western (formerly German) regions where Poles from the territories annexed by the Soviet Union resettled after World War II, the older generation speaks a dialect of Polish characteristic of the Kresy that includes a longer pronunciation of vowels. 4. Poles living in Lithuania (particularly in the Vilnius region), in Belarus (particularly the northwest), and in the northeast of Poland continue to speak the Eastern Borderlands dialect, which sounds "slushed" (in Polish described as *zaciąganie z ruska*, "speaking with a Ruthenian drawl") and is easily distinguishable. 5. Some city dwellers, especially the less affluent population, had their own distinctive dialects – for example, the Warsaw dialect, still spoken by some of the population of Praga on the eastern bank of the Vistula. However, these city dialects are now[update] mostly extinct due to assimilation with standard Polish. 6. Many Poles living in emigrant communities (for example, in the United States), whose families left Poland just after World War II, retain a number of minor features of Polish vocabulary as spoken in the first half of the 20th century that now sound archaic to contemporary visitors from Poland. Polish linguistics has been characterized by a strong strive towards promoting prescriptive ideas of language intervention and usage uniformity, along with normatively-oriented notions of language "correctness" (unusual by Western standards). Phonology --------- ### Vowels Polish has six oral vowels (seven oral vowels in written form), which are all monophthongs, and two nasal vowels. The oral vowels are /i/ (spelled *i*), /ɨ/ (spelled *y* and also transcribed as /ɘ/), /ɛ/ (spelled *e*), /a/ (spelled *a*), /ɔ/ (spelled *o*) and /u/ (spelled *u* and *ó* as separate letters). The nasal vowels are /ɛ̃/ (spelled *ę*) and /ɔ̃/ (spelled *ą*). Unlike Czech or Slovak, Polish does not retain phonemic vowel length — the letter *ó*, which formerly represented lengthened /ɔ/ in older forms of the language, is now vestigial and instead corresponds to /u/. | | Front | Central | Back | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Close | i | ɨ | u | | Mid | ɛ | | ɔ | | Open | | a | | ### Consonants The Polish consonant system shows more complexity: its characteristic features include the series of affricate and palatal consonants that resulted from four Proto-Slavic palatalizations and two further palatalizations that took place in Polish. The full set of consonants, together with their most common spellings, can be presented as follows (although other phonological analyses exist): | | Labial | Dental/alveolar | Retroflex | (Alveolo-)palatal | Velar | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | plain | palatalized | | Nasal | m | n | | ɲ | | | | Plosive | voiceless | p | t | | | k | kʲ | | voiced | b | d | | | ɡ | ɡʲ | | Affricate | voiceless | | t͡s | t͡ʂ | t͡ɕ | | | | voiced | | d͡z | d͡ʐ | d͡ʑ | | | | Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʂ | ɕ | x | xʲ | | voiced | v | z | ʐ | ʑ | | | | Tap/trill | | r | | | | | | Approximant | (w) | l | | j | w | | Neutralization occurs between voiced–voiceless consonant pairs in certain environments, at the end of words (where devoicing occurs) and in certain consonant clusters (where assimilation occurs). For details, see *Voicing and devoicing* in the article on Polish phonology. Most Polish words are paroxytones (that is, the stress falls on the second-to-last syllable of a polysyllabic word), although there are exceptions. ### Consonant distribution Polish permits complex consonant clusters, which historically often arose from the disappearance of yers. Polish can have word-initial and word-medial clusters of up to four consonants, whereas word-final clusters can have up to five consonants. Examples of such clusters can be found in words such as *bezwzględny* [bɛzˈvzɡlɛndnɨ] ('absolute' or 'heartless', 'ruthless'), *źdźbło* [ˈʑd͡ʑbwɔ] ('blade of grass'), [ˈfstʂɔw̃s] ('shock'), and *krnąbrność* [ˈkrnɔmbrnɔɕt͡ɕ] ('disobedience'). A popular Polish tongue-twister (from a verse by Jan Brzechwa) is [fʂt͡ʂɛbʐɛˈʂɨɲɛ ˈxʂɔw̃ʂt͡ʂ ˈbʐmi fˈtʂt͡ɕiɲɛ] ('In Szczebrzeszyn a beetle buzzes in the reed'). Unlike languages such as Czech, Polish does not have syllabic consonants – the nucleus of a syllable is always a vowel. The consonant /j/ is restricted to positions adjacent to a vowel. It also cannot precede the letter *y*. ### Prosody The predominant stress pattern in Polish is penultimate stress – in a word of more than one syllable, the next-to-last syllable is stressed. Alternating preceding syllables carry secondary stress, e.g. in a four-syllable word, where the primary stress is on the third syllable, there will be secondary stress on the first. Each vowel represents one syllable, although the letter *i* normally does not represent a vowel when it precedes another vowel (it represents /j/, palatalization of the preceding consonant, or both depending on analysis). Also the letters *u* and *i* sometimes represent only semivowels when they follow another vowel, as in *autor* /ˈawtɔr/ ('author'), mostly in loanwords (so not in native *nauka* /naˈu.ka/ 'science, the act of learning', for example, nor in nativized *Mateusz* /maˈte.uʂ/ 'Matthew'). Some loanwords, particularly from the classical languages, have the stress on the antepenultimate (third-from-last) syllable. For example, *fizyka* (/ˈfizɨka/) ('physics') is stressed on the first syllable. This may lead to a rare phenomenon of minimal pairs differing only in stress placement, for example *muzyka* /ˈmuzɨka/ 'music' vs. *muzyka* /muˈzɨka/ – genitive singular of *muzyk* 'musician'. When additional syllables are added to such words through inflection or suffixation, the stress normally becomes regular. For example, *uniwersytet* (/uɲiˈvɛrsɨtɛt/, 'university') has irregular stress on the third (or antepenultimate) syllable, but the genitive *uniwersytetu* (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛtu/) and derived adjective *uniwersytecki* (/uɲivɛrsɨˈtɛt͡skʲi/) have regular stress on the penultimate syllables. Loanwords generally become nativized to have penultimate stress. In psycholinguistic experiments, speakers of Polish have been demonstrated to be sensitive to the distinction between regular penultimate and exceptional antepenultimate stress. Another class of exceptions is verbs with the conditional endings *-by, -bym, -byśmy*, etc. These endings are not counted in determining the position of the stress; for example, ***zro**biłbym* ('I would do') is stressed on the first syllable, and *zro**bi**libyśmy* ('we would do') on the second. According to prescriptive authorities, the same applies to the first and second person plural past tense endings *-śmy, -ście*, although this rule is often ignored in colloquial speech (so *zro**bi**liśmy* 'we did' should be prescriptively stressed on the second syllable, although in practice it is commonly stressed on the third as *zrobi**li**śmy*). These irregular stress patterns are explained by the fact that these endings are detachable clitics rather than true verbal inflections: for example, instead of ***ko**go zoba**czy**liście?* ('whom did you see?') it is possible to say ***ko**goście zoba**czy**li?* – here *kogo* retains its usual stress (first syllable) in spite of the attachment of the clitic. Reanalysis of the endings as inflections when attached to verbs causes the different colloquial stress patterns. These stress patterns are considered part of a "usable" norm of standard Polish - in contrast to the "model" ("high") norm. Some common word combinations are stressed as if they were a single word. This applies in particular to many combinations of preposition plus a personal pronoun, such as ***do** niej* ('to her'), ***na** nas* ('on us'), *prze**ze** mnie* ('because of me'), all stressed on the bolded syllable. Orthography ----------- The Polish alphabet derives from the Latin script but includes certain additional letters formed using diacritics. The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages, the others being Czech orthography and Croatian orthography, the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. Kashubian uses a Polish-based system, Slovak uses a Czech-based system, and Slovene follows the Croatian one; the Sorbian languages blend the Polish and the Czech ones. Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, Lipka Tatars and Muslims inhabiting the eastern parts of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth wrote Polish in the Arabic alphabet. The Cyrillic script is used to a certain extent today by Polish speakers in Western Belarus, especially for religious texts. The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the *kreska* (graphically similar to the acute accent) over the letters *ć, ń, ó, ś, ź* and through the letter in *ł*; the *kropka* (superior dot) over the letter *ż*, and the *ogonek* ("little tail") under the letters *ą, ę*. The letters *q, v, x* are used only in foreign words and names. Polish orthography is largely phonemic—there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or digraphs and trigraphs) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in the following table. | Uppercase | Lowercase | Phonemicvalue(s) | Uppercase | Lowercase | Phonemicvalue(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **A** | **a** | /a/ | **Ń** | **ń** | /ɲ/ | | **Ą** | **ą** | /ɔ̃/, [ɔn], [ɔm] | **O** | **o** | /ɔ/ | | **B** | **b** | /b/ (/p/) | **Ó** | **ó** | /u/ | | **C** | **c** | /ts/ | **P** | **p** | /p/ | | **Ć** | **ć** | /tɕ/ | **Q** | **q** | Only loanwords | | **D** | **d** | /d/ (/t/) | **R** | **r** | /r/ | | **E** | **e** | /ɛ/ | **S** | **s** | /s/ | | **Ę** | **ę** | /ɛ̃/, [ɛn], [ɛm], /ɛ/ | **Ś** | **ś** | /ɕ/ | | **F** | **f** | /f/ | **T** | **t** | /t/ | | **G** | **g** | /ɡ/ (/k/) | **U** | **u** | /u/ | | **H** | **h** | /x/ (/ɣ/) | **V** | **v** | Only loanwords | | **I** | **i** | /i/, /j/ | **W** | **w** | /v/ (/f/) | | **J** | **j** | /j/ | **X** | **x** | Only loanwords | | **K** | **k** | /k/ | **Y** | **y** | /ɨ/, /ɘ/ | | **L** | **l** | /l/ | **Z** | **z** | /z/ (/s/) | | **Ł** | **ł** | /w/, /ɫ/ | **Ź** | **ź** | /ʑ/ (/ɕ/) | | **M** | **m** | /m/ | **Ż** | **ż** | /ʐ/ (/ʂ/) | | **N** | **n** | /n/ | The following digraphs and trigraphs are used: | Digraph | Phonemic value(s) | Digraph/trigraph(before a vowel) | Phonemic value(s) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **ch** | /x/ | **ci** | /tɕ/ | | **cz** | /tʂ/ | **dzi** | /dʑ/ | | **dz** | /dz/ (/ts/) | **gi** | /ɡʲ/ | | **dź** | /dʑ/ (/tɕ/) | **(c)hi** | /xʲ/ | | **dż** | /dʐ/ (/tʂ/) | **ki** | /kʲ/ | | **rz** | /ʐ/ (/ʂ/) | **ni** | /ɲ/ | | **sz** | /ʂ/ | **si** | /ɕ/ | |   |   | **zi** | /ʑ/ | Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the *Phonology* section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters. The spelling rule for the palatal sounds /ɕ/, /ʑ/, /tɕ/, /dʑ/ and /ɲ/ is as follows: before the vowel *i* the plain letters *s, z, c, dz, n* are used; before other vowels the combinations *si, zi, ci, dzi, ni* are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms *ś, ź, ć, dź, ń* are used. For example, the *s* in *siwy* ("grey-haired"), the *si* in *siarka* ("sulfur") and the *ś* in *święty* ("holy") all represent the sound /ɕ/. The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where *s* before *i* is pronounced as *s*, e.g. *sinus*, *sinologia*, *do re mi fa sol la si do*, *Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści*, *Sierioża*, *Siergiej*, *Singapur*, *singiel*. In other loanwords the vowel *i* is changed to *y*, e.g. *Syria*, *Sybir*, *synchronizacja*, *Syrakuzy*. The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling: Digraphs and trigraphs are used: | Phonemic value | Single letter/Digraph(in pausa or before a consonant) | Digraph/Trigraph(before a vowel) | Single letter/Digraph(before the vowel *i*) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | /tɕ/ | **ć** | **ci** | **c** | | /dʑ/ | **dź** | **dzi** | **dz** | | /ɕ/ | **ś** | **si** | **s** | | /ʑ/ | **ź** | **zi** | **z** | | /ɲ/ | **ń** | **ni** | **n** | Similar principles apply to /kʲ/, /ɡʲ/, /xʲ/ and /lʲ/, except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are *k, g, (c)h, l* before *i*, and *ki, gi, (c)hi, li* otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of *k, g, (c)h* or *l* as creating new sounds. Except in the cases mentioned above, the letter *i* if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents /j/, yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed. The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using *j* instead of *i*: for example, *zjeść*, "to eat up". The letters *ą* and *ę*, when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by a nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, *ą* in *dąb* ("oak") is pronounced [ɔm], and *ę* in *tęcza* ("rainbow") is pronounced [ɛn] (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by *l* or *ł* (for example *przyjęli*, *przyjęły*), *ę* is pronounced as just *e*. When *ę* is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just [ɛ]. Note that, depending on the word, the phoneme /x/ can be spelt *h* or *ch*, the phoneme /ʐ/ can be spelt *ż* or *rz*, and /u/ can be spelt *u* or *ó*. In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: *może* ("maybe") and *morze* ("sea"). In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, *rz* represents /rz/, not /ʐ/, in words like *zamarzać* ("freeze") and in the name *Tarzan*. Doubled letters are usually pronounced as a single, lengthened consonant, however, some speakers might pronounce the combination as two separate sounds. There are certain clusters where a written consonant would not be pronounced. For example, the *ł* in the word *jabłko* ("apple") might be omitted in ordinary speech, leading to the pronunciation *japko*. Grammar ------- Polish is a highly fusional language with relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There are no articles, and subject pronouns are often dropped. Nouns belong to one of three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. The masculine gender is also divided into subgenders : animate vs inanimate in the singular, human vs nonhuman in the plural. There are seven cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and vocative. Adjectives agree with nouns in terms of gender, case, and number. Attributive adjectives most commonly precede the noun, although in certain cases, especially in fixed phrases (like *język polski*, "Polish (language)"), the noun may come first; the rule of thumb is that generic descriptive adjectives normally precede (e.g. *piękny kwiat*, "beautiful flower") while categorizing adjectives often follow the noun (e.g. *węgiel kamienny*, "black coal"). Most short adjectives and their derived adverbs form comparatives and superlatives by inflection (the superlative is formed by prefixing *naj-* to the comparative). Verbs are of imperfective or perfective aspect, often occurring in pairs. Imperfective verbs have a present tense, past tense, compound future tense (except for *być* "to be", which has a simple future *będę* etc., this in turn being used to form the compound future of other verbs), subjunctive/conditional (formed with the detachable particle *by*), imperatives, an infinitive, present participle, present gerund and past participle. Perfective verbs have a simple future tense (formed like the present tense of imperfective verbs), past tense, subjunctive/conditional, imperatives, infinitive, present gerund and past participle. Conjugated verb forms agree with their subject in terms of person, number, and (in the case of past tense and subjunctive/conditional forms) gender. Passive-type constructions can be made using the auxiliary *być* or *zostać* ("become") with the passive participle. There is also an impersonal construction where the active verb is used (in third person singular) with no subject, but with the reflexive pronoun *się* present to indicate a general, unspecified subject (as in *pije się wódkę* "vodka is being drunk"—note that *wódka* appears in the accusative). A similar sentence type in the past tense uses the passive participle with the ending *-o*, as in *widziano ludzi* ("people were seen"). As in other Slavic languages, there are also subjectless sentences formed using such words as *można* ("it is possible") together with an infinitive. Yes-no questions (both direct and indirect) are formed by placing the word *czy* ("whether") at the start, although it's often omitted in casual speech. Negation uses the word *nie*, before the verb or other item being negated; *nie* is still added before the verb even if the sentence also contains other negatives such as *nigdy* ("never") or *nic* ("nothing"), effectively creating a double negative. Cardinal numbers have a complex system of inflection and agreement. Zero and cardinal numbers higher than five (except for those ending with the digit 2, 3 or 4 but not ending with 12, 13 or 14) govern the genitive case rather than the nominative or accusative. Special forms of numbers (collective numerals) are used with certain classes of noun, which include *dziecko* ("child") and exclusively plural nouns such as *drzwi* ("door"). Borrowed words -------------- Poland was once a multi-ethnic nation with many minorities that contributed to the Polish language. 1. Top left: cauliflower (Polish *kalafior* from Italian *cavolfiore*). 2. Top right: rope (*sznur* from German *Schnur*). 3. Bottom left: shark (*rekin* from French *requin*). 4. Bottom right: teacher (*belfer* (colloquial) from Yiddish בעלפֿער *belfer*) Polish has, over the centuries, borrowed a number of words from other languages. When borrowing, pronunciation was adapted to Polish phonemes and spelling was altered to match Polish orthography. In addition, word endings are liberally applied to almost any word to produce verbs, nouns, adjectives, as well as adding the appropriate endings for cases of nouns, adjectives, diminutives, double-diminutives, augmentatives, etc. Depending on the historical period, borrowing has proceeded from various languages. Notable influences have been Latin (10th–18th centuries), Czech (10th and 14th–15th centuries), Italian (16th–17th centuries), French (17th–19th centuries), German (13–15th and 18th–20th centuries), Hungarian (15th–16th centuries) and Turkish (17th century). Currently, English words are the most common imports to Polish. The Latin language, for a very long time the only official language of the Polish state, has had a great influence on Polish. Many Polish words were direct borrowings or calques (e.g. *rzeczpospolita* from *res publica*) from Latin. Latin was known to a larger or smaller degree by most of the numerous szlachta in the 16th to 18th centuries (and it continued to be extensively taught at secondary schools until World War II). Apart from dozens of loanwords, its influence can also be seen in a number of verbatim Latin phrases in Polish literature (especially from the 19th century and earlier). During the 12th and 13th centuries, Mongolian words were brought to the Polish language during wars with the armies of Genghis Khan and his descendants, e.g. *dzida* (spear) and *szereg* (a line or row). Words from Czech, an important influence during the 10th and 14th–15th centuries include *sejm*, *hańba* and *brama*. In 1518, the Polish king Sigismund I the Old married Bona Sforza, the niece of the Holy Roman emperor Maximilian, who introduced Italian cuisine to Poland, especially vegetables. Hence, words from Italian include *pomidor* from "pomodoro" (tomato), *kalafior* from "cavolfiore" (cauliflower), and *pomarańcza*, a portmanteau from Italian "pomo" (pome) plus "arancio" (orange). A later word of Italian origin is *autostrada* (from Italian "autostrada", highway). In the 18th century, with the rising prominence of France in Europe, French supplanted Latin as an important source of words. Some French borrowings also date from the Napoleonic era, when the Poles were enthusiastic supporters of Napoleon. Examples include *ekran* (from French "écran", screen), *abażur* ("abat-jour", lamp shade), *rekin* ("requin", shark), *meble* ("meuble", furniture), *bagaż* ("bagage", luggage), *walizka* ("valise", suitcase), *fotel* ("fauteuil", armchair), *plaża* ("plage", beach) and *koszmar* ("cauchemar", nightmare). Some place names have also been adapted from French, such as the Warsaw borough of Żoliborz ("joli bord" = beautiful riverside), as well as the town of Żyrardów (from the name Girard, with the Polish suffix -ów attached to refer to the founder of the town). Many words were borrowed from the German language from the sizable German population in Polish cities during medieval times. German words found in the Polish language are often connected with trade, the building industry, civic rights and city life. Some words were assimilated verbatim, for example *handel* (trade) and *dach* (roof); others are pronounced similarly, but differ in writing *Schnur*—*sznur* (cord). As a result of being neighbors with Germany, Polish has many German expressions which have become literally translated (calques). The regional dialects of Upper Silesia and Masuria (Modern Polish East Prussia) have noticeably more German loanwords than other varieties. The contacts with Ottoman Turkey in the 17th century brought many new words, some of them still in use, such as: *jar* ("yar" deep valley), *szaszłyk* ("şişlik" shish kebab), *filiżanka* ("fincan" cup), *arbuz* ("karpuz" watermelon), *dywan* ("divan" carpet), etc. From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in 1025 through the early years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth created in 1569, Poland was the most tolerant country of Jews in Europe. Known as the "paradise for the Jews", it became a shelter for persecuted and expelled European Jewish communities and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. As a result, many Polish words come from Yiddish, spoken by the large Polish Jewish population that existed until the Holocaust. Borrowed Yiddish words include *bachor* (an unruly boy or child), *bajzel* (slang for mess), *belfer* (slang for teacher), *ciuchy* (slang for clothing), *cymes* (slang for very tasty food), *geszeft* (slang for business), *kitel* (slang for apron), *machlojka* (slang for scam), *mamona* (money), *manele* (slang for oddments), *myszygene* (slang for lunatic), *pinda* (slang for girl, pejoratively), *plajta* (slang for bankruptcy), *rejwach* (noise), *szmal* (slang for money), and *trefny* (dodgy). The mountain dialects of the Górale in southern Poland, have quite a number of words borrowed from Hungarian (e.g. *baca*, *gazda*, *juhas*, *hejnał*) and Romanian as a result of historical contacts with Hungarian-dominated Slovakia and Wallachian herders who travelled north along the Carpathians. Thieves' slang includes such words as *kimać* (to sleep) or *majcher* (knife) of Greek origin, considered then unknown to the outside world. In addition, Turkish and Tatar have exerted influence upon the vocabulary of war, names of oriental costumes etc. Russian borrowings began to make their way into Polish from the second half of the 19th century on. Polish has also received an intensive number of English loanwords, particularly after World War II. Recent loanwords come primarily from the English language, mainly those that have Latin or Greek roots, for example *komputer* (computer), *korupcja* (from 'corruption', but sense restricted to 'bribery') etc. Concatenation of parts of words (e.g. *auto-moto*), which is not native to Polish but common in English, for example, is also sometimes used. When borrowing English words, Polish often changes their spelling. For example, Latin suffix '-tio' corresponds to *-cja*. To make the word plural, *-cja* becomes *-cje*. Examples of this include *inauguracja* (inauguration), *dewastacja* (devastation), *recepcja* (reception), *konurbacja* (conurbation) and *konotacje* (connotations). Also, the digraph *qu* becomes *kw* (*kwadrant* = quadrant; *kworum* = quorum). Loanwords from Polish in other languages ---------------------------------------- The Polish language has influenced others. Particular influences appear in other Slavic languages and in German — due to their proximity and shared borders. Examples of loanwords include German *Grenze* (border), Dutch and Afrikaans *grens* from Polish *granica*; German *Peitzker* from Polish *piskorz* (weatherfish); German *Zobel*, French *zibeline*, Swedish *sobel*, and English *sable* from Polish *soból*; and *ogonek* ("little tail") — the word describing a diacritic hook-sign added below some letters in various alphabets. The common Germanic word *quartz* comes from the dialectical Old Polish *kwardy*. "Szmata," a Polish, Slovak and Ruthenian word for "mop" or "rag", became part of Yiddish. The Polish language exerted significant lexical influence upon Ukrainian, particularly in the fields of abstract and technical terminology; for example, the Ukrainian word панство *panstvo* (country) is derived from Polish *państwo*. The Polish influence on Ukrainian is particularly marked on western Ukrainian dialects in western Ukraine, which for centuries was under Polish cultural domination. There are a substantial number of Polish words which officially became part of Yiddish, once the main language of European Jews. These include basic items, objects or terms such as a bread bun (Polish *bułka*, Yiddish בולקע *bulke*), a fishing rod (*wędka*, ווענטקע *ventke*), an oak (*dąb*, דעמב *demb*), a meadow (*łąka*, לאָנקע *lonke*), a moustache (*wąsy*, וואָנצעס *vontses*) and a bladder (*pęcherz*, פּענכער *penkher*). Quite a few culinary loanwords exist in German and in other languages, some of which describe distinctive features of Polish cuisine. These include German and English *Quark* from *twaróg* (a kind of fresh cheese) and German *Gurke*, English *gherkin* from *ogórek* (cucumber). The word *pierogi* (Polish dumplings) has spread internationally, as well as *pączki* (Polish donuts) and kiełbasa (sausage, e.g. *kolbaso* in Esperanto). As far as *pierogi* concerned, the original Polish word is already in plural (sing. *pieróg*, plural *pierogi*; stem *pierog-*, plural ending *-i*; NB. *o* becomes *ó* in a closed syllable, like here in singular), yet it is commonly used with the English plural ending *-s* in Canada and United States of America, *pierogis*, thus making it a "double plural". A similar situation happened with the Polish loanword from English *czipsy* ("potato chips")—from English *chips* being already plural in the original (*chip* + *-s*), yet it has obtained the Polish plural ending *-y*. It is believed that the English word *spruce* was derived from *Prusy*, the Polish name for the region of Prussia. It became *spruce* because in Polish, *z Prus*, sounded like "spruce" in English (transl. "from Prussia") and was a generic term for commodities brought to England by Hanseatic merchants and because the tree was believed to have come from Polish Ducal Prussia. However, it can be argued that the word is actually derived from the Old French term *Pruce*, meaning literally Prussia. Literature ---------- The Polish language started to be used in literature in the Late Middle Ages. Notable works include the *Holy Cross Sermons* (13th/14th century), *Bogurodzica* (15th century) and *Master Polikarp's Dialog with Death* (15th century). The most influential Renaissance-era literary figures in Poland were poet Jan Kochanowski (*Laments*), Mikołaj Rej and Piotr Skarga (*The Lives of the Saints*) who established poetic patterns that would become integral to the Polish literary language and laid foundations for the modern Polish grammar. During the Age of Enlightenment in Poland, Ignacy Krasicki, known as "the Prince of Poets", wrote the first Polish novel called *The Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom* as well as *Fables and Parables*. Another significant work form this period is *The Manuscript Found in Saragossa* written by Jan Potocki, a Polish nobleman, Egyptologist, linguist, and adventurer. In the Romantic Era, the most celebrated national poets, referred to as the Three Bards, were Adam Mickiewicz (*Pan Tadeusz* and *Dziady*), Juliusz Słowacki (*Balladyna*) and Zygmunt Krasiński (*The Undivine Comedy*). Poet and dramatist Cyprian Norwid is regarded by some scholars as the "Fourth Bard". Important positivist writers include Bolesław Prus (*The Doll*, *Pharaoh*), Henryk Sienkiewicz (author of numerous historical novels the most internationally acclaimed of which is *Quo Vadis*), Maria Konopnicka (*Rota*), Eliza Orzeszkowa (*Nad Niemnem*), Adam Asnyk and Gabriela Zapolska (*The Morality of Mrs. Dulska*). The period known as Young Poland produced such renowned literary figures as Stanisław Wyspiański (*The Wedding*), Stefan Żeromski (*Homeless People*, *The Spring to Come*), Władysław Reymont (*The Peasants*) and Leopold Staff. The prominent interbellum period authors include Maria Dąbrowska (*Nights and Days*), Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (*Insatiability*), Julian Tuwim, Bruno Schulz, Bolesław Leśmian, Witold Gombrowicz and Zuzanna Ginczanka. Other notable writers and poets from Poland active during World War II and after are Aleksander Kamiński, Zbigniew Herbert, Stanisław Lem, Zofia Nałkowska, Tadeusz Borowski, Sławomir Mrożek, Krzysztof Kamil Baczyński, Julia Hartwig, Marek Krajewski, Joanna Bator, Andrzej Sapkowski, Adam Zagajewski, Dorota Masłowska, Jerzy Pilch, Ryszard Kapuściński and Andrzej Stasiuk. Five people writing in the Polish language have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: Henryk Sienkiewicz (1905), Władysław Reymont (1924), Czesław Miłosz (1980), Wisława Szymborska (1996) and Olga Tokarczuk (2018). Notable Polish language authors* MikołajRej(1505–1569)Mikołaj Rej (1505–1569) * JanKochanowski(1530–1584)Jan Kochanowski (1530–1584) * AdamMickiewicz(1798–1855)Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855) * HenrykSienkiewicz(1846–1916)Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916) * WładysławReymont(1867–1925)Władysław Reymont (1867–1925) * CzesławMiłosz(1911–2004)Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004) * StanisławLem(1921–2006)Stanisław Lem (1921–2006) * WisławaSzymborska(1923–2012)Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012) * AndrzejSapkowski(born 1948)Andrzej Sapkowski (born 1948) * OlgaTokarczuk(born 1962)Olga Tokarczuk (born 1962) Sample text ----------- Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in Polish: *Wszyscy ludzie rodzą się wolni i równi pod względem swej godności i swych praw. Są oni obdarzeni rozumem i sumieniem i powinni postępować wobec innych w duchu braterstwa.* Article 1 of the *Universal Declaration of Human Rights* in English: *All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.* See also -------- * Polonism (words of Polish origin) * Adam Mickiewicz Institute * *A Translation Guide to 19th-Century Polish-Language Civil-Registration Documents* * BABEL Speech Corpus * *Holy Cross Sermons* * Lechitic languages * University of Łódź School of Polish for Foreigners * West Slavic languages * West Slavs Further reading --------------- * Bisko, Wacław (1966). *Mówimy po polsku. A beginner's course of Polish* (DTBook). translated and adapted by Stanisław Kryński. Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna (pl). * Gussmann, Edmund (2007). *The Phonology of Polish*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926747-7. OCLC 320907619. * Sadowska, Iwona (2012). *Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar*. Oxford; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-47541-9. * Swan, Oscar E. (2002). *A Grammar of Contemporary Polish*. Bloomington, IN: Slavica. ISBN 0-89357-296-9.

Polish language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_language

**This article contains special characters.** Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. **Zeus** (/zjuːs/; Ancient Greek: Ζεύς) is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek religion, who rules as king of the gods on Mount Olympus. His name is cognate with the first syllable of his Roman equivalent Jupiter. His mythology and powers are similar, though not identical, to those of other Indo-European deities such as Perkūnas, Perun, Indra, Dyaus, and Zojz. Zeus is the child of Cronus and Rhea, the youngest of his siblings to be born, though sometimes reckoned the eldest as the others required disgorging from Cronus's stomach. In most traditions, he is married to Hera, by whom he is usually said to have fathered Ares, Eileithyia, Hebe, and Hephaestus. At the oracle of Dodona, his consort was said to be Dione, by whom the *Iliad* states that he fathered Aphrodite. According to the *Theogony*, Zeus' first wife was Metis, by whom he had Athena. Zeus was also infamous for his erotic escapades. These resulted in many divine and heroic offspring, including Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Persephone, Dionysus, Perseus, Heracles, Helen of Troy, Minos, and the Muses. He was respected as an allfather who was chief of the gods and assigned roles to the others: "Even the gods who are not his natural children address him as Father, and all the gods rise in his presence." He was equated with many foreign weather gods, permitting Pausanias to observe "That Zeus is king in heaven is a saying common to all men". Zeus' symbols are the thunderbolt, eagle, bull, and oak. In addition to his Indo-European inheritance, the classical "cloud-gatherer" (Greek: Νεφεληγερέτα, *Nephelēgereta*) also derives certain iconographic traits from the cultures of the ancient Near East, such as the scepter. Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek artists in one of three poses: standing, striding forward with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right hand, or seated in majesty. It was very important for the lightning to be exclusively in the god's right hand as the Greeks believed that people who were left-handed were associated with bad luck. Name ---- The god's name in the nominative is Ζεύς (*Zeús*). It is inflected as follows: vocative: Ζεῦ (**Zeû**); accusative: Δία (*Día*); genitive: Διός (*Diós*); dative: Διί (*Dií*). Diogenes Laërtius quotes Pherecydes of Syros as spelling the name Ζάς. *Zeus* is the Greek continuation of \**Di̯ēus,* the name of the Proto-Indo-European god of the daytime sky, also called \**Dyeus ph2tēr* ("Sky Father"). The god is known under this name in the Rigveda (Vedic Sanskrit *Dyaus/Dyaus Pita*), Latin (compare *Jupiter*, from *Iuppiter*, deriving from the Proto-Indo-European vocative \**dyeu-ph2tēr*), deriving from the root \**dyeu*- ("to shine", and in its many derivatives, "sky, heaven, god"). Albanian *Zoj-z* is also a cognate of *Zeus*. In both the Greek and Albanian forms the original cluster *\*di̯* underwent affrication to *\*dz*. Zeus is the only deity in the Olympic pantheon whose name has such a transparent Indo-European etymology. The earliest attested forms of the name are the Mycenaean Greek 𐀇𐀸, *di-we* and 𐀇𐀺, *di-wo*, written in the Linear B syllabic script. Plato, in his *Cratylus*, gives a folk etymology of Zeus meaning "cause of life always to all things", because of puns between alternate titles of Zeus (*Zen* and *Dia*) with the Greek words for life and "because of". This etymology, along with Plato's entire method of deriving etymologies, is not supported by modern scholarship. Diodorus Siculus wrote that Zeus was also called Zen, because the humans believed that he was the cause of life (zen). While Lactantius wrote that he was called Zeus and Zen, not because he is the giver of life, but because he was the first who lived of the children of Cronus. Zeus was called by numerous alternative names or surnames, known as epithets. Some epithets are the surviving names of local gods who were consolidated into the myth of Zeus. Mythology --------- ### Birth In Hesiod's *Theogony* (c. 730 – 700 BC), Cronus, after castrating his father Uranus, becomes the supreme ruler of the cosmos, and weds his sister Rhea, by whom he begets three daughters and three sons: Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, Poseidon, and lastly, "wise" Zeus, the youngest of the six. He swallows each child as soon as they are born, having received a prophecy from his parents, Gaia and Uranus, that one of his own children is destined to one day overthrow him as he overthrew his father. This causes Rhea "unceasing grief", and upon becoming pregnant with her sixth child, Zeus, she approaches her parents, Gaia and Uranus, seeking a plan to save her child and bring retribution to Cronus. Following her parents' instructions, she travels to Lyctus in Crete, where she gives birth to Zeus, handing the newborn child over to Gaia for her to raise, and Gaia takes him to a cave on Mount Aegaeon. Rhea then gives to Cronus, in the place of a child, a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he promptly swallows, unaware that it isn't his son. While Hesiod gives Lyctus as Zeus's birthplace, he is the only source to do so, and other authors give different locations. The poet Eumelos of Corinth (8th century BC), according to John the Lydian, considered Zeus to have been born in Lydia, while the Alexandrian poet Callimachus (c. 310 – c. 240 BC), in his *Hymn to Zeus*, says that he was born in Arcadia. Diodorus Siculus (fl. 1st century BC) seems at one point to give Mount Ida as his birthplace, but later states he is born in Dicte, and the mythographer Apollodorus (first or second century AD) similarly says he was born in a cave in Dicte. | Children of Cronus and Rhea | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus | | Gaia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cronus | | Rhea | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hestia | | Demeter | | Hera | | Hades | | Poseidon | | **ZEUS** | | | ### Infancy While the *Theogony* says nothing of Zeus's upbringing other than that he grew up swiftly, other sources provide more detailed accounts. According to Apollodorus, Rhea, after giving birth to Zeus in a cave in Dicte, gives him to the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, daughters of Melisseus, to nurse. They feed him on the milk of the she-goat Amalthea, while the Kouretes guard the cave and beat their spears on their shields so that Cronus cannot hear the infant's crying. Diodorus Siculus provides a similar account, saying that, after giving birth, Rhea travels to Mount Ida and gives the newborn Zeus to the Kouretes, who then takes him to some nymphs (not named), who raised him on a mixture of honey and milk from the goat Amalthea. He also refers to the Kouretes "rais[ing] a great alarum", and in doing so deceiving Cronus, and relates that when the Kouretes were carrying the newborn Zeus that the umbilical cord fell away at the river Triton. Hyginus, in his *Fabulae*, relates a version in which Cronus casts Poseidon into the sea and Hades to the Underworld instead of swallowing them. When Zeus is born, Hera (also not swallowed), asks Rhea to give her the young Zeus, and Rhea gives Cronus a stone to swallow. Hera gives him to Amalthea, who hangs his cradle from a tree, where he isn't in heaven, on earth or in the sea, meaning that when Cronus later goes looking for Zeus, he is unable to find him. Hyginus also says that Ida, Althaea, and Adrasteia, usually considered the children of Oceanus, are sometimes called the daughters of Melisseus and the nurses of Zeus. According to a fragment of Epimenides, the nymphs Helike and Kynosura are the young Zeus's nurses. Cronus travels to Crete to look for Zeus, who, to conceal his presence, transforms himself into a snake and his two nurses into bears. According to Musaeus, after Zeus is born, Rhea gives him to Themis. Themis in turn gives him to Amalthea, who owns a she-goat, which nurses the young Zeus. Antoninus Liberalis, in his *Metamorphoses*, says that Rhea gives birth to Zeus in a sacred cave in Crete, full of sacred bees, which become the nurses of the infant. While the cave is considered forbidden ground for both mortals and gods, a group of thieves seek to steal honey from it. Upon laying eyes on the swaddling clothes of Zeus, their bronze armour "split[s] away from their bodies", and Zeus would have killed them had it not been for the intervention of the Moirai and Themis; he instead transforms them into various species of birds. ### Ascension to Power According to the *Theogony*, after Zeus reaches manhood, Cronus is made to disgorge the five children and the stone "by the stratagems of Gaia, but also by the skills and strength of Zeus", presumably in reverse order, vomiting out the stone first, then each of the five children in the opposite order to swallowing. Zeus then sets up the stone at Delphi, so that it may act as "a sign thenceforth and a marvel to mortal men". Zeus next frees the Cyclopes, who, in return, and out of gratitude, give him his thunderbolt, which had previously been hidden by Gaia. Then begins the Titanomachy, the war between the Olympians, led by Zeus, and the Titans, led by Cronus, for control of the universe, with Zeus and the Olympians fighting from Mount Olympus, and the Titans fighting from Mount Othrys. The battle lasts for ten years with no clear victor emerging, until, upon Gaia's advice, Zeus releases the Hundred-Handers, who (similarly to the Cyclopes) were imprisoned beneath the Earth's surface. He gives them nectar and ambrosia and revives their spirits, and they agree to aid him in the war. Zeus then launches his final attack on the Titans, hurling bolts of lightning upon them while the Hundred-Handers attack with barrages of rocks, and the Titans are finally defeated, with Zeus banishing them to Tartarus and assigning the Hundred-Handers the task of acting as their warders. Apollodorus provides a similar account, saying that, when Zeus reaches adulthood, he enlists the help of the Oceanid Metis, who gives Cronus an emetic, forcing to him to disgorge the stone and Zeus's five siblings. Zeus then fights a similar ten-year war against the Titans, until, upon the prophesying of Gaia, he releases the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers from Tartarus, first slaying their warder, Campe. The Cyclopes give him his thunderbolt, Poseidon his trident and Hades his helmet of invisibility, and the Titans are defeated and the Hundred-Handers made their guards. According to the *Iliad*, after the battle with the Titans, Zeus shares the world with his brothers, Poseidon and Hades, by drawing lots: Zeus receives the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the underworld, with the earth and Olympus remaining common ground. ### Challenges to Power Upon assuming his place as king of the cosmos, Zeus' rule is quickly challenged. The first of these challenges to his power comes from the Giants, who fight the Olympian gods in a battle known as the Gigantomachy. According to Hesiod, the Giants are the offspring of Gaia, born from the drops of blood that fell on the ground when Cronus castrated his father Uranus; there is, however, no mention of a battle between the gods and the Giants in the *Theogony*. It is Apollodorus who provides the most complete account of the Gigantomachy. He says that Gaia, out of anger at how Zeus had imprisoned her children, the Titans, bore the Giants to Uranus. There comes to the gods a prophecy that the Giants cannot be defeated by the gods on their own, but can be defeated only with the help of a mortal; Gaia, upon hearing of this, seeks a special *pharmakon* (herb) that will prevent the Giants from being killed. Zeus, however, orders Eos (Dawn), Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) to stop shining, and harvests all of the herb himself, before having Athena summon Heracles. In the conflict, Porphyrion, one of the most powerful of the Giants, launches an attack upon Heracles and Hera; Zeus, however, causes Porphyrion to become lustful for Hera, and when he is just about to violate her, Zeus strikes him with his thunderbolt, before Heracles deals the fatal blow with an arrow. In the *Theogony*, after Zeus defeats the Titans and banishes them to Tartarus, his rule is challenged by the monster Typhon, a giant serpentine creature who battles Zeus for control of the cosmos. According to Hesiod, Typhon is the offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, described as having a hundred snaky fire-breathing heads. Hesiod says he "would have come to reign over mortals and immortals" had it not been for Zeus noticing the monster and dispatching with him quickly: the two of them meet in a cataclysmic battle, before Zeus defeats him easily with his thunderbolt, and the creature is hurled down to Tartarus. Epimenides presents a different version, in which Typhon makes his way into Zeus's palace while he is sleeping, only for Zeus to wake and kill the monster with a thunderbolt. Aeschylus and Pindar give somewhat similar accounts to Hesiod, in that Zeus overcomes Typhon with relative ease, defeating him with his thunderbolt. Apollodorus, in contrast, provides a more complex narrative. Typhon is, similarly to in Hesiod, the child of Gaia and Tartarus, produced out of anger at Zeus's defeat of the Giants. The monster attacks heaven, and all of the gods, out of fear, transform into animals and flee to Egypt, except for Zeus, who attacks the monster with his thunderbolt and sickle. Typhon is wounded and retreats to Mount Kasios in Syria, where Zeus grapples with him, giving the monster a chance to wrap him in his coils, and rip out the sinews from his hands and feet. Disabled, Zeus is taken by Typhon to the Corycian Cave in Cilicia, where he is guarded by the "she-dragon" Delphyne. Hermes and Aegipan, however, steal back Zeus's sinews, and refit them, reviving him and allowing him to return to the battle, pursuing Typhon, who flees to Mount Nysa; there, Typhon is given "ephemeral fruits" by the Moirai, which reduce his strength. The monster then flees to Thrace, where he hurls mountains at Zeus, which are sent back at him by the god's thunderbolts, before, while fleeing to Sicily, Zeus launches Mount Etna upon him, finally ending him. Nonnus, who gives the longest and most detailed account, presents a narrative similar to Apollodorus, with differences such as that it is instead Cadmus and Pan who recovers Zeus's sinews, by luring Typhon with music and then tricking him. In the *Iliad*, Homer tells of another attempted overthrow, in which Hera, Poseidon, and Athena conspire to overpower Zeus and tie him in bonds. It is only because of the Nereid Thetis, who summons Briareus, one of the Hecatoncheires, to Olympus, that the other Olympians abandon their plans (out of fear for Briareus). ### Seven wives According to Hesiod, Zeus takes Metis, one of the Oceanid daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, as his first wife. However, when she is about to give birth to a daughter, Athena, he swallows her whole upon the advice of Gaia and Uranus, as it had been foretold that after bearing a daughter, she would give birth to a son, who would overthrow him as king of gods and mortals; it is from this position that Metis gives counsel to Zeus. In time, Athena is born, emerging from Zeus's head, but the foretold son never comes forth. Apollodorus presents a similar version, stating that Metis took many forms in attempting to avoid Zeus's embraces, and that it was Gaia alone who warned Zeus of the son who would overthrow him. According to a fragment likely from the Hesiodic corpus, quoted by Chrysippus, it is out of anger at Hera for producing Hephaestus on her own that Zeus has intercourse with Metis, and then swallows her, thereby giving rise to Athena from himself. A scholiast on the *Iliad*, in contrast, states that when Zeus swallows her, Metis is pregnant with Athena not by Zeus himself, but by the Cyclops Brontes. The motif of Zeus swallowing Metis can be seen as a continuation of the succession myth: it is prophesied that a son of Zeus will overthrow him, just as he overthrew his father, but whereas Cronos met his end because he did not swallow the real Zeus, Zeus holds onto his power because he successfully swallows the threat, in the form of the potential mother, and so the "cycle of displacement" is brought to an end. In addition, the myth can be seen as an allegory for Zeus gaining the wisdom of Metis for himself by swallowing her. In Hesiod's account, Zeus's second wife is Themis, one of the Titan daughters of Uranus and Gaia, with whom he has the Horae, listed as Eunomia, Dike and Eirene, and the three Moirai: Clotho, Lachesis and Atropos. A fragment from Pindar calls Themis Zeus's first wife, and states that she is brought by the Moirai (in this version not her daughters) up to Olympus, where she becomes the bride of Zeus and bears him the Horae. According to Hesiod, Zeus next marries the Oceanid Eurynome, with whom he has the three Charites, namely Aglaea, Euphrosyne and Thalia. Zeus's fourth wife is his sister Demeter, with whom he has Persephone. Zeus's next consort is the Titan Mnemosyne; as described at the beginning of the *Theogony*, Zeus lies with Mnemosyne in Piera each night for nine nights, producing the nine Muses. His sixth wife is the Titan Leto, who bears him the twins Apollo and Artemis, who, according to the *Homeric Hymn to Apollo*, are born on the island of Delos. In Hesiod's account, Zeus's seventh and final wife is his sister Hera. | Children of Zeus and his first six wives | | --- | | | | | | | **ZEUS** | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Metis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Athena | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Themis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Eunomia | | Dike | | Eirene | | | Clotho | | Lachesis | | Atropos | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Horae | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Moirai | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Eurynome | | | | | | | | | | | Demeter | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aglaea | | Euphrosyne | | Thalia | | | | | | Persephone | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Charites | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mnemosyne | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Clio | | | Thaleia | | | Terpsichore | | | Polyhymnia | | | Calliope | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Euterpe | | Melpomene | | Erato | | Urania | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The Muses | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Leto | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Apollo | | Artemis | | | ### Marriage to Hera While Hera is Zeus's seventh wife in Hesiod's version, in other accounts she is his first and only wife. In the *Theogony*, the couple has three children, Ares, Hebe, and Eileithyia. While Hesiod states that Hera produces Hephaestus on her own after Athena is born from Zeus's head, other versions, including Homer, have Hephaestus as a child of Zeus and Hera as well. Various authors give descriptions of a youthful affair between Zeus and Hera. In the *Iliad*, the pair are described as having first lay with each other before Cronus is sent to Tartarus, without the knowledge of their parents. A scholiast on the *Iliad* states that, after Cronus is banished to Tartarus, Oceanus and Tethys give Hera to Zeus in marriage, and only shortly after the two are wed, Hera gives birth to Hephaestus, having lay secretly with Zeus on the island of Samos beforehand; to conceal this act, she claimed that she had produced Hephaestus on her own. According to another scholiast on the *Iliad*, Callimachus, in his *Aetia*, says that Zeus lay with Hera for three hundred years on the island of Samos. According to a scholion on Theocritus' *Idylls*, Zeus, one day seeing Hera walking apart from the other gods, becomes intent on having intercourse with her, and transforms himself into a cuckoo bird, landing on Mount Thornax. He creates a terrible storm, and when Hera arrives at the mountain and sees the bird, which sits on her lap, she takes pity on it, laying her cloak over it. Zeus then transforms back and takes hold of her; when she refuses to have intercourse with him because of their mother, he promises that she will become his wife. Pausanias similarly refers to Zeus transforming himself into a cuckoo to woo Hera, and identifies the location as Mount Thornax. According to a version from Plutarch, as recorded by Eusebius in his *Praeparatio evangelica*, Hera is raised by a nymph named Macris on the island of Euboea when Zeus kidnaps her, taking her to Mount Cithaeron, where they find a shady hollow, which serves as a "natural bridal chamber". When Macris comes to look for Hera, Cithaeron, the tutelary deity of the mountain, stops her, saying that Zeus is sleeping there with Leto. Photius, in his *Bibliotheca*, tells us that in Ptolemy Hephaestion's *New History*, Hera refuses to lay with Zeus, and hides in a cave to avoid him, before an earthborn man named Achilles convinces her to marry Zeus, leading to the pair first sleeping with each other. According to Stephanus of Byzantium, Zeus and Hera first lay together at the city of Hermione, having come there from Crete. Callimachus, in a fragment from his *Aetia*, also apparently makes reference to the couple's union occurring at Naxos. Though no complete account of Zeus and Hera's wedding exists, various authors make reference to it. According to a scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes' *Argonautica*, Pherecydes states that when Zeus and Hera are being married, Gaia brings a tree which produces golden apples as a wedding gift. Eratosthenes and Hyginus attribute a similar story to Pherecydes, in which Hera is amazed by the gift, and asks for the apples to be planted in the "garden of the gods", nearby to Mount Atlas. Apollodorus specifies them as the golden apples of the Hesperides, and says that Gaia gives them to Zeus after the marriage. According to Diodorus Siculus, the location of the marriage is in the land of the Knossians, nearby to the river Theren, while Lactantius attributes to Varro the statement that the couple are married on the island of Samos. There exist several stories in which Zeus, receiving advice, is able to reconcile with an angered Hera. According to Pausanias, Hera, angry with her husband, retreats to the island of Euboea, where she was raised, and Zeus, unable to resolve the situation, seeks the advice of Cithaeron, ruler of Plataea, supposedly the most intelligent man on earth. Cithaeron instructs him to fashion a wooden statue and dress it as a bride, and then pretend that he is marrying one "Plataea", a daughter of Asopus. When Hera hears of this, she immediately rushes there, only to discover the ruse upon ripping away the bridal clothing; she is so relieved that the couple are reconciled. According to a version from Plutarch, as recorded by Eusebius in his *Praeparatio evangelica*, when Hera is angry with her husband, she retreats instead to Cithaeron, and Zeus goes to the earth-born man Alalcomeneus, who suggests he pretend to marry someone else. With the help of Alalcomeneus, Zeus creates a wooden statue from an oak tree, dresses it as a bride, and names it Daidale. When preparations are being made for the wedding, Hera rushes down from Cithaeron, followed by the women of Plataia, and upon discovering the trick, the couple are reconciled, with the matter ending in joy and laughter among all involved. | Children of Zeus and Hera | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | **ZEUS** | | | | | | | Hera | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hebe | | Ares | | Eileithyia | | Hephaestus | | | ### Affairs After his marriage to Hera, different authors describe Zeus's numerous affairs with various mortal women. In many of these affairs, Zeus transforms himself into an animal, someone else, or some other form. According to a scholion on the *Iliad* (citing Hesiod and Bacchylides), when Europa is picking flowers with her female companions in a meadow in Phoenicia, Zeus transforms himself into a bull, lures her from the others, and then carries her across the sea to the island of Crete, where he resumes his usual form to sleep with her. In Euripides' *Helen*, Zeus takes the form of a swan, and after being chased by an eagle, finds shelter in the lap of Leda, subsequently seducing her, while in Euripides' lost play *Antiope*, Zeus apparently took the form of a satyr to sleep with Antiope. Various authors speak of Zeus raping Callisto, one of the companions of Artemis, doing so in the form of Artemis herself according to Ovid (or, as mentioned by Apollodorus, in the form of Apollo), and Pherecydes relates that Zeus sleeps with Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon, in the form of her own husband. Several accounts state that Zeus approached the Argive princess Danae in the form of a shower of gold, while according to Ovid he abducts Aegina in the form of a flame. In accounts of Zeus's affairs, Hera is often depicted as a jealous wife, with there being various stories of her persecuting either the women with whom Zeus sleeps, or their children by him. Several authors relate that Zeus sleeps with Io, a priestess of Hera, who is subsequently turned into a cow, and suffers at Hera's hands: according to Apollodorus, Hera sends a gadfly to sting the cow, driving her all the way to Egypt, where she is finally transformed back into human form. In later accounts of Zeus's affair with Semele, a daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, Hera tricks her into persuading Zeus to grant her any promise. Semele asks him to come to her as he comes to his own wife Hera, and when Zeus upholds this promise, she dies out of fright and is reduced to ashes. According to Callimachus, after Zeus sleeps with Callisto, Hera turns her into a bear, and instructs Artemis to shoot her. In addition, Zeus's son by Alcmene, the hero Heracles, is persecuted continuously throughout his mortal life by Hera, up until his apotheosis. According to Diodorus Siculus, Alcmene, the mother of Heracles, was the very last mortal woman Zeus ever slept with; following the birth of Heracles, he ceased to beget humans altogether, and fathered no more children. #### List of disguises used by Zeus | Disguise | When desiring | | | --- | --- | --- | | Eagle or flame of fire | Aegina | | | Amphitryon | Alcmene | | | Satyr | Antiope | | | Artemis or Apollo | Callisto | | | Shower of gold | Danaë | | | Bull | Europa | | | Eagle | Ganymede | | | Cuckoo | Hera | | | Swan | Leda | | | Goose | Nemesis | | ### Prometheus and conflicts with humans When the gods met at Mecone to discuss which portions they will receive after a sacrifice, the titan Prometheus decided to trick Zeus so that humans receive the better portions. He sacrificed a large ox, and divided it into two piles. In one pile he put all the meat and most of the fat, covering it with the ox's grotesque stomach, while in the other pile, he dressed up the bones with fat. Prometheus then invited Zeus to choose; Zeus chose the pile of bones. This set a precedent for sacrifices, where humans will keep the fat for themselves and burn the bones for the gods. Zeus, enraged at Prometheus's deception, prohibited the use of fire by humans. Prometheus, however, stole fire from Olympus in a fennel stalk and gave it to humans. This further enraged Zeus, who punished Prometheus by binding him to a cliff, where an eagle constantly ate Prometheus's liver, which regenerated every night. Prometheus was eventually freed from his misery by Heracles. Now Zeus, angry at humans, decides to give humanity a punishing gift to compensate for the boon they had been given. He commands Hephaestus to mold from earth the first woman, a "beautiful evil" whose descendants would torment the human race. After Hephaestus does so, several other gods contribute to her creation. Hermes names the woman 'Pandora'. Pandora was given in marriage to Prometheus's brother Epimetheus. Zeus gave her a jar which contained many evils. Pandora opened the jar and released all the evils, which made mankind miserable. Only hope remained inside the jar. When Zeus was atop Mount Olympus he was appalled by human sacrifice and other signs of human decadence. He decided to wipe out mankind and flooded the world with the help of his brother Poseidon. After the flood, only Deucalion and Pyrrha remained. This flood narrative is a common motif in mythology. ### In the *Iliad* The *Iliad* is an ancient Greek epic poem attributed to Homer about the Trojan war and the battle over the City of Troy, in which Zeus plays a major part. Scenes in which Zeus appears include: * Book 2: Zeus sends Agamemnon a dream and is able to partially control his decisions because of the effects of the dream * Book 4: Zeus promises Hera to ultimately destroy the City of Troy at the end of the war * Book 7: Zeus and Poseidon ruin the Achaeans fortress * Book 8: Zeus prohibits the other Gods from fighting each other and has to return to Mount Ida where he can think over his decision that the Greeks will lose the war * Book 14: Zeus is seduced by Hera and becomes distracted while she helps out the Greeks * Book 15: Zeus wakes up and realizes that his own brother, Poseidon has been aiding the Greeks, while also sending Hector and Apollo to help fight the Trojans ensuring that the City of Troy will fall * Book 16: Zeus is upset that he couldn't help save Sarpedon's life because it would then contradict his previous decisions * Book 17: Zeus is emotionally hurt by the fate of Hector * Book 20: Zeus lets the other Gods lend aid to their respective sides in the war * Book 24: Zeus demands that Achilles release the corpse of Hector to be buried honourably ### Other myths When Hades requested to marry Zeus's daughter, Persephone, Zeus approved and advised Hades to abduct Persephone, as her mother Demeter wouldn't allow her to marry Hades. In the Orphic "Rhapsodic Theogony" (first century BC/AD), Zeus wanted to marry his mother Rhea. After Rhea refused to marry him, Zeus turned into a snake and raped her. Rhea became pregnant and gave birth to Persephone. Zeus in the form of a snake would mate with his daughter Persephone, which resulted in the birth of Dionysus. Zeus granted Callirrhoe's prayer that her sons by Alcmaeon, Acarnan and Amphoterus, grow quickly so that they might be able to avenge the death of their father by the hands of Phegeus and his two sons. Both Zeus and Poseidon wooed Thetis, daughter of Nereus. But when Themis (or Prometheus) prophesied that the son born of Thetis would be mightier than his father, Thetis was married off to the mortal Peleus. Zeus was afraid that his grandson Asclepius would teach resurrection to humans, so he killed Asclepius with his thunderbolt. This angered Asclepius's father, Apollo, who in turn killed the Cyclopes who had fashioned the thunderbolts of Zeus. Angered at this, Zeus would have imprisoned Apollo in Tartarus. However, at the request of Apollo's mother, Leto, Zeus instead ordered Apollo to serve as a slave to King Admetus of Pherae for a year. According to Diodorus Siculus, Zeus killed Asclepius because of complains from Hades, who was worried that the number of people in the underworld was diminishing because of Asclepius's resurrections. The winged horse Pegasus carried the thunderbolts of Zeus. Zeus took pity on Ixion, a man who was guilty of murdering his father-in-law, by purifying him and bringing him to Olympus. However, Ixion started to lust after Hera. Hera complained about this to her husband, and Zeus decided to test Ixion. Zeus fashioned a cloud that resembles Hera (Nephele) and laid the cloud-Hera in Ixion's bed. Ixion coupled with Nephele, resulting in the birth of Centaurus. Zeus punished Ixion for lusting after Hera by tying him to a wheel that spins forever. Once, Helios the sun god gave his chariot to his inexperienced son Phaethon to drive. Phaethon could not control his father's steeds so he ended up taking the chariot too high, freezing the earth, or too low, burning everything to the ground. The earth itself prayed to Zeus, and in order to prevent further disaster, Zeus hurled a thunderbolt at Phaethon, killing him and saving the world from further harm. In a satirical work, *Dialogues of the Gods* by Lucian, Zeus berates Helios for allowing such thing to happen; he returns the damaged chariot to him and warns him that if he dares do that again, he will strike him with one of this thunderbolts. ### Children #### List of offspring, with mothers, according to Hesiod | Offspring | Mother | | --- | --- | | Heracles | Alcmene | | Persephone | Demeter | | Charites (Aglaea, Euphrosyne, Thalia) | Eurynome | | Ares, Eileithyia, Hebe | Hera | | Apollo, Artemis | Leto | | Hermes | Maia | | Athena | Metis | | Muses (Calliope, Clio, Euterpe, Erato, Melpomene, Polyhymnia, Terpsichore, Thalia, Urania) | Mnemosyne | | Dionysus | Semele | | Horae (Dike, Eirene, Eunomia), Moirai (Atropos, Clotho, Lachesis) | Themis | #### List of offspring, with mothers, according to other sources | Offspring | Mother | | --- | --- | | Aegipan | Aega, Aix or Boetis | | Tyche | Aphrodite | | Hecate, Heracles | Asteria | | Acragas | Asterope | | Corybantes | Calliope | | Coria (Athene) | Coryphe | | Dionysus | Demeter | | Aphrodite | Dione | | Charites (Aglaea, Euphrosyne, Thalia) | Euanthe or Eunomia or Eurydome or Eurymedusa | | Asopus | Eurynome | | Dodon | Europa | | Agdistis, Manes, Cyprian Centaurs | Gaia | | Angelos, Eleutheria, Eris, Hephaestus | Hera | | Pan | Hybris | | Helen of Troy | Nemesis | | Melinoë, Zagreus, Dionysus | Persephone | | Persephone | Rhea | | Dionysus, Ersa, Nemea, Pandia | Selene | | Persephone | Styx | | Palici | Thalia | | Aeacus, Damocrateia | Aegina | | Amphion, Zethus | Antiope | | Targitaos | Borysthenis | | Arcas | Callisto | | Britomartis | Carme | | Dardanus, Emathion, Iasion or Eetion, Harmonia | Electra | | Myrmidon | Eurymedousa | | Cronius, Spartaios, Cytus | Himalia | | Colaxes | Hora | | Cres | Idaea | | Epaphus, Keroessa | Io | | Saon | Nymphe | | Meliteus | Othreis | | Tantalus | Plouto | | Lacedaemon | Taygete | | Archas | Themisto | | Carius | Torrhebia | | Megarus | Nymph Sithnid | | Olenus | Anaxithea | | Aethlius or Endymion | Calyce | | Milye, Solymus | Chaldene | | Perseus | Danaë | | Pirithous | Dia | | Tityos | Elara | | Minos, Rhadamanthus, Sarpedon, | Europa | | Arcesius | Euryodeia | | Orchomenus | Hermippe | | Agamedes | Iocaste | | Thebe, Deucalion | Iodame | | Acheilus | Lamia | | Libyan Sibyl (Herophile) | Lamia (daughter of Poseidon) | | Sarpedon | Laodamia | | Helen of Troy, Pollux | Leda | | Heracles | Lysithoe | | Locrus | Maera | | Argus, Pelasgus | Niobe | | Graecus, Latinus | Pandora | | Achaeus | Phthia | | Aethlius, Aetolus, Opus | Protogeneia | | Hellen | Pyrrha | | Aegyptus, Heracles | Thebe | | Magnes, Makednos | Thyia | | Aletheia, Ate, Nysean, Eubuleus, Litae, Phasis, Calabrus, Geraestus, Taenarus, Corinthus, Crinacus | *No mother mentioned* | Roles and epithets ------------------ Zeus played a dominant role, presiding over the Greek Olympian pantheon. He fathered many of the heroes and was featured in many of their local cults. Though the Homeric "cloud collector" was the god of the sky and thunder like his Near-Eastern counterparts, he was also the supreme cultural artifact; in some senses, he was the embodiment of Greek religious beliefs and the archetypal Greek deity. Popular conceptions of Zeus differed widely from place to place. Local varieties of Zeus often have little in common with each other except the name. They exercised different areas of authority and were worshiped in different ways; for example, some local cults conceived of Zeus as a chthonic earth-god rather than a god of the sky. These local divinities were gradually consolidated, via conquest and religious syncretism, with the Homeric conception of Zeus. Local or idiosyncratic versions of Zeus were given epithets — surnames or titles which distinguish different conceptions of the god. These epithets or titles applied to Zeus emphasized different aspects of his wide-ranging authority: * **Zeus Aegiduchos** or **Aegiochos**: Usually taken as Zeus as the bearer of the Aegis, the divine shield with the head of Medusa across it, although others derive it from "goat" (αἴξ) and *okhē* (οχή) in reference to Zeus' nurse, the divine goat Amalthea. * **Zeus Agoraeus** (Αγοραιος): Zeus as patron of the marketplace (agora) and punisher of dishonest traders. * **Zeus Areius** (Αρειος): either "warlike" or "the atoning one". * **Zeus Eleutherios** (Ἐλευθέριος): "Zeus the freedom giver" a cult worshiped in Athens * **Zeus Horkios**: Zeus as keeper of oaths. Exposed liars were made to dedicate a votive statue to Zeus, often at the sanctuary at Olympia * **Zeus Olympios** (Ολύμπιος): Zeus as king of the gods and patron of the Panhellenic Games at Olympia * **Zeus Panhellenios** ("Zeus of All the Greeks"): worshipped at Aeacus's temple on Aegina * **Zeus Xenios** (Ξένιος), **Philoxenon**, or **Hospites**: Zeus as the patron of hospitality (*xenia*) and guests, avenger of wrongs done to strangers Additional names and epithets for Zeus are also: **A** * **Abrettenus** (Ἀβρεττηνός) or **Abretanus**: surname of Zeus in Mysia * **Achad**: one of his names in Syria. * **Acraeus** (Ακραίος): his name at Smyrna. Acraea and Acraeus are also attributes given to various goddesses and gods whose temples were situated upon hills, such as Zeus, Hera, Aphrodite, Pallas, Artemis, and others * **Acrettenus**: his name in Mysia. * **Adad**: one of his names in Syria. * **Zeus Adados**: A Hellenization of the Canaanite Hadad and Assyrian Adad, particularly his solar cult at Heliopolis * **Adultus**: from his being invoked by *adults*, on their marriage. * **Aleios** (Ἄλειος), from "Helios" and perhaps connected to water as well. * **Amboulios** (Αμβουλιος, "Counsellor") or Latinized **Ambulius** * **Apemius** (**Apemios**, Απημιος): Zeus as the averter of ills * **Apomyius** (Απομυιος): Zeus as one who dispels flies * **Aphesios** (Αφεσιος; "Releasing (Rain)") * **Argikeravnos** (ἀργικέραυνος; "of the flashing bolt"). * **Astrapios** (ἀστραπαῖός; "Lightninger"): Zeus as a weather god * **Atabyrius** (Ἀταβύριος): he was worshipped in Rhodes and took his name from the Mount Atabyrus on the island * **Aithrios** (Αἴθριος, "of the Clear Sky"). * **Aitherios** (Αἰθέριος, "of Aether"). **B** * **Basileus** (Βασιλευς, "King, Chief, Ruler") * **Bottiaeus**/ **Bottaios** (Βοττιαίος, "of the Bottiaei"): Worshipped at Antioch Libanius wrote that Alexander the Great founded the temple of *Zeus Bottiaios*, in the place where later the city of Antioch was built. * **Zeus Bouleus**/ **Boulaios** (Βουλαίος, "of the Council"): Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle, along with Zeus Naos * **Brontios** and **Brontaios** (Βρονταῖος, "Thunderer"): Zeus as a weather god **C** * **Cenaean** (**Kenaios**/ **Kenaius**, Κηναῖος): a surname of Zeus, derived from cape Cenaeum * **Chthonios** (Χθόνιος, "of the earth or underworld") **D** * **Diktaios** (Δικταιος): Zeus as lord of the Dikte mountain range, worshipped from Mycenaean times on Crete * **Dodonian**/ **Dodonaios** (Δωδωναῖος): meaning of Dodona * **Dylsios** (Δύλσιος) **E** * **Eilapinastes** (Εἰλαπιναστής, "Feaster"). He was worshipped in Cyprus. * **Epikarpios** (ἐπικάρπιος, "of the fruits"). * **Eleutherios** (Ἐλευθέριος, "of freedom"). At Athens after the Battle of Plataea, Athenians built the Stoa of *Zeus Eleutherios*. Some writers said that was called "of freedom" because free men built the portico near his shrine, while others because Athenians escaped subjection to the power of Persia and they were free. * **Epidôtês**/ **Epidotes** (Επιδωτης; "Giver of Good"): an epithet of Zeus at Mantineia and Sparta * **Euênemos**/ **Euanemos** (Ευηνεμος; "of Fair Winds", "Giver of Favourable Wind") or Latinized **Evenemus**/ **Evanemus** **G** * **Genethlios** (Γενέθλιός; "of birth"). * **Zeus Georgos** (Ζεὺς Γεωργός, "Zeus the Farmer"): Zeus as god of crops and the harvest, worshipped in Athens **H** * **Zeus Helioupolites** ("Heliopolite" or "Heliopolitan Zeus"): A Hellenization of the Canaanite Baʿal (probably Hadad) worshipped as a sun god at Heliopolis (modern Baalbek) in Syria * **Herkeios** (Ἑρκειος, "of the Courtyard") or Latinized **Herceius** * **Hecalesius**, a festival named Hecalesia (Εκαλήσια) was celebrated at Athens in honour of Zeus Hecalesius and Hecale. * **Hetareios** (Ἑταιρεῖος, "of fellowship"): According to the *Suda*, Zeus was called this among the Cretans. * **Hikesios** (Ἱκεσιος; "of Suppliants") or Latinized **Hicesius** * **Homognios** (ὁμόγνιος; "of kindred") * **Hyetios** (Ὑετιος; "of the Rain") * **Hypatos** (Ὑπατος, "Supreme, Most High") * **Hypsistos** (Ὕψιστος, "Supreme, Most High") **I** * **Idaeus** or **Idaios** (Ἰδαῖος), of mount Ida. Either Mount Ida in Crete or Mount Ida in the ancient Troad * **Ikmaios** (Ικμαιος; "of Moisture") or Latinized **Icmaeus** * **Ithomatas** (Ιθωμάτας), an annual festival celebrated at Ithome for Zeus Ithomatas. **K** * **Zeus Kasios** ("Zeus of Mount Kasios" the modern Jebel Aqra) or Latinized **Casius**: a surname of Zeus, the name may have derived from either sources, one derived from *Casion*, near Pelusium in Egypt. Another derived from Mount Kasios (Casius), which is the modern Jebel Aqra, is worshipped at a site on the Syrian–Turkish border, a Hellenization of the Canaanite mountain and weather god Baal Zephon * **Kataibates** (Καταιβάτης, "descending") or Latinized **Cataebates**, because he was sending-down thunderbolts or because he was descending to earth due to his love of women. * **Katharsios** (Καθάρσιος, "purifying"). * **Keraunios** (Κεραυνιος; "of the Thunderbolt") or Latinized **Ceraunius** * **Klarios** (Κλαριος; "of the Lots") or Latinized **Clarius** * **Konios** (Κονιος; "of the Dust") or Latinized **Conius** * **Koryphaios** (Κορυφαιος, "Chief, Leader") or Latinized **Coryphaeus** * **Kosmêtês** (Κοσμητης; "Orderer") or Latinized **Cosmetes** * **Ktesios** (Κτησιος, "of the House, Property") or Latinized **Ctesius** **L** * **Zeus Labrandos** (Λαβρανδευς; "Furious, Raging", "Zeus of Labraunda"): Worshiped at Caria, depicted with a double-edged axe (*labrys*), a Hellenization of the Hurrian weather god Teshub * **Laphystius** ("of Laphystium"), Laphystium was a mountain in Boeotia on which there was a temple to Zeus. * **Limenoskopos** (Λιμενοσκοπος; "Watcher of Sea-Havens") or Latinized **Limenoscopus** occurs as a surname of several deities, Zeus, Artemis, Aphrodite, Priapus and Pan * **Lepsinos**, there is a temple of Zeus Lepsinos at Euromus. * **Leukaios** (Λευκαῖος Ζεύς; "Zeus of the white poplar") **M** * **Maimaktês** (Μαιμάκτης; "Boisterous", "the Stormy") or Latinized **Maemactes**, a surname of Zeus, from which the name of the Attic calendar month 'Maimakterion' (Μαιμακτηριών, Latinized Maemacterion) was derived and which that month the *Maimakteria* was celebrated at Athens. * **Zeus Meilichios**/ **Meilikhios** (Μειλίχιος; "Zeus the Easily-Entreated") There was a sanctuary south of the Ilissos river at Athens. * **Mêkhaneus** (Μηχανευς; "Contriver") or Latinized **Mechaneus** * **Moiragetes** (Μοιραγέτης; "Leader of the Fates", "Guide or Leade of Fate"): Pausanias wrote that this was a surname of Zeus and Apollo at Delphi, because Zeus knew the affairs of men, all that the Fates give them and all that is not destined for them. **N** * **Zeus Naos**: Worshipped at Dodona, the earliest oracle, along with Zeus Bouleus **O** * **Ombrios** (Ομβριος; "of the Rain", "Rain-Giver") * **Ouranios** (Οὐράνιος, "Heavenly"). * **Ourios** (Οὐριος, "of Favourable Wind"). Ancient writers wrote about a sanctuary at the opening of the Black Sea dedicated to the Zeus Ourios (ἱερὸν τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Οὐρίου). In addition, on the island of Delos a dedication to Zeus Ourios was found. The dedication was made by a citizen of Ascalon, named Damon son of Demetrius, who escaped from pirates. **P** * **Palaimnios** (Παλαμναῖος; "of Vengeance") * **Panamaros** (Πανάμαρος; "of the city of Panamara"): there was an important sanctuary of Zeus Panamaros at the city of Panamara in Caria * **Pankrates** (Πανκρατής; "the almighty") * **Patrios** (Πάτριος; "paternal") * **Phratrios** (Φράτριος), as patron of a phratry * **Philios** (Φιλιος; "of Friendship") or Latinized **Philius** * **Phyxios** (Φυξιος; "of Refuge") or Latinized **Phyxius** * **Plousios** (Πλουσιος; "of Wealth") or Latinized **Plusius** * **Polieus** (Πολιεὺς; "from cities (poleis"). **S** * **Skotitas** (Σκοτιτας; "Dark, Murky") or Latinized **Scotitas** * **Sêmaleos** (Σημαλεος; "Giver of Signs") or Latinized **Semaleus**: * **Sosipolis** (Σωσίπολις; "City saviour"): There was a temple of Zeus Sosipolis at Magnesia on the Maeander * **Splanchnotomus** ("Entrails cutter"), he was worshipped in Cyprus. * **Stratios** (Στράτιος; "Of armies"). **T** * **Zeus Tallaios** ("Solar Zeus"): Worshipped on Crete * **Teleios** (Τελειος; "of Marriage Rites") or Latinized **Teleus** * **Theos Agathos** (Θεος Αγαθος; "the Good God") or Latinized **Theus Agathus** * **Tropaioukhos/ Tropaiuchos** (τροπαιοῦχος, "Guardian of Trophies"): after the Battle of the 300 Champions, Othryades, dedicated the trophy to "Zeus, Guardian of Trophies" . **X** * **Xenios** (Ξενιος; "of Hospitality, Strangers") or Latinized **Xenius** **Z** * **Zygius** (Ζυγίος): As the presider over marriage. His wife Hera had also the epithet Zygia (Ζυγία). These epithets describing them as presiding over marriage. Cults of Zeus ------------- ### Panhellenic cults The major center where all Greeks converged to pay honor to their chief god was Olympia. Their quadrennial festival featured the famous Games. There was also an altar to Zeus made not of stone, but of ash, from the accumulated remains of many centuries' worth of animals sacrificed there. Outside of the major inter-polis sanctuaries, there were no modes of worshipping Zeus precisely shared across the Greek world. Most of the titles listed below, for instance, could be found at any number of Greek temples from Asia Minor to Sicily. Certain modes of ritual were held in common as well: sacrificing a white animal over a raised altar, for instance. #### Zeus Velchanos With one exception, Greeks were unanimous in recognizing the birthplace of Zeus as Crete. Minoan culture contributed many essentials of ancient Greek religion: "by a hundred channels the old civilization emptied itself into the new", Will Durant observed, and Cretan Zeus retained his youthful Minoan features. The local child of the Great Mother, "a small and inferior deity who took the roles of son and consort", whose Minoan name the Greeks Hellenized as Velchanos, was in time assumed as an epithet by Zeus, as transpired at many other sites, and he came to be venerated in Crete as **Zeus Velchanos** ("boy-Zeus"), often simply the *Kouros*. In Crete, Zeus was worshipped at a number of caves at Knossos, Ida and Palaikastro. In the Hellenistic period a small sanctuary dedicated to Zeus Velchanos was founded at the Hagia Triada site of a long-ruined Minoan palace. Broadly contemporary coins from Phaistos show the form under which he was worshiped: a youth sits among the branches of a tree, with a cockerel on his knees. On other Cretan coins Velchanos is represented as an eagle and in association with a goddess celebrating a mystic marriage. Inscriptions at Gortyn and Lyttos record a *Velchania* festival, showing that Velchanios was still widely venerated in Hellenistic Crete. The stories of Minos and Epimenides suggest that these caves were once used for incubatory divination by kings and priests. The dramatic setting of Plato's *Laws* is along the pilgrimage-route to one such site, emphasizing archaic Cretan knowledge. On Crete, Zeus was represented in art as a long-haired youth rather than a mature adult and hymned as *ho megas kouros*, "the great youth". Ivory statuettes of the "Divine Boy" were unearthed near the Labyrinth at Knossos by Sir Arthur Evans. With the Kouretes, a band of ecstatic armed dancers, he presided over the rigorous military-athletic training and secret rites of the Cretan *paideia*. The myth of the death of Cretan Zeus, localised in numerous mountain sites though only mentioned in a comparatively late source, Callimachus, together with the assertion of Antoninus Liberalis that a fire shone forth annually from the birth-cave the infant shared with a mythic swarm of bees, suggests that Velchanos had been an annual vegetative spirit. The Hellenistic writer Euhemerus apparently proposed a theory that Zeus had actually been a great king of Crete and that posthumously, his glory had slowly turned him into a deity. The works of Euhemerus himself have not survived, but Christian patristic writers took up the suggestion. #### Zeus Lykaios The epithet **Zeus Lykaios** (Λύκαιος; "wolf-Zeus") is assumed by Zeus only in connection with the archaic festival of the Lykaia on the slopes of Mount Lykaion ("Wolf Mountain"), the tallest peak in rustic Arcadia; Zeus had only a formal connection with the rituals and myths of this primitive rite of passage with an ancient threat of cannibalism and the possibility of a werewolf transformation for the ephebes who were the participants. Near the ancient ash-heap where the sacrifices took place was a forbidden precinct in which, allegedly, no shadows were ever cast. According to Plato, a particular clan would gather on the mountain to make a sacrifice every nine years to Zeus Lykaios, and a single morsel of human entrails would be intermingled with the animal's. Whoever ate the human flesh was said to turn into a wolf, and could only regain human form if he did not eat again of human flesh until the next nine-year cycle had ended. There were games associated with the Lykaia, removed in the fourth century to the first urbanization of Arcadia, Megalopolis; there the major temple was dedicated to Zeus Lykaios. There is, however, the crucial detail that *Lykaios* or *Lykeios* (epithets of Zeus and Apollo) may derive from Proto-Greek \*λύκη, "light", a noun still attested in compounds such as ἀμφιλύκη, "twilight", λυκάβας, "year" (lit. "light's course") etc. This, Cook argues, brings indeed much new 'light' to the matter as Achaeus, the contemporary tragedian of Sophocles, spoke of Zeus Lykaios as "starry-eyed", and this Zeus Lykaios may just be the Arcadian Zeus, son of Aether, described by Cicero. Again under this new signification may be seen Pausanias' descriptions of Lykosoura being 'the first city that ever the sun beheld', and of the altar of Zeus, at the summit of Mount Lykaion, before which stood two columns bearing gilded eagles and 'facing the sun-rise'. Further Cook sees only the tale of Zeus' sacred precinct at Mount Lykaion allowing no shadows referring to Zeus as 'god of light' (Lykaios). #### Additional cults of Zeus Although etymology indicates that Zeus was originally a sky god, many Greek cities honored a local Zeus who lived underground. Athenians and Sicilians honored **Zeus Meilichios** (Μειλίχιος; "kindly" or "honeyed") while other cities had **Zeus Chthonios** ("earthy"), **Zeus Katachthonios** (Καταχθόνιος; "under-the-earth") and **Zeus Plousios** ("wealth-bringing"). These deities might be represented as snakes or in human form in visual art, or, for emphasis as both together in one image. They also received offerings of black animal victims sacrificed into sunken pits, as did chthonic deities like Persephone and Demeter, and also the heroes at their tombs. Olympian gods, by contrast, usually received white victims sacrificed upon raised altars. In some cases, cities were not entirely sure whether the *daimon* to whom they sacrificed was a hero or an underground Zeus. Thus the shrine at Lebadaea in Boeotia might belong to the hero Trophonius or to **Zeus Trephonius** ("the nurturing"), depending on whether you believe Pausanias, or Strabo. The hero Amphiaraus was honored as **Zeus Amphiaraus** at Oropus outside of Thebes, and the Spartans even had a shrine to **Zeus Agamemnon**. Ancient Molossian kings sacrificed to **Zeus Areius** (Αρειος). Strabo mention that at Tralles there was the **Zeus Larisaeus** (Λαρισαιος). In Ithome, they honored the **Zeus Ithomatas**, they had a sanctuary and a statue of Zeus and also held an annual festival in honour of Zeus which was called Ithomaea (ἰθώμαια). #### Hecatomphonia Hecatomphonia (Ancient Greek: ἑκατομφόνια), meaning killing of a hundred, from ἑκατόν "a hundred" and φονεύω "to kill". It was a custom of Messenians, at which they offered sacrifice to Zeus when any of them had killed a hundred enemies. Aristomenes have offered three times this sacrifice at the Messenian wars against Sparta. ### Non-panhellenic cults In addition to the Panhellenic titles and conceptions listed above, local cults maintained their own idiosyncratic ideas about the king of gods and men. With the epithet **Zeus Aetnaeus** he was worshiped on Mount Aetna, where there was a statue of him, and a local festival called the Aetnaea in his honor. Other examples are listed below. As **Zeus Aeneius** or **Zeus Aenesius** (Αινησιος), he was worshiped in the island of Cephalonia, where he had a temple on Mount Aenos. ### Oracles of Zeus Although most oracle sites were usually dedicated to Apollo, the heroes, or various goddesses like Themis, a few oracular sites were dedicated to Zeus. In addition, some foreign oracles, such as Baʿal's at Heliopolis, were associated with Zeus in Greek or Jupiter in Latin. #### The Oracle at Dodona The cult of Zeus at Dodona in Epirus, where there is evidence of religious activity from the second millennium BC onward, centered on a sacred oak. When the *Odyssey* was composed (circa 750 BC), divination was done there by barefoot priests called *Selloi*, who lay on the ground and observed the rustling of the leaves and branches. By the time Herodotus wrote about Dodona, female priestesses called peleiades ("doves") had replaced the male priests. Zeus' consort at Dodona was not Hera, but the goddess Dione — whose name is a feminine form of "Zeus". Her status as a titaness suggests to some that she may have been a more powerful pre-Hellenic deity, and perhaps the original occupant of the oracle. #### The Oracle at Siwa The oracle of Ammon at the Siwa Oasis in the Western Desert of Egypt did not lie within the bounds of the Greek world before Alexander's day, but it already loomed large in the Greek mind during the archaic era: Herodotus mentions consultations with Zeus Ammon in his account of the Persian War. Zeus Ammon was especially favored at Sparta, where a temple to him existed by the time of the Peloponnesian War. After Alexander made a trek into the desert to consult the oracle at Siwa, the figure arose in the Hellenistic imagination of a Libyan Sibyl. Identifications with other gods ------------------------------- ### Foreign gods Zeus was identified with the Roman god Jupiter and associated in the syncretic classical imagination (see *interpretatio graeca*) with various other deities, such as the Egyptian Ammon and the Etruscan Tinia. He, along with Dionysus, absorbed the role of the chief Phrygian god Sabazios in the syncretic deity known in Rome as Sabazius. The Seleucid ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes erected a statue of Zeus Olympios in the Judean Temple in Jerusalem. Hellenizing Jews referred to this statue as Baal Shamen (in English, Lord of Heaven). Zeus is also identified with the Hindu deity Indra. Not only they are the king of gods, but their weapon - thunder is similar. ### Helios Zeus is occasionally conflated with the Hellenic sun god, Helios, who is sometimes either directly referred to as Zeus' eye, or clearly implied as such. Hesiod, for instance, describes Zeus' eye as effectively the sun. This perception is possibly derived from earlier Proto-Indo-European religion, in which the sun is occasionally envisioned as the eye of \**Dyḗus Pḥatḗr* (see Hvare-khshaeta). Euripides in his now lost tragedy *Mysians* described Zeus as "sun-eyed", and Helios is said elsewhere to be "the brilliant eye of Zeus, giver of life". In another of Euripides' tragedies, *Medea*, the chorus refers to Helios as "light born from Zeus." Although the connection of Helios to Zeus does not seem to have basis in early Greek cult and writings, nevertheless there are many examples of direct identification in later times. The Hellenistic period gave birth to Serapis, a Greco-Egyptian deity conceived as a chthonic avatar of Zeus, whose solar nature is indicated by the sun crown and rays the Greeks depicted him with. Frequent joint dedications to "Zeus-Serapis-Helios" have been found all over the Mediterranean, for example, the Anastasy papyrus (now housed in the British Museum equates Helios to not just Zeus and Serapis but also Mithras, and a series of inscriptions from Trachonitis give evidence of the cult of "Zeus the Unconquered Sun". There is evidence of Zeus being worshipped as a solar god in the Aegean island of Amorgos, based on a lacunose inscription *Ζεὺς Ἥλ[ιο]ς* ("Zeus the Sun"), meaning sun elements of Zeus' worship could be as early as the fifth century BC. The Cretan Zeus Tallaios had solar elements to his cult. "Talos" was the local equivalent of Helios. Later representations --------------------- ### Philosophy In Neoplatonism, Zeus' relation to the gods familiar from mythology is taught as the Demiurge or Divine Mind, specifically within Plotinus's work the *Enneads* and the *Platonic Theology* of Proclus. ### The Bible Zeus is mentioned in the New Testament twice, first in Acts 14:8–13: When the people living in Lystra saw the Apostle Paul heal a lame man, they considered Paul and his partner Barnabas to be gods, identifying Paul with Hermes and Barnabas with Zeus, even trying to offer them sacrifices with the crowd. Two ancient inscriptions discovered in 1909 near Lystra testify to the worship of these two gods in that city. One of the inscriptions refers to the "priests of Zeus", and the other mentions "Hermes Most Great" and "Zeus the sun-god". The second occurrence is in Acts 28:11: the name of the ship in which the prisoner Paul set sail from the island of Malta bore the figurehead "Sons of Zeus" aka Castor and Pollux (Dioscuri). The deuterocanonical book of 2 Maccabees 6:1, 2 talks of King Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), who in his attempt to stamp out the Jewish religion, directed that the temple at Jerusalem be profaned and rededicated to Zeus (Jupiter Olympius). Genealogy of the Olympians -------------------------- | Olympians' family tree  | | --- | | | | | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus | | Gaia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Uranus' genitals | | | | | | | | | Cronus | | Rhea | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeus | | | | | | Hera | | Poseidon | | Hades | | Demeter | | Hestia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |     a | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |      b | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ares | | Hephaestus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Metis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Athena | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Leto | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Apollo | | Artemis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Maia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hermes | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Semele | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dionysus | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Dione | | | | | | | | | | | | |     a | | | | | | | |      b | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aphrodite | | | Gallery ------- * The abduction of Europa The abduction of Europa * Olympian assembly, from left to right: Apollo, Zeus and Hera Olympian assembly, from left to right: Apollo, Zeus and Hera * The "Golden Man" Zeus statue The "Golden Man" Zeus statue * Enthroned Zeus (Greek, c. 100 BC) - modeled after the Olympian Zeus by Pheidas (c. 430 BC) Enthroned Zeus (Greek, c. 100 BC) - modeled after the Olympian Zeus by Pheidas (c. 430 BC) * Zeus and Hera Zeus and Hera * Zeus statue Zeus statue * Zeus/Poseidon statue Zeus/Poseidon statue See also -------- * Family tree of the Greek gods * Agetor * Ambulia – Spartan epithet used for Athena, Zeus, and Castor and Pollux * Hetairideia – Thessalian Festival to Zeus * Temple of Zeus, Olympia * Zanes of Olympia – Statues of Zeus References ---------- * Antoninus Liberalis, *The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis: A Translation with a Commentary*, edited and translated by Francis Celoria, Routledge, 1992. ISBN 978-0-415-06896-3. Online version at ToposText. * Apollodorus, *Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.* Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. ISBN 0-674-99135-4. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Arnim, Hans von, *Stoicorum veterum fragmenta*, Volume II, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Stuttgart, Teubner, 1964. Online version at De Gruyter. Internet Archive. * Athanassakis, Apostolos N., and Benjamin M. Wolkow, *The Orphic Hymns*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013) ISBN 978-1-4214-0882-8. Google Books. * Athenaeus, *The Learned Banqueters, Volume IV: Books 8-10.420e*, edited and translated by S. Douglas Olson, Loeb Classical Library No. 235, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-674-99626-7. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Bernabé, Alberto, *Poetae epici Graeci: Testimonia et fragmenta, Pars I*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Stuttgart and Leipzig, Teubner, 1996. ISBN 978-3-815-41706-5. Online version at De Gruyter. * *Brill’s New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World. Antiquity, Volume 15*, Tuc-Zyt, editors: Hubert Cancik, Helmuth Schneider, Brill, 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-14220-6. Online version at Brill. * Burkert, Walter, (1985) [1977]. *Greek Religion*, especially section III.ii.1 (Harvard University Press) * Caldwell, Richard, *Hesiod's Theogony*, Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). ISBN 978-0-941051-00-2. Internet Archive. * Callimachus, *Aetia. Iambi. Lyric Poems*, edited and translated by Dee L. Clayman, Loeb Classical Library No. 421, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2022. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Callimachus, *Callimachus and Lycophron, with an English Translation by A. W. Mair; Aratus, with an English Translation by G. R. Mair*, London: W. Heinemann, New York: G. P. Putnam, 1921. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive. * Campbell, David A., *Greek Lyric, Volume III: Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides, and Others*, Loeb Classical Library No. 476, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0674995253. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Campbell, David A., *Greek Lyric, Volume IV: Bacchylides, Corinna*, Loeb Classical Library No. 461, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-674-99508-6. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Cook, Arthur Bernard, *Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion* (3 volume set), (1914–1925). New York, Bibilo & Tannen: 1964. * Cook, Arthur Bernard (1914). *Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion, Volume I: Zeus God of the Bright Sky*. Cambridge University Press. + Volume 1: *Zeus, God of the Bright Sky*, Biblo-Moser, 1 June 1964, ISBN 0-8196-0148-9 (reprint) + Volume 2: *Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (Thunder and Lightning)*, Biblo-Moser, 1 June 1964, ISBN 0-8196-0156-X + Volume 3: *Zeus, God of the Dark Sky (earthquakes, clouds, wind, dew, rain, meteorites)* * Cicero, Marcus Tullius, *De Natura Deorum* in *Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods. Academics*, translated by H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library No. 268, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, first published 1933, revised 1951. ISBN 978-0-674-99296-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. Internet Archive. * Diels, Hermann A., *Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker*, Volume II, Berlin, Weidmann, 1912. Internet Archive. * Dindorf, Karl Wilhelm (1875a), *Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem*, Volume I, Oxford, E. Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1875. Internet Archive. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Dindorf, Karl Wilhelm (1875b), *Scholia Graeca in Homeri Iliadem*, Volume IV, Oxford, E. Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1875. Internet Archive. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Diodorus Siculus, *Diodorus Siculus: The Library of History*. translated by C. H. Oldfather, twelve volumes, Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989. Online version by Bill Thayer. * Euripides, *Helen* in *Euripides: Helen, Phoenician Women, Orestes*, edited and translated by David Kovacs, Loeb Classical Library No. 11. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2002. ISBN 978-0-674-99600-7. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Euripides, *Helen*, translated by E. P. Coleridge in *The Complete Greek Drama*, edited by Whitney J. Oates and Eugene O'Neill, Jr., Volume 2, New York, Random House, 1938. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Fontenrose, Joseph Eddy, *Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins*, University of California Press, 1959. ISBN 978-0-520-04091-5. Google Books. * Fowler, R. L. (2000), *Early Greek Mythography: Volume 1: Text and Introduction*, Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0198147404. Google Books. * Fowler, R. L. (2013), *Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary*, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-198-14741-1. Google Books. * Frazer, James George, *Fastorum Libri Sex: The* Fasti *of Ovid. Volume 3: Commentary on Books 3 and 4*, Cambridge University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-1-108-08248-8. Google Books. * Galen, *On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato, First Part: Books I-V*, edited and translated by Phillip De Lacy, Berlin, Akademie Verlag, 1981. Internet Archive. * Gantz, Timothy, *Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources*, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 (Vol. 1), ISBN 978-0-8018-5362-3 (Vol. 2). * Gee, Emma, *Ovid, Aratus and Augustus: Astronomy in Ovid's* Fasti, Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 978-0-521-65187-5. Google Books. * Gifford, E. H. (1903a), *Eusebii Pamphyli Evangelicae Praeparationis*, Volume I, Oxford, E. Typographeo Academico, 1903. Internet Archive. * Gifford, E. H. (1903b), *Eusebii Pamphyli Evangelicae Praeparationis*, Volume III, Oxford, E. Typographeo Academico, 1903. Internet Archive. * Grenfell, Bernard P., and Arthur S. Hunt, *The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, Part VII*, London, Egypt Exploration Fund, 1910. Internet Archive. * Grimal, Pierre, *The Dictionary of Classical Mythology*, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. ISBN 978-0-631-20102-1. Internet Archive. * Hansen, William, *Handbook of Classical Mythology*, ABC-Clio, 2004. ISBN 978-1-576-07226-4. * Hard, Robin (2004), *The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"*, Psychology Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-415-18636-0. Google Books. * Hard, Robin (2015), *Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, With Aratus's Phaenomena*, Oxford University Press, 2015. ISBN 978-0-19-871698-3. Google Books. * Herodotus, *Histories*, translated by A. D. Godley, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1920. ISBN 0674991338. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Hesiod, *Catalogue of Women*, in *Hesiod: The Shield, Catalogue of Women, Other Fragments*, edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 503, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2007, 2018. ISBN 978-0-674-99721-9. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Hesiod, *Theogony*, in *Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia*, edited and translated by Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-674-99720-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Hesiod, *Theogony*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Hesiod, *Works and Days*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * *Homeric Hymn* 2 *to Demeter*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * *Homeric Hymn* 3 *to Apollo*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * *Homeric Hymn* 32 *to Selene*, in *The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White*, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd., 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Homer, *The Iliad with an English Translation by A. T. Murray, Ph.D. in Two Volumes*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Homer; *The Odyssey with an English Translation by A. T. Murray, Ph.D. in Two Volumes*. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, *De Astronomica*, in *The Myths of Hyginus*, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, *Fabulae*, in *The Myths of Hyginus*, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText. * Keightley, Thomas, *The Mythology of Ancient Greece and Italy*, London, G. Bell and Sons, 1877. Google Books. * Kern, Otto. *Orphicorum Fragmenta*, Berlin, 1922. Internet Archive. * Lactantius, *Lactantius: Divine Institutes*, translated by Anthony Bowen and Peter Garnsey, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2003. Internet Archive. * Lane Fox, Robin, *Travelling Heroes: In the Epic Age of Homer*, Vintage Books, 2010. ISBN 978-0-679-76386-4. Internet Archive. * March, Jenny, *Cassell's Dictionary of Classical Mythology*, Casell & Co, 2001. ISBN 0-304-35788-X. Internet Archive. * Meisner, Dwayne A., *Orphic Tradition and the Birth of the Gods*, Oxford University Press, 2018. ISBN 978-0-19-066352-0. Google Books. * Merkelbach, R., and M. L. West, *Fragmenta Hesiodea*, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1967. ISBN 978-0-19-814171-6. * Mitford, William, *The History of Greece*, 1784. Cf. Volume 1, Chapter II "Religion of the Early Greeks" * Morford, Mark P. O., Robert J. Lenardon, *Classical Mythology*, eighth edition, Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-530805-1. Internet Archive. * Nauck, Johann August, *Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1889. Internet Archive. * Ogden, Daniel, *Drakōn: Dragon Myth and Serpent Cult in the Greek and Roman Worlds*, Oxford University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-0-19-955732-5. Google Books. * Olivieri, Alexander, *Pseudo-Eratosthenis: Catasterismi*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1897. Internet Archive. * Ovid, *Metamorphoses*, edited and translated by Brookes More, Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co., 1922. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Online version at ToposText. * Page, Denys Lionel, Sir, *Poetae Melici Graeci*, Oxford University Press, 1962. ISBN 978-0-198-14333-8. * Parada, Carlos, *Genealogical Guide to Greek Mythology*, Jonsered, Paul Åströms Förlag, 1993. ISBN 978-91-7081-062-6. * Pausanias, *Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.* Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Pindar, *Nemean Odes. Isthmian Odes. Fragments*, edited and translated by William H. Race, Loeb Classical Library No. 485, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-674-99534-5. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Pindar, *Odes*, Diane Arnson Svarlien, 1990. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Online version at ToposText. * Pirenne-Delforge, Vinciane, and Gabriella Pironti, *The Hera of Zeus*, Cambridge University Press, 2022. ISBN 978-1-108-88847-9. * Plutarch, *Moralia, Volume VIII: Table-Talk, Books 1-6*, translated by P. A. Clement, H. B. Hoffleit, Loeb Classical Library No. 424, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1969. ISBN 978-0-674-99466-9. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Plutarch, *Moralia, Volume XV: Fragments*, translated by F. H. Sandbach, Loeb Classical Library No. 429, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1969. ISBN 978-0-674-99473-7. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Quintus Smyrnaeus, *Quintus Smyrnaeus: The Fall of Troy*, translated by A. S. Way, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1913. Internet Archive. * Harry, René, *Photius: Bibliothèque. Tome III: Codices 186-222*, *Collection Budé*, Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1962. ISBN 978-2-25132-222-3. English translation of excerpts by Roger Pearse at Topostext. * Rohde, Erwin, *Psyche: The Cult of Souls and Belief in Immortality among the Greeks*, 1925. * Sandbach, F. H., *Plutarch, Moralia, Volume XV: Fragments*, Loeb Classical Library No. 429, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1969. ISBN 978-0-674-99473-7. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Salowey, Christina, "The Gigantomachy", in *The Oxford Handbook of Heracles*, pp. 235–50, edited by Daniel Ogdon, Oxford University Press, 2021. ISBN 978-0-190-65101-5. * Sistakou, Evina, "Homer in the Library: Callimachus' Literary Response to Homeric Philology", in *More than Homer Knew – Studies on Homer and His Ancient Commentators*, edited by Antonios Rengakos, Patrick Finglass and Bernhard Zimmermann, De Gruyter, 2020. ISBN 978-3-110-69358-4. Online version at De Gruyter. * Smith, William, *Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology*, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. * Smith, Scott R., and Stephen M. Trzaskoma, *Apollodorus'* Library *and Hyginus'* Fabulae*: Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology*, Hackett Publishing, Indianapolis/Cambridge, 2007. ISBN 978-0-87220-821-6. Google Books. * Stephanus of Byzantium, *Stephani Byzantii Ethnicorum quae supersunt*, edited by August Meineke, Berlin, Impensis G. Reimeri, 1849. Google Books. Online version at ToposText. * Stephanus of Byzantium, *Stephani Byzantii Ethnica: Volumen II Delta - Iota*, edited by Margarethe Billerbeck and Christian Zubler, De Gruyter, 2011. ISBN 978-3-110-20346-2. Online version at De Gruyter. Internet Archive. Google Books. * Strabo, *Geography*, Editors, H.C. Hamilton, Esq., W. Falconer, M.A., London. George Bell & Sons. 1903. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library * Torres, José B., *Lucius Annaeus Cornutus: Compendium de Graecae Theologiae traditionibus*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Berlin, De Gruyter, 2018. Online version at De Gruyter. * Tripp, Edward, *Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology*, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). ISBN 0-690-22608-X. Internet Archive. * Tzetzes, John, *Scolia eis Lycophroon*, edited by Christian Gottfried Müller, Sumtibus F.C.G. Vogelii, 1811. Internet Archive. * Wendel, Carl, *Scholia in Apollonium Rhodium vetera*, Hildesheim, Weidmann, 1999. ISBN 978-3-615-15400-9. Google Books. * Wendel, Carl, *Scholia in Theocritum vetera*, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1914. Internet Archive. Online version at De Gruyter (1966 reprint). * West, M. L. (1966), *Hesiod: Theogony*, Oxford University Press, 1966. ISBN 0-19-814169-6. * West, M. L. (1983), *The Orphic Poems*, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1983. ISBN 978-0-19-814854-8. * West, M. L. (1985), *The Hesiodic Catalogue of Women: Its Nature, Structure, and Origins*, Clarendon Press Oxford, 1985. ISBN 978-0-198-14034-4. * West, M. L. (2003), *Greek Epic Fragments: From the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC*, Loeb Classical Library No. 497, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-674-99605-2. Online version at Harvard University Press. * Wissowa, Georg, *Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft*, Band 1, Halbband 2, Stuttgart, J. B. Metzler, 1894. Online version at Wikisource. * Yasumura, Noriko, *Challenges to the Power of Zeus in Early Greek Poetry*, Bloomsbury Academic, London, 2011. ISBN 978-1-472-51968-9. Google Books.

Zeus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeus

**Neapolitan** (autonym: *('o n)napulitano* [(o n)napuliˈtɑːnə]; Italian: *napoletano*) is a Romance language of the Italo-Romance group spoken Naples. It is named after the Kingdom of Naples, which once covered most of the area, since the city of Naples was its capital. On 14 October 2008, a law by the Region of Campania stated that Neapolitan was to be protected. *Neapolitan*, *napulitano* or *napoletano* may refer instead to the specific Romance varieties spoken natively in Naples and the immediately surrounding Naples metropolitan area. Distribution ------------ Largely due to massive Southern Italian migration in the late 19th century and 20th century, there are also a number of Neapolitan speakers in Italian diaspora communities in the United States, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, and Venezuela. However, in the United States, traditional Neapolitan has had considerable contact with English and the Sicilian languages spoken by Sicilian and Calabrian immigrants living alongside Neapolitan-speaking immigrants and so the Neapolitan in the US is now significantly different from the contemporary Neapolitan spoken in Naples. English words are often used in place of Neapolitan words, especially among second-generation speakers. On the other hand, the effect of Standard Italian on Neapolitan in Italy has been similar because of the increasing displacement of Neapolitan by Standard Italian in daily speech. Classification -------------- Neapolitan is a Romance language and is considered as part of Southern Italo-Romance. There are notable differences among the various dialects, but they are all generally mutually intelligible. Italian and Neapolitan are of variable mutual comprehensibility, depending on affective and linguistic factors. There are notable grammatical differences, such as Neapolitan having nouns in the neuter form and a unique plural formation, as well as historical phonological developments, which often obscure the cognacy of lexical items. Its evolution has been similar to that of Italian and other Romance languages from their roots in Vulgar Latin. It may reflect a pre-Latin Oscan substratum, as in the pronunciation of the *d* sound as an *r* sound (rhotacism) at the beginning of a word or between two vowels: e.g. *doje* (feminine) or *duje* (masculine), meaning "two", is pronounced, and often spelled, as *roje*/*ruje*; *vedé* ("to see") as *veré*, and often spelled so; also *cadé*/*caré* ("to fall") and *Madonna*/*Maronna*. Another purported Oscan influence is the historical assimilation of the consonant cluster /nd/ as /nn/, pronounced [nː] (this is generally reflected in spelling more consistently: *munno* vs Italian *mondo* "world"; *quanno* vs Italian *quando* "when"), along with the development of /mb/ as /mm/~[mː] (*tammuro* vs Italian *tamburo* "drum"), also consistently reflected in spelling. Other effects of the Oscan substratum are postulated, but substratum claims are highly controversial. As in many other languages in the Italian Peninsula, Neapolitan has an adstratum greatly influenced by other Romance languages (Catalan, Spanish and Franco-Provençal above all), Germanic languages and Greek (both ancient and modern). The language had never been standardised, and the word for *tree* has three different spellings: *arbero*, *arvero* and *àvaro*. Neapolitan has enjoyed a rich literary, musical and theatrical history (notably Giambattista Basile, Eduardo Scarpetta, his son Eduardo De Filippo, Salvatore Di Giacomo and Totò). Thanks to this heritage and the musical work of Renato Carosone in the 1950s, Neapolitan is still in use in popular music, even gaining national popularity in the songs of Pino Daniele and the Nuova Compagnia di Canto Popolare. The language has no official status within Italy and is not taught in schools. The University of Naples Federico II offers (from 2003) courses in Campanian Dialectology at the faculty of Sociology, whose actual aim is not to teach students to speak the language but to study its history, usage, literature and social role. There are also ongoing legislative attempts at the national level to have it recognized as an official minority language of Italy. It is a recognized ISO 639 Joint Advisory Committee language with the language code of *nap*. Here is the IPA pronunciation of the Neapolitan spoken in the city of Naples: | English | Neapolitan (Naples) | IPA | | --- | --- | --- | | Our Father who art in heaven, | *Pate nuoste ca staje 'n cielo,* | [ˈpɑːtə ˈnwostə ka ˈstɑːjə nˈdʒjeːlə] | | hallowed be thy name | *santificammo 'o nomme tuojo* | [sandifiˈkamm(ə) o ˈnommə ˈtwoːjə] | | Thy kingdom come, | *faje venì 'o regno tuojo,* | [ˈfɑːjə vəˈni o ˈrɛɲɲə ˈtwoːjə] | | Thy will be done, | *sempe cu 'a vuluntà (t)toja,* | [ˈsɛmbə ˈkɑː vulunˈda (t)ˈtɔːjə] | | on earth as it is in heaven. | *accussì 'n cielo accussì 'n terra.* | [akkusˈsi nˈdʒjeːlə akkusˈsi nˈdɛrrə] | | Give us this day our daily bread | *Fance avé 'o ppane tutte 'e juorne* | [ˈfandʒ aˈve o pˈpɑːnə ˈtutt e ˈjwornə] | | and forgive us our trespasses | *liévace 'e diébbete* | [ˈljeːvəʃ(ə) e ˈrjebbətə] | | as we forgive those who trespass against us, | *comme nuje 'e llevamme a ll'ate,* | [ˈkommə ˈnuːjə e lləˈvammə a lˈlɑːtə] | | and lead us not into temptation, | *nun ce fa spantecà,* | [nun dʒə ˈfa ʃpandəˈka] | | but deliver us from evil. | *e lliévace 'o mmale 'a tuorno.* | [e lˈljeːvəʃ(ə) o mˈmɑːl(ə) a ˈtwornə] | | Amen. | *Ammèn.* | [amˈmɛnn(ə)] | Alphabet and pronunciation -------------------------- Neapolitan orthography consists of 22 Latin letters. Much like Italian orthography, it does not contain *k,* *w,* *x,* or *y* even though these letters might be found in some foreign words; unlike Italian, it does contain the letter *j*. The following English pronunciation guidelines are based on General American pronunciation, and the values used may not apply to other dialects. (See also: International Phonetic Alphabet chart for English dialects.) All Romance languages are closely related. Although Neapolitan shares a high degree of its vocabulary with Italian, the official language of Italy, differences in pronunciation often make the connection unrecognizable to those without knowledge of Neapolitan. The most striking phonological difference is the Neapolitan weakening of unstressed vowels into schwa (*schwa* is pronounced like the *a* in *about* or the *u* in *upon*). However, it is also possible (and quite common for some Neapolitans) to speak standard Italian with a "Neapolitan accent"; that is, by pronouncing un-stressed vowels as schwa or by pronouncing the letter s as [ʃ] (like the *sh* in *ship*) instead of /s/ (like the *s* in *sea* or the *ss* in *pass*) when the letter is in initial position followed by a consonant, but not when it is followed by a dental occlusive /t/ or /d/ (at least in the purest form of the language) but by otherwise using only entirely standard words and grammatical forms. This is not Neapolitan properly, but rather a mere difference in Italian pronunciation. Therefore, while pronunciation presents the strongest barrier to comprehension, the grammar of Neapolitan is what sets it apart from Italian. In Neapolitan, for example, the gender and number of a word is expressed by a change in the accented vowel, whereas in Italian it is expressed by a change in the final vowel (e.g. *l**uo**ngo* [ˈlwoŋɡə], *l**o**nga* [ˈloŋɡə]; Italian *lung**o***, *lung**a***; masc. "long", fem. "long"). These and other morpho-syntactic differences distinguish the Neapolitan language from the Italian language and the Neapolitan accent. Neapolitan has had a significant influence on the intonation of Rioplatense Spanish, of the Buenos Aires region of Argentina, and the whole of Uruguay. ### Vowels While there are only five graphic vowels in Neapolitan, phonemically, there are eight. Stressed vowels *e* and *o* can be either "closed" or "open" and the pronunciation is different for the two. The grave accent (*à*, *è*, *ò*) is used to denote open vowels, and the acute accent (*é*, *í*, *ó*, *ú*) is used to denote closed vowels, with alternative *ì* and *ù*. However, accent marks are not commonly used in the actual spelling of words except when they occur on the final syllable of a word, such as *Totò*, *arrivà*, or *pecché*, and when they appear here in other positions, it is only to demonstrate where the stress, or accent, falls in some words. Also, the circumflex is used to mark a long vowel where it would not normally occur (e.g. *sî* "you are"). | Letter | IPA | Pronunciation guide | | --- | --- | --- | | *a* | /a/~[ɑ] /ə/ | *a* is usually open and is pronounced like the *a* in *father* when it is the final, unstressed vowel, its pronunciation is indistinct and approaches the sound of the *schwa* | | *e* | /ɛ/ /e/ /ə/ | stressed, open *e* is pronounced like the *e* in *bet* stressed, closed *e* is pronounced like the *a* in *fame* except that it does not die off into *ee* unstressed *e* is pronounced as a *schwa* | | *o* | /ɔ/ /o/ /ə/ | stressed, open *o* is pronounced like the *o* in *often* stressed, closed *o* is pronounced like the *o* in *closed* except that it does not die off into *oo* unstressed *o* is pronounced as a *schwa* | | *i* | /i/ /j/ | *i* is always closed and is pronounced like the *ee* in *meet* when it is initial, or preceding another vowel | | *u* | /u/ /w/ | *u* is always closed and is pronounced like the *oo* in *boot* when it is initial, or preceding another vowel | ### Consonants | Letter | IPA | Pronunciation guide | | --- | --- | --- | | *p* | /p/[b] | pronounced the same as the *p* in English *spill* (not as the *p* in *pill*, which is aspirated)voiced after *m* | | *b* | /b/ | pronounced the same as in English, always geminated when preceded by another vowel | | *t* | /t/[d] | dental version of the English *t* as in *state* (not as the *t* in *tool*, which is aspirated)voiced after *n* | | *d* | /d/ | dental version of the English *d* | | *c* | /t͡ʃ/~[ʃ] [d͡ʒ] /k/ [ɡ] | when followed by *e* or *i* the pronunciation is somewhere between the *sh* in *share* and the *ch* in *chore*, especially after a vowel otherwise it is like the *k* in *skip* (not like the *c* in *call*, which is aspirated) in both cases voiced after *n* | | *g* | /d͡ʒ/, /ɡ/ | when followed by *e* or *i* the pronunciation is like the *g* of *German*, always geminated when preceded by another vowel otherwise it is like the *g* in *gum* | | *f* | /f/ | pronounced the same as in English | | *v* | /v/ | pronounced the same as in English | | *s* | /s/[d͡z][z] | pronounced the same as in English *sound* unless it comes before a consonant other than /t d n r l/ pronounced as *ds* in *lads* after *n* pronounced as English *z* before *d* or after *n* | | /ʃ/[ʒ] | pronounced *sh* when followed by a voiceless consonant (except /t/) *zh* when followed by a voiced consonant (except /n d r l/) | | *z* | /t͡s/[d͡z] | unvoiced *z* (not occurring after *n*) is pronounced like the *ts* in *jetsam*voiced *z* is pronounced like the *ds* in *lads* after *n* | | *j* | /j/ | referred to as a semi-consonant, is pronounced like English *y* as in *yet* | | *l* | /l/ | pronounced the same as in English | | *m* | /m/ | pronounced the same as in English | | *n* | /n/ | pronounced the same as in English; if followed by a consonant, it variously changes its point of articulation | | *r* | /r/~[ɾ] | when between two vowels it is sounds very much like the American *tt* in *butter* but in reality it is a single tic of a trilled *r* when at the beginning of a word or when preceded by or followed by another consonant, it is trilled | | *q* | /kʷ/ | represented by orthographic *qu*, pronounced the same as in English | | *h* | | *h* is always silent and is only used to differentiate words pronounced the same and otherwise spelled alike (e.g. *a*, *ha*; *anno*, *hanno*)and after *g* or *c* to preserve the hard sound when *e* or *i* follows (e.g. *ce*, *che*; *gi*, *ghi*) | | *x* | /k(ə)s/ | pronounced like the *cks* in *backs* or like the *cchus* in *Bacchus*; this consonant sequence does not occur in native Neapolitan or Italian words | ### Digraphs and trigraphs The following clusters are always geminated if vowel-following. | Letter | IPA | Pronunciation Guide | | --- | --- | --- | | *gn* | /ɲ/ | palatal version of the *ni* in the English *onion* | | *gl(i)* | /ʎ/~[ʝ] | palatal version of the *lli* in the English *million*, most commonly realized like a strong version of *y* in the English *yes*. | | *sc* | /ʃ/ | when followed by *e* or *i* it is pronounced as the *sh* in the English *ship* | Grammar ------- ### Definite articles The Neapolitan classical definite articles (corresponding to the English word "the") are *a* (feminine singular), *o* (masculine singular) and *i* (plural for both). Before a word beginning with a consonant: | | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | **Masculine**/**Neuter** | *’o* | *’e* | | **Feminine** | *’a* | | These definite articles are always pronounced distinctly. Before a word beginning with a vowel, *l’* or *ll’* are used for both masculine and feminine, singular and plural. Although both forms can be found, the *ll’* form is by far the most common. In Neapolitan, the gender of a noun is not easily determined by the article, so other means must be used. In the case of *’o*, which can be either masculine singular or neuter singular (there is no neuter plural in Neapolitan), the initial consonant of the noun is doubled when it is neuter. For example, the name of a language in Neapolitan is always neuter, so if we see *’o nnapulitano* we know it refers to the Neapolitan language, whereas *’o napulitano* would refer to a Neapolitan man. Likewise, since *’e* can be either masculine or feminine plural, when it is feminine plural, the initial consonant of the noun is doubled. For example, consider *’a lista*, which in Neapolitan is feminine singular, meaning "the list." In the plural, it becomes *’e lliste*. There can also be problems with nouns whose singular form ends in *e*. Since plural nouns usually end in *e* whether masculine or feminine, the masculine plural is often signaled orthographically, that is, by altering the spelling. As an example, consider the word *guaglione*, which means "boy" or (in the feminine form) "girl": | | Singular | Plural | | --- | --- | --- | | **Masculine** | *’o guaglione* | *’e guagliune* | | **Feminine** | *’a guagliona* | *’e gguaglione* | More will be said about these orthographically changing nouns in the section on Neapolitan nouns. A couple of notes about consonant doubling: * Doubling is a function of the article (and certain other words), and these same words may be seen in other contexts without the consonant doubled. More will be said about this in the section on consonant doubling. * Doubling only occurs when a vowel follows the consonant. No doubling occurs if it is followed by another consonant, such as in the word *spagnuolo (Spanish)*. ### Indefinite articles The Neapolitan indefinite articles, corresponding to the English *a* or *an*, are presented in the following table: | | Masculine | Feminine | | --- | --- | --- | | **Before words beginning with a consonant** | *nu* | *na* | | **Before words beginning with a vowel** | *n’* | ### Verbal conjugation In Neapolitan there are four finite moods: indicative, subjunctive, conditional and imperative, and three non-finite modes: infinitive, gerund and participle. Each mood has an active and a passive form. The only auxiliary verbs used in the active form is *(h)avé* (Eng. "to have", It. *avere*), which contrasts with Italian, in which the intransitive and reflexive verbs take *èssere* for their auxiliary. For example, we have: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Nap. | Aggio stato a Nnapule ajere. | AUX-HAVE-1st-SING-PRES "be"-PART-PAST "in"-PREP "Naples"-NOUN "yesterday"-ADVERB | | It. | Sono stato a Napoli ieri. | AUX-BE-1st-SING-PRES "be"-PART-PAST "in"-PREP "Naples"-NOUN "yesterday"-ADVERB | | Eng. | I was in Naples yesterday. | ### Doubled initial consonants In Neapolitan, many times the initial consonant of a word is doubled. This is called *raddoppiamento sintattico* in Italian as it also applies to the Italian phonology. * All feminine plural nouns, preceded by the feminine plural definite article, *’e*, or any feminine plural adjective, have their initial consonant doubled. * All neuter singular nouns, when preceded by the neuter singular definite article, *’o*, or by a neuter singular adjective, have their initial consonant doubled. * In addition, other words also trigger this doubling. Below is a list of words that trigger the doubling of the initial consonant of the following word. However, when there is a pause after the "trigger" word, the phonological doubling does not occur (e.g. *tu sî (g)guaglione*, "You are a boy," where *sî* is a "trigger" word causing doubling of the initial consonant in *guaglione,* but in the phrase *’e do sî, guaglió?* "Where are you from, boy?," no doubling occurs. Neither does doubling occur when the initial consonant is followed by another consonant (other than *l* or *r)*, e.g. *’o ttaliano* "the Italian language," but *’o spagnuolo* "the Spanish language," where *’o* is the neuter definite article). This doubling phenomenon happens phonologically (in pronunciation), and the doubling is not required in spelling. The same thing happens in Italian, where multiple words trigger first-consonant doubling, e.g. *la casa* but *a (c)casa*, *io e (t)te*, etc. #### Words that trigger doubling in pronunciation * The conjunctions ***e*** and ***né*** but not ***o*** (e.g. *pane e ccaso*; *né (p)pane né (c)caso*; but *pane o caso*) * The prepositions ***a***, ***pe***, ***cu*** (e.g. *a (m)me*; *pe (t)te*; *cu (v)vuje*) * The negation ***nu***, short for *nun* (e.g. *nu ddicere niente*) * The indefinites ***ogne***, ***cocche*** (e.g. *ogne (c)casa*; *cocche (c)cosa*) * Interrogative ***che*** and relative ***che*** but not ***ca*** (e.g. *che (p)piense?* *che (f)femmena!* *che (c)capa!*) * ***accussí*** (e.g. *accussí (b)bello*) * From the verb "essere," ***so’***; ***sî***; ***è*** but not ***songo*** (e.g. *je so’ (p)pazzo*; *tu sî (f)fesso*; *chella è (M)Maria*; *chilli so’ (c)cafune* but *chilli songo cafune*) * ***chiú*** (e.g. *chiú (p)poco*) * The number ***tre*** (e.g. *tre (s)segge*) * The neuter definite article ***’o*** (e.g. *’o (p)pane*, but *nu poco ’e pane*) * The neuter pronoun ***’o*** (e.g. *’o (t)tiene ’o (p)pane?*) * Demonstrative adjectives ***chistu*** and ***chillu*** which refer to neuter nouns in indefinite quantities (e.g. *chistu (f)fierro*; *chillu (p)pane*) but not in definite quantities (e.g. *Chistu fierro*; *chillu pane*) * The feminine plural definite article ***’e*** (e.g. *’e (s)segge*; *’e (g)guaglione*) * The plural feminine pronoun ***’e***, e.g., *’e (g)guaglione ’e (c)chiamme tu? "* * The plural masculine pronoun ***’e*** preceding a verb, but not when ***’e*** is an article; in *’e guagliune ’e (c)chiamme tu?,* the first *'e* is an article, so it does not trigger doubling; the second *'e* does trigger doubling because it is a masculine plural pronoun. * The locative ***lloco*** (e.g. *lloco (s)sotto*) * From the verb *stà*: ***sto’*** (e.g. *sto’ (p)parlanno*) * From the verb *puté*: ***può***; ***pô*** (e.g. *isso pô (s)sapé*) * Special case ***Spiritu (S)Santo*** See also -------- * Languages of Italy * Sicilian language Additional sources ------------------ * Iandolo, Carlo (2001). *A lengua 'e Pulecenella: Grammatica napoletana* (in Italian). Sorrento: Franco Di Mauro. ISBN 978-8885263710. * De Blasi, Nicola; Imperatore, Luigi (2001). *Il napoletano parlato e scritto: Con note di grammatica storica* [*Written and Spoken Neapolitan: With Notes on Historic Grammar*] (in Italian) (2nd ed.). Napoli: Dante & Descartes. ISBN 978-8888142050. * Del Vecchio, Emilano (3 July 2014). "Neapolitan: A Great Cultural Heritage". TermCoord. * Verde, Massimiliano (17 June 2017). "Consegnato il primo Certificato Europeo di Lingua Napoletana" [Granted the first European Certificate of the Neapolitan language]. *NapoliToday* (in Italian). First Course of Neapolitan Language according to the QCER CEFR with the Patronage of City of Naples realized by Dr.Massimiliano Verde "Corso di Lingua e Cultura Napoletana" with a document of study in Neapolitan Language by Dr.Verde First public document in Neapolitan Language of the XXI century according to a text of Dr.Verde; the touristic Map of the III Municipality of Naples in Neapolitan Language: * Palmieri, Paola (22 June 2017). "Napoli per turisti: arriva la prima mappa con info in napoletano e italiano!" [Naples for turists: Released the first map with text in Neapolitan and Italian!]. *Grandenapoli* (in Italian). * "A Napoli nasce la prima mappa turistica con info in italiano e napoletano". *Vesuvio Live* (in Italian). 21 June 2017.

Neapolitan language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neapolitan_language

**County Durham**, officially simply **Durham** (/ˈdʌrəm/ *DURR-əm*), is a ceremonial county in North East England. The county borders Northumberland and Tyne and Wear to the north, the North Sea to the east, North Yorkshire to the south, and Cumbria to the west. The largest settlement is Darlington, and the county town is the city of Durham. County Durham is rural to the west and more urbanised in the east, with an area of 2,721 square kilometres (1,051 sq mi) and a population of 866,846. After Darlington (92,363) the largest settlements are Hartlepool (88,855), Stockton-on-Tees (82,729), and Durham (48,069). The county is governed by four unitary authorities; the boroughs of Darlington, Hartlepool, and the north of Stockton-on-Tees cover the southeast, and the district of County Durham covers the remainder. The historic county included the part of Tyne and Wear south of the River Tyne and excluded the areas of County Durham south of the Tees. The geography of the county is shaped by the rivers Tees and Wear. Both rise in the hilly west of the county, where they form the valleys of Teesdale and Weardale respectively; much of this area is covered by the North Pennines AONB. The rivers then flow across the lowlands in the east of the county. Beyond this is the county's coast, a Site of Special Scientific Interest characterised by tall limestone and dolomite cliffs. What is now County Durham was on the border of Roman Britain, and contains survivals of this era at sites such as Binchester Roman Fort. In the Anglo-Saxon period the region was part of the Kingdom of Northumbria. In 995 the city of Durham was founded by monks seeking a place safe from Viking raids to house the relics of St Cuthbert. Durham Cathedral was rebuilt after the Norman Conquest, and together with Durham Castle is now a World Heritage Site. By the early thirteenth century the county was governed semi-independently by the bishops of Durham and was also a buffer zone between England and Scotland. County Durham became heavily industrialised in the nineteenth century, when many collieries opened on the Durham coalfield. The Stockton and Darlington Railway, the world's first public railway to use steam locomotives, opened in 1825. Most collieries closed during the last quarter of the twentieth century, but the county's coal mining heritage is remembered by the annual Durham Miners' Gala. Toponymy -------- The ceremonial county is officially named *Durham*, but the county has long been commonly known as *County* Durham and is the only English county name prefixed with "County" in common usage (a practice common in Ireland). Its unusual naming (for an English shire) is explained to some extent by the relationship with the Bishops of Durham, who for centuries governed Durham as a county palatine (the County Palatine of Durham) outside the usual structure of county administration in England. The situation regarding the formal name in modern local government is less clear: * The 2009 structural change legislation created the present unitary council (that covers a large part – but not all – of the ceremonial county) refers to "the county of County Durham" and names the new unitary district "County Durham" too. + A later amendment to that legislation refers to the "county of Durham" and the amendment allows for the unitary council to name itself "The Durham Council". * The council retains the name as Durham County Council. With either option, the name does not include *County* Durham. * The former postal county was named "County Durham" to distinguish it from the post town of Durham. History ------- ### Anglian Kingdom of Bernicia Around AD 547, an Angle named Ida founded the kingdom of Bernicia after spotting the defensive potential of a large rock at Bamburgh, upon which many a fortification was thenceforth built. Ida was able to forge, hold and consolidate the kingdom; although the native British tried to take back their land, the Angles triumphed and the kingdom endured. ### Kingdom of Northumbria In AD 604, Ida's grandson Æthelfrith forcibly merged Bernicia (ruled from Bamburgh) and Deira (ruled from York, which was known as Eforwic at the time) to create the Kingdom of Northumbria. In time, the realm was expanded, primarily through warfare and conquest; at its height, the kingdom stretched from the River Humber (from which the kingdom drew its name) to the Forth. Eventually, factional fighting and the rejuvenated strength of neighbouring kingdoms, most notably Mercia, led to Northumbria's decline. The arrival of the Vikings hastened this decline, and the Scandinavian raiders eventually claimed the Deiran part of the kingdom in AD 867 (which became Jórvík). The land that would become County Durham now sat on the border with the Great Heathen Army, a border which today still (albeit with some adjustments over the years) forms the boundaries between Yorkshire and County Durham. Despite their success south of the river Tees, the Vikings never fully conquered the Bernician part of Northumbria, despite the many raids they had carried out on the kingdom. However, Viking control over the Danelaw, the central belt of Anglo-Saxon territory, resulted in Northumbria becoming isolated from the rest of Anglo-Saxon Britain. Scots invasions in the north pushed the kingdom's northern boundary back to the River Tweed, and the kingdom found itself reduced to a dependent earldom, its boundaries very close to those of modern-day Northumberland and County Durham. The kingdom was annexed into England in AD 954. ### City of Durham founded In AD 995, St Cuthbert's community, who had been transporting Cuthbert's remains around, partly in an attempt to avoid them falling into the hands of Viking raiders, settled at Dunholm (Durham) on a site that was defensively favourable due to the horseshoe-like path of the River Wear. St Cuthbert's remains were placed in a shrine in the White Church, which was originally a wooden structure but was eventually fortified into a stone building. Once the City of Durham had been founded, the Bishops of Durham gradually acquired the lands that would become County Durham. Bishop Aldhun began this process by procuring land in the Tees and Wear valleys, including Norton, Stockton, Escomb and Aucklandshire in 1018. In 1031, King Canute gave Staindrop to the Bishops. This territory continued to expand, and was eventually given the status of a liberty. Under the control of the Bishops of Durham, the land had various names: the "Liberty of Durham", "Liberty of St Cuthbert's Land" "the lands of St Cuthbert between Tyne and Tees" or "the Liberty of Haliwerfolc" (holy Wear folk). The bishops' special jurisdiction rested on claims that King Ecgfrith of Northumbria had granted a substantial territory to St Cuthbert on his election to the see of Lindisfarne in 684. In about 883 a cathedral housing the saint's remains was established at Chester-le-Street and Guthfrith, King of York granted the community of St Cuthbert the area between the Tyne and the Wear, before the community reached its final destination in 995, in Durham. Following the Norman invasion, the administrative machinery of government extended only slowly into northern England. Northumberland's first recorded Sheriff was Gilebert from 1076 until 1080 and a 12th-century record records Durham regarded as within the shire. However the bishops disputed the authority of the sheriff of Northumberland and his officials, despite the second sheriff for example being the reputed slayer of Malcolm Canmore, King of Scots. The crown regarded Durham as falling within Northumberland until the late thirteenth century. ### County Palatine of Durham Matters regarding the bishopric of Durham came to a head in 1293 when the bishop and his steward failed to attend proceedings of *quo warranto* held by the justices of Northumberland. The bishop's case went before parliament, where he stated that Durham lay outside the bounds of any English shire and that *"from time immemorial it had been widely known that the sheriff of Northumberland was not sheriff of Durham nor entered within that liberty as sheriff. . . nor made there proclamations or attachments"*. The arguments appear to have prevailed, as by the fourteenth century Durham was accepted as a liberty which received royal mandates direct. In effect it was a private shire, with the bishop appointing his own sheriff. The area eventually became known as the "County Palatine of Durham". Sadberge was a liberty, sometimes referred to as a county, within Northumberland. In 1189 it was purchased for the see but continued with a separate sheriff, coroner and court of pleas. In the 14th century Sadberge was included in Stockton ward and was itself divided into two wards. The division into the four wards of Chester-le-Street, Darlington, Easington and Stockton existed in the 13th century, each ward having its own coroner and a three-weekly court corresponding to the hundred court. The diocese was divided into the archdeaconries of Durham and Northumberland. The former is mentioned in 1072, and in 1291 included the deaneries of Chester-le-Street, Auckland, Lanchester and Darlington. The term *palatinus* is applied to the bishop in 1293, and from the 13th century onwards the bishops frequently claimed the same rights in their lands as the king enjoyed in his kingdom. ### Early administration #### Overview The historic boundaries of County Durham included a main body covering the catchment of the Pennines in the west, the River Tees in the south, the North Sea in the east and the Rivers Tyne and Derwent in the north. The county palatinate also had a number of liberties: the Bedlingtonshire, Islandshire and Norhamshire exclaves within Northumberland, and the Craikshire exclave within the North Riding of Yorkshire. In 1831 the county covered an area of 679,530 acres (2,750.0 km2) and had a population of 253,910. These exclaves were included as part of the county for parliamentary electoral purposes until 1832, and for judicial and local-government purposes until the coming into force of the Counties (Detached Parts) Act 1844, which merged most remaining exclaves with their surrounding county. The boundaries of the county proper remained in use for administrative and ceremonial purposes until the 1972 Local Government Act. #### Early English and Norman period Following the Battle of Hastings, William the Conqueror appointed Copsig as Earl of Northumbria, thereby bringing what would become County Durham under Copsig's control. Copsig was, just a few weeks later, killed in Newburn. Having already being previously offended by the appointment of a non-Northumbrian as Bishop of Durham in 1042, the people of the region became increasingly rebellious. In response, in January 1069, William despatched a large Norman army, under the command of Robert de Comines, to Durham City. The army, believed to consist of 700 cavalry (about one-third of the number of Norman knights who had participated in the Battle of Hastings), entered the city, whereupon they were attacked, and defeated, by a Northumbrian assault force. The Northumbrians wiped out the entire Norman army, including Comines, all except for one survivor, who was allowed to take the news of this defeat back. Following the Norman slaughter at the hands of the Northumbrians, resistance to Norman rule spread throughout Northern England, including a similar uprising in York. William The Conqueror subsequently (and successfully) attempted to halt the northern rebellions by unleashing the notorious Harrying of the North (1069–1070). Because William's main focus during the harrying was on Yorkshire, County Durham was largely spared the Harrying. The best remains of the Norman period include Durham Cathedral and Durham Castle, and several parish churches, such as St Laurence Church in Pittington. The Early English period has left the eastern portion of the cathedral, the churches of Darlington, Hartlepool, and St Andrew, Auckland, Sedgefield, and portions of a few other churches. #### Palatinate Until the 15th century, the most important administrative officer in the Palatinate was the steward. Other officers included the sheriff, the coroners, the Chamberlain and the chancellor. The palatine exchequer originated in the 12th century. The palatine assembly represented the whole county, and dealt chiefly with fiscal questions. The bishop's council, consisting of the clergy, the sheriff and the barons, regulated judicial affairs, and later produced the Chancery and the courts of Admiralty and Marshalsea. The prior of Durham ranked first among the bishop's barons. He had his own court, and almost exclusive jurisdiction over his men. A UNESCO site describes the role of the bishops in Durham, the "buffer state between England and Scotland": > From 1075, the Bishop of Durham became a Prince-Bishop, with the right to raise an army, mint his own coins, and levy taxes. As long as he remained loyal to the king of England, he could govern as a virtually autonomous ruler, reaping the revenue from his territory, but also remaining mindful of his role of protecting England’s northern frontier. > > A report states that the Bishops also had the authority to appoint judges and barons and to offer pardons. There were ten palatinate barons in the 12th century, most importantly the Hyltons of Hylton Castle, the Bulmers of Brancepeth, the Conyers of Sockburne, the Hansards of Evenwood, and the Lumleys of Lumley Castle. The Nevilles owned large estates in the county. John Neville, 3rd Baron Neville de Raby rebuilt Raby Castle, their principal seat, in 1377. Edward I's *quo warranto* proceedings of 1293 showed twelve lords enjoying more or less extensive franchises under the bishop. The repeated efforts of the Crown to check the powers of the palatinate bishops culminated in 1536 in the Act of Resumption, which deprived the bishop of the power to pardon offences against the law or to appoint judicial officers. Moreover, indictments and legal processes were in future to run in the name of the king, and offences to be described as against the peace of the king, rather than that of the bishop. In 1596 restrictions were imposed[*by whom?*] on the powers of the chancery, and in 1646 the palatinate was formally abolished. It was revived, however, after the Restoration, and continued with much the same power until 5 July 1836, when the Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 provided that the palatine jurisdiction should in future be vested in the Crown. #### Wars During the 15th-century Wars of the Roses, Henry VI passed through Durham. On the outbreak of the Great Rebellion in 1642 Durham inclined to support the cause of Parliament, and in 1640 the high sheriff of the palatinate guaranteed to supply the Scottish army with provisions during their stay in the county. In 1642 the Earl of Newcastle formed the western counties into an association for the King's service, but in 1644 the palatinate was again overrun by a Scottish army, and after the Battle of Marston Moor (2 July 1644) fell entirely into the hands of Parliament. #### Parliamentary representation and secular powers In 1614, a Bill was introduced in Parliament for securing representation to the county and city of Durham and the borough of Barnard Castle. The bishop strongly opposed the proposal as an infringement of his palatinate rights, and the county was first summoned to return members to Parliament in 1654. After the Restoration of 1660 the county and city returned two members each. In the wake of the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned two members for two divisions, and the boroughs of Gateshead, South Shields and Sunderland acquired representation. The bishops lost their secular powers in 1836. The boroughs of Darlington, Stockton and Hartlepool returned one member each from 1868 until the Redistribution Act of 1885. Geography --------- ### Boundaries The historic county excludes the village of Startforth, the ceremonial county excludes the city of Sunderland and the non-metropolitan county excludes the town of Stockton-on-Tees. The ceremonial county includes the non-metropolitan county with the addition of the boroughs of Darlington, Hartlepool, and Stockton-on-Tees. The historic county's boundaries stretched from the rivers Tyne to Tees and it is covered by the ceremonial county, the city of Sunderland, the boroughs of Gateshead and South Tyneside, while the non-metropolitan county includes part of Yorkshire. ### Geology County Durham is underlain by Carboniferous rocks in the west. Permian and Triassic strata overlie these older rocks in the east. These sedimentary sequences have been cut by igneous dykes and sills. ### Climate The following climate figures were gathered at the Durham weather station between 1981 and 2010: | | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.7(62.1) | 17.4(63.3) | 21.7(71.1) | 24.1(75.4) | 27.8(82.0) | 30.6(87.1) | 36.9(98.4) | 32.5(90.5) | 30.0(86.0) | 25.0(77.0) | 19.4(66.9) | 15.9(60.6) | 36.9(98.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 6.9(44.4) | 7.8(46.0) | 9.9(49.8) | 12.5(54.5) | 15.4(59.7) | 18.0(64.4) | 20.2(68.4) | 19.9(67.8) | 17.4(63.3) | 13.5(56.3) | 9.7(49.5) | 7.1(44.8) | 13.2(55.8) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 4.1(39.4) | 4.6(40.3) | 6.2(43.2) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.9(51.6) | 13.6(56.5) | 15.8(60.4) | 15.6(60.1) | 13.3(55.9) | 10.0(50.0) | 6.6(43.9) | 4.2(39.6) | 9.5(49.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 1.3(34.3) | 1.4(34.5) | 2.5(36.5) | 4.1(39.4) | 6.5(43.7) | 9.3(48.7) | 11.3(52.3) | 11.3(52.3) | 9.2(48.6) | 6.5(43.7) | 3.6(38.5) | 1.4(34.5) | 5.7(42.3) | | Record low °C (°F) | −17.2(1.0) | −18.3(−0.9) | −15.0(5.0) | −11.1(12.0) | −4.4(24.1) | −1.1(30.0) | 1.1(34.0) | 0.6(33.1) | −1.1(30.0) | −5.5(22.1) | −8.8(16.2) | −16.6(2.1) | −18.3(−0.9) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 51.8(2.04) | 44.6(1.76) | 41.1(1.62) | 51.2(2.02) | 44.4(1.75) | 61.0(2.40) | 60.9(2.40) | 66.5(2.62) | 56.9(2.24) | 63.4(2.50) | 73.0(2.87) | 61.0(2.40) | 675.7(26.60) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.8 | 9.9 | 8.6 | 9.1 | 8.6 | 9.9 | 10.7 | 10.3 | 9.4 | 11.8 | 12.0 | 12.0 | 124.1 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 60.9 | 84.4 | 121.7 | 160.8 | 187.1 | 167.1 | 174.3 | 167.3 | 135.3 | 98.9 | 64.6 | 57.6 | 1,480 | | Source 1: Met Office | | Source 2: Durham Weather UK | ### Green belt County Durham contains a small area of green belt in the north of the county, surrounding primarily the city of Durham, Chester-le-Street and other communities along the shared county border with Tyne and Wear, to afford protection from the Wearside conurbation. A smaller green belt separates Urpeth, Ouston, Pelton, and Perkinsville from Birtley in Tyne and Wear. A further small segment by the coast separates Seaham from the Sunderland settlements of Beckwith Green and Ryhope. It was first drawn up in the 1990s. ### North Pennines The county contains a sizeable area of the North Pennines, designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, primarily west of Tow Law and Barnard Castle. The highest point (county top) of historic County Durham is the trig point (not the summit) of Burnhope Seat, height 746 metres (2,448 ft), between Weardale and Teesdale on the border with historic Cumberland in the far west of the county. The local government reorganisation of 1974 placed the higher Mickle Fell south of Teesdale (the county top of Yorkshire) within the administrative borders of Durham (where it remains within the ceremonial county). However, it is not generally recognised as the highest point in Durham. The two main dales of County Durham (Teesdale and Weardale) and the surrounding fells, many of which exceed 2,000 feet (610 m) in height, are excellent hillwalking country, although not nearly as popular as the nearby Yorkshire Dales and Lake District national parks. The scenery is rugged and remote, and the high fells have a landscape typical of the Pennines with extensive areas of tussock grass and blanket peat bog in the west, with heather moorland on the lower slopes descending to the east. Hamsterley Forest near Crook is a popular recreational area for local residents. ### Birds A total of 152 species are recorded as breeding; however, not all are considered regular breeders. Urban areas ----------- County Durham does not have many urban areas as it is mostly rural in character. Small urban areas form around the city of Durham and the towns of Newton Aycliffe, Peterlee, Shildon, Darlington and Bishop Auckland. Although the south east side of the county at Billingham, Hartlepool, Norton and Stockton-on-Tees form part of Teesside with Middlesbrough, Redcar, Yarm, Thornaby-on-Tees and Ingleby Barwick in North Yorkshire. While the north part of the county at Chester-le-Street (which is on the border with Tyne and Wear) forms part of Wearside with Sunderland, Houghton-le-Spring, Hetton-le-Hole and Washington (these four were historically part of County Durham). Governance ---------- County Durham, as considered a county for lieutenancy purposes by the Lieutenancies Act 1997, is administered as a part of the constituent country of England in the United Kingdom. The area is appointed a lord lieutenant and a high sheriff. The ceremonial county is divided into four administrative counties (see table below), one of which - Stockon-on-Tees - also extends into North Yorkshire. Technically, for administrative purposes, the County of Durham only consists of the area governed by Durham County Council. The three other areas are counties in their own right. | Area name | Council | Council headquarters | Established | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Durham | Durham County Council | County Hall, Durham | 1 April 2009 | | Borough of Darlington | Darlington Borough Council | | c. 1995 | | Stockton-on-Tees | Stockton-on-Tees Borough Council | | c. 1995 | | Hartlepool | Hartlepool Borough Council | | c. 1995 | The county is partially parished. The city of Durham is the most populous settlement in the county to have a parish. Multiple parishes are styled as having town councils: Billingham (in Stockton Borough), Barnard Castle, Bishop Auckland, Chilton, Ferryhill, Great Aycliffe, Newton Aycliffe, Greater Willington, Peterlee, Seaham, Sedgefield, Shildon, Spennymoor, Stanley and Tow Law. ### 1836 to 1889 The county was aligned to other historic counties of England from 1836 until 1889; multiple acts were passed removing exclaves, splitting the county from the bishopric and reforming its structure. ### 1889 to 1974 The ceremonial county and administrative county were created under the Local Government Act 1888 in 1889. Darlington, Gateshead, West Hartlepool (later known as Hartlepool), South Shields and Sunderland became county boroughs during the administrative counties years of administrating; each remained in the ceremonial county while outside of the administrative county. The ceremonial county remained under the same borders as the historic county until 1968 when the County Borough of Teesside formed. Ceremonial duties of the borough (which were made up of areas from two counties) were in the North Riding of Yorkshire ceremonial county. ### 1974 to 1996 From the 1974 until 1996, the ceremonial county was split into eight districts: * Chester-le-Street, including the Lumley, Pelton and Sacriston areas * Derwentside, including Consett and Stanley * City of Durham, including Durham and the surrounding areas * Easington, including Seaham and Peterlee * Borough of Sedgefield, including Spennymoor, Sedgefield and Newton Aycliffe * Teesdale, including Barnard Castle and the villages of Teesdale * Wear Valley, including Bishop Auckland, Crook, Willington, Hunwick, and the villages along Weardale * Borough of Darlington, Darlington along with nearby villages around the town. A non-metropolitan county replaced the administrative county. The boundaries only deviated from the ceremonial boundaries after 1995 when the Darlington Borough became a unitary authority. ### 1996 to present On the 1 April 1996, the county of Cleveland was abolished with its boroughs of Hartlepool and Stockton-on-Tees (north of the River Tees) becoming a part of the ceremonial county. The non-metropolitan county was reconstituted on 1 April 2009: the strategic services-providing Durham County Council was re-organised into a single district of the same name, merging with the seven local facility-providing districts in the non-metropolitan county and became structured as a unitary authority. It has 126 councillors. The three pre-existing unitary authorities were unaffected. ### Parliament The county boundaries used for parliamentary constituencies are those used between 1974 and 1996, consisting of the County Durham district and the Darlington Borough. This area elects seven Members of Parliament. As of the 2019 General Election, four of these MPs are Conservatives and three MPs are Labour. The rest of the ceremonial county is included in the Cleveland parliamentary constituency area. | 2019 General Election Results in County Durham | | --- | | Party | Votes | % | Change from 2017 | Seats | Change from 2017 | | Conservative | 123,112 | 40.6% | Increase | 4 | Increase4 | | Labour | 122,547 | 40.4% | Decrease | 3 | Decrease4 | | Brexit | 25,444 | 8.4% | new | 0 | 0 | | Liberal Democrats | 21,356 | 7.0% | Increase | 0 | 0 | | Greens | 5,985 | 2.0% | Increase | 0 | 0 | | Others | 4,725 | 1.6% | Increase | 0 | 0 | | **Total** | **303,260** | **100.0** | | **7** | | Emergency services ------------------ The police and fire services operate according to the 1974-96 ceremonial county boundaries: * Durham Constabulary, Ron Hogg was first elected the Durham Police and Crime Commissioner for the force on 15 November 2012. * Cleveland Police * County Durham and Darlington Fire and Rescue Service, it is under supervision of a combined fire authority consisting of 25 local councillors: 21 from Durham County Council and 4 from Darlington Borough Council. * Cleveland Fire Brigade. The North East Ambulance Service NHS Trust cover North East England and are responsible for providing ambulance services for the NHS. Northumbria Ambulance Service and County Durham Ambulance Service (following historic county borders) merged on 1 April 1999 to become the North East service. In 2005 the area was adapted to the modern North East England regional extent. Air ambulance services are provided by the Great North Air Ambulance. The charity operates three bases, including one in Eaglecliffe. Teesdale and Weardale Search and Mountain Rescue Team, are based at Sniperly Farm in Durham City and respond to search and rescue incidents in the county. Demography ---------- ### Population | # | Local authority | 2011 census | | --- | --- | --- | | – | Ceremonial county | 853,213 | | 1 | District of County Durham | 513,242 | | 2 | Borough of Stockton-on-Tees (north Tees) | 136,079 | | 3 | Borough of Darlington | 105,564 | | 4 | Borough of Hartlepool | 92,028 | The Office for National Statistics estimated in 2016 that the Durham County Council area had a population of 522,100, the Borough of Darlington a population of 105,600, the Borough of Hartlepool a population of 92,800, and the part of the Borough of Stockton-on-Tees in County Durham (the other part being in North Yorkshire) a population of 137,300. This gives the total estimated population of the ceremonial county at 857,800. ### Former non-metropolitan county | Year | Population | | Year | Population | | Year | Population | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1801 | 59,765 | | 1871 | 273,671 | | 1941 | 511,590 | | 1811 | 64,781 | 1881 | 329,985 | 1951 | 504,943 | | 1821 | 74,366 | 1891 | 360,028 | 1961 | 506,070 | | 1831 | 86,267 | 1901 | 419,782 | 1971 | 509,307 | | 1841 | 121,602 | 1911 | 492,503 | 1981 | 501,639 | | 1851 | 161,035 | 1921 | 503,946 | 1991 | 505,625 | | 1861 | 217,353 | 1931 | 518,581 | 2001 | 493,470 | | *Source: A Vision of Britain through Time.* | At the 2001 Census, Easington and Derwentside districts had the highest proportion (around 99%) in the county council area of resident population who were born in the UK. 13.2% of the county council area's residents rate their health as *not good*, the highest proportion in England. 96.6% of County Durham's residents are White British, with other white groups making up a further 1.6% of the population. Around 77% of the county's population are Christian whilst 22% have no religion, and around 1% come from other religious communities. These figures exclude around 6% of the population who did not wish to state their religion. As at 2001, Chester-le-Street district has the lowest number of available jobs per working-age resident (0.38%). ### Settlements #### Changes in the 1900s Since the Local Government Act 1972 historic county boundaries now lie within other administrative counties. These include: | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Tyne and Wear | South Tyneside, City of Sunderland and metropolitan borough of Gateshead | administratively **removed** in 1974 | | North Riding of Yorkshire | Small number of settlements south of the Tees, such as Startforth, | administratively **added** to county control in 1974. | | Cleveland county | Hartlepool borough | administratively **removed** from historic county control in 1974, **added** to ceremonial county control in 1996. | | Cleveland county | Stockton-on-Tees (North Tees) borough | Two previous separate administrative **partial removals** from historic county control in 1968 and 1974, **added** to ceremonial county control in 1996. | #### Changes in the 1800s Throughout the 1800s exclaves, of the historic county, each were given back to surrounding shires and lands they were closer associated with: | | | | --- | --- | | East Riding of Yorkshire | Howdenshire | | North Riding of Yorkshire (now North Yorkshire) | Allertonshire | | Northumberland | Bedlingtonshire, Islandshire (included Berwick-upon-Tweed) | ### Employment The proportion of the population working in agriculture fell from around 6% in 1851 to 1% in 1951; currently less than 1% of the population work in agriculture. There were 15,202 people employed in coal mining in 1841, rising to a peak of 157,837 in 1921. Economy ------- ### Economic output The chart and table summarise unadjusted gross value added (GVA) in millions of pounds sterling for County Durham across 3 industries at current basic prices from 1995 to 2004. | | Gross Value Added (GVA) (£m) | | --- | --- | | 1995 | 2000 | 2004 | | Agriculture, hunting and forestry | 45 | 33 | 48 | | Industry, including energy and construction | 1,751 | 1,827 | 1,784 | | Service activities | 2,282 | 2,869 | 3,455 | | **Total** | 4,078 | 4,729 | 5,288 | | **UK** | 640,416 | 840,979 | 1,044,165 | ### Businesses Phileas Fogg snacks are made by the United Biscuits subsidiary KP Snacks in Consett on the Number One Industrial Estate. Nearby CAV Aerospace make ice protection systems for aircraft. Thomas Swan, an international chemicals company, is in Crookhall. The Explorer Group, who own Elddis, make caravans at Delves. The LG Philips Displays cathode ray tube factory at Carrville, Durham was the second largest employer in the north east after Nissan, before the company went bankrupt in 2006. Northumbrian Water is in Pity Me, Framwellgate Moor. Esh Group is a large construction company based south of Durham in Bowburn. Schmitz Cargobull UK is the UK's biggest trailer manufacturer, notably for refrigerated trailers, and is based at Harelaw near the Pontop Pike mast. Black & Decker and Electrolux had large factories at Spennymoor, but moved production overseas. Thorn Lighting of the Zumtobel Lighting Group are on the Green Lane Industrial Estate at Spennymoor. Since 2007 RF Micro Devices (RFMD) have made electronic wafers on the Heighington Lane Business Park at Newton Aycliffe, on the site formerly owned by Fujitsu. Slightly to the north, TKA Tallent make automotive axles and chassis components. Husqvarna-Flymo, formerly owned by Electrolux, are on the Aycliffe Industrial Estate, where the world's first hover mower was built in 1965. In West Auckland, Potters Europe make road reflectors. GlaxoSmithKline has a site at Barnard Castle that makes pharmaceuticals. NSK make ball bearings on the North West Industrial Estate at Peterlee, and GWA International subsidiary Gliderol UK build garage doors. Mecaplast Group UK produce automotive components on the Low Hills Industrial Estate in Easington Village near Peterlee. Reckitt Benckiser make cough syrup and indigestion remedies at Shotton, near Peterlee until 2014. Walkers Crisps have a site north of Peterlee. Culture ------- ### Mining and heavy industry A substantial number of colliery villages were built throughout the county in the nineteenth century to house the growing workforce, which included large numbers of migrant workers from the rest of the UK. Sometimes the migrants were brought in to augment the local workforce but, in other cases, they were brought in as strike breakers, or "blacklegs". Tens of thousands of people migrated to County Durham from Cornwall (partly due to their previous experience of tin mining) between 1815 and the outbreak of the First World War, so much so that the miners' cottages in east Durham called "Greenhill" were also known locally as "Cornwall", and Easington Colliery still has a Cornish Street. Other migrants included people from Northumberland, Cumberland, South Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Coal mining had a profound effect on trade unionism, public health and housing, as well as creating a related culture, language, folklore and sense of identity that still survives today. The migrants also were employed in the railway, ship building, iron, steel and roadworking industries, and the pattern of migration continued, to a lesser extent, up until the 1950s and 1960s. Gateshead was once home to the fourth-largest Irish settlement in England, Consett's population was 22% Irish and significant numbers of Irish people moved to Sunderland, resulting in the city hosting numerous events on St. Patrick's Day due to the Irish heritage. The culture of coal mining found expression in the Durham Miners' Gala, which was first held in 1871, developed around the culture of trade unionism. Coal mining continued to decline and pits closed. The UK miners' strike of 1984/5 caused many miners across the county to strike. Today no deep-coal mines exist in the county and numbers attending the Miners' Gala decreased over the period between the end of the strike and the 21st century. However recent years have seen numbers significantly grow, and more banners return to the Gala each year as former colliery communities restore or replicate former banners to march at the Gala parade. ### Art In 1930, the Spennymoor Settlement (otherwise known as the Pitman's Academy) opened. The settlement, initially funded by the Pilgrim Trust, aimed to encourage people to be neighbourly and participate in voluntary social service. The settlement operated during the Great Depression, when unemployment was widespread and economic deprivation rife; Spennymoor was economically underprivileged. The settlement provided educational and social work, as well as hope; this included providing unemployed miners with on outlet for their creativity, a poor person's lawyer service, the town's first library and the Everyman Theatre. The output included paintings, sewing, socially-significant plays, woodwork and sculptures. Several members went on to win adult scholarships at Oxford University when such a route would normally be closed to the underprivileged. Former members include artists Norman Cornish and Tom McGuinness, writer Sid Chaplin OBE and journalist Arnold Hadwin OBE. The Spennymoor Settlement at its home in the Everyman Theatre (Grade 2 listed) is still operating, administered by the current trustees, offering community events and activities, including Youth Theatre Group, an Art Group and various classes, as well as offering community accommodation facilities. Several Durham miners have been able to turn their former mining careers into careers in art. For example, Tom Lamb, as well as the aforementioned Tom McGuinness and Norman Cornish. Their artworks depict scenes of life underground, from the streets in which they lived and of the people they loved; through them, we can see, understand and experience the mining culture of County Durham. In 2017, The Mining Art Gallery opened in Bishop Auckland in a building that was once a bank. Part of the Auckland Project, the gallery includes the work of artists from within County Durham and beyond, including such other North-Eastern mining artists as Robert Olley, as well as contributions from outside the region. It features three permanent areas and a temporary exhibition area; the gallery's Gemini Collection includes 420 pieces of mining art. Much of the artwork was donated, by Dr Robert McManners and Gillian Wales, for example. In 2019, 100 years after his birth, a permanent tribute to the work of the artist Norman Stansfield Cornish MBE was opened within the Town Hall, and a Cornish Trail around the town was established to include areas of the town depicted in Cornish's artwork. ### Music As with neighbouring Northumberland, County Durham has a rich heritage of Northumbrian music, dating back from the Northumbrian Golden Age of the 7th and 8th centuries. Bede made references to harp-playing, and abundant archeological evidence has been found of wooden flutes, bone flutes, panpipes, wooden drums and lyres (a six-string form of harp). North-East England has a distinctive folk music style that has drawn from many other regions, including southern Scotland, Ireland and the rest of northern England, that has endured stably since the 18th century. Instruments played include, in common with most folk music styles, stringed instruments such as the guitar and fiddle, but also the Northumbrian smallpipe, which is played and promoted by people including the Northumbrian Pipers' Society throughout the North East, including County Durham, with the society having an active group in Sedgefield. Contemporary folk musicians include Jez Lowe and Ged Foley. In 2018, The Arts Council funded the Stories of Sanctuary project in the city of Durham. The project aims to assist people living in the city to share their stories about seeking sanctuary in the North East through photography, stories, poetry and music. The art is based on a history of sanctuary in Durham, from St Cuthbert's exile, through to the miners' strike of 1984, and to refugees escaping civil war in the Middle East. The music produced as part of the project includes contributions from singer-songwriter Sam Slatcher and viola player Raghad Haddad from the National Syrian Orchestra. Other notable performers/songwriters who were born or raised in the county include Paddy McAloon, Eric Boswell, Jeremy Spencer, Alan Clark, Martin Brammer, Robert Blamire, Thomas Allen, Zoe Birkett, John O'Neill, Karen Harding and Courtney Hadwin. ### Flag County Durham has its own flag, registered with the Flag Institute on 21 November 2013. Katie, Holly and James Moffatt designed the flag and entered their design into a competition launched by campaigner Andy Strangeway, who spoke of the flag as *"free, public symbol for all to use, especially on 20th March each year, which is not only County Durham Day but also St Cuthbert’s birthday.”* [sic - 20th March is actually the date of Cuthbert's death] The flag consists of St Cuthbert's cross counterchanged with the county's blue and gold colours. Education --------- Durham LEA has a comprehensive school system with 36 state secondary schools (not including sixth form colleges) and five independent schools (four in Durham and one in Barnard Castle). Easington district has the largest school population by year, and Teesdale the smallest with two schools. Only one school in Easington and Derwentside districts have sixth forms, with about half the schools in the other districts having sixth forms. Durham University is based in Durham city and is sometimes held to be the third oldest university in England. Teesside University has a campus in Darlington. Places of interest ------------------ | | | --- | | **Key** | | | Abbey/Priory/Cathedral | | Accessible open space | Accessible open space | | | Amusement/Theme Park | | | Castle | | Country Park | Country Park | | | English Heritage | | | Forestry Commission | | Heritage railway | Heritage railway | | Historic house | Historic House | | Places of Worship | Places of Worship | | Museum (free)Museum | Museum (free/not free) | | National Trust | National Trust | | | Theatre | | | Zoo | * Apollo Pavilion, Peterlee, controversial piece of concrete art designed by Victor Pasmore in 1969. * Auckland Castle, Bishop Auckland Historic house * Barnard Castle English Heritage Historic house Castle * Beamish Museum, in Stanley Accessible open space Museum (charges for entry) Heritage railway * Binchester Roman Fort Museum (charges for entry) * Bowes Museum, in Barnard Castle Museum (charges for entry) Historic house * Castle Eden, a castle with adjoining village, famous for the Castle Eden Brewery. * Castle Eden Dene, Nature reserve with coal mining heritage. * Causey Arch, near Stanley * Crook Hall and Gardens * Durham Cathedral and Castle, a World Heritage Site Cathedral Castle * Durham Dales * Durham Light Infantry Museum, Aykley Heads, Near Durham Museum (charges for entry) * Escomb Church, near Bishop Auckland * Finchale Priory, near Durham city English Heritage * Fox & Parrot Wood * Hamsterley Forest * Hardwick Hall Country Park, near Sedgefield Country Park * High Force and Low Force waterfalls, on the River Tees Accessible open space * Ireshopeburn – oldest Methodist chapel in the world to have held continuous services. Site of the 'Weardale Museum' * Killhope Wheel, part of the North of England Lead Mining Museum in Weardale Museum (charges for entry) * Kynren, night show in Bishop Auckland, depicting British History. * Locomotion railway museum, in Shildon Heritage railway Museum (free entry) * Longovicium Roman Fort, Lanchester – ruined auxiliary fort. * North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Newcastle * Oriental Museum, Durham City – Asian artefacts and information. * Raby Castle, near Staindrop Castle * The Raby Hunt in Summerhouse, the only 2-Michelin Star restaurant in North East England. * Seaham Hall * Sedgefield – St Edmund's Church has notable Cosin woodwork. Home to Sedgefield Racecourse. * Spennymoor - Jubilee park * Tanfield Railway, in Tanfield Heritage railway * Ushaw College, Catholic Seminary of great religious heritage. * Weardale Railway, at Stanhope, County Durham, Wolsingham and Bishop Auckland Heritage railway See also -------- * List of Lord Lieutenants of Durham + List of Deputy Lieutenants of Durham * Custos Rotulorum of Durham – Keepers of the Rolls * List of High Sheriffs of Durham * County Durham (UK Parliament constituency) – Historical list of MPs for County Durham constituency References ---------- ### Sources * This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Durham (county)". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 8 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 706–708. Further reading --------------- * Samuel Tymms (1837). "Durham". *Northern Circuit*. The Family Topographer: Being a Compendious Account of the ... Counties of England. Vol. 6. London: J.B. Nichols and Son. OCLC 2127940.

County Durham

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Durham

Graphic of hospital beds per 1000 people globally in 2013, at top; NewYork-Presbyterian Hospital in New York City, a hub for health care and life sciences, is one of the world's busiest hospitals, below. Pictured is the Weill-Cornell facility (white complex at the center). **Health care,** or **healthcare,** is the improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. Access to health care may vary across countries, communities, and individuals, influenced by social and economic conditions as well as health policies. Providing health care services means "the timely use of personal health services to achieve the best possible health outcomes". Factors to consider in terms of healthcare access include financial limitations (such as insurance coverage), geographical and logistical barriers (such as additional transportation costs and the possibility to take paid time off work to use such services), sociocultural expectations, and personal limitations (lack of ability to communicate with health care providers, poor health literacy, low income). Limitations to health care services affects negatively the use of medical services, the efficacy of treatments, and overall outcome (well-being, mortality rates). Health systems are organizations established to meet the health needs of targeted populations. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a well-functioning healthcare system requires a financing mechanism, a well-trained and adequately paid workforce, reliable information on which to base decisions and policies, and well-maintained health facilities to deliver quality medicines and technologies. An efficient healthcare system can contribute to a significant part of a country's economy, development, and industrialization. Health care is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health and well-being of people around the world. An example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO, as the first disease in human history to be eliminated by deliberate healthcare interventions. Delivery -------- The delivery of modern health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams. This includes professionals in medicine, psychology, physiotherapy, nursing, dentistry, midwifery and allied health, along with many others such as public health practitioners, community health workers and assistive personnel, who systematically provide personal and population-based preventive, curative and rehabilitative care services. While the definitions of the various types of health care vary depending on the different cultural, political, organizational, and disciplinary perspectives, there appears to be some consensus that primary care constitutes the first element of a continuing health care process and may also include the provision of secondary and tertiary levels of care. Health care can be defined as either public or private. ### Primary care **Primary care** refers to the work of health professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system. Such a professional would usually be a primary care physician, such as a general practitioner or family physician. Another professional would be a licensed independent practitioner such as a physiotherapist, or a non-physician primary care provider such as a physician assistant or nurse practitioner. Depending on the locality and health system organization, the patient may see another health care professional first, such as a pharmacist or nurse. Depending on the nature of the health condition, patients may be referred for secondary or tertiary care. Primary care is often used as the term for the health care services that play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centers that provide same-day appointments or services on a walk-in basis. Primary care involves the widest scope of health care, including all ages of patients, patients of all socioeconomic and geographic origins, patients seeking to maintain optimal health, and patients with all types of acute and chronic physical, mental and social health issues, including multiple chronic diseases. Consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. Continuity is a key characteristic of primary care, as patients usually prefer to consult the same practitioner for routine check-ups and preventive care, health education, and every time they require an initial consultation about a new health problem. The International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) is a standardized tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care based on the reason for the patient's visit. Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, arthritis or thyroid dysfunction. Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. In the United States, the 2013 National Health Interview Survey found that skin disorders (42.7%), osteoarthritis and joint disorders (33.6%), back problems (23.9%), disorders of lipid metabolism (22.4%), and upper respiratory tract disease (22.1%, excluding asthma) were the most common reasons for accessing a physician. In the United States, primary care physicians have begun to deliver primary care outside of the managed care (insurance-billing) system through direct primary care which is a subset of the more familiar concierge medicine. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a pre-paid monthly, quarterly, or annual basis, or bill for each service in the office. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado and Qliance in Washington. In the context of global population aging, with increasing numbers of older adults at greater risk of chronic non-communicable diseases, rapidly increasing demand for primary care services is expected in both developed and developing countries. The World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy. ### Secondary care **Secondary care** includes acute care: necessary treatment for a short period of time for a brief but serious illness, injury, or other health condition. This care is often found in a hospital emergency department. Secondary care also includes skilled attendance during childbirth, intensive care, and medical imaging services. The term "secondary care" is sometimes used synonymously with "hospital care". However, many secondary care providers, such as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, occupational therapists, most dental specialties or physiotherapists, do not necessarily work in hospitals. Some primary care services are delivered within hospitals. Depending on the organization and policies of the national health system, patients may be required to see a primary care provider for a referral before they can access secondary care. In countries that operate under a mixed market health care system, some physicians limit their practice to secondary care by requiring patients to see a primary care provider first. This restriction may be imposed under the terms of the payment agreements in private or group health insurance plans. In other cases, medical specialists may see patients without a referral, and patients may decide whether self-referral is preferred. In other countries patient self-referral to a medical specialist for secondary care is rare as prior referral from another physician (either a primary care physician or another specialist) is considered necessary, regardless of whether the funding is from private insurance schemes or national health insurance. Allied health professionals, such as physical therapists, respiratory therapists, occupational therapists, speech therapists, and dietitians, also generally work in secondary care, accessed through either patient self-referral or through physician referral. ### Tertiary care **Tertiary care** is specialized consultative health care, usually for inpatients and on referral from a primary or secondary health professional, in a facility that has personnel and facilities for advanced medical investigation and treatment, such as a tertiary referral hospital. Examples of tertiary care services are cancer management, neurosurgery, cardiac surgery, plastic surgery, treatment for severe burns, advanced neonatology services, palliative, and other complex medical and surgical interventions. ### Quaternary care The term **quaternary care** is sometimes used as an extension of tertiary care in reference to advanced levels of medicine which are highly specialized and not widely accessed. Experimental medicine and some types of uncommon diagnostic or surgical procedures are considered quaternary care. These services are usually only offered in a limited number of regional or national health care centers. ### Home and community care Many types of health care interventions are delivered outside of health facilities. They include many interventions of public health interest, such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases. They also include the services of professionals in residential and community settings in support of self-care, home care, long-term care, assisted living, treatment for substance use disorders among other types of health and social care services. Community rehabilitation services can assist with mobility and independence after the loss of limbs or loss of function. This can include prostheses, orthotics, or wheelchairs. Many countries are dealing with aging populations, so one of the priorities of the health care system is to help seniors live full, independent lives in the comfort of their own homes. There is an entire section of health care geared to providing seniors with help in day-to-day activities at home such as transportation to and from doctor's appointments along with many other activities that are essential for their health and well-being. Although they provide home care for older adults in cooperation, family members and care workers may harbor diverging attitudes and values towards their joint efforts. This state of affairs presents a challenge for the design of ICT (information and communication technology) for home care. Because statistics show that over 80 million Americans have taken time off of their primary employment to care for a loved one, many countries have begun offering programs such as the Consumer Directed Personal Assistant Program to allow family members to take care of their loved ones without giving up their entire income. With obesity in children rapidly becoming a major concern, health services often set up programs in schools aimed at educating children about nutritional eating habits, making physical education a requirement and teaching young adolescents to have a positive self-image. ### Ratings Health care ratings are ratings or evaluations of health care used to evaluate the process of care and health care structures and/or outcomes of health care services. This information is translated into report cards that are generated by quality organizations, nonprofit, consumer groups and media. This evaluation of quality is based on measures of: * health plan quality * hospital quality * of patient experience * physician quality * quality for other health professionals Related sectors --------------- Health care extends beyond the delivery of services to patients, encompassing many related sectors, and is set within a bigger picture of financing and governance structures. ### Health system A **health system**, also sometimes referred to as **health care system** or **healthcare system**, is the organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver health care services to populations in need. ### Healthcare industry The healthcare industry incorporates several sectors that are dedicated to providing health care services and products. As a basic framework for defining the sector, the United Nations' International Standard Industrial Classification categorizes health care as generally consisting of hospital activities, medical and dental practice activities, and "other human health activities." The last class involves activities of, or under the supervision of, nurses, midwives, physiotherapists, scientific or diagnostic laboratories, pathology clinics, residential health facilities, patient advocates or other allied health professions. In addition, according to industry and market classifications, such as the Global Industry Classification Standard and the Industry Classification Benchmark, health care includes many categories of medical equipment, instruments and services including biotechnology, diagnostic laboratories and substances, drug manufacturing and delivery. For example, pharmaceuticals and other medical devices are the leading high technology exports of Europe and the United States. The United States dominates the biopharmaceutical field, accounting for three-quarters of the world's biotechnology revenues. ### Health care research The quantity and quality of many health care interventions are improved through the results of science, such as advanced through the medical model of health which focuses on the eradication of illness through diagnosis and effective treatment. Many important advances have been made through health research, biomedical research and pharmaceutical research, which form the basis for evidence-based medicine and evidence-based practice in health care delivery. Health care research frequently engages directly with patients, and as such issues for whom to engage and how to engage with them become important to consider when seeking to actively include them in studies. While single best practice does not exist, the results of a systematic review on patient engagement suggest that research methods for patient selection need to account for both patient availability and willingness to engage. Health services research can lead to greater efficiency and equitable delivery of health care interventions, as advanced through the social model of health and disability, which emphasizes the societal changes that can be made to make populations healthier. Results from health services research often form the basis of evidence-based policy in health care systems. Health services research is also aided by initiatives in the field of artificial intelligence for the development of systems of health assessment that are clinically useful, timely, sensitive to change, culturally sensitive, low-burden, low-cost, built into standard procedures, and involve the patient. ### Health care financing See or edit source data. Total health spending as a fraction of GDP There are generally five primary methods of funding health care systems: 1. General taxation to the state, county or municipality 2. Social health insurance 3. Voluntary or private health insurance 4. Out-of-pocket payments 5. Donations to health charities In most countries, there is a mix of all five models, but this varies across countries and over time within countries. Aside from financing mechanisms, an important question should always be how much to spend on health care. For the purposes of comparison, this is often expressed as the percentage of GDP spent on health care. In OECD countries for every extra $1000 spent on health care, life expectancy falls by 0.4 years. A similar correlation is seen from the analysis carried out each year by Bloomberg. Clearly this kind of analysis is flawed in that life expectancy is only one measure of a health system's performance, but equally, the notion that more funding is better is not supported. In 2011, the health care industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$ 3,322 (PPP-adjusted) per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries. The US (17.7%, or US$ PPP 8,508), the Netherlands (11.9%, 5,099), France (11.6%, 4,118), Germany (11.3%, 4,495), Canada (11.2%, 5669), and Switzerland (11%, 5,634) were the top spenders, however life expectancy in total population at birth was highest in Switzerland (82.8 years), Japan and Italy (82.7), Spain and Iceland (82.4), France (82.2) and Australia (82.0), while OECD's average exceeds 80 years for the first time ever in 2011: 80.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The US (78.7 years) ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, but has the highest costs by far. All OECD countries have achieved universal (or almost universal) health coverage, except the US and Mexico. (see also international comparisons.) In the United States, where around 18% of GDP is spent on health care, the Commonwealth Fund analysis of spend and quality shows a clear correlation between worse quality and higher spending. ### Administration and regulation The management and administration of health care is vital to the delivery of health care services. In particular, the practice of health professionals and the operation of health care institutions is typically regulated by national or state/provincial authorities through appropriate regulatory bodies for purposes of quality assurance. Most countries have credentialing staff in regulatory boards or health departments who document the certification or licensing of health workers and their work history. ### Health information technology Health information technology (HIT) is "the application of information processing involving both computer hardware and software that deals with the storage, retrieval, sharing, and use of health care information, data, and knowledge for communication and decision making." Health information technology components: * Electronic health record (EHR) – An EHR contains a patient's comprehensive medical history, and may include records from multiple providers. * Electronic Medical Record (EMR) – An EMR contains the standard medical and clinical data gathered in one's provider's office. * Health information exchange (HIE) – Health Information Exchange allows health care professionals and patients to appropriately access and securely share a patient's vital medical information electronically. * Medical practice management software (MPM) – is designed to streamline the day-to-day tasks of operating a medical facility. Also known as practice management software or practice management system (PMS). * Personal health record (PHR) – A PHR is a patient's medical history that is maintained privately, for personal use. See also -------- * Category:Health care by country * Global health * Health equity * Health policy * Healthcare system / Health professionals * Tobacco control laws * Universal health care By country:

Health care

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_care

**Palermo** (/pəˈlɛərmoʊ, -ˈlɜːr-/ *pə-LAIR-moh, -⁠LUR-*, Italian: [paˈlɛrmo] (); Sicilian: *Palermu* Sicilian pronunciation: [paˈlɛmmʊ], locally also *Paliemmu* or *Palèimmu*) is a city in southern Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old. Palermo is in the northwest of the island of Sicily, by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by the Phoenicians as Sus ("flower"). Palermo then became a possession of Carthage. Two Greek colonies were established, known collectively as Panormos; the Carthaginians used this name on their coins after the 5th century BC. As Panormus, the town became part of the Roman Republic and Empire for over a thousand years. From 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab rule in the Emirate of Sicily when the city became the capital of Sicily for the first time. During this time the city was known as Balarm. Following the Norman conquest, Palermo became the capital of a new kingdom, the Kingdom of Sicily, that lasted from 1130 to 1816. The population of Palermo urban area is estimated by Eurostat to be 855,285, while its metropolitan area is the fifth most populated in Italy with around 1.2 million people. In the central area, the city has a population of around 676,000 people. The inhabitants are known as Palermitani or, poetically, *panormiti*. The languages spoken by its inhabitants are the Italian language and the Palermitano dialect of the Sicilian language. Palermo is Sicily's cultural, economic and tourism capital. It is a city rich in history, culture, art, music and food. Numerous tourists are attracted to the city for its appealing Mediterranean climate, its renowned gastronomy and restaurants, its Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque and Art Nouveau churches, palaces and buildings, and its nightlife and music. Palermo is the main Sicilian industrial and commercial center: the main industrial sectors include tourism, services, commerce and agriculture. Palermo has an international airport and a significant underground economy. For cultural, artistic and economic reasons, Palermo is one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean and is now among the top tourist destinations in both Italy and Europe. It is the main seat of the UNESCO World Heritage Site *Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalù and Monreale*. The city is also going through careful redevelopment, preparing to become one of the major cities of the Euro-Mediterranean area. Roman Catholicism is highly important in Palermitan culture. The Patron Saint of Palermo is Santa Rosalia whose Feast Day is celebrated on 15 July. The area attracts significant numbers of tourists each year and is widely known for its colourful fruit, vegetable and fish markets at the heart of Palermo, known as *Vucciria*, *Ballarò* and *Capo*. Geography --------- Palermo lies in a basin, formed by the Papireto, Kemonia and Oreto rivers. The basin was named the *Conca d'Oro* (the Golden Basin) by the Arabs in the 9th century. The city is surrounded by a mountain range which is named after the city itself. These mountains face the Tyrrhenian Sea. Palermo is home to a natural port and offers views to the sea, especially from Monte Pellegrino. ### Climate Palermo experiences a hot-summer subtropical Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: *Csa*) with moderate seasonality. Summers are very long, hot and dry due to the domination of subtropical high pressure system, while winters are mild and changeable, with rainy weather due to the polar front. Temperatures in autumn and spring are typically warm. Palermo is one of the warmest cities in Europe (mainly due to its warm nights), with an average annual air temperature of 18 °C (64 °F); it is one of the warmest cities in Italy. It receives approximately 2,530 hours of sunshine per year. Snow is a rare occurrence having snowed about a dozen times since 1945. Since the 1940s to nowadays there have been at least five times when considerable snowfall has occurred. In 1949 and in 1956, when the minimum temperature went down to 0 °C (32 °F), the city was blanketed by some centimetres of snow. Snowfalls also occurred in 1981, 1986, 1999 and 2014. The average annual temperature of the sea is above 19 °C (66 °F); from 14 °C (57 °F) in February to 26 °C (79 °F) in August. In the period from November to May, the average sea temperature exceeds 18 °C (64 °F) and in the period from June to October, the average sea temperature exceeds 21 °C (70 °F). | Climate data for Palermo-Boccadifalco Airport on the outskirts of the city (altitude: 117 m, satellite view), 1971–2000 normals, Extremes 1943–present | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 27.2(81.0) | 28.1(82.6) | 34.6(94.3) | 32.2(90.0) | 39.1(102.4) | 44.0(111.2) | 43.6(110.5) | 45.2(113.4) | 41.2(106.2) | 37.4(99.3) | 30.3(86.5) | 26.7(80.1) | 45.2(113.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.7(58.5) | 14.5(58.1) | 16.4(61.5) | 18.7(65.7) | 23.3(73.9) | 27.2(81.0) | 29.8(85.6) | 30.5(86.9) | 27.5(81.5) | 23.5(74.3) | 19.0(66.2) | 15.8(60.4) | 21.7(71.1) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.8(53.2) | 11.5(52.7) | 13.0(55.4) | 15.1(59.2) | 19.3(66.7) | 23.2(73.8) | 25.7(78.3) | 26.6(79.9) | 23.8(74.8) | 20.1(68.2) | 15.9(60.6) | 13.0(55.4) | 18.3(64.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | 8.9(48.0) | 8.5(47.3) | 9.6(49.3) | 11.4(52.5) | 15.3(59.5) | 19.2(66.6) | 21.7(71.1) | 22.7(72.9) | 20.1(68.2) | 16.7(62.1) | 12.9(55.2) | 10.2(50.4) | 14.8(58.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −1.2(29.8) | 0(32) | −0.3(31.5) | 4.6(40.3) | 8.4(47.1) | 11(52) | 14.8(58.6) | 13.1(55.6) | 10.6(51.1) | 7.2(45.0) | 3.6(38.5) | 0.8(33.4) | −1.2(29.8) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 97.5(3.84) | 109.9(4.33) | 78.2(3.08) | 65.1(2.56) | 36.2(1.43) | 17.9(0.70) | 6.7(0.26) | 31.8(1.25) | 65.3(2.57) | 105.6(4.16) | 117.5(4.63) | 123.7(4.87) | 855.4(33.68) | | Average precipitation days | 9.6 | 9.6 | 8.7 | 8.6 | 4.1 | 1.9 | 1.2 | 2.4 | 5.4 | 8.2 | 10.4 | 12 | 82.1 | | Source 1: Servizio Meteorologico | | Source 2: Tu Tiempo Extreme temperatures. | | Climate data for Palermo-Valverde, elevation: 21 m or 69 ft, 1961–1990 normals, Extremes 1960–1990 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 15.4(59.7) | 15.9(60.6) | 17.5(63.5) | 20.1(68.2) | 23.4(74.1) | 27.2(81.0) | 30.1(86.2) | 30.4(86.7) | 28.3(82.9) | 24.5(76.1) | 20.6(69.1) | 16.9(62.4) | 22.5(72.5) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 11.1(52.0) | 11.5(52.7) | 12.7(54.9) | 15.1(59.2) | 18.2(64.8) | 21.9(71.4) | 24.6(76.3) | 25.0(77.0) | 23.1(73.6) | 19.7(67.5) | 15.9(60.6) | 12.6(54.7) | 17.6(63.7) | | Average low °C (°F) | 6.8(44.2) | 7.0(44.6) | 8.0(46.4) | 10.1(50.2) | 12.9(55.2) | 16.6(61.9) | 19.0(66.2) | 19.6(67.3) | 17.9(64.2) | 14.8(58.6) | 11.3(52.3) | 8.4(47.1) | 12.7(54.9) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 89(3.5) | 69(2.7) | 58(2.3) | 46(1.8) | 25(1.0) | 10(0.4) | 5(0.2) | 12(0.5) | 42(1.7) | 80(3.1) | 84(3.3) | 93(3.7) | 613(24.2) | | Average precipitation days | 12 | 9 | 9 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 8 | 10 | 12 | 80 | | Source: Servizio Meteorologico | | Climate data for Cinisi, at 30 km (19 mi) from Palermo. (Palermo Punta Raisi Airport), elevation: 21 m or 69 ft, 1961–1990 normals, Extremes 1960–1990 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 25.6(78.1) | 29.4(84.9) | 34.7(94.5) | 34.6(94.3) | 40.0(104.0) | 44.2(111.6) | 43.1(109.6) | 42.4(108.3) | 40.6(105.1) | 35.2(95.4) | 31(88) | 26.7(80.1) | 44.2(111.6) | | Average high °C (°F) | 14.8(58.6) | 15.1(59.2) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 21.8(71.2) | 25.1(77.2) | 28.3(82.9) | 28.8(83.8) | 26.6(79.9) | 22.9(73.2) | 19.3(66.7) | 16.0(60.8) | 21.1(70.0) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 12.5(54.5) | 12.6(54.7) | 13.5(56.3) | 15.7(60.3) | 18.9(66.0) | 22.4(72.3) | 25.6(78.1) | 26.2(79.2) | 24.1(75.4) | 20.3(68.5) | 16.8(62.2) | 13.7(56.7) | 18.5(65.4) | | Average low °C (°F) | 10.2(50.4) | 10.1(50.2) | 10.9(51.6) | 12.9(55.2) | 16.0(60.8) | 19.7(67.5) | 22.9(73.2) | 23.6(74.5) | 21.5(70.7) | 17.8(64.0) | 14.3(57.7) | 11.5(52.7) | 16.0(60.7) | | Record low °C (°F) | 1.4(34.5) | 2.4(36.3) | 2.4(36.3) | 5.8(42.4) | 9(48) | 13.3(55.9) | 16(61) | 17.9(64.2) | 13(55) | 8(46) | 5.1(41.2) | 1.6(34.9) | 1.4(34.5) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 71.6(2.82) | 65.4(2.57) | 59.5(2.34) | 44.1(1.74) | 25.5(1.00) | 12.2(0.48) | 5.1(0.20) | 13.3(0.52) | 41.5(1.63) | 98.0(3.86) | 94.3(3.71) | 80.0(3.15) | 610.5(24.02) | | Average precipitation days | 10 | 10 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 8 | 9 | 11 | 75 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 73 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 72 | 71 | 69 | 71 | 72 | 71 | 70 | 73 | 72 | | Source 1: NOAA | | Source 2: Altervista Extreme temperatures. | ### Topography Palermo is surrounded by mountains, which form a cirque around the city. Some districts of the city are divided by the mountains themselves. Historically, it was relatively difficult to reach the inner part of Sicily from the city because of the mounts. The tallest peak of the range is La Pizzuta, about 1,333 m (4,373 ft) high. However, historically, the most important mount is Monte Pellegrino, which is geographically separated from the rest of the range by a plain. The mount lies right in front of the Tyrrhenian Sea. Monte Pellegrino's cliff was described in the 19th century by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, as "the most beautiful promontory in the world", in his essay "Italian Journey". ### Rivers Today both the Papireto river and the Kemonia are covered up by buildings. However, the shape of the former watercourses can still be recognised today, because the streets that were built on them follow their shapes. Today the only waterway not drained yet is the Oreto river that divides the downtown of the city from the western uptown and the industrial districts. In the basins there were, though, many seasonal torrents that helped formed swampy plains, reclaimed during history; a good example of which can be found in the borough of Mondello. View of Palermo from Monte Pellegrino ### Districts | Municipality | Quarters | | --- | --- | | I | Kalsa, Albergheria, Seralcadio & La Loggia | | II | Settecannoli, Brancaccio & Ciaculli-Oreto | | III | Villagrazia-Falsomiele & Stazione-Oreto | | IV | Montegrappa, S. Rosalia, Cuba, Calafatimi, Mezzomonreale, Villa Tasca-Altarello & Boccadifalco | | V | Zisa, Noce, Uditore-Passo di Rigano & Borgo Nuovo | | VI | Cruillas, S. Giovanni Apostolo, Resuttana & San Lorenzo | | VII | Pallavicino, Tommaso Natale, Sferracavallo, Partanna Mondello, Arenella, Vergine Maria & San Filippo Neri (formerly known as ZEN) | | VIII | Politeama, Malaspina-Palagonia, Libertà & Monte Pellegrino | Shown above are the thirty five quarters of Palermo: these thirty five neighbourhoods or "quartiere" as they are known, are further divided into eight governmental community boards. Landmarks --------- Palermo Cathedral Palermo has a large architectural heritage and is notable for its many Norman buildings. ### Palaces and museums * Palazzo dei Normanni (the Norman Palace), a notable example of Norman architecture, this palace houses the Cappella Palatina. * Zisa (1160) and Cuba, magnificent castles/houses historically used by the kings of Palermo for hunting. The Zisa today houses the Islamic museum. The Cuba was once encircled by water. * Palazzo Natoli * Palazzo Chiaramonte * Palazzo Abatellis: Built at the end of the 15th century for the prefect of the city, Francesco Abatellis. It is a massive though elegant construction, in typical Catalan Gothic style, with Renaissance influences. The Gallery houses an Eleonora of Aragon bust by Francesco Laurana (1471) and the *Malvagna Triptych* (c. 1510), by Jan Gossaert and an *Annunziata* by Antonello da Messina. * Antonino Salinas Regional Archeological Museum: museum includes numerous remains from Etruscan, Carthaginian, Roman and Hellenistic civilisations. It houses all the decorative remains from the Sicilian temples of Segesta and Selinunte. * Palazzina Cinese royal residence of the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies and location of the Ethnographic Museum of Sicily. ### Churches * Palermo Cathedral: the long history of the cathedral led to an accumulation of different architectural styles, the latest being the 18th century. * Cappella Palatina, 12th century chapel of the Palazzo dei Normanni, has outstanding mosaics in both Western and the Eastern traditions and a roof by Saracen craftsmen. * San Giovanni dei Lebbrosi * San Giovanni degli Eremiti: 12th-century church, near Palazzo dei Normanni, notable for bright red domes, a remnant of Arab influence in Sicily. In his *Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily*, F. Elliot described it as "... totally oriental... it would fit well in Baghdad or Damascus". The bell tower is an example of Norman architecture. * Chiesa della Martorana: Also known as *Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio* (*St Mary of the Admiral*), church annexed to the next-door church of San Cataldo and overlooks Piazza Bellini in central Palermo. Original layout was a compact cross-in-square ("Greek cross plan"), a common south Italian and Sicilian variant of the middle Byzantine period church style. Three eastern apses adjoin directly to the naos, instead of being separated by an additional bay, as was usual in eastern Byzantine architecture. The bell tower, lavishly decorated, still serves as the main entrance to the church. The interior decoration is elaborate, and includes Byzantine mosaics. * San Cataldo: Church on central Piazza Bellini, another example of Norman architecture. * Santa Maria della Gancia * Santa Caterina: Church located on Piazza Bellini, behind Piazza Pretoria, built between 1566 and 1596. * Santa Maria della Catena: Built between 1490 and 1520. Designed by Matteo Carnilivari: The name derives from chains that were once attached to one of the walls. * San Domenico: Located near Via Roma, now *“Pantheon of illustrious Sicilians”*. * San Giuseppe dei Teatini: Located near the Quattro Canti, it is an example of Sicilian Baroque. * Oratorio di San Lorenzo Working in stucco, Rococo sculptor Giacomo Serpotta and his family decorated the church (1690/98–1706) with such a profusion of statuary, and an abundance of putti, the walls appear alive. In October 1969, two thieves removed Caravaggio's *Nativity with St. Francis and St. Lawrence* from its frame. It has never been recovered. * Oratorio del Rosario: Completed by Giacomo Serpotta in (1710–17) * Santa Teresa alla Kalsa, derives its name from Al-Khalisa, an Arabic term meaning *elected*, was constructed between 1686 and 1706 over the former Emir's residence, is one of the best examples of Sicilian Baroque. It has a single, airy nave, with stucco decorations from the early 18th century. * Santa Maria dello Spasimo was built in 1506 and later turned into a hospital. This church inspired Raphael to paint his famous *Sicilia's Spasimo*, now in the Museo del Prado. The church today is a fascinating open-air auditorium, which occasionally houses exhibitions and musical shows. * Church of the Gesù (*Church of Jesus*): Located in the city centre, the church was built in 1564 in the late-Renaissance style by the Jesuits. It was built over a pre-existing convent of Basilian monks. Alterations in 1591 were completed in a Sicilian Baroque. The church was heavily damaged after the 1943 bombings, which destroyed most of the frescos. The interior has a Latin cross plan with a nave and two aisles, and has a particularly rich decoration of marbles, intarsia and stuccoes, especially in St Anne's Chapel. At the right is the Casa Professa, with a 1685 portal and a precious 18th century cloister. The building has been home to the Municipal Library since 1775. * San Francesco di Assisi: church built between 1255 and 1277 in what was once the market district of the city, at the site of two pre-existing churches and was largely renovated in the 15th, 16th, 18th and 19th centuries, the last after an earthquake. After the 1943 bombings, the church was restored to its Medieval appearance, which now includes part of the original building such as part of the right side, the apses and the Gothic portal in the façade. The interior has a typical Gothic flavour, with a nave and two aisles separated by two rows of cylindrical pilasters. Some of the chapels are in Renaissance style, as well as the late 16th century side portals. The church includes precious sculptures by Antonio, Giacomo Gagini and Francesco Laurana. Of note are also statues built by Giacomo Serpotta in 1723. * Church of the Magione: Officially known as the church of the Holy Trinity. This church was built in the Norman style in 1191 by Matteo d'Ajello, who donated it to the Cistercian monks. ### Squares and public monuments * Quattro Canti is a small square at the crossing of the ancient main roads (now: Corso Vittorio Emanuele and Via Maqueda) dividing the town into its quarters (*mandamenti*). The buildings at the corner have diagonal baroque façades so the square has an almost octagonal form. * Piazza Pretoria was planned in the 16th century near the Quattro Canti as the site of a fountain by Francesco Camilliani, the Fontana Pretoria. * The monument to Charles V on Piazza Bologni, erected in 1631. ### City walls Palermo had two rings of city walls, many parts of which still survive. The first ring surrounded the ancient core of the Phoenician city, the *Palaeopolis* or *Paleapolis* (in the area east of Porta Nuova) and the *Neapolis*. Via Vittorio Emanuele was the main road east–west through this early walled city. The eastern edge of the walled city was on Via Roma and the ancient port in the vicinity of Piazza Marina. The wall circuit was approximately Porto Nuovo, Corso Alberti, Piazza Peranni, Via Isodoro, Via Candela, Via Venezia, Via Roma, Piazza Paninni, Via Biscottari, Via Del Bastione, Palazzo dei Normanni and back to Porto Nuovo. The walls followed the course of the two rivers that surround the city, the Kemonia and the Papireto, creating a natural moat and improving the military security of the city. During the Roman era, they were certainly implemented, as deducible from the subsequent account of Procopius of Caesarea about the capture of Palermo [1], In the medieval period the city was expanded with a second wall. Via Vittorio Emanuele continued to be the main road east–west through the walled city. The west gate was still Porta Nuova, the walls continued to Corso Alberti, to Piazza Vittorio Emanuele Orlando where it turned east along Via Volturno to Piazza Verdi and along the line of Via Cavour. At this northeast corner the Castello a Mare protected the port at La Cala. A huge chain was used to block La Cala with the other end at Santa Maria della Catena (St Mary of the Chain). The sea-side wall was along the western side of Foro Italico Umberto. The wall turns west along the northern side of Via Abramo Lincoln, continues along Corso Tukory. The wall turns north approximately on Via Benedetto, to Palazzo dei Normanni and back to Porta Nuova. Several gates in the city wall survive. ### Opera houses Up until the beginning of 20th century there were hundreds of small opera theatres known as *magazzeni* in the city of Palermo. * The Teatro Massimo ("Greatest Theatre") was opened in 1897. It is the biggest in Italy (8,000 m2; 86,000 sq ft), and one of the largest of Europe (the third after the Paris Opera and the Vienna State Opera), renowned for its perfect acoustics. Enrico Caruso sang in a performance of *La Gioconda* during the opening season, returning for *Rigoletto* at the very end of his career. Closed for renovation from 1974 until 1997, it is now restored and has an active schedule. * The Teatro Politeama was built between 1867 and 1874. ### Other sights The cathedral has a heliometer (solar observatory) dating to 1690, one of a number built in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries. The device itself is quite simple: a tiny hole in one of the minor domes acts as pinhole camera, projecting an image of the sun onto the floor at solar noon (12:00 in winter, 13:00 in summer). There is a bronze line, *la Meridiana*, on the floor, running precisely north–south. The ends of the line mark the positions as at the summer and winter solstices; signs of the zodiac show the various other dates throughout the year. The purpose of the instrument was to standardise the measurement of time and the calendar. The convention in Sicily had been that the (24‑hour) day was measured from the moment of dawn, which of course meant that no two locations had the same time and, more importantly, did not have the same time as in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. It was also important to know when the vernal equinox occurred, to provide the correct date for Easter. The Orto botanico di Palermo (Palermo Botanical Garden), founded in 1785, is the largest in Italy with a surface of 10 ha (25 acres). One site of interest is the Capuchin Catacombs, with many mummified corpses in varying degrees of preservation. Close to the city is the 600 m-high (2,000 ft) Monte Pellegrino, offering a panorama of the city, its surrounding mountains and the sea. Another good panoramic viewpoint is the promontory of Monte Gallo (586 m; 1,923 ft), near Mondello Beach. Moreton Bay fig of >30 m girth and of 32m height can be found on the Piazza Marina. This Ficus macrophylla is most probably the thickest tree in Europe. On the boulevard Via Roma is the Palazzo delle Poste, an official Italian government building created during the Mussolini era in the stripped classicism architectural style. It was designed by the rationalist and later fascist government architect, Angiolo Mazzoni. Perhaps its most famous feature is the five mural cycle in the Futurist style painted by the artist Benedetta Cappa titled "Sintesi delle Comunicazioni" (Synthesis of Communication). * * * * * * ### UNESCO World Heritage Sites UNESCO World Heritage Sites include the Palazzo Reale with the Cappella Palatina, the Chiesa di San Giovanni degli Eremiti, the Chiesa di Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio, the Chiesa di San Cataldo, the Cattedrale di Palermo, the Palazzo della Zisa and the Ponte dell’Ammiraglio, adding to the list that makes Italy the country with most UNESCO world heritage sites. Demographics ------------ Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% | | --- | --- | --- | | 1861 | 199,911 | —     | | 1871 | 223,689 | +11.9% | | 1881 | 244,898 | +9.5% | | 1901 | 309,566 | +26.4% | | 1911 | 339,465 | +9.7% | | 1921 | 397,486 | +17.1% | | 1931 | 379,905 | −4.4% | | 1936 | 411,879 | +8.4% | | 1951 | 490,692 | +19.1% | | 1961 | 587,985 | +19.8% | | 1971 | 642,814 | +9.3% | | 1981 | 701,782 | +9.2% | | 1991 | 698,556 | −0.5% | | 2001 | 686,722 | −1.7% | | 2008 (Est.) | 659,623 | −3.9% | | Source: ISTAT 2001 | In 2010, there were 1.2 million people living in the greater Palermo area, 655,875 of which resided in the City boundaries, of whom 47.4% were male and 52.6% were female. People under age 15 totalled 15.6% compared to pensioners who composed 17.2% of the population. This compares with the Italian average of 14.1% people under 15 years and 20.2% pensioners. The average age of a Palermo resident is 40.4 compared to the Italian average of 42.8. In the ten years between 2001 and 2010, the population of Palermo declined by 4.5%, while the population of Italy, as a whole, grew by 6.0%. The reason for Palermo's decline is a population flight to the suburbs, and to Northern Italy. The current birth rate of Palermo is 10.2 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.3 births. As of 2006[update], 97.79% of the population was of Italian descent. The largest immigrant group came from South Asia (mostly from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka): 0.80%, other European countries (mostly from Albania, Romania, Serbia, North Macedonia and Ukraine): 0.3%, and North Africa (mostly from Tunisia): 0.28%. History ------- ### Early history Evidence of human settlement in the area now known as Palermo goes back to at least the Mesolithic period, perhaps around 8000 BC, where a group of cave drawings at nearby Addaura from that period have been found. The original inhabitants were Sicani people who, according to Thucydides, arrived from the Iberian Peninsula (perhaps Catalonia). ### Antiquity In the 8th c. BC the Phoenicians built a small settlement on the natural harbour of Palermo, which became known as Ziz (Punic: 𐤑‬𐤉𐤑, ṢYṢ). It became one of the three main Phoenician colonies of Sicily, along with Motya and Soluntum. The first settlement was later known as *Paleapolis* meaning "Old City". The site chosen by the Phoenicians was connected to the mountains with two roads that today have become Via Cappuccini and Corso Pisani. The *Neapolis* or "New City", the nucleus of the subsequent expansion of the colony, soon developed in the area between the Paleapolis and the port. The new district expanded rapidly, exceeding the size of the old quarter, and soon became the site of markets, artisan and commercial activities. The walls were extended to embrace the new urban perimeter and two new gates ere made, while the old gate at the port was moved to make room for the new buildings. In total there were 4 gates, one on each side of the city. The walls followed the course of the two rivers that surround the city, the Kemonia and the Papireto, creating a natural moat and improving the military security of the city. During the Roman era they were reinforced. The Cassaro district was probably named after the walls themselves; the word Cassaro deriving from the Arab *al-qaṣr* (castle, stronghold, see also alcázar). The colony developed around a central street (decumanus) now the Corso Vittorio Emanuele. Carthage was Palermo's major trading partner under the Phoenicians and the city enjoyed a prolonged peace during this period. Palermo came into contact with the Ancient Greeks between the 6th and the 5th centuries BC which preceded the Sicilian Wars, a conflict fought between the Greeks of Syracuse and the Carthaginians for control over the island of Sicily. During this war the Greeks named the settlement *Pánormos* or 'wide haven' due to its large anchorage, from which the present name of the city developed. The Carthaginians began using the Greek name on the city's coinage from the 5th century BC. It was from Palermo that Hamilcar I's fleet (which was defeated at the Battle of Himera) was launched. In 409 BC the city was looted by Hermocrates of Syracuse. The Sicilian Wars ended in 265 BC when Syracuse allied with the Romans of Italy and pushed the Carthaginians off of the island during the First Punic War. In 276 BC, during the Pyrrhic War, Panormos briefly became a Greek colony after being conquered by Pyrrhus of Epirus, but returned to Phoenician Carthage in 275 BC. In 254 BC Panormos was besieged and conquered by the Romans. Carthage attempted to reconquer Panormus in the battle of Panormus 250 BC but failed. In Roman times luxurious residences were built and have been found in several locations (piazza Sett'Angeli, Palazzo Sclafani, piazza della Vittoria). ### Middle Ages As the Roman Empire was falling apart, Palermo fell under the control of several Germanic tribes. The first were the Vandals in 440 AD under the rule of their king Geiseric. The Vandals had occupied all the Roman provinces in North Africa by 455 establishing themselves as a significant force. They acquired Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily shortly afterwards. However, they soon lost these newly acquired possessions to the Ostrogoths. The Ostrogothic conquest under Theodoric the Great began in 488; Theodoric supported Roman culture and government unlike the Germanic Goths. The Gothic War took place between the Ostrogoths and the Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the Byzantine Empire. Sicily was the first part of Italy to be taken under control of General Belisarius who was commissioned by the Eastern Emperor. In late 535 his Byzantine army of 7,500–9,000 and a fleet laid siege to the city in the Siege of Panormus, which had refused to surrender unlike all the other Ostrogothic-held cities in Sicily, and eventually prevailed. Justinian I solidified his rule in the following years. The Arabs took control of Palermo and most of Sicily in 831, and the Emirate of Sicily was established, though other cities persisted as Byzantine holdouts until as late as 965. Muslim rule in Palermo lasted for about 240 years.[*page needed*] Palermo (*Bal'harm* during Arab rule) displaced Syracuse as the capital of Sicily. It was said to have then begun to compete with Córdoba and Cairo in terms of importance and splendor. For more than a hundred years Palermo was the capital of a flourishing emirate. The Arabs also introduced many agricultural crops which remain a mainstay of Sicilian cuisine. After dynastic quarrels however, there was a Norman conquest in 1072. Normans conquered Palermo after a long siege. Indeed, the feat proved difficult because the Normans had never besieged such a populous city with such powerful walls. After 5 months siege, Normans built numerous stairs and war machines and finally conquered the city. The family who returned the city to Christianity were called the Hautevilles, including Robert Guiscard and his army, who is regarded as a hero by the natives. It was under his nephew Roger II of Sicily that Norman holdings in Sicily and the southern part of the Italian Peninsula were promoted from the County of Sicily into the Kingdom of Sicily. The kingdom's capital was Palermo, with the King's Court held at the Palazzo dei Normanni. Much construction was undertaken during this period, such as the building of Palermo Cathedral. The Kingdom of Sicily became one of the wealthiest states in Europe. Thanks to the marriage between Constance, Queen of Sicily, and Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, Palermo and the whole Sicily was inherited by their son Frederick II, who became King of Sicily in 1198 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1220. Palermo was the capital of Emperor Frederick II’s vast empire and also his favorite city. Muslims of Palermo emigrated or were expelled during Frederick's rule. After an interval of Angevin rule (1266–1282), Sicily came under control of the Aragon and Barcelona dynasties. By 1330, Palermo's population had declined to 51,000. ### Early modern era From 1479 until 1713 Palermo was ruled by the Kingdom of Spain, and again between 1717 and 1718. Palermo was also under Savoy control between 1713 and 1717 and 1718–1720 as a result of the Treaty of Utrecht. It was ruled by Austria between 1720 and 1734. ### Two Sicilies After the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), Sicily was handed over to the House of Savoy, but by 1734 it was in Bourbon possession. Charles III chose Palermo for his coronation as King of Sicily. Charles had new houses built for the growing population, while trade and industry grew as well. However, Palermo had become just another provincial city as the Royal Court resided in Naples. Charles' son Ferdinand, though disliked by the population, took refuge in Palermo after the French Revolution in 1798. His son Alberto died on the way to Palermo and is buried in the city. When the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was founded, the original capital city was Palermo (1816) but a year later moved to Naples. From 1820 to 1848 Sicily was shaken by upheavals, which culminated on 12 January 1848, with a popular insurrection, the first one in Europe that year, led by Giuseppe La Masa. A parliament and constitution were proclaimed. The first president was Ruggero Settimo. The Bourbons reconquered Palermo in 1849, and it remained under their rule until the Expedition of the Thousand, led by Giuseppe Garibaldi, conquered the city after the Siege of Palermo in May 1860. After the plebiscite later that year Palermo, along with the rest of Sicily, became part of the new Kingdom of Italy (1861). ### Italian unification The majority of Sicilians preferred independence to annexation to the Savoy kingdom; in 1866, Palermo became the seat of a week-long popular rebellion, which was finally crushed after martial law was declared. The Italian government blamed anarchists and the Church, specifically the Archbishop of Palermo, for the rebellion and began enacting anti-Sicilian and anti-clerical policies. A new cultural, economic and industrial growth was spurred by several families, like the Florio, the Ducrot, the Rutelli, the Sandron, the Whitaker, the Utveggio, and others. In the early twentieth century, Palermo expanded outside the old city walls, mostly to the north along the new boulevards *Via Roma*, *Via Dante*, *Via Notarbartolo*, and *Viale della Libertà*. These roads would soon boast a huge number of villas in the Art Nouveau style. Many of these were designed by the architect Ernesto Basile. The Grand Hotel Villa Igiea, designed by Ernesto Basile for the Florio family, is a good example of Palermitan Art Nouveau. The huge Teatro Massimo was designed in the same period by Giovan Battista Filippo Basile, Ernesto's father, and built by the Rutelli & Machì building firm of the industrial and old Rutelli Italian family in Palermo, and was opened in 1897. ### The second world war During the Second World War, Palermo was heavily bombed by the Allied air forces in 1942 and 1943, until its capture during the Allied invasion of Sicily on 22 July 1943. The harbour (main objective of the air attacks) and the surrounding quarters were effectively destroyed, as was a considerable part of the city, with heavy civilian casualties. When American troops entered Palermo in 1943 they were greeted with "a thunderous welcome by what seemed the entire population demonstrating their feelings about Fascist rule." The two captured Italian generals claimed that they were happy because in their view "the Sicilians were not human beings but animals". Anti-Sicilian prejudice was part of the fascist regime's world view, being promoted by pro-fascist newspapers, particularly in the north of Italy. ### Italian Republic and today In 1946 the city was declared the seat of the Regional Parliament, as capital of a Special Status Region (1947) whose seat is in the Palazzo dei Normanni. A theme in the city's modern age has been the struggle against the Sicilian Mafia, Red Brigades and outlaws such as Salvatore Giuliano, who controlled the neighbouring area of Montelepre. The Italian state effectively has had to share control of the territory, economically and administratively, with the Mafia. The "Sack of Palermo" was one of the dramatic consequences of this problem. This popular term refers to the speculative building practices that resulted in the destruction of a great number of historical buildings and green areas in favour of poor buildings, mainly between the 1950s and the 1980s. The reduced importance of agriculture in the Sicilian economy has led to a massive migration to the cities, especially Palermo, which swelled in size, leading to rapid expansion towards the north. The regulatory plans for expansion was largely ignored in the boom. New parts of town appeared almost out of nowhere, but without parks, schools, public buildings, proper roads and the other amenities that characterise a modern city. The Cosa Nostra has traditionally been the most powerful group in Palermo. A CNN article in July 2019 indicated that Sicilian Mafia activity in Palermo was particularly notorious in one area: the town of Passo Rigano. "According to Italian police, the Mafia not only engages in extortion there, but also has a large role in the town's legal economy – with its involvement in business such as wholesale food supplies, online betting and gambling." The police investigation at the time also confirmed strong links between the Palermo area mafia and American organized crime, particularly the Gambino crime family. According to La Repubblica, "Off they go, through the streets of Passo di Rigano, Boccadifalco, Torretta and at the same time, Brooklyn, Staten Island, New Jersey. Because from Sicily to the US, the old mafia has returned". Culture ------- ### Religion #### Patron saints The patron saint of Palermo is Saint Rosalia, who is widely revered. On 14 July, people in Palermo celebrate the annual *Festino*, the most important religious event of the year. The Festino is a procession that goes through the main street of Palermo to commemorate the miracle attributed to Saint Rosalia who, it is believed, freed the city from the Black Death in 1624. Her remains were discovered in a cave on Monte Pellegrino, and her remains were carried around the city three times, banishing the plague. There is a sanctuary marking the spot where her remains were found which can be reached via a scenic bus ride from the city. Before 1624 Palermo had four patron saints, one for each of the four major parts of the city. They were Saint Agatha, Saint Christina, Saint Nympha and Saint Olivia. Saint Lucy is also honoured with a celebration on December 13, during which the inhabitants of Palermo do not eat anything made with flour, but boil wheat in its natural state and use it to prepare a special dish called cuccìa. This commemorates the saving of the city from famine due to a miracle attributed to Saint Lucy; A ship full of grain mysteriously arrived in the city's harbour and the hungry population wasted no time in making flour but ate the grain as it arrived. Saint Benedict the Moor is the heavenly protector of the city of Palermo. The ancient patron of the city was the Genius of Palermo, genius loci and numen protector of the place, that became the secular patron of the modern Palermo. ### Sports Palermo hosts a professional football team, Palermo Football Club, commonly referred to as simply Palermo, who currently compete in Serie B as of 2022, having been excluded from Serie B after the 2018–2019 season. After the bankruptcy occurred in the summer of 2019, a new club was formed by the company Hera Hora Srl. The Targa Florio was an open road endurance car race held near Palermo. Founded in 1906, it used to be one of the oldest sports car racing events until it was discontinued in 1977 due to safety concerns but has since run as a rallying event. Palermo was home to the grand depart of the 2008 Giro d'Italia. The initial stage was a 28.5 km-long (17.7 mi) TTT (Team Time Trial). The Internazionali Femminili di Palermo is an annual ladies professional tennis event held in the city, which is part of the WTA Tour. The american football team is Eagles United Palermo and it plays in stadium of Carini. ### City emblems #### Flag The flag of Palermo is similar to that of the autonomous region of Sicily, but with a different arrangement of colours. The flag displayed on the Palazzo Pretorio, the town hall, has no coat of arms. However, versions with coats of arms of variable appearance in the center have been observed; for example, around the 1950s or 1960s the flag bore the civic coat of arms form *Il Blasone in Sicilia* * FlagFlag * Another flag in useAnother flag in use #### Coat of Arms The Coat of Arms consists of a shield with a red background, stamped by the crown of the city, in the center of which there is a gold-colored eagle with open wings holding in its claws the legend bearing the initials "S.P.Q.P." * Coat of Arms from Il Blasone in Sicilia (1871-1875)Coat of Arms from *Il Blasone in Sicilia* (1871-1875) * Another Coat of Arms from Il Blasone in Sicilia (1871-1875)Another Coat of Arms from *Il Blasone in Sicilia* (1871-1875) * Coat of Arms used between 1891 and 1999Coat of Arms used between 1891 and 1999 * Stemma con capo del Littorio, come da decreto di riconoscimentoCoat of Arms with the chief of the lictor, according to the official decree of recognition of 1942 * Coat of Arms in use since 1999Coat of Arms in use since 1999 Economy and infrastructure -------------------------- As Sicily's administrative capital, Palermo is a centre for much of the region's finance, tourism and commerce. The city currently hosts an international airport, and Palermo's economic growth over the years has brought the opening of many new businesses. The economy mainly relies on tourism and services, but also has commerce, shipbuilding and agriculture. The city, however, still has high unemployment levels, high corruption and a significant black market empire (Palermo being the home of the Sicilian Mafia). ### Public transport Palermo has a local railway called the Palermo metropolitan railway service. ### Buses Palermo's public bus system is operated by AMAT which covers a net area of 340 km (211 mi). About 90 different routes reach every part of the city. ### Trams Palermo has a public tram system finalized in 2015 and operated by AMAT. There are 4 lines: 1. Roccella — Central Station 2. Borgo Nuovo — Notarbartolo Station 3. CEP — Notarbartolo Station 4. Corso Calatafimi — Notarbartolo Station ### Coaches The local coach company, AST, with its coaches totalling 35 lines, links Palermo to all of the main cities in Sicily. ### Palermo Public Transportation Statistics The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Palermo, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 63 min. 14.% of public transit riders, ride for more than 2 hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 23 min, while 48% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 4.4 km, while 3% travel for over 12 km in a single direction. ### Roads Palermo is a key intersection on the Sicilian road network, being the junction between the eastern A19 motorway to Trapani, the southeastern A29 to airport and Mazara del Vallo and the southwestern A19 to Catania and A20 to Messina. Palermo is one of the main cities on European route E90. The three main national roads starting from Palermo are the SS113, SS121, SS186 and the SS624. ### Airports Palermo International Airport, known as Falcone-Borsellino Airport (formerly Punta Raisi Airport), is located 32 km (20 mi) west of Palermo. It is dedicated to Giovanni Falcone and Paolo Borsellino, two anti-mafia judges killed by the Mafia in the early 1990s. The airport's rail facility, known as Punta Raisi railway station, can be reached from Palermo Centrale, Palermo Notarbartolo and Palermo Francia railway stations. Palermo-Boccadifalco Airport is the second airport of the city. ### Port The port of Palermo, founded by the Phoenicians over 2,700 years ago, is, together with the port of Messina, the main port of Sicily. From here ferries link Palermo to Cagliari, Genoa, Livorno, Naples, Tunis and other cities and carry a total of almost 2 million passengers annually. It is also an important port for cruise ships. Traffic includes also almost 5×10~~^~~6 t (5.5×10~~^~~6 short tons) of cargo and 80,000 TEUs yearly. The port also has links to minor Sicilian islands such as Ustica and the Aeolian Islands (via Cefalù in summer). Inside the Port of Palermo there is a section known as "tourist marina" for sailing yachts and catamarans. * * ### National rail The main railway station of Palermo is Palermo Centrale which links to the other cities of Sicily, including Agrigento, Trapani and Catania, and through Messina and the strait to the rest of Italy. The railways also connect to the Palermo airport with departures every thirty minutes. Education --------- The local university is the University of Palermo, the island's second oldest university. It was officially founded in 1806, although historical records indicate that medicine and law have been taught there since the late 15th century. The Orto botanico di Palermo (Palermo botanical gardens) is home to the university's Department of Botany and is also open to visitors. International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Palermo is twinned with: * Tunisia Bizerte, Tunisia * Democratic Republic of the Congo Bukavu, DR of the Congo * China Chengdu, China * Germany Düsseldorf, Germany * Ivory Coast Grand-Bassam, Ivory Coast * Vietnam Hanoi, Vietnam * State of Palestine Khan Yunis, Palestine * United States Miami, United States * United States Monterey, United States * France Montpellier, France * Canada Ottawa, Canada * Argentina Palermo, Argentina * Colombia Palermo, Colombia * Italy Pistoia, Italy * Russia Samara, Russia * Cuba Santiago de Cuba, Cuba * Italy Sestu, Italy * Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia * Romania Timișoara, Romania * Malta Valletta, Malta * Russia Yaroslavl, Russia Notable people -------------- * Eleonora Abbagnato (born 1978), ballet dancer * Simonetta Agnello Hornby (born 1945), writer * Emerico Amari (1810–1870), politician * Roberto Andò (born 1959), film director * Lucio Maria Attinelli (born 1933), journalist and writer * Aldo Baglio (born 1958), actor * Pietro Ballo (born 1952), tenor * Mario Balotelli (born 1990), footballer * Mario Bardi (1922–1998), painter * Ernesto Basile (1857–1932), architect * Letizia Battaglia (1935–2022), photographer, photojournalist, and politician * Francesco Benigno (born 1967), actor * Alfredo Bordonali (born 1919), football player * Paolo Borsellino (1940–1992), judge * Luigi Maria Burruano (1948-2017), actor * Tommaso Buscetta (1928–2000), member and notable pentito of the Sicilian Mafia * Lando Buzzanca (1935-2022), actor * Alessandro Cagliostro (1743-1795), magician (paranormal) and adventurer * Phil Caliva (born 1945), American racing driver * Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826–1910), chemist * Bruno Caruso (1927–2018), painter, illustrator, graphic designer and political activist * Marco Cecchinato (born 1992), tennis player * Daniele Ciprì (born 1962), film director * Max Crivello (born 1958), illustrator and painter * Giovanni Falcone (1939–1992), judge * Salvatore Ficarra (born 1971), actor * Luca Flores (1956-1995), pianist and composer * Vincenzo Florio (1883–1959), entrepreneur, heir of the rich Florio economic dynasty, founder of the Targa Florio * Corrado Fortuna (born 1978), actor * Franco Franchi (1928–1992), actor * Pia Giancaro (born 1950), Italian retired actress * Claudio Gioè (born 1975), actor * Filippa Giordano (born 1974), singer * Laura Giordano (born 1979), lyric soprano * Marco Glaviano (born 1942), photographer and architet * Libero Grassi (1924–1991), businessman * Ciccio Ingrassia (1922–2003), actor * Beniamino Iraci (born 1989), professional football player * Ugo La Malfa (1903–1979), politician * Luigi Lo Cascio (born 1967), actor * Rosalia Lombardo (1918–1920), known as the *Sleeping Beauty* * Louise of Orléans (1812–1850), Queen of The Belgians * Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies (1806–1878), Queen of Spain * Filippo Mancuso (1922–2011), magistrate and Italian Minister of Justice * Franco Maresco (born 1958), film director * Sergio Mattarella (born 1941), president of Italy * Giovanni Meli (1740–1815), poet and playwright * Silvio Micali (born 1954), computer scientist * Gabriele Minì (born 2005), racing driver * Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (1860–1952), Prime Minister of Italy * Sophia Petrillo (born 1905), character on The Golden Girls * Valentino Picone (born 1971), actor * Pif (television host) (born 1972), actor and film director * Amelia Pinto (1876–1946), opera singer * Giuseppe Pitrè (1841-1916), folklorist, medical doctor, professor and senator * Eva Riccobono (born 1983), model * Antonio Rinaldi (1709–1794), architect * Gianni Riotta (born 1954), journalist * Giuni Russo (1951 -2004), singer * Alfredo Salafia (1869–1933), embalmer and taxidermist * Pietro Scaglione (1906–1971), magistrate * Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725), composer * Renato Schifani (born 1950), President of the Senate * Salvatore Schillaci (born 1964), footballer * Francesco Scianna (born 1982), actor * Enzo Sellerio (1924–2012), photographer, publisher and collector * Giacomo Serpotta (1656–1732), sculptor * Giuseppe Serpotta (1653–1719), sculptor * Tony Sperandeo (born 1953), actor * Antonio Starabba, Marchese di Rudinì (1839–1908), Prime Minister of Italy * Gaetano Starrabba (born 1932), racing driver * Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusa (1896–1957), writer * Nino Vaccarella (1933–2021), racing driver * Delia Vaccarello (1960–2019), journalist and activist for LGBT rights * Fulco di Verdura (1898–1978), duke and jeweller ### Honorary citizens People awarded the honorary citizenship of Palermo are: | Date | Name | Notes | | --- | --- | --- | | | 17 May 1996 | Tenzin Gyatso | The 14th Dalai Lama | | 14 December 2015 | Abdullah Öcalan | Founder of Kurdistan Workers' Party | | 21 August 2018 | Albert II, Prince of Monaco | Prince of Monaco | See also -------- * Hugo Falcandus * List of mayors of Palermo * Outline of Palermo * Circolo Matematico di Palermo

Palermo

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palermo

**Blackburn** (/ˈblækbərn/ ()) is an industrial town and the administrative centre of the Blackburn with Darwen borough in Lancashire, England. The town is north of the West Pennine Moors on the southern edge of the Ribble Valley, 8 mi (13 km) east of Preston and 21 mi (34 km) north-northwest of Manchester. Blackburn is the core centre of the wider unitary authority area along with the town of Darwen. It is one of the largest districts in Lancashire, with commuter links to neighbouring cities of Manchester, Salford, Preston, Lancaster, Liverpool, Bradford and Leeds. At the 2011 census, Blackburn had a population of 117,963, whilst the wider borough of Blackburn with Darwen had a population of 150,030. Blackburn had a population of 117,963 in 2011, with 30.8% being people of ethnic backgrounds other than white British. A former mill town, textiles have been produced in Blackburn since the middle of the 13th century, when wool was woven in people's houses in the domestic system. Flemish weavers who settled in the area in the 14th century helped to develop the woollen cottage industry. The most rapid period of growth and development in Blackburn's history coincided with the industrialisation and expansion of textile manufacturing. Blackburn's textile sector fell into decline from the mid-20th century and subsequently faced similar challenges to other post-industrial northern towns, including deindustrialisation, economic deprivation and housing problems. Blackburn has had significant investment and redevelopment since 1958 through government funding and the European Regional Development Fund. History ------- ### Toponymy The origins of the name has been suggested that it may be a combination of the River Blakewater, and an Old English word "burn", meaning stream. Local author William Abram cited the ancient name as Blake Burne in his 1877 book, *Parish of Blackburn, County of Lancaster: A History of Blackburn, Town and Parish*. Abram also confirms that the region, later known as the Blackburn Hundred, was known as Blakeburneshyre. Blackburn was recorded in the Domesday Book as *Blacheburne* and *Blacheburn* in 1086. By the time of John Speed's map of 1610, the spelling of the town was Blackburn, while the region was Blackburne. There is anecdotal speculation that the name of the town may simply mean "black burn", or "black stream". ### Prehistory There is little evidence of prehistoric settlement in the Blakewater valley, in which Blackburn developed. Evidence of activity in the form of two urn burials has been discovered from the Bronze Age in the hills around Blackburn. In 1879, a cinerary urn was discovered at a tumulus at Revidge, north of the town; another was excavated in 1996 at Pleasington Cemetery, west of the town, by gravedigger Grant Higson. The presence of a sacred spring—perhaps in use during the Iron Age—provides evidence of prehistoric activity in the town centre, at All Hallows Spring on Railway Road. ### Roman era Blackburn is located where a Roman military road crossed the river Blakewater. The road linked Bremetennacum Veteranorum (Ribchester) and Mamucium (a major Roman fort that occupied Castlefield in Manchester). The route of the road passed east of Blackburn Cathedral and probably crossed the river in the Salford neighbourhood just east of the modern town centre. It is not clear whether the road predated the settlement. George C. Miller, in his *Blackburn: The Evolution of a Cotton Town*, says: > The ancient military way from Mamucium (Manchester) to (Bremetennacum) (Ribchester), passing over Blacksnape, plunges on its unswerving course through Blackamoor, over the scarp at Whinney Heights, to pass across the Blakewater in the vicinity of Salford. This fact alone presents a reasonable argument for the existence of a British oppidum or walled village on the site, it being customary for such primitive communities to cluster in the vicinity of a ford or bridge. > > According to William Abram (1877): > The Parish of Blackburn contains many interesting vestiges. Three of the four principal roads constructed by the Romans in Lancashire traversed some portion of the Parish : —I. The lower road from the south to Carlisle, intersected the township of Walton-in-le-Dale. 2. The road from Manchester to Overborough crossed the Parish at its broadest part. 3. The road from the sea to the interior, which formed the conmiunication between the "Sistuntian Port" (on the Wyre) and Ribchester, Ilkley-in-Wharfedale, Aldborough andYork, enters Blackburn Parish at Ribchester, by a ford over the Ribble. The late Rev. E. Sibson, in a paper on the Roman Roads of the Wigan district, speaks of a road of this kind which branched off eastward from Blackrod, "Street-fold and Water-street, near Rivington, and by White Hough, in Tockholes, to the small Roman station at Blackburn, near the new road to Preston." > > #### Roman temple spring at All Hallows All Hallows Spring was excavated by Antiquarians in 1654 and found to contain an inscribed stone commemorating the dedication of a temple to Serapis by Claudius Hieronymus, legate of Legio VI Victrix. ### Middle Ages Christianity is believed to have come to Blackburn by the end of the 6th century, in either 596 (as there is a record of a "church of Blagbourne" in that year) or 598 AD. The town was important during the Anglo-Saxon era when the Blackburnshire Hundred came into existence as a territorial division of the kingdom of Northumbria. The name of the town appears in the Domesday Book as both *Blacheburne* and *Blacheburn*, a royal manor during the days of Edward the Confessor and William the Conqueror. Archaeological evidence from the demolition of the medieval parish church on the site of the cathedral in 1820 suggests that a church was built during the late 11th or early 12th century. A market cross was also erected nearby in 1101. The manor came into the possession of Henry de Blackburn, who divided it between his two sons. Later, one half was granted to the monks of Stanlow Abbey and this moiety was subsequently granted to the monks of Whalley Abbey. During the 12th century, the town's importance declined as Clitheroe became the regional centre. In addition to a settlement in the town centre area, there were several other medieval domiciles nearby. ### Industrial Revolution and textiles Textile manufacturing in Blackburn dates from the mid-13th century, when wool produced locally by farmers was woven in their homes. Flemish weavers who settled in the area in the 14th century developed the industry. By 1650 the town was known for the manufacture of blue and white "Blackburn checks", and "Blackburn greys" became famous not long afterwards. By the first half of the 18th century textile manufacture had become Blackburn's main industry. From the mid-18th to the early 20th century Blackburn evolved from a small market town into "the weaving capital of the world", and its population increased from less than 5,000 to over 130,000. *John Bartholomew's Gazetteer of the British Isles* provides a profile of Blackburn in 1887: > Blackburn. parl. and mun. bor., parish and township, NE. Lancashire, 9 miles [14 km] E. of Preston and 210 miles [340 km] NW. of London by rail – par., 48,281 ac., pop. 161,617; township, 3681 ac., pop. 91,958; bor., 6974 ac., pop. 104,014; 4 Banks, 2 newspapers. Market-days, Wednesday and Saturday. It is one of the chief seats of cotton manufacture, besides producing calico, muslin, &c., there being over 140 mills at work. There are also factories for making cotton machinery and steam-engines. Blackburn has been associated with many improvements in the manufacture of cotton, among which was the invention (1767) of the "spinning jenny" which was invented in nearby Oswaldtwistle by James Hargreaves, who died in 1770. There are several fine churches and public buildings. A Corporation Park (50 ac. in area) is on the outskirts of the town. Several lines of railway converge here, and pass through one principal station belonging to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Ry. Co. B. returns 2 members to Parliament. > > From around 1750, cotton textile manufacturing expanded rapidly. Supplied with cotton by merchants, and paid by the piece, cottagers spun cotton into thread and wove it into cloth. The merchants arranged for cloth to be bleached and dyed. After 1775, spinning mills were built in the town. Early mills were warehouse conversions; the first purpose-built spinning mill was constructed in 1797 and by 1824 there were 24. The number of spindles reached 2.5 million  by 1870 and spinning mills were constructed up to that time – 24 since 1850. Spinning declined between 1870 and 1900 as the sector transferred to south Lancashire. In 18th-century Blackburn, weaving was primarily undertaken by handloom weavers working from their own cottages. However, as powerlooms were introduced into the mills after 1825, the percentage of handloom weavers began to decline and this occurred more rapidly in areas closer to the town. Handloom weavers continued to make up a sizable portion of the workforce in outlying rural areas. The last handloom shop in Blackburn closed in 1894. ### 1800s In 1807, the Daniel Thwaites & Co brewery was established; the company is still in business today and is now based at Sykes Holt in Mellor. Improvements to the power loom in the early 1840s, and the construction of a railway line in 1846, led to greater investment in power looms in Blackburn in the second half of that decade. The railway brought opportunities for expansion of the cotton trade, and in subsequent decades many new mills were constructed: between 1850 and 1870, sixty-eight weaving-only and four combined weaving/spinning mills were built and nine weaving mills were built per decade between 1870 and 1890. Improvements in power loom efficiency meant that weaving, the primary source of wealth and income for handloom weavers, began to transfer from the cottage industry to factories. This led to high rates of unemployment: according to figures published in March 1826, some 60 per cent of all handloom weavers in Blackburn and Rishton, Lower Darwen and Oswaldtwistle were unemployed. High unemployment led to the Lancashire weavers' riots. At 3:00 pm on 24 April 1826, a mob arrived in Blackburn after attacking power looms in Accrington. Proceeding to Bannister Eccles' Jubilee Factory on Jubilee Street, the mob destroyed 212 power looms in the space of 35 minutes. They then turned their attention to John Houghton and Sons' Park Place factory, located nearby, and destroyed another 25 looms, before seeking more machinery to attack. The crowd began to disperse at around 6:00 pm, troops having arrived at 3:30 pm to try to quell the rioting. ### 20th-century decline of the cotton industry In 1890, Blackburn's Chamber of Commerce had recognised that the town was overly dependent on the cotton industry, warning of the dangers of "only having one string to their bow in Blackburn". The warning proved prophetic when, in 1904, a slump hit the cotton industry and other industries dependent on it, such as engineering, brewing and building. In 1908, another slump saw 43 mills stop production and a quarter of the town's looms lay idle. During the First World War suspension of trade with India resulted in the expansion of colonial British India's cotton industry at the expense of Britain's, and the imposition of an 11 per cent import tariff by the colonial British Government led to a dramatic slump in trade in 1921, a situation which worsened in 1922 after the Indian Government raised the tariff to 14 per cent. This caused the number of stopped mills to increase to 47, with 43,000 looms lying idle. Two years into the slump, Foundry and Limbrick Mills became the first to close permanently. Not long afterwards, in 1926, the General Strike saw production suspended at half the town's mills and 12,000 unemployed. In 1927, Matthew Brown & Co. relocated to the town's Lion Brewery, on Coniston Road, following their acquisition of local brewer Nuttall & Co, later the subject of a hostile takeover by Scottish & Newcastle Breweries in 1987, ceasing brewing in 1991. In 1928, there was another slump in textile production, and another strike in 1929 after employers requested a 12% wage cut; 40,000 cotton workers struck for a week and eight mills closed, making 28 closures in six years. By the start of 1930, 50 mills had shut and 21,000 people were unemployed. A financial crisis in 1931 led to 24,000 unemployed, with 1,000 houses and 166 shops lying empty in the town. A total of 26 mills closed down between 1930 and 1934. #### 1948 mass fingerprinting Blackburn became the first town to undertake the mass fingerprinting of people following the murder of June Anne Devaney in May 1948. June Anne Devaney was a three-year-old patient at Queens Park Hospital when she was abducted from her cot and murdered in the hospital grounds on 15 May 1948. Fingerprints on a bottle underneath her cot led the police to fingerprint every male over the age of 16 who was present in Blackburn on 14 and 15 May 1948. After taking over 46,500 sets of fingerprints, a match was made with Peter Griffiths, a 22-year-old ex-serviceman. Griffiths admitted his guilt and his trial ascertained if he was sane or not. After deliberating for 23 minutes, the jury found him sane and he was hanged at Liverpool Prison on Friday 19 November 1948. After his conviction, the police destroyed all fingerprints they had taken. #### 1948–1999 Between 1948 and 1950 the textile industry experienced a short post-war boom, during which sales increased, industry training methods improved and automatic looms were introduced, which allowed a single weaver to control 20 to 25 looms. Loom sheds were rebuilt to house new, larger looms. Despite the post-war boom, the cotton industry continued to decline and only 25 per cent of the town's population were employed in textiles by 1951; this figure had stood at 60 per cent up to the beginning of the Great Depression in 1929. In 1952 the number of weavers fell from 10,890 to 9,020. By 1955 more cloth was imported from India than was exported and between 1955 and 1958 another 16 mills closed. In 1959, due partly to the re-organisation of the textile industry as a result of the Textiles Act, another 17 mills closed. By 1960 there were 30 mills operating in Blackburn. Closures continued in the 1960s with The Parkside, Fountains, Malvern and Pioneer Mills shutting in 1964. In 1967 the Eclipse Mill at Feniscowles closed, unable to compete with imported cloth sold at nine pence cheaper per yard than the mill could produce. By the end of that year there were 26 mills operating. The 1970s saw further closures, and the number of textile workers in Blackburn reduced to 6,000 by January 1975, the year in which the Albion and Alston mills stopped production with the loss of 400 jobs. In 1976 there were 2,100 looms in operation in the town, compared with 79,405 in 1907. ### 21st-century revitalisation After continued economic decline in the 2000s, new investment began in the 2010s. In 2015, Scottish designer Patrick Grant rescued Cookson & Clegg, a factory founded in Blackburn in 1860 that was facing closure. The following year he launched the Blackburn-based clothing brand Community Clothing to boost employment in British mills and factories. The inaugural British Textile Biennial, a month-long festival celebrating textiles through art and exhibitions, was held in Blackburn in 2019. The second edition took place in October 2021, and included an exhibition from Turner Prize winner Lubaina Himid and a film starring Maxine Peake. In 2021, the Blackburn with Darwen Council proposed a £250m "Blackburn Master Plan" to revitalise central Blackburn over the next decade, with the goal of building 500 new homes and creating 1,000 jobs. In 2022, £200m in government, council, and private investments were announced for the revitalisations of the town centres in both Blackburn and Darwen. The Townscape Heritage Project will create a new cultural quarter in Blackburn's historic town centre. Councillor Phil Riley stated that additional investment over the next decade could lead to 100,000 jobs in the borough. Governance ---------- *This section describes the organisation of government in the area. For information on party politics and local issues see the section on politics below* Blackburn is administered by Blackburn with Darwen unitary authority, which encompasses Blackburn and the small town of Darwen to the south. The town sends one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons. ### Local government The council has been elected "by thirds" since 1996 In its 2007 Comprehensive Performance Assessment (CPA), the Audit Commission described the council as "improving well" and gave it the highest "four star" overall performance rating. Although children's services, adult social care and GCSE results were praised, the commission highlighted "significant health problems" and increased "levels of repeat victims of domestic violence" as causes for concern. Despite generally good performance, overall user satisfaction levels with the council are below average and not improving. The borough has Beacon Council status and shares its best practice in education policy with other councils as part of the scheme. ### Parliamentary representation The historic constituency of Blackburn was created for the 1832 general election and sent two Members of Parliament (MPs) to Westminster until it was abolished in 1950 and replaced for one parliamentary term by two new single-member constituencies, Blackburn East and Blackburn West. At the 1955 general election, Blackburn East and Blackburn West were merged into the modern-day constituency which is relatively tightly formed and returns a single MP. ### Coat of arms The coat of arms of the former Blackburn Borough Council has many distinctive emblems. The blazon of the arms is: *Argent a Fesse wavy Sable between three Bees volant proper on a Chief Vert a Bugle stringed Argent between two Fusils Or. On the crest, a Wreath of the Colours a Shuttle Or thereon a Dove wings elevated Argent and holding in the beak the Thread of the Shuttle reflexed over the back and an Olive Branch proper.* The Latin motto of the town is *Arte et Labore*, correctly translated as 'By art and by labour' but often translated as 'By skill and hard work'. The motto, granted on 14 February 1852 to the former Borough of Blackburn, is poignant, as Blackburn, once a small town, had risen to importance through the energy and enterprise of her spinners and manufacturers, combined with the skill and labour of her operatives. The Borough of Blackburn was formed by the amalgamation of the County Borough of Blackburn, the Borough of Darwen, part of the Turton Urban District and the parishes of Yate and Pickup Bank, Eccleshill, Livesey, Pleasington and Tockholes from the Blackburn Rural District. Politics -------- Blackburn council and its successor have been predominantly controlled by the Labour Party since 1945 and continuously for 19 years until May 2007 when it fell into no overall control. UKPollingReport characterises the constituency of Blackburn as "a mix of deprived inner-city wards dominated by Muslim voters, white working class areas and Conservative voting suburbs". Until 2015, the MP was the former Secretary of State for Justice and former Foreign Secretary Jack Straw. Previous MPs for Blackburn include the former Labour cabinet minister Barbara Castle from 1945 to 1979. The distribution of seats as of May 2018 was 44 seats for the Labour Party, 17 for the Conservatives and 3 for the Liberal Democrats. Far-right In the 1970s Blackburn experienced its first significant wave of Asian immigration and became a focus for far-right politics. In 1976, two National Party councillors were briefly elected, including John Kingsley Read. In July 1992, white and Asian youths rioted for several nights in Blackburn, with incidents taking place including an arson attack on a café which had allegedly been a meeting place for local Asians involved in organised crime. Although some towns in the North of England suffered race riots in the summer of 2001, the streets of Blackburn were undisturbed and the disturbance of the Summer 2011 riots was minimal. The next resurgence of support for the far right came in 2002; The incumbent Liberal Democrats were pushed into third place behind Labour. Commenting on the elections, Blackburn MP Jack Straw said: "It is very sad. We had the far right in Blackburn 26 years ago when they won two seats in Shadsworth. But there the whole community decided they wouldn't have it. You can never say they won't put candidates in Blackburn but we will work hard on community relations." Nationalists / Localists The council until prior to 2008 had two members for the England First party, Mark Cotterill for Meadowhead ward and Michael Johnson for Fernhurst. Mark Cotterill has since stood down and Michael Johnson joined the For Darwen party. Members of the BNP won a council seat in the town in November 2002 following elections in May which saw three of their colleagues elected in nearby Burnley. The BNP's Robin Evans secured a 16-vote majority in Mill Hill ward with two recounts following a campaign using pub meetings and leafleting. Robin Evans resigned from the party in October 2003. Geography --------- At 53°44′41″N 2°28′37″W / 53.74472°N 2.47694°W / 53.74472; -2.47694 (53.7449°, −2.4769°), and 184 mi (296 km) north-northwest of London, Blackburn stands 122 metres (401 ft) above sea level, 9 mi (14 km) east of Preston and 21 mi (34 km) north-northeast of Manchester. The Ribble Valley and West Pennine Moors lie to the north and south respectively. Blackburn experiences a temperate maritime climate, like much of the British Isles, with relatively cool summers and mild winters. There is regular but generally light precipitation throughout the year. Although the city of Preston, the administrative centre for Lancashire, is located about 9 mi (14 km) west, Blackburn is the largest municipality in East Lancashire. The town is bounded on other sides by the towns of Accrington to the east and Darwen to the south. The village of Wilpshire is 2+1⁄2 mi (4 km) north of Blackburn, and is partly contiguous (development-touching) however in the Ribble Valley local government district. Other nearby villages are Langho, approximately 1+1⁄4 mi (2 km) northeast, and Mellor to the northwest. The towns of Rishton, to the east, and Great Harwood, to the northeast, are both in the local government district of Hyndburn. The town of Burnley lies 11 miles (18 km) to the east. ### Geology and terrain Located in the midst of the East Lancashire Hills, some areas of the town are characterised by steep slopes. The town centre centres in a plain of 91–110 m (299–361 ft) above sea level surrounded by hills. The Revidge to the north can be reached via a steep climb up Montague Street and Dukes Brow to reach a peak of 218 metres (715 ft) above sea level. To the west, the wooded Billinge Hill in Witton Country Park is 245 metres (804 ft) high, while Royal Blackburn Teaching Hospital is situated to the east of the town at a vantage point of 202 metres (663 ft). These figures can be considered in the context of other hills and mountains in Lancashire, including Great Hill at 381 metres (1,250 ft), Winter Hill at 456 metres (1,496 ft), Pendle Hill at 557 metres (1,827 ft) and Green Hill at 628 metres (2,060 ft). The River Blakewater, which gives its names to the town, flows down from the moors above Guide and then through the areas of Whitebirk, Little Harwood, Cob Wall and Brookhouse to the town centre. The river is culverted and runs underground in the town centre, under Ainsworth Street and between Blackburn Cathedral and the Boulevard. On the western side of the town centre the Blakewater continues through the Wensley Fold area before joining the River Darwen outside Witton Country Park; the Darwen flows into the River Ribble at Walton-le-Dale. The geology of the Blackburn area yields numerous resources which underpinned its development as a centre of manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution. Mineable coal seams have been used since the mid-late 16th century. The Coal Measures in the area overlie the Millstone Grit which has been quarried in the past for millstones and, along with local limestone deposits, used as a construction material for roads and buildings. In addition, there were deposits of iron ore in the Furness and Ulverston districts. The Blackburn area was subjected to glaciation during the Pleistocene ice age, and the sandstone-and-shale bedrock is overlain in much of the area by glacial deposits called till (which is also called "boulder clay") of varying thickness up to several tens of feet. Glacial outwash (sand and gravel) also occur in small patches, including along Grimshaw Brook. ### Green belt Blackburn is within a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties, and is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent the towns in the nearby Greater Manchester and Merseyside conurbations from further convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building. Sizeable areas of green belt exist within the borough, west and south of Blackburn surrounding Witton Country Park and Pleasington parish, with other parishes in the borough containing portions of green belt, Tockholes, Eccleshill, Yate and Pickup Bank parish, Livesy, Darwen, with North Turton largely covered. The green belt was first drawn up in 1982 under Lancashire County Council, and the size in the borough in 2017 amounted to some 5,260 hectares (13,000 acres). Demography ---------- At the time of the UK Government's 2001 census, Blackburn, defined as an urban area, had a population of 105,085 and a population density of 11,114/sq mi (4,291/km2). According to further statistics from the same census, this time defining Blackburn as a Westminster parliamentary constituency, the population was 69.22 per cent White British (national average for England 89.99 per cent) with significant Indian (14.31 per cent) and Pakistani (11.45 per cent ) ethnic minorities. 12.33 per cent of the population was born outside the European Union. In terms of religion, 57.53 per cent of residents were Christian (average for England 71.74 per cent), 25.74 per cent Muslim (average for England 3.1 per cent) and 15.98% no religion or not stated. With regard to the economic activity of those aged 16–74, the 2001 Census indicates that 33.93 per cent were full-time employees (average for England 40.81 per cent), 11.72 per cent part-timers, 5.97 per cent self-employed (average for England 8.32 per cent), and 4.5 per cent unemployed (average for England 3.35 per cent). The 2001 census also records the social grade of the constituency's 72,418 people aged 16 and over: using the NRS social grades system, 10,748 were classed as AB (higher and intermediate managerial/administrative/professional), 17,514 as C1 (supervisory, clerical, junior managerial/administrative/professional), 11,691 as C2 (skilled manual workers), 19,212 as D (semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers), and 13,253 as E (on state benefit, unemployed, lowest grade workers). Additionally, Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council manages a site for Gypsies and travellers, in the Ewood area of the town. The 2011 census showed that there was an increase in the number of people of ethnic minorities living within the Blackburn with Darwen area. Results showed that 31 per cent of people in the area were of an ethnic minority background, with 66.5 per cent defined as white British. This equates to roughly 45,500 people within Blackburn with Darwen being of a minority ethnic group – a level three times greater than the average across Lancashire and the rest of the region. In 2011 Blackburn had 117,963 residents, of whom: * 62.7% White (60.0% White British) * 34.3% Asian * 0.7% Black There is a distinct contrast between different areas with ethnic groups due to segregation. Areas south and west of the town centre such as Ewood have an indigenous majority, with all wards in the area being more than 85 per cent White British. In contrast, most wards north and east of the town centre have an Asian majority, but also a small but increasing community of people from mainland Europe. Economy ------- As of 2007, the town centre was subject to a multimillion-pound investment, and Blackburn with Darwen Council have already made some refurbishments and renovations of key public places, notably the Church Street area with its Grade II listed classical style Waterloo Pavilions complemented by street furniture and sculptures. As of 2006, The Mall Blackburn (formerly known as Blackburn Shopping Centre) was the main shopping centre in Blackburn with over 130 shops and 400 further outlets close by. in June 2011, Blackburn Market opened in a new site under the shopping centre and opened six days a week (Monday–Saturday). The previous market was based on the other side of Ainsworth Street. It first opened on this site in 1964, where there was a three-day market (Wednesday, Friday and Saturday) and the Market Hall (Monday–Saturday). The town centre was expanded by construction of the Grimshaw Park retail development (including Blackburn Arena) in the 1990s. The adjacent Townsmoor Retail Park and Peel Leisure and Retail Park are more recent developments. in May 2008, one of the town's most well-known shops, the shoe store Tommy Ball's, closed due to insolvency. The town's oldest store, Mercer & Sons, also closed after a decline in sales blamed on the credit crunch. It opened in 1840 and was originally an ironmonger, but it converted to selling toys, household goods and hardware. In January 2009 the directors of the company announced that the shop would close after a 30-day statutory consultation, unless they changed their minds or a buyer was found. Markets continue to offer a wide range of local produce, such as Lancashire cheeses, tripe, Bowland beef and lamb. Walsh's Sarsaparilla stall decided not to join the move into the Mall shopping centre in 2011, and opens six days a week. Major employers in Blackburn include: Blackburn College, Thwaites Brewery, BAE Systems (Samlesbury Aerodrome site, located at Samlesbury, northwest of Blackburn); Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council; and the East Lancashire Hospitals NHS Trust (based at the Royal Blackburn Hospital). *Drumstone Trade Park* near the town centre has trade outlets. Numerous business parks exist in and around the town. Transport --------- ### Railway Blackburn railway station is sited in the town centre and is managed by Northern Trains, who also operate all of its passenger services. It is on the Ribble Valley line between Clitheroe and Manchester Victoria; trains to Manchester typically take around 50 minutes and continue on to Rochdale. The station also hosts East Lancashire Line services eastwards to Burnley, Colne, Leeds and York; services westwards go to Preston and Blackpool. ### Buses Blackburn's new bus station in Ainsworth Street opened in May 2016. A new interchange was built outside the station as part of the Cathedral Quarter redevelopment, where all buses continue to the bus station. ### Air Manchester Airport, the busiest airport in the UK outside London, provides scheduled flights. It is located about 28 mi (45 km) south-east of the town. ### Waterways The Leeds and Liverpool Canal runs through Blackburn from Feniscowles in the south-west to Whitebirk in the north-east, skirting the town centre to the east of Blackburn railway station. This important early industrial artery arrived in 1810 and became the chief focus for industrial growth in the 19th century, with raw cotton imported via Liverpool. While it suffered neglect in the wake of the area's industrial decline, the Blackburn stretch has benefited from a number of regeneration projects since the 1990s. British Waterways residential moorings are to be found at Finnington Lane Bridge on the western edge of the borough. ### Roads The M65 motorway passes to the south of Blackburn. It runs from Colne, about 17 mi (27 km) north-east of Blackburn, to a point close to the village of Lostock Hall near Preston, about 12 mi (19 km) west. Junction six of the motorway is located at the eastern edge of Blackburn, near the Intack area; junctions five and four are located to the south, near the village of Guide and the Lower Darwen area, respectively; and junction three is located at the south-western edge of the town, close to the Feniscowles area. The M65 links Blackburn to the national motorway network, connecting to junction nine of the M61 and junction 29 of the M6. Other major roads in and around Blackburn include the A666 and the A677. The A666 runs from the A59 near the village of Langho, some 3+3⁄4 mi (6 km) north-west of Blackburn. It passes through the town centre and continues south through the towns of Darwen and Bolton, then south-west to the town of Pendlebury, near Manchester, where it joins the A6 at Irlams o' th' Height. The A677 runs from the east part of Blackburn, about 1+1⁄2 mi (2.5 km) from the centre. It passes through the centre of the town and continues to the western outskirts. It then heads north-west to the village of Mellor Brook before continuing west towards the city of Preston. It joins the A59 about 5+1⁄2 miles (9 km) west of Blackburn, about halfway between Blackburn and Preston. Barbara Castle Way, named after the former local MP, runs from Montague Street to Eanam Roundabout; it passes close to the town centre as part of the A6078 town centre orbital route. Landmarks --------- ### Cathedral Blackburn Cathedral was formerly St Mary's Parish Church. It was reconsecrated in 1826 on the site of a previous church that had stood for several hundred years. In 1926 the Diocese of Blackburn was created and the church gained cathedral status. Blackburn was selected above other locations for the new wave of Archbishop Temple's cathedrals because of its then excellent public transport infrastructure – the cathedral stands next to the bus and railway station. Between the 1930s and 1960s an enlarged cathedral was built using the existing building as the nave. Six of the cathedral's bells were cast in 1737 and are claimed to derive from even older bells. An image of the cathedral is used behind BBC interviews filmed at BBC Radio Lancashire in Darwen Street, opposite the cathedral. ### Ewood Park The ground was opened in AprIl 1882. Work on the redeveloped, all-seater stadium got underway in February 1993 when the old Darwen End stand was demolished. This stand, with the old Blackburn End stand, was redeveloped before the Nuttall Street stand was also demolished ready for redevelopment in January 1994. Almost two years later, on 18 November 1995, the new Ewood Park was officially opened. With a capacity of 31,367, it consists of four sections: the Darwen End, Riverside Stand (so named as it stands on the banks of the River Darwen), Blackburn End, and Jack Walker Stand, named after a Blackburn industrialist and club supporter. The stadium also has conference and banqueting facilities. ### Queen Victoria's statue Blackburn's statue of Queen Victoria stands next to the cathedral grounds overlooking the Cathedral Square. Victoria's fourth daughter, Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll, unveiled the statue on 30 September 1905. It was sculpted by the Australian Sir Bertram McKennal out of white Sicilian marble and stands on a grey granite plinth. It is 11 feet (3.4 m) high and weighs nine long tons (nine tonnes), while the plinth is 14 feet (4.3 m) high and weighs 30 long tons (30 tonnes). ### Town Hall The construction of Blackburn's original, Italian Renaissance style Town Hall was completed in 1856 at a cost of £35,000, equivalent to about £1.5 million as at 2008. The architect was James Paterson and the contractors were Richard Hacking and William Stones. It originally housed a police station with 18 cells, a large assembly room, and a council chamber. A tower block extension was constructed in 1969 at a cost of £650,000, equal to about £6.6 million as at 2008. The tower block is not strictly an extension to the earlier building: the two buildings are connected only by an elevated, enclosed footbridge. The tower block was 198 ft (60.4 m) high and the top was 545 ft 9 in (166.3 m) above sea-level when built, although it has since been re-clad and these figures may have altered slightly. The two buildings are known locally as the *New Town Hall* and *Old Town Hall* respectively. ### Technical School The school was built in the Northern Renaissance style and has a slate roof, an attic, a basement and two intermediate storeys. Made mainly of red brick and yellow terra cotta, it is profusely decorated. There are ornate gables, a round-arched entrance with angled turrets and balcony above; in addition, there is a frieze below the top storey with panels depicting art and craft skills. A Grade II listed building, it is now part of Blackburn College. The Prince of Wales placed a time capsule in the wall of the college during his visit. The college celebrated its 125th anniversary in 2013. ### Other landmarks The Wainwright Bridge was opened in June 2008. The £12 million bowstring arch bridge crosses the East Lancashire and Ribble Valley railway lines west of the town centre and forms part of the A6078 Town Centre Orbital Route. The bridge is named after Alfred Wainwright, after a vote by the townspeople. Blackburn Arena, opened in 1991, houses an ice rink and is home to the Blackburn Hawks ice hockey team. Blackburn railway station features a 24-foot (7.3 m) mural by the Ormskirk-based artist Stephen Charnock. It shows eight famous faces associated with the town, including Mohandas Gandhi, who visited nearby Darwen in 1931. The station was renovated in 2000. BBC Radio Lancashire has its studios in Darwen Street in the town centre. Thwaites Brewery, which produces cask ale, has had a position in the centre of the town since 1870. There is also King George's Hall, which is an arts and entertainment centre and Thwaites Empire Theatre. A section of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal runs through the town. St Anne's Roman Catholic Church is also situated in the centre of the town, is a Lombard Romanesque church, built in 1926, destroyed by arson in 2002 and rebuilt in 2004. The Canterbury Street drill hall was completed in 1870. ### Parks Corporation Park, north-west of the town centre, was built on 20 hectares (50 acres) of land bought from Joseph Feilden, lord of the manor, for £50 per acre (£120 per hectare) in 1855. It opened on 22 October 1857, with shops and mills closing for the day, church bells ringing and flags flying from public buildings. Railway companies claimed 14,000 people travelled to the opening. A conservatory was opened on 16 May 1900. Corporation Park contains the Blackburn War Memorial which commemorates those who lost their lives in the two World Wars. The town's annual Armistice parade concludes at the war memorial. The town's Queen's Park was opened in June 1887, having been laid out at a cost of £10,000 on land acquired by Blackburn Corporation from the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in 1882. It originally had two bowling greens, two tennis courts, a lake of over 1.2 hectares (3 acres), a children's paddling pool, a bandstand, and a refreshment room. Two additional bowling greens and a pavilion were added in 1932. Witton Country Park is a 190-hectare (480-acre) space to the west of the town. The land was purchased in 1946 and was the ancestral home of the Feilden family. It is larger than all the town's other parks and playing fields put together. Witton Park High School is located within the park, as are three astroturf football pitches and a full-size athletic track, which is home to the Blackburn Harriers. The Blackburn model aircraft club also uses the park for radio-controlled aircraft. Pleasington cemetery and crematorium lie on its edges. Roe Lee Park, in the north of the town, opened on Wednesday 30 May 1923 to commemorate a visit by George V. It was originally a 6.5-hectare (16-acre) site with five tennis courts and three bowling greens. The borough council website describes it as a 7-hectare (17-acre) "urban fringe park with bowling greens, kick around area and children's playground". In 2007, all four parks described here were winners of Green Flag awards. Blackburn Cemetery is located to the north of the town centre in Roe Lee. ### Libraries Blackburn Central Library, located in the town centre close to the Town Hall, is described as "the seventh most visited library in England". The library has various sections and facilities, including: an information and reference section, a media section, a community history section, a children's library, and a creche. An ICT training suite at the library has been named the "Bill Gates Room". Blackburn has smaller libraries for the Mill Hill, Livesey and Roman Road parts of the town, and a mobile library service. Education --------- *See List of schools in Blackburn with Darwen* Secondary education in Blackburn is provided by nine state-funded schools and one private school. In 2005, Tauheedul Islam Girls' High School became the first Muslim state school in the North West. It had previously been an independent school. Since then Tauheedul Islam Boys' High School has been established and Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School joined the state-funded sector. The town also has a few special schools. St Thomas's and Sunnyhurst Pupil Referral Unit educates children unable to attend mainstream school for health reasons or other difficulties. Over £25 million was invested in educational initiatives in Blackburn with Darwen in the late 2000s, including new schools, city learning centres and children's centres. Over 11,000 adults take part in some form of educational programme. Blackburn with Darwen council has twice had Beacon Status for education in the "Fostering School Improvement" and "Transforming the School Workforce" categories. Compared with 56.5 per cent nationally, 51.3 per cent of pupils in Blackburn with Darwen achieve grades A\*–C. The average GCE/VCE A/AS and Equivalent Point Score per Student is 649.7, compared with 716.7 nationally. Although the town's proportion of ethnic minorities is below 25%, in some schools the vast majority of pupils are from the ethnic minority population, whilst other schools are almost entirely white. This has been identified as a problem to racial integration in the town. The independent school sector is represented by Westholme School and Jamiatul Ilm Wal Huda. The two further education colleges in the town are Blackburn College and the sixth-form St. Mary's College. The town does not have a university, but some higher education courses for over-18s are provided by the East Lancashire Institute of Higher Education (ELIHE). Sport ----- ### Football EFL Championship side Blackburn Rovers is based at the Ewood Park stadium. It was established in 1875, becoming a founder member of The Football League in 1888. In 1890 Rovers moved to its permanent home ground at Ewood Park. Until the formation of the Premier League in 1992, most of Blackburn Rovers' success was pre-1930, when they won the league twice and FA Cup six times. After finishing runners-up to Manchester United in 1993–1994, Rovers won the English Premier League the following year. In 2002 they won the League Cup. ### Ice hockey Blackburn has an Olympic-sized ice rink housed at the 3,200-seat Blackburn Arena. The arena is the home of the Blackburn Hawks and Lancashire Raptors ice hockey teams, both of which play in the English National Ice Hockey League. ### Cricket Although Lancashire County Cricket Club play inter-county cricket at Old Trafford Cricket Ground, the town club at Alexandra Meadows on Dukes Brow is the East Lancashire Cricket Club. Blackburn Northern Cricket Club states it has recently leased the Ribchester Cricket Ground for its matches. Cultural references ------------------- Blackburn is mentioned in The Beatles' song "A Day in the Life". I read the news today—oh, boy 4,000 holes in Blackburn, Lancashire And though the holes were rather small They had to count them all Now they know how many holes it takes to fill the Albert Hall. The title of the unofficial fanzine of the town's football club, Blackburn Rovers, is *4,000 Holes*, and the 1968 Beatles film *Yellow Submarine* has John mentioning the lyric as well in the "Sea of Holes". In 1975, documentary filmmaker Nick Broomfield made *Juvenile Liaison* about a juvenile liaison project in the town. It examines a series of children and their run-ins with the law, including minor wrongdoings such as theft, truancy and some minor cases of bullying. After its production, the film was banned by the British Film Institute until 1990; *Juvenile Liaison* revolved mainly around the activities of Sergeant George Ray, whose preventive measures for dealing with young troublemakers fell mainly in the strong-arm category. In 1990, Nick Broomfield returned to Blackburn to film a follow-up. *Juvenile Liaison 2* revisits some of the residents from the first film, in an attempt to measure the success of the scheme. The 1994 TV film *Pat and Margaret* starring Victoria Wood and Julie Walters was partly filmed in Blackburn. The TV show *Hetty Wainthropp Investigates*, screened on BBC One from 1996 to 1998, included many scenes shot in Blackburn. The 2005 British film *Love + Hate*, directed by Dominic Savage, was shot in Blackburn. The film-makers Mitchell and Kenyon were based in Blackburn in the early 20th century. Much of their film stock, some 800 negatives, was found in their old premises on Northgate in 1994 and is now in the safekeeping of the aforementioned British Film Institute. ### St Peter's Burial Ground During late 2015, work done on St Peter's Burial Ground in advance of road construction involved disinterring the remains of nearly 2,000 individuals buried there during the cemetery's period of operation (1821–1945). The burial ground had been connected with the former St Peter's Church, a large one that seated some 1,500 people, which was demolished in 1976. Archaeologists found that nearly half of the bodies were those of young children, who appeared to have died quickly during the mid-19th century from illnesses affected the lungs and gastrointestinal system. The numbers are taken as reflecting the massive increase in the city's population during that period due to its booming textile industry, which led to unhealthy living situations among the working classes. The remains were to be relocated to another section of the cemetery. A memorial service conducted by Julian Henderson, the Bishop of Blackburn, for those being re-buried was scheduled to be held during the summer of 2016. Notable people -------------- ### Politics and industry Jack Walker, steel baron and once owner of the local steel company Walkersteel, was born in the town in 1929 and lived locally until he moved to the Channel Islands in 1974. He was a former owner of Blackburn Rovers. In politics, William Henry Hornby, a leading industrialist, the first mayor of Blackburn, and Chairman of the Conservative Party was born in the town in 1805. John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn, OM, PC, Liberal statesman, writer and newspaper editor was born in the town in 1838. The town had close links with Barbara Castle, an MP in Blackburn for 34 years (1945–1979) and holder of the positions of Secretary of State for Employment and Productivity, First Secretary of State and Secretary of State for Social Services under Labour governments of the 1960s and 1970s. Sajjad Karim (born 1970) served as a Member of the European Parliament for the North West England between 2004 and 2019. George Dewhurst (1789-1857), Radical, Reformer and Reedmaker. "One of Blackburn's most remarkable sons". Mohsin Issa and Zuber Issa are owners of EG Group. A showman born in Blackburn named Frederick Kempster was dubbed "The English Giant" at a height of 7'9. He lived from 1889–1918 and remains one of England's Tallest People in History by the Guinness Book of Records. ### Arts and music * Tony Ashton (1946–2001), rock musician * Michael Billington (1941–2005), actor, star of *UFO* * William Billington (1825–1884), writer, known as the "Blackburn Poet" * Josephine Cox (1938–2020), fiction writer * Ross Eccles (born 1937), contemporary artist; many of his paintings feature scenes and landmarks of Blackburn and Lancashire * Kathleen Ferrier (1912–1953), contralto * Clive Gardiner (1891-1960), artist, designer and illustrator * Michael Gibson (born 1980), television presenter and documentary director * Barry Gray (1908–1984), composer * Kathleen Harrison (1892–1995), actress * Tez Ilyas (born 1983), stand-up comedian * Russell Harty (1934–1988), broadcaster * Ethel Carnie Holdsworth (born Ethel Carnie; 1886–1962), writer and feminist * Lee Mack, (born 1968), actor/comedian * Grace Davies, (born 1997), singer/songwriter * Sarah Martin (born 1974), musician, member of Belle and Sebastian * Ian McShane (born 1942), actor * Tony O'Neill, (born 1978), author * Steve Pemberton (born 1967), actor * Wendi Peters (born 1968), actress * Ronald Stevenson (1928–2015), Scottish composer * Jeanette Threlfall (1821–1880), Christian hymnist and poet * Debbie Travis (born 1960), television host * Anthony Valentine (1939–2015), actor * Diana Vickers (born 1991), singer and actress * Alfred Wainwright (1907–1991), guidebook author * Jon Walmsley (born 1956), musician and actor * Michael Winterbottom (born 1961), film maker * William Wolstenholme (1865–1931), blind composer and organist * William Woodruff (1916–2008), historian and author * AJ Odudu (born 1988), television host ### Sport * Gareth Ainsworth (born 1973), footballer and football manager * Farakh Ajaib (born 1991), snooker player * Iain Balshaw (born 1979), England rugby union player * John Byrom (born 1944), footballer * Bernard Cafferty (born 1934), chess player, author and translator * Albert Clough (1901–1957), professional footballer * Matt Derbyshire (born 1986), footballer for Bradford City * Anastasios Donis (born 1996), footballer for Stade Reims and Greece * Keith Duckworth (1933–2005), motor-racing engine designer * David Dunn (born 1979), footballer for Blackburn Rovers and England, then football coach * Russell Edmonds (born 1977), former cricketer * Frank Fielding (born 1988), footballer for Stoke City * Carl Fogarty (born 1965), four time motorcycle World Superbike champion * Joe Garner (born 1988), footballer for Carlisle United * Will Greenwood (born 1972), England rugby union player * Connor Mahoney (born 1997), footballer for Huddersfield Town * William Marsden (born 1871), footballer * Oliver Newby (born 1984), cricketer for Lancashire * Geoffrey Phillips (born 1931), England cricketer * Anthony Pilkington (born 1988), footballer * John Sumner (1936–2004), rock climber * William Townley (1866–1950), footballer and coach * Adam Wharton (born 2004), footballer for Blackburn Rovers, younger brother of Scott * Scott Wharton (born 1997), footballer for Blackburn Rovers, elder brother of Adam ### Sciences * Timothy Leighton (born 1963), Ultrasonics and Underwater Acoustics professor, Institute of Sound and Vibration Research, University of Southampton * Barbara Mawer (1936–2006), biochemist and medical researcher * Noel Slater (1912–1973), mathematician and astronomer * Eric Fawcett (1927–2000), professor in the Department of Physics at the University of Toronto, credited with discovering the Hall effect in type-II superconductors Twin towns ---------- | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | * Germany Altena, Germany | * France Péronne, Somme, France | * Poland Tarnów, Poland | See also -------- * Listed buildings in Blackburn Notes and references -------------------- Notes 1. ↑ By road 27 mi (43 km) 2. ↑ Not to be confused with Salford in Greater Manchester. 3. ↑ One councillor from each of the three-member wards is elected in each of three years of four; candidates in 2-member wards are elected in two years of four. In the other years of the four-year cycle no elections are required 4. ↑ The centre of the ridge is covered by the town's main cricket ground and Corporation Park 5. ↑ Both interchanges have been reduced in scale since. References 1. 1 2 3 UK Census (2011). "Local Area Report – Blackburn Built-up area sub division (E35000757)". *Nomis*. Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 15 December 2019. 2. 1 2 3 "KS01 Usual resident population: Census 2011, Key Statistics for urban areas". *National Statistics*. Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 7 September 2009. Retrieved 9 July 2008. 3. ↑ "Authorities: AGMA Policy and Research Unit". *Association of Greater Manchester Authorities*. Archived from the original on 18 October 2015. Retrieved 11 May 2010. 4. ↑ "Grid Reference Finder". *Gridreferencefinder.com*. 5. ↑ Census 2001: Blackburn with Darwen Local Authority, Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 28 March 2008. 6. ↑ "Blackburn.gov.uk – Ethnicity and Religion profile" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2015. 7. 1 2 Burrow, J. & Co. (Eds.) (1960), p. 8. 8. ↑ European regional development funding Archived 11 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Council, Retrieved 17 April 2014 9. ↑ Abram, William Alexander (1877). *Parish of Blackburn, County of Lancaster: A History of Blackburn, Town and Parish*. Blackburn: J. G. & J. Toulmin. p. 1. 10. ↑ "Land of Roger of Poitou". *Open Domesday*. Retrieved 5 April 2023. 11. ↑ Miller (1992), p. 6. 12. 1 2 Beattie (1992), p. 11. 13. ↑ Survey and making of Domesday The UK National Archives. Retrieved 1 June 2014 14. ↑ "Rare Treasure Found". *Lancashire Evening Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. 27 March 1996. Retrieved 6 June 2017. 15. ↑ "Lancashire Historic Town Survey: Blackburn: Historic Town Assessment Report" (PDF). Lancashire County Council. April 2005. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 February 2008. Retrieved 3 March 2008. 16. 1 2 Lancashire County Council (2005), *Lancashire Historic Town Survey: Blackburn*, p. 16. 17. ↑ Miller [1952](1992), p. 4. 18. ↑ Abram, William Alexander (1877). *Parish of Blackburn, County of Lancaster: A History of Blackburn, Town and Parish*. Blackburn: J. G. & J. Toulmin. p. 4. 19. ↑ Site of All Hallows Spring-Holy well, Archaeology Data Service. Retrieved 31 January 2007. 20. ↑ Church of St. Mary the Virgin Archived 24 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Archaeology Data Service. Retrieved 31 January 2007. 21. ↑ Burrow, J & Co. (Eds.) (1960). p. 7. 22. 1 2 3 4 Lancashire County Council (2005), *Lancashire Historic Town Survey: Blackburn*, p. 17. 23. ↑ "Land of Roger of Poitou". *Open Domesday*. Retrieved 5 April 2023. 24. ↑ Market Cross Archived 24 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Archaeological Data Society. Retrieved 31 January 2007. 25. ↑ Beattie (1992), p.13. 26. ↑ Beattie (1992), p. 49. 27. ↑ Vision of Britain: Bartholomew Gazetteer Entry for Blackburn, *A Vision of Britain through Time*, Retrieved 21 April 2008. 28. ↑ Beattie (1992), pp. 15–16. 29. ↑ Beattie (1992), pp. 16–18. 30. ↑ "Daniel Thwaites Location". *Thwaites.com*. Thwaites. Retrieved 17 February 2018. 31. ↑ Timmins (1993). 32. ↑ Beattie (1992), p. 17. 33. ↑ Turner (1992), p. 9. 34. ↑ Turner (1992), p. 12. 35. ↑ Turner (1992), pp. 18–24. 36. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 11. 37. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 18. 38. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 24. 39. 1 2 Taylor (2000), pp. 109–110. 40. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Taylor (2000), pp. 47–55. 41. ↑ "Indian Duties". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 42. ↑ "Financial Crisis". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 43. ↑ "The Fingerprint Society Commemorates 60 Years Since Landmark Fingerprint Identification". The Fingerprint Society. 2011. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012. 44. ↑ "Sixty Years of Fingerprints" (Video). BBC. 20 August 2008. Retrieved 12 September 2012. 45. ↑ Woodruff, Lorna. "The Murder of June Anne Devaney". Cottontown.org. Archived from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012. 46. ↑ "Post-War Boom". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 47. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 83. 48. 1 2 "1950s Decline". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 49. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 87. 50. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 91. 51. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 94. 52. ↑ "Local Decline". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 53. ↑ "The End of an Industry". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 26 October 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 54. ↑ "20th Century Changes: Production and Decline". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 16 June 2008. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 55. ↑ Cooke, Diane (9 October 2015). "TV star set to revive Blackburn's textile industry after saving historic clothing company". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Retrieved 11 May 2023. 56. ↑ Theodosi, Natalie (17 February 2016). "Patrick Grant Launches Nonprofit Label, Community Clothing". *WWD*. Retrieved 9 May 2023. 57. ↑ "The Very First British Textile Biennial comes to Pennine Lancashire". *Creative Lancashire*. 12 September 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2023. 58. ↑ "British Textile Biennial 2021: Events begin across East Lancashire". BBC News. 1 October 2021. Retrieved 11 May 2023. 59. ↑ "Blackburn's £250m town centre regeneration plan revealed". BBC News. 16 December 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2023. 60. ↑ Jacobs, Bill (2 August 2022). "The £200m boost set to benefit Blackburn and Darwen town centres". *LancsLive*. Retrieved 12 May 2023. 61. ↑ Jacobs, Bill (4 October 2022). "Historic town centre terrace to get dramatic new look". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Retrieved 12 May 2023. 62. ↑ Beaney, Abigail (27 September 2022). "Leader of council sets out vision for £1 billion boost for future of borough". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Retrieved 12 May 2023. 63. 1 2 3 Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council Comprehensive Performance Assessment (CPA) scorecard 2007 Archived 7 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Audit Commission, Retrieved 5 July 2008. 64. ↑ "Home – Blackburn with Darwen Council". *Blackburn.gov.uk*. 65. ↑ The Crests of Blackburn and Darwen Archived 24 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Council, Retrieved 16 April 2008 66. ↑ "Blackburn Is open". Retrieved 17 February 2018. 67. ↑ "The English Non-metropolitan Districts (Definition) Order 1972", *legislation.gov.uk*, The National Archives, SI 1972/2039 68. ↑ Shocked Labour loses control of Blackburn with Darwen, David Bartlett, *Lancashire Telegraph*, 4 May 2007, Retrieved 6 June 2017. 69. ↑ "UK Politics: Local Elections 2000: Blackburn with Darwen". *BBC News*. Retrieved 4 July 2008. 70. ↑ Blackburn Election Guide, UKPollingReport, Retrieved 12 April 2008. 71. ↑ "'Copycat' disorders with different causes: As rioters clashed with". *Independent.co.uk*. 22 October 2011. 72. ↑ Higginson, David (27 November 2002). "BNP secures three seats". Newsquest Media Group. 73. ↑ Ward, David (23 November 2002). "BNP snatches council seat in Straw constituency". *The Guardian*. London. Retrieved 5 July 2008. 74. ↑ "BNP councillor resigns from party". *Telegraph.co.uk*. 75. ↑ Map of Blackburn and surrounding region, *Google Maps*; RecPath Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine used for distances. 76. 1 2 Blackburn, Ordnance Survey Get-a-map, Retrieved 27 October 2006 77. ↑ "Coal mining in Blackburn with Darwen". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 17 June 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2006. 78. ↑ "Geography and geology". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 8 December 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2006. 79. ↑ Geology of the Blackburn Area Archived 12 December 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Grimshaw Origins and History, 2000 80. ↑ A Landscape Strategy for Lancashire – Landscape Character Assessment Archived 5 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Lancashire County Council 81. ↑ Contaminated land inspection strategy Archived 2 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Retrieved 6 July 2008. 82. 1 2 "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 23 February 2018.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) 83. ↑ "Green belt statistics – GOV.UK". *Gov.uk*. 16 September 2022. 84. ↑ 2001 Census: Key Statistics, Ethnic Group (KS06), Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 March 2008. 85. ↑ 2001 Census: Key Statistics, Country of Birth (KS05), Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 March 2008. 86. ↑ 2001 Census: Key Statistics, Religion (KS07), Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 March 2008. 87. ↑ 2001 Census: Key Statistics, Economic Activity (KS09A), Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 March 2008. 88. ↑ 2001 Census: Key Statistics, Approximated Social Grade (UV50), Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 18 March 2008. 89. ↑ "Gypsy and traveller sites – Ewood travellers site". *A-Z of Services*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 26 September 2011. Retrieved 3 October 2012. 90. ↑ "Release Edition Reference Tables - ONS". Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2013. 91. ↑ "Population - 2011 Census Population by ethnic group". Archived from the original on 17 April 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2013. 92. ↑ "Blackburn: The town that stopped working". *Newstatesman.com*. 25 July 2018. 93. ↑ "Waterloo Pavilions". Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2008. 94. ↑ Historic England. "20, Church Street (1239322)". *National Heritage List for England*. Retrieved 6 July 2022. 95. ↑ Historic England. "28 and 30, Church Street (1239154)". *National Heritage List for England*. Retrieved 6 July 2022. 96. ↑ Historic England. "Barclays Bank, 36, Church Street (1239364)". *National Heritage List for England*. Retrieved 6 July 2022. 97. ↑ Blackburn is placed in a similar position to its neighbour Burnley in most consumer spending and footfall rankings. Along with Burnley, Bolton, Preston and Bury are the towns' main retail rivals.Page=3 Tourism in Blackburn with Darwen: Shopping Archived 27 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council, 8 November 2005, Retrieved 2 May 2006. 98. ↑ "Blackburn's New Market open for business". Blackburn Life. Archived from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2011. 99. ↑ Moseley, Tom (27 May 2008). "Famous Blackburn shoe store Tommy Ball's closes". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. Retrieved 11 January 2009. 100. ↑ Moseley, Tom (9 January 2009). "Shock as Blackburn's oldest shop announces plans to close". *Blackburn Citizen*. Newsquest Media Group. Retrieved 11 January 2009. 101. ↑ Moseley, Tom (24 February 2008). "Market site 'not for supermarket'". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. Retrieved 8 July 2008. 102. ↑ "Drumstone Trade Park, Blackburn - Completely Industrial". *Completelyindustrial.co.uk*. Retrieved 11 June 2022. 103. ↑ Wilson, James (26 April 2007). "A busy hub of connectivity". *Financial Times – FT report – doing business in Manchester and the NorthWest*. The Financial Times Limited. 104. ↑ Duckworth and Halsall (2002), p. 25. 105. ↑ "Blackburn Cathedral". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 20 May 2008. 106. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 9. 107. ↑ Jackman (2006), pp. 29–30. 108. ↑ Jackman (2006), pp. 181–187. 109. ↑ "Stadiums in England: North West". *World Stadiums*. Archived from the original on 31 May 2008. Retrieved 29 May 2008. 110. ↑ Taylor (2000), p. 20. 111. ↑ Duckworth and Halsall (2002), p. 24. 112. ↑ Beattie (2007), p. 139. 113. 1 2 "Currency converter". The National Archives. Retrieved 8 July 2008. 114. ↑ Duckworth (2005), p. 20. 115. ↑ Burrow, J & Co. (Eds.) (1970), p. 16. 116. ↑ Blackburnlad. "The Old Town Hall – King William Street". *Blackburn Past: A look at Blackburn Lancashire in Days gone by*. Retrieved 2 October 2012. ...or as we refer to it today, the Old Town Hall (the 1960s tower block being the 'new' Town Hall). 117. ↑ Beattie (2007), pp. 197–198. 118. ↑ "Blackburn Technical School". *Cotton Town*. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Archived from the original on 30 October 2007. Retrieved 24 April 2008. 119. ↑ Timmins (1993), plate 161. 120. ↑ Moseley, Tom (27 June 2008). "Blackburn's Wainwright bridge opens to traffic". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. Retrieved 29 June 2008. 121. ↑ "Steel brought in for £9m bridge". *BBC News*. 26 July 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 122. ↑ "Wainwright remembered with new bridge". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. 31 March 2008. Archived from the original on 20 September 2010. Retrieved 19 May 2008. 123. ↑ Blackburn – St Anne from English Heritage, retrieved 14 February 2016 124. ↑ Historic England. "Blackburn Drill Hall (1436740)". *National Heritage List for England*. Retrieved 26 August 2017. 125. 1 2 Duckworth (2005), p. 75. 126. ↑ Duckworth (2005), p. 65. 127. ↑ Corporation Park. Archived 13 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine East Lancashire Memorials. Retrieved 17 August 2012. 128. ↑ Corporation Park, garden of Remembrance. Archived 7 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Retrieved 17 August 2012. 129. ↑ The Blackburn war memorial., Archive.today, Retrieved 17 August 2012. 130. ↑ Duckworth (2005), pp. 78–79. 131. 1 2 Duckworth (2005), p. 79. 132. ↑ Roe Lee Park Archived 7 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council. Retrieved 5 June 2008. 133. ↑ "Parks awarded prestigious Green Flags". *Lancashire Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. 17 July 2007. Retrieved 6 July 2007. 134. ↑ Libraries Archived 10 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council, Retrieved 4 July 2008. 135. ↑ Blackburn Central Library Archived 24 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council, Retrieved 4 July 2008. 136. ↑ Our Libraries Archived 10 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Borough Council, Retrieved 4 July 2008. 137. ↑ "Search results: Establishments in 'Blackburn with Darwen'". *Get information about schools*. UK Government. Retrieved 28 January 2018. 138. ↑ "School celebrates new funded status". *Lancashire Evening Telegraph*. Newsquest Media Group. 17 June 2005. Retrieved 3 March 2008. 139. ↑ Blackburn with Darwen Schools Archived 11 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen, Retrieved 14 April 2008 140. 1 2 Education and lifelong learning Archived 11 April 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Blackburn with Darwen Council, Retrieved 14 April 2008 141. 1 2 Key Figures for Education, Skills and Training, Office for National Statistics, Retrieved 14 April 2008 142. ↑ Easton, Mark (14 June 2006). "School choice 'means classroom ghettos'". *BBC News*. Retrieved 3 March 2008. 143. ↑ Blackburn Rovers club profile Archived 11 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine. [www.premierleague.com]. Retrieved 29 May 2008. 144. ↑ Jackman (2006), pp. 182–185. 145. ↑ Jackman (2006), pp. 201–204. 146. ↑ "East Lancashire Club – Member of Lancashire Cricket League". *Eastlancssportsclub.co.uk*. 147. ↑ "Blackburn Northern CC – Play-Cricket –". 31 January 2013. Archived from the original on 31 January 2013. 148. ↑ "Musical mystery solved on tour". *CNN*. 2 April 2006. Retrieved 30 May 2008. 149. ↑ "Blackburn Rovers | fanzine | 4000 holes". 11 January 2016. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2022. 150. ↑ Love + Hate, Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 10 May 2008. 151. ↑ Love + Hate – film review, BBC website. Retrieved 10 May 2008. 152. ↑ "Blackburn archaeological survey: Bodies of 800 young children found". *BBC News*. 26 January 2016. 153. ↑ "Football remembers Jack Walker". *BBC News*. 18 August 2000. 154. ↑ "Best selling author Josephine Cox on growing up in Blackburn and her dreams of writing sci-fi". *Greatbritishlife.co.uk*. 29 December 2014. 155. ↑ "Biography for Kathleen Harrison", Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 14 May 2006 156. ↑ "BFI Screenonline: Harty, Russell (1934-88) Biography". *Screenonline.org.uk*. 157. ↑ "Bio - Grace Davies". Archived from the original on 16 August 2018. Retrieved 16 August 2018. 158. ↑ "Ian McShane". BBC. Retrieved 4 July 2008. 159. ↑ "Steve Pemberton", Internet Movie Database. Retrieved 6 September 2006. 160. ↑ "Essential facts on Queen Elizabeth's Grammar School, Blackburn". *This Is Lancashire*. Newsquest Media Group. 27 August 2001. Archived from the original on 19 March 2007. Retrieved 14 May 2006. 161. ↑ Wells, Colin (13 March 2004). "John Sumner obituary". *The Independent*. London. Retrieved 6 June 2017. 162. ↑ Eric Fawcett obituary – Science for Peace 163. ↑ "Partnerstädte / Patenschaften". Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2014. 164. ↑ "Miasta Partnerskie". Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2014. ### Bibliography * Abram, W. A. (1990) [1877]. *A History of Blackburn Town & Parish* (Limited second edition reprint ed.). T.H.C.L. Books. ISBN 0-948494-10-7. * Beattie, Derek (1992). *Blackburn: The Development of a Lancashire Cotton Town*. Keele University Press. ISBN 1-85331-021-2. * Beattie, Derek (2007). *Blackburn: A History by Derek Beattie*. Carnegie Publishing. ISBN 978-1-85936-113-9. * Burrow, J and Co., ed. (1960). *Blackburn: Official Handbook*. Cheltenham and London. * Burrow, J and Co., ed. (1970). *Blackburn: Official Handbook*. Cheltenham and London. ISBN 0-85026-110-4. * Duckworth, Alan (2005). *Blackburn: Town and City memories*. The Francis Frith Collection. ISBN 1-85937-986-9. * Duckworth, Alan & Halsall, Jim (2002). *Blackburn in Focus*. Landy Publishing Company. ISBN 1-872895-58-1. * Jackman, Mike (2006). *Blackburn Rovers: An Illustrated History*. The Breedon Books Publishing Company. ISBN 1-85983-475-2. * Miller, Geo. C. (1992) [1951]. *Blackburn: the Evolution of a Cotton Town* (Limited second edition reprint ed.). Blackburn: T.H.C.L. Books. ISBN 0-948494-18-2. * Taylor, Andrew (2000). *20th Century Blackburn*. Wharncliffe Books. ISBN 1-871647-89-4. * Timmins, Geoffrey (1993). *Blackburn: A Pictorial History*. Phillimore and Co. ISBN 0-85033-865-4. * Turner, William (1992). *RIOT!: The Story of the East Lancashire Loom-Breakers*. Lancashire County Books. ISBN 1-871236-17-7.

Blackburn

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackburn

**Mental health** encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior. It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making. Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others.From the perspectives of positive psychology or holism, mental health may include an individual's ability to enjoy life and to create a balance between life activities and efforts to achieve psychological resilience. Cultural differences, subjective assessments, and competing professional theories all affect how one defines "mental health". Some early signs related to mental health difficulties are sleep irritation, lack of energy, lack of appetite and thinking of harming yourself or others. Mental disorders ---------------- Mental health, as defined by the Public Health Agency of Canada, is an individual's capacity to feel, think, and act in ways to achieve a better quality of life while respecting personal, social, and cultural boundaries. Impairment of any of these are risk factor for mental disorders, or mental illnesses, which are a component of mental health. Mental disorders are defined as health conditions that affect and alter cognitive functioning, emotional responses, and behavior associated with distress and/or impaired functioning. The ICD-11 is the global standard used to diagnose, treat, research, and report various mental disorders. In the United States, the DSM-5 is used as the classification system of mental disorders. Mental health is associated with a number of lifestyle factors such as diet, exercise, stress, drug abuse, social connections and interactions. Therapists, psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurse practitioners, or family physicians can help manage mental illness with treatments such as therapy, counseling or medication. History ------- ### Early history In the mid-19th century, William Sweetser was the first to coin the term *mental hygiene*, which can be seen as the precursor to contemporary approaches to work on promoting positive mental health. Isaac Ray, the fourth president of the American Psychiatric Association and one of its founders, further defined mental hygiene as "the art of preserving the mind against all incidents and influences calculated to deteriorate its qualities, impair its energies, or derange its movements". In American history, mentally ill patients were thought to be religiously punished. This response persisted through the 1700s, along with the inhumane confinement and stigmatization of such individuals. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887) was an important figure in the development of the "mental hygiene" movement. Dix was a school teacher who endeavored to help people with mental disorders and to expose the sub-standard conditions into which they were put. This became known as the "mental hygiene movement". Before this movement, it was not uncommon that people affected by mental illness would be considerably neglected, often left alone in deplorable conditions without sufficient clothing. From 1840 to 1880, she won the support of the federal government to set up over 30 state psychiatric hospitals; however, they were understaffed, under-resourced, and were accused of violating human rights. Emil Kraepelin in 1896 developed the taxonomy of mental disorders which has dominated the field for nearly 80 years. Later, the proposed disease model of abnormality was subjected to analysis and considered normality to be relative to the physical, geographical and cultural aspects of the defining group. At the beginning of the 20th century, Clifford Beers founded "Mental Health America – National Committee for Mental Hygiene", after publication of his accounts as a patient in several lunatic asylums, *A Mind That Found Itself*, in 1908 and opened the first outpatient mental health clinic in the United States. The mental hygiene movement, similar to the social hygiene movement, had at times been associated with advocating eugenics and sterilization of those considered too mentally deficient to be assisted into productive work and contented family life. In the post-WWII years, references to mental hygiene were gradually replaced by the term 'mental health' due to its positive aspect that evolves from the treatment of illness to preventive and promotive areas of healthcare. #### Deinstitutionalization and transinstitutionalization When US government-run hospitals were accused of violating human rights, advocates pushed for deinstitutionalization: the replacement of federal mental hospitals for community mental health services. The closure of state-provisioned psychiatric hospitals was enforced by the Community Mental Health Centers Act in 1963 that laid out terms in which only patients who posed an imminent danger to others or themselves could be admitted into state facilities. This was seen as an improvement from previous conditions. However, there remains a debate on the conditions of these community resources. It has been proven that this transition was beneficial for many patients: there was an increase in overall satisfaction, a better quality of life, and more friendships between patients all at an affordable cost. This proved to be true only in the circumstance that treatment facilities that had enough funding for staff and equipment as well as proper management. However, this idea is a polarizing issue. Critics of deinstitutionalization argue that poor living conditions prevailed, patients were lonely, and they did not acquire proper medical care in these treatment homes. Additionally, patients that were moved from state psychiatric care to nursing and residential homes had deficits in crucial aspects of their treatment. Some cases result in the shift of care from health workers to patients' families, where they do not have the proper funding or medical expertise to give proper care. On the other hand, patients that are treated in community mental health centers lack sufficient cancer testing, vaccinations, or otherwise regular medical check-ups. Other critics of state deinstitutionalization argue that this was simply a transition to "transinstitutionalization", or the idea that prisons and state-provisioned hospitals are interdependent. In other words, patients become inmates. This draws on the Penrose Hypothesis of 1939, which theorized that there was an inverse relationship between prisons' population size and the number of psychiatric hospital beds. This means that populations that require psychiatric mental care will transition between institutions, which in this case, includes state psychiatric hospitals and criminal justice systems. Thus, a decrease in available psychiatric hospital beds occurred at the same time as an increase in inmates. Although some are skeptical that this is due to other external factors, others will reason this conclusion to a lack of empathy for the mentally ill. There is no argument in the social stigmatization of those with mental illnesses, they have been widely marginalized and discriminated against in society. In this source, researchers analyze how most compensation prisoners (detainees who are unable or unwilling to pay a fine for petty crimes) are unemployed, homeless, and with an extraordinarily high degree of mental illnesses and substance use disorders. Compensation prisoners then lose prospective job opportunities, face social marginalization, and lack access to resocialization programs, which ultimately facilitate reoffending. The research sheds light on how the mentally ill—and in this case, the poor—are further punished for certain circumstances that are beyond their control, and that this is a vicious cycle that repeats itself. Thus, prisons embody another state-provisioned mental hospital. Families of patients, advocates, and mental health professionals still call for the increase in more well-structured community facilities and treatment programs with a higher quality of long-term inpatient resources and care. With this more structured environment, the United States will continue with more access to mental health care and an increase in the overall treatment of the mentally ill. However, there is still a lack of studies for mental health conditions (MHCs) to raise awareness, knowledge development, and attitude of seeking medical treatment for MHCs in Bangladesh. People in rural areas often seek treatment from the traditional healers and MHCs are sometimes considered a spiritual matter. Epidemiology ------------ Mental illnesses are more common than cancer, diabetes, or heart disease. Over 26 percent of all Americans over the age of 18 meet the criteria for having a mental illness. Evidence suggests that 450 million people worldwide have some mental illness. Major depression ranks fourth among the top 10 leading causes of disease worldwide. By 2029, mental illness is predicted to become the leading cause of disease worldwide. One million people commit suicide every year and 10 to 20 million attempt it. A World Health Organization (WHO) report estimates the global cost of mental illness at nearly $2.5 trillion (two-thirds in indirect costs) in 2010, with a projected increase to over $6 trillion by 2030. Evidence from the WHO suggests that nearly half of the world's population is affected by mental illness with an impact on their self-esteem, relationships and ability to function in everyday life. An individual's emotional health can impact their physical health. Poor mental health can lead to problems such as the inability to make adequate decisions and substance use disorders. Good mental health can improve life quality whereas poor mental health can worsen it. According to Richards, Campania, & Muse-Burke, "There is growing evidence that is showing emotional abilities are associated with pro-social behaviors such as stress management and physical health." Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors (e.g., substance use disorder and alcohol use disorder, physical fights, vandalism), which reflects one's mental health and suppressed emotions. Adults and children who face mental illness may experience social stigma, which can exacerbate the issues. ### Global prevalence Mental health can be seen as a continuum, where an individual's mental health may have many different possible values. Mental wellness is viewed as a positive attribute; this definition of mental health highlights emotional well-being, the capacity to live a full and creative life, and the flexibility to deal with life's inevitable challenges. Some discussions are formulated in terms of contentment or happiness. Many therapeutic systems and self-help books offer methods and philosophies espousing strategies and techniques vaunted as effective for further improving the mental wellness. Positive psychology is increasingly prominent in mental health. A holistic model of mental health generally includes concepts based upon anthropological, educational, psychological, religious, and sociological perspectives. There are also models as theoretical perspectives from personality, social, clinical, health and developmental psychology. The tripartite model of mental well-being views mental well-being as encompassing three components of emotional well-being, social well-being, and psychological well-being. Emotional well-being is defined as having high levels of positive emotions, whereas social and psychological well-being are defined as the presence of psychological and social skills and abilities that contribute to optimal functioning in daily life. The model has received empirical support across cultures. The Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) is the most widely used scale to measure the tripartite model of mental well-being. ### Demographics #### Children and young adults Mental health conditions are 16% of the global burden of disease and injury in people aged 10–19 years. 8.9 million young adults are affected by mental illness. 42% of those young adults went untreated as of 2018. Half of all mental health conditions start by 14 years of age but most cases go undetected and untreated. The role of caregivers for youth with mental health needs is valuable, and caregivers benefit most when they have sufficient psychoeducation and peer support. Depression is one of the leading causes of illness and disability among adolescents. Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death in 15-19-year-olds. Exposure to childhood trauma can cause mental health disorders and poor academic achievement. Ignoring mental health conditions in adolescents can impact adulthood. 50% of preschool children show a natural reduction in behavioral problems. The remaining experience long-term consequences. It impairs physical and mental health and limits opportunities to live fulfilling lives. A result of depression during adolescence and adulthood may be substance abuse. The average age of onset is between 11 and 14 years for depressive disorders. Only approximately 25% of children with behavioral problems refer to medical services. The majority of children go untreated. #### Homeless population Mental illness is thought to be highly prevalent among homeless populations, though access to proper diagnoses is limited. An article written by Lisa Goodman and her colleagues summarized Smith's research into PTSD in homeless single women and mothers in St. Louis, Missouri, which found that 53% of the respondents met diagnostic criteria, and which describes homelessness as a risk factor for mental illness. At least two commonly reported symptoms of psychological trauma, social disaffiliation and learned helplessness are highly prevalent among homeless individuals and families. While mental illness is prevalent, people infrequently receive appropriate care. Case management linked to other services is an effective care approach for improving symptoms in people experiencing homelessness. Case management reduced admission to hospitals, and it reduced substance use by those with substance abuse problems more than typical care. #### Immigrants and refugees States that produce refugees are sites of social upheaval, civil war, even genocide. Most refugees experience trauma. It can be in the form of torture, sexual assault, family fragmentation, and death of loved ones. Refugees and immigrants experience psychosocial stressors after resettlement. These include discrimination, lack of economic stability, and social isolation causing emotional distress. For refugees family reunification can be one of the primary needs to improve quality of life. Post-migration trauma is a cause of depressive disorders and psychological distress for immigrants. #### Cultural and religious considerations Mental health is a socially constructed concept; different societies, groups, cultures, institutions, and professions have very different ways of conceptualizing its nature and causes, determining what is mentally healthy, and deciding what interventions, if any, are appropriate. Thus, different professionals will have different cultural, class, political and religious backgrounds, which will impact the methodology applied during treatment. In the context of deaf mental health care, it is necessary for professionals to have cultural competency of deaf and hard of hearing people and to understand how to properly rely on trained, qualified, and certified interpreters when working with culturally Deaf clients. Research has shown that there is stigma attached to mental illness. Due to such stigma, individuals may resist labeling and may be driven to respond to mental health diagnoses with denialism. Family caregivers of individuals with mental disorders may also suffer discrimination or face stigma. Addressing and eliminating the social stigma and perceived stigma attached to mental illness has been recognized as crucial to education and awareness surrounding mental health issues. In the United Kingdom, the Royal College of Psychiatrists organized the campaign *Changing Minds* (1998–2003) to help reduce stigma, while in the United States, efforts by entities such as the Born This Way Foundation and *The Manic Monologues* specifically focus on removing the stigma surrounding mental illness. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) is a U.S. institution founded in 1979 to represent and advocate for those struggling with mental health issues. NAMI helps to educate about mental illnesses and health issues, while also working to eliminate stigma attached to these disorders. Many mental health professionals are beginning to, or already understand, the importance of competency in religious diversity and spirituality. They are also partaking in cultural training to better understand which interventions work best for these different groups of people. The American Psychological Association explicitly states that religion must be respected. Education in spiritual and religious matters is also required by the American Psychiatric Association, however, far less attention is paid to the damage that more rigid, fundamentalist faiths commonly practiced in the United States can cause.[*unreliable source?*] This theme has been widely politicized in 2018 such as with the creation of the Religious Liberty Task Force in July of that year. Also, many providers and practitioners in the United States are only beginning to realize that the institution of mental healthcare lacks knowledge and competence of many non-Western cultures, leaving providers in the United States ill-equipped to treat patients from different cultures. ### Occupations ### Occupational therapy Occupational therapy practitioners aim to improve and enable a client or group's participation in meaningful, everyday occupations. In this sense, occupation is defined as any activity that “occupies one's time". Examples of those activities include daily tasks (dressing, bathing, eating, house chores, driving, etc.), sleep and rest, education, work, play, leisure (hobbies), and social interactions. The OT profession offers a vast range of services for all stages of life in a myriad of practice settings, though the foundations of OT come from mental health. Community support for mental health through expert-moderated support groups can aid those who want to recover from mental illness or otherwise improve their emotional well-being. OT services focused on mental health can be provided to persons, groups, and populations across the lifespan and experiencing varying levels of mental health performance. For example, occupational therapy practitioners provide mental health services in school systems, military environments, hospitals, outpatient clinics, and inpatient mental health rehabilitation settings. Interventions or support can be provided directly through specific treatment interventions or indirectly by providing consultation to businesses, schools, or other larger groups to incorporate mental health strategies on a programmatic level. Even people who are mentally healthy can benefit from the health promotion and additional prevention strategies to reduce the impact of difficult situations. The interventions focus on positive functioning, sensory strategies, managing emotions, interpersonal relationships, sleep, community engagement, and other cognitive skills (i.e. visual-perceptual skills, attention, memory, arousal/energy management, etc.). #### Mental health in social work Social work in mental health, also called psychiatric social work, is a process where an individual in a setting is helped to attain freedom from overlapping internal and external problems (social and economic situations, family and other relationships, the physical and organizational environment, psychiatric symptoms, etc.). It aims for harmony, quality of life, self-actualization and personal adaptation across all systems. Psychiatric social workers are mental health professionals that can assist patients and their family members in coping with both mental health issues and various economic or social problems caused by mental illness or psychiatric dysfunctions and to attain improved mental health and well-being. They are vital members of the treatment teams in Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences in hospitals. They are employed in both outpatient and inpatient settings of a hospital, nursing homes, state and local governments, substance use clinics, correctional facilities, health care services, private practice, etc. In the United States, social workers provide most of the mental health services. According to government sources, 60 percent of mental health professionals are clinically trained social workers, 10 percent are psychiatrists, 23 percent are psychologists, and 5 percent are psychiatric nurses. Mental health social workers in Japan have professional knowledge of health and welfare and skills essential for person's well-being. Their social work training enables them as a professional to carry out Consultation assistance for mental disabilities and their social reintegration; Consultation regarding the rehabilitation of the victims; Advice and guidance for post-discharge residence and re-employment after hospitalized care, for major life events in regular life, money and self-management and other relevant matters to equip them to adapt in daily life. Social workers provide individual home visits for mentally ill and do welfare services available, with specialized training a range of procedural services are coordinated for home, workplace and school. In an administrative relationship, Psychiatric social workers provides consultation, leadership, conflict management and work direction. Psychiatric social workers who provides assessment and psychosocial interventions function as a clinician, counselor and municipal staff of the health centers. Risk factors and causes of mental health problems ------------------------------------------------- There are many things that can contribute to mental health problems, including biological factors, genetic factors, life experiences (such as psychological trauma or abuse), and a family history of mental health problems. ### Biological factors According to the National Institute of Health Curriculum Supplement Series book, most scientists believe that changes in neurotransmitters can cause mental illnesses. In the section "The Biology of Mental Illnesses" the issue is explained in detail, "…there may be disruptions in the neurotransmitters dopamine, glutamate, and norepinephrine in individuals who have schizophrenia". ### Economic factors Unemployment has been shown to hurt an individual's emotional well-being, self-esteem, and more broadly their mental health. Increasing unemployment has been shown to have a significant impact on mental health, predominantly depressive disorders. This is an important consideration when reviewing the triggers for mental health disorders in any population survey. Emotional mental disorders are a leading cause of disabilities worldwide. Investigating the degree and severity of untreated emotional mental disorders throughout the world is a top priority of the World Mental Health (WMH) survey initiative, which was created in 1998 by the World Health Organization (WHO). "Neuropsychiatric disorders are the leading causes of disability worldwide, accounting for 37% of all healthy life years lost through disease. These disorders are most destructive to low and middle-income countries due to their inability to provide their citizens with proper aid. Despite modern treatment and rehabilitation for emotional mental health disorders, "even economically advantaged societies have competing priorities and budgetary constraints". The World Mental Health survey initiative has suggested a plan for countries to redesign their mental health care systems to best allocate resources. "A first step is documentation of services being used and the extent and nature of unmet treatment needs. A second step could be to do a cross-national comparison of service use and unmet needs in countries with different mental health care systems. Such comparisons can help to uncover optimum financing, national policies, and delivery systems for mental health care."[*This quote needs a citation*] Knowledge of how to provide effective emotional mental health care has become imperative worldwide. Unfortunately, most countries have insufficient data to guide decisions, absent or competing visions for resources, and near-constant pressures to cut insurance and entitlements. WMH surveys were done in Africa (Nigeria, South Africa), the Americas (Colombia, Mexico, United States), Asia and the Pacific (Japan, New Zealand, Beijing and Shanghai in the People's Republic of China), Europe (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Ukraine), and the Middle East (Israel, Lebanon). Countries were classified with World Bank criteria as low-income (Nigeria), lower-middle-income (China, Colombia, South Africa, Ukraine), higher middle-income (Lebanon, Mexico), and high-income. The coordinated surveys on emotional mental health disorders, their severity, and treatments were implemented in the aforementioned countries. These surveys assessed the frequency, types, and adequacy of mental health service use in 17 countries in which WMH surveys are complete. The WMH also examined unmet needs for treatment in strata defined by the seriousness of mental disorders. Their research showed that "the number of respondents using any 12-month mental health service was generally lower in developing than in developed countries, and the proportion receiving services tended to correspond to countries' percentages of gross domestic product spent on health care". "High levels of unmet need worldwide are not surprising, since WHO Project ATLAS' findings of much lower mental health expenditures than was suggested by the magnitude of burdens from mental illnesses. Generally, unmet needs in low-income and middle-income countries might be attributable to these nations spending reduced amounts (usually <1%) of already diminished health budgets on mental health care, and they rely heavily on out-of-pocket spending by citizens who are ill-equipped for it". ### Stress The Centre for Addiction and Mental Health discuss how a certain amount of stress is a normal part of daily life. Small doses of stress help people meet deadlines, be prepared for presentations, be productive and arrive on time for important events. However, long-term stress can become harmful. When stress becomes overwhelming and prolonged, the risks for mental health problems and medical problems increase." Also on that note, some studies have found language to deteriorate mental health and even harm humans. ### Environmental factors The effects of climate change on mental health and well-being can be negative, especially for vulnerable populations and those with pre-existing serious mental illness. There are three broad pathways by which these effects can take place: directly, indirectly or via awareness. The direct pathway includes stress related conditions being caused by exposure to extreme weather events, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Scientific studies have linked mental health outcomes to several climate-related exposures—heat, humidity, rainfall, drought, wildfires and floods. The indirect pathway can be via disruption to economic and social activities, such as when an area of farmland is less able to produce food. The third pathway can be of mere awareness of the climate change threat, even by individuals who are not otherwise affected by it. Mental health outcomes have been measured in several studies through indicators such as psychiatric hospital admissions, mortality, self-harm and suicide rates. Vulnerable populations and life stages include people with pre-existing mental illness, Indigenous peoples, migrants and refugees, and children and adolescents. The emotional responses to the threat of climate change can include eco-anxiety, ecological grief and eco-anger. Such emotions can be rational responses to the degradation of the natural world and lead to adaptive action. Assessing the exact mental health effects of climate change is difficult; increases in heat extremes pose risks to mental health which can manifest themselves in increased mental health-related hospital admissions and suicidality. Prevention and promotion ------------------------ "The terms mental health promotion and prevention have often been confused. Promotion is defined as intervening to *optimize* positive mental health by addressing determinants of positive mental health (i.e. protective factors) before a specific mental health problem has been identified, with the ultimate goal of improving the positive mental health of the population. Mental health prevention is defined as intervening to *minimize* mental health problems (i.e. risk factors) by addressing determinants of mental health problems before a specific mental health problem has been identified in the individual, group, or population of focus with the ultimate goal of reducing the number of future mental health problems in the population." In order to improve mental health, the root of the issue has to be resolved. "Prevention emphasizes the avoidance of risk factors; promotion aims to enhance an individual's ability to achieve a positive sense of self-esteem, mastery, well-being, and social inclusion." Mental health promotion attempts to increase protective factors and healthy behaviors that can help prevent the onset of a diagnosable mental disorder and reduce risk factors that can lead to the development of a mental disorder. Yoga is an example of an activity that calms one's entire body and nerves. According to a study on well-being by Richards, Campania, and Muse-Burke, "mindfulness is considered to be a purposeful state, it may be that those who practice it belief in its importance and value being mindful, so that valuing of self-care activities may influence the intentional component of mindfulness." Mental health is conventionally defined as a hybrid of the absence of a mental disorder and the presence of well-being. Focus is increasing on preventing mental disorders. Prevention is beginning to appear in mental health strategies, including the 2004 WHO report "*Prevention of Mental Disorders*", the 2008 EU "Pact for Mental Health" and the 2011 US National Prevention Strategy.[*page needed*] Some commentators have argued that a pragmatic and practical approach to mental disorder prevention at work would be to treat it the same way as physical injury prevention. Prevention of a disorder at a young age may significantly decrease the chances that a child will have a disorder later in life, and shall be the most efficient and effective measure from a public health perspective. Prevention may require the regular consultation of a physician for at least twice a year to detect any signs that reveal any mental health concerns. Additionally, social media is becoming a resource for prevention. In 2004, the Mental Health Services Act began to fund marketing initiatives to educate the public on mental health. This California-based project is working to combat the negative perception with mental health and reduce the stigma associated with it. While social media can benefit mental health, it can also lead to deterioration if not managed properly. Limiting social media intake is beneficial. Studies report that patients in mental health care who can access and read their Electronic Health Records (EHR) or Open Notes online experience increased understanding of their mental health, feeling in control of their care, and enhanced trust in their clinicians. Patients' also reported feelings of greater validation, engagement, remembering their care plan, and acquiring a better awareness of potential side effects of their medications, when reading their mental health notes. Other common experiences were that shared mental health notes enhance patient empowerment and augment patient autonomy. Furthermore, recent studies have shown that social media is an effective way to draw attention to mental health issues. By collecting data from Twitter, researchers found that social media presence is heightened after an event relating to behavioral health occurs. Researchers continue to find effective ways to use social media to bring more awareness to mental health issues through online campaigns in other sites such as Facebook and Instagram. ### Care navigation Mental health care navigation helps to guide patients and families through the fragmented, often confusing mental health industries. Care navigators work closely with patients and families through discussion and collaboration to provide information on best therapies as well as referrals to practitioners and facilities specializing in particular forms of emotional improvement. The difference between therapy and care navigation is that the care navigation process provides information and directs patients to therapy rather than providing therapy. Still, care navigators may offer diagnosis and treatment planning. Though many care navigators are also trained therapists and doctors. Care navigation is the link between the patient and the below therapies. A clear recognition that mental health requires medical intervention was demonstrated in a study by Kessler et al. of the prevalence and treatment of mental disorders from 1990 to 2003 in the United States. Despite the prevalence of mental health disorders remaining unchanged during this period, the number of patients seeking treatment for mental disorders increased threefold. ### Methods #### Pharmacotherapy Pharmacotherapy is a therapy that uses pharmaceutical drugs. Pharmacotherapy is used in the treatment of mental illness through the use of antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and the use of elements such as lithium. It can only be prescribed by a medical professional trained in the field of Psychiatry. #### Physical activity Physical exercise can improve mental and physical health. Playing sports, walking, cycling, or doing any form of physical activity trigger the production of various hormones, sometimes including endorphins, which can elevate a person's mood. Studies have shown that in some cases, physical activity can have the same impact as antidepressants when treating depression and anxiety. Moreover, cessation of physical exercise may have adverse effects on some mental health conditions, such as depression and anxiety. This could lead to different negative outcomes such as obesity, skewed body image and many health risks associated with mental illnesses. Exercise can improve mental health but it should not be used as an alternative to therapy. #### Activity therapies Activity therapies also called recreation therapy and occupational therapy, promote healing through active engagement. An example of occupational therapy would be promoting an activity that improves daily life, such as self-care or improving hobbies. Similarly, recreational therapy focuses on movement, such as walking, yoga, or riding a bike. Each of these therapies have proven to improve mental health and have resulted in healthier, happier individuals. In recent years, for example, coloring has been recognized as an activity that has been proven to significantly lower the levels of depressive symptoms and anxiety in many studies. #### Expressive therapies Expressive therapies or creative arts therapies are a form of psychotherapy that involves the arts or art-making. These therapies include art therapy, music therapy, drama therapy, dance therapy, and poetry therapy. It has been proven that music therapy is an effective way of helping people with a mental health disorder. Drama therapy is approved by NICE for the treatment of psychosis. #### Psychotherapy Psychotherapy is the general term for the scientific based treatment of mental health issues based on modern medicine. It includes a number of schools, such as gestalt therapy, psychoanalysis, cognitive behavioral therapy, psychedelic therapy, transpersonal psychology/psychotherapy, and dialectical behavioral therapy. Group therapy involves any type of therapy that takes place in a setting involving multiple people. It can include psychodynamic groups, expressive therapy groups, support groups (including the Twelve-step program), problem-solving and psychoeducation groups. #### Self-compassion According to Neff, self-compassion consists of three main positive components and their negative counterparts: Self-Kindness versus Self-Judgement, Common Humanity versus Isolation and Mindfulness versus Over-Identification. Furthermore, there is evidence from a study by Shin & Lin suggesting specific components of self-compassion can predict specific dimensions of positive mental health (emotional, social, and psychological well-being). #### Social-emotional learning The Collaborative for academic, social, emotional learning (CASEL) addresses five broad and interrelated areas of competence and highlights examples for each: self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, *and* responsible decision-making. A meta-analysis was done by Alexendru Boncu, Iuliana Costeau, & Mihaela Minulescu (2017) looking at social-emotional learning (SEL) studies and the effects on emotional and behavior outcomes. They found a small but significant effect size (across the studies looked into) for externalized problems and social-emotional skills. #### Meditation The practice of mindfulness meditation has several potential mental health benefits, such as bringing about reductions in depression, anxiety and stress. Mindfulness meditation may also be effective in treating substance use disorders. #### Lucid Dreaming Lucid dreaming has been found to be associated with greater mental well-being. It also was not associated with poorer sleep quality nor with cognitive dissociation. There is also some evidence lucid dreaming therapy can help with nightmare reduction. #### Mental fitness Mental fitness is a mental health movement that encourages people to intentionally regulate and maintain their emotional wellbeing through friendship, regular human contact, and activities that include meditation, calming exercises, aerobic exercise, mindfulness, having a routine and maintaining adequate sleep. Mental fitness is intended to build resilience against every-day mental health challenges to prevent an escalation of anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation, and help them cope with the escalation of those feelings if they occur. #### Spiritual counseling Spiritual counsellors meet with people in need to offer comfort and support and to help them gain a better understanding of their issues and develop a problem-solving relation with spirituality. These types of counselors deliver care based on spiritual, psychological and theological principles. Laws and public health policies ------------------------------- There are many factors that influence mental health including: * Mental illness, disability, and suicide are ultimately the result of a combination of biology, environment, and access to and utilization of mental health treatment. * Public health policies can influence access and utilization, which subsequently may improve mental health and help to progress the negative consequences of depression and its associated disability. ### United States Emotional mental illnesses should be a particular concern in the United States since the U.S. has the highest annual prevalence rates (26 percent) for mental illnesses among a comparison of 14 developing and developed countries. While approximately 80 percent of all people in the United States with a mental disorder eventually receive some form of treatment, on average persons do not access care until nearly a decade following the development of their illness, and less than one-third of people who seek help receive minimally adequate care. The government offers everyone programs and services, but veterans receive the most help, there is certain eligibility criteria that has to be met. #### Policies Mental health policies in the United States have experienced four major reforms: the American asylum movement led by Dorothea Dix in 1843; the mental hygiene movement inspired by Clifford Beers in 1908; the deinstitutionalization started by Action for Mental Health in 1961; and the community support movement called for by The CMCH Act Amendments of 1975. In 1843, Dorothea Dix submitted a Memorial to the Legislature of Massachusetts, describing the abusive treatment and horrible conditions received by the mentally ill patients in jails, cages, and almshouses. She revealed in her Memorial: "I proceed, gentlemen, briefly to call your attention to the present state of insane persons confined within this Commonwealth, in cages, closets, cellars, stalls, pens! Chained, naked, beaten with rods, and lashed into obedience...." Many asylums were built in that period, with high fences or walls separating the patients from other community members and strict rules regarding the entrance and exit. In 1866, a recommendation came to the New York State Legislature to establish a separate asylum for chronic mentally ill patients. Some hospitals placed the chronic patients into separate wings or wards, or different buildings. In *A Mind That Found Itself* (1908) Clifford Whittingham Beers described the humiliating treatment he received and the deplorable conditions in the mental hospital. One year later, the National Committee for Mental Hygiene (NCMH) was founded by a small group of reform-minded scholars and scientists—including Beers himself—which marked the beginning of the "mental hygiene" movement. The movement emphasized the importance of childhood prevention. World War I catalyzed this idea with an additional emphasis on the impact of maladjustment, which convinced the hygienists that prevention was the only practical approach to handle mental health issues. However, prevention was not successful, especially for chronic illness; the condemnable conditions in the hospitals were even more prevalent, especially under the pressure of the increasing number of chronically ill and the influence of the depression. In 1961, the Joint Commission on Mental Health published a report called Action for Mental Health, whose goal was for community clinic care to take on the burden of prevention and early intervention of the mental illness, therefore to leave space in the hospitals for severe and chronic patients. The court started to rule in favor of the patients' will on whether they should be forced to treatment. By 1977, 650 community mental health centers were built to cover 43 percent of the population and serve 1.9 million individuals a year, and the lengths of treatment decreased from 6 months to only 23 days. However, issues still existed. Due to inflation, especially in the 1970s, the community nursing homes received less money to support the care and treatment provided. Fewer than half of the planned centers were created, and new methods did not fully replace the old approaches to carry out its full capacity of treating power. Besides, the community helping system was not fully established to support the patients' housing, vocational opportunities, income supports, and other benefits. Many patients returned to welfare and criminal justice institutions, and more became homeless. The movement of deinstitutionalization was facing great challenges. After realizing that simply changing the location of mental health care from the state hospitals to nursing houses was insufficient to implement the idea of deinstitutionalization, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) in 1975 created the Community Support Program (CSP) to provide funds for communities to set up a comprehensive mental health service and supports to help the mentally ill patients integrate successfully in the society. The program stressed the importance of other supports in addition to medical care, including housing, living expenses, employment, transportation, and education; and set up new national priority for people with serious mental disorders. In addition, the Congress enacted the Mental Health Systems Act of 1980 to prioritize the service to the mentally ill and emphasize the expansion of services beyond just clinical care alone. Later in the 1980s, under the influence from the Congress and the Supreme Court, many programs started to help the patients regain their benefits. A new Medicaid service was also established to serve people who were diagnosed with a "chronic mental illness". People who were temporally hospitalized were also provided aid and care and a pre-release program was created to enable people to apply for reinstatement prior to discharge. Not until 1990, around 35 years after the start of the deinstitutionalization, did the first state hospital begin to close. The number of hospitals dropped from around 300 by over 40 in the 1990s, and finally a Report on Mental Health showed the efficacy of mental health treatment, giving a range of treatments available for patients to choose. However, several critics maintain that deinstitutionalization has, from a mental health point of view, been a thoroughgoing failure. The seriously mentally ill are either homeless, or in prison; in either case (especially the latter), they are getting little or no mental health care. This failure is attributed to a number of reasons over which there is some degree of contention, although there is general agreement that community support programs have been ineffective at best, due to a lack of funding. The 2011 National Prevention Strategy included mental and emotional well-being, with recommendations including better parenting and early intervention programs, which increase the likelihood of prevention programs being included in future US mental health policies.[*page needed*] The NIMH is researching only suicide and HIV/AIDS prevention, but the National Prevention Strategy could lead to it focusing more broadly on longitudinal prevention studies.[*failed verification*] In 2013, United States Representative Tim Murphy introduced the Helping Families in Mental Health Crisis Act, HR2646. The bipartisan bill went through substantial revision and was reintroduced in 2015 by Murphy and Congresswoman Eddie Bernice Johnson. In November 2015, it passed the Health Subcommittee by an 18–12 vote. See also -------- * Abnormal psychology * Emotional resilience * Ethnopsychopharmacology * Mental environment * Mental health day * Mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic * Mental health first aid * Self-help groups for mental health * Social determinants of mental health * Suicide awareness * Telemental health * World Mental Health Day * Mental health of Asian Americans * Mental health in the workplace * Mental health in education Further reading --------------- * Online Books by William Sweetser

Mental health

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_health

**11** (**eleven**) is the natural number following 10 and preceding 12. It is the first repdigit. In English, it is the smallest positive integer whose name has three syllables. Name ---- "Eleven" derives from the Old English **ęndleofon**, which is first attested in Bede's late 9th-century *Ecclesiastical History of the English People*. It has cognates in every Germanic language (for example, German *elf*), whose Proto-Germanic ancestor has been reconstructed as \**ainalifa-*, from the prefix \**aina-* (adjectival "one") and suffix \**-lifa-*, of uncertain meaning. It is sometimes compared with the Lithuanian **vienúolika**, though **-lika** is used as the suffix for all numbers from 11 to 19 (analogously to "-teen"). The Old English form has closer cognates in Old Frisian, Saxon, and Norse, whose ancestor has been reconstructed as \**ainlifun*. This was formerly thought to be derived from Proto-Germanic \**tehun* ("ten"); it is now sometimes connected with \**leikʷ-* or \**leip-* ("left; remaining"), with the implicit meaning that "one is left" after counting to ten. In languages ------------ While 11 has its own name in Germanic languages such as English, German, or Swedish, and some Latin-based languages such as Spanish, Portuguese, and French, it is the first compound number in many other languages: Chinese 十一 *shí yī*, Korean 열하나 *yeol hana* or 십일 *ship il*. In mathematics -------------- **Eleven** is the fifth prime number, and the first two-digit numeric palindrome in decimal. It forms a twin prime with 13, and it is the first member of the second prime quadruplet (11, 13, 17, 19). The eleventh prime number is the first prime exponent that does not yield a Mersenne prime, where 2 11 − 1 = 2047 {\displaystyle 2^{11}-1=2047} {\displaystyle 2^{11}-1=2047}, which is composite. On the other hand, the eleventh prime number 31 is the third Mersenne prime, while the thirty-first prime number 127 is not only a Mersenne prime but also the second double Mersenne prime. 11 is also the fifth Heegner number, meaning that the ring of integers of the field Q ( − 11 ) {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {-11}})} {\displaystyle \mathbb {Q} ({\sqrt {-11}})} has the property of unique factorization and class number 1. 11 is the first prime repunit R 2 {\displaystyle R\_{2}} R_{{2}} in decimal (and simply, the first repunit), as well as the second unique prime in base ten. It is the first strong prime, the second good prime, the third super-prime, the fourth Lucas prime, and the fifth consecutive supersingular prime. The rows of Pascal's triangle can be seen as representation of the powers of 11. 11 of 35 hexominoes can fold in a net to form a cube, while 11 of 66 octiamonds can fold into a regular octahedron. An 11-sided polygon is called a hendecagon, or *undecagon*. The complete graph K 11 {\displaystyle K\_{11}} K_{11} has a total of 55 edges, which collectively represent the diagonals and sides of a hendecagon. A regular hendecagon cannot be constructed with a compass and straightedge alone, as 11 is not a product of distinct Fermat primes, and it is also the first polygon that is not able to be constructed with the aid of an angle trisector. 11 and some of its multiples appear as counts of uniform tessellations in various dimensions and spaces; there are: * 11 regular and semiregular convex uniform tilings in the Euclidean plane, which are dual to the 11 Laves tilings. 22 edge-to-edge uniform tilings with convex and star polygons, and 33 uniform tilings with zizgzag apeirogons that alternate between two angles. * 11 regular complex apeirogons, which are tilings with polygons that have a countably infinite number of sides. 8 solutions of the form p{q}r satisfy δ*p*,*r* 2 in C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } \mathbb{C} where q {\displaystyle q} q is constrained to q = 2 / ( 1 − ( p + r ) / p r ) {\displaystyle q=2/(1-(p+r)/pr)} {\displaystyle q=2/(1-(p+r)/pr)}, while three contain affine nodes and include infinite solutions, two in C {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} } \mathbb{C} , and one in C 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}}. 22 regular complex apeirohedra of the form p{a}q{b}r, where 21 exist in C 2 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{2}} and 1 in C 3 {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{3}} {\displaystyle \mathbb {C} ^{3}}. * 11 regular paracompact hyperbolic honeycombs with infinite facets and vertex figures in the third dimension. 11 total regular hyperbolic honeycombs in the fourth dimension: 9 compact solutions are generated from regular 4-polytopes and regular star 4-polytopes, alongside 2 paracompact solutions. * 55 uniform Euclidean 4-honeycombs exist in the fourth dimension, and 66 uniform Euclidean 5-honeycombs exist in the fifth dimension. The 11-cell is a self-dual abstract 4-polytope with 11 vertices, 55 edges, 55 triangular faces, and 11 hemi-icosahedral cells. It is *universal* in the sense that it is the only abstract polytope with hemi-icosahedral facets and hemi-dodecahedral vertex figures. The 11-cell contains the same number of vertices and edges as the complete graph K 11 {\displaystyle K\_{11}} K_{11} and the 10-simplex, a regular polytope in 10 dimensions. There are 11 orthogonal curvilinear coordinate systems (to within a conformal symmetry) in which the 3-variable Helmholtz equation can be solved using the separation of variables technique. Mathieu group M 11 {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \_{11}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} _{11}} is the smallest of twenty-six sporadic groups, defined as a sharply 4-transitive permutation group on eleven objects. It has order 7920 = 2 4 ⋅ 3 2 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 11 = 8 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 11 {\displaystyle 7920=2^{4}\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 5\cdot 11=8\cdot 9\cdot 10\cdot 11} {\displaystyle 7920=2^{4}\cdot 3^{2}\cdot 5\cdot 11=8\cdot 9\cdot 10\cdot 11}, with 11 as its largest prime factor, and a minimal faithful complex representation in ten dimensions. Its group action is the automorphism group of Steiner system S ⁡ ( 4 , 5 , 11 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {S} (4,5,11)} {\displaystyle \operatorname {S} (4,5,11)}, with an induced action on unordered pairs of points that gives a rank 3 action on 55 points. Mathieu group M 12 {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \_{12}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} _{12}}, on the other hand, is formed from the permutations of projective special linear group P S L 2 ⁡ ( 1 , 1 ) {\displaystyle \operatorname {PSL\_{2}} (1,1)} {\displaystyle \operatorname {PSL_{2}} (1,1)} with those of ( 2 , 10 ) ( 3 , 4 ) ( 5 , 9 ) ( 6 , 7 ) {\displaystyle (2,10)(3,4)(5,9)(6,7)} {\displaystyle (2,10)(3,4)(5,9)(6,7)}. It is the second-smallest sporadic group, and holds M 11 {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \_{11}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} _{11}} as a maximal subgroup and point stabilizer, with an order equal to 95040 = 2 6 ⋅ 3 3 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 11 = 8 ⋅ 9 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 11 ⋅ 12 {\displaystyle 95040=2^{6}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 5\cdot 11=8\cdot 9\cdot 10\cdot 11\cdot 12} {\displaystyle 95040=2^{6}\cdot 3^{3}\cdot 5\cdot 11=8\cdot 9\cdot 10\cdot 11\cdot 12}, where 11 is also its largest prime factor, like M 11 {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \_{11}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} _{11}}. M 12 {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} \_{12}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {M} _{12}} also centralizes an element of order 11 in the friendly giant F 1 {\displaystyle \mathrm {F} \_{1}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {F} _{1}}, the largest sporadic group, and holds an irreducible faithful complex representation in eleven dimensions. The first eleven prime numbers (from 2 through 31) are consecutive supersingular primes that divide the order of the friendly giant, with the remaining four supersingular primes (41, 47, 59, and 71) lying between five non-supersingular primes. Only five of twenty-six sporadic groups do not contain 11 as a prime factor that divides their group order ( J 2 {\displaystyle \mathrm {J} \_{2}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {J} _{2}}, J 3 {\displaystyle \mathrm {J} \_{3}} {\displaystyle \mathrm {J} _{3}}, R u {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ru} } {\displaystyle \mathrm {Ru} }, H e {\displaystyle \mathrm {He} } {\displaystyle \mathrm {He} }, and T h {\displaystyle \mathrm {Th} } {\displaystyle \mathrm {Th} }). 11 is also not a prime factor of the order of the Tits group T {\displaystyle \mathrm {T} } \mathrm {T} , which is sometimes categorized as non-strict group of Lie type, or sporadic group. In addition, there are eleven sporadic groups whose standard generators do not hold *further conditions* that yield a semi-presentation (or set of relations characterizing a set of generators of a group G {\displaystyle \mathrm {G} } {\displaystyle \mathrm {G} } up to automorphism). Within safe and Sophie Germain primes of the form 2 p + 1 {\displaystyle 2p+1} {\displaystyle 2p+1}, 11 is the third safe prime, from a p {\displaystyle p} p of 5, and the fourth Sophie Germain prime, which yields 23. ### In decimal 11 is the smallest two-digit prime number. On the seven-segment display of a calculator, it is both a strobogrammatic prime and a dihedral prime. Multiples of 11 by one-digit numbers yield palindromic numbers with matching double digits: 00, **11**, 22, 33, 44, etc. The sum of the first 11 non-zero positive integers, equivalently the 11th triangular number, is 66. On the other hand, the sum of the first 11 integers, from zero to ten, is 55. The first four powers of 11 yield palindromic numbers: 111 = 11, 112 = 121, 113 = 1331, and 114 = 14641. 11 is the 11th index or member in the sequence of palindromic numbers, and 121, equal to 11 × 11 {\displaystyle 11\times 11} {\displaystyle 11\times 11}, is the 22nd. The factorial of 11, 11 ! = 39916800 {\displaystyle 11!=39916800} {\displaystyle 11!=39916800}, has about a 0.2% difference to the round number 4 × 10 7 {\displaystyle 4\times 10^{7}} {\displaystyle 4\times 10^{7}}, or 40 million. Among the first 100 factorials, the next closest to a round number is 96 ( 96 ! ≈ 9.91678 × 10 149 {\displaystyle 96!\approx 9.91678\times 10^{149}} {\displaystyle 96!\approx 9.91678\times 10^{149}}), which is about 0.8% less than 10149. If a number is divisible by 11, reversing its digits will result in another multiple of 11. As long as no two adjacent digits of a number added together exceed 9, then multiplying the number by 11, reversing the digits of the product, and dividing that new number by 11 will yield a number that is the reverse of the original number; as in: 142,312 × 11 = 1,565,432 → 2,345,651 ÷ 11 = 213,241. #### Divisibility tests A simple test to determine whether an integer is divisible by 11 is to take every digit of the number in an odd position and add them, then take the remaining digits and add them. If the difference between the two sums is a multiple of 11, including 0, then the number is divisible by 11. For instance, with the number 65,637: (6 + 6 + 7) - (5 + 3) = 19 - 8 = 11, so 65,637 is divisible by 11. This technique also works with groups of digits rather than individual digits, so long as the number of digits in each group is odd, although not all groups have to have the same number of digits. If one uses three digits in each group, one gets from 65,637 the calculation, (065) - 637 = -572, which is divisible by 11. Another test for divisibility is to separate a number into groups of two consecutive digits (adding a leading zero if there is an odd number of digits), and then add the numbers so formed; if the result is divisible by 11, the number is divisible by 11: 06 + 56 + 37 = 99, which is divisible by 11. This also works by adding a trailing zero instead of a leading one, and with larger groups of digits, provided that each group has an even number of digits (not all groups have to have the same number of digits): 65 + 63 + 70 = 198, which is divisible by 11. #### Multiplying 11 An easy way to multiply numbers by 11 in base 10 is: If the number has: * 1 digit, replicate the digit: 2 × 11 becomes 22. * 2 digits, add the 2 digits and place the result in the middle: 47 × 11 becomes 4 (11) 7 or 4 (10+1) 7 or (4+1) 1 7 or 517. * 3 digits, keep the first digit in its place for the result's first digit, add the first and second digits to form the result's second digit, add the second and third digits to form the result's third digit, and keep the third digit as the result's fourth digit. For any resulting numbers greater than 9, carry the 1 to the left. 123 × 11 becomes 1 (1+2) (2+3) 3 or 1353. 481 × 11 becomes 4 (4+8) (8+1) 1 or 4 (10+2) 9 1 or (4+1) 2 9 1 or 5291. * 4 or more digits, follow the same pattern as for 3 digits. #### List of basic calculations | Multiplication | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | | 25 | 50 | 100 | 1000 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **11 × *x*** | **11** | 22 | 33 | 44 | 55 | 66 | 77 | 88 | 99 | 110 | 121 | 132 | 143 | 154 | 165 | 176 | 187 | 198 | 209 | 220 | | 275 | 550 | 1100 | 11000 | | Division | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **11 ÷ *x*** | **11** | 5.5 | 3.6 | 2.75 | 2.2 | 1.83 | 1.571428 | 1.375 | 1.2 | 1.1 | | 1 | 0.916 | 0.846153 | 0.7857142 | 0.73 | | ***x* ÷ 11** | 0.09 | 0.18 | 0.27 | 0.36 | 0.45 | 0.54 | 0.63 | 0.72 | 0.81 | 0.90 | | 1 | 1.09 | 1.18 | 1.27 | 1.36 | | Exponentiation | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **11*x*** | **11** | 121 | 1331 | 14641 | 161051 | 1771561 | 19487171 | 214358881 | 2357947691 | 25937424601 | 285311670611 | | ***x*11** | 1 | 2048 | 177147 | 4194304 | 48828125 | 362797056 | 1977326743 | 8589934592 | 31381059609 | 100000000000 | 285311670611 | ### In other bases In base 13 and higher bases (such as hexadecimal), 11 is represented as B, where ten is A. In duodecimal, 11 is sometimes represented as E or ↋, and ten as T, X, or ↊. | Radix | 1 | 5 | 10 | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 110 | 120 | 130 | 140 | 150 | 200 | 250 | 500 | 1000 | 10000 | 100000 | 1000000 | | | | ***x*11** | 1 | 5 | A11 | 1411 | 1911 | 2311 | 2811 | 3711 | 4611 | 5511 | 6411 | 7311 | 8211 | 9111 | | A011 | AA11 | 10911 | 11811 | 12711 | 17211 | 20811 | 41511 | 82A11 | 757211 | 6914A11 | 62335111 | In science ---------- * 11 is the atomic number of the element sodium. * In chemistry, Group **11** of the Periodic Table of the Elements (IUPAC numbering) consists of the three coinage metals copper, silver, and gold known from antiquity, and roentgenium, a recently synthesized superheavy element. * The number of spacetime dimensions in M-theory. ### Astronomy * Apollo 11 was the first crewed spacecraft to land on the Moon. * A sunspot cycle's periodicity is approximately 11 years. * Messier object M11 is a magnitude 7.0 open cluster in the constellation Scutum, also known as the Wild Duck Cluster. * The New General Catalogue object NGC 11 is a spiral galaxy in the constellation Andromeda. * The 11th moon of Jupiter is Himalia. In religion and spirituality ---------------------------- ### Christianity After Judas Iscariot was disgraced, Jesus's remaining apostles were sometimes called "the Eleven" (Mark 16:11; Luke 24:9 and 24:33), even after Matthias was added to bring the number back to 12, as in Acts 2:14: *Peter stood up with the eleven* (New International Version). The New Living Translation says *Peter stepped forward with the eleven other apostles*, making clear that the number of apostles was now 12. Saint Ursula is said to have been martyred in the 3rd or 4th century in Cologne with a number of companions, whose reported number "varies from five to eleven". A legend that Ursula died with 11,000 virgin companions has been thought to appear from misreading *XI. M. V.* (Latin abbreviation for "Eleven martyr virgins") as "Eleven thousand virgins". ### Babylonian In the Enûma Eliš the goddess Tiamat creates 11 monsters to avenge the death of her husband, Apsû. ### Mysticism The number 11 (alongside its multiples 22 and 33) are master numbers in numerology, especially in New Age. In astrology, Aquarius is the 11th astrological sign of the Zodiac. In music -------- * The interval of an octave plus a fourth is an 11th. A complete 11th chord has almost every note of a diatonic scale. * There are 11 thumb keys on a bassoon, not counting the whisper key. (A few bassoons have a 12th thumb key.) * In the mockumentary *This Is Spinal Tap*, Spinal Tap's amplifiers go up to eleven. * In Igor Stravinsky's *The Rite of Spring*, there are 11 consecutive repetitions of the same chord. * In Tool's song "Jimmy" and in Negativland's song "Time Zones", the number 11 appears repeatedly in the lyrics. * "Eleven pipers piping" is the gift on the 11th day of Christmas in the carol "The Twelve Days of Christmas." * In Green Grow the Rushes, O, Eleven is for "the eleven who went to heaven." * "The Eleven" is a song by The Grateful Dead. * In "Time Enough For Rocking When We're Old" by The Magnetic Fields, a lyric references "when our pheromones go up to eleven." * Eleven Records is the record label of Jason Webley, and many of Webley's works feature the number 11. * *Eleven* is the title of albums by: + Come + incognito + Martina McBride + 22-Pistepirkko + Eleven + Harry Connick Jr. + Tina Arena + Jeff Lorber and Mike Stern + Reamonn + Wagon Cookin' + Mr. Fogg + The Birdland Big Band + Pearl Django + Daniel Peña + The Knux + Igor Lumpert + The Smithereens In sports --------- * There are 11 players on an association football (soccer) team on the field at a time. * An American football team also has 11 players on the field at one time during play. #11 is worn by quarterbacks, kickers, punters and wide receivers as well as running backs, defensive backs, safeties and linebackers in American football's NFL. * There are 11 players on a bandy team on the ice at a time. * In cricket, a team has 11 players on the field. The 11th player is usually the weakest batsman, at the tail-end. He is primarily in the team for his bowling abilities. * There are 11 players in a field hockey team. The player wearing 11 will usually play on the left side, as in soccer. * In most rugby league competitions (but not the Super League, which uses static squad numbering), one of the starting second-row forwards wears the number 11. * In rugby union, the starting left wing wears number 11. In the military --------------- * The number of guns in a gun salute to U.S. Army, Air Force and Marine Corps Brigadier Generals, and to Navy and Coast Guard Rear Admirals Lower Half. * The Military Occupational Specialty (MOS) designator given to US Army Infantry Officer as well as to enlisted personnel (AKA 11 MOS Series, or 11B, 11C, 11D, 11H, 11M, etc.) * The number of General Orders for Sentries in the Marine Corps and United States Navy. * A page in the Service Record Book of an enlisted Marine for writing down disciplinary actions. * World War I ended with an Armistice on November 11, 1918, which went into effect at 11:00 am—the 11th hour on the 11th day of the 11th month of the year. Armistice Day is still observed on November 11 of each year, although it is now called Veterans Day in the U.S. and Remembrance Day in the Commonwealth of Nations and parts of Europe. In computing ------------ * In Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Konqueror for KDE, Google Chrome and Internet Explorer for Windows, the function key F11 key toggles full-screen viewing mode. In macOS, F11 hides all open windows. * The windowing system for Unix computers is X11. * Computers of the PDP-11 series from Digital Equipment Corporation were informally called "elevens". * Windows 11 In Canada --------- * The stylized maple leaf on the Flag of Canada has 11 points. * The loonie is a hendecagon, an 11-sided polygon. * Clocks depicted on Canadian currency, like the Canadian 50-dollar bill, show 11:00. In other fields --------------- * Sector 11 in the North American Industry Classification System is the code for Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing and Hunting industries. * Being one hour before 12:00, the *eleventh hour* means the last possible moment to take care of something, and often implies a situation of urgent danger or emergency (see Doomsday clock). * In Basque, *hamaika* ("eleven") has the double meaning of "infinite", probably from Basque *amaigabe*, "endless", as in *Hamaika aldiz etortzeko esan dizut!* ("I told you infinite/eleven times to come!"). * English-speaking surveyors have developed several slang terms for 11 to distinguish it from its rhyme "seven", including "punk," "top," & "railroad". * American Airlines Flight 11, a Boston-Los Angeles flight, crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City after terrorists hijacked it on September 11, 2001. * The number 11 bus is a low-cost way to sightsee in London. * In the game of blackjack, an ace can count as either one or 11, whichever is more advantageous for the player. * 11 is the number of the French department Aude. * Three films – *Ben-Hur* (1959), *Titanic* (1997), and *The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King* (2003) – have each won 11 Academy Awards, including Best Picture. * *Ocean's Eleven* is the name of two American films. * In the anime series *Code Geass*, Japan is known as Area 11 of the Brittanian Empire. * Eleven is the name of a character in the 2016 Netflix original series *Stranger Things*, portrayed by Millie Bobby Brown. * Eleven is a British television production company. See also -------- * 11:11 * 11:11 (numerology) * XI

11 (number)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11_(number)

**Dunkirk** (UK: /dʌnˈkɜːrk/ *dun-KURK*, US: /ˈdʌnkɜːrk/ *DUN-kurk*; French: *Dunkerque* [dœ̃kɛʁk] (); French Flemish: *Duunkerke*; Dutch: *Duinkerke(n)* [ˈdœyŋkɛrkə(n)] ()) is a commune in the department of Nord in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the Belgian border. It has the third-largest French harbour. The population of the commune in 2019 was 86,279. Etymology and language use -------------------------- The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish *dun(e)* 'dune' or 'dun' and *kerke* 'church', thus 'church in the dunes'. A smaller town 25 km farther up the Flemish coast originally shared the same name, but was later renamed Oostduinkerke(n) in order to avoid confusion. Until the middle of the 20th century, French Flemish (the local variety of Dutch) was commonly spoken. History ------- ### Middle Ages A fishing village arose late in the tenth century, in the originally flooded coastal area of the English Channel south of the Western Scheldt, when the area was held by the Counts of Flanders, vassals of the French Crown. About AD 960, Count Baldwin III had a town wall erected in order to protect the settlement against Viking raids. The surrounding wetlands were drained and cultivated by the monks of nearby Bergues Abbey. The name *Dunkirka* was first mentioned in a tithe privilege of 27 May 1067, issued by Count Baldwin V of Flanders. Count Philip I (1157–1191) brought further large tracts of marshland under cultivation, laid out the first plans to build a Canal from Dunkirk to Bergues and vested the Dunkirkers with market rights. In the late 13th century, when the Dampierre count Guy of Flanders entered into the Franco-Flemish War against his suzerain King Philippe IV of France, the citizens of Dunkirk sided with the French against their count, who at first was defeated at the 1297 Battle of Furnes, but reached *de facto* autonomy upon the victorious Battle of the Golden Spurs five years later and exacted vengeance. Guy's son, Count Robert III (1305–1322), nevertheless granted further city rights to Dunkirk; his successor Count Louis I (1322–1346) had to face the Peasant revolt of 1323–1328, which was crushed by King Philippe VI of France at the 1328 Battle of Cassel, whereafter the Dunkirkers again were affected by the repressive measures of the French king. Count Louis remained a loyal vassal of the French king upon the outbreak of the Hundred Years' War with England in 1337, and prohibited the maritime trade, which led to another revolt by the Dunkirk citizens. After the count had been killed in the 1346 Battle of Crécy, his son and successor Count Louis II of Flanders (1346–1384) signed a truce with the English; the trade again flourished and the port was significantly enlarged. However, in the course of the Western Schism from 1378, English supporters of Pope Urban VI (the Roman claimant) disembarked at Dunkirk, captured the city and flooded the surrounding estates. They were ejected by King Charles VI of France, but left great devastations in and around the town. Upon the extinction of the Counts of Flanders with the death of Louis II in 1384, Flanders was acquired by the Burgundian, Duke Philip the Bold. The fortifications were again enlarged, including the construction of a belfry daymark (a navigational aid similar to a non-illuminated lighthouse). As a strategic point, Dunkirk has always been exposed to political greed, by Duke Robert I of Bar in 1395, by Louis de Luxembourg in 1435 and finally by the Austrian archduke Maximilian I of Habsburg, who in 1477 married Mary of Burgundy, sole heiress of late Duke Charles the Bold. As Maximilian was the son of Emperor Frederick III, all Flanders was immediately seized by King Louis XI of France. However, the archduke defeated the French troops in 1479 at the Battle of Guinegate. When Mary died in 1482, Maximilian retained Flanders according to the terms of the 1482 Treaty of Arras. Dunkirk, along with the rest of Flanders, was incorporated into the Habsburg Netherlands and upon the 1581 secession of the Seven United Netherlands, remained part of the Southern Netherlands, which were held by Habsburg Spain (Spanish Netherlands) as Imperial fiefs. ### Corsair base Historical affiliations > > Burgundian Netherlands 1384–1482 > > Habsburg Netherlands 1482–1556 > > Spanish Netherlands 1556–1577 > > Dunkirk Rebels 1577–1583 > > Spanish Netherlands 1583–1646 > > France 1646–1652 > > Spanish Netherlands 1652–1658 > > England and France 1658–1659 > > England 1659–1662 > > France 1662–1870 > > Prussian occupation 1870–1873 > > France 1873–1940 > > German occupation 1940–1945 > > France 1945–present > > > The area remained much disputed between the Kingdom of Spain, the United Netherlands, the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France. At the beginning of the Eighty Years' War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, from 1577. Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious *Dunkirkers*. The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646 but Spanish forces recaptured the city in 1652. In 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco-English forces following the battle of the Dunes. The city along with Fort-Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain. The English governors were Sir William Lockhart (1658–60), Sir Edward Harley (1660–61) and Lord Rutherford (1661–62). On 17 October 1662, Dunkirk was sold to France by Charles II of England for £320,000. The French government developed the town as a fortified port. The town's existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a double lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties. This work was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château d'Espérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, and Fort de Revers. An additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc. During the reign of Louis XIV, a large number of commerce raiders and pirates once again made their base at Dunkirk, the most famous of whom was Jean Bart. The main character (and possible real prisoner) in the famous novel Man in the Iron Mask by Alexandre Dumas was arrested at Dunkirk. The eighteenth-century Swedish privateers and pirates Lars Gathenhielm and his wife Ingela Hammar are known to have sold their gains in Dunkirk. As France and Great Britain became commercial and military rivals, the British grew concerned about Dunkirk being used as an invasion base to cross the English Channel. The jetties, their forts, and the port facilities were demolished in 1713 under the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht. The Treaty of Paris of 1763, which concluded the Seven Years' War, included a clause restricting French rights to fortify Dunkirk. This clause was overturned in the subsequent Treaty of Versailles of 1783. ### Dunkirk in World War I Dunkirk's port was used extensively during the war by British forces who brought in dock workers from, among other places, Egypt and China. From 1915, the city experienced severe bombardment, including from the largest gun in the world in 1917, the German 'Lange Max'. On a regular basis, heavy shells weighing approximately 750 kg were fired from Koekelare, about 45–50 km away. The bombardment killed nearly 600 people and wounded another 1,100, both civilian and military, while 400 buildings were destroyed and 2,400 damaged. The city's population, which had been 39,000 in 1914, reduced to fewer than 15,000 in July 1916 and 7,000 in the autumn of 1917. In January, 1916, a spy scare took place in Dunkirk. The writer Robert W. Service, then a war correspondent for the *Toronto Star*, was mistakenly arrested as a spy and narrowly avoided being executed out of hand. On 1 January 1918, the United States Navy established a naval air station to operate seaplanes. The base closed shortly after the Armistice of 11 November 1918. In October 1917, to mark the gallant behaviour of its inhabitants during the war, the City of Dunkirk was awarded the Croix de Guerre and, in 1919, the Legion of Honour and the British Distinguished Service Cross. These decorations now appear in the city's coat of arms. ### Dunkirk in World War II #### Evacuation During the Second World War, in the May 1940 Battle of France, the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), while aiding the French and Belgian armies, were forced to retreat in the face of the overpowering German Panzer attacks. Fighting in Belgium and France, the BEF and a portion of the French Army became outflanked by the Germans and retreated to the area around the port of Dunkirk. More than 400,000 soldiers were trapped in the pocket as the German Army closed in for the kill. Unexpectedly, the German Panzer attack halted for several days at a critical juncture. For years, it was assumed that Adolf Hitler ordered the German Army to suspend the attack, favouring bombardment by the Luftwaffe. However, according to the Official War Diary of Army Group A, its commander, *Generaloberst* Gerd von Rundstedt, ordered the halt to allow maintenance on his tanks, half of which were out of service, and to protect his flanks which were exposed and, he thought, vulnerable. Hitler merely validated the order several hours later. This lull gave the British and French a few days to fortify their defences. The Allied position was complicated by Belgian King Leopold III's surrender on 27 May, which was postponed until 28 May. The gap left by the Belgian Army stretched from Ypres to Dixmude. Nevertheless, a collapse was prevented, making it possible to launch an evacuation by sea, across the English Channel, codenamed Operation Dynamo. Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, ordered any ship or boat available, large or small, to collect the stranded soldiers. 338,226 men (including 123,000 French soldiers) were evacuated – the *miracle of Dunkirk*, as Churchill called it. It took over 900 vessels to evacuate the BEF, with two-thirds of those rescued embarking via the harbour, and over 100,000 taken off the beaches. More than 40,000 vehicles as well as massive amounts of other military equipment and supplies were left behind. Forty thousand Allied soldiers (some who carried on fighting after the official evacuation) were captured or forced to make their own way home through a variety of routes including via neutral Spain. Many wounded who were unable to walk were abandoned. #### Liberation Dunkirk was again contested in 1944, with the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division attempting to liberate the city in September, as Allied forces surged northeast after their victory in the Battle of Normandy. However, German forces refused to relinquish their control of the city, which had been converted into a fortress. To seize the now strategically insignificant town would consume too many Allied resources which were needed elsewhere. The town was by-passed masking the German garrison with Allied troops, notably the 1st Czechoslovak Armoured Brigade. During the German occupation, Dunkirk was largely destroyed by Allied bombing. The artillery siege of Dunkirk was directed on the final day of the war by pilots from No. 652 Squadron RAF, and No. 665 Squadron RCAF. The fortress, under the command of German Admiral Friedrich Frisius, eventually unconditionally surrendered to the commander of the Czechoslovak forces, Brigade General Alois Liška, on 9 May 1945. ### Postwar Dunkirk On 14 December 2002, the Norwegian car carrier MV *Tricolor* collided with the Bahamian-registered *Kariba* and sank off Dunkirk Harbour, causing a hazard to navigation in the English Channel. Population ---------- The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Dunkirk proper, in its geography at the given years. The commune of Dunkirk absorbed the former commune of Malo-les-Bains in 1969, Rosendaël and Petite-Synthe in 1971, Mardyck in 1979 and Fort-Mardyck and Saint-Pol-sur-Mer in 2010. Historical population| | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1793 | 26,255 | —     | | 1800 | 21,158 | −3.04% | | 1806 | 24,175 | +2.25% | | 1821 | 23,012 | −0.33% | | 1831 | 24,937 | +0.81% | | 1836 | 23,808 | −0.92% | | 1841 | 27,047 | +2.58% | | 1846 | 27,355 | +0.23% | | 1851 | 29,080 | +1.23% | | 1856 | 29,738 | +0.45% | | 1861 | 32,113 | +1.55% | | 1866 | 33,083 | +0.60% | | 1872 | 34,350 | +0.63% | | 1876 | 35,071 | +0.52% | | 1881 | 37,328 | +1.26% | | 1886 | 38,025 | +0.37% | | 1891 | 39,498 | +0.76% | | 1896 | 39,718 | +0.11% | | | Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1901 | 38,925 | −0.40% | | 1906 | 38,287 | −0.33% | | 1911 | 38,891 | +0.31% | | 1921 | 34,748 | −1.12% | | 1926 | 32,945 | −1.06% | | 1931 | 31,763 | −0.73% | | 1936 | 31,017 | −0.47% | | 1946 | 10,575 | −10.20% | | 1954 | 21,136 | +9.04% | | 1962 | 27,616 | +3.40% | | 1968 | 27,504 | −0.07% | | 1975 | 73,800 | +15.14% | | 1982 | 73,120 | −0.13% | | 1990 | 70,331 | −0.48% | | 1999 | 70,850 | +0.08% | | 2007 | 68,219 | −0.47% | | 2012 | 90,995 | +5.93% | | 2017 | 87,353 | −0.81% | | | | | Source: EHESS and INSEE (1968-2017) | Politics -------- Dunkirk is part of Nord's 13th constituency, The current Member of Parliament is Christine Decodts of the miscellaneous centre. ### Presidential elections second round | Election | Candidate | Party | % | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | 2017 | Emmanuel Macron | En Marche! | 54.42 | | | 2012 | François Hollande | PS | 55.37 | | | 2007 | Nicolas Sarkozy | UMP | 52.30 | | | 2002 | Jacques Chirac | RPR | 79.16 | Heraldry -------- | | | | | --- | --- | --- | | Arms of DunkirkArms of Dunkirk | The arms of Dunkirk are blazoned:*Per fess Or and argent, a lion passant sable armed and langued gules, and a dolphin naiant azure crested, barbed, finned and tailed gules.* At their base, the arms display the insignia of the four medals awarded to the city: the Legion of Honour, Croix de Guerre and British Distinguished Service Cross for World War I; and a second Croix de Guerre for World War II. The city also has its own flag, made up of six horizontal stripes of alternate white and azure blue. | | Administration -------------- The commune has grown substantially by absorbing several neighbouring communes: * 1970: Merger with Malo-les-Bains (which had been created by being detached from Dunkirk in 1881) * 1972: Fusion with Petite-Synthe and Rosendaël (the latter had been created by being detached from Téteghem in 1856) * 1980: Fusion-association with Mardyck (which became an associated commune, with a population of 372 in 1999) * 1980: A large part of Petite-Synthe is detached from Dunkirk and included into Grande-Synthe * 2010: After a failed fusion-association attempt with Saint-Pol-sur-Mer and Fort-Mardyck in 2003, both successfully become associated communes with Dunkirk in December 2010. Economy ------- Dunkirk has the third-largest harbour in France, after those of Le Havre and Marseille. As an industrial city, it depends heavily on the steel, food processing, oil-refining, ship-building and chemical industries. Cuisine ------- The cuisine of Dunkirk closely resembles Flemish cuisine; perhaps one of the best known dishes is *coq à la bière* – chicken in a creamy beer sauce. Prototype metre --------------- In June 1792 the French astronomers Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre and Pierre François André Méchain set out to measure the meridian arc distance from Dunkirk to Barcelona, two cities lying on approximately the same longitude as each other and also the longitude through Paris. The belfry was chosen as the reference point in Dunkirk. Using this measurement and the latitudes of the two cities they could calculate the distance between the North Pole and the Equator in classical French units of length and hence produce the first prototype metre which was defined as being one ten millionth of that distance. The definitive metre bar, manufactured from platinum, was presented to the French legislative assembly on 22 June 1799. Dunkirk was the most easterly cross-channel measuring point for the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790), which used triangulation to calculate the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Sightings were made of signal lights at Dover Castle from the Dunkirk Belfry, and vice versa. Tourist attractions ------------------- Two belfries in Dunkirk (the belfry near the Church of Saint-Éloi and the one at the town hall) are part of a group of belfries of Belgium and France, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2005 in recognition of their civic architecture and importance in the rise of municipal power in Europe. The 63-meter-high Dunkirk Lighthouse, also known as the Risban Light, was built between 1838 and 1843 as part of early efforts to place lights around the coast of France. At the time of its construction it was one of only two first order lighthouses (the other being Calais) to be set up in a port. Automated since 1985, the light can be seen 28 nautical miles (48 km) away. In 2010 it was listed as an historical monument. Two museums in Dunkirk include: * The *Musée Portuaire*, which displays exhibits of images about the history and presence of the port. * The *Musée des Beaux-Arts*, which has a large collection of Flemish, Italian and French paintings and sculptures. * The Tour du Leughenaer (Tour du Leughenaer [fr]) (the Liar's Tower)The Tour du Leughenaer (Tour du Leughenaer[fr]) (the Liar's Tower) * Dunkirk Town HallDunkirk Town Hall * Carnival in DunkirkCarnival in Dunkirk * Malo-les-Bains beach frontMalo-les-Bains beach front * Dunkirk BeachDunkirk Beach * The remains of the East Mole of Dunkirk harbour, pictured in 2009The remains of the East Mole of Dunkirk harbour, pictured in 2009 Transport --------- Dunkirk has a ferry route to Dover that is run by DFDS, which serves as an alternative to the route to the service to nearby Calais. The Dover-Dunkirk ferry route takes two hours compared to Dover-Calais' 1 hour 30 minutes, is run by three vessels and runs every two hours from Dunkirk. Another DFDS route connects Dunkirk to Rosslare Europort in the Republic of Ireland and carries truck freight as well as a limited number of private car passengers. The Dunkirk-Rosslare route take 24 hours and is run by the MF *Regina Seaways*. The Gare de Dunkerque railway station offers connections to Gare de Calais-Ville, Gare de Lille Flandres, Arras and Paris, and several regional destinations in France. The railway line from Dunkirk to De Panne and Adinkerke, Belgium, is closed and has been dismantled in places. In September 2018, Dunkirk's public transit service introduced free public transport, thereby becoming the largest city in Europe to do so. Several weeks after the scheme had been introduced, the city's mayor, Patrice Vergriete, reported that there had been 50% increase in passenger numbers on some routes, and up to 85% on others. As part of the transition towards offering free bus services, the city's fleet was expanded from 100 to 140 buses, including new vehicles which run on natural gas. As of August 2019, approximately 5% of 2000 people surveyed had used the free bus service to completely replace their cars. Sports ------ * USL Dunkerque, French football club, currently playing in Championnat National. * The Four Days of Dunkirk (or *Quatre Jours de Dunkerque*) is an important elite professional road bicycle racing event. * Stage 2 of the 2007 Tour de France departed from Dunkirk. Notable residents ----------------- * Jean Bart (1650—1702), naval commander and privateer * Eugène Chigot, 19th-century post impressionist painter * Marvin Gakpa (born 1993), footballer * Louise Lavoye (1823—1897), 19th-century soprano * Robert Malm (born 1973), footballer * Jean-Paul Rouve (born 1967), actor * François Rozenthal (born 1975), ice hockey player * Maurice Rozenthal (born 1975), ice hockey player * Djoumin Sangaré (born 1983), footballer * Tancrède Vallerey (1892—?), writer International relations ----------------------- ### Twin towns – sister cities Dunkirk is twinned with: * Germany Krefeld, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany since 15 June 1974 * England Middlesbrough, England, United Kingdom since 12 April 1976 * State of Palestine Gaza, Palestine since 2 April 1996 * Germany Rostock, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany since 9 April 2000 * Israel Ramat HaSharon, Israel since 15 September 1997 * China Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China since 25–26 September 2000 ### Friendship links Dunkirk has co-operation agreements with: * Dartford, Kent, England, United Kingdom since March 1988 * Thanet, Kent, England, United Kingdom since 18 June 1993 Climate ------- Dunkirk has an oceanic climate, with cool winters and warm summers. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Dunkirk has a marine west coast climate, abbreviated "Cfb" on climate maps. Summer high temperatures average around 20 to 21 °C (68 to 70 °F), being significantly influenced by the marine currents. | Climate data for Dunkirk (1991–2020 averages, records 1892–present) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.4(61.5) | 19.1(66.4) | 24.0(75.2) | 28.4(83.1) | 34.0(93.2) | 34.4(93.9) | 41.3(106.3) | 36.2(97.2) | 35.2(95.4) | 30.0(86.0) | 20.1(68.2) | 16.6(61.9) | 41.3(106.3) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.6(45.7) | 8.0(46.4) | 10.2(50.4) | 13.1(55.6) | 16.0(60.8) | 18.9(66.0) | 21.2(70.2) | 21.7(71.1) | 19.3(66.7) | 15.6(60.1) | 11.1(52.0) | 8.3(46.9) | 14.3(57.7) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 5.5(41.9) | 5.7(42.3) | 7.7(45.9) | 10.2(50.4) | 13.3(55.9) | 16.1(61.0) | 18.4(65.1) | 18.8(65.8) | 16.5(61.7) | 13.0(55.4) | 9.0(48.2) | 6.2(43.2) | 11.7(53.1) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.4(38.1) | 3.5(38.3) | 5.3(41.5) | 7.4(45.3) | 10.5(50.9) | 13.3(55.9) | 15.5(59.9) | 15.8(60.4) | 13.6(56.5) | 10.4(50.7) | 6.9(44.4) | 4.2(39.6) | 9.2(48.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −13.4(7.9) | −18.0(−0.4) | −7.0(19.4) | −2.0(28.4) | −1.0(30.2) | 4.0(39.2) | 6.6(43.9) | 4.0(39.2) | 4.0(39.2) | −2.4(27.7) | −8.0(17.6) | −10.6(12.9) | −18.0(−0.4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 53.9(2.12) | 45.4(1.79) | 41.9(1.65) | 36.7(1.44) | 45.5(1.79) | 54.5(2.15) | 58.5(2.30) | 64.2(2.53) | 64.9(2.56) | 73.0(2.87) | 79.5(3.13) | 72.8(2.87) | 690.8(27.20) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) | 11.4 | 9.9 | 9.2 | 7.9 | 8.6 | 8.8 | 8.5 | 9.4 | 9.9 | 11.9 | 13.1 | 12.8 | 121.3 | | Average snowy days | 2.9 | 2.7 | 1.8 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.8 | 1.9 | 11.0 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 86 | 84 | 81 | 80 | 79 | 80 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 83 | 84 | 85 | 81.8 | | Source 1: Météo France, Infoclimat.fr (humidity and snowy days, 1961–1990) | | Source 2: | See also -------- * Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine * Dunkirkers * French Flanders * French Flemish * Hortense Clémentine Tanvet * Liberation of France * Treaty of Dunkirk

Dunkirk

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunkirk

The **Albanians** (/ælˈbɛɪniənz/; Albanian: *Shqiptarët* pronounced [ʃcipˈtaɾət]) are an ethnic group native to the Balkan Peninsula who share a common Albanian ancestry, culture, history and language. They primarily live in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia as well as in Croatia, Greece, Italy and Turkey. They also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe, the Americas and Oceania. Albanians have Paleo-Balkanic origins. Exclusively attributing these origins to the Illyrians, Thracians or other Paleo-Balkan people is still a matter of debate among historians and ethnologists. The first mention of the ethnonym *Albanoi* occurred in the 2nd century AD by Ptolemy describing an Illyrian tribe who lived around present-day central Albania. The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in the theme of Dyrrhachium. The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after the Great Schism, the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and the south with Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1190 Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in central Albania with the capital in Krujë. The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties. One population, the Arvanites, settled in Southern Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries. Another population, the Arbëreshë, settled across Sicily and Southern Italy between the 11th and 16th centuries. Smaller populations such as the Arbanasi settled in Southern Croatia and pockets of Southern Ukraine in the 18th century. By the 15th century, the expanding Ottoman Empire overpowered the Balkan Peninsula, but faced successful rebellion and resistance by the League of Lezhë, a union of Albanian principalities led by Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg. By the 17th and 18th centuries, a substantial number of Albanians converted to Islam, which offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. Thereafter, Albanians attained significant positions and culturally contributed to the broader Muslim world. Innumerable officials and soldiers of the Ottoman State were of Albanian origin, including more than 40 Grand Viziers, and under the Köprülü, in particular, the Ottoman Empire reached its greatest territorial extension. Between the second half of the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century Albanian Pashaliks were established by Kara Mahmud pasha of Scutari, Ali pasha of Yanina, and Ahmet Kurt pasha of Berat, while the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century, a period in which Albanians formed a substantial community in Egypt. During the 19th century, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the Albanian Renaissance. In 1912 during the Balkan Wars, Albanians declared the independence of their country. The demarcation of the new Albanian state was established following the Treaty of Bucharest and left about half of the ethnic Albanian population outside of its borders, partitioned between Greece, Montenegro and Serbia. After the Second World War up until the Revolutions of 1991, Albania was governed by a communist government under Enver Hoxha where Albania became largely isolated from the rest of Europe. In neighbouring Yugoslavia, Albanians underwent periods of discrimination and systematic oppression that concluded with the War of Kosovo and eventually with Kosovar independence. Ethnonym -------- The Albanians (Albanian: *Shqiptarët*) and their country Albania (Albanian: *Shqipëria*) have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is "Shqiptar", plural "Shqiptarë"; the name "Albanians" (Byzantine Greek: *Albanoi/Arbanitai/Arbanites*; Latin: *Albanenses/Arbanenses*) was used in medieval documents and gradually entered European Languages from which other similar derivative names emerged, many of which were or still are in use, such as English "Albanians"; Italian "Albanesi"; German "Albaner"; Greek "Arvanites", "Alvanitis" (Αλβανίτης) plural: "Alvanites" (Αλβανίτες), "Alvanos" (Αλβανός) plural: "Alvanoi" (Αλβανοί); Turkish "Arnaut", "Arnavut"; South Slavic languages "Arbanasi" (Арбанаси), "Albanci" (Албанци); Aromanian "Arbinesh" and so on. The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί) is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (200-118 BCE) also is encountered twice in the works of Byzantine historian Michael Attaliates, and the term "Arvanitai" (Αρβανίται) is used once by the same author. He referred to the "Albanoi" as having taken part in a revolt against the Byzantine Empire in 1043, and to the "Arbanitai" as subjects of the Duke of Dyrrachium (modern Durrës). These references have been disputed as to whether they refer to the people of Albania. Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners". The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians. The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285). The national ethnonym *Albanian* and its variants are derived from *Albanoi*, first mentioned as an Illyrian tribe in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis, located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in the hinterland of Durrës. Linguists believe that the *alb* part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as *alps* are derived. Through the root word *alban* and its rhotacized equivalents *arban*, *albar*, and *arbar*, the term in Albanian became rendered as *Arbëneshë/Arbëreshë* for the people and *Arbënia/Arbëria* for the country. The Albanian language was referred to as *Arbnisht* and *Arbërisht*. While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as *Shqip(ë)tarë* and to their country as *Shqipëria*. Two etymologies have been proposed for this ethnonym: one, derived from the etymology from the Albanian word for eagle (shqipe, var., shqiponjë). In Albanian folk etymology, this word denotes a bird totem, dating from the times of Skanderbeg as displayed on the Albanian flag. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' (*me shqiptue*) from the Latin "*excipere*". In this instance the Albanian endonym like *Slav* and others would originally have been a term connoting "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]". The words *Shqipëri* and *Shqiptar* are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename *Shqipëria* and the ethnic demonym *Shqiptarë* gradually replaced *Arbëria* and *Arbëreshë* amongst Albanian speakers. That era brought about religious and other sociopolitical changes. As such a new and generalised response by Albanians based on ethnic and linguistic consciousness to this new and different Ottoman world emerging around them was a change in ethnonym. ### Historical records Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them. It is preserved in a manuscript written in the Serbo-Croatian Language traced back to the 17th century but published in the 20th century by Radoslav Grujic. It is a fragment of a once longer text that endeavours to explain the origins of peoples and languages in a question-and-answer form similar to a catechism. The fragmented manuscript differentiated the world into 72 languages and three religious categories including Christians, half-believers and non-believers. Grujic dated it to the early 11th century and, if this and the identification of the *Arbanasi* as Albanians are correct, it would be the earliest written document referring to the Balkan Albanians as a people or language group. > It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian, Greek, Syrian, Iberian (Georgian) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian (Georgian). There are twelve languages of half-believers: Alamanians, Franks, Magyars (Hungarians), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians, Saxons, Lechs (Poles), **Arbanasi** (Albanians), Croatians, Hizi and Germans. > > Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080) mentions the term *Albanoi* twice and the term *Arbanitai* once. The term *Albanoi* is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term *Albanoi* is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term *Arvanitai* is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and *Arbanitai* in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that *Arbanitai* refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography. The use of the term *Albanoi* in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. This debate has never been resolved. A newer synthesis about the second use of the term *Albanoi* by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term *Albanoi* may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon, while *Arbanitai* to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited. Language -------- The majority of the Albanian people speak the Albanian language which is an independent branch within the Indo-European family of languages. It is a language isolate to any other known living language in Europe and indeed no other language in the world has been conclusively associated to its branch. Its origin remains conclusively unknown but it is believed it has descended from an ancient Paleo-Balkan language. The Albanian language is spoken by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia. The language is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk. The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin river, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken in Croatia (Arbanasi and Istrian), Kosovo, Montenegro and northwestern North Macedonia are classified as Gheg, while those spoken in Greece, southwestern North Macedonia and Italy as Tosk. The Arbëresh and Arvanitika dialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by the Arbëreshë and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece, respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified as endangered languages in the UNESCO *Red Book of Endangered Languages*. The Cham dialect is spoken by the Cham Albanians, a community that originates from Chameria in what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, while Cham communities in Albania and the diaspora have preserved it. Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language. As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania, 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) and Greek (22.9%). The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of the Illyrian languages (Messapic language) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred. History ------- ### Late Antiquity The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs (Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys.[*need quotation to verify*] ### Middle Ages The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. Many scholars consider the Albanians, in terms of linguistic evidences, the descendants of ancient populations of the Balkan Peninsula, either the Illyrians, Thracians or another Paleo-Balkan group. There are insufficient evidences to derive an accurate conclusion and therefore Albanian origins still remain a mystery. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080). Attaleiates mentions the term *Albanoi* twice and the term *Arbanitai* once. The term *Albanoi* is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term *Albanoi* is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term *Arvanitai* is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and *Arbanitai* in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that *Arbanitai* refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. The use of the term *Albanoi* in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Ducellier-Vrannousi" debate, Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vrannousi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. The debate has never been resolved. A newer synthesis about the second use of the term *Albanoi* by Pëllumb Xhufi suggests that the term *Albanoi* may have referred to Albanians of the specific district of Arbanon, while *Arbanitai* to Albanians in general regardless of the specific region they inhabited. The name reflects the Albanian endonym Arbër/n + esh which itself derives from the same root as the name of the Albanoi Historically known as the *Arbër* or *Arbën* by the 11th century and onwards, they traditionally inhabited the mountainous area to the west of Lake Ochrida and the upper valley of the Shkumbin river. Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon), with its seat based in Krujë. Immediately after the decline of the Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Gregorios Kamonas and next his son-in-law Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philippe Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint. In 1266 after defeating Manfred's forces and killing him, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania. Local noblemen such as Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated. The Principality of Arbanon in 1210Kingdom of Albania in 1272–1274, established by Charles I of Naples. In 1272 the Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles. Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint. Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as dowry. In 1302, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers, and the Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë. In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance with Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336. In 1336, Serbian king Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had captured Kanina and Valona in southern Albania. Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the Pelister mountain. After the death of Stefan Dušan in 1355 the Serbian Empire disintegrated, and Karl Thopia captured Durrës while the Muzaka family of Berat regained control over parts of southeastern Albania and over Kastoria that Andrea II captured from Prince Marko after the Battle of Marica in 1371. The Albanian principalities, ca. 1390.The League of Lezhë in 1448–1468. The kingdom reinforced the influence of Catholicism and the conversion to its rite, not only in the region of Durrës but in other parts of the country. A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions. Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around Devoll river in what is now central Albania and the other around the region known as Arbanon. Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the Sorgo family who came from the Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to Dalmatia. By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans. The upcoming invasion of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the death of Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries. In the 14th century a number of Albanian principalities were created. These included Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Dukagjini, Princedom of Albania, and Principality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance called League of Lezha. Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as *stratioti*. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). ### Ottoman Empire Gjergj Kastrioti SkanderbegGjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg led a successful rebellion to resist Ottoman expansion into Europe for 25 years.Ali Pasha TepelenaAli Pasha Tepelena was one of the most powerful autonomous Ottoman Albanian rulers and governed over the Pashalik of Yanina. Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered kingdoms and principalities such as the Principalities of Arbanon, Kastrioti and Thopia. Before and after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from Albania, Epirus and Peloponnese escaped to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. Under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (*Dominus Albaniae* in Latin). Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa. The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy taxes such as the *Devshirme* system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the Balkans and elsewhere to compose the Janissary. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from Egypt to Algeria and the rest of the Maghreb. In the late 18th century, Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the Pashalik of Yanina within the Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern Albania, Epirus, Thessaly and southwestern Macedonia. During his rule, the town of Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks. The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus. Thus, he obtained control of Arta and took control over the ports of Butrint, Preveza and Vonitsa. He also gained control of the pashaliks of Elbasan, Delvina, Berat and Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the British, French and Russians and formed alliances with them at various times. In the 19th century, the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century. After a brief French invasion led by Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt. As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries. Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries. The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. With the advent of increasing suppression on Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south. At this point, the urban centers of central and southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and tekkes were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as Berat, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Shkodër started to flourish. In the far north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain. Köprülü Mehmed Pasha served as Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century and started the Köprülü era.Muhammad Ali of Egypt was the governor of Egypt, Sudan, the Levant and Hejaz in the 19th century. The motives for conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues. Reasons included the incentive to escape high taxes levied on non-Muslims subjects, ecclesiastical decay, coercion by Ottoman authorities in times of war, and the privileged legal and social position Muslims within the Ottoman administrative and political machinery had over that of non-Muslims. As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them Zagan Pasha, Bayezid Pasha and members of the Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III were both Albanian on their maternal side. Areas such as Albania, western Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as *Arnavudluk* or Albania. ### Albanian Renaissance The Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within the Albanian communities in Italy and Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them Naum Veqilharxhi, Girolamo de Rada, Dora d'Istria, Thimi Mitko, Naim and Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the Mësonjëtorja in Korçë, the first secular school in the Albanian language. The Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire. The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition. It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity. Even after the declaration of independence, national identity was fragmented and possibly non-existent in much of the newly proposed country. The state of disunity and fragmentation would remain until the communist period following Second World War, when the communist nation-building project would achieve greater success in nation-building and reach more people than any previous regime, thus creating Albanian national communist identity. ### Communism in Albania Enver Hoxha of the Communist Party of Labour took power in Albania in 1946. Albania established an alliance with the Eastern Bloc which provided Albania with many advantages in the form of economic assistance and military protection from the Western Bloc during the Cold War. The Albanians experienced a period of several beneficial political and economic changes. The government defended the territorial integrity and sovereignty of Albania, diversified the economy through a programme of industrialisation which led to a higher standard of living and followed improvements in areas such as health, education and infrastructure. It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated churches, monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment. Protests coinciding with the emerging revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including Shkodër and Tirana which eventually lead to the fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as Greece and Italy followed. Bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concrete bunkers were built on strategic locations across Albania's territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains. These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltered the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes. ### Independence of Kosovo Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and major European Union countries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it as Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244. The overwhelming majority of Kosovo's population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7 million people. Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of Toplica and Morava is recorded since the Middle Ages. As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878 Congress of Berlin had given to the Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo. After being an integral section of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution. Rights to use the Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution of the later formed Socialist Yugoslavia and was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part of Serbia and Montenegro. In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and Serb population of Kosovo culminated in the Kosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. NATO launched a 78-day air campaign in 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war. Distribution ------------ ### Balkans Approximately 5 million Albanians are geographically distributed across the Balkan Peninsula with about half this number living in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro as well as to a more lesser extent in Croatia and Serbia. There are also significant Albanian populations in Greece. Approximately 1.8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognised Republic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of the municipality of North Mitrovica and constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory. In Montenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30,000 forming one of the constituent ethnic minority groups of the country. They predominantly live in the coastal region of Montenegro around the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar but also Tuz and around Plav in the northern region as well as in the capital city of Podgorica in the central region. In North Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500,000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country. The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar in the northwestern region, Struga and Debar in the southwestern region as well as around the capital of Skopje in the central region. In Croatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17.500 mostly concentrated in the counties of Istria, Split-Dalmatia and most notably in the capital city of Zagreb. The Arbanasi people who historically migrated to Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine live in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia and Southern Ukraine. In Serbia, the Albanians are an officially recognised ethnic minority group with a population of around 70,000. They are significantly concentrated in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preševo in the Pčinja District. In Romania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10,000 mainly distributed in Bucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented in Parliament of Romania. ### Italy The Italian Peninsula across the Adriatic Sea has attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of the Albanian Renaissance and maintaining the Albanian culture. The Arbëreshë people came sporadically in several small and large cycles initially as *Stratioti* mercenaries in service of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Republic of Venice. Larger migration waves occurred after the death of Skanderbeg and the capture of Krujë and Shkodër by the Ottomans to escape the forthcoming political and religious changes. Today, Albanians in Italy constitute one of the largest ethnolinguistic minority groups and their status is protected by law. The total number of Arbëreshës is approximately 260,000 scattered across Sicily, Calabria and Apulia. There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Canada and the United States. Centuries later, at the end of the 20th century occurred another and the largest migration cycle of Albanians to Italy surpassing the earlier migration of the Arbëreshë. Their migration stemmed from decades of severe social and political oppression and isolation from the outside world under the communist regime led by Enver Hoxha. Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanians regularly residing in Italy was numbered to be around 480,000 and 500,000. Tuscany, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna represent the regions with the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy. In 2012, 41.5% of the Albanian population were counted as Muslim, 38.9% as Christian including 27.7% as Roman Catholic and 11% as Eastern Orthodox and 17.8% as Irreligious. ### Greece The Arvanites and Albanians of Western Thrace are a group descended from Tosks who migrated to southern and central Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries. They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect of Tosk Albanian known as Arvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians. Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century. The Cham Albanians were a group that formerly inhabited a region of Epirus known as Chameria, nowadays Thesprotia in northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece during World War II, by an anti-communist resistance group (EDES). The causes of the expulsion were multifaceted and remain a matter of debate among historians. Different narratives in historiography argue that the causes involved pre-existing Greek policies which targeted the minority and sought its elimination, the Cham collaboration with the Axis forces and local property disputes which were instrumentalized after WWII. The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus to Albania and Turkey varies: figures include 14,000, 19,000, 20,000, 25,000 and 30,000. According to Cham reports this number should be raised to c. 35,000. Large-scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. By 2005, around 600,000 Albanians lived in Greece, forming the largest immigrant community in the country. They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania. About 200,000 had acquired a status of *homogeneis* (co-ethnics) in Greece. Contemporary statistics on Albanians in Greece vary. There was a drop in the number of registered Albanian immigrants in 2012, suggesting that approximately 130,000 Albanian migrants have lost their stay permits and thereby making 29% of the Albanian immigrant population in Greece irregular. After 1991, at least 500,000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the a lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700,000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500,000 Albanians in Greece at the very least, and that is excluding their children. A 2011 census indicated that Albanians consisted the biggest group of foreigners in Greece, with roughly 480,000, but taking into consideration the current population of Greece (11 million) and the fact that the census failed to account for illegal foreigners, it was estimated that Albanians consist of 5% of the population (at least 550,000). Albanians in Greece have a long history of Hellenisation, assimilation and integration. Many ethnic Albanians have been naturalised as Greek nationals, others have self-declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated. Diaspora -------- Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population. ### Europe During the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the conflicts in the Balkans and the Kosovo War set in motion large population movements of Albanians to Central, Western and Northern Europe. The gradual collapse of communism in Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries as Greece and Italy. In Central Europe, there are approximately 200,000 Albanians in Switzerland with the particular concentration in the cantons of Zürich, Basel, Lucerne, Bern and St. Gallen. The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250,000 to 300,000 Albanians while in Austria there are around 40,000 to 80,000 Albanians concentrated in the states of Vienna, Styria, Salzburg, Lower and Upper Austria. In Western Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10,000 people living in the Benelux countries is in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6,000 Albanian people living in Belgium and 2,800 in the nearby Netherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found in Luxembourg with a population of 2,100. Within Northern Europe, Sweden possesses the most sizeable population of Albanians in Scandinavia however there is no exact answer to their number in the country. The populations also tend to be lower in Norway, Finland and Denmark with more than 18,000, 10,000 and 8,000 Albanians respectively. The population of Albanians in the United Kingdom is officially estimated to be around 39,000 whiles in Ireland there are less than 2,500 Albanians. ### Asia and Africa The Albanian diaspora in Africa and Asia, in such countries as Egypt, Syria or Turkey, was predominantly formed during the Ottoman period through economic migration and early years of the Republic of Turkey through migration due to sociopolitical discrimination and violence experienced by Albanians in Balkans. In Turkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1.300,000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey. As of that report, more than 500,000 Albanian descendants still recognise their ancestry and or their language, culture and traditions. There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5 million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to the German Americans. This was due to various degrees of either linguistic and or cultural assimilation occurring amongst the Albanian diaspora in Turkey. Albanians are active in the civic life of Turkey. In Egypt there are 18,000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers. Many are descendants of the Janissaries of Muhammad Ali Pasha, an Albanian who became Wāli, and self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan. In addition to the dynasty that he established, a large part of the former Egyptian and Sudanese aristocracy was of Albanian origin. Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included major Renaissance figures (*Rilindasit*), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time. With the ascension of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt and rise of Arab nationalism, the last remnants of Albanian community there were forced to leave. Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule. ### Americas and Oceania The first Albanian migration to North America began in the 19th and 20th centuries not long after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However the Arbëreshë people from Southern Italy were the first Albanian people to arrive in the New World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento. Since then several Albanian migration waves have occurred throughout the 20th century as for instance after the Second World War with Albanians mostly from Yugoslavia rather than from Communist Albania, then after the Breakup of Communist Albania in 1990 and finally following the Kosovo War in 1998. The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States. New York metropolitan area in the State of New York is home to the most sizeable Albanian population of the United States. As of 2017, there are approximately 205,000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in the states of New York, Michigan, Massachusetts and Illinois. The number could be higher counting the Arbëreshë people as well; they are often distinguishable from other Albanian Americans with regard to their Italianized names, nationality and a common religion. In Canada, there are approximately 39,000 Albanians in the country, including 36,185 Albanians from Albania and 2,870 Albanians from Kosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude of provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia. Canada's largest cities such as Toronto, Montreal and Edmonton were besides the United States a major centre of Albanian migration to North America. Toronto is home to around 17,000 Albanians. Albanian immigration to Australia began in the late 19th century and most took place during the 20th century. People who planned to immigrate chose Australia after the US introduced immigration quotas on southern Europeans. Most were from southern Albania, of Muslim and Orthodox backgrounds and tended to live in Victoria and Queensland, with smaller numbers in Western and Northern Australia. Italy's annexation of Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat. Post-war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by the communist government in Albania. Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia (modern North Macedonia) arrived and settled in Melbourne in the 1960s-1970s. Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came from Montenegro and Serbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the renowned Albanian nun and missionary Mother Teresa. Albanian refugees from Kosovo settled in Australia following the aftermath of the Kosovo conflict. In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. In 2016, approximately 4,041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born in Albania and Kosovo, while 15,901 persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry. Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following the Second World War. A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland. During the Kosovo crisis (1999), up to 400 Kosovo Albanian refugees settled in New Zealand. In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400-500 people and are mainly concentrated in Auckland. Culture ------- ### Traditions #### Tribal social structure The Albanian tribes (Albanian: *fiset shqiptare*) form a historical mode of social organization (***farefisní***) in Albania and the southwestern Balkans characterized by a common culture, often common patrilineal kinship ties tracing back to one progenitor and shared social ties. The ***fis*** (definite Albanian form: *fisi*; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based on kinship relations, a concept which can be found among southern Albanians also with the term ***farë*** (definite Albanian form: *fara*). Inherited from ancient Illyrian social structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians. It also remained in a less developed system in southern Albania where large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the *Kanun*, a code of Albanian oral customary laws. Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources. Until the early years of the 20th century, the Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power of communist regime in 1944, and is considered as the only example of a tribal social system structured with tribal chiefs and councils, blood feuds and oral customary laws, surviving in Europe until the middle of the 20th century. Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism. Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality". Throughout history the territory northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and peripheral so northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways. This peripheral position also affected their national program which significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania. #### Kanun The Kanun is a set of Albanian traditional customary laws, which has directed all the aspects of the Albanian tribal society. For at least the last five centuries and until today, Albanian customary laws have been kept alive only orally by the tribal elders. The success in preserving them exclusively through oral systems highlights their universal resilience and provides evidence of their likely ancient origins. Strong pre-Christian motifs mixed with motifs from the Christian era reflect the stratification of the Albanian customary law across various historical ages. Over time, Albanian customary laws have undergone their historical development, they have been changed and supplemented with new norms, in accordance with certain requirements of socio-economic development. *Besa* and *nderi* (honour) are of major importance in Albanian customary law as the cornerstone of personal and social conduct. The Kanun is based on four pillars – Honour (Albanian: *Nderi*), Hospitality (Albanian: *Mikpritja*), Right Conduct (Albanian: *Sjellja*) and Kin Loyalty (Albanian: *Fis*). #### Besa > An Albanian who says besa once cannot in any way break [his] promise and cannot be unfaithful [to it]. > > — Mehmed Ferid Pasha, Ottoman-Albanian grand vizier, (1903) Besa (pledge of honor) is an Albanian cultural precept, usually translated as "faith" or "oath", that means "to keep the promise" and "word of honor". The concept is based upon faithfulness toward one's word in the form of loyalty or as an allegiance guarantee. Besa contains mores toward obligations to the family and a friend, the demand to have internal commitment, loyalty and solidarity when conducting oneself with others and secrecy in relation to outsiders. The besa is also the main element within the concept of the ancestor's will or pledge (*amanet*) where a demand for faithfulness to a cause is expected in situations that relate to unity, national liberation and independence that transcend a person and generations. The concept of besa is included in the Kanun, the customary law of the Albanian people. The besa was an important institution within the tribal society of the Albanian tribes, who swore oaths to jointly fight against invaders, and in this aspect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy. The besa was used toward regulating tribal affairs between and within the Albanian tribes. ### Culinary arts The traditional cuisine of the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their varied environment in the Balkans and turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries. There is a considerable diversity between the Mediterranean and Balkan-influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and the Italian and Greek-influenced cuisines of the Arbëreshës and Chams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebrating religious festivals such as Ramadan, Eid, Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah or Novruz Ingredients include many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs and olives, herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary and thyme and vegetables such as garlic, onion, peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to the Mediterranean Sea, Prespa Lake and Ohrid Lake are able to complement their diet with fish, shellfish and other seafood. Otherwise, lamb is often considered the traditional meat for different religious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply. Tavë Kosi is a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes and cottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë or mish. Desserts include Flia, consisting of multiple crepe-like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar to Berliner. ### Visual arts #### Painting The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people are sacred in nature and represented by numerous frescoes, murals and icons which has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries. The rise of the Byzantines and Ottomans during the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art often apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania. The Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. Onufri, founder of the Berat School, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others the Renaissance influenced artists such as Marco Basaiti, Viktor Karpaçi and Andrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece, Eleni Boukouras is noted as being the first great female painter of post independence Greece. In 1856, Pjetër Marubi arrived in Shkodër and established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entire Balkans, the Marubi Museum. The collection of 150,000 photographs, captured by the Albanian-Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history. The Kulla, a traditional Albanian dwelling constructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region of Kosovo and northern region of Albania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregular stone ashlars, river pebbles and chestnut woods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources. #### Literature The roots of literature of the Albanian people can be traced to the Middle Ages with surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from the Renaissance. The earliest known use of written Albanian is a baptismal formula (1462) written by the Archbishop of Durrës Paulus Angelus. In 1555, a Catholic clergyman Gjon Buzuku from the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titled *Meshari* (The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian. Other Christian clergy such as Luca Matranga in the Arbëresh diaspora published (1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and included Pjetër Budi, Frang Bardhi, and Pjetër Bogdani. In the 17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by the Arbëreshë people of Southern Italy who played an influential role in encouraging the Albanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such as Demetrio Camarda, Gabriele Dara, Girolamo de Rada, Giulio Variboba and Giuseppe Serembe who produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise the Albanian language. The Bejtexhinj in the 18th century emerged as the result of the influences of Islam and particularly Sufism orders moving towards Orientalism. Individuals such as Nezim Frakulla, Hasan Zyko Kamberi, Shahin and Dalip Frashëri compiled literature infused with expressions, language and themes on the circumstances of the time, the insecurities of the future and their discontent at the conditions of the feudal system. The Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century is remarkable both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas of Romanticism and Enlightenment characterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind. Dora d'Istria, Girolamo de Rada, Naim Frashëri, Naum Veqilharxhi, Sami Frashëri and Pashko Vasa maintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works. The 20th century was centred on the principles of Modernism and Realism and characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature. Pioneers of the time include Asdreni, Faik Konica, Fan Noli, Lasgush Poradeci, Migjeni who chose to portray themes of contemporary life and most notably Gjergj Fishta who created the epic masterpiece Lahuta e Malcís. After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene. Authors and poets emerged such as Sejfulla Malëshova, Dritero Agolli and Ismail Kadare who has become an internationally acclaimed novelist and others who challenged the regime through various sociopolitical and historic themes in their works. Martin Camaj wrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors like Adem Demaçi, Rexhep Qosja, Jusuf Buxhovi. The literary scene of the 21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers. ### Performing arts #### Apparel The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source of attire, clothing and fabrics. Their traditional apparel was primarily influenced by nature, the lifestyle and has continuously changed since ancient times. Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape. The traditional costume of Albanian men includes a white skirt called Fustanella, a white shirt with wide sleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as the Xhamadan or Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warm woolen or fur coat known as Flokata or Dollama made from sheepskin or goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felt trousers mostly white, sometimes dark brown or black. The Albanian women's costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women's clothing often has been decorated with filigree ironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is called Xhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part. Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people. Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn with Çorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks. Headdresses remain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is a Plis and Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver. #### Music For the Albanian people, music is a vital component to their culture and characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting the history, language and way of life. It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of the Ghegs and Tosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanying instruments and dances. Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks. Traditional iso-polyphony perhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry often about the tumultuous history of the Albanian people. There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such as Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Rita Ora, and rappers such as Action Bronson, Dardan, Gashi and Loredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the former Yugoslavia include Selma Bajrami and Zana Nimani. In international competitions, Albania participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest: Anna Oxa for Italy in 1989, Adrian Gaxha for North Macedonia in 2008, Ermal Meta for Italy in 2018, Eleni Foureira for Cyprus in 2018, as well as Gjon Muharremaj for Switzerland in 2020 and 2021. Kosovo has never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of the EBU and therefore debut in the contest. Religion -------- Many different spiritual traditions, religious faiths and beliefs are practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe. They are traditionally both Christians and Muslims—Catholics and Orthodox, Sunnis and Bektashis and—but also to a lesser extent Evangelicals, other Protestants and Jews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church. Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope. Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin rite and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states. After the Ottoman conquest of the Balkans, Christianity began to be overtaken by Islam, and Catholicism and Orthodoxy continued to be practiced with less frequency. During the modern era, the monarchy and communism in Albania as well as the socialism in Kosovo, historically part of Yugoslavia, followed a systematic secularisation of its people. This policy was chiefly applied within the borders of both territories and produced a secular majority of its population. All forms of Christianity, Islam and other religious practices were prohibited except for old non-institutional pagan practices in the rural areas, which were seen as identifying with the national culture. The current Albanian state has revived some pagan festivals, such as the Spring festival (Albanian: *Dita e Verës*) held yearly on 14 March in the city of Elbasan. It is a national holiday. The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime's change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country, Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country. According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by the Council of Europe, in Albania, 58.79% of the population adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups. Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics. Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world. For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation. Many left for Israel c. 1990–1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania. | Religion | Albania Albanians in Albania | Kosovo Albanians in Kosovo | North Macedonia Albanians in North Macedonia | Montenegro Albanians in Montenegro | Serbia Albanians in Serbia | Croatia Albanians in Croatia | Italy Albanians in Italy | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **Islam** | **21% to 82%** | **88.8** to **95.60** | **98.62** | **73.15** | **71.06** | **54.78** | **41.49** | | *Sunni* | *56.70* | — | — | — | — | — | — | | *Bektashi* | *2.09* to *7.5* | — | — | — | - | — | - | | **Christians** | **9 to 28.64** | **3.69** to **6.20** | **1.37** | **26.37** | **19.54** | **40.69** | **38.85** | | *Catholic* | *3%* to *13.82* | *2.20* to *5.80* | *1.37* | *26.13* | *16.84* | *40.59* | *27.67* | | *Orthodox* | *6* to *13.08* | *1.48* | — | *0.12* | *2.60* | *0.01* | *11.02* | | *Protestants* | *0.14* to *1.74* | *0.16* | — | - | *0.03* | — | — | | *Other Christians* | *0.07* | — | — | *0.12* | *0.07* | *0.09* | — | | **Unaffiliated** or **Irreligious** | **24.21% to 62.7%** | | Atheist | *2.50% to 9%* | *0.07* to *2.9* | — | *0.11* | *2.95* | *1.80* | *17.81* | | Prefer to not answer | *1% to 13.79%* | 0.55 | 0.19 | 2.36 | 1.58 | — | — | | Agnostic | *5.58* | | | | 0.02 | | | | Believers without denomination | 5.49 | — | — | — | — | — | | Not relevant/not stated | 2.43 | 0.06 | 0.16 | 0.36 | 4.82 | — | | **Other religion** | **1.19** | | | | 0.03 | | 1.85 | See also -------- * List of Albanians * History of Albania * Culture of Albania * Geography of Albania References ---------- ### Cited sources * Anamali, Skënder; Prifti, Kristaq (2002). *Historia e popullit shqiptar në katër vëllime* (in Albanian). Botimet Toena. ISBN 99927-1-622-3. OCLC 52411919. * Anscombe, Frederick (2006). "Albanians and "mountain bandits"". In Anscombe, Frederick (ed.). *The Ottoman Balkans, 1750–1830*. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers. pp. 87–113. ISBN 978-1-55876-383-8. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. * Anscombe, Frederick (2006b). "The Ottoman Empire in Recent International Politics – II: The Case of Kosovo". *The International History Review*. **28** (4): 758–793. doi:10.1080/07075332.2006.9641103. JSTOR 40109813. S2CID 154724667. * Baltsiotis, Lambros (13 November 2011). "The Muslim Chams of Northwestern Greece: The grounds for the expulsion of a "non-existent" minority community". *European Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey*. **12**: 1–31. doi:10.4000/ejts.4444. S2CID 142733144. Note 95 * Belledi, Michele; Poloni, Estella S.; Casalotti, Rosa; Conterio, Franco; Mikerezi, Ilia; Tagliavini, James; Excoffier, Laurent (2000). "Maternal and paternal lineages in Albania and the genetic structure of Indo-European populations". *European Journal of Human Genetics*. **8** (7): 480–486. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5200443. PMID 10909846. * Barančić, Maximilijana (2008). "Arbanasi i etnojezični identitet Arbanasi and ethnolinguistic identity". *Croatica et Slavica Iadertina*. **4** (4): 551–568. doi:10.15291/csi.627. * Bintliff, John (2003). "The Ethnoarchaeology of a "Passive" Ethnicity: The Arvanites of Central Greece" (PDF). In Brown, K.S.; Hamilakis, Yannis (eds.). *The Usable Past: Greek Metahistories*. Lanham: Lexington Books. pp. 129–144. ISBN 978-0-7391-0384-5. * Bonnefoy, Yves (1993). *American, African, and old European mythologies*. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-06457-4. * Cook, Bernard (2001). *Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia*. Vol. 1. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0-8153-4057-5. * De Rapper, Gilles (2012). "Blood and Seed, Trunk and Hearth: Kinship and Common Origin in southern Albania". In Hemming, Andreas; Kera, Gentiana; Pandelejmoni, Enriketa (eds.). *Albania: Family, Society and Culture in the 20th century*. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 79–95. ISBN 978-3-643-50144-8. * Deliso, Christopher (2007). *The Coming Balkan Caliphate: The Threat of Radical Islam to Europe and the West*. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-99525-6. * Demiraj, Shaban (1998). "Albanian". In Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (eds.). *The Indo-European languages*. London: Routledge. pp. 480–501. ISBN 978-0-415-06449-1. * Demiraj, Bardhyl (2010). "Shqiptar–The generalization of this ethnic name in the XVIII century". In Demiraj, Bardhyl (ed.). *Wir sind die Deinen: Studien zur albanischen Sprache, Literatur und Kulturgeschichte, dem Gedenken an Martin Camaj (1925–1992) gewidmet [We are his people: Studies on the Albanian language, literature and cultural history, dedicated to the memory of Martin Camaj (1925–1992)]*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 533–565. ISBN 978-3-447-06221-3. * Demiraj, Shaban (2015). "Albanian". In Giacalone Ramat, Anna (ed.). *The Indo-European Languages*. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4. * Devere, Heather; McDermott, Keryn; Verbitsky, Jane (2006). ""Just a refugee": Rights and Status of Refugees in New Zealand". In Crépeau, François; Nakache, Delphine; Collyer, Michael; Goetz, Nathaniel H.; Hansen, Art (eds.). *Forced Migration and Global Processes: A View from Forced Migration Studies*. Lexington Books. pp. 357, 359–360. ISBN 978-0-7391-5505-9. * Ducellier, Alain (1999). "Albania, Serbia and Bulgaria". In Abulafia, David (ed.). *The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 5, c.1198–c.1300*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 779–795. ISBN 978-1-13905573-4. * Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987). *The Encyclopedia of religion, Volume 1*. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-909480-8. * Elsie, Robert (2003). *Early Albania: A reader of Historical texts, 11th–17th centuries*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04783-8. * Elsie, Robert (2015). *The Tribes of Albania: History, Society and Culture*. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-932-2. * Elsie, Robert (2005). *Albanian literature: A short history*. London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84511-031-4. * Elsie, Robert (2010). *Historical Dictionary of Albania*. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-7380-3. * Finlay, George (1851). *The History of Greece: From Its Conquest by the Crusaders to Its Conquest by the Turks, and of the Empire of Trebizond: 1204–1461*. London: Blackwood. * Frazee, Charles (2006). *Catholics and Sultans: The Church and the Ottoman Empire 1453–1923*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-02700-7. * Galaty, Michael L. (2002). "Modeling the Formation and Evolution of an Illyrian Tribal System: Ethnographic and Archaeological Analogs". In William A. Parkinson (ed.). *The Archaeology of Tribal Societies*. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-78920-171-3. * Galaty, Michael L. (2011). "Blood of Our Ancestors". In Helaine Silverman (ed.). *Contested Cultural Heritage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in a Global World*. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-7305-4. Retrieved 31 May 2013. * Galaty, Michael L. (2018). *Memory and Nation Building: From Ancient Times to the Islamic State*. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7591-2262-8. * Gawrych, George (2006). *The Crescent and the Eagle: Ottoman rule, Islam and the Albanians, 1874–1913*. London: IB Tauris. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-84511-287-5. * Geniş, Şerife; Maynard, Kelly Lynne (2009). "Formation of a Diasporic Community: The history of migration and resettlement of Muslim Albanians in the Black Sea Region of Turkey". *Middle Eastern Studies*. **45** (4): 553–569. doi:10.1080/00263200903009619. S2CID 143742189. * Giakoumis, Konstantinos (2010). "The Orthodox Church in Albania Under the Ottoman Rule 15th–19th Century". In Schmitt, Oliver Jens (ed.). *Religion und Kultur im albanischsprachigen Südosteuropa [Religion and culture in Albanian-speaking southeastern Europe]*. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 69–110. ISBN 978-3-631-60295-9. * Gogonas, Nikos (2010). *Bilingualism and multiculturalism in Greek education: Investigating ethnic language maintenance among pupils of Albanian and Egyptian origin in Athens*. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-2214-5. * Groenendijk, Kees (2006). Bauböck, Rainer; Ersbøll, Eva; Groenendijk, Kees; Waldrauch, Harald (eds.). *Acquisition and Loss of Nationality: Comparative Analyses – Policies and Trends in 15 European Countries*. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. pp. 411–430. ISBN 9789053569207. * Hall, Jonathan (1997). *Ethnic Identity in Greek antiquity*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-78999-8. * Hock, Hans Henrich; Joseph, Brian D. (1996). *Language history, language change, and language relationship: An introduction to historical and comparative linguistics*. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014784-1. * Jagodić, Miloš (1998). "The Emigration of Muslims from the New Serbian Regions 1877/1878". *Balkanologie*. **2** (2). doi:10.4000/balkanologie.265. S2CID 140637086. * Jelavich, Barbara (1983). *History of the Balkans*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27459-3. Albanoi. * Kamusella, Tomasz (2009). *The politics of language and nationalism in modern Central Europe*. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-55070-4. * Kolovos, Elias (2007). *The Ottoman Empire, the Balkans, the Greek lands: Toward a social and economic history: Studies in honor of John C. Alexander*. Istanbul: Isis Press. ISBN 9789754283464. * Koinova, Maria (2021). *Diaspora Entrepreneurs and Contested States*. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-884862-2. * Koti, Dhori (2010). *Monografi për Vithkuqin dhe Naum Veqilharxhin [A monograph of Vithkuq and Naum Veqilharxhi]*. Pogradec: DIJA Poradeci. ISBN 978-99956-826-8-2. * Koukoudis, Asterios (2003). *The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora*. Thessaloniki: Zitros Publications. ISBN 9789607760869. * Liakos, Antonis (2012). "Hellenism and the making of Modern Greece: Time, Language, Space". In Zacharia, Katerina (ed.). *Hellenisms: culture, identity, and ethnicity from antiquity to modernity*. Aldershot: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 201–236. ISBN 9789004221529. * Liotta, Peter H. (2001). *Dismembering the state: The death of Yugoslavia and why it matters*. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-0212-1. * Lloshi, Xhevat (1999). "Albanian". In Hinrichs, Uwe; Büttner, Uwe (eds.). *Handbuch der Südosteuropa-Linguistik*. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 272–299. ISBN 978-3-447-03939-0. * Madgearu, Alexandru; Gordon, Martin (2008). *The wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their medieval origins*. Lanham: Scarecrow Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8108-5846-6. Albanoi. * Malcolm, Noel (1998). *Kosovo: A short history*. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-66612-8. * Matzinger, Joachim (2013). "Shqip bei den altalbanischen Autoren vom 16. bis zum frühen 18. Jahrhundert [Shqip within Old Albanian authors from the 16th to the early 18th century]". *Zeitschrift für Balkanologie*. Retrieved 31 October 2015. * Mëniku, Linda; Campos, Héctor (2012). *Colloquial Albanian: The complete course for beginners*. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30681-8. * Murati, Qemal (1991). *Konservacione dhe inovacione gjuhësore në fushë të shqipes [Conservation and innovations in the field of Albanian language]*. Flaka e Vëllazërimit. * Myhill, John (2006). *Language, religion and national identity in Europe and the Middle East: A historical study*. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 9789027227119. * Nallbani, Etleva (2017). "Early Medieval North Albania: New Discoveries, Remodeling Connections: The Case of Medieval Komani". In Gelichi, Sauro; Negrelli, Claudio (eds.). *Adriatico altomedievale (VI-XI secolo) Scambi, porti, produzioni* (PDF). Università Ca’ Foscari Venezia. ISBN 978-88-6969-115-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. * Nasse, George Nicholas (1964). *The Italo-Albanian Villages of Southern Italy*. Washington, District of Columbia: National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council. ISBN 978-0-598-20400-4. * Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1986). *Studies in late Byzantine history and prosopography*. Variorum Reprints. ISBN 978-0-86078-190-5. * Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (2010), *The Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages*, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-13089-9 * Norris, Harry Thirlwall (1993). *Islam in the Balkans: religion and society between Europe and the Arab world*. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. p. 249. ISBN 978-0-87249-977-5. Albanians Arnaout Syria. * Novik, Alexander Alexandrovich (2015). "Lexicon of Albanian mythology: Areal studies in the polylingual region of Azov Sea". *Slavia Meridionalis*. **15**: 261–273. doi:10.11649/sm.2015.022. * Pappas, Nicholas CJ. (2008). "Stradioti: Balkan Mercenaries in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Italy". Sam Houston State University. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. * Plasari, Aurel (2020). "The Albanians in attestations from late antiquity until the early Middle Ages". *Albanian Studies*. Academy of Sciences of Albania. **2**. * Pritsak, Omeljan (1991). "Albanians". In Kazhdan, Alexander P. (ed.). *Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. OCLC 311413460. * Quanrud, John (2021). "The Albanoi in Michael Attaleiates' History: revisiting the Vranoussi-Ducellier debate". *Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies*. **45** (2): 149–165. doi:10.1017/byz.2021.11. S2CID 237424879. * Ragionieri, Rodolfo (2008). "Mediterranean Geopolitics". In Petricioli, Marta (ed.). *L'Europe Méditerranéenne [Mediterranean Europe]*. Berlin: Peter Lang. pp. 37–48. ISBN 9789052013541. * Ramet, Sabrina P. (1989). *Religion and nationalism in Soviet and East European politics*. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0891-1. * Ramet, Sabrina (1998). *Nihil obstat: religion, politics, and social change in East-Central Europe and Russia*. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-2070-8. * Riehl, Claudia Maria (2010). "Discontinious language spaces (Sprachinseln)". In Auer, Peter; Schmidt, Jürgen Erich (eds.). *Language and Space: An International Handbook of Linguistic Variation. Theories and Methods*. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 332–354. ISBN 978-3-11-022027-8. * Sarner, Harvey (1997). *Rescue in Albania: One Hundred Percent of Jews in Albania Rescued from Holocaust*. Cathedral City: Brunswick Press. ISBN 978-1-888521-11-5. Archived from the original on 10 May 2008. * Saunders, Robert A. (2011). *Ethnopolitics in Cyberspace: The Internet, Minority Nationalism, and the Web of Identity*. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-4194-6. * Setton, Kenneth M. (1976). *The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume I: The Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries*. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. ISBN 0-87169-114-0. * Skendi, Stavro (1956). "Religion in Albania during the Ottoman rule". *Südost Forschungen*. **15**: 311–327.← * Stavrianos, Leften Stavros (2000). *The Balkans Since 1453*. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 978-1-85065-551-0. * Trnavci, Genc (2010). "The Interaction of Customary Law with the Modern Rule of Law in Albania and Kosova". In Sellers, Mortimer; Tomaszewski, Tadeusz (eds.). *The Rule of Law in Comparative Perspective*. Ius Gentium: Comparative Perspectives on Law and Justice. Vol. 3. Springer Verlag. pp. 201–215. ISBN 978-90-481-3748-0. * Tsitselikis, Konstantinos (2012). *Old and New Islam in Greece: From historical minorities to immigrant newcomers*. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 311. ISBN 9789004221529. * Tsoutsoumpis, Spyros (December 2015). "Violence, resistance and collaboration in a Greek borderland: the case of the Muslim Chams of Epirus". *Qualestoria* (2): 119–138. Retrieved 14 June 2016. * Uka, Sabit (2004d). *E drejta mbi vatrat dhe pasuritë reale dhe autoktone nuk vjetërohet: Të dhëna në formë rezimeje [The rights of homes and assets, real and autochthonous that does not disappear with time: Data given in the form of estate portions regarding inheritance]*. Prishtina: Shoqata e Muhaxhirëvë të Kosovës. ISBN 9789951408097. * Vasiliev, Alexander A. (1958). *History of the Byzantine Empire, 324–1453*. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-80926-3. * Veremis, Thanos; Kolipoulos, John (2003). "The evolving Content of the Greek Nation". In Couloumbis, Theodore A.; Kariotis, Theodore C.; Bello, Fotini (eds.). *Greece in the twentieth century*. Portland: Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-136-34652-1. * Vickers, Miranda (2011). *The Albanians: a modern history*. London: IB Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-655-0. * Villar, Francisco (1996). *Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa* (in Spanish). Madrid: Gredos. ISBN 84-249-1787-1. * Winnifrith, Tom (2020). *Nobody's Kingdom: A History of Northern Albania*. Signal Books. External links -------------- * Books about Albania and the Albanian people (scribd.com) Reference of books (and some journal articles) about Albania and the Albanian people; their history, language, origin, culture, literature, and so on Public domain books, fully accessible online. * Albanians in the Balkans U.S. Institute of Peace Report, November 2001 * "The Albanians and their Territories" by The Academy of Sciences of the PSR of Albania

Albanians

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanians

The **Border Collie** is a breed of herding dog of medium size. Widely considered to be the most intelligent dog breed, they are descendants of landrace sheepdogs that were once found all over the British Isles, but became standardised in the Anglo-Scottish border region. They are now mostly used as working dogs to herd livestock, specifically sheep. Border Collies are extremely energetic, acrobatic, and athletic, frequently competing with great success in sheepdog trials and a range of dog sports like dog obedience, disc dog, herding and dog agility. The breed continues to be employed in their traditional work of herding livestock throughout the world and are kept as pets. Description ----------- Border Collies are, on average, medium-sized dogs with a moderate amount of coat, which is often thick and prone to shedding. They have a double coat that varies from smooth to rough and is occasionally curled. While black and white is the most common colouring of the Border Collie, the breed appears in just about any colour and pattern known to occur in dogs. Some of these include black tricolour (black/tan/white), liver and white, and red tricolour (red/tan/white) which have also been seen regularly, and other colours such as blue, lilac, red merle, blue merle, brindle, and Australian red (also known as ee red, blonde, recessive red, or gold) which is seen less frequently. Some border collies may also have single-colour coats. Eye colour varies from brown to green, and occasionally eyes of differing colour occur; this is usually seen with merles. This trait is known as heterochromia. The ears of the border collie are also variable — some have fully erect ears, some fully dropped ears, and others semi-erect ears (similar to those of the rough collie). Although working border collie handlers sometimes have superstitions about the appearance of their dogs (handlers may avoid mostly white dogs due to the unfounded idea that sheep will not respect a white or almost all white dog), in general, the American Border Collie Association considers a dog's appearance to be irrelevant. Instead, it is considered more useful to identify a working border collie by its attitude and ability. Dogs bred for show are more homogeneous in appearance than working border collies since to win in conformation showing they must conform closely to breed club standards that are specific on many points of the structure, coat, and colour. Kennel clubs specify, for example, that the border collie must have a "keen and intelligent" expression, and that the preferred eye colour is dark brown. In deference to the dog's working origin, scars and broken teeth received in the line of duty are not to be counted against a border collie in the show ring. The males' height from withers comes from 48 to 56 centimetres (19 to 22 in), females from 46 to 53 centimetres (18 to 21 in). Temperament and needs --------------------- Border Collies require considerably more daily physical exercise and mental stimulation than many other breeds. The border collie is widely considered to be the most intelligent dog breed. The border collie ranks 1st in Stanley Coren's *The Intelligence of Dogs*, being part of the top 10 brightest dogs. Although the primary role of the border collie is to herd livestock, the breed is becoming increasingly popular as a companion animal. In this role, due to their working heritage, border collies are very demanding, playful, and energetic. They thrive best in households that can provide them with plenty of play and exercise, either with humans or other dogs. Due to their demanding personalities and need for mental stimulation and exercise, many border collies develop problematic behaviours in households that are not able to provide for their needs. They are infamous for chewing holes in walls and furniture, and for destructive scraping and hole digging, due to boredom. Border collies may exhibit a strong desire to herd, a trait they may show with small children, cats, and other dogs. The breed's herding trait has been deliberately encouraged, as it was in the dogs from which the border collie was developed, by selective breeding for many generations. However, being eminently trainable, they can live amicably with other pets if given proper socialisation training. The American Border Collie Association recommends that potential owners, before taking on the breed as a household pet, should be sure they can provide regular exercise commensurate with the collie's high energy and prodigious stamina. A working collie may run many miles a day, using its experience, personality, and intelligence to control challenging livestock. These dogs will become distressed and frustrated if left in isolation, ignored or inactive. Like many working breeds, border collies can be motion-sensitive and may chase moving vehicles and bicycles, but this behaviour can be modified by training. Some of the more difficult behaviours require patience, as they are developmental and may disappear as the dog matures. Health ------ ### Life span The natural life span of the border collie is between 12 and 15 years, with an average lifespan of 12 years and the ability to live up to 18 years. The median longevities of breeds of similar size are usually 12 to 13 years. Leading causes of death are cancer (23.6%), old age (17.9%) and cerebral vascular afflictions (9.4%). Other conditions that occur more frequently in Border Collies than other breeds include: * Collie eye anomaly * Hip dysplasia * Epilepsy * Hearing loss * Elbow dysplasia * Addison Disease ### Common health problems Collie eye anomaly (CEA) and epilepsy are considered the primary genetic diseases of concern in the breed at this time. CEA is a congenital, inherited eye disease involving the retina, choroid, and sclera that sometimes affects border collies. In border collies, it is generally a mild disease and rarely significantly impairs vision. However other eye conditions such as PRA slowly disintegrates the retina and can cause border collies to lose almost all of their vision at night which can progress into complete daytime blindness. There is now a DNA test available for CEA and, through its use, breeders can ensure that they will not produce affected pups. There are different types of hip testing available including OFA (Orthopedic Foundation for Animals) and PennHip. Radiographs are taken and sent to these organisations to determine a dog's hip and elbow quality. Elbow dysplasia may also occur in the breed. Dogs homozygous for the merle gene, sometimes referred to as "double merles", are likely to have sight and/or hearing defects. Two types of hearing loss occur in the breed. The first type is pigment associated and is found in border collie puppies, although the puppies can have congenital sensorineural deafness from birth as well. The second type is known as adult-onset hearing loss. These dogs have a normal auditory brainstem response test as pups but gradually lose their hearing some time between one and eight years of age. A study is currently underway at The Translational Genomics Research Institute to identify the genetic cause of adult-onset hearing loss in the breed. Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis (NCL) is a rare but serious disease that is limited to show border collies. NCL results in severe neurological impairment and early death; afflicted dogs rarely survive beyond two years of age. The mutation causing the form of the disease found in border collies was identified by Scott Melville in the laboratory of Alan Wilton of the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales. There is no treatment or cure, but a DNA test is now available to detect carriers as well as affected dogs. Trapped Neutrophil Syndrome (TNS) is a hereditary disease in which the bone marrow produces neutrophils (white cells) but is unable to effectively release them into the bloodstream. Affected puppies have an impaired immune system and will eventually die from infections they cannot fight. The mutation responsible for TNS has been found in border collies in English working dogs, in show dogs that had originated in Australia and New Zealand, and in unrelated Australian working dogs. This indicates that the gene is widespread and probably as old as the breed itself. TNS was identified by Jeremy Shearman in the laboratory of Alan Wilton of the School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales. There is no cure, but a DNA test is now available to detect carriers as well as affected dogs. Other diseases found less commonly include juvenile cataracts, osteochondritis, hypothyroidism, diabetes mellitus and canine cyclic neutropaenia, carpal soft-tissue injury. A syndrome of exercise-induced collapse similar to that seen in Labrador retrievers, otherwise termed **Border Collie Collapse** and triggered by episodes of collapse associated with periods of intense exercise has been described in Border Collies in North America, Europe and Australia; and is currently the subject of further investigation. Border Collie Collapse or "the wobbles" is a disease found in many herding/working breeds. The cause is currently unknown. Border Collie Collapse seems to be related to high-intensity exercises that are found to be particularly exciting to the individual dog. For example, some dogs cannot retrieve a tennis ball, as they find this activity highly stimulating, but can run for several miles with no symptoms of Border Collie Collapse. Symptoms commonly include disorientation, mental dullness, loss of attention, unsteady hind legs, dragging of hind legs, and ultimately the need to sit or lie down. Loss of consciousness and seizure-like trembling/spasms are not characteristics of Border Collie Collapse. There is no current diagnostic test or veterinary workup that can confirm Border Collie Collapse and the diagnosis is often given as a diagnosis of exclusion or based on clinical symptoms. There is no current treatment recommended, and it is advised to limit the episodes by avoiding the activities that trigger the collapse. History ------- The border collie is descended from landrace collies, a type found widely in the British Isles. The name for the breed came from its probable place of origin along the Anglo-Scottish border. Mention of the "collie" or "Colley" type first appeared toward the end of the 19th century, although the word "collie" is older than this and has its origin in the Scots language. It is also thought that the word 'collie' comes from the old Celtic word for useful. Many of the best border collies today can be traced back to a dog known as Old Hemp. In 1915, James Reid, Secretary of the International Sheep Dog Society (ISDS) in the United Kingdom first used the term "border collie" to distinguish those dogs registered by the ISDS from the Kennel Club's collie (or Scotch collie, including the rough collie and smooth collie) which originally came from the same working stock but had developed a different, standardised appearance following introduction to the show ring in 1860 and mixture with different breeds. ### Old Hemp Old Hemp, a tricolour dog, was born in Northumberland, England in September 1893 and died in May 1901. He was bred by Adam Telfer from Roy, a black and tan dog, and Meg, a black-coated, strong-eyed dog. Hemp was a quiet, powerful dog to which sheep responded easily. Many shepherds used him for stud and Hemp's working style became the Border Collie style. All pure border collies alive today can trace an ancestral line back to Old Hemp. He was believed to have sired as many as 200 pups over the span of his life. ### Wiston Cap Wiston Cap (b. 28 September 1963) is the dog that the International Sheep Dog Society (ISDS) badge portrays in the characteristic border collie herding pose. He was a popular stud dog in the history of the breed, and his bloodline can be seen in most bloodlines of the modern-day collie. Bred by W. S. Hetherington and trained and handled by John Richardson, Cap was a biddable and good-natured dog. His bloodlines all trace back to the early registered dogs of the studbook, and to J. M. Wilson's Cap, whose name occurs 16 times within seven generations in his pedigree. Wiston Cap sired three Supreme Champions and is grand-sire of three others, one of whom was E. W. Edwards' Bill, who won the championship twice. ### Introduction to New Zealand and Australia Collies were listed as imports to New Zealand as early as 1858, but the type was not specified. In the late 1890s James Lilico (1861?–1945) of Christchurch, New Zealand, imported a number of working dogs from the United Kingdom. These included Hindhope Jed, a black, tan and white born in Hindhope, Scotland in 1895, as well as Maudie, Moss of Ancrum, Ness and Old Bob. It is unclear whether Hindhope Jed was a descendant of Old Hemp. Born two years after him, she is mentioned in a *British Hunts and Huntsmen* article concerning a Mr John Elliot of Jedburgh: > Mr. Elliot himself is well known for his breed of collies. His father supplied Noble to the late Queen Victoria and it was from our subject that the McLeod got Hindhope Jed, now the champion of New Zealand and Australia. > > When her departure to New Zealand, Hindhope Jed was already in pup to *Captain*, another of the then-new "border" strain. Hindhope Jed had won three trials in her native Scotland, and was considered to be the "best to cross the equator". In 1901 the King and Mcleod stud was created by Charles Beechworth King (b. 1855, Murrumbidgee, NSW), his brother and Alec McLeod at Canonbar, near Nyngan (north-west of Sydney), brought Hindhope Jed to Australia, where she enjoyed considerable success at sheepdog trials. The New Zealand Heading Dog breed was developed from Border Collies. Breed standards --------------- There are two types of tests, or standards, to determine the breeding quality of a Border Collie: the original ISDS sheepdog trial and appearance. ### ISDS sheepdog trial The original test is the ISDS sheepdog trial. It is still used today, where a dog and handler collect groups of livestock and move them quietly around a course. There are certain standard elements to this test depending on the level: national or international. For both levels, sheep must be gathered as calmly as possible without being distressed. For a national competition, normally held between England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, trials run over a 400-yard course. International courses use a 400-yard course for the qualifying trials, but on the third and final day, trials are held in a course of 800 yards. The international test involves a "double fetch", where the sheepdog must gather 10 sheep from 800 yards away, bring them on an angle to the centre of the field, and then be sent back in another direction to gather another 10 sheep, also placed 800 yards from the handler. Five of those 20 sheep will have collars on, and at the end of a triangular drive, the sheep are gathered into a circular "shedding ring" and the 15 sheep without collars are driven away as the five collared sheep are kept inside the ring and then penned. Sheepdogs must be directed through obstacles at varying distance from the handler, and then the dog must demonstrate the ability to do work close at hand by penning the sheep and sorting them out. ### Appearance In nearly every region of the world, the border collie is now also a breed that is shown in a ring or bench shows. For the people who participate in these events, the Border Collie is defined by the breed standard, which is a description of how the dog should look. In New Zealand and Australia, where the breed has been shown throughout most of the twentieth century, the Border Collie standards have produced a dog with a long double coat (smooth coats are allowed), a soft dark eye, a body slightly longer than tall, a well-defined stop, semi-pricked ears, as well as a gentle and friendly temperament. This style of Border Collie has become popular in winning show kennels around the world, as well as among prestigious judges. Breed standards state that its tail must be slightly curved and must stop at the hock. The fur must be lush. It should show good expression in its eyes and must be intelligent. It is energetic with most commonly a black and white coat (sometimes brown). It should have a powerful herding instinct. ### Criticism of show dog conformity based on appearance Other enthusiasts oppose the use of border collies as show dogs, for fear that breeding for appearance will lead to a decline in the breed's working dog traits. Few handlers of working Border Collies participate in conformation shows, as working dogs are bred to a performance standard rather than an appearance standard. Likewise, conformation-bred dogs are seldom seen on the sheepdog trial field, except in Kennel Club-sponsored events. Dogs registered with either working or conformation-based registries are seen in other performance events such as agility, obedience, tracking or flyball; however, these dogs do not necessarily conform to the breed standard of appearance as closely as the dogs shown in the breed rings as this is not a requirement in performance events, nor do they necessarily participate in herding activities. Registries ---------- ### United Kingdom There are two separate registries for border collies in the UK. The International Sheep Dog Society encourages breeding for herding ability, whereas the Kennel Club (UK) encourages breeding for a standardised appearance. The ISDS registry is by far the older of the two, and ISDS dogs are eligible for registration as pedigree Border Collies with the Kennel Club (KC) — but not vice versa. The only way for a Border Collie without an ISDS pedigree to be added to the ISDS registry is by proving its worth as a herding dog so that it can be Registered on Merit (ROM). ### United States Two of the principal registries for border collies in the United States are the American Border Collie Association (ABCA) and the National Border Collie Association (NBCA), both of which are dedicated to the preservation of the traditional working dog. The breed was also recognised in 1995 by the American Kennel Club (AKC) after occupying the AKC's Miscellaneous Class for over 50 years. The recognition was under protest from the majority of border collie affiliated groups, such as the United States Border Collie Club, which felt that emphasis on the breed's working skills would be lost under AKC recognition. AKC registrations have gradually increased since recognition and by 2004 there were 1,984 new AKC registrations of border collies, with a further 2,378 for the year 2005. By contrast, the American Border Collie Association registers approximately 20,000 border collies annually. Because of the inherent tension between the goals of breeding to a working standard and to an appearance standard, the American Border Collie Association voted in 2003 that dogs who attained a conformation championship would be delisted from the ABCA registry, regardless of ability. Cross-registration is allowed between the working registries, and AKC accepts dogs registered with ABCA, NASDS, and NBCA. but none of the working registries in the U.S. honours AKC pedigrees, with the exception of the NBCA which will accept a transfer of registration from AKC. ### Australia In Australia, Border collies are registered with an Australian National Kennel Council (ANKC) affiliated state control body or with a working dog registry. Between 2,011 and 2,701 ANKC pedigreed border collies have been registered with the ANKC each year since 1986. Inclusion on the ANKC affiliate's main register allows border collies to compete in conformation, obedience, agility, tracking, disc dog, herding and other ANKC-sanctioned events held by an ANKC affiliated club, while inclusion on the limited register prohibits entry in conformation events. The ANKC provides a breed standard; however, this applies to conformation events only and has no influence on dogs entering performance events. Non-ANKC pedigreed dogs may also be eligible for inclusion on an ANKC associate or sporting register and be able to compete in ANKC performance or herding events. Agility organisations such as the Agility Dog Association of Australia (ADAA) have their own registry which allows the inclusion of any dog wishing to compete in their events. ### Canada In Canada, Agriculture Canada has recognised the Canadian Border Collie Association as the registry under the Animal Pedigree Act for any border collie that is designated as a "Pure Breed" in Canada. The criteria used are based on herding lineage rather than appearance. It is a two-tiered registry in that dogs imported that are registered with a foreign Kennel Club that does hold conformation shows are given a "B" registration, whereas those that come directly from other working registries are placed on the "A" registry. Recently, the Canadian Kennel Club has polled its members to decide if border collies should be included on the CKC "Miscellaneous List". This designation would allow border collie owners the ability to compete in all CKC events, but the CKC would not be the registering body. People who compete in performance events support the move. The CBCA is against this designation. ### South Africa The registration of working sheepdogs in South Africa is the responsibility of the South African Sheepdog Association. ISDS-registered dogs imported into the country can be transferred onto the SASDA register. Dogs not registered can become eligible for registration by being awarded a certificate of working ability by a registered judge. Occasionally they will facilitate the testing of dogs used for breeding, for hip dysplasia and collie eye anomaly, to encourage the breeding of dogs without these genetic flaws. ### Turkey The registration of working border collies in Turkey is the province of the Border Collie Dernegi (Turkish Border Collie Association) established in 2007. ### Elsewhere The border collie breed is also recognised as the prime sheepdog by the International Stock Dog Federation (ISDF), based in Piccadilly, London, UK. Activities ---------- Border collies are one of the most popular breeds for dog agility competitions. They also excel at competitive obedience, showmanship, flyball, tracking, and sheepdog trials and herding events. Livestock work -------------- Working border collies can take direction by voice and by whistle at long distances when herding. Their great energy and herding instinct are still used to herd a variety of animals, from the traditional sheep and cattle, to free-range poultry, pigs, and ostriches. They are also used to remove unwanted wild birds from airport runways, golf courses, and other public and private areas. Shepherds in the UK have taken the most critical elements of herding and incorporated them into a sheepdog trial. The first recorded sheepdog trials were held in Bala, North Wales, in 1873. These competitions enable farmers and shepherds to evaluate possible mates for their working dogs, but they have developed a sport aspect as well, with competitors from outside the farming community also taking part. In the US, the national sanctioning body for these competitions is the USBCHA. In the UK it is the International Sheep Dog Society, in Canada the Canadian Border Collie Association (CBCA) and in South Africa it is the South African Sheepdog Association. ### Dog sports Border collies excel at several dog sports in addition to their success in sheepdog trials due to their high instinct for herding. Herding instincts and trainability can be tested when introduced to sheep or at noncompetitive instinct tests. Border collies exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in sheepdog trials and other herding events. They perform well at some higher jump heights at dog agility competitions, so much so that in England, competitions often include classes for ABC dogs, "Anything But Collies". The border collie's speed, agility, and stamina have allowed them to dominate in dog activities like flyball and disc dog competitions. Their trainability has also given them a berth in dog dancing competitions. Border collies have a highly developed sense of smell and with their high drive make excellent and easily motivated tracking dogs for tracking trials. These trials simulate the finding of a lost person in a controlled situation where the performance of the dog can be evaluated, with titles awarded for successful dogs. Border Collies are used as search dogs in mountain rescue in Britain. They are particularly useful for searching large areas of hillside and avalanche debris. Hamish MacInnes believed that dark-coated dogs are less prone to snow blindness. Research -------- The impressive intelligence of the Border Collie has made it a viable subject for research. In particular, the Georgia Institute of Technology’s FIDO (Facilitating Interactions for Dogs with Occupations) project demonstrated the ability of intelligent dogs to communicate with humans. In particular, Professor Melody Jackson, director of the Institute’s BrainLab, instrumented a Border Collie named Sky to activate a sensor worn by the dog which allowed Sky to communicate in audible English with its handler. One intent was to allow service dogs to warn their owners of impending danger, or to alert others to emergency situations involving their handler, especially those situations which might have resulted in the incapacitation of their handler. Notable Border Collies ---------------------- * Rico, who was studied for recognising up to 200 objects by name. Another border collie, Betsy, was found to have a vocabulary of over 300 words. * Chaser had a vocabulary of 1,022 words, could reason by exclusion, and could recognise objects by the groups they belong to. * Shep, who was the long-term companion to John Noakes of the BBC's *Blue Peter* and Meg, companion of Matt Baker, former presenter of the same show. * Shep was also a dog that appeared at a railway station in 1936 and watched his dead master be loaded onto a train. He remained there, waiting for his master to return, for the next five and a half years. * Striker, who is the current Guinness World Record holder for "Fastest Car Window Opened by a Dog" at 11.34 seconds. * Jean, also known as the Vitagraph Dog, who was the first canine movie star (owned and trained by Laurence Trimble). * Bandit, the stray Scottish Border Collie from the TV series *Little House on the Prairie* was Laura Ingalls' second dog on the show. * Peggy, awarded the PDSA Certificate for Animal Bravery or Devotion. * Sheila, the first civilian dog ever awarded the PDSA Dicken medal, for her part in rescuing the crew of a B-17 Flying Fortress, which crashed into the Cheviot Hills, Northumberland. * Mike the Dog, appeared in TV and film including *Down and Out in Beverly Hills*. * Finn, companion of Tank Museum curator David Willey, and co-star of the museum's *Q&A with Curator David Willey* YouTube series. * Frankie, subject of a viral Instagram video. * *Mr. Pickles* is the titular protagonist and the Goodman family's pet border collie, the physical embodiment of the Devil and who loves to eat pickles. * Tilly, a border collie who fled from a car crash in Idaho and was found two days later on a nearby farm, herding sheep. See also -------- * List of dog breeds * McNab dog * Rough Collie * Smooth Collie * Australian Shepherd * Cumberland Sheepdog * English Shepherd * Shetland Sheepdog * Welsh Sheepdog

Border Collie

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Collie

The **Turkic languages** are a language family of over 35 documented languages, spoken by the Turkic peoples of Eurasia from Eastern Europe and Southern Europe to Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia (Siberia), and Western Asia. The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning from Mongolia to Northwest China, where Proto-Turkic is thought to have been spoken, from where they expanded to Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium. They are characterized as a dialect continuum. Turkic languages are spoken by some 200 million people. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish, spoken mainly in Anatolia and the Balkans; its native speakers account for about 38% of all Turkic speakers, followed by Uzbek. Characteristic features such as vowel harmony, agglutination, subject-object-verb order, and lack of grammatical gender, are almost universal within the Turkic family. There is a high degree of mutual intelligibility, upon moderate exposure, among the various Oghuz languages, which include Turkish, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Chaharmahali Turkic, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish, as well as Oghuz-influenced Crimean Tatar. Other Turkic languages demonstrate varying amounts of mutual intelligibility within their subgroups as well. Although methods of classification vary, the Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided into two branches: Oghur, the only surviving member of which is Chuvash, and Common Turkic, which includes all other Turkic languages. Turkic languages show many similarities with the Mongolic, Tungusic, Koreanic, and Japonic languages. These similarities have led some linguists (including Talât Tekin) to propose an Altaic language family, though this proposal is widely rejected by Western historical linguists. Similarities with the Uralic languages even caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under the Ural-Altaic hypothesis. However, there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies, the shared characteristics between the languages being attributed presently to extensive prehistoric language contact. Characteristics --------------- Turkic languages are null-subject languages, have vowel harmony (with the notable exception of Uzbek), extensive agglutination by means of suffixes and postpositions, and lack of grammatical articles, noun classes, and grammatical gender. Subject–object–verb word order is universal within the family. History ------- ### Pre-history The homeland of the Turkic peoples and their language is suggested to be somewhere between the Transcaspian steppe and Northeastern Asia (Manchuria), with genetic evidence pointing to the region near South Siberia and Mongolia as the "Inner Asian Homeland" of the Turkic ethnicity. Similarly several linguists, including Juha Janhunen, Roger Blench and Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-day Mongolia is the homeland of the early Turkic language. Relying on Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence, Turkologist Peter Benjamin Golden locates the Proto-Turkic Urheimat in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of the Sayan-Altay region. Extensive contact took place between Proto-Turks and Proto-Mongols approximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the two Eurasian nomadic groups is called the "Turco-Mongol" tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion system, Tengrism, and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages and Mongolic languages. Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary. Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Onoguric (Bulgharic) family similiar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes. Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearby Tungusic and Mongolic families, as well as the Korean and Japonic families has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as the Northeast Asian sprachbund. A more recent (circa first millennium BC) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic. Turkic languages also show some Chinese loanwords that point to early contact during the time of Proto-Turkic. Robbeets (et al. 2015 and et al. 2017) suggest that the homeland of the Turkic languages was somewhere in Manchuria, close to the Mongolic, Tungusic and Koreanic homeland (including the ancestor of Japonic), and that these languages share a common "Transeurasian" origin. More evidence for the proposed ancestral "Transeurasian" origin was presented by Nelson et al. 2020 and Li et al. 2020. ### Early written records The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century AD Orkhon inscriptions by the Göktürks, recording the Old Turkic language, which were discovered in 1889 in the Orkhon Valley in Mongolia. The *Compendium of the Turkic Dialects* (*Divânü Lügati't-Türk*), written during the 11th century AD by Kaşgarlı Mahmud of the Kara-Khanid Khanate, constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. The *Compendium* is the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to the Southwestern branch of the family. The Codex Cumanicus (12th–13th centuries AD) concerning the Northwestern branch is another early linguistic manual, between the Kipchak language and Latin, used by the Catholic missionaries sent to the Western Cumans inhabiting a region corresponding to present-day Hungary and Romania. The earliest records of the language spoken by Volga Bulgars, the parent to today's Chuvash language, are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD. ### Geographical expansion and development With the Turkic expansion during the Early Middle Ages (c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread across Central Asia, from Siberia to the Mediterranean. Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed into Persian, Urdu, Ukrainian, Russian, Chinese, Mongolian, Hungarian and to a lesser extent, Arabic.[*verification needed*] The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples across Eurasia since the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East of Siberia to Turkey in the West. (See picture in the box on the right above.) For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and through contact with the surrounding languages, especially the Iranian, Slavic, and Mongolic languages. This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922). The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches: * Common Turkic + Southwestern (Oghuz Turkic) + Southeastern (Karluk Turkic) + Northwestern (Kipchak Turkic) + Northeastern (Siberian Turkic) + Arghu Turkic * Oghur Turkic In this classification, Oghur Turkic is also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic or Common Turkic. It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have diverged. With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized as **West Turkic**, the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak, and Arghu (Khalaj) groups as **East Turkic**. Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages. Hruschka, et al. (2014) use computational phylogenetic methods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonological sound changes. ### Schema The following isoglosses are traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages: * **Rhotacism** (or in some views, zetacism), e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" \***tokkuz**. This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhotacism refers to the development of \*-/r/, \*-/z/, and \*-/d/ to /r/,\*-/k/,\*-/kh/ in this branch. See Antonov and Jacques (2012) on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic. * **Intervocalic \*d**, e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" \*hadaq * **Suffix-final -G**, e.g. in the suffix \*lIG, in e.g. \*tāglïg Additional isoglosses include: * **Preservation of word initial \*h**, e.g. in the word for "foot" \*hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language. * **Denasalisation of palatal \*ń**, e.g. in the word for "moon", \*āń | isogloss | **Old Turkic** | **Turkish** | **Turkmen** | **Azerbaijani** | Qashqai | **Uzbek** | **Uyghur** | **Tatar** | **Kazakh** | **Kyrgyz** | **Altay** | **Western Yugur** | **Fu-yü Gyrgys** | **Khakas** | **Tuvan** | **Sakha/Yakut** | **Khalaj** | **Chuvash** | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | **z/r** (*nine*) | toquz | dokuz | dokuz | doqquz | doqquz | toʻqqiz | toqquz | tuɣïz | toğyz | toɣuz | toɣus | dohghus | doɣus | toɣïs | tos | toɣus | toqquz | tăχăr | | **\*h-** (*foot*) | adaq | ayak | aýak | ayaq | ayaq | oyoq | ayaq | ayaq | aiaq | ayaq | ayaq | azaq | azïχ | azaχ | adaq | ataχ | hadaq | ura | | **\*VdV** (*foot*) | adaq | ayak | aýak | ayaq | ayaq | oyoq | ayaq | ayaq | aiaq | ayaq | ayaq | azaq | azïχ | azaχ | adaq | ataχ | hadaq | ura | | **\*-ɣ** (*mountain*) | tāɣ | dağ\* | dag | dağ | daɣ | togʻ | tagh | taw | tau | tō | tū | taɣ | daχ | taɣ | daɣ | tıa | tāɣ | tu | | **suffix \*-lïɣ** (*mountainous*) | tāɣlïɣ | dağlı | dagly | dağlı | daɣlïɣ | togʻlik | taghliq | tawlï | tauly | tōlū | tūlu | taɣliɣ | daɣluɣ | | | χayalaaχ | | tullă | \*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, the *ğ* in *dağ* and *dağlı* is not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel. Members ------- The following table is based mainly upon the classification scheme presented by Lars Johanson | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Proto-Turkic | Common Turkic | Southwestern Common Turkic(Oghuz) |   | * Salar | | West Oghuz | * Ajem-Turkic (extinct) * Old Anatolian Turkish (extinct) * Ottoman Turkish (extinct) * Pecheneg (extinct) * Turkish * Gagauz * Azerbaijani | | East Oghuz | * Turkmen * Khorasani Turkic | | South Oghuz | * Qashqai * Chaharmahali Turkic * Afshari Turkic * Sonqori Turkic | | (Arghu) |   | * Khalaj | | Northwestern Common Turkic(Kipchak) | | West Kipchak | * Kumyk * Karachay-Balkar * Crimean Tatar * Urum * Krymchak * Karaim * Cuman (extinct) | | North Kipchak(Volga–Ural Turkic) | * Tatar * Bashkir * Old Tatar (extinct) | | South Kipchak(Aralo-Caspian) | * Kazakh * Karakalpak * Nogai * Siberian Tatar | | Eastern Kipchak(Kyrgyz–Kipchak) | * Kyrgyz * Fergana Kipchak (extinct) | | Southeastern Common Turkic(Karluk) | West Karluk | * Uzbek | | East Karluk | * Uyghur * Ili Turki * Chagatai (extinct) * Khorezmian (extinct) * Karakhanid (extinct) | | Northeastern Common Turkic(Siberian) | North Siberian | * Yakut (Sakha) * Dolgan | | South Siberian | Sayan Turkic | * Tuvan * Tofa * Soyot-Tsaatan (extinct, partly revitalized) * Dukhan | | Altai and Yenisei Turkic | * Chulym * Fuyu Kyrgyz * Khakas * Northern Altai + Kumandin + Chelkan + Tuba * Shor * Southern Altai + Altai proper + Telengit + Teleut | | | * Western Yugur * Fuyu Kyrgyz * Äynu * Orkhon Turkic (extinct) * Old Uyghur (extinct) | | | Oghuric | * Chuvash * Khazar (extinct) * Bulgar (extinct) | Vocabulary comparison --------------------- The following is a brief comparison of cognates among the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not cognate with the other words in the row or that a loanword is used in its place. Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases, the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derived *ateş*, whereas the native *od* is dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted. | | Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | *Relationship* | father, ancestor | \*ata, \*kaŋ | ata, apa, qaŋ | baba, ata | baba, ata | apa, ata | bowa/ata | ata | ata, atay | ata | ata, atay | ata | ata | ota | ata | ağa | atte, aśu, aşşe | | mother | \*ana, \*ög | ana, ög | ana, anne | ana | ana, ene | ana/nänä | ene | ana, äni | ana | ana, inä(y)/asay | ana | ene, ana | ona | ana | iỹe | anne, annü, amăşĕ | | son | \*ogul | oɣul | oğul | oğul | oɣul, ohul | oğul | ogul | ul | uvul | ul | ul | uul | oʻgʻil | oghul | uol | ıvăl, ul | | man | \*ēr, \*érkek | er | erkek | ər/erkək | erkek | kiši | erkek | ir | ėr | ir, irkäk | er, erkek | er, erkek | erkak | er | er | ar/arśın | | girl | \*kï̄ŕ | qïz | kız | qız | qɨz | qïz/qez | gyz | qız | qɨz | qıð | qyz | qız | qiz | qiz | kııs | hĕr | | person | \*kiĺi, \*yạlaŋuk | kiši, yalaŋuq | kişi | kişi | kiši | | kişi | keşe | kiši | keşe | kisi | kişi | kishi | kishi | kihi | śın | | bride | \*gélin | kelin | gelin | gəlin | qalɨŋ | gälin | gelin | kilen | kelin | kilen | kelin | kelin | kelin | kelin | kiyiit | kin | | mother-in-law | | | kaynana | qaynana | | qäynänä | gaýyn ene | qayın ana | | qäynä | qaıyn ene | qaynene | qaynona | qeyinana | | huńama | | *Body parts* | heart | \*yürek | yürek | yürek | ürək | jürek | iräg/üräg | ýürek | yöräk | üriak, jürek | yöräk | jürek | cürök | yurak | yürek | sürex | çĕre | | blood | \*kiān | qan | kan | qan | qan | qan | gan | qan | qan | qan | qan | qan | qon | qan | xaan | yun | | head | \*baĺč | baš | baş | baş | baš | baš | baş | baş | baš | baş | bas | baş | bosh | bash | bas | puś/poś | | hair | \*s(i)ač, \*kïl | sač, qïl | saç, kıl | saç, qıl | sač, qɨl | tik/qel | saç, gyl | çäç, qıl | čač, sač, qɨl | säs, qıl | shash, qyl | çaç, qıl | soch, qil | sach, qil | battax, kıl | śüś, hul | | eye | \*göŕ | köz | göz | göz | köz | gez/göz | göz | küz | kioź, goz | küð | köz | köz | koʻz | köz | xarax, kös | kuś/koś | | eyelash | \*kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpig | kirpik | kerfek | kirpik | kerpek | kirpik | kirpik | kiprik | kirpik | kılaman, kirbii | hărpăk | | ear | \*kulkak | qulqaq | kulak | qulaq | qulaq, qulqaq, qulxaq, qulɣaq | qulaq | gulak | qolaq | qulax | qolaq | qulaq | qulaq | quloq | qulaq | kulgaax | hălha | | nose | \*burun | burun | burun | burun | burun | burn | burun | borın | burun | moron | muryn | murun | burun | burun | murun, munnu | murun | | arm | \*kol | qol | kol | qol | qol | qol | gol | qul | kol | qul | qol | qol | qoʻl | qol | хol | hul | | hand | \*el-ig | elig | el | əl | elig | äl | el | | | | alaqan | alaqan | | ilik | ilii | ală | | finger | \*erŋek, \*biarŋak | erŋek | parmak | barmaq | barmaq | burmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmax | barmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmoq | barmaq | tarbaq | pürne/porńa | | fingernail | \*dïrŋak | tïrŋaq | tırnak | dırnaq | tɨrŋaq | dïrnaq | dyrnak | tırnaq | tɨrnax | tırnaq | tyrnaq | tırmaq | tirnoq | tirnaq | tıngıraq | çĕrne | | knee | \*dīŕ, \*dǖŕ | tiz | diz | diz | tizle- (to press with one's knees) | diz | dyz | tez | tɨz | teð | tize | tize | tizza | tiz | tobuk | çĕrśi, çerkuśśi | | calf | \*baltïr | baltïr | baldır | baldır | baldɨr | ballïr | baldyr | baltır | baldɨr | baltır | baltyr | baltır | boldir | baldir | ballır | pıl | | foot | \*(h)adak | adaq | ayak | ayaq | aδaq | ayaq | aýak | ayaq | ajax | ayaq | aıaq | but, ayaq | oyoq | ayaq | ataq | ura | | belly | \*kạrïn | qarïn | karın | qarın | qarɨn | qarn | garyn | qarın | qarɨn | qarın | qaryn | qarın | qorin | qerin | xarın | hırăm | | *Animals* | horse | \*(h)at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | ot | at | at | ut/ot | | cattle | \*dabar | ingek, tabar | inek, davar, sığır | inək, sığır | ingek, ingen; tavar | seğer | sygyr | sıyır | sɨjɨr | hıyır | siyr | uy, sıyır, inek | sigir | siyir | ınax | ĕne | | dog | \*ït, \*köpek | ït | it, köpek | it | ɨt | kepäg | it | et | it´ | et | ıt | it, köbök | it | it | ıt | yıtă | | fish | \*bālïk | balïq | balık | balıq | balɨq | balïq | balyk | balıq | balɨx | balıq | balyq | balıq | baliq | beliq | balık | pulă | | louse | \*bït | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bet | bit | bet | bıt | bit | bit | bit | bıt | pıytă/puťă | | *Other nouns* | house | \*eb, \*bark | eb, barq | ev, bark | ev | ev | äv | öý | öy | üy, üv | öy | üı | üy | uy | öy | | śurt | | tent | \*otag, \*gerekü | otaɣ, kerekü | çadır, otağ | çadır; otaq | otaɣ, kerekü | čador | çadyr; otag | çatır | oda | satır | shatyr; otau | çatır, otoo, otoq | chodir; oʻtoq | chadir; otaq | otuu | çatăr | | way | \*yōl | yol | yol | yol | jol | yol | ýol | yul | jol | yul | jol | col | yoʻl | yol | suol | śul | | bridge | \*köprüg | köprüg | köprü | körpü | köprüg | | köpri | küper | kiopriu | küper | köpir | köpürö | koʻprik | kövrük | kürpe | kĕper | | arrow | \*ok | oq | ok | ox | oq | ox/tir | ok | uq | oq | uq | oq | oq | oʻq | oq | ox | uhă | | fire | \*ōt | ōt | od, ateş (Pers.) | od | ot | ot | ot | ut | ot | ut | ot | ot | oʻt | ot | uot | vut/vot | | ash | \*kül | kül | kül | kül | kül | kil/kül | kül | köl | kul | köl | kül | kül | kul | kül | kül | kĕl | | water | \*sub, \*sïb | sub | su | su | suv | su | suw | su | su | hıw | su | suu | suv | su | uu | şıv/şu | | ship, boat | \*gḗmi | kemi | gemi | gəmi | kemi | | gämi | köymä | gemi | kämä | keme | keme | kema | keme | | kimĕ | | lake | \*kȫl | köl | göl | göl | köl | göl/gel | köl | kül | giol´ | kül | köl | köl | koʻl | köl | küöl | külĕ | | sun/day | \*güneĺ, \*gün | kün | güneş, gün | günəş, gün | kün, qujaš | gin/gün | gün | qoyaş, kön | kujaš | qoyaş, kön | kün | kün | quyosh, kun | quyash, kün | kün | hĕvel, kun | | cloud | \*bulït | bulut | bulut | bulud | bulut | bulut | bulut | bolıt | bulut | bolot | bult | bulut | bulut | bulut | bılıt | pĕlĕt | | star | \*yultuŕ | yultuz | yıldız | ulduz | julduz | ulluz | ýyldyz | yoldız | julduz | yondoð | juldyz | cıldız | yulduz | yultuz | sulus | śăltăr | | ground, earth | \*toprak | topraq | toprak | torpaq | topraq | torpaq | toprak | tufraq | topraq, toprax | tupraq | topyraq | topuraq | tuproq | tupraq | toburax | tăpra | | hilltop | \*tepö, \*töpö | töpü | tepe | təpə | tepe | | depe | tübä | tebe | tübä | töbe | döbö, töbö | tepa | töpe | töbö | tüpĕ | | tree/wood | \*ïgač | ïɣač | ağaç | ağac | jɨɣač | ağaĵ | agaç | ağaç | ahač | ağas | ağash | baq, daraq, cığaç | yogʻoch | yahach | *mas* | yıvăś | | god (Tengri) | \*teŋri, \*taŋrï | teŋri, burqan | tanrı | tanrı | teŋri | tarï/Allah/Xoda | taňry | täñre | Tieńri | täñre | täŋiri | teñir | tangri | tengri | tangara | tură/toră | | sky | \*teŋri, \*kȫk | kök, teŋri | gök | göy | kök | gey/göy | gök | kük | kök | kük | kök | kök | koʻk | kök | küöx | kăvak/koak | | *Adjectives* | long | \*uŕïn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzyn | ozın | uzun | oðon | uzyn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uhun | vărăm | | new | \*yaŋï, \*yeŋi | yaŋï | yeni | yeni | jaŋɨ | yeŋi | ýaňy | yaña | jɨŋgɨ | yañı | jaña | cañı | yangi | yengi | saña | śĕnĕ | | fat | \*semiŕ | semiz | semiz, şişman | səmiz | semiz | | semiz | simez | semiz | himeð | semiz | semiz | semiz | semiz | emis | samăr | | full | \*dōlï | tolu | dolu | dolu | tolu | dolu | doly | tulı | tolɨ | tulı | toly | toluq, tolu, toluu, tolo | toʻla | toluq | toloru | tulli | | white | \*āk, \*ürüŋ | āq, ürüŋ | ak, beyaz (Ar.) | ağ | aq | aq | ak | aq | aq | aq | aq | aq | oq | aq | | şură | | black | \*kara | qara | kara, siyah (Pers.) | qara | qara | qärä | gara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qora | qara | xara | hura, hora | | red | \*kïŕïl | qïzïl | kızıl, kırmızı (Ar.) | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qïzïl | gyzyl | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qıðıl | qyzyl | qızıl | qizil | qizil | kıhıl | hĕrlĕ | | *Numbers* | 1 | \*bīr | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | ber | bir, bɨr | ber | bir | bir | bir | bir | biir | pĕrre | | 2 | \*éki | eki | iki | iki | ẹki | ikki | iki | ike | eky | ike | eki | eki | ikki | ikki | ikki | ikkĕ | | 3 | \*üč | üč | üç | üç | üč | uǰ, u̇č | üç | öč | üć | ös | üş | üč | uch/u̇č | üch/üç | üs | viśśĕ, viśĕ, viś | | 4 | \*dȫrt | tört | dört | dörd | tört | derd/dörd | dört | dürt | dört | dürt | tört | tört | toʻrt | tört | tüört | tăvattă | | 5 | \*bēĺ(k) | béš | beş | beş | béš | | bäş | beş | beš | biš | bes | beş | besh/beş | besh/beş | bies | pillĕk | | 6 | \*altï | altï | altı | altı | altï | altï | alty (altï) | altï | altï | altï | alty | altı | olti (ålti) | altä | alta | ult, ultă, ulttă | | 7 | \*yéti | yeti | yedi | yeddi | jeti | yeddi | ýedi | cide | jedi | yete | jeti | ceti | yetti | yetti | sette | śiççe | | 8 | \*sekiŕ | säkiz | sekiz | səkkiz | sek(k)iz, sik(k)iz | sӓkkiz | sekiz | sigez | sekiz | higeð | segiz | segiz | säkkiz | säkkiz | aɣïs | sakkăr, sakăr | | 9 | \*tokuŕ | toquz | dokuz | doqquz | toquz | doġġuz | dokuz | tugïz | toɣuz | tuɣïð | toğyz | toğuz | to’qqiz | toqquz | toɣus | tăxxăr, tăxăr | | 10 | \*ōn | on | on | on | on | on | on | un | on | un | on | on | oʻn | on | uon | vunnă, vună, vun | | 20 | \*yẹgirmi | yigirmi/yégirmi | yirmi | iyirmi | yigirmi, yigirme | igirmi, iyirmi | yigrimi | yegerme | yigirmi | yegerme | jiyirma | cıyırma | yigirmä | yigirmä | süürbe | śirĕm | | 30 | \*otuŕ | otuz | otuz | otuz | otuz | ottiz | otuz (otuð) | otuz | otuz | utïð | otyz | otuz | o’ttiz | ottuz | otut | vătăr | | 40 | \*kïrk | qïrq | kırk | qırx | qïrq | ġèrḫ (ɢərx) | kyrk (kïrk) | qırq (qïrq) | kïrx | qïrq | qyryq | qırq | qirq | qirq | tüört uon | xĕrĕx | | 50 | \*ellig | älig | elli | ǝlli (älli) | el(l)ig | älli, ẹlli | elli | ille | | | elu | elüü | | | | | | 60 | \*altmïĺ | altmïš | altmış | altmış (altmïš) | altmïš | altmïš | altmyş (altmïš) | altmïš | altïmïš | altïmïš | alpys | altımış | oltmish (åltmiš) | altmiš | alta uon | ultmăl | | 70 | \*yẹtmiĺ | yētmiš/s | yetmiş | yetmiş | yetmiš | yetmiš | ýetmiş (yetmiš) | ǰitmeš | yetmiš/s | yetmeš | jetpis | cetimiş | yetmiš | yätmiš | sette uon | śitmĕl | | 80 | \*sekiŕ ōn | säkiz on | seksen | sǝksǝn (säksän) | seksün | sӓɣsen | segsen | seksen | seksen, seksan | hikhen | seksen | seksen | sakson (säksån) | säksän | aɣïs uon | sakăr vun(ă) | | 90 | \*dokuŕ ōn | toquz on | doksan | doxsan | toqsan | | togsan | tuksan | toksan, toxsan | tukhan | toqsan | toqson | to'qson (tȯksån) | toqsan | toɣus uon | tăxăr vun(ă), tăxăr vunnă | | 100 | \*yǖŕ | yüz | yüz | yüz | jüz | iz/yüz | ýüz | yöz | jiz, juz, jüz | yöð | jüz | cüz | yuz | yüz | süüs | śĕr | | 1000 | \*bïŋ | bïŋ | bin | min | miŋ, men | min | müň (müŋ) | meŋ | min, bin | meŋ | myñ | miñ | ming (miŋ) | miŋ | tïhïïnča | pin | | | Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash | Azerbaijani "ǝ" and "ä": IPA /æ/ Turkish and Azerbaijani "ı", Karakhanid "ɨ", Turkmen "y", and Sakha "ï": IPA /ɯ/ Turkmen "ň", Karakhanid "ŋ": IPA /ŋ/ Turkish and Azerbaijani "y",Turkmen "ý" and "j" in other languages: IPA /j/ All "ş" and "š" letters: IPA /ʃ/ All "ç" and "č" letters: IPA /t͡ʃ/ Kyrgyz "c": IPA /d͡ʒ/ Kazakh "j": IPA /ʒ/ Other possible relations ------------------------ The Turkic language family is currently regarded as one of the world's primary language families. Turkic is one of the main members of the controversial Altaic language family. There are some other theories about an external relationship but none of them are generally accepted. ### Korean The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic and Korean, independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists. The linguist Kabak (2004) of the University of Würzburg states that Turkic and Korean share similar phonology as well as morphology. Li Yong-Sŏng (2014) suggest that there are several cognates between Turkic and Old Korean. He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct the early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth and ruling but especially to the sky and stars seem to be cognates. The linguist Choi suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections: > In addition, the fact that the morphological elements are not easily borrowed between languages, added to the fact that the common morphological elements between Korean and Turkic are not less numerous than between Turkic and other Altaic languages, strengthens the possibility that there is a close genetic affinity between Korean and Turkic. > > — Choi Han-Woo, A Comparative Study of Korean and Turkic (Hoseo University) Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship between Turkic peoples and Koreans. Especially close were the relations between the Göktürks and Goguryeo. ### Rejected or controversial theories #### Uralic Some linguists suggested a relation to Uralic languages, especially to the Ugric languages. This view is rejected and seen as obsolete by mainstream linguists. Similarities are because of language contact and borrowings mostly from Turkic into Ugric languages. Stachowski (2015) states that any relation between Turkic and Uralic must be a contact one. See also -------- * Altaic languages * List of Turkic languages * List of Turkic-languages poets * List of Ukrainian words of Turkic origin * Middle Turkic languages * Old Turkic * Old Turkic script * Proto-Turkic language Further reading --------------- * Akhatov G. Kh. 1960. "About the stress in the language of the Siberian Tatars in connection with the stress of modern Tatar literary language" .- Sat \*"Problems of Turkic and the history of Russian Oriental Studies." Kazan. (in Russian) * Akhatov G.Kh. 1963. "Dialect West Siberian Tatars" (monograph). Ufa. (in Russian) * Baskakov, N. A. (1962, 1969). *Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages*. Moscow. (in Russian) * Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. *Turkic languages in contact*. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. ISBN 3-447-05212-0 * Clausen, Gerard. 1972. *An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish*. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Deny, Jean et al. 1959–1964. *Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. * Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. *Parlons qashqay.* In: collection "*parlons*". Paris: L'Harmattan. * Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Le qashqay: langue turcique d'Iran. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online). * Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2015. Qashqay Folktales. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online). * Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. *The Turkic languages*. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08200-5. * Johanson, Lars. 1998. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 81–125. Archived 8 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine * Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: *Encyclopædia Britannica*. CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 sept. 2007. Archived 23 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine * Menges, K. H. 1968. *The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies*. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. * Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14198-2 * Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. *Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages*. Petrograd. * Savelyev, Alexander and Martine Robbeets. (2019). lexibank/savelyevturkic: Turkic Basic Vocabulary Database (Version v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. doi:10.5281/zenodo.3556518 * Schönig, Claus. 1997–1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." *Turkic Languages* 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151. * Schönig, Claus. "The Internal Division of Modern Turkic and Its Historical Implications". In: *Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae*, vol. 52, no. 1, 1999, pp. 63–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43391369 Archived 3 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 3 Jan. 2023. * Starostin, Sergei A., Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003. *Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages.* Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-13153-1 * Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. *Classification and index of the World's languages*. New York: Elsevier.

Turkic languages

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_languages

**Waterford** (Irish: *Port Láirge* [pˠɔɾˠt̪ˠ ˈl̪ˠaːɾʲ(ə)ɟə]) is a city in County Waterford in the south-east of Ireland. It is located within the province of Munster. The city is situated at the head of Waterford Harbour. It is the oldest and the fifth most populous city in the Republic of Ireland. It is the ninth most populous settlement on the island of Ireland. Waterford City and County Council is the local government authority for the city. According to the 2016 Census, 53,504 people live in the city, with a wider metropolitan population of 82,963. Today, Waterford is known for Waterford Crystal, a legacy of the city's former glassmaking industry. Glass, or crystal, was manufactured in the city from 1783 until early 2009 when the factory there was shut down after the receivership of Waterford Wedgwood plc. The Waterford Crystal visitor centre in the Viking Quarter, under new owners, opened in June 2010, after the intervention of Waterford City Council and Waterford Chamber of Commerce, and resumed production. Waterford is also known for being the starting point of Ryanair's first flight, a 14-seat Embraer Bandeirante turboprop aircraft flying between Waterford and London Gatwick Airport. History ------- The name 'Waterford' comes from Old Norse *Veðrafjǫrðr* 'ram (wether) fjord'. The Irish name is *Port Láirge*, meaning "Lárag's port". Viking raiders first established a settlement near Waterford in 853. It and all the other longphorts were vacated in 902, the Vikings having been driven out by the native Irish. The Vikings re-established themselves in Ireland at Waterford in 914, led at first by Ottir Iarla (Jarl Ottar) until 917, and after that by Ragnall ua Ímair and the Uí Ímair dynasty, and built what would be Ireland's first city. Among the most prominent rulers of Waterford was Ivar of Waterford. In 1167, Diarmait Mac Murchada, the deposed King of Leinster, failed in an attempt to take Waterford. He returned in 1170 with Cambro-Norman mercenaries under Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke (known as Strongbow); together they besieged and took the city after a desperate defence. In furtherance of the Norman invasion of Ireland, King Henry II of England landed at Waterford in 1171. Waterford and then Dublin were declared royal cities, with Dublin also declared the capital of Ireland. Throughout the medieval period, Waterford was Ireland's second city after Dublin. In the 15th century, Waterford repelled two pretenders to the English throne: Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck. As a result, King Henry VII gave the city its motto: *Urbs Intacta Manet Waterfordia (Waterford remains the untaken city)*. After the Protestant Reformation, Waterford remained a Catholic city and participated in the confederation of Kilkenny – an independent Catholic government from 1642 to 1649. This was ended abruptly by Oliver Cromwell, who brought the country back under English rule; his son-in-law Henry Ireton finally took Waterford in 1650 after a major siege. In 1690, during the Williamite War, the Jacobite Irish Army was forced to surrender Waterford in the wake of the Battle of the Boyne. The 18th century was a period of huge prosperity for Waterford. Most of the city's best architecture appeared during this time. A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of the Cavalry Barracks at the end of the 18th century. In the early 19th century, Waterford City was deemed vulnerable and the British government erected three Martello towers on the Hook Peninsula to reinforce the existing Fort at Duncannon. During the 19th century, great industries such as glass making and ship building thrived in the city. The city was represented in the Parliament of the United Kingdom from 1891 to 1918 by John Redmond MP, leader (from January 1900) of the Irish Parliamentary Party. Redmond, then leader of the pro-Parnell faction of the party, defeated David Sheehy in 1891. In 1911, Br. Jerome Foley, Br. Dunstan Drumm and Br. Leopold Loughran left Waterford for Malvern, Australia. Here, they founded a Catholic college which is still in existence today. In July 1922, Waterford was the scene of fighting between Irish Free State and Irish Republican troops during the Irish Civil War. ### References in Annals of Inisfallen See Annals of Inisfallen (AI) * *AI926.2 The fleet of Port Láirge [came] over land, and they settled on Loch Gair.* * *AI927.2 A slaughter of the foreigners of Port Láirge [was inflicted] at Cell Mo-Chellóc by the men of Mumu and by the foreigners of Luimnech.* * *AI984.2 A great naval expedition(?) by the sons of Aralt to Port Láirge, and they and the son of Cennétig exchanged hostages there as a guarantee of both together providing a hosting to attack Áth Cliath. The men of Mumu assembled and proceeded to Mairg Laigen, and the foreigners overcame the Uí Cheinnselaig and went by sea; and the men of Mumu, moreover, devastated Osraige in the same year, and its churches, and the churches of Laigin, and the fortifications of both were laid waste, and Gilla Pátraic, son of Donnchadh, was released.* * *AI1018.5 Death of Ragnall son of Ímar, king of Port Láirge.* * *AI1031.9 Cell Dara and Port Láirge were burned.* Politics -------- ### Local government Following the Local Government Reform Act 2014, Waterford City and County Council is the local government authority for the city and county. The authority came into operation on 1 June 2014. Prior to this the city had its own local council, Waterford City Council. The new Council is the result of a merger of Waterford City Council and Waterford County Council. The council has 32 representatives (councillors) who are elected from six local electoral areas. The city itself forms three of the electoral areas – which when combined form the Metropolitan District of Waterford City – and returns a total of 18 councillors to Waterford City and County Council. The office of the Mayor of Waterford was established in 1377. A mayor is then elected by the councillors from the three electoral areas of the Metropolitan District of Waterford every year, and there is no limit to the number of terms an individual may serve. Mary O'Halloran who was mayor during 2007–2008 was the first woman to hold the post. ### National politics For the elections to Dáil Éireann, the city is part of the 4-seat constituency of Waterford, which includes the city and county of Waterford. For elections to the European Parliament, the county is part of the South constituency. Notable features ---------------- The city is situated at the head of Waterford Harbour (*Loch Dá Chaoch* or *Cuan Phort Láirge*). The city motto *Urbs Intacta Manet Waterfordia* ("Waterford remains the untaken city") was granted by King Henry VII of England in 1497 after Waterford refused to recognise the claims of the pretenders Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck to the English throne. Waterford was subjected to two sieges in 1649 and 1650, during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. It withstood the first siege but surrendered during the second siege to Henry Ireton on 6 August 1650. Reginald's Tower is the oldest urban civic building in Ireland, and the oldest monument to retain its Viking name. To this day, it remains Waterford's most recognisable landmark. It is believed to be the first building in Ireland to use mortar. The River Suir, which flows through Waterford City, has provided a basis for the city's long maritime history. The place downriver from Waterford where the Nore and the Barrow join the River Suir is known in Irish as *Cumar na dTrí Uisce* ("The confluence of the three waters"). Waterford Port has been one of Ireland's major ports for over a millennium. In the 19th century, shipbuilding was a major industry. The owners of the Neptune Shipyard, the Malcomson family, built and operated the largest fleet of iron steamers in the world between the mid-1850s and the late 1860s, including five trans-Atlantic passenger liners. Today, Waterford is known for Waterford Crystal, a legacy of the city's former glass-making industry. Glass, or crystal, was manufactured in the city from 1783 until early 2009 when the factory there was shut down after the receivership of Waterford Wedgwood plc. The Waterford Crystal visitor centre in the Viking Quarter, under new owners, opened in June 2010, after the intervention of Waterford City Council and Waterford Chamber of Commerce, and resumed production. Waterford is also known for being the "starting point" of one of the biggest European airlines (as of 2013) – Ryanair's first flight was a 14-seat Embraer Bandeirante turboprop aircraft, flying between Waterford and Gatwick Airport. Geography --------- ### Climate The climate of Waterford is, like the rest of Ireland, classified as a maritime temperate climate (*Cfb*) according to the Köppen climate classification system. It is mild and changeable with abundant rainfall and a lack of temperature extremes. The counties in the Waterford area are often referred to as the 'Sunny Southeast'. The warmest months of the year are June, July and August with average daytime temperatures of around 17 – 22 degrees. Rainfall is evenly distributed year-round, however, the period from late October to late January is considerably wetter and duller than the rest of the year. | Climate data for Waterford (Tycor), elevation: 49 m or 161 ft, 1989–2019 normals, sunshine 1981-2010 | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Average high °C (°F) | 9.1(48.4) | 9.5(49.1) | 11.2(52.2) | 13.3(55.9) | 16.3(61.3) | 18.8(65.8) | 20.9(69.6) | 20.3(68.5) | 18.1(64.6) | 14.7(58.5) | 11.4(52.5) | 9.5(49.1) | 14.4(58.0) | | Average low °C (°F) | 3.5(38.3) | 3.2(37.8) | 4.3(39.7) | 5.6(42.1) | 8.3(46.9) | 10.7(51.3) | 13.0(55.4) | 12.4(54.3) | 10.4(50.7) | 8.2(46.8) | 5.2(41.4) | 3.9(39.0) | 7.4(45.3) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 103.2(4.06) | 72.9(2.87) | 74.8(2.94) | 71.8(2.83) | 63.8(2.51) | 71.6(2.82) | 62.4(2.46) | 78.5(3.09) | 79.2(3.12) | 116.3(4.58) | 108.9(4.29) | 108.6(4.28) | 1,012(39.85) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) | 14 | 11 | 11 | 10 | 10 | 9 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 14 | 13 | 16 | 137 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 60.3 | 75.7 | 114.1 | 173.9 | 214.9 | 189.9 | 199.5 | 191.1 | 146.1 | 105.5 | 73.3 | 55.2 | 1,599.5 | | Source 1: Met Éireann | | Source 2: KNMI | ### Demographics With a population of 53,504 and a metropolitan area population of 82,963, Waterford is the fifth most populous city in the State and the 32nd most populous area of local government. The population of Waterford grew from 1,555 in 1653 to around 28,000 in the early 19th century, declining to just over 20,000 at the end of the 19th, then rising steadily to over 40,000 during the 20th century. According to the 2016 Census, 53,504 people live in the city of Waterford, with a wider metropolitan population of 82,963. Culture ------- ### Religion A Large Church spire can be seen above and behind a theatre and a deciduous tree with leaves shed.Christ Church CathedralCathedral of the Most Holy Trinity * Church of Ireland * Christ Church Cathedral * Saint Olave's Church, Peter Street (Medieval church) * Methodist * St Patrick’s Methodist Church, Waterford * Waterford Methodist Church, Greyfriars (council purchased in 1988) * Catholic Church * Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity * French Church, a former Franciscan friary * St Saviour's (Dominican) Church and Priory, Bridge Street. First Dominicans arrived in Waterford in 1226. * St Patrick's Catholic Church, Jenkin's Lane. One of the earliest surviving post-Reformation churches in Ireland * Holy Family Catholic Church * Church of the Most Holy Trinity, Ballybricken * St Joseph and St Benildus, Catholic Church * Other Christian Denominations * St John's Presbytery (closed) * Waterford Baptist Church * Anchor Baptist Church, Waterford * Waterford Quaker Meeting House (Newtown Road) * Maranatha Christian Community Church * Russian Orthodox Parish of St Patrick in Waterford ### Public buildings * Waterford Museum of Treasures, forming the hub of the Viking Triangle, previously housed in the Granary on Merchant's Quay, is now accommodated in two museums on the Mall. The first is housed in the 19th-century Bishop's Palace, on the Mall, which holds items from 1700 to 1970. This was opened in June 2011. The second museum is located next to Bishop's Palace displaying the Medieval history of the city as well as the Chorister's Hall. * As well as the above, The Mall now contains Reginald's Tower, The House of Waterford Crystal, Christchurch Cathedral, and the Theatre Royal among various other historical landmarks. * Reginald's Tower, the oldest urban civic building in the country, is situated on the Quays/The Mall, in Waterford. It has performed numerous functions over the years and today is a civic museum. * A museum at Mount Sion (Barrack Street) is dedicated to the story of Brother Edmund Ignatius Rice and the history of the Christian Brothers and Presentation Brothers. Along with the museum, there is a café and a new chapel. The new museum was designed by Janvs Design * **Waterford Gallery of Art**, the home of the Waterford Art Collection, is located at 31-32 O’Connell Street. This former bank building was built in 1845 and now serves as a facility comprising galleries, outreach spaces, offices, and meeting and workshop rooms. The building was designed by the Waterford-born architect Thomas Jackson (1807 - 1890). Architecturally, this classical style bank building retains many of its original features and is a significant reminder of the prosperity present within the area in the mid-nineteenth century. The building is distinguished by the fine cut-stone detailing throughout, as can be seen at the main entrance, stairs and fireplace which is located on the first floor. * **The Theatre Royal** on The Mall, was built in 1876, as part of a remodelled section of City Hall. It is a U-shaped, Victorian theatre, seating about 600 people. * **Garter Lane Arts Centre** is housed in two conserved 18th-century buildings on O'Connell Street. Garter Lane Gallery, the 18th-century townhouse of Samuel Barker contains the gallery and the Bausch & Lomb Dance Studio, and Garter Lane Theatre is based in the Quaker Meeting House, built in 1792. The theatre was renovated and restored in 2006 and now contains a 164-seat auditorium. * **St. John's College, Waterford** was a Catholic seminary founded in 1807 for the diocese, in the 1830s the college established a mission to Newfoundland in Canada. It closed as a seminary in 1999 and in 2007 much of its building and lands were sold to the Respond! Housing Association. ### Events * The Waterford Film Festival was established in 2007 by local filmmaker Stephen Byrne. His objective was to bring something new to Waterford's arts and cultural scene, promoting local and national filmmakers and writers, but in particular independent film. * *Waterford Music Fest*, launched in 2011, is an outdoor, one-day music event which takes place in the heart of Waterford City during the summer. In 2011 Waterford Music Fest, organised by Music Events Ireland, was headlined by 50 Cent, Flo Rida and G-Unit. Over 10,000 people attended the 2011 event. * *Spraoi* festival, (pronounced 'Spree') organised by the Spraoi Theatre Company, is a professional festival and street art organisation which takes over the city centre of Waterford on the August Bank Holiday Weekend. It attracts audiences in excess of 80,000 people to the city. * *Waterford International Festival of Light Opera* is an annual event that has been held in the Theatre Royal since 1959. It has recently been rebranded as the Waterford International Festival of Music and now takes place in November. * *Tall Ships Festival*, held in Waterford in 2005, marked the start of the Tall Ships race of that year. The Suir river provided the berthing location for the tall ships (up to 90) that lined the north and south quays for almost a week. The festival attracted in the region of 450,000 people to the city. Waterford hosted the start of the Tall Ships race again in 2011. * *Waterford Harvest Food Festival* takes place annually in September along the Quays. The festival offers visitors demonstrations, workshops and tours of local producers, numerous markets, tastings and dinners. * St. Patrick's Day parade takes place annually on 17 March. * There are two Arts Festivals of note in the city: *The Imagine Arts Festival* in October and *The Fringe Arts Festival* in September. * *Waterford Winterval* an annual Christmas festival held in the city centre. * *Waterford Walls* is an event celebrating street art annually each August since 2014. Street artists both domestic and international are invited to the city to practise and display their craft. ### Arts * **Theatre companies**. There are three theatre companies, Red Kettle, Spraoi and Waterford Youth Arts. Red Kettle is a professional theatre company based in Waterford that regularly performs in Garter Lane Theatre. Spraoi is a street theatre company based in Waterford. It produces the Spraoi festival and has participated regularly in the Waterford and Dublin St. Patrick's day parades, often winning best float. In January 2005 the company staged its biggest and most prestigious production to date, "Awakening", the Opening Show for Cork 2005 European Capital of Culture. Waterford Youth Arts (WYA), formerly known as Waterford Youth Drama, was established in August 1985. WYA has grown from the voluntary efforts of two individuals and 25 young people to a fully structured youth arts organisation with a paid staff and 400 young people taking part each week. Notable playwrights include Jim Nolan, who co-founded Red Kettle Theatre Company. The Theatre Royal Waterford dates back to 1785. * **Libraries** There are three public libraries in the city, all operated by Waterford City Council: Central Library, in Lady Lane; Ardkeen Library, in the Ardkeen shopping centre on Dunmore Road; and Brown's Road Library, on Paddy Brown's Road. Central Library, or Waterford City Library, opened in 1905. It was the first of many Irish libraries funded by businessman Andrew Carnegie (Carnegie funded 2,509 libraries across the world). It was renovated in 2004 for its centenary. * **The Barrack Street Concert Band** A band established in 1870 and is one of the only bands in Ireland to have unbroken service through a civil war and two World Wars. They have a long and rich history. In 1982 they changed their name to The Barrack Street Concert Band. The new name reflected a change in instrumentation including flutes, saxophones, oboes and a full percussion section which led to more members joining and a wider variety of music being played. In 1994 the band won the All Ireland Senior Military Band Championships in Wesley college, Dublin under the Baton of Mr Niall O'Connor and 10 years later, in 2004, the band won the South of Ireland Senior Military band Championships in Clonakilty Co Cork under the Baton of the band's current musical director Mr Mark Fitzgerald. * **Waterford Film For All** (WFFA) is a non-profit film society whose aim is to offer an alternative to the cineplex experience in Waterford. WFFA conducts much of its activities on the Waterford Institute of Technology (WIT) campus. * **The Waterford Collection of Art.** Formerly known as The Waterford Municipal Art Collection, the collection is acknowledged as one of the oldest and best municipal collections of art in Ireland. Originally founded as the Waterford Art Museum in 1939, the collection has grown considerably since and it now comprises over 500 works of art including works by: Paul Henry, Jack B. Yeats, Mainie Jellett, Louis Le Brocquy, Letitia Hamilton, Dermod O’Brien, Evie Hone, Mary Swanzy, Charles Lamb, Hilda Roberts, Seán Keating, and George Russell (aka. AE), as well as contemporary acquisitions of work by Michael (Ben) Hennessy, Breda Lynch, Hughie O’Donoghue, Donald Teskey, and Kathleen Delaney. * **Cinema** – *Odeon Cinema* in the Railway Square complex. Omniplex Cinema-Patrick Street Media ----- RTÉs southeastern studio is in the city. Waterford Local Radio (WLR FM) is available on 94.8FM on the Coast, 95.1FM in the County and on 97.5FM in Waterford City. WLR FM is Waterford's local radio station. Beat 102 103 is a regional youth radio station broadcasting across the South East of Ireland, it is based in Ardkeen, along with sister station WLR FM. The *Waterford News & Star* is based on Gladstone Street in Waterford City. It covers Waterford city and county. It is now published in tabloid format. *The Munster Express* has its office on the Quay in Waterford City and covers stories from across the city and county. It switched to tabloid format in 2011. *Waterford Mail* is a free newspaper that comes out on Thursdays, it has an office on O'Connell Street. Its circulation is currently 20,000 and it delivers to homes and businesses across the city and county. *Waterford Today* is an advertising-supported free newspaper. It is delivered to most homes in the Waterford city area and is also available in many shops across the east of the county. Its newly refurbished offices are on Mayors Walk in the city. *Waterford News and Star* is in the shops on Tuesdays, *The Munster Express*, and *Waterford Today* are in the shops on Wednesdays. Places of interest ------------------ The city of Waterford consists of various cultural quarters, the oldest of which is known as Viking Triangle. This is the part of the city surrounded by the original tenth-century fortifications and is triangular in shape, with its apex at Reginald's Tower. Though this was once the site of a thriving Viking city, the city centre has shifted to the west over the years, and it is now a quiet and tranquil area, dominated by narrow streets, medieval architecture, and civic spaces. Over the past decade, a number of restaurants have opened on High Street and Henrietta Street, taking advantage of the charming character of the area. Much of Waterford's impressive architecture is to be found in the 'Viking Triangle'. In the 15th century, the city was enlarged with the building of an outer wall on the west side. Today Waterford retains more of its city walls than any other city in Ireland with the exception of Derry, whose walls were built much later. Tours of Waterford's city walls are conducted daily. The Quay, once termed by historian Mark Girouard 'the noblest quay in Europe', is a mile long from Grattan Quay to Adelphi Quay, though Adelphi Quay is now a residential area. It is still a major focal point for Waterford, commercially and socially, and is the face that Waterford presents to those travelling into the city from the north. Near Reginald's Tower is the William Vincent Wallace Plaza, a monument and amenity built around the time of the millennium that commemorates the Waterford-born composer. John Roberts Square is a pedestrianised area that is one of the main focal points of Waterford's modern-day commercial centre. It was named after the city's most celebrated architect, John Roberts, and was formed from the junction of Barronstrand Street, Broad Street and George's Street. It is often referred to locally as Red Square, due to the red paving that was used when the area was first pedestrianised. A short distance to the east of John Roberts Square is Arundel Square, another square with a fine commercial tradition, which the City Square shopping centre opens onto. Ballybricken, in the west, just outside the city walls, is thought to have been Waterford's Irishtown, a type of settlement that often formed outside Irish cities to house the Vikings and Irish that had been expelled during the Norman invasion of Ireland. Modern street names in the area reflect the fact that the area was where inhabitants of the medieval city practised archery. Ballybricken is an inner-city neighbourhood with a long tradition, centred around Ballybricken hill, which was a large, open market-square. Today it has been converted into a green, civic space, but the Bull Post, where livestock was once bought and sold, still stands as a remnant of the hill's past. The Mall is a fine Georgian thoroughfare, built by the Wide Streets Commission to extend the city southwards. It contains some of the city's finest Georgian architecture. The People's Park, Waterford's largest and finest park, is located nearby. Once a historic market area, the city's Apple Market district is popular for its nightlife culture and includes a number of bars, restaurants and nightclubs. A significant investment in the mid-2010s saw a portion of the area pedestrianised and the installation of a large outdoor roofing section. Ferrybank, in County Waterford, is Waterford's only suburb north of the river. It contains a village centre of its own. In April 2003 an important site combining a fifth-century Iron Age and ninth-century Viking settlement was discovered at Woodstown near the city, which appears to have been a Viking town that predates all such settlements in Ireland. Waterford Crystal is manufactured in Waterford but in early 2009 the company moved its operations to continental Europe. A new Waterford Crystal visitor centre opened on 22 June 2010. Waterford's oldest public house (pub) can be found just outside the old 'Viking Triangle'. T & H Doolan's, of 31/32 George's Street, has been officially active and open to the public for over three hundred years. The official record of licences dates back to the 18th century but the premises is believed to be closer to five hundred years in age. A main element of the structure includes one of the original city walls, almost 1,000 years old, which can be viewed in the lounge area of the building. Economy ------- Waterford is the main city of Ireland's South-East Region. Historically Waterford was an important trading port which brought much prosperity to the city throughout the city's eventful history. Throughout its history, Waterford Crystal provided employment to thousands in the city and surrounding areas. Waterford Port is Ireland's closest deep-water port to mainland Europe, handling approximately 12% of Ireland's external trade by value. Waterford's most famous export, Waterford Crystal, is an internationally known and highly sought after product that was manufactured in the city from 1783 to 2009 and again from 2010 to the present day. Places, where Waterford Crystal can be seen, include New York City, where Waterford Crystal made the 2,668 crystals for the famous New Year's Eve Ball that is dropped each year in Times Square; Westminster Abbey; Windsor Castle; and the Kennedy Center (Washington, DC). Agriculture played an important part in Waterford's economic history. Kilmeadan, about 5 km from the city, was home to a very successful co-operative. The farmers of the area benefited from the sale of their produce (mostly butter and milk) to the co-op. In 1964, all of the co-ops in Waterford amalgamated to become Waterford Co-op. This led to the construction of a cheese factory on a greenfield site opposite the general store, and Kilmeadan cheese was to become one of the most recognised and successful Cheddar brands in the world, winning gold and bronze medals in the World Cheese Awards in London in 2005. The Irish economic recession from 2008 onwards has had a major negative impact on Waterford's economy. A number of multinational companies have closed, including Waterford Crystal (which subsequently reopened) and Talk Talk, which has led to a high level of unemployment. Until 2013 the hedge fund office of the Citibank resided here. Waterford Co-op and Avonmore Co-op have merged to form Glanbia plc. Transport --------- The M9 motorway, which was completed on 9 September 2010, connects the city to Dublin. The N24 road connects the city to Limerick city. The N25 road connects the city to Cork city. The route traverses the River Suir via the River Suir Bridge. This cable-stayed bridge is the longest single bridge span in Ireland at 230m. The route continues eastwards to Rosslare Harbour. Waterford railway station is the only railway station in the county of Waterford. It is operated by Iarnród Éireann and provides 8 daily return services to Dublin and a Monday–Saturday Intercity service to Limerick Junction via Clonmel with onward connections to Limerick, Ennis, Athenry, Galway, Cork, Killarney, and Tralee. The line between Waterford and Rosslare Harbour ceased passenger services in 2010 and was replaced by Bus Éireann route 370. The station is directly connected to Waterford Port (Belview). A freight yard is located at the Dublin/Limerick end of the station, served by freight traffic such as cargo freight and timber which travel to and from Dublin Port and Ballina. In November 2016 it was revealed the Waterford could lose its connection to Limerick Junction by 2018 with the closure of the Limerick Junction Waterford line by CIE/IE to save money as the line is low demand. On 29 May 2018 the contract held by DFDS for a freight service from Ballina to Belview Port expired and was not renewed. In 2021 a new Ballina to Waterford (Belview) by Iarnród Éireann and XPO Logistics, (this is in addition to the wood pulp service from Ballina and Westport). Bus Éireann, JJ Kavanagh and Sons, Dublin Coach, and Wexford Bus provide bus services around the city centre and to other towns and cities in Ireland. A daily coach service to England via South Wales and terminating at Victoria Coach Station, London is operated by Eurolines. All regional bus services depart from Waterford Bus Station on the quay, and city centre services run throughout the city. Planning for bus lanes in the city centre are at an early stage and bus lanes will be on Parnell Street, Manor Street, The Mall, and the South Quays. A bus lane will be in each direction. On street parking will be removed from Parnell Street to facilitate the lanes. This is part of the city centre green plan. The Waterford Greenway is Ireland's longest greenway, and connects the city with Mount Congreve, Kilmeaden, Kilmacthomas, and Dungarvan. Waterford Airport is located 9 km outside the city centre. Education --------- The city is served by 21 primary schools, nine secondary schools, a further education college and a university. ### Secondary schools The secondary schools include: * Mount Sion Secondary and Primary School at Barrack Street were founded by Edmund Ignatius Rice and the schools have seen many well-known pupils pass through their doors. * Newtown School, a Quaker co-educational boarding school, is situated in Waterford. * Waterpark College is a secondary school in Waterford. Established in 1892 on the banks of the River Suir as Waterford's first classical school, it still provides a secondary education to boys and girls from Waterford City, county and the surrounding area. It has only recently become a co-educational school. * De La Salle College, a secondary school with 1,200 students and over 90 staff, is the biggest all-boys school in the county. Founded by the De La Salle brothers in 1892, it is a Catholic school for boys. Today its large staff is made up of a mixture of Brothers and lay teachers. ### Further education * Waterford College of Further Education previously called the Central Technical Institute (CTI), is a Post Leaving Certificate institute located on Parnell Street, Waterford city. It was founded in 1906 and thus celebrated its centenary in 2005. ### University * South East Technological University - the Waterford campus of the university is located in the city. This was established in 2022 from a merger of Waterford Institute of Technology and Institute of Technology, Carlow. Sport ----- Waterford Boat Club is the oldest active sports club in Waterford, established in 1878. Located on Scotch Quay, the club competes in the Irish Rowing Championships. In 2009, several Waterford rowers were selected to row for Ireland. There are three athletics clubs: West Waterford AC, Waterford Athletic Club and Ferrybank Athletic Club. The Waterford Viking Marathon is held in June. St. Anne's Waterford Lawn Tennis Club, established in 1954, is the result of the amalgamation of Waterford Lawn Tennis Club and St. Anne's Lawn Tennis Club. It has nine courts to cater for social and competitive players in all age groups. Waterford is home to several association football clubs, including Waterford FC, Benfica W.S.C. and Johnville F.C. Waterford F.C. is a member of the League of Ireland, Benfica is one of the oldest women's football clubs in the Republic of Ireland, while Johnville F.C. is a notable academy club. Notable Waterford footballers include Davy Walsh, Paddy Coad, Jim Beglin, Alfie Hale, Eddie Nolan, John O'Shea James Coade and Daryl Murphy. John Delaney, chief executive of the Football Association of Ireland, is originally from Waterford. There are two rugby union clubs in Waterford City: Waterford City R.F.C. and Waterpark R.F.C. Other team sports include Gaelic Athletic Association with clubs such as Mount Sion GAA, Erin's Own GAA, De La Salle GAA, Roanmore GAA, Ferrybank GAA and Ballygunner GAA; cricket is represented by Waterford District Cricket Club who are based in Carraiganore and competes in the Munster Cricket Union; there are two inline hockey clubs, Waterford Shadows HC and Waterford Vikings, both of which compete in the Irish Inline Hockey League; and American football is played by Waterford Wolves, based at the Waterford Regional Sports Centre, and is the only American football club in Waterford. Notable people -------------- **Arts** * Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte (1831–1902), French poet * Brendan Bowyer (1938–2020) showband singer * Charles Clagget (1740–ca.1795), composer and inventor * Frances Emilia Crofton (1822–1910), an artist born in Waterford * Val Doonican (1927–2015), singer and TV presenter * Seán Dunne (1956–1995), poet * Richard Harry Graves (1897–1971), Irish-born Australian poet and novelist * Gilbert O'Sullivan (born 1946), singer-songwriter * Mario Rosenstock (born 1971), comedian and musician * Louis Stewart (guitarist) (1944–2016), jazz guitarist * Luke Wadding (1588–1657), Franciscan friar, author and historian * William Vincent Wallace (1812–1865), composer **Politics** * William Hobson (1792–1842), Irish-born New Zealand politician and writer * Thomas Meagher (1796–1874), politician and businessman * Thomas Francis Meagher (1823–1867), politician and soldier * Richard Mulcahy (1886–1971), soldier and politician * Thomas Wyse (1791–1862), politician and diplomat **Sport** * Jim Beglin (born 1963), association footballer * John Keane (1917–1975), hurler * Sean Kelly (born 1956), cyclist * Fiona O'Brien (born 1988), rugby player * John O'Shea (born 1981), association footballer * Paul Flynn (born 1974), hurler * Craig Breen (1990–2023), Rally Driver **Military** * John Condon (British Army soldier) (c 1896–1915), soldier * Edmund Fowler (1861–1926), soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross * Patrick Mahoney (1827–1857), soldier, recipient of the Victoria Cross **Other** * Marguerite Moore (1849–1933), orator, patriot, activist * Harry Power (1819–1891), Australian bushranger See also -------- * Blaa – A doughy, white bread roll particular to Waterford City. * John's River – A river that runs through Waterford City. * Little Island – An island within Waterford City. * People's Park – Waterford's largest park and green space. * The Three Sisters: The River Barrow, River Nore and River Suir * Woodstown – Early Viking Settlement discovered near Waterford in 2003, on the banks of the River Suir * List of twin towns and sister cities in the Republic of Ireland * Waterford Greenway - a hiking and cycling trail connecting Waterford City with Dungarvan.

Waterford

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterford

The **Companions of the Prophet** (Arabic: اَلصَّحَابَةُ; ***aṣ-ṣaḥāba*** meaning "the companions", from the verb صَحِبَ meaning "accompany", "keep company with", "associate with") were the disciples and followers of Muhammad who saw or met him during his lifetime, while being a Muslim and were physically in his presence. "Al-ṣaḥāba" is definite plural; the indefinite singular is masculine صَحَابِيٌّ (**ṣaḥābiyy**), feminine صَحَابِيَّةٌ (**ṣaḥābiyyah**). Later Islamic scholars accepted their testimony of the words and deeds of Muhammad, the occasions on which the Quran was revealed and other various important matters of Islamic history and practice. The testimony of the companions, as it was passed down through trusted chains of narrators (*asānīd*), was the basis of the developing Islamic tradition. From the traditions (*hadith*) of the life of Muhammad and his companions are drawn the Muslim way of life (*sunnah*), the code of conduct (*sharia*) it requires, and the jurisprudence (*fiqh*) by which Muslim communities should be regulated. The two largest Islamic denominations, the Sunni and Shia, take different approaches to weighing the value of the companions' testimonies, have different *hadith* collections and, as a result, have different views about the ṣaḥābah. The second generation of Muslims after the ṣaḥāba, born after the death of Muhammad, who knew at least one ṣaḥāba, are called *Tābi'ūn* (also "the successors"). The third generation of Muslims after the *Tābi'ūn*, who knew at least one *Tābi*, are called *tābi' al-tābi'īn*. The three generations make up the *salaf* of Islam. Types ----- In Islam, companions of Muḥammad are classified into categories including the Muhajirun who accompanied Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, the Ansar who lived in Medina, and the Badriyyun who fought at the Battle of Badr. Two important groups among the companions are the **Muhajirun** "migrants", those who had faith in Muhammad when he began to preach in Mecca and who departed with him when he was persecuted there, and the **Ansar**, the people of Medina who welcomed Muhammad and his companions and stood as their protectors. Lists of prominent companions usually run to 50 or 60 names, the people most closely associated with Muhammad. However, there were clearly many others who had some contact with Muhammad and their names and biographies were recorded in religious reference texts such as ibn Sa'd's early *Book of the Major Classes*. Al-Qurtubi's *Istīʻāb fī maʻrifat al-Aṣhāb*, who died in 1071, consists of 2770 biographies of male and 381 biographies of female ṣaḥābah. According to an observation in al-Qastallani's *Al-Muwahib al-Ladunniyyah*, an untold number of persons had already converted to Islam by the time Muhammad died. There were 10,000 by the time of the Conquest of Mecca and 70,000 during the Expedition of Tabuk in 630. Some Muslims assert that they were more than 200,000 in number: it is believed that 124,000 witnessed the Farewell Sermon Muhammad delivered after making Farewell Pilgrimage to Mecca.[*who?*] Definitions ----------- ### Sunni The most widespread definition of a companion is someone who met Muhammad, believed in him, and died a Muslim. The Sunni scholar ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d.852 H) said, > The most correct of what I have come across is that a Sahâbî (Companion) is one who met the Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, whilst believing in him, and died as a Muslim. So, that includes the one who remained with him for a long or a short time, and those who narrated from him and those who did not, and those who saw him but did not sit with him and those who could not see him due to blindness. > > Anyone who died after rejecting Islam and becoming an apostate is not considered as a companion. Those who saw him but held off believing in him until after his passing are not considered ṣahābah but tābiʻūn. According to Sunni scholars, Muslims of the past should be considered companions if they had any contact with Muhammad, and they were not liars or opposed to him and his teachings. If they saw him, heard him, or were in his presence even briefly, they are companions. All companions are assumed to be just (*ʻudul*) unless they are proven otherwise; that is, Sunni scholars do not believe that companions would lie or fabricate hadith unless they are proven liars, untrustworthy or opposed to Islam. Some Quranic references are important to Sunni Muslim views of the reverence due to all companions; It sometimes admonishes them, as when Aisha, wife of Muhammad and daughter of the first Sunni caliph Abu Bakr, was accused of infidelity. Differing views on the definition of a companion were also influenced by the debate between the Traditionalists and the Muʿtazila with the traditionalists preferring to extend the definition to as many people as possible and the Mu'tazilites preferring to restrict it. ### Shia The Shia as well as some Sunni scholars like Javed Ahmad Ghamidi and Amin Ahsan Islahi state that not every individual who met or had accidentally seen Muhammad can be considered a companion. In their view, the Qurʻan has outlined a high level of faith as one of the distinctive qualities of the ṣaḥābah. Hence, they admit to this list only those individuals who had substantial contact with Muhammad, lived with him, and took part in his campaigns and efforts at proselytizing. In other words, companion is used to refer to sahaba of the prophet who were in a long-term relationship with him and support him in an essential event up to their death. In view of such admonitions, the Shia have different views on each ṣaḥābiyy, depending on what they accomplished. They do not accept that the testimony of nearly all ṣaḥābah is an authenticated part of the chain of narrators in a hadith and that not all the ṣaḥābah were righteous just because they saw or were with Muhammad. The Shia further argue that the righteousness of ṣaḥābah can be assessed by their loyalty towards Muhammad's family after his death and they accept hadith from the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt, believing them to be cleansed from sin through their interpretation of the Qurʻan and the hadith of the Cloak. Shia Muslims believe that some of the companions are accountable for the loss of the caliphate by Ali's family. As verses 30-33 from Al-Aḥzāb, Shias believe their argument [*where?*] that one must discriminate between the virtues of the companions by verses relating to Muhammad's wives. ### Baháʼí Faith The Baháʼí Faith recognises the companions of Muhammad. They are mentioned in the Kitáb-i-Íqán, the primary theological work of the Baháʼí religion. Hadith ------ ### Sunni views According to the *History of the Prophets and Kings*, after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, Umar and Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah and the Anṣār of Medina held consultations and selected Abu Bakr as the first caliph. Then Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf and Uthman, companion and son-in-law of Muhammad and also essential chief of the Banu Umayyah, selected Umar as the second caliph after the death of Abu Bakr and the other Anṣār and Muhajirun accepted him. Sunni Muslim scholars classified companions into many categories, based on a number of criteria. The hadith quoted above shows ranks of *ṣaḥābah, tābi'īn,* and *tābi' at-tābi'īn.* Al-Suyuti recognized eleven levels of companionship. The general involvement in military campaign with Muhammad by the ṣaḥāba was highlighted by the third generation scholar named Ibn al-Mubarak, who was once asked to choose between Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, who was a companion, and Umar ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz, who was famous for his piety. Ibn al-Mubarak simply responded: "*...dust particles in Mu'awiyah's nose (while fighting in Hunayn under Muhammad) were better than six hundred Umar (ibn 'Abd al-'Aziz)..."* ### Shia views Following the consultation of companions about the successor of Muhammad, Shi'i scholars, therefore, deprecate hadith believed to have been transmitted from alleged unjust companions and place much more reliance on hadith believed to have been related by Muhammad's family members, the Ahl al-Bayt, and by the companions who supported Ali. The Shia claim that Muhammad announced his successor during his lifetime at Dawat Zul Asheera then many times during his prophethood and finally at the event of Ghadir Khumm. Shias consider that any hadith where Muhammad is claimed to have absolved all ṣaḥābah from sin is a false report by those who opposed the Ahl al-Bayt. See also -------- * List of Sahabah * List of non-Arab Sahabah * The ten to whom Paradise was promised * Apostles * Apostles of Baháʼu'lláh Further reading --------------- * Osman, Amr, Companions, in *Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God* (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. * Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi, Muhammad – *The book of The Major Classes*, only partially translated into English; see *Men of Medina* and *Women of Medina* published by Ta-Ha Publishers, and first two volumes as published by Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi. * Wilferd Madelung – *The Succession to Muhammad*, Cambridge University Press, 1997. * Maxime Rodinson – *Muhammad*, 1961, as translated into English and published in 1980 by Pantheon Books. * William Montgomery Watt – *Muhammad at Medina*, Oxford University Press 1956.

Companions of the Prophet

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet

**Acanthocephala** /əˌkænθoʊˈsɛfələ/ (Greek ἄκανθος, **akanthos**, thorn + κεφαλή, **kephale**, head) is a phylum of parasitic worms known as **acanthocephalans**, **thorny-headed worms**, or **spiny-headed worms**, characterized by the presence of an eversible proboscis, armed with spines, which it uses to pierce and hold the gut wall of its host. Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, involving at least two hosts, which may include invertebrates, fish, amphibians, birds, and mammals. About 1420 species have been described. The Acanthocephala were thought to be a discrete phylum. Recent genome analysis has shown that they are descended from, and should be considered as, highly modified rotifers. This unified taxon is known as Syndermata. History ------- The earliest recognisable description of Acanthocephala – a worm with a proboscis armed with hooks – was made by Italian author Francesco Redi (1684). In 1771, Joseph Koelreuter proposed the name Acanthocephala. Philipp Ludwig Statius Müller independently called them *Echinorhynchus* in 1776. Karl Rudolphi in 1809 formally named them Acanthocephala. Evolutionary history -------------------- The oldest known remains of acanthocephalans are eggs found in a coprolite from the Late Cretaceous Bauru Group of Brazil, around 70-80 million years old, likely from a crocodyliform. The group may have originated substantially earlier. Phylogeny --------- Acanthocephalans are highly adapted to a parasitic mode of life, and have lost many organs and structures through evolutionary processes. This makes determining relationships with other higher taxa through morphological comparison problematic. Phylogenetic analysis of the 18S ribosomal gene has revealed that the Acanthocephala are most closely related to the rotifers. They are possibly closer to the two rotifer classes Bdelloidea and Monogononta than to the other class, Seisonidea, producing the names and relationships shown in the cladogram below. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Syndermata | | | | | --- | --- | | | Seisonida | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Eurotatoria | | | | | --- | --- | | | Bdelloidea | | | | | Monogononta | | | | | | | | Acanthocephala | | | | | | | | | | | | The three rotifer classes and the Acanthocephala make up a clade called Syndermata. This clade is placed in the Platyzoa. A study of the gene order in the mitochondria suggests that Seisonidea and Acanthocephala are sister clades and that the Bdelloidea are the sister clade to this group. Currently the phylum is divided into four classes – Palaeacanthocephala, Archiacanthocephala, Polyacanthocephala and Eoacanthocephala. The monophyletic Archiacanthocephala are the sister taxon of a clade comprising Eoacanthocephala and the monophyletic Palaeacanthocephala.</ref> Morphology ---------- Several morphological characteristics distinguish acanthocephalans from other phyla of parasitic worms. ### Digestion Acanthocephalans lack a mouth or alimentary canal. This is a feature they share with the cestoda (tapeworms), although the two groups are not closely related. Adult stages live in the intestines of their host and uptake nutrients which have been digested by the host, directly, through their body surface. The acanthocephalans lack an excretory system, although some species have been shown to possess flame cells (protonephridia). ### Proboscis The most notable feature of the acanthocephala is the presence of an anterior, protrudable proboscis that is usually covered with spiny hooks (hence the common name: thorny or spiny headed worm). The proboscis bears rings of recurved hooks arranged in horizontal rows, and it is by means of these hooks that the animal attaches itself to the tissues of its host. The hooks may be of two or three shapes, usually: longer, more slender hooks are arranged along the length of the proboscis, with several rows of more sturdy, shorter nasal hooks around the base of the proboscis. The proboscis is used to pierce the gut wall of the final host, and hold the parasite fast while it completes its life cycle. Like the body, the proboscis is hollow, and its cavity is separated from the body cavity by a *septum* or *proboscis sheath*. Traversing the cavity of the proboscis are muscle-strands inserted into the tip of the proboscis at one end and into the septum at the other. Their contraction causes the proboscis to be invaginated into its cavity. The whole proboscis apparatus can also be, at least partially, withdrawn into the body cavity, and this is effected by two retractor muscles which run from the posterior aspect of the septum to the body wall. Some of the acanthocephalans (perforating acanthocephalans) can insert their proboscis in the intestine of the host and open the way to the abdominal cavity. ### Size The size of these animals varies greatly, some are measured to be a few millimetres in length to *Gigantorhynchus gigas*, which measures from 10 to 65 centimetres (3.9 to 25.6 in). A curious feature shared by both larva and adult is the large size of many of the cells, e.g. the nerve cells and cells forming the uterine bell. Polyploidy is common, with up to 343n having been recorded in some species. ### Skin The body surface of the acanthocephala is peculiar. Externally, the skin has a thin tegument covering the epidermis, which consists of a syncytium with no cell walls. The syncytium is traversed by a series of branching tubules containing fluid and is controlled by a few wandering, amoeboid nuclei. Inside the syncytium is an irregular layer of circular muscle fibres, and within this again some rather scattered longitudinal fibres; there is no endothelium. In their micro-structure the muscular fibres resemble those of nematodes. Except for the absence of the longitudinal fibres the skin of the proboscis resembles that of the body, but the fluid-containing tubules of the proboscis are shut off from those of the body. The canals of the proboscis open into a circular vessel which runs round its base. From the circular canal two sac-like projections called the *lemnisci* run into the cavity of the body, alongside the proboscis cavity. Each consists of a prolongation of the syncytial material of the proboscis skin, penetrated by canals and sheathed with a muscular coat. They seem to act as reservoirs into which the fluid which is used to keep the proboscis "erect" can withdraw when it is retracted, and from which the fluid can be driven out when it is wished to expand the proboscis. ### Nervous system The central ganglion of the nervous system lies behind the proboscis sheath or septum. It innervates the proboscis and projects two stout trunks posteriorly which supply the body. Each of these trunks is surrounded by muscles, and this nerve-muscle complex is called a *retinaculum*. In the male at least there is also a genital ganglion. Some scattered papillae may possibly be sense-organs. Life cycles ----------- Acanthocephalans have complex life cycles, involving a number of hosts, for both developmental and resting stages. Complete life cycles have been worked out for only 25 species. ### Reproduction The Acanthocephala are dioecious (an individual organism is either male or female). There is a structure called the *genital ligament* which runs from the posterior end of the proboscis sheath to the posterior end of the body. In the male, two testes lie on either side of this. Each opens in a vas deferens which bears three diverticula or *vesiculae seminales*. The male also possesses three pairs of cement glands, found behind the testes, which pour their secretions through a duct into the vasa deferentia. These unite and end in a penis which opens posteriorly. In the female, the ovaries are found, like the testes, as rounded bodies along the ligament. From the ovaries, masses of ova dehisce into the body cavity, floating in its fluids for fertilization by male's sperm. After fertilization, each egg contains a developing embryo. (These embryos hatch into first stage larva.) The fertilized eggs are brought into the uterus by actions of the *uterine bell*, a funnel like opening continuous with the uterus. At the junction of the bell and the uterus there is a second, smaller opening situated dorsally. The bell "swallows" the matured eggs and passes them on into the uterus. (Immature embryos are passed back into the body cavity through the dorsal opening.) From the uterus, mature eggs leave the female's body via her oviduct, pass into the host's alimentary canal and are expelled from the host's body within feces. ### Release Having been expelled by the female, the acanthocephalan egg is released along with the feces of the host. For development to occur, the egg, containing the acanthor, needs to be ingested by an arthropod, usually a crustacean (there is one known life cycle which uses a mollusc as a first intermediate host). Inside the intermediate host, the acanthor is released from the egg and develops into an acanthella. It then penetrates the gut wall, moves into the body cavity, encysts, and begins transformation into the infective cystacanth stage. This form has all the organs of the adult save the reproductive ones. The parasite is released when the first intermediate host is ingested. This can be by a suitable final host, in which case the cystacanth develops into a mature adult, or by a paratenic host, in which the parasite again forms a cyst. When consumed by a suitable final host, the cycstacant *excysts*, everts its proboscis and pierces the gut wall. It then feeds, grows and develops its sexual organs. Adult worms then mate. The male uses the excretions of its *cement glands* to plug the vagina of the female, preventing subsequent matings from occurring. Embryos develop inside the female, and the life cycle repeats. ### Host control Thorny-headed worms begin their life cycle inside invertebrates that reside in marine or freshwater systems. *Gammarus lacustris*, a small crustacean that inhabits ponds and rivers, is one invertebrate that the thorny-headed worm may occupy. In recent years the occurrence of infections from these parasites have been increases in Asian aquaculture practices. This crustacean is preyed on by ducks and hides by avoiding light and staying away from the surface. However, when infected by a thorny-headed worm it becomes attracted toward light and swims to the surface. *Gammarus lacustris* will even go so far as to find a rock or a plant on the surface, clamp its mouth down, and latch on, making it easy prey for the duck. The duck is the definitive host for the acanthocephalan parasite. In order to be transmitted to the duck, the parasite's intermediate host (the gammarid) must be eaten by the duck. This modification of gammarid behavior by the acanthocephalan is thought to increase the rate of transmission of the parasite to its next host by increasing the susceptibility of the gammarid to predation. It is thought that when *Gammarus lacustris* is infected with a thorny-headed worm, the parasite causes serotonin to be massively expressed. Serotonin is a neurotransmitter involved in emotions and mood. Researchers have found that during mating *Gammarus lacustris* expresses high levels of serotonin. Also during mating, the male *Gammarus lacustris* clamps down on the female and holds on for days. Researchers have additionally found that blocking serotonin releases clamping. Another experiment found that serotonin also reduces the photophobic behavior in *Gammarus lacustris*. Thus, it is thought that the thorny-headed worm physiologically changes the behavior of the *Gammarus lacustris* in order to enter the bird, its final host. Examples of this behaviour include the *Polymorphus* spp. which are parasites of seabirds, particularly the eider duck (*Somateria mollissima*). Heavy infections of up to 750 parasites per bird are common, causing ulceration to the gut, disease and seasonal mortality. Recent research has suggested that there is no evidence of pathogenicity of *Polymorphus* spp. to intermediate crab hosts. The cystacanth stage is long lived and probably remains infective throughout the life of the crab. The life cycle of *Polymorphus* spp. normally occurs between sea ducks (e.g. eiders and scoters) and small crabs. Infections found in commercial-sized lobsters in Canada were probably acquired from crabs that form an important dietary item of lobsters. Cystacanths occurring in lobsters can cause economic loss to fishermen. There are no known methods of prevention or control. Human infections ---------------- In humans, it causes the disease Acanthocephaliasis. The earliest known infection was found in a prehistoric man in Utah. This infection was dated to 1869 ± 160 BC. The species involved was thought to be *Moniliformis clarki* which is still common in the area. The first report of an isolate in historic times was by Lambl in 1859 when he isolated *Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus* from a child in Prague. Lindemann in 1865 reported that this organism was commonly isolated in Russia. The reason for this was discovered by Schneider in 1871 when he found that an intermediate host, the scarabaeid beetle grub, was commonly eaten raw. The first report of clinical symptoms was by Calandruccio who in 1888 while in Italy infected himself by ingesting larvae. He reported gastrointestinal disturbances and shed eggs in two weeks. Subsequent natural infections have since been reported. Eight species have been isolated from humans to date. *Moniliformis moniliformis* is the most common isolate. Other isolates include *Acanthocephalus bufonis* and *Corynosoma strumosum*. See also -------- * Cestoda * Digenea * Monogenea Further reading --------------- * Amin, O. M. (1987). "Key to the families and subfamilies of Acanthocephala, with erection of a new class (Polyacanthocephala) and a new order (Polyacanthorhynchida)". *Journal of Parasitology*. **73** (6): 1216–1219. doi:10.2307/3282307. JSTOR 3282307. PMID 3437357. * Lühe, M. (1904). "Geschichte und Ergebnisse der Echinorhynchen – Forschung bis auf Westrumb (1821)". *Zoologischer Annalen*. **1**: 139–250. * Tain, Luke; Marie-Jeanne Perrot-Minnot; Frank Cézilly (December 22, 2006). "Altered host behaviour and brain serotonergic activity caused by acanthocephalans: evidence for specificity". *Proceedings of the Royal Society B*. **273** (1605): 3039–3045. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3618. PMC 1679890. PMID 17015346. * Zimmer, Carl (2000). *Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures*. Free Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-7432-0011-0. External links --------------

Acanthocephala

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acanthocephala

In Buddhism, a **bodhisattva** (/ˌboʊdiːˈsʌtvə/ *BOH-dee-SUT-və*; Sanskrit: 𑀩𑁄𑀥𑀺𑀲𑀢𑁆𑀢𑁆𑀯 (Brahmī), romanized: *bodhisattva*) or **bodhisatva** is a person who is on the path towards bodhi ('awakening') or Buddhahood. In the Early Buddhist schools, as well as modern Theravāda Buddhism, bodhisattva (Pāli: *bodhisatta*) refers to someone who has made a resolution to become a Buddha and has also received a confirmation or prediction from a living Buddha that this will be so. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, a bodhisattva refers to anyone who has generated *bodhicitta*, a spontaneous wish and compassionate mind to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Mahayana bodhisattvas are spiritually heroic persons that work to attain awakening and are driven by a great compassion (*mahākaruṇā*). These beings are exemplified by important spiritual qualities such as the "four divine abodes" (*brahmavihāras*) of loving-kindness (*maitrī*), compassion (*karuṇā*), empathetic joy (*muditā*) and equanimity (*upekṣā*), as well as the various bodhisattva "perfections" (*pāramitās*) which include *prajñāpāramitā* ("transcendent knowledge" or "perfection of wisdom") and skillful means (*upāya*). In Theravāda Buddhism, the bodhisattva is mainly seen as an exceptional and rare individual. Only a few select individuals are ultimately able to become bodhisattvas, such as Maitreya. Mahāyāna Buddhism generally understands the bodhisattva path as being open to everyone, and Mahāyāna Buddhists encourage all individuals to become bodhisattvas. Spiritually advanced bodhisattvas such as Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, and Manjushri are also widely venerated across the Mahāyāna Buddhist world and are believed to possess great magical power which they employ to help all living beings. In Early Buddhism ----------------- In pre-sectarian Buddhism, the term *bodhisatta* is used in the early texts to refer to Gautama Buddha in his previous lives and as a young man in his last life, when he was working towards liberation. In the early Buddhist discourses, the Buddha regularly uses the phrase "when I was an unawakened Bodhisatta" to describe his experiences before his attainment of awakening. The early texts which discuss the period before the Buddha's awakening mainly focus on his spiritual development. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, most of these passages focus on three main themes: "the bodhisattva's overcoming of unwholesome states of mind, his development of mental tranquillity, and the growth of his insight." Other early sources like the *Acchariyabbhutadhamma-sutta* (MN 123, and its Chinese parallel in Madhyama-āgama 32) discuss the marvelous qualities of the bodhisattva Gautama in his previous life in Tuṣita heaven. The Pali text focuses on how the bodhisattva was endowed with mindfulness and clear comprehension while living in Tuṣita, while the Chinese source states that his lifespan, appearance, and glory was greater than all the devas (gods). These sources also discuss various miracles which accompanied the bodhisattva's conception and birth, most famously, his taking seven steps and proclaiming that this was his last life. The Chinese source (titled *Discourse on Marvellous Qualities*) also states that while living as a monk under the Buddha Kāśyapa he "made his initial vow to [realize] Buddhahood [while] practicing the holy life." Another early source that discusses the qualities of bodhisattvas is the *Mahāpadāna sutta.* This text discusses bodhisattva qualities in the context of six previous Buddhas who lived long ago, such as Buddha Vipaśyī. Yet another important element of the bodhisattva doctrine, the idea of a prediction of someone's future Buddhahood, is found in another Chinese early Buddhist text, the *Discourse on an Explanation about the Past* (MĀ 66). In this discourse, a monk named Maitreya aspires to become a Buddha in the future and the Buddha then predicts that Maitreya will become a Buddha in the future. Other discourses found in the *Ekottarika-āgama* present the "bodhisattva Maitreya" as an example figure (EĀ 20.6 and EĀ 42.6) and one sutra in this collection also discuss how the Buddha taught the bodhisattva path of the six perfections to Maitreya (EĀ 27.5). 'Bodhisatta' may also connote a being who is "bound for enlightenment", in other words, a person whose aim is to become fully enlightened. In the Pāli canon, the Bodhisatta (bodhisattva) is also described as someone who is still subject to birth, illness, death, sorrow, defilement, and delusion. According to the Theravāda monk Bhikkhu Bodhi, while all the Buddhist traditions agree that to attain Buddhahood, one must "make a deliberate resolution" and fulfill the spiritual perfections (pāramīs or pāramitās) as a bodhisattva, the actual bodhisattva path is not taught in the earliest strata of Buddhist texts such as the Pali Nikayas (and their counterparts such as the Chinese Āgamas) which instead focus on the ideal of the arahant. The oldest known story about how Gautama Buddha becomes a bodhisattva is the story of his encounter with the previous Buddha, Dīpankara. During this encounter, a previous incarnation of Gautama, variously named Sumedha, Megha, or Sumati offers five blue lotuses and spreads out his hair or entire body for Dīpankara to walk on, resolving to one day become a Buddha. Dīpankara then confirms that they will attain Buddhahood. Early Buddhist authors saw this story as indicating that the making of a resolution (*abhinīhāra*) in the presence of a living Buddha and his prediction/confirmation (*vyākaraṇa*) of one's future Buddhahood was necessary to become a bodhisattva. According to Drewes, "all known models of the path to Buddhahood developed from this basic understanding." Stories and teachings on the bodhisattva ideal are found in the various Jataka tale sources, which mainly focus on stories of the past lives of the Sakyamuni. Among the non-Mahayana Nikaya schools, the Jataka literature was likely the main genre that contained bodhisattva teachings. These stories had certainly become an important part of popular Buddhism by the time of the carving of the Bharhut Stupa railings (c. 125–100 BCE), which contain depictions of around thirty Jataka tales. Thus, it is possible that the bodhisattva ideal was popularized through the telling of Jatakas. Jataka tales contain numerous stories which focus on the past life deeds of Sakyamuni when he was a bodhisattva. These deeds generally express bodhisattva qualities and practices (such as compassion, the six perfections, and supernatural power) in dramatic ways, and include numerous acts of self-sacrifice. Apart from Jataka stories related to Sakyamuni, the idea that Metteya (Maitreya), who currently resides in Tuṣita, would become the future Buddha and that this had been predicted by the Buddha Sakyamuni was also an early doctrine related to the bodhisattva ideal. It first appears in the *Cakkavattisihanadasutta*. According to A.L. Basham, it is also possible that some of the Ashokan edicts reveal knowledge of the bodhisattva ideal. Basham even argues that Ashoka may have considered himself a bodhisattva, as one edict states that he "set out for Cambodia." In the Nikāya schools --------------------- By the time that the Buddhist tradition had developed into various competing sects, the idea of the bodhisattva vehicle (Sanskrit: *bodhisattvayana*) as a distinct (and superior) path from that of the arhat and solitary buddha was widespread among all the major non-Mahayana Buddhist traditions or Nikaya schools, including Theravāda, Sarvāstivāda and Mahāsāṃghika. The doctrine is found, for example, in 2nd century CE sources like the *Avadānaśataka* and the *Divyāvadāna.* The bodhisattvayana was referred by other names such as "vehicle of the perfections" (*pāramitāyāna*), "bodhisatva dharma", "bodhisatva training", and "vehicle of perfect Buddhahood". According to various sources, some of the Nikaya schools (such as the Dharmaguptaka and some of the Mahasamghika sects) transmitted a collection of texts on bodhisattvas alongside the Tripitaka, which they termed "Bodhisattva Piṭaka" or "Vaipulya (Extensive) Piṭaka". None of these have survived. Dar Hayal attributes the historical development of the bodhisattva ideal to "the growth of bhakti (devotion, faith, love) and the idealisation and spiritualisation of the Buddha." The North Indian Sarvāstivāda school held it took Gautama three "incalculable aeons" (*asaṃkhyeyas*) and ninety one aeons (*kalpas*) to become a Buddha after his resolution (*praṇidhāna*) in front of a past Buddha. During the first incalculable aeon he is said to have encountered and served 75,000 Buddhas, and 76,000 in the second, after which he received his first prediction (*vyākaraṇa*) of future Buddhahood from Dīpankara, meaning that he could no longer fall back from the path to Buddhahood. For Sarvāstivāda, the first two incalculable aeons is a period of time in which a bodhisattva may still fall away and regress from the path. At the end of the second incalculable aeon, they encounter a buddha and receive their prediction, at which point they are certain to achieve Buddhahood. Thus, the presence of a living Buddha is also necessary for Sarvāstivāda. The *Mahāvibhāṣā* explains that its discussion of the bodhisattva path is partly meant "to stop those who are in fact not bodhisattvas from giving rise to the self-conceit that they are." However, for Sarvāstivāda, one is not technically a bodhisattva until the end of the third incalculable aeon, after which one begins to perform the actions which lead to the manifestation of the marks of a great person. The *Mahāvastu* of the Mahāsāṃghika-Lokottaravādins presents various ideas regarding the school's conception of the bodhisattva ideal. According to this text, bodhisattva Gautama had already reached a level of dispassion at the time of Buddha Dīpaṃkara many aeons ago and he is also said to have attained the perfection of wisdom countless aeons ago. The *Mahāvastu* also presents four stages of the bodhisattva path without giving specific time frames (though it's said to take various incalculable aeons): 1. Natural (*prakṛti*), one first plants the roots of merit in front of a Buddha to attain Buddhahood. 2. Resolution (*praṇidhāna*), one makes their first resolution to attain Buddhahood in the presence of a Buddha. 3. Continuing (*anuloma*), one continues to practice until one meets a Buddha who confirms one's future Buddhahood. 4. Irreversible (*anivartana*), at this stage, one cannot fall back. In Theravāda ------------ The bodhisattva ideal is also found in southern Buddhist sources, like the Theravāda school's *Buddhavaṃsa* (1st-2nd century BCE), which explains how Gautama, after making a resolution (*abhinīhāra*) and receiving his prediction (*vyākaraṇa*) of future Buddhahood from past Buddha Dīpaṃkara, he became certain (*dhuva*) to attain Buddhahood. Gautama then took four incalculable aeons and a hundred thousand, shorter *kalpas* (aeons) to reach Buddhahood. Several sources in the Pali Canon depict the idea that there are multiple Buddhas and that there will be many future Buddhas, all of which must train as bodhisattas. Non-canonical Theravada Jataka literature also teaches about bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva path. The worship of bodhisattvas like Metteya, Saman and Natha (Avalokiteśvara) can also be found in Theravada Buddhism. By the time of the great scholar Buddhaghosa (5th-century CE), orthodox Theravāda held the standard Indian Buddhist view that there were three main spiritual paths within Buddhism: the way of the Buddhas (*buddhayāna*) i.e. the bodhisatta path; the way of the individual Buddhas (*paccekabuddhayāna*); and the way of the disciples (*sāvakayāna*). The Sri Lankan commentator Dhammapāla (6th century CE) wrote a commentary on the *Cariyāpiṭaka*, a text which focuses on the bodhisattva path and on the ten perfections of a bodhisatta. Dhammapāla's commentary notes that to become a bodhisattva one must make a valid resolution in front of a living Buddha. The Buddha then must provide a prediction (*vyākaraṇa*) which confirms that one is irreversible (*anivattana*) from the attainment of Buddhahood. The *Nidānakathā*, as well as the *Buddhavaṃsa* and *Cariyāpiṭaka* commentaries makes this explicit by stating that one cannot use a substitute (such as a Bodhi tree, Buddha statue or Stupa) for the presence of a living Buddha, since only a Buddha has the knowledge for making a reliable prediction. This is the generally accepted view maintained in orthodox Theravada today. According to Theravāda commentators like Dhammapāla as well as the *Suttanipāta* commentary, there are three types of bodhisattvas: * Bodhisattvas "preponderant in wisdom" (*paññādhika*), like Gautama, reach Buddhahood in four incalculable aeons (asaṃkheyyas) and a hundred thousand kalpas. * Bodhisattvas "preponderant in faith" (*saddhādhika*) take twice as long as *paññādhika* bodhisattvas * Bodhisattvas "preponderant in vigor" (*vīriyādhika*) take four times as long as *paññādhika* bodhisattvas According to modern Theravada authors, meeting a Buddha is needed to truly make someone a bodhisattva because any other resolution to attain Buddhahood may easily be forgotten or abandoned during the aeons ahead. The Burmese monk Ledi Sayadaw (1846–1923) explains that though it is easy to make vows for future Buddhahood by oneself, it is very difficult to maintain the necessary conduct and views during periods when the Dharma has disappeared from the world. One will easily fall back during such periods and this is why one is not truly a full bodhisattva until one receives recognition from a living Buddha. Because of this, it was and remains a common practice in Theravada to attempt to establish the necessary conditions to meet the future Buddha Maitreya and thus receive a prediction from him. Medieval Theravada literature and inscriptions report the aspirations of monks, kings and ministers to meet Maitreya for this purpose. Modern figures such as Anagarika Dharmapala (1864–1933), and U Nu (1907–1995) both sought to receive a prediction from a Buddha in the future and believed meritorious actions done for the good of Buddhism would help in their endeavor to become bodhisattvas in the future. Over time the term came to be applied to other figures besides Gautama Buddha in Theravada lands, possibly due to the influence of Mahayana. The Theravada Abhayagiri tradition of Sri Lanka practiced Mahayana Buddhism and was very influential until the 12th century. Kings of Sri Lanka were often described as bodhisattvas, starting at least as early as Sirisanghabodhi (r. 247–249), who was renowned for his compassion, took vows for the welfare of the citizens, and was regarded as a mahāsatta (Sanskrit: *mahāsattva*), an epithet used almost exclusively in Mahayana Buddhism. Many other Sri Lankan kings from the 3rd until the 15th century were also described as bodhisattas and their royal duties were sometimes clearly associated with the practice of the ten pāramitās. In some cases, they explicitly claimed to have received predictions of Buddhahood in past lives. Popular Buddhist figures have also been seen as bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhist lands. Shanta Ratnayaka notes that Anagarika Dharmapala, Asarapasarana Saranarikara Sangharaja, and Hikkaduwe Sri Sumamgala "are often called bodhisattvas". Buddhaghosa was also traditionally considered to be a reincarnation of Maitreya. Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas. Various modern figures of esoteric Theravada traditions (such as the weizzās of Burma) have also claimed to be bodhisattvas. Theravada bhikkhu and scholar Walpola Rahula writes that the bodhisattva ideal has traditionally been held to be higher than the state of a *śrāvaka* not only in Mahayana but also in Theravada. Rahula writes "the fact is that both the Theravada and the Mahayana unanimously accept the Bodhisattva ideal as the highest...Although the Theravada holds that anybody can be a Bodhisattva, it does not stipulate or insist that all must be Bodhisattva which is considered not practical." He also quotes the 10th century king of Sri Lanka, Mahinda IV (956–972 CE), who had the words inscribed "none but the bodhisattvas will become kings of a prosperous Lanka," among other examples. Jeffrey Samuels echoes this perspective, noting that while in Mahayana Buddhism the bodhisattva path is held to be universal and for everyone, in Theravada it is "reserved for and appropriated by certain exceptional people." In Mahāyāna ----------- ### Early Mahāyāna Mahāyāna Buddhism (often also called *Bodhisattvayāna*, "Bodhisattva Vehicle") is based principally upon the path of a bodhisattva. This path was seen as higher and nobler than becoming an arhat or a solitary Buddha. Hayal notes that Sanskrit sources generally depict the bodhisattva path as reaching a higher goal (i.e. *anuttara-samyak-sambodhi*) than the goal of the path of the "disciples" (śrāvakas), which is the nirvana attained by arhats. For example, the *Lotus Sutra* states: > "To the sravakas, he preached the doctrine which is associated with the four Noble Truths and leads to Dependent Origination. It aims at transcending birth, old age, disease, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress of mind and weariness; and it ends in nirvana. But, to the great being, the bodhisattva, he preached the doctrine, which is associated with the six perfections and which ends in the Knowledge of the Omniscient One after the attainment of the supreme and perfect bodhi." > > According to Peter Skilling, the Mahayana movement began when "at an uncertain point, let us say in the first century BCE, groups of monks, nuns, and lay-followers began to devote themselves exclusively to the Bodhisatva vehicle." These Mahayanists universalized the bodhisattvayana as a path which was open to everyone and which was taught for all beings to follow. This was in contrast to the Nikaya schools, which held that the bodhisattva path was only for a rare set of individuals. Indian Mahayanists preserved and promoted a set of texts called Vaipulya ("Extensive") sutras (later called Mahayana sutras). Mahayana sources like the *Lotus Sutra* also claim that arhats that have reached nirvana have not truly finished their spiritual quest, for they still have not attained the superior goal of sambodhi (Buddhahood) and thus must continue to strive until they reach this goal. The **Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra**, one of the earliest known Mahayana texts, contains a simple and brief definition for the term *bodhisattva*, which is also the earliest known Mahāyāna definition. This definition is given as the following: "Because he has bodhi as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called." Mahayana sutras also depict the bodhisattva as a being which, because they want to reach Buddhahood for the sake of all beings, is more loving and compassionate than the sravaka (who only wishes to end their own suffering). Thus, another major difference between the bodhisattva and the arhat is that the bodhisattva practices the path for the good of others (*par-ārtha*), due to their bodhicitta, while the sravakas do so for their own good (*sv-ārtha*) and thus, do not have bodhicitta (which is compassionately focused on others). Mahayana bodhisattvas were not just abstract models for Buddhist practice, but also developed as distinct figures which were venerated by Indian Buddhists. These included figures like Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara, which are personifications of the basic virtues of wisdom and compassion respectively and are the two most important bodhisattvas in Mahayana. The development of bodhisattva devotion parallels the development of the Hindu bhakti movement. Indeed, Dayal sees the development of Indian bodhisattva cults as a Buddhist reaction to the growth of bhakti centered religion in India which helped to popularize and reinvigorate Indian Buddhism. Some Mahayana sutras promoted another revolutionary doctrinal turn, claiming that the three vehicles of the *Śrāvakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna* and the *Bodhisattvayāna* were really just one vehicle (*ekayana*). This is most famously promoted in the *Lotus Sūtra* which claims that the very idea of three separate vehicles is just an *upaya*, a skillful device invented by the Buddha to get beings of various abilities on the path. But ultimately, it will be revealed to them that there is only one vehicle, the *ekayana*, which ends in Buddhahood. ### Mature scholastic Mahāyāna Classical Indian mahayanists held that the only sutras which teach the bodhisattva vehicle are the Mahayana sutras. Thus, Nagarjuna writes "the subjects based on the deeds of Bodhisattvas were not mentioned in [non-Mahāyāna] sūtras." They also held that the bodhisattva path was superior to the śrāvaka vehicle and so the bodhisattva vehicle is the "great vehicle" (mahayana) due to its greater aspiration to save others, while the śrāvaka vehicle is the "small" or "inferior" vehicle (hinayana). Thus, Asanga argues in his *Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra* that the two vehicles differ in numerous ways, such as intention, teaching, employment (i.e., means), support, and the time that it takes to reach the goal. Over time, Mahayana Buddhists developed mature systematized doctrines about the bodhisattva. The authors of the various Madhyamaka treatises often presented the view of the *ekayana*, and thus held that all beings can become bodhisattvas. The texts and sutras associated with the Yogacara school developed a different theory of three separate *gotras* (families, lineages), that inherently predisposed a person to either the vehicle of the *arhat*, *pratyekabuddha* or *samyak-saṃbuddha* (fully self-awakened one). For the yogacarins then, only some beings (those who have the "bodhisattva lineage") can enter the bodhisattva path. In East Asian Buddhism, the view of the one vehicle (*ekayana*) which holds that all Buddhist teachings are really part of a single path, is the standard view. The term bodhisattva was also used in a broader sense by later authors. According to the eighth-century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards *bodhi*. Therefore, the specific term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a *mahāsattva* (great being) *bodhisattva*. According to Atiśa's 11th century *Bodhipathapradīpa,* the central defining feature of a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is the universal aspiration to end suffering for all sentient beings, which is termed *bodhicitta* (the mind set on awakening). The bodhisattva doctrine went through a significant transformation during the development of Buddhist tantra, also known as Vajrayana. This movement developed new ideas and texts which introduced new bodhisattvas and re-interpreted old ones in new forms, developed in elaborate mandalas for them and introduced new practices which made use of mantras, mudras and other tantric elements. ### Entering the bodhisattva path According to David Drewes, "Mahayana sutras unanimously depict the path beginning with the first arising of the thought of becoming a Buddha (*prathamacittotpāda*), or the initial arising of *bodhicitta*, typically aeons before one first receives a Buddha's prediction, and apply the term bodhisattva from this point." The *Ten Stages Sutra*, for example, explains that the arising of bodhicitta is the first step in the bodhisattva's career. Thus, the arising of bodhicitta, the compassionate mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings, is a central defining element of the bodhisattva path. Another key element of the bodhisattva path is the concept of a bodhisattva's *praṇidhāna* - which can mean a resolution, resolve, vow, prayer, wish, aspiration and determination. This more general idea of an earnest wish or solemn resolve which is closely connected with bodhicitta (and is the cause and result of bodhicitta) eventually developed into the idea that bodhisattvas take certain formulaic "bodhisattva vows." One of the earliest of these formulas is found in the **Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra** and states: > We having crossed (the stream of samsara), may we help living beings to cross! We being liberated, may we liberate others! We being comforted, may we comfort others! We being finally released, may we release others! > > Other sutras contain longer and more complex formulas, such as the ten vows found in the *Ten Stages Sutra.* Mahayana sources also discuss the importance of a Buddha's prediction (*vyākaraṇa*) of a bodhisattva's future Buddhahood. This is seen as an important step along the bodhisattva path. Later Mahayana Buddhists also developed specific rituals and devotional acts for which helped to develop various preliminary qualities, such as faith, worship, prayer, and confession, that lead to the arising of *bodhicitta.* These elements, which constitute a kind of preliminary preparation for bodhicitta, are found in the "seven part worship" (*saptāṇgapūjā* or *saptavidhā anuttarapūjā*). This ritual form is visible in the works of Shantideva (8th century) and includes: * *Vandana* (obeisance, bowing down) * *Puja* (worship of the Buddhas) * *Sarana-gamana* (going for refuge) * *Papadesana* (confession of bad deeds) * *Punyanumodana* (rejoicing in merit of the good deeds of oneself and others) * *Adhyesana* (prayer, entreaty) and *yacana* (supplication) – request to Buddhas and Bodhisattvas to continue preaching Dharma * *Atmabhavadi-parityagah* (surrender) and *pariṇāmanā* (the transfer of one's Merit to the welfare of others) After these preliminaries have been accomplished, then the aspirant is seen as being ready to give rise to bodhicitta, often through the recitation of a bodhisattva vow. Contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism encourages everyone to give rise to bodhicitta and ceremonially take bodhisattva vows. With these vows and precepts, one makes the promise to work for the complete enlightenment of all sentient beings by practicing the transcendent virtues or paramitas. In Mahāyāna, bodhisattvas are often not Buddhist monks and are former lay practitioners. ### The practice of the bodhisattva After a being has entered the path by giving rise to bodhicitta, they must make effort in the practice or conduct (*caryā*) of the bodhisattvas, which includes all the duties, virtues and practices that bodhisattvas must accomplish to attain Buddhahood. An important early Mahayana source for the practice of the bodhisattva is the *Bodhisattvapiṭaka sūtra,* a major sutra found in the *Mahāratnakūṭa* collection which was widely cited by various sources. According to Ulrich Pagel, this text is "one of the longest works on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature" and thus provides extensive information on the topic bodhisattva training, especially the perfections (*pāramitā*). Pagel also argues that this text was quite influential on later Mahayana writings which discuss the bodhisattva and thus was "of fundamental importance to the evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine." Other sutras in the *Mahāratnakūṭa* collection are also important sources for the bodhisattva path. According to Pagel, the basic outline of the bodhisattva practice in the *Bodhisattvapiṭaka* is outlined in a passage which states "the path to enlightenment comprises benevolence towards all sentient beings, striving after the perfections and compliance with the means of conversion." This path begins with contemplating the failures of samsara, developing faith in the Buddha, giving rise to bodhicitta and practicing the four immesurables. It then proceeds through all six perfections and finally discusses the four means of converting sentient beings (*saṃgrahavastu*). The path is presented through prose exposition, mnemonic lists (*matrka*) and also through Jataka narratives. Using this general framework, the *Bodhisattvapiṭaka* incorporates discussions related to other practices including super knowledge (*abhijñā*), learning, 'skill' (*kauśalya*), accumulation of merit (*puṇyasaṃbhāra*), the thirty-seven factors of awakening (*bodhipakṣadharmas*), perfect mental quietude (*śamatha*) and insight (*vipaśyanā*). Later Mahayana treatises (*śāstras*) like the *Bodhisattvabhumi* and the *Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra* provide the following schema of bodhisattva practices: * *Bodhipakṣa-caryā*, the practice of the 37 *bodhipakṣadharmas* (the principles conducive to bodhi) which are: the four applications of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the five spiritual faculties, the five strengths, the seven factors of awakening and the noble eightfold path. * *Abhijñā-caryā*, the practice of the super-knowledges (which are mainly developed in order to convert, help and guide others). * *Pāramitā-caryā,* the practice of the perfections, which are: Dāna (generosity), Śīla (virtue, ethics), Kṣānti (patient endurance), Vīrya (heroic energy), Dhyāna (meditation), Prajñā (wisdom), Upāya (skillful means), Praṇidhāna (vow, resolve), Bala (spiritual power), and Jñāna (knowledge). * *Sattvaparipāka-caryā*, the practice of maturing the living beings, i.e. preaching and teaching others. The first six perfections (*pāramitās*) are the most significant and popular set of bodhisattva virtues and thus they serve as a central framework for bodhisattva practice. They are the most widely taught and commented upon virtues throughout the history of Mahayana Buddhist literature and feature prominently in major Sanskrit sources such as the *Bodhisattvabhumi*, the *Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra,* the *King of Samadhis Sutra* and the *Ten Stages Sutra*. They are extolled and praised by these sources as "the great oceans of all the bright virtues and auspicious principles" (*Bodhisattvabhumi*) and "the Teacher, the Way and the Light...the Refuge and the Shelter, the Support and the Sanctuary" (*Aṣṭasāhasrikā*). While many Mahayana sources discuss the bodhisattva's training in ethical discipline (*śīla*) in classic Buddhist terms, over time, there also developed specific sets of ethical precepts for bodhisattvas (Skt. *bodhisattva-śīla*). These various sets of precepts are usually taken by bodhisattva aspirants (lay and ordained monastics) along with classic Buddhist pratimoksha precepts. However, in some Japanese Buddhist traditions, monastics rely solely on the bodhisattva precepts. The perfection of wisdom (*prajñāpāramitā*) is generally seen as the most important and primary of the perfections, without which all the others fall short. Thus, the *Madhyamakavatara* (6:2) states that wisdom leads the other perfections as a man with eyes leads the blind. This perfect or transcendent wisdom has various qualities, such as being non-attached (*asakti*), non-conceptual and non-dual (*advaya*) and signless (*animitta*). It is generally understood as a kind of insight into the true nature of all phenomena (*dharmas*) which in Mahayana sutras is widely described as emptiness (*shunyatā*). Another key virtue which the bodhisattva must develop is great compassion (*mahā-karuṇā*), a vast sense of care aimed at ending the suffering of all sentient beings. This great compassion is the ethical foundation of the bodhisattva, and it is also an applied aspect of their bodhicitta. Great compassion must also be closely joined with the perfection of wisdom, which reveals that all the beings that the bodhisattva strives to save are ultimately empty of self (*anātman*) and lack inherent existence (*niḥsvabhāva*). Due to the bodhisattva's compassionate wish to save all beings, they develop innumerable skillful means or strategies (*upaya*) with which to teach and guide different kinds of beings with all sorts of different inclinations and tendencies. Another key virtue for the bodhisattva is mindfulness (*smṛti*), which Dayal calls "the sine qua non of moral progress for a bodhisattva." Mindfulness is widely emphasized by Buddhist authors and Sanskrit sources and it appears four times in the list of 37 *bodhipakṣadharmas*. According to the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā*, a bodhisattva must never lose mindfulness so as not to be confused or distracted. The *Mahāyānasūtrālamkāra* states that mindfulness is the principal asset of a bodhisattva, while both Asvaghosa and Shantideva state that without mindfulness, a bodhisattva will be helpless and uncontrolled (like a mad elephant) and will not succeed in conquering the mental afflictions. ### The length and nature of the path Just as with non-Mahayana sources, Mahayana sutras generally depict the bodhisattva path as a long path that takes many lifetimes across many aeons. Some sutras state that a beginner bodhisattva could take anywhere from 3 to 22 countless eons (*mahāsaṃkhyeya kalpas*) to become a Buddha. The *Mahāyānasaṃgraha* of Asanga states that the bodhisattva must cultivate the six paramitas for three incalculable aeons (*kalpāsaṃkhyeya*). Shantideva meanwhile states that bodhisattvas must practice each perfection for sixty aeons or kalpas and also declares that a bodhisattva must practice the path for an "inconceivable" (*acintya*) number of kalpas. Thus, the bodhisattva path could take many billions upon billions of years to complete. Later developments in Indian and Asian Mahayana Buddhism (especially in Vajrayana or tantric Buddhism) lead to the idea that certain methods and practices could substantially shorten the path (and even lead to Buddhahood in a single lifetime). In Pure Land Buddhism, an aspirant might go to a Buddha's pure land or buddha-field (*buddhakṣetra*), like Sukhavati, where they can study the path directly with a Buddha. This could significantly shorten the length of the path, or at least make it more bearable. East Asian Pure Land Buddhist traditions, such as Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū, hold the view that realizing Buddhahood through the long bodhisattva path of the perfections is no longer practical in the current age (which is understood as a degenerate age called *mappo*). Thus, they rely on the salvific power of Amitabha to bring Buddhist practitioners to the pure land of Sukhavati, where they will better be able to practice the path. This view is rejected by other schools such as Tendai, Shingon and Zen. The founders of Tendai and Shingon, Saicho and Kukai, held that anyone who practiced the path properly could reach awakening in this very lifetime. Buddhist schools like Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and the various Vajrayāna traditions maintain that they teach ways to attain Buddhahood within one lifetime. Some of early depictions of the Bodhisattva path in texts such as the *Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra* describe it as an arduous, difficult monastic path suited only for the few which is nevertheless the most glorious path one can take. Three kinds of bodhisattvas are mentioned: the forest, city, and monastery bodhisattvas—with forest dwelling being promoted a superior, even necessary path in sutras such as the *Ugraparipṛcchā* and the *Samadhiraja* sutras. The early *Rastrapalapariprccha sutra* also promotes a solitary life of meditation in the forests, far away from the distractions of the householder life. The *Rastrapala* is also highly critical of monks living in monasteries and in cities who are seen as not practicing meditation and morality. The *Ratnagunasamcayagatha* also says the bodhisattva should undertake ascetic practices (*dhūtaguṇa*), "wander freely without a home", practice the paramitas and train under a guru in order to perfect his meditation practice and realization of *prajñaparamita*. The twelve *dhūtaguṇas* are also promoted by the *King of Samadhis Sutra*, the *Ten Stages Sutra* and Shantideva. Some scholars have used these texts to argue for "the forest hypothesis", the theory that the initial Bodhisattva ideal was associated with a strict forest asceticism. But other scholars point out that many other Mahayana sutras do not promote this ideal, and instead teach "easy" practices like memorizing, reciting, teaching and copying Mahayana sutras, as well as meditating on Buddhas and bodhisattvas (and reciting or chanting their names). Ulrich Pagel also notes that in numerous sutras found in the *Mahāratnakūṭa* collection, the bodhisattva ideal is placed "firmly within the reach of non-celibate layfolk." ### Bodhisattvas and Nirvana Related to the different views on the different types of *yanas* or vehicles is the question of a bodhisattva's relationship to nirvāṇa. In the various Mahāyāna texts, two theories can be discerned. One view is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until full Buddhahood is attained (at which point one ceases to be reborn, which is the classical view of nirvāṇa). This view is promoted in some sutras like the *Pañcavimsatisahasrika-prajñaparamita-sutra.* The idea is also found in the *Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra*, which mentions that bodhisattvas take the following vow: "I shall not enter into final nirvana before all beings have been liberated." Likewise, the *Śikṣāsamuccaya* states "I must lead all beings to Liberation. I will stay here till the end, even for the sake of one living soul." The second theory is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called *apratiṣṭhita (*non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain engaged in the samsaric realms without being affected by them. This attainment was understood as a kind of non-dual state in which one is neither limited to samsara nor nirvana. A being who has reached this kind of nirvana is not restricted from manifesting in the samsaric realms, and yet they remain fully detached from the defilements found in these realms (and thus they can help others). This doctrine of non-abiding nirvana developed in the Yogacara school. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of *apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa* may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature, therefore while earlier sutras may sometimes speak of "postponement", later texts saw no need to postpone the "superior" *apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa*. In this Yogacara model, the bodhisattva definitely rejects and avoids the liberation of the *śravaka* and *pratyekabuddha*, described in Mahāyāna literature as either inferior or "*hina*" (as in Asaṅga's fourth century *Yogācārabhūmi*) or as ultimately false or illusory (as in the *Lotus Sūtra*). That a bodhisattva has the option to pursue such a lesser path, but instead chooses the long path towards Buddhahood is one of the five criteria for one to be considered a bodhisattva. The other four are: being human, being a man, making a vow to become a Buddha in the presence of a previous Buddha, and receiving a prophecy from that Buddha. Over time, a more varied analysis of bodhisattva careers developed focused on one's motivation. This can be seen in the Tibetan Buddhist teaching on three types of motivation for generating bodhicitta. According to Patrul Rinpoche's 19th century *Words of My Perfect Teacher* (*Kun bzang bla ma'i gzhal lung*), a bodhisattva might be motivated in one of three ways. They are: 1. King-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha first in order to then help sentient beings. 2. Boatman-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha at the same time as other sentient beings. 3. Shepherd-like bodhicitta – To aspire to become a Buddha only after all other sentient beings have done so. These three are not types of people, but rather types of motivation. According to Patrul Rinpoche, the third quality of intention is most noble though the mode by which Buddhahood occurs is the first; that is, it is only possible to teach others the path to enlightenment once one has attained enlightenment oneself. ### Bodhisattva stages According to James B. Apple, if one studies the earliest textual materials which discuss the bodhisattva path (which includes the translations of Lokakshema and the Gandharan manuscripts), "one finds four key stages that are demarcated throughout this early textual material that constitute the most basic elements in the path of a bodhisattva". These main elements are: 1. "The arising of the thought of awakening (*bodhicittotpāda*), when a person first aspires to attain the state of Buddhahood and thereby becomes a bodhisattva" 2. "Endurance towards the fact that things are not produced" (*anutpattikadharma-kṣānti*) 3. "The attainment of the status of irreversibility" or non-retrogression (*avaivartika*) from Buddhahood, which means one is close to Buddhahood and that one can no longer turn back or regress from that attainment. They are exemplary monks, with cognitive powers equal to arhats. They practice the four dhyanas, have a deep knowledge of perfect wisdom and teach it to others. In the Lokakshema's Chinese translation of the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā,* the *Daoxing Banruo Jing,* this stage is closely related to a concentration (*samadhi*) that "does not grasp at anything at all" (*sarvadharmāparigṛhīta*). 4. The prediction (*vyākaraṇa*), "the event when a Buddha predicts the time and place of a bodhisattva's subsequent awakening." The prediction is directly associated with the status of irreversibility. The *Daoxing Banruo Jing* states: "all the bodhisattvas who have realized the irreversible stage have obtained their prediction to Buddhahood from the Buddhas in the past." According to Drewes, the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* divides the bodhisattva path into three main stages. The first stage is that of bodhisattvas who "first set out in the vehicle" (*prathamayānasaṃprasthita*), then there is the "irreversible" (*avinivartanīya*) stage, and finally the third "bound by one more birth" (*ekajātipratibaddha*), as in, destined to become a Buddha in the next life. Lamotte also mentions four similar stages of the bodhiattva career which are found in the *Dazhidulun* translated by Kumarajiva: (1) *Prathamacittotpādika* ("who produces the mind of Bodhi for the first time"), (2) *Ṣaṭpāramitācaryāpratipanna* ("devoted to the practice of the six perfections"), (3) *Avinivartanīya* (non-regression), (4) *Ekajātipratibaddha* ("separated by only one lifetime from buddhahood"). Drewes notes that Mahāyāna sūtras mainly depict a bodhisattvas' first arising of bodhicitta as occurring in the presence of a Buddha. Furthermore, according to Drewes, most Mahāyāna sūtras "never encourage anyone to become a bodhisattva or present any ritual or other means of doing so." In a similar manner to the nikāya sources, Mahāyāna sūtras also see new bodhisattvas as likely to regress, while seeing irreversible bodhisattvas are quite rare. Thus, according to Drewes, "the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā*, for instance, states that as many bodhisattvas as there grains of sand in the Ganges turn back from the pursuit of Buddhahood and that out of innumerable beings who give rise to bodhicitta and progress toward Buddhahood, only one or two will reach the point of becoming irreversible." Drewes also adds that early texts like the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā* treat bodhisattvas who are beginners (*ādikarmika*) or "not long set out in the [great] vehicle" with scorn, describing them as "blind", "unintelligent", "lazy" and "weak". Early Mahayana works identify them with those who reject Mahayana or who abandon Mahayana, and they are seen as likely to become *śrāvakas* (those on the *arhat* path). Rather than encouraging them to become bodhisattvas, what early Mahayana sutras like the *Aṣṭa* do is to help individuals determine if they have already received a prediction in a past life, or if they are close to this point. The *Aṣṭa* provides a variety of methods, including forms of ritual or divination, methods dealing with dreams and various tests, especially tests based on one's reaction to the hearing of the content in the *Aṣṭasāhasrikā* itself. The text states that encountering and accepting its teachings mean one is close to being given a prediction and that if one does not "shrink back, cower or despair" from the text, but "firmly believes it", one is either irreversible or is close to this stage. Many other Mahayana sutras such as the *Akṣobhyavyūha*, *Vimalakīrtinirdeśa*, *Sukhāvatīvyūha*, and the *Śūraṃgamasamādhi Sūtra* present textual approaches to determine one's status as an advanced bodhisattva. These mainly depend on a person's attitude towards listening to, believing, preaching, proclaiming, copying or memorizing and reciting the sutra as well as practicing the sutra's teachings. According to Drewes, this claim that merely having faith in Mahāyāna sūtras meant that one was an advanced bodhisattva, was a departure from previous Nikaya views about bodhisattvas. It created new groups of Buddhists who accepted each other's bodhisattva status. Some Mahayana texts are more open with their bodhisattva doctrine. The *Lotus Sutra* famously assures large numbers people that they will certainly achieve Buddhahood, with few requirements (other than hearing and accepting the *Lotus Sutra* itself). #### The bodhisattva grounds (*bhūmis*) According to various Mahāyāna sources, on the way to becoming a Buddha, a bodhisattva proceeds through various stages (*bhūmis*) of spiritual progress*.* The term *bhūmi* means "earth" or "place" and figurately can mean "ground, plane, stage, level; state of consciousness". There are various lists of bhumis, the most common is a list of ten found in the *Daśabhūmikasūtra* (but there are also lists of seven stages as well as lists which have more than 10 stages). The *Daśabhūmikasūtra* lists the following ten stages: 1. **Great Joy:** It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all sentient beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this *bhūmi* the bodhisattvas practice all perfections (*pāramitās*), but especially emphasizing generosity (*dāna*). 2. **Stainless:** In accomplishing the second *bhūmi*, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this *bhūmi* is named "stainless". The emphasized perfection is moral discipline (*śīla*). 3. **Luminous:** The light of Dharma is said to radiate for others from the bodhisattva who accomplishes the third *bhūmi*. The emphasized perfection is patience (**kṣānti**). 4. **Radiant:** This *bhūmi* it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized perfection is vigor (*vīrya*). 5. **Very difficult to train:** Bodhisattvas who attain this ground strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized perfection is meditative concentration (*dhyāna*). 6. **Obviously Transcendent:** By depending on the perfection of wisdom, [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either **saṃsāra** or **nirvāṇa**, so this state is "obviously transcendent". The emphasized perfection is wisdom (*prajñā*). 7. **Gone afar:** Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means (*upāya*), to help others. 8. **Immovable:** The emphasized virtue is aspiration. This "immovable" *bhūmi* is where one becomes able to choose his place of rebirth. 9. **Good Discriminating Wisdom:** The emphasized virtue is the understanding of self and non-self. 10. **Cloud of Dharma:** The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom. After this *bhūmi*, one attains full Buddhahood. In some sources, these ten stages are correlated with a different schema of the buddhist path called the five paths which is derived from Vaibhasika Abhidharma sources. The *Śūraṅgama Sūtra* recognizes 57 stages. Various Vajrayāna schools recognize additional grounds (varying from 3 to 10 further stages), mostly 6 more grounds with variant descriptions. A bodhisattva above the 7th ground is called a *mahāsattva*. Some bodhisattvas such as Samantabhadra are also said to have already attained Buddhahood. Important Bodhisattvas ---------------------- Buddhists (especially Mahayanists) venerate several bodhisattvas (such as Maitreya, Manjushri and Avalokiteshvara) which are seen as highly spiritually advanced (having attained the tenth bhumi) and thus possessing immense magical power. According to Lewis Lancaster, these "celestial" or "heavenly" bodhisattvas are seen as "either the manifestations of a Buddha or they are beings who possess the power of producing many bodies through great feats of magical transformation." The religious devotion to these bodhisattvas probably first developed in north India, and they are widely depicted in Gandharan and Kashmiri art. In Asian art, they are typically depicted as princes and princesses, with royal robes and jewellery (since they are the princes of the Dharma). In Buddhist art, a bodhisattva is often described as a beautiful figure with a serene expression and graceful manner. This is probably in accordance to the description of Prince Siddhārtha Gautama as a bodhisattva. The depiction of bodhisattva in Buddhist art around the world aspires to express the bodhisattva's qualities such as loving-kindness (*metta*), compassion (*karuna*), empathetic joy (*mudita*) and equanimity (*upekkha*). Literature which glorifies such bodhisattvas and recounts their various miracles remains very popular in Asia. One example of such a work of literature is *More Records of Kuan-shih-yin's Responsive Manifestations* by Lu Kao (459-532) which was very influential in China. In Tibetan Buddhism, the *Maṇi Kambum* is a similarly influential text (a revealed text, or terma) which focuses on Chenrezig (Avalokiteshvara, who is seen as the country's patron bodhisattva) and his miraculous activities in Tibet. These celestial bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (Guanyin) are also seen as compassionate savior figures, constantly working for the good of all beings. The Avalokiteshvara chapter of the *Lotus Sutra* even states that calling Avalokiteshvara to mind can help save someone from natural disasters, demons, and other calamities. It is also supposed to protect one from the afflictions (lust, anger and ignorance). Bodhisattvas can also transform themselves into whatever physical form is useful for helping sentient beings (a god, a bird, a male or female, even a Buddha). Because of this, bodhisattvas are seen as beings that one can pray to for aid and consolation from the sufferings of everyday life as well as for guidance in the path to enlightenment. Thus, the great translator Xuanzang is said to have constantly prayed to Avalokiteshvara for protection on his long journey to India. ### Eight Main Bodhisattvas In the Tibetan tradition, there are eight bodhisattvas known as the "Eight Great Bodhisattvas", or "Eight Close Sons" (Skt. *aṣṭa utaputra*; Tib. *nyewé sé gyé*) and are seen as the main bodhisattvas of Shakyamuni Buddha. These same "Eight Great Bodhisattvas" (Chn. *Bādà Púsà*, Jp. *Hachi Daibosatsu*) also appear in East Asian Esoteric Buddhist sources, such as *The Sutra on the Maṇḍalas of the Eight Great Bodhisattvas* (八大菩薩曼荼羅經), translated by Amoghavajra in the 8th century and Faxian (10th century). The Eight Great Bodhisattvas are the following: * Mañjuśrī ("Gentle Glory") Kumarabhuta ("Young Prince"), the main bodhisattva of wisdom * Avalokiteśvara ("Lord who gazes down at the world"), the savior bodhisattva of great compassion * Vajrapāṇi ("Vajra in hand"), the bodhisattva of protection, the protector of the Buddha (in East Asian sources, this figure appears as Mahāsthāmaprāpta) * Maitreya ("Friendly One"), will become the Buddha of our world in the future * Kṣitigarbha ("Earth Source") * Ākāśagarbha ("Space Source") also known as Gaganagañja * Sarvanivāraṇaviṣkambhin ("He who blocks the hindrances") * Samantabhadra ("Universal Worthy", or "All Good") ### In Theravada While the veneration of bodhisattvas is much more widespread and popular in the Mahayana Buddhist world, it is also found in Theravada Buddhist regions. Bodhisattvas which are venerated in Theravada lands include Natha Deviyo (Avalokiteshvara), Metteya (Maitreya), Upulvan (i.e. Vishnu), Saman (Samantabhadra) and Pattini. The veneration of some of these figures may have been influenced by Mahayana Buddhism. These figures are also understood as devas that have converted to Buddhism and have sworn to protect it. The recounting of Jataka tales, which discuss the bodhisattva deeds of Gautama before his awakening, also remains a popular practice. ### Female Bodhisattvas The bodhisattva Prajñāpāramitā is a female personification of the perfection of wisdom and the *Prajñāpāramitā sutras*. She became an important figure, widely depicted in Indian Buddhist art. Bodhisattva is a Sanskrit masculine noun. Female Bodhisattvas do not exist in Indian Buddhist literature, but exist in Tibetan Buddhist literature. Thus only in Tibetan Buddhism Tara becomes a female Bodhisattva. Guanyin (Jp: Kannon), a female form of Avalokiteshvara, is the most widely revered bodhisattva in East Asian Buddhism, generally depicted as a motherly figure. Guanyin is venerated in various other forms and manifestations, including Cundī, Cintāmaṇicakra, Hayagriva, Eleven-Headed Thousand-Armed Guanyin and Guanyin Of The Southern Seas among others. Gender variant representations of some bodhisattvas, most notably Avalokiteśvara, has prompted conversation regarding the nature of a bodhisattva's appearance. Chan master Sheng Yen has stated that Mahāsattvas such as Avalokiteśvara (known as Guanyin in Chinese) are androgynous (Ch. 中性; pinyin: "zhōngxìng"), which accounts for their ability to manifest in masculine and feminine forms of various degrees. In Tibetan Buddhism, Tara or Jetsun Dölma (*rje btsun sgrol ma*) is the most important female bodhisattva. Numerous Mahayana sutras feature female bodhisattvas as main characters and discuss their life, teachings and future Buddhahood. These include *The Questions of the Girl Vimalaśraddhā* (Tohoku Kangyur - Toh number 84), *The Questions of Vimaladattā* (Toh 77), *The Lion's Roar of Śrīmālādevī* (Toh 92), *The Inquiry of Lokadhara* (Toh 174), *The Sūtra of Aśokadattā's Prophecy* (Toh 76), *The Questions of Vimalaprabhā* (Toh 168), *The Sūtra of Kṣemavatī's Prophecy* (Toh 192), *The Questions of the Girl Sumati* (Toh 74), *The Questions of Gaṅgottara* (Toh 75), *The Questions of an Old Lady* (Toh 171), *The Miraculous Play of Mañjuśrī* (Toh 96), and *The Sūtra of the Girl Candrottarā's Prophecy* (Toh 191). ### Popular Figures Over time, numerous historical Buddhist figures also came to be seen as bodhisattvas in their own right, deserving of devotion. For example, an extensive hagiography developed around Nagarjuna, the Indian founder of the madhyamaka school of philosophy. Followers of Tibetan Buddhism consider the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas to be an emanation of Chenrezig, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. Various Japanese Buddhist schools consider their founding figures like Kukai and Nichiren to be bodhisattvas. In Chinese Buddhism, various historical figures have been called bodhisattvas. Furthermore, various Hindu deities are considered to be bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhist sources. For example, in the *Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra*, Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma and Saraswati are said to be bodhisattvas, all emanations of Avalokiteshvara. Deities like Saraswati (Chinese: *Biàncáitiān*, 辯才天, Japanese: Benzaiten) and Shiva (C: *Dàzìzàitiān*, 大自在天; J: Daikokuten) are still venerated as bodhisattva devas and dharmapalas (guardian deities) in East Asian Buddhism. Both figures are closely connected with Avalokiteshvara. In a similar manner, the Hindu deity Harihara is called a bodhisattva in the famed *Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī,* which states: "O Effulgence, World-Transcendent, come, oh Hari, the great bodhisattva." The empress Wu Zetian of the Tang dynasty, was the only female ruler of China. She used the growing popularity of Esoteric Buddhism in China for her own needs. Though she was not the only ruler to have made such a claim, the political utility of her claims, coupled with sincerity make her a great example. She built several temples and contributed to the finishing of the Longmen Caves and even went on to patronise Buddhism over Confucianism or Daoism. She ruled by the title of " Holy Emperor", and claimed to be a Bodhisattva too. She became one of China's most influential rulers. ### Others Other important bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism include: * Vajrasattva, an important figure in Vajrayana Buddhism * Vimalakirti the famous lay bodhisattva of the *Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa* * Akṣayamati, the main character in the influential *Akṣayamatinirdeśa Sūtra* * Sadāprarudita, a major bodhisattva in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras * Sudhana, the main character of the *Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra* * The Four Bodhisattvas of the Earth from the *Lotus Sutra* * Bhaiṣajyarāja or "Medicine King" * Candraprabha ("Moon Light") * Sūryaprabha ("Solar Light") * Jambhala, a bodhisattva of wealth * Mahāsthāmaprāpta, the second attendant bodhisattva to Amitabha (after Avalokiteshvara) * Sitatapatra, She is contemplated as a protector against supernatural danger and is worshipped in both Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions ### Fierce bodhisattvas While bodhisattvas tend to be depicted as conventionally beautiful, there are instances of their manifestation as fierceful and monstrous looking beings. A notable example is Guanyin's manifestation as a preta named "Flaming Face" (面燃大士). This trope is commonly employed among the Wisdom Kings, among whom Mahāmāyūrī Vidyārājñī stands out with a feminine title and benevolent expression. In some depictions, her mount takes on a wrathful appearance. This variation is also found among images of Vajrapani. In Tibetan Buddhism, fierce manifestations (Tibetan: *trowo)* of the major bodhisattvas are quite common and they often act as protector deities. ### Sacred places The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of enlightenment or the acts of Dharma, is known as a *bodhimaṇḍa* (place of awakening), and may be a site of pilgrimage. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimaṇḍas. Perhaps the most famous bodhimaṇḍa of all is the Bodhi Tree under which Śākyamuṇi achieved Buddhahood. There are also sacred places of awakening for bodhisattvas located throughout the Buddhist world. Mount Potalaka, a sacred mountain in India, is traditionally held to be Avalokiteshvara's bodhimaṇḍa. In Chinese Buddhism, there are four mountains that are regarded as bodhimaṇḍas for bodhisattvas, with each site having major monasteries and being popular for pilgrimages by both monastics and laypeople. These four sacred places are: * Mount Putuo for Guanyin (Avalokiteśvara), the bodhisattva of Compassion (Chinese: 觀自在菩薩, 觀世音菩薩, 觀音菩薩; pinyin: *Guānzìzài Púsà, Guānshìyīn Púsà, Guānyīn Púsà*) * Mount Emei for Samantabhadra, the bodhisattva of practice (Chinese: 普賢菩薩 普贤菩萨; pinyin: *Pǔxián Púsà*) * Mount Wutai for Mañjuśrī, the bodhisattva of wisdom (Chinese: 文殊菩薩, 文殊师利菩薩, 曼殊室利菩薩, 妙吉祥菩薩; pinyin: *Wénshū Púsà, Wénshūshīlì Púsà, Mànshūshìlì Púsà, Miàojíxiáng Púsà*) * Mount Jiuhua for Kṣitigarbha, the bodhisattva of the great vow (Chinese: 地藏菩薩 地藏菩萨; pinyin: *Dìzàng Púsà*) Etymology --------- The etymology of the Indic terms bodhisattva and bodhisatta is not fully understood. The term bodhi is uncontroversial and means "awakening" or "enlightenment" (from the root *budh-*). The second part of the compound has many possible meanings or derivations, including: * Sattva and satta commonly means "living being", "sentient being" or "person" and many modern scholars adopt an interpretation based on this etymology. Examples include: "a sentient or reasonable being, possessing bodhi" (H. Kern), "a bodhi-being, i.e. a being destined to attain fullest Enlightenment" (T. W. Rhys Davids and W. Stede), "A being seeking for bodhi" (M. Anesaki), "Erleuchtungswesen" (Enlightenment Being) (M. Winternitz), "Weisheitswesen" ("Wisdom Being") (M. Walleser). This etymology is also supported by the Mahayana *Samādhirāja Sūtra*, which, however, explains the meaning of the term bodhisattva as "one who admonishes or exhorts all beings." * According to Har Dayal, the term *bodhi-satta* may correspond with the Sanskrit *bodhi-sakta* which means "one who is devoted to bodhi" or "attached to bodhi". Later, the term may have been wrongly sanskritized to *bodhi-satva*. Hayal notes that the Sanskrit term *sakta* (from *sañj*) means "clung, stuck or attached to, joined or connected with, addicted or devoted to, fond of, intent on". This etymology for *satta* is supported by some passages in the Early Buddhist Texts (such as at SN 23.2, parallel at SĀ 122). The etymology is also supported by the Pāli commentaries, Jain sources and other modern scholars like Tillman Vetter and Neumann. Another related possibility pointed out by K.R. Norman and others is that satta carries the meaning of *śakta*, and so bodhisatta means "capable of enlightenment." * The Sanskrit term sattva may mean "strength, energy, vigour, power, courage" and therefore, bodhisattva could also mean "one whose energy and power is directed towards bodhi". This reading of sattva is found in Ksemendra's *AvadanakalpaIata.* Har Dayal supports this reading, noting that the term sattva is "almost certainly related to the Vedic word *satvan*, which means 'a strong or valiant man, hero, warrior'" and thus, the term bodhisatta should be interpreted as "heroic being, spiritual warrior." * Sattva may also mean spirit, mind, sense, consciousness, or geist. Various Indian commentators like Prajñakaramati interpret the term as a synonym for citta (mind, thought) or vyavasāya (decision, determination). Thus, the term bodhisattva could also mean: "one whose mind, intentions, thoughts or wishes are fixed on bodhi". In this sense, this meaning of *sattva* is similar to the meaning it has in the *Yoga-sutras*, where it means mind. * Tibetan lexicographers translate bodhisattva as *byang chub* (bodhi) *sems dpa* (sattva). In this compound, *sems* means mind, while *dpa* means "hero, strong man" (Skt. *vīra*). Thus, this translation combines two possible etymologies of sattva explained above: as "mind" and as "courageous, hero". * Chinese Buddhists generally use the term *pusa* (菩薩), a phonetic transcription of the Sanskrit term. However, early Chinese translators sometimes used a meaning translation of the term bodhisattva, which they rendered as *mingshi* (明士)*,* which means "a person who understands", reading *sattva* as "man" or "person" (*shi*, 士). * In Sanskrit, *sattva* can mean "essence, nature, true essence", and the Pali *satta* can mean "substance". Some modern scholars interpret bodhisattva in this light, such as Monier-Williams, who translates the term as "one who has bodhi or perfect wisdom as his essence." Gallery ------- * Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd centuryStanding bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century * Standing bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd centuryStanding bodhisattva. Gandhāra, 2nd–3rd century * Bodhisattva Vajrapani. Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendran art c. 8th centuryBodhisattva Vajrapani. Mendut near Borobudur, Central Java, Indonesia. Sailendran art c. 8th century * The golden Srivijayan Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia c. 11th centuryThe golden Srivijayan Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara, Muarabulian, Jambi, Indonesia c. 11th century * Thousand-armed Bodhisattva, Sanjūsangen-dō, Japan. 13th centuryThousand-armed Bodhisattva, Sanjūsangen-dō, Japan. 13th century * A rock carving of Avalokiteshvara, Weligama, Sri LankaA rock carving of Avalokiteshvara, Weligama, Sri Lanka * Silver Manjushri, Sailendra, early 9th century Central Java, National MuseumSilver Manjushri, Sailendra, early 9th century Central Java, National Museum * Bodhisattva Manjushri as Tikshna-Manjushri (Minjie Wenshu), ChinaBodhisattva Manjushri as Tikshna-Manjushri (Minjie Wenshu), China * Wooden gilded statue of Avalokiteśvara, Song Dynasty (960-1279)Wooden gilded statue of Avalokiteśvara, Song Dynasty (960-1279) * Jizō Bosatsu, JapanJizō Bosatsu, Japan * Bodhisattva painting at Dun Huang in the "1000 Buddha cave" (cave 17)Bodhisattva painting at Dun Huang in the "1000 Buddha cave" (cave 17) * Manjushri, 17th–18th century ChinaManjushri, 17th–18th century China * Padmapani Lokeshvara, Nepal, 11th centuryPadmapani Lokeshvara, Nepal, 11th century * Standing Bodhisattva, probably Maitreya, GandharaStanding Bodhisattva, probably Maitreya, Gandhara * Samantabhadra, Yulin Cave 3, Western XiaSamantabhadra, Yulin Cave 3, Western Xia * Nyoirin Kannon, Japan, 1693Nyoirin Kannon, Japan, 1693 * White Avalokiteshvara (Amoghapasha Lokeshvara), 14th century, NepalWhite Avalokiteshvara (Amoghapasha Lokeshvara), 14th century, Nepal * Maitreya, Himalayan, 15th centuryMaitreya, Himalayan, 15th century * Padmapani, India, Gandharan period, 200s CE, schistPadmapani, India, Gandharan period, 200s CE, schist * Gandharan sculpture, head of a bodhisattvaGandharan sculpture, head of a bodhisattva * Vajrapani, Cambodia, 10th centuryVajrapani, Cambodia, 10th century * Lokesvara, Cambodia, 10th–11th centuryLokesvara, Cambodia, 10th–11th century * Lokeshvara, Bihar, Teladha ViharaLokeshvara, Bihar, Teladha Vihara * Avalokiteshvara, 18th centuryAvalokiteshvara, 18th century * Guanyin Statue, Nanshan Guanyin ParkGuanyin Statue, Nanshan Guanyin Park * Maitreya, Bihar, Gaya District, 11th centuryMaitreya, Bihar, Gaya District, 11th century * Manjusri, Nepal, 15th centuryManjusri, Nepal, 15th century See also -------- * Bodhicharyavatara *(A Guide to the Bodhisattva Way of Life)* * Bodhisattvas of the Earth * Bodhisattva vows * Buddhist holidays * Junzi * Karuna (*compassion* in Sanskrit) * List of bodhisattvas * Vegetarianism in Buddhism * Concept Of Bodhisattva General references ------------------ * Analayo, *The Genesis of the Bodhisattva Ideal*, Hamburg Buddhist Studies 1, Hamburg University Press 2010 * Dayal, Har (1970). *The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature*, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. * Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1 * Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, *The Bodhisattva Vow: A Practical Guide to Helping Others*, Tharpa Publications (2nd. ed., 1995) ISBN 978-0-948006-50-0 * Kawamura, Leslie S. (ed) (1981) *The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism,* Wilfrid Laurier University Press, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario. Canada. * Lampert, K.; Traditions of Compassion: From Religious Duty to Social Activism. Palgrave-Macmillan; ISBN 1-4039-8527-8 * Pagel, Ulrich (1992). *The Bodhisattvapiṭaka: Its Doctrines, Practices and Their Position in Mahāyāna Literature.* Institute of Buddhist Studies. * Shantideva: *Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life*: How to Enjoy a Life of Great Meaning and Altruism, a translation of Shantideva's *Bodhisattvacharyavatara* with Neil Elliott, Tharpa Publications (2002) ISBN 978-0-948006-88-3 * Werner, Karel; Samuels, Jeffrey; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Skilling, Peter; Bhikkhu Anālayo, McMahan, David (2013) *The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana.* Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0396-5 * White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-7734-5985-5 * Williams, Paul (2008). *Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations*, Routledge. * *The Making of a Savior Bodhisattva: Dizang in Medieval China, by Zhiru (Kuroda Institute Studies in East Asian Buddhism series no. 21), University of Hawaii Press, 2007* at Google Books; ISBN 978-0-8248-3045-8

Bodhisattva

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodhisattva

The **Uruguay national football team** (Spanish: *Selección de fútbol de Uruguay*) represents Uruguay in international men's football, and is controlled by the Uruguayan Football Association, the governing body for football in Uruguay. The national team is commonly referred to as ***La Celeste*** (The Sky Blue). Regarded to be one of the greatest footballing nations of all time, Uruguay has won the Copa América 15 times being tied with Argentina for the most titles in the history of the tournament. Uruguay won their most recent title in 2011. Additionally, Uruguay are holders of four FIFA recognized World Championships. The team has won the FIFA World Cup twice, including when they hosted the first World Cup in 1930, defeating in the final Argentina, 4–2. Their second title came in 1950, upsetting in the final match host Brazil 2–1, which had the highest attendance for a football match ever. Uruguay has also won gold medals at the Olympic football tournament twice, in 1924 and 1928. History ------- ### The golden era Although the first match ever recorded by an Uruguayan side was played on 16 May 1901 against Argentina, this is not considered an official game due to the match not having been organized by Uruguay's Football Association but rather by Albion F.C. in its home field in Paso del Molino. The Uruguayan side had nine players from that club and the remainder from Nacional. The match considered the first official game played by Uruguay was held in the same venue, on 20 July 1902 against Argentina. Argentina defeated the Uruguayan side by 6–0 in front of 8,000 spectators. Uruguay line-up was: Enrique Sardeson; Carlos Carve Urioste, Germán Arímalo; Miguel Nebel (c), Alberto Peixoto, Luis Carbone; Bolívar Céspedes, Gonzalo Rincón, Juan Sardeson, Ernesto Boutón Reyes, Carlos Céspedes. Prior to 1916, Uruguay played more than 30 matches, of which all but one were against Argentina. The inaugural Copa America provided Uruguay with more varied opposition. Victories over Chile and Brazil, along with a tie against Argentina, enabled Uruguay to win the tournament. The following year Uruguay hosted the competition, and retained the title by winning every game. The 1919 Copa América saw Uruguay's first defeat in the tournament, a 1–0 defeat in a playoff with Brazil which went to two periods of extra time, the longest Copa América match in history. In 1924, the Uruguay team traveled to Paris to become the first South American team to compete in the Olympic Games. In contrast to the physical style of the European teams of the era, Uruguay played a style based around short passes, and won every game, defeating Switzerland 3–0 in the gold medal match. In the 1928 Summer Olympics, Uruguay went to Amsterdam to defend their title, again winning the gold medal after defeating Argentina 2–1 in the replay of the final (the first match was a draw after extra time). Following the double Olympic triumph, Uruguay was chosen as the host nation for the first World Cup, held in 1930, the centenary of Uruguay's first constitution. During the World Cup, Uruguay won all its matches, and converted a 1–2 halftime deficit to a 4–2 victory against Argentina at the Estadio Centenario. Due to the refusal of some European teams to participate in the first World Cup, the Uruguayan Football Association urged other countries to reciprocate by boycotting the 1934 World Cup played in Italy. For the 1938 World Cup, France was chosen as host, contrary to a previous agreement to alternate the championships between South America and Europe, so Uruguay again refused to participate. ### 1950–2009 Uruguay again won the World Cup in 1950, beating hosts Brazil in one of the biggest upsets in World Cup history. The decisive match was at the Maracanã Stadium in Brazil. Uruguay came from behind to beat the host nation in a match which would become known as the *Maracanazo*. Many Brazilians had to be treated for shock after the event, such was the surprise of Uruguay's victory. After their fourth-place finish in the 1954 World Cup, the team had mixed performances and after the fourth-place finish in 1970, their dominance, quality and performance dropped. They were no longer a world football power and failed to qualify for the World Cup on five occasions in the last nine competitions. They reached an all-time low and at one time ranked 76th in the FIFA World Rankings. ### 2010–present In 2010, however, a new generation of footballers, led by Luis Suárez, Diego Forlán and Edinson Cavani, formed a team considered to be Uruguay's best in the last four decades, catching international attention after finishing fourth in the 2010 World Cup. Uruguay opened the tournament with a goalless draw against France, followed by defeats of South Africa (3–0) in and Mexico (1–0) respectively, finishing at the top of their group with seven points. In the second round, they played South Korea, defeating them 2–1 with star striker Luis Suárez scoring a brace and earning Uruguay a spot in the quarter-finals for the first time since 1970. Against Ghana, the match finished 1–1, forcing the game into extra-time. Both sides had their chances at extra time but Suárez blocked the ball with his hand in the penalty area, earning Suárez a red card and earning Uruguay universal scorn. Ghana striker Asamoah Gyan missed the subsequent penalty, forcing the game to go into penalties where Uruguay would win 4–2, sending them into the last four. They played the Netherlands in the semi-finals but were beaten 3–2. For the third-place match, they played Germany, again losing 3–2. This placed Uruguay in fourth place for the tournament, their best result in 40 years. Diego Forlan was awarded the Player of The Tournament. A year later, they won the Copa America for the first time in 16 years and broke the record for the most successful team in South America. Luis Suárez ended up as the Player of The Tournament. In the 2014 World Cup Uruguay was placed in Group D alongside Costa Rica, England, and Italy. They were upset by Costa Rica in the opening match, losing 3–1 despite taking the lead in the first half. They rebounded with a 2–1 victory over England, in which Suárez scored a brace right after coming back from an injury, and a 1–0 victory over Italy, placing them second in their group and earning a spot in the last 16. During the match against Italy, forward Luis Suárez bit Italian defender Giorgio Chiellini on his left shoulder. Two days after the match, the FIFA Disciplinary Committee banned Suárez for nine international matches, the longest such ban in World Cup history, exceeding the eight-match ban handed to Italy's Mauro Tassotti for breaking the nose of Spain's Luis Enrique in 1994. Suárez was also banned from taking part in any football-related activity (including entering any stadium) for four months and fined CHF100,000 (approx. £65,700/€82,000/US$119,000). In the round of 16, Uruguay played Colombia but were beaten 2–0, eliminating them from the tournament. At the 2015 and 2016 Copa América, Uruguay, missing banned striker Luis Suárez, were eliminated in the quarter-finals and group stages respectively. After a successful World Cup qualifying campaign, finishing second, Uruguay made it to the 2018 World Cup in Russia. Uruguay won its group after three victories, and advanced to the quarter-finals after a 2–1 win over Portugal. However, they were eliminated 2–0 in the quarter-finals by the eventual champions France. At the 2022 FIFA World Cup, Uruguay was drawn into Group H with Portugal, Ghana and South Korea. They started the tournament with a 0–0 draw against South Korea, before they fell to a 2–0 defeat to Portugal. Although despite a 0–2 victory against Ghana in their final group game, Uruguay was knocked out of the tournament in the group stages for the first time since 2002, on goals scored following South Korea’s shock 2–1 win against Portugal. Team image ---------- ### Kits and crest Between 1901 and 1910, Uruguay wore a variety of different shirts during its matches. The first shirt worn was the Albion F.C. one, in the unofficial debut of the national team v Argentina in 1901. It was followed by a variety of shirts, including a solid green one and even a shirt with the colours of the flag of Artigas. On 10 April 1910, now-defunct club River Plate defeated Argentine side Alumni 2–1, being the first time an Uruguayan team beat that legendary team. That day River Plate wore its alternate jersey, a light blue one due to the home jersey was similar to Alumni's. Ricardo LeBas proposed Uruguay to wear a light blue jersey as a tribute to the victory of River Plate over Alumni. This was approved by president of the Uruguayan Association, Héctor Gómez. The light blue (*Celeste*) jersey debuted in a Copa Lipton match v Argentina on 15 August 1910. Uruguay won 3–1. The red shirt that was used in some previous away strips was first used at the 1935 Copa América, held in Santa Beatriz in Peru, which Uruguay won. It was not worn again (except for a 1962 FIFA World Cup match, against Colombia) until 1991, when it was officially adopted as the away jersey. Uruguay displays four stars in its emblem. This is unique in world football as two of the stars represent the gold medals received at the 1924 and 1928 Summer Olympics, which are the only editions recognised by FIFA as senior World Championships. In 2021, after a FIFA employee contacted PUMA about modifying the team's crest, FIFA reconfirmed and approved once again the use of all four stars on the shirt. | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1901 | 1902–03 | 1905–07 | 1908–10 | 1910–present | #### Kit sponsorship | Kit supplier | Period | | --- | --- | | Adidas | 1974–1982 | | Le Coq Sportif | 1983–1986 | | Puma | 1987–1991 | | Ennerre | 1992–1998 | | Meta | 1999–2001 | | L-Sporto | 2002–2004 | | Uhlsport | 2004–2006 | | Puma | 2006–present | ### Home stadium Since 1930, Uruguay have played their home games at the Estadio Centenario in the Uruguayan capital Montevideo. The stadium was built as a celebration of the centenary of Uruguay's first constitution, and had a capacity of 90,000 when first fully opened. The stadium hosted several matches in the 1930 World Cup, including the final, which was watched by a crowd of 93,000. ### Rivalries #### Argentina Uruguay has a long-standing rivalry with Argentina, that came into existence when they beat their South American neighbors 4–2 in the first World Cup final, held in Montevideo in 1930. #### Brazil Uruguay has an old rivalry with their South American neighbors. Their best known match was played at the 1950 World Cup in Brazil where Uruguay won 2–1 in front of almost 200,000 spectators at the Maracanã Stadium, thus winning the competition and earning their second World Cup title. #### Australia Uruguay has an almost 50-year rivalry with AFC (and former OFC) member Australia. The rivalry, which dates back to 1974 has seen the two teams face each other in qualification play-offs, with each team winning one playoff each to progress to the FIFA World Cup. Results and fixtures -------------------- The following is a list of match results in the last 12 months, as well as any future matches that have been scheduled.   Win   Draw   Loss   Fixture ### 2022 Iran  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 23 September 2022 (2022-09-23) Friendly | **Iran** | **1–0** | **Uruguay** | Sankt Pölten, Austria | | 18:00 UTC+2 | * Taremi 79' | Report | | Stadium: NV ArenaAttendance: 300Referee: Walter Altmann (Austria) | Canada  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 27 September 2022 (2022-09-27) Friendly | **Canada** | **0–2** | **Uruguay** | Bratislava, Slovakia | | 18:00 UTC+2 | | Report | * De la Cruz 6' * Núñez 34' | Stadium: Tehelné poleAttendance: 4,500Referee: Peter Kráľovič (Slovakia) | Uruguay  v  South Korea | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 November 2022 (2022-11-24) 2022 FIFA World Cup | **Uruguay** | **0–0** | **South Korea** | Al Rayyan, Qatar | | 16:00 AST (UTC+3) | | Report | | Stadium: Education City StadiumAttendance: 41,663Referee: Clément Turpin (France) | Portugal  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 November 2022 (2022-11-28) 2022 FIFA World Cup | **Portugal** | **2–0** | **Uruguay** | Lusail, Qatar | | 22:00 AST (UTC+3) | * Fernandes 54', 90+3' (pen.) | Report | | Stadium: Lusail Iconic StadiumAttendance: 88,668Referee: Alireza Faghani (Iran) | Ghana  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 2 December 2022 (2022-12-02) 2022 FIFA World Cup | **Ghana** | **0–2** | **Uruguay** | Al Wakrah, Qatar | | 18:00 AST (UTC+3) | | Report | * De Arrascaeta 26', 32' | Stadium: Al Janoub StadiumAttendance: 43,443Referee: Daniel Siebert (Germany) | ### 2023 Japan  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 24 March 2023 (2023-03-24) 2023 Kirin Challenge Cup | **Japan** | **1–1** | **Uruguay** | Tokyo, Japan | | 19:30 UTC+9 | * Nishimura 75' | Report | * Valverde 38' | Stadium: Japan National StadiumAttendance: 61,855Referee: Ko Hyung-jin (South Korea) | South Korea  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 28 March 2023 (2023-03-28) Friendly | **South Korea** | **1–2** | **Uruguay** | Seoul, South Korea | | 20:00 UTC+9 | * Hwang In-beom 51' | Report | * Coates 10' * Vecino 63' | Stadium: Seoul World Cup StadiumAttendance: 63,952Referee: Yudai Yamamoto (Japan) | Uruguay  v  Nicaragua | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 14 June 2023 (2023-06-14) Friendly | **Uruguay** | **4–1** | **Nicaragua** | Montevideo, Uruguay | | 20:30 UTC−3 | * Arezo 8' * Zalazar 37', 82' * Brian 56' | Report | * Coronel 90+2' | Stadium: Estadio CentenarioReferee: Wagner do Nascimento Magalhães (Brazil) | Uruguay  v  Cuba | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 20 June 2023 (2023-06-20) Friendly | **Uruguay** | **2–0** | **Cuba** | Montevideo, Uruguay | | 20:30 UTC−3 | * Torres 27' (pen.) * Araújo 80' | Report | | Stadium: Estadio CentenarioReferee: Bráulio da Silva Machado (Brazil) | Uruguay  v  Chile | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Uruguay** | **v** | **Chile** | Montevideo, Uruguay | | --:-- UTC−3 | | | | Stadium: Estadio Centenario | Ecuador  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | September 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Ecuador** | **v** | **Uruguay** | Ecuador | | --:-- UTC−5 | | | | | Colombia  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Colombia** | **v** | **Uruguay** | Barranquilla, Colombia | | --:-- UTC−5 | | | | Stadium: Estadio Metropolitano Roberto Meléndez | Uruguay  v  Brazil | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | October 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Uruguay** | **v** | **Brazil** | Montevideo, Uruguay | | --:-- UTC−3 | | | | Stadium: Estadio Centenario | Argentina  v  Uruguay | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Argentina** | **v** | **Uruguay** | Argentina | | --:-- UTC−3 | | | | | Uruguay  v  Bolivia | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | November 2023 2026 World Cup qualification | **Uruguay** | **v** | **Bolivia** | Montevideo, Uruguay | | --:-- UTC−3 | | | | Stadium: Estadio Centenario | Coaching staff -------------- ### Current personnel *As of 14 June 2023* | Position | Name | | --- | --- | | Head coach | Argentina Marcelo Bielsa | | Assistant coaches | Argentina Lucas OuviñaArgentina Pablo QuirogaChile Diego Reyes | | Goalkeeping coach | Uruguay Carlos Nicola | | Fitness coach | Uruguay Marco Mansulino | | Analyst | Spain Diego Bermúdez | | Logistics | Spain Sara BouzasArgentina Magalí Conde | ### Coaching history * Uruguay Juan López (1946–1955) * Uruguay Juan Carlos Corazzo (1955) * Uruguay Hugo Bagnulo (1955–1957) * Uruguay Juan López (1957–1959) * Uruguay Héctor Castro (1959) * Uruguay Juan Carlos Corazzo (1959–1961) * Uruguay Enrique Fernández (1961–1962) * Uruguay Juan Carlos Corazzo (1962–1964) * Uruguay Rafael Milans (1964–1965) * Uruguay Ondino Viera (1965–1967) * Uruguay Enrique Fernández (1967–1969) * Uruguay Juan Hohberg (1969–1970) * Uruguay Hugo Bagnulo (1970–1973) * Uruguay Roberto Porta (1974) * Uruguay Juan Alberto Schiaffino (1974–1975) * Uruguay José María Rodríguez (1975–1977) * Uruguay Juan Hohberg (1977) * Uruguay Raúl Bentancor (1977–1979) * Uruguay Roque Máspoli (1979–1982) * Uruguay Omar Borrás (1982–1987) * Uruguay Roberto Fleitas (1987–1988) * Uruguay Óscar Tabárez (1988–1990) * Uruguay Luis Cubilla (1990–1993) * Uruguay Ildo Maneiro (1993–1994) * Uruguay Héctor Núñez (1994–1996) * Uruguay Juan Ahuntchaín (1996–1997) * Uruguay Roque Máspoli (1997–1998) * Uruguay Víctor Púa (1998–2000) * Argentina Daniel Passarella (2000–2001) * Uruguay Víctor Púa (2001–2003) * Uruguay Gustavo Ferrín (2003) * Uruguay Juan Ramón Carrasco (2003–2004) * Uruguay Jorge Fossati (2004–2006) * Uruguay Gustavo Ferrín (2006) * Uruguay Óscar Tabárez (2006–2021) * Uruguay Diego Alonso (2021–2022) * Uruguay Marcelo Broli (2023) * Argentina Marcelo Bielsa (2023–) Players ------- ### Current squad The following 31 players are called up to the squad for friendly matches against Nicaragua and Cuba on 14 and 20 June 2023 respectively. *Caps and goals correct as of 20 June 2023, after the match against Cuba.* | No. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | 1GK | Sergio Rochet | (1993-03-23) 23 March 1993 (age 30) | 13 | 0 | Uruguay Nacional | | 12 | 1GK | Randall Rodríguez | (2003-11-29) 29 November 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Peñarol | | 23 | 1GK | Santiago Mele | (1997-09-06) 6 September 1997 (age 25) | 2 | 0 | Argentina Unión Santa Fe | | | 1GK | Franco Israel | (2000-04-22) 22 April 2000 (age 23) | 1 | 0 | Portugal Sporting CP | | --- | | 2 | 2DF | Sebastián Boselli | (2003-12-04) 4 December 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Defensor Sporting | | 3 | 2DF | Mauricio Lemos | (1995-12-28) 28 December 1995 (age 27) | 3 | 0 | Brazil Atlético Mineiro | | 4 | 2DF | José Luis Rodríguez | (1997-03-14) 14 March 1997 (age 26) | 2 | 0 | Brazil Vasco da Gama | | 13 | 2DF | Guillermo Varela | (1993-03-24) 24 March 1993 (age 30) | 14 | 0 | Brazil Flamengo | | 16 | 2DF | Facundo González | (2003-07-06) 6 July 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Spain Valencia | | 18 | 2DF | Santiago Mouriño | (2002-09-13) 13 September 2002 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Racing Montevideo | | 22 | 2DF | Joaquín Piquerez | (1998-08-24) 24 August 1998 (age 24) | 9 | 0 | Brazil Palmeiras | | 24 | 2DF | Bruno Méndez | (1999-09-10) 10 September 1999 (age 23) | 4 | 0 | Brazil Corinthians | | | 2DF | Matías Viña | (1997-11-09) 9 November 1997 (age 25) | 30 | 0 | England Bournemouth | | | 2DF | Sebastián Cáceres | (1999-08-18) 18 August 1999 (age 23) | 3 | 0 | Mexico América | | | 2DF | Lucas Olaza | (1994-07-21) 21 July 1994 (age 28) | 1 | 0 | Spain Real Valladolid | | | 2DF | Mateo Ponte | (2003-05-24) 24 May 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Danubio | | --- | | 5 | 3MF | Emiliano Martínez | (1999-08-17) 17 August 1999 (age 23) | 2 | 0 | Denmark Midtjylland | | 6 | 3MF | Fabricio Díaz | (2003-02-03) 3 February 2003 (age 20) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Liverpool Montevideo | | 15 | 3MF | Maximiliano Araújo | (2000-02-15) 15 February 2000 (age 23) | 2 | 1 | Mexico Toluca | | 20 | 3MF | Felipe Carballo | (1996-10-04) 4 October 1996 (age 26) | 4 | 0 | Brazil Grêmio | | | 3MF | Rodrigo Zalazar | (1999-08-12) 12 August 1999 (age 23) | 1 | 2 | Germany Schalke 04 | | --- | | 8 | 4FW | Anderson Duarte | (2004-03-23) 23 March 2004 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Defensor Sporting | | 9 | 4FW | Diego Rossi | (1998-03-05) 5 March 1998 (age 25) | 7 | 1 | Turkey Fenerbahçe | | 10 | 4FW | Brian Rodríguez | (2000-05-20) 20 May 2000 (age 23) | 19 | 4 | Mexico América | | 11 | 4FW | Facundo Torres | (2000-04-13) 13 April 2000 (age 23) | 13 | 1 | United States Orlando City | | 14 | 4FW | Agustín Canobbio | (1998-10-01) 1 October 1998 (age 24) | 7 | 0 | Brazil Athletico Paranaense | | 17 | 4FW | Luciano Rodríguez | (2003-07-16) 16 July 2003 (age 19) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Liverpool Montevideo | | 19 | 4FW | Matías Arezo | (2002-11-21) 21 November 2002 (age 20) | 3 | 1 | Uruguay Peñarol | | 21 | 4FW | Thiago Borbas | (2002-04-07) 7 April 2002 (age 21) | 2 | 0 | Brazil Red Bull Bragantino | | | 4FW | Facundo Pellistri | (2001-12-20) 20 December 2001 (age 21) | 12 | 0 | England Manchester United | | | 4FW | Federico Viñas | (1998-06-30) 30 June 1998 (age 24) | 0 | 0 | Mexico León | ### Recent call-ups The following players have also been called up to the Uruguay squad in the past twelve months. | Pos. | Player | Date of birth (age) | Caps | Goals | Club | Latest call-up | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | GK | Gastón Olveira | (1993-04-21) 21 April 1993 (age 30) | 0 | 0 | Paraguay Olimpia | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | GK | Guillermo de Amores | (1994-10-19) 19 October 1994 (age 28) | 0 | 0 | Spain Sporting Gijón | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | GK | Fernando Muslera | (1986-06-16) 16 June 1986 (age 37) | 133 | 0 | Turkey Galatasaray | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | GK | Sebastián Sosa | (1986-08-19) 19 August 1986 (age 36) | 1 | 0 | Mexico UNAM | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | --- | | DF | Sebastián Coates | (1990-10-07) 7 October 1990 (age 32) | 51 | 2 | Portugal Sporting CP | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Giovanni González | (1994-09-20) 20 September 1994 (age 28) | 17 | 0 | Spain Mallorca | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Mathías Olivera | (1997-10-31) 31 October 1997 (age 25) | 12 | 0 | Italy Napoli | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Santiago Bueno | (1998-11-09) 9 November 1998 (age 24) | 2 | 0 | Spain Girona | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | DF | Ronald Araújo | (1999-03-07) 7 March 1999 (age 24) | 12 | 0 | Spain Barcelona | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 INJ | | DF | Agustín Rogel | (1997-10-17) 17 October 1997 (age 25) | 1 | 0 | Germany Hertha BSC | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | DF | Federico Pereira | (2000-02-24) 24 February 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Liverpool Montevideo | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | DF | Diego Godín *(captain)* | (1986-02-16) 16 February 1986 (age 37) | 161 | 8 | Argentina Vélez Sarsfield | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Martín Cáceres | (1987-04-07) 7 April 1987 (age 36) | 116 | 4 | United States LA Galaxy | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | José Giménez | (1995-01-20) 20 January 1995 (age 28) | 81 | 8 | Spain Atlético Madrid | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | DF | Damián Suárez | (1988-04-27) 27 April 1988 (age 35) | 7 | 0 | Spain Getafe | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Gastón Álvarez | (2000-03-24) 24 March 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Spain Getafe | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Leandro Cabrera | (1991-06-17) 17 June 1991 (age 32) | 0 | 0 | Spain Espanyol | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | DF | Alfonso Espino | (1992-01-05) 5 January 1992 (age 31) | 0 | 0 | Spain Cádiz | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | MF | Matías Vecino | (1991-08-24) 24 August 1991 (age 31) | 67 | 5 | Italy Lazio | v.  Cuba, 20 June 2023 INJ | | MF | Federico Valverde | (1998-07-22) 22 July 1998 (age 24) | 49 | 5 | Spain Real Madrid | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Manuel Ugarte | (2001-04-11) 11 April 2001 (age 22) | 8 | 0 | Portugal Sporting CP | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Diego Hernández | (2000-06-22) 22 June 2000 (age 23) | 0 | 0 | Uruguay Montevideo Wanderers | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | MF | Giorgian de Arrascaeta | (1994-06-01) 1 June 1994 (age 29) | 42 | 10 | Brazil Flamengo | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 INJ | | MF | Lucas Torreira | (1996-02-11) 11 February 1996 (age 27) | 40 | 0 | Turkey Galatasaray | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | MF | Nicolás de la Cruz | (1997-06-01) 1 June 1997 (age 26) | 19 | 2 | Argentina River Plate | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | MF | Rodrigo Bentancur | (1997-06-25) 25 June 1997 (age 26) | 54 | 1 | England Tottenham Hotspur | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | MF | Mauro Arambarri | (1995-09-30) 30 September 1995 (age 27) | 12 | 0 | Spain Getafe | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | Fernando Gorriarán | (1994-11-27) 27 November 1994 (age 28) | 7 | 0 | Mexico UANL | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | MF | César Araújo | (2001-04-02) 2 April 2001 (age 22) | 0 | 0 | United States Orlando City | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- | | FW | Maxi Gómez | (1996-08-14) 14 August 1996 (age 26) | 31 | 4 | Turkey Trabzonspor | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Jonathan Rodríguez | (1993-07-06) 6 July 1993 (age 29) | 31 | 3 | Mexico América | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 | | FW | Darwin Núñez | (1999-06-24) 24 June 1999 (age 24) | 16 | 3 | England Liverpool | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 INJ | | FW | Brian Ocampo | (1999-06-25) 25 June 1999 (age 24) | 1 | 0 | Spain Cádiz | v.  South Korea, 28 March 2023 PRE | | FW | Luis Suárez | (1987-01-24) 24 January 1987 (age 36) | 137 | 68 | Brazil Grêmio | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | FW | Edinson Cavani | (1987-02-14) 14 February 1987 (age 36) | 136 | 58 | Spain Valencia | 2022 FIFA World Cup | | FW | Agustín Álvarez | (2001-05-19) 19 May 2001 (age 22) | 4 | 1 | Italy Sassuolo | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | FW | David Terans | (1994-06-11) 11 June 1994 (age 29) | 2 | 0 | Brazil Athletico Paranaense | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | FW | Martín Satriano | (2001-02-20) 20 February 2001 (age 22) | 1 | 0 | Italy Empoli | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | FW | Nicolás López | (1993-10-01) 1 October 1993 (age 29) | 0 | 0 | Mexico UANL | 2022 FIFA World Cup PRE | | --- PRE Preliminary squad INJ Injured | Player records -------------- *As of 2 December 2022*, after the match against Ghana *Players in **bold** are still active with Uruguay.* ### Most appearances | Rank | Player | Caps | Goals | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Diego Godín** | **161** | 8 | 2005–present | | 2 | **Luis Suárez** | **137** | 68 | 2007–present | | 3 | **Edinson Cavani** | **136** | 58 | 2008–present | | 4 | **Fernando Muslera** | **133** | 0 | 2009–present | | 5 | Maxi Pereira | **125** | 3 | 2005–2018 | | 6 | **Martín Cáceres** | **116** | 4 | 2007–present | | 7 | Diego Forlán | **112** | 36 | 2002–2014 | | 8 | Cristian Rodríguez | **110** | 11 | 2003–2018 | | 9 | Diego Lugano | **95** | 9 | 2003–2014 | | 10 | Egidio Arévalo | **90** | 0 | 2006–2017 | ### Top goalscorers | Rank | Player | Goals | Caps | Ratio | Career | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 1 | **Luis Suárez** (list) | **68** | 137 | 0.5 | 2007–present | | 2 | **Edinson Cavani** | **58** | 136 | 0.43 | 2008–present | | 3 | Diego Forlán | **36** | 112 | 0.32 | 2002–2014 | | 4 | Héctor Scarone | **31** | 51 | 0.61 | 1917–1930 | | 5 | Ángel Romano | **28** | 69 | 0.41 | 1913–1927 | | 6 | Óscar Míguez | **27** | 39 | 0.69 | 1950–1958 | | 7 | Sebastián Abreu | **26** | 70 | 0.37 | 1996–2012 | | 8 | Pedro Petrone | **24** | 28 | 0.86 | 1923–1930 | | 9 | Fernando Morena | **22** | 53 | 0.42 | 1971–1983 | | Carlos Aguilera | **22** | 64 | 0.34 | 1982–1997 | Competitive record ------------------ ### FIFA World Cup   **Champions**    **Runners-up**    **Third place**     Fourth place      Tournament played fully or partially on home soil   | FIFA World Cup record | | Qualification record | | --- | --- | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | Pos | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | | Uruguay 1930 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **15** | **3** | **Squad** | *Qualified as hosts* | | Italy 1934 | *Refused to participate* | *Qualified as defending champions* | | France 1938 | *Refused to participate* | | Brazil 1950 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **0** | **15** | **5** | **Squad** | *Qualified automatically* | | Switzerland 1954 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 16 | 9 | Squad | *Qualified as defending champions* | | Sweden 1958 | *Did not qualify* | 2nd | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 6 | | Chile 1962 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | Squad | 1st | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | | England 1966 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | Squad | 1st | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 11 | 2 | | Mexico 1970 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 5 | Squad | 1st | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | | West Germany 1974 | Group stage | 13th | 3 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 6 | Squad | 1st | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 2 | | Argentina 1978 | *Did not qualify* | 2nd | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | | Spain 1982 | 2nd | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 5 | | Mexico 1986 | Round of 16 | 16th | 4 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 8 | Squad | 1st | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 4 | | Italy 1990 | 16th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | Squad | 1st | 4 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 2 | | United States 1994 | *Did not qualify* | 3rd | 8 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 10 | 7 | | France 1998 | 7th | 16 | 6 | 3 | 7 | 18 | 21 | | South Korea Japan 2002 | Group stage | 26th | 3 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 5 | Squad | 5th | 20 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 22 | 14 | | Germany 2006 | *Did not qualify* | 5th | 20 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 24 | 29 | | South Africa 2010 | Fourth place | 4th | 7 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 11 | 8 | Squad | 5th | 20 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 30 | 21 | | Brazil 2014 | Round of 16 | 12th | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | Squad | 5th | 18 | 8 | 5 | 5 | 30 | 25 | | Russia 2018 | Quarter-finals | 5th | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 3 | Squad | 2nd | 18 | 9 | 4 | 5 | 32 | 20 | | Qatar 2022 | Group stage | 20th | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | Squad | 3rd | 18 | 8 | 4 | 6 | 22 | 22 | | Canada Mexico United States 2026 | *To be determined* | *To be determined* | | Total | 2 Titles | 14/22 | 59 | 25 | 13 | 21 | 89 | 76 | — | — | 172 | 77 | 46 | 49 | 240 | 186 | *\*Draws include knockout matches decided via penalty shoot-out.* ### Copa América | South American Championship / Copa América record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Argentina 1916 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **0** | **6** | **1** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1917 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **9** | **0** | **Squad** | | Brazil 1919 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **2** | **1** | **1** | **7** | **5** | **Squad** | | Chile 1920 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **0** | **9** | **2** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1921 | Third place | 3rd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Squad | | Brazil 1922 | Third place | 3rd | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | Squad | | Uruguay 1923 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **6** | **1** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1924 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **2** | **1** | **0** | **8** | **1** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1925 | *Withdrew* | | Chile 1926 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **17** | **2** | **Squad** | | Peru 1927 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **3** | **2** | **0** | **1** | **15** | **3** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1929 | Third place | 3rd | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 | Squad | | Peru 1935 | **Champions** | **1st** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **0** | **6** | **1** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1937 | Third place | 3rd | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 11 | 14 | Squad | | Peru 1939 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **13** | **5** | **Squad** | | Chile 1941 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **4** | **3** | **0** | **1** | **10** | **1** | **Squad** | | Uruguay 1942 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **6** | **0** | **0** | **21** | **2** | **Squad** | | Chile 1945 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | 14 | 6 | Squad | | Argentina 1946 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 0 | 3 | 11 | 9 | Squad | | Ecuador 1947 | Third place | 3rd | 7 | 5 | 0 | 2 | 21 | 8 | Squad | | Brazil 1949 | Sixth place | 6th | 7 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 14 | 20 | Squad | | Peru 1953 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 6 | Squad | | Chile 1955 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 12 | 12 | Squad | | Uruguay 1956 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **9** | **3** | **Squad** | | Peru 1957 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 15 | 12 | Squad | | Argentina 1959 | Sixth place | 6th | 6 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 15 | 14 | Squad | | Ecuador 1959 | **Champions** | **1st** | **4** | **3** | **1** | **0** | **13** | **1** | **Squad** | | Bolivia 1963 | *Withdrew* | | Uruguay 1967 | **Champions** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **13** | **2** | **Squad** | | 1975 | Fourth place | 4th | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 3 | Squad | | 1979 | Group stage | 6th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 5 | Squad | | 1983 | **Champions** | **1st** | **8** | **5** | **2** | **1** | **12** | **6** | **Squad** | | Argentina 1987 | **Champions** | **1st** | **2** | **2** | **0** | **0** | **2** | **0** | **Squad** | | Brazil 1989 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **7** | **4** | **0** | **3** | **11** | **3** | **Squad** | | Chile 1991 | Group stage | 5th | 4 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 | 3 | Squad | | Ecuador 1993 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 5 | Squad | | Uruguay 1995 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **4** | **2** | **0** | **11** | **4** | **Squad** | | Bolivia 1997 | Group stage | 9th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 2 | Squad | | Paraguay 1999 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **6** | **1** | **2** | **3** | **4** | **9** | **Squad** | | Colombia 2001 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 7 | Squad | | Peru 2004 | Third place | 3rd | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 12 | 10 | Squad | | Venezuela 2007 | Fourth place | 4th | 6 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 9 | Squad | | Argentina 2011 | **Champions** | **1st** | **6** | **3** | **3** | **0** | **9** | **3** | **Squad** | | Chile 2015 | Quarter-finals | 7th | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | Squad | | United States 2016 | Group stage | 11th | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 4 | Squad | | Brazil 2019 | Quarter-finals | 6th | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 7 | 2 | Squad | | Brazil 2021 | 5th | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 2 | Squad | | United States 2024 | *Qualified* | | Total | 15 Titles | 45/47 | 206 | 112 | 38 | 56 | 410 | 222 | — | ### FIFA Confederations Cup | FIFA Confederations Cup record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | Saudi Arabia 1992 | *Did not qualify* | | Saudi Arabia 1995 | | Saudi Arabia 1997 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 6 | Squad | | Mexico 1999 | *Did not qualify* | | South Korea Japan 2001 | | France 2003 | | Germany 2005 | | South Africa 2009 | | Brazil 2013 | Fourth place | 4th | 5 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 7 | Squad | | Russia 2017 | *Did not qualify* | | Total | Fourth place | 2/10 | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 22 | 13 | — | ### CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions | CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | France 1985 | **Runners-up** | **2nd** | **1** | **0** | **0** | **1** | **0** | **2** | | Argentina 1993 | *Did not qualify* | | England 2022 | | Total | Runners-up | 1/3 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | ### Olympic Games | Olympic Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | Squad | | France 1900 | *Did not participate* | | United States 1904 | | United Kingdom 1908 | | Sweden 1912 | | Belgium 1920 | | France 1924 | **Gold medal** | **1st** | **5** | **5** | **0** | **0** | **20** | **2** | **Squad** | | Netherlands 1928 | **Gold medal** | **1st** | **5** | **4** | **1** | **0** | **12** | **5** | **Squad** | | Nazi Germany 1936 | *Withdrew* | | United Kingdom 1948 | *Did not qualify* | | Finland 1952 | | Australia 1956 | | Italy 1960 | | Japan 1964 | | Mexico 1968 | | West Germany 1972 | | Canada 1976 | *Withdrew* | | Soviet Union 1980 | *Did not qualify* | | United States 1984 | | South Korea 1988 | | Since 1992 | *See Uruguay national under-23 football team* | | Total | 2 Gold medals | 3/19 | 10 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 32 | 7 | — | ### Pan American Games | Pan American Games record | | --- | | Year | Round | Position | Pld | W | D\* | L | GF | GA | | Argentina 1951 | *Did not participate* | | Mexico 1955 | | United States 1959 | | Brazil 1963 | Fourth place | 4th | 4 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 6 | | Canada 1967 | *Did not participate* | | Colombia 1971 | | Mexico 1975 | Preliminary round | 11th | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | | Puerto Rico 1979 | *Did not enter* | | Venezuela 1983 | **Gold medal** | **1st** | **4** | **4** | **0** | **0** | **5** | **1** | | United States 1987 | *Did not participate* | | Cuba 1991 | | Argentina 1995 | | Since 1999 | *See Uruguay national under-23 football team* | | Total | 1 Gold medal | 3/12 | 10 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 10 | 9 | Head-to-head record ------------------- Below is a list of all matches Uruguay have played against FIFA recognised teams. Updated as of 20 June 2023.   Positive Record   Neutral Record   Negative Record | Team | Pld | W | D | L | GF | GA | GD | Best result | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | |  Algeria | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | −1 |  Algeria 1 – 0 Uruguay (Algiers, Algeria Algeria; 12 August 2009) | |  Angola | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 |  Angola 0 – 2 Uruguay (Lisbon, Portugal Portugal; 11 August 2010) | |  Argentina | 202 | 59 | 49 | 94 | 234 | 325 | −91 |  Uruguay 5 – 0 Argentina (Guayaquil, Ecuador Ecuador; 16 December 1959) | |  Australia | 9 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 8 | 6 | +2 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 Australia (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 25 November 2001) | |  Austria | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | -1 |  Austria 0 – 2 Uruguay (Vienna, Austria Austria; 14 May 1964) | |  Belgium | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 5 | −4 |  Belgium 3 – 1 Uruguay (Verona, Italy Italy; 17 June 1990) | |  Bolivia | 46 | 30 | 8 | 8 | 110 | 35 | +75 |  Uruguay 9 – 0 Bolivia (Lima, Peru Peru; 6 November 1927) | |  Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 |  Bosnia and Herzegovina 3 – 2 Uruguay (Cochin, India India; 18 January 2001) | |  Brazil | 78 | 20 | 20 | 38 | 98 | 142 | −44 |  Uruguay 6 – 0 Brazil (Valparaíso, Chile Chile; 18 September 1920) | |  Bulgaria | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 |  Bulgaria 1 – 1 Uruguay (Hanover, West Germany West Germany; 19 June 1974) | |  Cameroon | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 |  Uruguay 4 – 0 Cameroon (Tehran, Iran Iran; 13 August 2003) | |  Canada | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 1 | +4 |  Canada 1 – 3 Uruguay (Miami, United States United States; 2 February 1986) | |  Chile | 85 | 48 | 19 | 18 | 147 | 86 | +61 |  Uruguay 6 – 0 Chile (Guayaquil, Ecuador Ecuador; 6 December 1947) | |  China | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 9 | 2 | +7 |  China 0 – 4 Uruguay (Wuhan, China China; 12 October 2010) | |  Colombia | 45 | 21 | 12 | 12 | 64 | 47 | +17 |  Uruguay 7 – 0 Colombia (Santiago, Chile Chile; 28 January 1945) | |  Costa Rica | 14 | 8 | 4 | 2 | 25 | 19 | +6 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Costa Rica (Miami, United States United States; 4 February 1990) | |  Cuba | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Cuba (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 20 June 2023) | |  Czech Republic | 6 | 4 | 0 | 2 | 9 | 6 | +3 |  Czech Republic 0 – 2 Uruguay (Bern, Switzerland Switzerland; 16 June 1954) (Nanning, China China; 23 March 2018) | |  Denmark | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 8 | −6 |  Uruguay 1 – 2 Denmark (Ulsan, South Korea South Korea; 1 June 2002) | | *East Germany* | 6 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 7 | −3 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 East Germany (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 29 January 1985) | |  Ecuador | 48 | 31 | 10 | 7 | 114 | 44 | +70 |  Uruguay 7 – 0 Ecuador (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 18 January 1942) | |  Egypt | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 |  Egypt 0 – 2 Uruguay (Cairo, Egypt Egypt; 16 August 2006) | |  England | 11 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 15 | 11 | +4 |  Uruguay 4 – 2 England (Basel, Switzerland Switzerland; 26 June 1954) | |  Estonia | 2 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 2 | +1 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 Estonia (Rivera, Uruguay Uruguay; 23 June 2011) | |  France | 10 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 8 | 7 | +1 |  France 1 – 5 Uruguay (Colombes, France France; 1 June 1924) | |  Finland | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 1 | +7 |  Uruguay 6 – 0 Finland (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 8 December 1984) | |  Georgia | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 2 | −2 |  Georgia 2 – 0 Uruguay (Tbilisi, Georgia (country) Georgia; 15 November 2006) | |  Germany | 11 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 12 | 29 | −17 |  Germany 1 – 4 Uruguay (Amsterdam, Netherlands Netherlands; 3 June 1928) | |  Ghana | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 |  Ghana 0 – 2 Uruguay (Al Wakrah, Qatar Qatar; 2 December 2022) | |  Guatemala | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 8 | 3 | +5 |  Uruguay 5 – 1 Guatemala (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 6 June 2015) | |  Haiti | 3 | 1 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 |  Haiti 0 – 1 Uruguay (Port-au-Prince, Haiti Haiti; 23 March 1974) | |  Honduras | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | −1 |  Uruguay 2 – 2 Honduras (Bogotá, Colombia Colombia; 29 July 2001) | |  Hong Kong | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 |  Hong Kong 1 – 3 Uruguay (Hong Kong Hong Kong; 9 January 2000) | |  Hungary | 6 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 10 | 8 | +2 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Hungary (Maldonado, Uruguay Uruguay; 17 February 2000) | |  India | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 |  India 1 – 3 Uruguay (Kolkata, India India; 25 February 1982) | |  Indonesia | 3 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 11 | 5 | +6 |  Indonesia 1 – 7 Uruguay (Jakarta, Indonesia Indonesia; 8 October 2010) | |  Iran | 2 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 |  Uruguay 1 – 1 Iran (Hong Kong Hong Kong; 4 February 2003) | |  Iraq | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 2 | +3 |  Iraq 2 – 5 Uruguay (Tehran, Iran Iran; 15 August 2003) | |  Israel | 6 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 15 | 6 | +9 |  Uruguay 4 – 1 Israel (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 26 May 2010) | |  Italy | 11 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 11 | 12 | −1 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Italy (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 3 January 1981) | |  Jamaica | 5 | 4 | 0 | 1 | 9 | 2 | +7 |  Jamaica 0 – 3 Uruguay (Kingston, Jamaica Jamaica; 28 March 1974) | |  Japan | 9 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 24 | 18 | +6 |  Japan 1 – 4 Uruguay (Tokyo, Japan Japan; 26 May 1985) | |  Jordan | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | +5 |  Jordan 0 – 5 Uruguay (Amman, Jordan Jordan; 13 November 2011) | |  Libya | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 3 | +2 |  Libya 2 – 3 Uruguay (Tripoli, Libya Libya; 11 February 2009) | |  Luxembourg | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 |  Luxembourg 0 – 1 Uruguay (Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg Luxembourg; 26 March 1980) | |  Malaysia | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 |  Malaysia 0 – 6 Uruguay (Osaka, Japan Japan; 1 June 1985) | |  Mexico | 22 | 7 | 7 | 8 | 31 | 29 | +2 |  Mexico 1 – 4 Uruguay (Houston, United States United States; 7 September 2018) | |  Morocco | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 |  Morocco 0 – 1 Uruguay (Casablanca, Morocco Morocco; 25 April 1964) | |  Netherlands | 6 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 7 | +2 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Netherlands (Amsterdam, Netherlands Netherlands; 30 May 1928)(Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 30 December 1980) | |  New Zealand | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 9 | 2 | +7 |  Uruguay 7 – 0 New Zealand (Paysandú, Uruguay Uruguay; 25 June 1995) | |  Nicaragua | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 1 | +3 |  Uruguay 4 – 1 Nicaragua (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 14 June 2023) | |  Nigeria | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 |  Nigeria 1 – 2 Uruguay (Salvador, Bahia, Brazil Brazil; 20 June 2013) | |  Northern Ireland | 4 | 2 | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −2 |  Northern Ireland 0 – 1 Uruguay (East Rutherford, New Jersey, United States United States; 21 May 2006) | |  Norway | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 |  Norway 0 – 1 Uruguay (Oslo, Norway Norway; 14 June 1972) | |  Oman | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | +3 |  Oman 0 – 3 Uruguay (Muscat, Oman Oman; 13 October 2014) | |  Panama | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 15 | 1 | +14 |  Uruguay 6 – 1 Panama (Santiago, Chile Chile; 6 April 1952) | |  Paraguay | 77 | 33 | 19 | 25 | 116 | 94 | +22 |  Uruguay 6 – 1 Paraguay (Santiago, Chile Chile; 1 November 1926) | |  Peru | 70 | 38 | 16 | 16 | 113 | 64 | +49 |  Uruguay 6 – 0 Peru (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 18 June 2008) | |  Poland | 4 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 4 | +1 |  Poland 1 – 3 Uruguay (Gdańsk, Poland Poland; 14 November 2012) | |  Portugal | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 7 | −4 |  Portugal 1 – 2 Uruguay (Sochi, Russia Russia; 30 June 2018) | |  Republic of Ireland | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 7 | 6 | +1 |  Uruguay 2 – 0 Republic of Ireland (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 8 May 1974) | |  Romania | 5 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 8 | 3 | +5 |  Uruguay 4 – 0 Romania (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 21 July 1930) | |  Russia | 9 | 2 | 1 | 6 | 8 | 15 | −7 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 Russia (Samara, Russia Russia; 25 June 2018) | | *Saar* | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 7 | 1 | +6 |  Saar 1 – 7 Uruguay (Saarbrücken, Saar Protectorate Germany; 5 June 1954) | |  Saudi Arabia | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 0 |  Saudi Arabia 0 – 1 Uruguay (Rostov, Russia Russia; 20 June 2018) | |  Scotland | 4 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 10 | 4 | +6 |  Uruguay 7 – 0 Scotland (Basel, Switzerland Switzerland; 19 June 1954) | |  Senegal | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 0 |  Senegal 3 – 3 Uruguay (Suwon, South Korea South Korea; 11 June 2002) | |  Serbia | 7 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 17 | 8 | +9 |  Yugoslavia 0 – 7 Uruguay (Colombes, France France; 26 May 1924) | |  Singapore | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 1 | +1 |  Singapore 1 – 2 Uruguay (Singapore City, Singapore Singapore; 21 May 2002) | |  Slovenia | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 |  Slovenia 0 – 2 Uruguay (Koper, Slovenia Slovenia; 28 February 2001) | |  South Africa | 3 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 7 | 3 | +4 |  South Africa 0 – 3 Uruguay (Pretoria, South Africa South Africa; 16 June 2010) | |  South Korea | 10 | 7 | 2 | 1 | 15 | 7 | +8 |  South Korea 0 – 2 Uruguay (Seoul, South Korea South Korea; 24 March 2007) | |  Spain | 10 | 0 | 5 | 5 | 8 | 16 | −8 |  Spain 0 – 0 Uruguay (São Paulo, Brazil Brazil; 9 July 1950)(A Coruña, Spain Spain; 18 January 1995) | |  Sweden | 3 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 6 | −3 |  Uruguay 3 – 2 Sweden (São Paulo, Brazil Brazil; 13 July 1950) | |  Switzerland | 4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 13 | 4 | +9 |  Uruguay 4 – 0 Switzerland (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 18 December 1980) | |  Tahiti | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | +8 |  Tahiti 0 – 8 Uruguay (Recife, Brazil Brazil; 23 June 2013) | |  Thailand | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | +4 |  Uruguay 4 – 0 Thailand (Nanning, China China; 25 March 2019) | |  Trinidad and Tobago | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 1 | +2 |  Uruguay 3 – 1 Trinidad and Tobago (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 28 May 2016) | |  Tunisia | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |  Tunisia 0 – 0 Uruguay (Radès, Tunisia Tunisia; 2 June 2006) | |  Turkey | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 |  Turkey 2 – 3 Uruguay (Bochum, Germany Germany; 25 May 2008) | |  Ukraine | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 2 | +1 |  Ukraine 2 – 3 Uruguay (Kharkiv, Ukraine Ukraine; 2 September 2011) | |  United Arab Emirates | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 2 | 0 | +2 |  United Arab Emirates 0 – 2 Uruguay (Riyadh, Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia; 13 December 1997) | |  United States | 8 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 9 | 7 | +2 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 United States (Colombes, France France; 29 May 1924) | |  Uzbekistan | 2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 0 | +6 |  Uruguay 3 – 0 Uzbekistan (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 7 June 2018)(Nanning, China China; 22 March 2019) | |  Venezuela | 33 | 19 | 9 | 5 | 64 | 23 | +41 |  Uruguay 5 – 0 Venezuela (Montevideo, Uruguay Uruguay; 23 May 1975) | |  Wales | 2 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | +1 |  Uruguay 1 – 0 Wales (Nanning, China China; 26 March 2018) | | Total (86) | 981 | 438 | 235 | 308 | 1531 | 1195 | +336 |  Uruguay 9 – 0 Bolivia (Lima, Peru; 6 November 1927) | 1. ↑ Includes matches against  Czechoslovakia. 2. ↑ Includes matches against  West Germany. 3. ↑ Includes matches against  Soviet Union. 4. ↑ Includes matches against  Yugoslavia and  Serbia and Montenegro. Honours ------- ### Senior team #### Titles * **FIFA World Cup**: + **Winners (2):** 1930, 1950 + Fourth place (3): 1954, 1970, 2010 * **Olympic Games**: + **Gold medalists (2):** 1924, 1928 * **South American Championship / Copa América**: + **Winners (15):** 1916, 1917, 1920, 1923, 1924, 1926, 1935, 1942, 1956, 1959 (Ecuador), 1967, 1983, 1987, 1995, 2011 + Runners-up (6): 1919, 1927, 1939, 1941, 1989, 1999 + Third place (9): 1921, 1922, 1929, 1937, 1947, 1953, 1957, 1975, 2004 + Fourth place (5): 1945, 1946, 1955, 2001, 2007 * **FIFA Confederations Cup**: + Fourth place (2): 1997, 2013 * **Panamerican Championship**: + Third place (1): 1952 * **CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions**: + Runners-up: 1985 #### Awards * **Copa América Fair Play Trophy:** + **Winners:** 2011 #### South American Tournaments * **Copa Lipton (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners (12):** 1905, 1910, 1911, 1912, 1919, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1929, 1957, 1973 * **Copa Newton (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners (11):** 1912, 1913, 1915, 1917, 1919, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1929, 1930, 1968 * **Copa Premier Honor Argentino (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners (3):** 1908, 1910, 1912 * **Copa Premier Honor Uruguayo (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners (8):** 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1918, 1919, 1920, 1922 * **Copa Héctor Rivadavia Gómez (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners (2):** 1936, 1940 * **Copa Círculo de la Prensa (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners:** 1919 * **Copa Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners:** 1923 * **Copa Confraternidad Rioplatense (vs  Argentina):** + **Winners:** 1924 * **Copa Río Branco (vs  Brazil):** + **Winners (3):** 1940, 1946, 1967 (shared) * **Copa Artigas (vs  Paraguay):** + **Winners (6):** 1965, 1966, 1975 (shared), 1977, 1983, 1985 * **Copa Juan Pinto Durán (vs  Chile):** + **Winners (5):** 1963, 1975, 1979, 1981, 1988 * **Copa Parra del Riego: (vs  Peru):** + **Winners:** 1994 * **Copa Ministerio de Vivienda: (vs  Peru):** + **Winners:** 1998 #### Friendlies * **Mundialito** + **Winners (1):** 1980 * **Nehru Cup:** + **Winners**: 1982 * **Copa William Poole (vs  England):** + **Winners:** 1984 * **Miami Cup:** + **Winners:** 1986 * **Marlboro Cup:** + **Winners**: 1990 * **Tiger Beer Challenge Trophy (vs  Singapore):** + **Winners**: 2002 * **Lunar New Year Cup:** + **Winners:** 2003 * **LG Cup:** + **Winners (2)**: 2003, 2006 * **Copa Confraternidad Antel (vs  Netherlands):** + **Winners**: 2011 * **Copa 100 Años del Banco de Seguros del Estado (vs  Estonia):** + **Winners**: 2011 * **Kirin Challenge Cup (vs  Japan):** + **Winners**: 2014 * **China Cup:** + **Winners (2)**: 2018, 2019 ### Pan American team * **Pan American Games**: + 1st place, gold medalist(s) **Gold medalists (1):** 1983 + Fourth place: 1963 | Senior Competition | 1st place, gold medalist(s) | 2nd place, silver medalist(s) | 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) | Total | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | World Cup | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | Confederations Cup | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | | Copa América | 15 | 6 | 9 | 30 | | Olympic Games | 2 | 0 | 0 | 2 | | Panamerican Championship | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | | Artemio Franchi Trophy | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | | Total | 19 | 7 | 10 | 36 | See also -------- * Uruguay national under-23 football team * Uruguay national under-20 football team * Uruguay national under-17 football team * Uruguay national futsal team

Uruguay national football team

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruguay_national_football_team

**La Rioja** (Spanish: [la ˈrjoxa]) is an autonomous community and province in Spain, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Its capital is Logroño. Other cities and towns in the province include Calahorra, Arnedo, Alfaro, Haro, Santo Domingo de la Calzada, and Nájera. It has an estimated population of 315,675 inhabitants (INE 2018), making it the least populated autonomous community of Spain. It covers part of the Ebro valley towards its north and the Iberian Range in the south. The community is a single province, so there is no County Council, and it is organized into 174 municipalities. It borders the Basque Country (province of Álava) to the north, Navarre to the northeast, Aragón to the southeast (province of Zaragoza), and Castilla y León to the west and south (provinces of Burgos and Soria). The area was once occupied by pre-Roman Berones, Pellendones and Vascones. After partial recapture from the Muslims in the early tenth century, the region became part of the Kingdom of Pamplona, later being incorporated into Castile after a century and a half of disputes. From the eighteenth century the Rioja region remained divided between the provinces of Burgos and Soria, until in 1833 the province of Logroño was created, changing the name of the province to La Rioja in 1980 as a prelude to its constitution under a single provincial autonomous community in 1982. The name "Rioja" (from Río Oja) is first attested in 1099. The region is well known for its wines under the brand *Denominación de Origen Calificada Rioja*. History ------- ### Roman and Muslim periods In Roman times, the territory of La Rioja was inhabited by the tribes of the Berones (central country), Autrigones (upper country, extending also north and west of it) and the Vascones (lower country, extending also north and east of it). It was part of the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In medieval times, La Rioja was often a disputed territory. The Visigoths created the Duchy of Cantabria that probably included most of La Rioja, as a border march against the Vascones. After the Muslim invasion of AD 711, La Rioja fell into the Muslim domains of Al Andalus. ### Medieval period Most of the territory was reconquered in 923 by Sancho I of Pamplona, acting for the Kingdom of Pamplona together with the Kingdom of León and the Counts of Castile, feudal lords of the Leonese King. The lower region around Arnedo came under control of his allies the Banu Qasi of Tudela. The territory to the east of the Leza River remained under Muslim control. Later there was a dispute between Count Fernán González of Castile and the kings of Pamplona-Navarra, involving great battles. It was decided in favour of the Navarrese after the imprisonment of the Count's family in Cirueña, in 960. La Rioja briefly formed the independent Kingdom of Viguera from 970 to about 1005, at which point it became a part of the Kingdom of Pamplona. Sancho Garcés moved the capital of the Kingdom of Pamplona to Nájera (La Rioja), creating the so-called kingdom of Nájera-Pamplona which was, due to its large size, the first Spanish Empire. After the independence of Castile in 1035, this new kingdom fiercely fought against Pamplona for the possession of Bureba, La Rioja and other territories. In 1076, after the murder of Sancho IV, Navarre was divided among Castile and Aragon. Castile obtained La Rioja, together with other Navarrese lands. The name "La Rioja" first appears in written records in the Miranda de Ebro charter of 1099. The territory was centred on the fortified site of Logroño: the 12th-century church Iglesia de Santa Maria de Palacio recalls its origin as a chapel of the administrative palace. Logroño was a borderland disputed between the kings of Navarre and the kings of Castile from the 10th century; From 1134 the Navarrese under García Ramírez ("the Restorer") and his son Sancho VI ("the Wise") fought bitterly with Castile for the recovery of the former Pamplonese domains. The region was awarded to Castile in a judgement by Henry II of England and annexed in 1177. Its importance lay in part in the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela, the *Camino de Santiago*, which crossed the River Ebro on the stone bridge, the *Puente de Piedra*. ### Province of Logroño Up to the 19th century the territory remained divided between the provinces of Burgos and Soria. The region was taken by Napoleonic forces in the Peninsular War and remained solidly in French hands until 1814. In the 1810 project of Llorente it was to be a part of the prefecture of Arlanzón with its capital in Burgos. The Cortes of Cádiz declared La Rioja an independent province at the time of the Liberal Constitution of 1812, and during the Liberal Triennium in January 1822 the province of Logroño was created by royal decree as part of the administrative reform of Riego, taking in the whole of the historical territory of La Rioja. However, Ferdinand VII soon annulled these decisions and restored most of the previous territorial divisions. In the 1833 reorganization, a province of Logroño was again formed within the region of Castilla la Vieja. The province increased its territory temporarily in 1841. ### Autonomous community In 1980 the province changed its name to La Rioja, and following the adoption of the Estatuto de San Millán in 1982, during the reorganization following the Spanish transition to democracy, it was constituted as a uni-provincial autonomous community,. It is the second-smallest autonomous community in Spain and has the smallest population; half of its 174 municipalities have populations under 200. Nearly half of its citizens live in the capital. Etymology --------- The etymology of the toponym Rioja is complex and has been much discussed. The main theories point to different origins: the traditional popular one that makes it correspond to the river Oja, the one that points to the term *Rivalia* that would be translated as "land of streams", the one that points as germ a nominal tautology in the term *rivo Ohia* that would mean "river of fluvial bed"; and the very diverse ones that indicate that it would have its origins in the Basque language, for example as union of the words *herria* and *ogia* being translated as "land of bread". Numerous authors from different periods have proposed different theories about it, such as the friar Mateo Anguiano in the 18th century, Ángel Casimiro de Govantes in the 19th century, Menéndez Pidal or Merino Urrutia in the 20th century, or in the 21st century, the researcher Eduardo Aznar Martínez. In addition, there are texts by older authors such as Florián de Ocampo in the 16th century or Rodrigo Méndez Silva in the 17th century, which give an account of the popular etymology of the toponym. The first written appearances of this toponym as *Rioga* or *Riogam* date back to the 11th century, and it can also be found with different spellings such as *Rioxa, Riogia, Rivo de Oia, Rivogio* or in its definitive form *Rioja* in texts of later centuries. On the other hand, the oldest document found in which its demonym appears dates from the 13th century, with the spellings *riogeñ* and *riogensi*, that is, Riojan (*Spanish: riojano*). In the first written appearances of this toponym in the 11th century, the westernmost area of the present-day Spanish region is designated under the same name; therefore, the primitive Rioja was the territory around the basins of the rivers Tirón and Oja, with some divergences in its exact location by different authors. Gradually and as a result of various historical events, the toponym was extended from the Middle Ages, to name a larger region, consisting of seven river valleys, located between the Tirón in the west and the Alhama in the east, which flow into the Ebro, namely La Rioja today. Geography --------- La Rioja is bordered by the Basque Country (province of Álava), Navarre, Aragón (province of Zaragoza), and Castile and León (provinces of Soria and Burgos). The river Ebro flows through this region, as does the river Oja, after which it is named. The Ebro runs through the north of the community. The entire right bank (which is to the south) belongs to La Rioja. There are only three municipalities, Briñas, San Vicente de la Sonsierra and Ábalos on the left bank (known as the Riojan Sonsierra), although Logroño, Agoncillo, Alcanadre, Rincón de Soto and Alfaro also have parts of their respective municipal territories on that bank. Because of their proximity, the Álava area between the Ebro and the Sierra de Cantabria is called Rioja Alavesa. ### Climate The climate is mainly continental. The Rioja Alta comarca receives more precipitation than Rioja Baja. The average temperature ranges from 11.8–31.8 °C (53.2–89.2 °F) and the precipitation ranges between 300–600 mm (12–24 in) as an annual average. The wind called *Cierzo* is very frequent around La Rioja during the winter. ### Mountains and mountain ranges The mountains in La Rioja are part of the Iberian System. This mountain range extends to the south of the Ebro river, parallel to it at a distance of about 40 to 60 km (25 to 37 miles), with altitudes ranging between 1,000 and 2,000 m (3,300 and 6,600 feet). From the mountain range the Sierra de la Demanda runs northwards, into the heart of La Rioja, incorporating Monte San Lorenzo which, at 2,271 m (7,451 ft), is the highest peak in the province. Other mountains include Sierra de Camero Viejo, Sierra de Camero Nuevo, Sierra de Cebollera, and Picos de Urbión. ### Hydrography The Ebro is the main river passing through the community. Emerging from the narrow channel between the rocks of the Conchas de Haro, it reaches La Rioja, through which it runs for 120 km (75 miles), before continuing its journey to the Mediterranean. In the Conchas de Haro the altitude of the river is 445 m (1,460 ft) and when it leaves the community, in the Sotos del Ebro Natural Reserve in Alfaro, it is 260 m (850 ft) high. The river therefore flows very quickly through La Rioja.[*original research?*] Seven rivers descend rapidly towards the Ebro from the mountain range, which is why La Rioja is sometimes called: "Zone of the seven valleys". They are, from east to west, Alhama, Cidacos, Leza, Iregua, Najerilla, Oja and Tirón, although the headwaters of the Alhama and Cidacos originate in Soria and those of Najerilla-Neila and Tirón are from Burgos. Sometimes Linares (a tributary of Alhama) is added, grouping Tirón with its tributary, the Oja. All the rivers of these valleys form tributaries that go on to form many valleys in their own right, such as those of Linares, Ocon, Jubera, Tuerto, Brieva, Viniegras and San Millán. There is an almost unlimited number of grandiose canyons, quite splendid in nature, such as Aguas Buenas, Nieva, Manzanares, Ardancha, Navajún, Valderresa, Ollora, Tobia, San Martín and others. ### Flora and fauna In the highlands oaks, beech and pine are grown. There are also thickets of juniper, boxwood, sloes, holly and cistus. Thyme, rosemary, common juniper, and holm oak are present. There are grand hillsides with fine pasture for livestock, cattle and sheep. In the lower areas there are oaks, olive and almond trees. Near the Ebro, in the plains, the land is used for cereal, sugar beet and potatoes, while the hills are covered with vast vineyards of the wine that has brought worldwide fame to this region. All Riojan rivers, including the Ebro, have a row of poplars and cottonwood. About the Riojan Alamos Ana Maria Matute has written: "... see them on the edge of the water, turning the landscape, like spears magical pointing towards the unreal and mysterious country of the riverbed." ### Natural resources Gypsum and silica are mined. Arnedillo is a spa town. ### Dinosaur footprints During the Early Cretaceous period the geographical area of Cameros was part of a flooded plain that drained periodically, leaving behind muddy areas where dinosaur tracks marked the path. Eventually they were dried and covered with new sediment layers whose weight pressed down on the lower layers, causing them to solidify into rocks over millions of years. Erosion has been wearing down the upper layers making many of these rock formations visible, bringing into view the fossilized footprints. La Rioja is notable for the number and conservation of these sites, in addition to those found in the north of Soria, such as Yanguas, Santa Cruz de Yanguas and other highland locations. ### Comarcas Geographical comarcas: * Rioja Alta + Comarca de Anguiano + Comarca de Ezcaray + Comarca de Haro + Comarca de Nájera + Comarca de Santo Domingo de la Calzada * Rioja Media + Tierra de Cameros - Camero Nuevo - Camero Viejo + Comarca de Logroño * Rioja Baja + Comarca de Cervera + Comarca de Alfaro + Comarca de Arnedo + Comarca de Calahorra Economy ------- Glasses of wine for tasting in the Vivancos MuseumVineyards (Viñedos) in La RiojaToro de fuego festival in Haro The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 8.5 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 0.7% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 29,200 euros or 97% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 102% of the EU average. La Rioja is known for its production of Rioja DOCa wines (although the Rioja viticultural region extends slightly into the neighboring administrative regions of Álava and Navarra). ### Agriculture There is dryland farming of wheat, barley and grape; irrigated cultivation of asparagus, capsicum and other crops; and animal husbandry of sheep. ### Industry Types of industry include wine production and conserves (in Logroño, Cenicero, Haro and Calahorra); textiles and footwear (in Logroño, Arnedo, Cervera del Río Alhama and Ezcaray); furniture manufacturing (in Ezcaray, Logroño and Nájera); rubber, plastics, chemical products and transport machinery; and chorizo, made in Casalarreina. Exports are directed mostly towards the European Union, United States and Canada. La Rioja hosts the annual Battle of Wine festival in the village of Haro. Another famous local festival is the Toro de fuego, where a metal frame in the shape of a bull is carried among festival goers, which also takes place in Haro. Demographics ------------ According to the INE the population of La Rioja (as at 2018) is 315,675 inhabitants, with 155,758 men and 159,917 women. Its population density is 62.57 people per km2. It is the least populous autonomous community in Spain. Its capital, Logroño, with approximately 151,113 inhabitants, is its most populous city. La Rioja has 174 municipalities. According to the same INE data, there are more men than women in 150 of them, in two the numbers are the same and in 22 there are more females than males. In the latter set, the differences are small, except in the capital where there are 4,868 more women than men. | | | --- | | **Vertical bar chart demographic of La Rioja between 1857 and 2018** | | | |   Legal population (1857-1897) according to the population census published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística in the nineteenth century.   Legal population (1900-1991) or Resident population (2001) according to the population census published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística.   Population according to the municipal register of 2018 published by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística. | Major cities ------------ |    Largest cities or towns in La RiojaINE 2018 | | --- | | | Rank | Name | Pop. | | | LogroñoLogroñoCalahorraCalahorra | 1 | Logroño | 151,113 | ArnedoArnedoHaroHaro | | 2 | Calahorra | 23,923 | | 3 | Arnedo | 14,815 | | 4 | Haro | 11,309 | | 5 | Lardero | 10,193 | | 6 | Alfaro | 9,460 | | 7 | Nájera | 8,047 | | 8 | Villamediana de Iregua | 7,973 | | 9 | Santo Domingo de la Calzada | 6,231 | | 10 | Autol | 4,469 | Education --------- According to the 2007 PISA report, education in La Rioja is of the highest quality in Spain, close to that of other European countries with better overall educational levels in terms of student knowledge. In the Ministry of Education's 2009 report La Rioja was in first position among the autonomous communities as it relates to general aspects of primary and secondary education. It is placed above the Spanish average in the list of communities with the lowest levels of school failure, with 85% of students being able to obtain the ESO title, despite its schools having the highest proportion of enrolled immigrants. 6,208 euros are spent per pupil, making it the tenth ranked community in this regard. The majority of educational institutions in the community are public, followed by subsidized and private schools, the latter of which are very scarce at the primary and secondary levels. The bachillerato is free in public schools and at a cost in charter schools. In La Rioja the portion of the population with higher education is 30.6%, with two institutions offering studies at this level: the University of La Rioja and an online university, the International University of La Rioja. Transportation -------------- La Rioja has connections by air via the Logroño-Agoncillo Airport. Rail journeys to Madrid, Zaragoza, Barcelona, Valladolid, Oviedo, Bilbao, La Coruña, Vigo are possible, since the Castejón-Miranda line crosses the region from east to west. The main railway station is that at Logroño. Roads between La Rioja and neighboring regions are primarily through the AP-68. Additional highways have been built, such as the Autovía A-12 which connects Pamplona to Logroño since 2006, and in the future will reach Burgos. Other major road routes include: * N-111 * N-232 * N-120 * Autopista AP-69 (proposed) * Piqueras Tunnel * Puerto de Oncala * Puerto de Piqueras Government and politics ----------------------- The current President of La Rioja is Concha Andreu of PSOE. The autonomous community has its own Parliament. Other organs include the *Consejo de Gobierno* (council of government) and the *Tribunal Superior de Justicia* (high court of justice). Monuments --------- * Monastery of Santa María la Real of Najera * Concatedral de Santa María de la Redonda * Catedral de Santo Domingo de la Calzada * Iglesia de Santo Tomás * Abbey of Santa María de San Salvador of Cañas * Monasteries of San Millán de la CogollaMonasteries of San Millán de la Cogolla * Portal of Church of San Bartolomé (Logroño)Portal of Church of San Bartolomé (Logroño) * Calahorra CathedralCalahorra Cathedral Notable people -------------- * Ángel Iturriaga Barco * Celso Morga Iruzubieta * Dani Aranzubia * Domingo de Silos * Fausto Elhuyar * Fortunato Pablo Urcey * Francisco Javier de Lizana y Beaumont * Gonzalo de Berceo * Gustavo Bueno * José Ortiz-Echagüe * Juan José Elhuyar * Manuel Bretón de los Herreros * Martín Fernández de Navarrete * Práxedes Mateo Sagasta See also -------- * List of presidents of the Parliament of La Rioja * Dulzaina, a popular musical instrument from La Rioja. * Jota (music), a popular dance practiced in some comarcas of La Rioja. * Caparrones, one of the most important dishes in Riojan cooking. * History of Rioja wine * Etymology of La Rioja

La Rioja

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Rioja

**Korean** (South Korean: 한국어, *hangugeo*; North Korean: 조선말, *chosŏnmal*) is the native language for about 80 million people, mostly of Korean descent. It is the official and national language of both North Korea and South Korea (geographically Korea). The two countries have established standardized norms for Korean, and the differences between them are similar to those between Standard Chinese in mainland China and Taiwan, but political conflicts between the two countries have highlighted the differences between them. North Korea criminalizes the use of the South's standard language, and South Korean education and media often portray the North's language as alien and uncomfortable. Beyond Korea, the language is recognised as a minority language in parts of China, namely Jilin Province, and specifically Yanbian Prefecture, and Changbai County. It is also spoken by Sakhalin Koreans in parts of Sakhalin, the Russian island just north of Japan, and by the *Koryo-saram* in parts of Central Asia. The language has a few extinct relatives which—along with the Jeju language (Jejuan) of Jeju Island and Korean itself—form the compact Koreanic language family. Even so, Jejuan and Korean are not mutually intelligible with each other. The linguistic homeland of Korean is suggested to be somewhere in contemporary Manchuria. The hierarchy of the society from which the language originates deeply influences the language, leading to a system of speech levels and honorifics indicative of the formality of any given situation. Modern Korean is written in the Korean script (한글; *Hangul* in South Korea, 조선글; *Chosŏn'gŭl* in North Korea), a system developed during the 15th century for that purpose, although it did not become the primary script until the 20th century. The script uses 24 basic letters (*jamo*) and 27 complex letters formed from the basic ones. When first recorded in historical texts, Korean was only a spoken language; all written records were maintained in Classical Chinese, which, even when spoken, is not intelligible to someone who speaks only Korean. Later, Chinese characters adapted to the Korean language, *Hanja* (漢字), were used to write the language for most of Korea's history and are still used to a limited extent in South Korea, most prominently in the humanities and the study of historical texts. Since the turn of the 21st century, aspects of Korean culture have spread to other countries through globalization and cultural exports. As such, interest in Korean language acquisition (as a foreign language) is also generated by longstanding alliances, military involvement, and diplomacy, such as between South Korea–United States and China–North Korea since the end of World War II and the Korean War. Along with other languages such as Chinese and Arabic, Korean is ranked at the top difficulty level for English speakers by the United States Department of Defense. History ------- Modern Korean descends from Middle Korean, which in turn descends from Old Korean, which descends from the Proto-Koreanic language which is generally suggested to have its linguistic homeland. Whitman (2012) suggests that the proto-Koreans, already present in northern Korea, expanded into the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC and coexisted with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Since the establishment of two independent governments, North–South differences have developed in standard Korean, including variations in pronunciation and vocabulary chosen, but these minor differences can be found in any of the Korean dialects, which are still largely mutually intelligible. ### Writing systems Chinese characters arrived in Korea (see Sino-Xenic pronunciations for further information) together with Buddhism during the Proto-Three Kingdoms era in the 1st century BC. They were adapted for Korean and became known as Hanja, and remained as the main script for writing Korean for over a millennium alongside various phonetic scripts that were later invented such as Idu, Gugyeol and Hyangchal. Mainly privileged elites were educated to read and write in Hanja. However, most of the population was illiterate. In the 15th century, King Sejong the Great personally developed an alphabetic featural writing system known today as Hangul. He felt that Hanja was inadequate to write Korean and that caused its very restricted use; Hangul was designed to either aid in reading Hanja or to replace Hanja entirely. Introduced in the document *Hunminjeongeum*, it was called *eonmun* (colloquial script) and quickly spread nationwide to increase literacy in Korea. Hangul was widely used by all the Korean classes but was often treated as *amkeul* ("script for women") and disregarded by privileged elites, and Hanja was regarded as *jinseo* ("true text"). Consequently, official documents were always written in Hanja during the Joseon era. Since few people could understand Hanja, Korean kings sometimes released public notices entirely written in Hangul as early as the 16th century for all Korean classes, including uneducated peasants and slaves. By the 17th century, the elite class of *Yangban* had exchanged Hangul letters with slaves, which suggests a high literacy rate of Hangul during the Joseon era. Today, Hanja is largely unused in everyday life because of its inconvenience, but it is still important for historical and linguistic studies. Neither South Korea nor North Korea opposes the learning of Hanja, but they are not officially used in North Korea anymore, and their usage in South Korea is mainly reserved for specific circumstances like newspapers, scholarly papers, and disambiguation. Names ----- The Korean names for the language are based on the names for Korea used in both South Korea and North Korea. The English word "Korean" is derived from Goryeo, which is thought to be the first Korean dynasty known to Western nations. Korean people in the former USSR refer to themselves as *Koryo-saram* and/or *Koryo-in* (literally, "Koryo/Goryeo person(s)"), and call the language *Koryo-mal'*. Some older English sources also use the spelling "Corea" to refer to the nation, and its inflected form for the language, culture and people, "Korea" becoming more popular in the late 1800s. In South Korea, the Korean language is referred to by many names including *hanguk-eo* ("Korean language"), *hanguk-mal* ("Korean speech") and *uri-mal* ("our language"); "*hanguk*" is taken from the name of the Korean Empire (대한제국; 大韓帝國; *Daehan Jeguk*). The "*han*" (韓) in *Hanguk* and *Daehan Jeguk* is derived from Samhan, in reference to the Three Kingdoms of Korea (not the ancient confederacies in the southern Korean Peninsula), while "*-eo*" and "*-mal*" mean "language" and "speech", respectively. Korean is also simply referred to as *guk-eo*, literally "national language". This name is based on the same Han characters (國語 "nation" + "language") that are also used in Taiwan and Japan to refer to their respective national languages. In North Korea and China, the language is most often called *Joseon-mal*, or more formally, *Joseon-o*. This is taken from the North Korean name for Korea (Joseon), a name retained from the Joseon dynasty until the proclamation of the Korean Empire, which in turn was annexed by the Empire of Japan. In mainland China, following the establishment of diplomatic relations with South Korea in 1992, the term Cháoxiǎnyǔ or the short form *Cháoyǔ* has normally been used to refer to the standard language of North Korea and Yanbian, whereas *Hánguóyǔ* or the short form *Hányǔ* is used to refer to the standard language of South Korea. Classification -------------- Korean is a member of the Koreanic family along with the Jeju language. Some linguists have included it in the Altaic family, but the core Altaic proposal itself has lost most of its prior support. The Khitan language has several vocabulary items similar to Korean that are not found in other Mongolian or Tungusic languages, suggesting a Korean influence on Khitan. The hypothesis that Korean could be related to Japanese has had some supporters due to some overlap in vocabulary and similar grammatical features that have been elaborated upon by such researchers as Samuel E. Martin and Roy Andrew Miller. Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin (1991) found about 25% of potential cognates in the Japanese–Korean 100-word Swadesh list. Some linguists concerned with the issue between Japanese and Korean, including Alexander Vovin, have argued that the indicated similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a *sprachbund* effect and heavy borrowing, especially from Ancient Korean into Western Old Japanese. A good example might be Middle Korean *sàm* and Japanese *asá*, meaning "hemp". This word seems to be a cognate, but although it is well attested in Western Old Japanese and Northern Ryukyuan languages, in Eastern Old Japanese it only occurs in compounds, and it is only present in three dialects of the Southern Ryukyuan language group. Also, the doublet *wo* meaning "hemp" is attested in Western Old Japanese and Southern Ryukyuan languages. It is thus plausible to assume a borrowed term. (See Classification of the Japonic languages or Comparison of Japanese and Korean for further details on a possible relationship.) Hudson & Robbeets (2020) suggested that there are traces of a pre-Nivkh substratum in Korean. According to the hypothesis, ancestral varieties of Nivkh (also known as *Amuric*) were once distributed on the Korean peninsula before the arrival of Koreanic speakers. Phonology --------- Korean syllable structure is (C)(G)V(C), consisting of an optional onset consonant, glide /j, w, ɰ/ and final coda /p, t, k, m, n, ŋ, l/ surrounding a core vowel. ### Consonants | | Bilabial | Alveolar | Alveolo-palatal | Velar | Glottal | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Nasal | ㅁ /m/ | ㄴ /n/ | | ㅇ /ŋ/ | | | Plosive/Affricate | plain | ㅂ /p/ | ㄷ /t/ | ㅈ /t͡s/ or /t͡ɕ/ | ㄱ /k/ | | | tense | ㅃ /p͈/ | ㄸ /t͈/ | ㅉ /t͡s͈/ or /t͡ɕ͈/ | ㄲ /k͈/ | | | aspirated | ㅍ /pʰ/ | ㅌ /tʰ/ | ㅊ /t͡sʰ/ or /t͡ɕʰ/ | ㅋ /kʰ/ | | | Fricative | plain | | ㅅ /s/ or /sʰ/ | | | ㅎ /h/ | | tense | | ㅆ /s͈/ | | | | Approximant | /w/ | | /j/ | | | | Liquid | | ㄹ /l/ or /ɾ/ | | | | 1. ↑ only at the end of a syllable 2. 1 2 The semivowels /w/ and /j/ are represented in Korean writing by modifications to vowel symbols (see below). #### Assimilation and allophony The IPA symbol ⟨◌͈⟩ (a subscript double straight quotation mark, shown here with a placeholder circle) is used to denote the tensed consonants /p͈/, /t͈/, /k͈/, /t͡ɕ͈/, /s͈/. Its official use in the extensions to the IPA is for 'strong' articulation, but is used in the literature for faucalized voice. The Korean consonants also have elements of stiff voice, but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted glottis and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx. /s/ is aspirated [sʰ] and becomes an alveolo-palatal [ɕʰ] before [j] or [i] for most speakers (but see North–South differences in the Korean language). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (example: beoseot (버섯) 'mushroom'). /h/ may become a bilabial [ɸ] before [o] or [u], a palatal [ç] before [j] or [i], a velar [x] before [ɯ], a voiced [ɦ] between voiced sounds, and a [h] elsewhere. /p, t, t͡ɕ, k/ become voiced [b, d, d͡ʑ, ɡ] between voiced sounds. /m, n/ frequently denasalize at the beginnings of words. /l/ becomes alveolar flap [ɾ] between vowels, and [l] or [ɭ] at the end of a syllable or next to another /l/. A written syllable-final 'ㄹ', when followed by a vowel or a glide (*i.e.*, when the next character starts with 'ㅇ'), migrates to the next syllable and thus becomes [ɾ]. Traditionally, /l/ was disallowed at the beginning of a word. It disappeared before [j], and otherwise became /n/. However, the inflow of western loanwords changed the trend, and now word-initial /l/ (mostly from English loanwords) are pronounced as a free variation of either [ɾ] or [l]. All obstruents (plosives, affricates, fricatives) at the end of a word are pronounced with no audible release, [p̚, t̚, k̚]. Plosive sounds /p, t, k/ become nasals [m, n, ŋ] before nasal sounds. Hangul spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying, partly historical morphology. Given this, it is sometimes hard to tell which actual phonemes are present in a certain word. The traditional prohibition of word-initial /ɾ/ became a morphological rule called "initial law" (두음법칙) in the pronunciation standards of South Korea, which pertains to Sino-Korean vocabulary. Such words retain their word-initial /ɾ/ in the pronunciation standards of North Korea. For example, * "labor" (勞動) – north: ***r**odong* (로동), south: ***n**odong* (노동) * "history" (歷史) – north: ***ry**eoksa* (력사), south: ***y**eoksa* (역사) * "female" (女子) – north: ***ny**eoja* (녀자), south: ***y**eoja* (여자) ### Vowels | | | | --- | --- | | Monophthongs | ㅏ   /a/ㅓ   /ʌ/ㅗ   /o/ㅜ   /u/ㅡ   /ɯ/ㅣ   /i//e/ ㅔ,  /ɛ/ ㅐ, /ø/ ㅚ,  /y/ ㅟ | | Vowels preceded by intermediaries,or diphthongs | ㅑ   /ja/ㅕ   /jʌ/ㅛ   /jo/ㅠ   /ju//je/ ㅖ,  /jɛ/ ㅒ,  /wi/ ㅟ,  /we/ ㅞ,  /wɛ/ ㅙ,  /wa/ ㅘ,  /ɰi/ ㅢ,  /wə/ ㅝ | **^NOTE** ㅏ is closer to a near-open central vowel ([ɐ]), though ⟨a⟩ is still used for tradition. ### Morphophonemics Grammatical morphemes may change shape depending on the preceding sounds. Examples include *-eun/-neun* (-은/-는) and *-i/-ga* (-이/-가). Sometimes sounds may be inserted instead. Examples include *-eul/-reul* (-을/-를), *-euro/-ro* (-으로/-로), *-eseo/-seo* (-에서/-서), *-ideunji/-deunji* (-이든지/-든지) and *-iya/-ya* (-이야/-야). * However, *-euro/-ro* is somewhat irregular, since it will behave differently after a ㄹ (rieul consonant). Korean particles| After a consonant | After a ㄹ (rieul) | After a vowel | | --- | --- | --- | | *-ui* (-의) | | *-eun* (-은) | *-neun* (-는) | | *-i* (-이) | *-ga* (-가) | | *-eul* (-을) | *-reul* (-를) | | *-gwa* (-과) | *-wa* (-와) | | *-euro* (-으로) | *-ro* (-로) | Some verbs may also change shape morphophonemically. Grammar ------- Korean is an agglutinative language. The Korean language is traditionally considered to have nine parts of speech. Modifiers generally precede the modified words, and in the case of verb modifiers, can be serially appended. The sentence structure or basic form of a Korean sentence is subject–object–verb (SOV), but the *verb* is the only required and immovable element and word order is highly flexible, as in many other agglutinative languages. | | | | --- | --- | | **Question**: | "Did [you] go to the store?" ("you" implied in conversation) | | |      | 가게에 |    | 가셨어요? | | | | gage-e | | *ga-syeo-sseo-yo* | | | | store + [location marker (에)] | | [go (verb root) (가)] + [honorific (시)] + [conjugated (contraction rule)(어)] + [past (ㅆ)] + [conjunctive (어)] + [polite marker (요)] | | | | | --- | --- | | **Response**: | "Yes." | | |      | 예. (or 네.) | | | | *ye* (or *ne*) | | | | yes | The relationship between a speaker/writer and their subject and audience is paramount in Korean grammar. The relationship between the speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in *honorifics*, whereas that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in *speech level*. ### Honorifics When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if they are an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if they are a younger stranger, student, employee, or the like. Nowadays, there are special endings which can be used on declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences, and both honorific or normal sentences. Honorifics in traditional Korea were strictly hierarchical. The caste and estate systems possessed patterns and usages much more complex and stratified than those used today. The intricate structure of the Korean honorific system flourished in traditional culture and society. Honorifics in contemporary Korea are now used for people who are psychologically distant. Honorifics are also used for people who are superior in status. For example, older people, teachers, and employers. ### Speech levels There are seven verb paradigms or *speech levels* in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike honorifics—which are used to show respect towards the referent (the person spoken of)—*speech levels* are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience (the person spoken to). The names of the seven levels are derived from the non-honorific imperative form of the verb 하다 (*hada*, "do") in each level, plus the suffix 체 ("che", Hanja: 體), which means "style". The three levels with high politeness (very formally polite, formally polite, casually polite) are generally grouped together as *jondaenmal* (존댓말), whereas the two levels with low politeness (formally impolite, casually impolite) are *banmal* (반말) in Korean. The remaining two levels (neutral formality with neutral politeness, high formality with neutral politeness) are neither polite nor impolite. Nowadays, younger-generation speakers no longer feel obligated to lower their usual regard toward the referent. It is common to see younger people talk to their older relatives with banmal (반말). This is not out of disrespect, but instead it shows the intimacy and the closeness of the relationship between the two speakers. Transformations in social structures and attitudes in today's rapidly changing society have brought about change in the way people speak.[*page needed*] ### Gender In general, Korean lacks grammatical gender. As one of the few exceptions, the third-person singular pronoun has two different forms: 그 *geu* (male) and 그녀 *geu-nyeo* (female). Before 그녀 was invented in need of translating 'she' into Korean, 그 was the only third-person singular pronoun and had no grammatical gender. Its origin causes 그녀 never to be used in spoken Korean but appearing only in writing. To have a more complete understanding of the intricacies of gender in Korean, three models of language and gender that have been proposed: the deficit model, the dominance model, and the cultural difference model. In the deficit model, male speech is seen as the default, and any form of speech that diverges from that norm (female speech) is seen as lesser than. The dominance model sees women as lacking in power due to living within a patriarchal society. The cultural difference model proposes that the difference in upbringing between men and women can explain the differences in their speech patterns. It is important to look at the models to better understand the misogynistic conditions that shaped the ways that men and women use the language. Korean's lack of grammatical gender makes it different from most European languages. Rather, gendered differences in Korean can be observed through formality, intonation, word choice, etc. However, one can still find stronger contrasts between genders within Korean speech. Some examples of this can be seen in: (1) the softer tone used by women in speech; (2) a married woman introducing herself as someone's mother or wife, not with her own name; (3) the presence of gender differences in titles and occupational terms (for example, a *sajang* is a company president, and *yŏsajang* is a female company president); (4) females sometimes using more tag questions and rising tones in statements, also seen in speech from children. Between two people of asymmetric status in Korean society, people tend to emphasize differences in status for the sake of solidarity. Koreans prefer to use kinship terms, rather than any other terms of reference. In traditional Korean society, women have long been in disadvantaged positions. Korean social structure traditionally was a patriarchically dominated family system that emphasized the maintenance of family lines. That structure has tended to separate the roles of women from those of men. Cho and Whitman (2019) explain that the different categories like male and female in social conditions influence Korean's features. What they noticed was the word *jagi* (자기). Before explaining the word *jagi*, one thing that needs to be clearly distinguished is that *jagi* can be used in a variety of situations, not all of which mean the same thing, but they depend on the context. Parallel variable solidarity and affection move the convention of speech style, especially terms of address that Jagi (자기 'you') has emerged as a gender-specific second-person pronoun used by women. However, young Koreans use the word *jagi* to their lovers or spouses regardless of gender. Among middle-aged women, the word *jagi* is sometimes used to call someone who is close to them. Korean society's prevalent attitude towards men being in public (outside the home) and women living in private still exists today. For instance, the word for *husband* is *bakkat-yangban* (바깥양반 'outside' 'nobleman'), but a husband introduces his wife as an|saram (안사람 an 'inside' 'person'). Also in kinship terminology, *we* (외 'outside' or 'wrong') is added for maternal grandparents, creating *oe-harabeoji* and *oe-hal-meoni* (외할아버지, 외할머니 'grandfather and grandmother'), with different lexicons for males and females and patriarchal society revealed. Further, in interrogatives to an addressee of equal or lower status, Korean men tend to use *haennya* (했냐? 'did it?')' in aggressive masculinity, but women use *haenni* (했니? 'did it?')' as a soft expression. However, there are exceptions. Korean society used the question endings *-ni* (니) and *-nya* (냐), the former prevailing among women and men until a few decades ago. In fact, *-nya* (냐) was characteristic of the Jeolla and Chungcheong dialects. However, since the 1950s, large numbers of people have moved to Seoul from Chungcheong and Jeolla, and they began to influence the way men speak. Recently, women also have used the *-nya* (냐). As for *-ni* (니), it is usually used toward people to be polite even to someone not close or younger. As for *-nya* (냐), it is used mainly to close friends regardless of gender. Like the case of "actor" and "actress," it also is possible to add a gender prefix for emphasis: *biseo* (비서 'secretary') is sometimes combined with *yeo* (여 'female') to form *yeo-biseo* (여비서 'female secretary'); *namja* (남자 'man') often is added to *ganhosa* (간호사 'nurse') to form *namja-ganhosa* (남자간호사 'male nurse'). That is not about omission; it is about addition. Words without those prefixes neither sound awkward nor remind listeners of political correctness. Another crucial difference between men and women is the tone and pitch of their voices and how they affect the perception of politeness. Men learn to use an authoritative falling tone; in Korean culture, a deeper voice is associated with being more polite. In addition to the deferential speech endings being used, men are seen as more polite as well as impartial, and professional. Compared to women who use a rising tone in conjunction with *-yo* (요), they are not perceived to be as polite as men. The *-yo* (요) also indicates uncertainty since the ending has many prefixes that indicate uncertainty and questioning. The deferential ending does not have any prefixes and do can indicate uncertainty. The *-hamnida* (합니다) ending is the most polite and formal form of Korea, and the *-yo* (요) ending is less polite and formal, which causes the perception of women as less professional. Hedges soften an assertion, and their function as a euphemism in women's speech in terms of discourse difference. Women are expected to add nasal sounds *neyng*, *neym*, *ney-e*, more frequently than men do in the last syllable. Often, *l* is often added in women's for female stereotypes and so *igeolo* (이거로 'this thing') becomes *igeollo* (이걸로 'this thing') to refer to a lack of confidence and passive construction.[*page needed*] Women use more linguistic markers such as exclamation *eomeo* (어머 'oh') and *eojjeom* (어쩜 'what a surprise') than men do in cooperative communication. Vocabulary ---------- The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of *native Korean* words. However, a significant proportion of the vocabulary, especially words that denote abstract ideas, are *Sino-Korean* words (of Chinese origin). To a much lesser extent, some words have also been borrowed from Mongolian and other languages. More recent loanwords are dominated by English. In South Korea, it is widely believed that North Korea wanted to emphasize the use of unique Korean expressions in its language and eliminate the influence of foreign languages. However, according to researchers such as Jeon Soo-tae, who has seen first-hand data from North Korea, the country has reduced the number of difficult foreign words in a similar way to South Korea. In 2021, Moon Sung-guk of Kim Il Sung University in North Korea wrote in his thesis that Kim Jong Il had said that vernacularized Sino-Korean vocabulary should be used as it is, not modified. "A language is in constant interaction with other languages, and in the process it is constantly being developed and enriched," he said. According to the paper, Kim Jong Il argued that academic terms used in the natural sciences and engineering, such as 콤퓨터(*compyutŏ*; computer) and 하드디스크(*hadǔdisǔkǔ*; hard disk) should remain in the names of their inventors, and that the vocabulary of 쵸콜레트(*ch'okoletǔ*; chocolate) should not be replaced because it had been used for so long. South Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the "표준국어대사전"("Standard Korean Language Dictionary"), and North Korea defines its vocabulary standards through the "조선말대사전"("Korean Language Dictionary"). | Number | Sino-Korean cardinals | Native Korean cardinals | | --- | --- | --- | | Hangul | Romanization | Hangul | Romanization | | 1 | 일 | *il* | 하나 | *hana* | | 2 | 이 | *yi* | 둘 | *dul* | | 3 | 삼 | *sam* | 셋 | *set* | | 4 | 사 | *sa* | 넷 | *net* | | 5 | 오 | *o* | 다섯 | *daseot* | | 6 | 육, 륙 | *yuk*, *ryuk* | 여섯 | *yeoseot* | | 7 | 칠 | *chil* | 일곱 | *ilgop* | | 8 | 팔 | *pal* | 여덟 | *yeodeol* | | 9 | 구 | *gu* | 아홉 | *ahop* | | 10 | 십 | *sheep* | 열 | *yeol* | ### Sino-Korean Sino-Korean vocabulary consists of: * words directly borrowed from written Chinese, and * compounds coined in Korea or Japan and read using the Sino-Korean reading of Chinese characters. Therefore, just like other words, Korean has two sets of numeral systems. English is similar, having native English words and Latinate equivalents such as *water-aqua*, *fire-flame*, *sea-marine*, *two-dual*, *sun-solar*, *star-stellar*. However, unlike English and Latin which belong to the same Indo-European languages family and bear a certain resemblance, Korean and Chinese are genetically unrelated and the two sets of Korean words differ completely from each other. All Sino-Korean morphemes are monosyllabic as in Chinese, whereas native Korean morphemes can be polysyllabic. The Sino-Korean words were deliberately imported alongside corresponding Chinese characters for a written language and everything was supposed to be written in Hanja, so the coexistence of Sino-Korean would be more thorough and systematic than that of Latinate words in English. The exact proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary is a matter of debate. Sohn (2001) stated 50–60%. In 2006 the same author gives an even higher estimate of 65%. Jeong Jae-do, one of the compilers of the dictionary *Urimal Keun Sajeon*, asserts that the proportion is not so high. He points out that Korean dictionaries compiled during the colonial period include many unused Sino-Korean words. In his estimation, the proportion of Sino-Korean vocabulary in the Korean language might be as low as 30%. ### Western loanwords The vast majority of loanwords other than Sino-Korean come from modern times, approximately 90% of which are from English. Many words have also been borrowed from Western languages such as German via Japanese (아르바이트 (*areubaiteu*) "part-time job", 알레르기 (*allereugi*) "allergy", 기브스 (*gibseu* or *gibuseu*) "plaster cast used for broken bones"). Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese during the Japanese occupation of Korea, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example "dozen" > ダース *dāsu* > 다스 *daseu*. Most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current "Hangulization" rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. There are a few more complicated borrowings such as "German(y)" (see names of Germany), the first part of whose endonym *Deutschland* [ˈdɔʏtʃlant] the Japanese approximated using the kanji 獨逸 *doitsu* that were then accepted into the Korean language by their Sino-Korean pronunciation: 獨 *dok* + 逸 *il* = *Dogil*. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented "Hangeulizations" of the countries' endonyms or English names. *For more information: Korean exonyms* Because of such a prevalence of English in modern South Korean culture and society, lexical borrowing is inevitable. English-derived Korean, or "Konglish" (콩글리쉬), is increasingly used. The vocabulary of the South Korean dialect of the Korean language is roughly 5% loanwords (excluding Sino-Korean vocabulary). However, due to North Korea's isolation, such influence is lacking in North Korean speech. Korean uses words adapted from English in ways that may seem strange or unintuitive to native English speakers. For example, *fighting* (화이팅 / 파이팅 *hwaiting* / *paiting*) is a term of encouragement, like 'come on'/'go (on)' in English. Something that is 'service' (서비스 *seobiseu*) is free or 'on the house'. A building referred to as an 'apart' (아파트 *apateu*) is an 'apartment' (but in fact refers to a residence more akin to a condominium) and a type of pencil that is called a 'sharp' (샤프) is a mechanical pencil. Like other borrowings, many of these idiosyncrasies, including all the examples listed above, appear to be imported into Korean via Japanese, or influenced by Japanese. Many English words introduced via Japanese pronunciation have been reformed, as in 멜론 (melon) which was once called 메론 (meron) as in Japanese. Writing system -------------- Before the creation of the modern Korean alphabet, known as Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea and as Hangul in South Korea, people in Korea (known as Joseon at the time) primarily wrote using Classical Chinese alongside native phonetic writing systems that predate Hangul by hundreds of years, including idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil. Few people in the lower classes had the opportunity to receive an education, and they found it extremely difficult to learn how to write in Chinese characters due to the fundamental disparities between the Korean and Chinese languages and the sheer amount of characters that needed to be taught. To assuage that problem, King Sejong (r. 1418–1450) created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. The Korean alphabet was denounced and looked down upon by the *yangban* aristocracy, who deemed it too easy to learn, but it gained widespread use among the common class and was widely used to print popular novels which were enjoyed by the common class. With growing Korean nationalism in the 19th century, the Gabo Reformists' push, and the promotion of Hangul in schools, in 1894, Hangul displaced Hanja as Korea's national script. Hanja are still used to a certain extent in South Korea, where they are sometimes combined with Hangul, but that method is slowly declining in use even though students learn Hanja in school. ### Symbol chart Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's (Hangul) symbols and their Revised Romanization (RR) and canonical International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) values: Consonants| Hangul 한글 | ㅂ | ㄷ | ㅈ | ㄱ | ㅃ | ㄸ | ㅉ | ㄲ | ㅍ | ㅌ | ㅊ | ㅋ | ㅅ | ㅎ | ㅆ | ㅁ | ㄴ | ㅇ | ㄹ | | RR | *b* | *d* | *j* | *g* | *pp* | *tt* | *jj* | *kk* | *p* | *t* | *ch* | *k* | *s* | *h* | *ss* | *m* | *n* | *ng* | *r*, *l* | | IPA | p | t | t͡ɕ | k | p͈ | t͈ | t͡ɕ͈ | k͈ | pʰ | tʰ | t͡ɕʰ | kʰ | s | h | s͈ | m | n | ŋ | ɾ, l | Vowels| Hangul 한글 | ㅣ | ㅔ | ㅚ | ㅐ | ㅏ | ㅗ | ㅜ | ㅓ | ㅡ | ㅢ | ㅖ | ㅒ | ㅑ | ㅛ | ㅠ | ㅕ | ㅟ | ㅞ | ㅙ | ㅘ | ㅝ | | RR | *i* | *e* | *oe* | *ae* | *a* | *o* | *u* | *eo* | *eu* | *ui* | *ye* | *yae* | *ya* | *yo* | *yu* | *yeo* | *wi* | *we* | *wae* | *wa* | *wo* | | IPA | i | e | ø, we | ɛ | a | o | u | ʌ | ɯ | ɰi | je | jɛ | ja | jo | ju | jʌ | ɥi, wi | we | wɛ | wa | wʌ | The letters of the Korean alphabet are not written linearly like most alphabets, but instead arranged into blocks that represent syllables. So, while the word *bibimbap* (Korean rice dish) is written as eight characters in a row in the Latin alphabet, in Korean it is written 비빔밥, as three "syllabic blocks" in a row. *Mukbang (*먹방 'eating show') is seven characters after romanization but only two "syllabic blocks" before. Modern Korean is written with spaces between words, a feature not found in Chinese or Japanese (except when Japanese is written exclusively in hiragana, as in children's books). The marks used for Korean punctuation are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns, from top to bottom, right to left, like traditional Chinese. However, the syllabic blocks are now usually written in rows, from left to right, top to bottom, like English. Dialects -------- Korean has numerous small local dialects (called *mal* (말) [literally 'speech'], *saturi* (사투리), or *bang'eon* (방언). The standard language (*pyojun-eo* or *pyojun-mal*) of both South Korea and North Korea is based on the dialect of the area around Seoul (which, as Hanyang, was the capital of Joseon-era Korea for 500 years), though the standard language of North Korea has been propagandized by Kim Il Sung as the language of Pyongyang since 1966, reflecting the ideology of the North Korean regime. All dialects of Korean are similar to each other and largely mutually intelligible (with the exception of dialect-specific phrases or non-Standard vocabulary unique to dialects), though the dialect of Jeju Island is divergent enough to be sometimes classified as a separate language.[*page needed*][*page needed*] One of the more salient differences between dialects is the use of tone: speakers of the Seoul dialect make use of vowel length, whereas speakers of the Gyeongsang dialect maintain the pitch accent of Middle Korean. Some dialects are conservative, maintaining Middle Korean sounds (such as *z, β, ə*) which have been lost from the standard language, whereas others are highly innovative. Kang Yoon-jung et al. (2013), Kim Mi-ryoung (2013), and Cho Sung-hye (2017) suggest that the modern Seoul dialect is currently undergoing tonogenesis, based on the finding that in recent years lenis consonants (ㅂㅈㄷㄱ), aspirated consonants (ㅍㅊㅌㅋ) and fortis consonants (ㅃㅉㄸㄲ) were shifting from a distinction via voice onset time to that of pitch change; however, Choi Ji-youn et al. (2020) disagree with the suggestion that the consonant distinction shifting away from voice onset time is due to the introduction of tonal features, and instead proposes that it is a prosodically conditioned change. There is substantial evidence for a history of extensive dialect levelling, or even convergent evolution or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, for example "garlic chives" translated into Gyeongsang dialect /t͡ɕʌŋ.ɡu.d͡ʑi/ (정구지; *jeongguji*) but in Standard Korean, it is /puːt͡ɕʰu/ (부추; *buchu*). This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present. See also the Japanese–Koguryoic languages hypothesis. The differences among northern and southern dialects have become so significant that many North Korean defectors reportedly have had great difficulty communicating with South Koreans after having initially settled into South Korea. In response to the diverging vocabularies, an app called Univoca was designed to help North Korean defectors learn South Korean terms by translating them into North Korean ones. More information can be found on the page North-South differences in the Korean language. Meanwhile, in South Korea, some South Korean linguists and North Korean defectors have argued that South Korean media and education overemphasize or exaggerate the differences between North Korean and South Korean languages. At the 2014 National Conference of the Korean Language and Literature Association, Yonsei University professor Hong Yun-pyo argued that language differences between North and South Korea were exaggerated in the context of the Cold War. According to Hong, after the Korean War, words like *dongmu*(동무; comrade, friend) and *inmin*(인민; people) that had been in common use in South Korea before that disappeared, and if anyone used them, they could be reported to the authorities, which was important evidence of espionage. The language differences between the North and South continued to be exaggerated. The language of the North, the North Korean language, was used to promote anti-communist ideology. He even said that research on North Korean in South Korea "has not been done with actual language materials." Hong had numerous meetings with North Korean scholars for academic conferences and dictionary compilations, but he rarely encountered communication difficulties; rather, he was more likely to encounter communication difficulties with speakers of the Gyeongsang or Jeolla dialects. Journalist Joo Sung-ha, a North Korean defector, and Park No-pyeong, a North Korean defector who worked as a professor in North Korea, claimed that there are exaggerations, such as claiming that vocabulary that is unfamiliar to South Koreans but also unfamiliar to North Koreans is common in North Korea, or claiming vocabulary that is different from the North Korean standard as the standard in North Korea. For example, he said that there are rumors in South Korea that the word *jeon-gu*(전구; bulb) is called *bural*(불알; balls) in North Korea, which is not true. Most North Korean defectors spoke the dialect of their homeland, not the standard North Korean language, which has some similarities to the standard South Korean language, and it is believed that many did not even know the standard North Korean language when they arrived in South Korea. In South Korea, the idea that there are linguistic differences between the languages of North and South Korea gained traction until the mid-to-late 2010s. However, as exploration of the actual language of North Korea has progressed, it has been argued that any differences in communication between the two Koreas stem from "cultural" differences, such as economic conditions and traditional ways of expression in certain regions. For example, North Korean defectors who have fled the country tend to have more direct communication habits that reveal their true feelings compared to South Korean language etiquette, which is prominent in defectors' hometowns but rare in other areas where defection is rare, such as Pyongyang. Aside from the standard language, there are few clear boundaries between Korean dialects, and they are typically partially grouped according to the regions of Korea. Recently, both North and South Korea's usage rate of the regional dialect have been decreasing due to social factors. In North Korea, the central government is urging its citizens to use Munhwaŏ (the standard language of North Korea, literally 'Cultural language'), to prevent the use of foul language by the people: Kim Jong Un said in a speech "if your language in life is cultural and polite, you can achieve harmony and comradely unity among people." In South Korea, due to relocation in the population to Seoul to find jobs and the usage of standard language in education and media, the prevalence of regional dialects has decreased. Moreover, internationally, due to the increasing popularity of K-pop, the Seoul standard language has become more widely taught and used. The North Korean government has become increasingly wary of the Korean Wave, and as such, has been very wary of slangs that reflect South Korean culture since 2020. In January 2023, North Korea adopted a law that could lead to public execution for excessive use of South Korean slangs. The word *oppa*(오빠, It was originally used by a woman who was the younger sibling in a sibling relationship to refer to a man who was older than her, but in South Korea, it also became a way for a younger woman to refer to her male lover in a romantic relationship.) was a prime example of this. | Standard language | Locations of use | | --- | --- | | Pyojuneo (표준어) | Standard language of ROK. Based on Seoul dialect; very similar to Incheon and most of Gyeonggi, west of Gangwon-do (Yeongseo region); also commonly used among younger Koreans nationwide and in online context. | | Munhwaŏ (문화어) | Standard language of DPRK. Claimed politically by the North Korean government as "the language of Pyongyang(평양말)"," but linguistically it is believed to be primarily derived from the Seoul dialect. It also reflects language use in regions of North Korea outside of Pyongyang.[*page needed*] | | Regional dialects | Locations of use and example compared to the standard language | | Hamgyŏng/Northeastern(함경/동북) | Rasŏn, most of Hamgyŏng region, northeast P'yŏngan, Ryanggang Province (North Korea), Jilin (China). * Koreans who have heard the Hamgyŏng dialect describe it as similar in tone to the Gyeongsang and southern Yeongdong dialects. * It is also the most spoken dialect by North Korean defectors in South Korea, as about 80% of them are from Hamgyŏng Province. * Koryo-Mal, the moribund variety of Korean spoken mainly by elderly *Koryo-saram* in Central Asia and Russia, is descended from the Northern Hamgyong Dialect, as well as the Yukchin Dialect. * Honorific | Munhwaŏ | Hamgyŏng | Ryukjin | | --- | --- | --- | | 하십시오 (*hasibsio*) | 합소(세) (*Habso(se)*) | 합쇼 (*Habsyo*) | | 해요 (*haeyo*) | 하오 (*Hao*) | 하오 (*Hao*) | * Ordinary way of speaking (near Hamhung, Hyesan) * + The vowel 'ㅔ(e)' is changed to 'ㅓ(eo)'. - example: "Your daughter has come." | Munhwaŏ | Hamgyŏng | | --- | --- | | 당신네dangsinne딸이ttal-i찾아chaj-a왔소.wattso.당신네 딸이 찾아 왔소.dangsinne ttal-i chaj-a wattso. | 당신너dangsinneo딸이가ttal-iga찾아chaj-a왔슴메.wattseumme.당신너 딸이가 찾아 왔슴메.dangsinneo ttal-iga chaj-a wattseumme. | * + When calling a superior person, always put the ending '요(yo)' after the noun. - example: "Grandpa, come quickly." | Munhwaŏ | Hamgyŏng | | --- | --- | | 할아버지,hal-abeoji,빨리ppalli오세요.oseyo.할아버지, 빨리 오세요.hal-abeoji, ppalli oseyo. | 클아바네요,keul-abaneyo,빨리ppalli오옵소.oobso.클아바네요, 빨리 오옵소.keul-abaneyo, ppalli oobso. | * + The ending '-니까(-nikka)' is changed to '-길래(-gilrae)'. - example: "Come early because you have to cultivate the field." | Munhwaŏ | Hamgyŏng | | --- | --- | | 밭을bat-eul매야maeya하니까hanikka일찍iljjig오너라.oneola.밭을 매야 하니까 일찍 오너라.bat-eul maeya hanikka iljjig oneola. | 밭으bat-eu매야maeya하길래hagilrae일찍iljjig오나라.onala.밭으 매야 하길래 일찍 오나라.bat-eu maeya hagilrae iljjig onala. | | | P'yŏngan/Northwestern(평안/서북) | P'yŏngan region, P'yŏngyang, Chagang, northern North Hamgyŏng (North Korea), Liaoning (China) * It is also the North Korean dialect best known to South Koreans. However, North Korean defectors also claim that South Koreans have less accurate knowledge of the dialect due to the long division. * Honorific | Munhwaŏ | Pyongan | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | 하시hasi하시hasi | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | * Ordinary way of speaking * + The vowel 'ㅕ(yeo)' is changed to'ㅔ(e)'. - example: armpit | Munhwaŏ | Pyongan | | --- | --- | | 겨드랑이gyeodeulang-i겨드랑이gyeodeulang-i | 게드랑이gedeulang-i게드랑이gedeulang-i | * + If a Sino-Korean word is preceded by a 'ㄹ(r)' pronunciation, it is pronounced as 'ㄴ(n)'. At the same time, if 'ㄹ(r)' is followed by a diphthong containing the [j] sound, the [j] sound is dropped and pronounced as a short vowel. + In the front part of the pure vocabulary of Middle Korean, [nj] changed to [j] in the Seoul dialect, which changed to [n] in this dialect. - example: 1) Summer 2) Seven 3) Trend | Munhwaŏ | Pyongan | | --- | --- | | 여름yeoleum여름yeoleum | 너름neoleum너름neoleum | | 일곱ilgob일곱ilgob | 닐굽nilgub닐굽nilgub | | 류행ryuhaeng류행ryuhaeng | 누행nuhaeng누행nuhaeng | * + When representing the past, there is a dropout phenomenon of 'ㅆ(ss/tt)'. - example: "I brought this." | Munhwaŏ | Pyongan | | --- | --- | | 이거igeo내가naega가져왔어gajyeowass-eo.이거 내가 가져왔어igeo naega gajyeowass-eo. | 이거igeo내가naega개와서gaewaseo이거 내가 개와서igeo naega gaewaseo | | | Hwanghae/Central(황해/중부) | Hwanghae region (North Korea). Also in the Islands of Yeonpyeongdo, Baengnyeongdo and Daecheongdo in Ongjin County of Incheon. * Some North Korean scholars, such as Kim Byung-je, do not recognize this distinction and consider the West-North and Gyeonggi dialects to be spoken in the region. * It is known that dialects are spoken that share characteristics of neighboring regional dialects. It is mainly known to have characteristics of both Gyeonggi and Pyeongan dialects. * Honorific | Munhwaŏ | Hwanghae | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | 하서haseo하서haseo | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | | 습니까seubnikka습니까seubnikka | 시꺄shikkya시꺄shikkya | * Ordinary way of speaking * + Many of the vowels are pronounced as 'ㅣ(i)'. - example: habit | Munhwaŏ | Hwanghae | | --- | --- | | 습관seubgwan습관seubgwan | 십관sibgwan십관sibgwan | * + '네(ne)' is used as a questionable form. - example: "Did you eat?" | Munhwaŏ | Hwanghae | | --- | --- | | 밥bab먹었니?meog-eossni?밥 먹었니?bab meog-eossni? | 밥bab먹었네?meog-eossne?밥 먹었네?bab meog-eossne? | * + '-누만(-numan)' is often used as an exclamation sentence. - example: "It got a lot colder" | Munhwaŏ | Hwanghae | | --- | --- | | 많이manh-i추워졌구나chuwojyeottguna많이 추워졌구나manh-i chuwojyeottguna | 많이manh-i추어졌누만chueojyeottnuman많이 추어졌누만manh-i chueojyeottnuman | Areas in Northwest Hwanghae, such as Ongjin County in Hwanghae Province, pronounced 'ㅈ' (*j'*), originally pronounced the letter more closely to *tz*. However, this has largely disappeared. The rest is almost similar to the Gyeonggi and Pyongan dialect. | | Gyeonggi/Central(경기/중부) | Seoul, Incheon, Gyeonggi region (South Korea), as well as Kaeseong, Gaepoong and Changpung in North Korea. * Seoul dialect, which was the basis of Pyojuneo, is a subdialect of Gyeonggi dialect. * About 70% of all Seoul dialect vocabulary has been adopted as Pyojuneo, and only about 10% out of 30% of Seoul dialect vocabulary that has not been adopted in Pyojuneo have been used so far. * Gyeonggi dialect is the least existential dialect in South Korea, and most people do not know that Gyeonggi dialect itself exists. So, Gyeonggi-do residents say they only use standard language, and many people know the language spoken by Gyeonggi-do residents as standard language in other regions. * Recently, young people have come to realize that there is a dialect in Seoul as they are exposed to the Seoul dialect through media such as YouTube. * Among the Gyeonggi dialects, the best known dialect along with Seoul dialect is Suwon dialect. The dialects of Suwon and its surrounding areas are quite different from those of northern Gyeonggi Province and surrounding areas of Seoul. * In some areas of the southern part of Gyeonggi Province, which is close to Chungcheong Province, such as Pyeongtaek and Anseong, it is also included in the Chungcheong dialect area. Local residents living in these areas also admit that they speak Chungcheong dialect. * Traditionally, coastal areas of Gyeonggi, particularly Incheon, Ganghwa, Ongjin and Gimpo have been recorded to have some influence from the dialects of Hwanghae and Chungcheong, due to historic intermixing with the two regions, as well as geographical proximity. This old influence, however, has largely died out among most middle aged and younger locals from the region. * Originally, northern Gyeonggi Province, including Seoul, received influence from Northern dialects (Areas of Kaeseong along the Ryesong River, or Ganghwa Island, received an especially high amount of influence from the Hwanghae dialect), while southern Gyeonggi Province was influenced from Chungcheong dialect. However, as a result of the prolonged division and the large number of migrants from Chungcheong Province and Jeolla Province to Seoul, the current way of speaking in Gyeonggi has been greatly influenced by Chungcheong and Jeolla. * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Gyeonggi | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | - | | 하오hao하오hao | 하우/허우hau/heou하우/허우hau/heou | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | * Ordinary way of speaking * + The vowel 'ㅏ(a)' is changed to 'ㅓ(eo)', and 'ㅓ(eo)' is changed to 'ㅡ(eu)'. - example: 1) "It hurts." 2) "It's dirty" | Pyojuneo | Gyeonggi | | --- | --- | | 아파apa아파apa | 아퍼apeo아퍼apeo | | 더러워deoleowo더러워deoleowo | 드러워deuleowo드러워deuleowo | * + The vowel 'ㅏ(a)' and 'ㅓ(eo)' are sometimes changed to 'ㅐ(ae)'. - example: 1) Sesame oil 2) "You look like a fool." | Pyojuneo | Gyeonggi | | --- | --- | | 참기름chamgileum참기름chamgileum | 챔기름chaemgileum챔기름chaemgileum | | 너neo바보babo같아gat-a너 바보 같아neo babo gat-a | 너neo바보babo같애gat-ae너 바보 같애neo babo gat-ae | * + The vowel 'ㅗ(o)' is mainly changed to 'ㅜ(u)'. - example: 1) "What are you doing?" 2) uncle | Pyojuneo | Gyeonggi | | --- | --- | | 뭐하고mwohago있어?iss-eo?뭐하고 있어?mwohago iss-eo? | 뭐허구mwoheogu있어?iss-eo?뭐허구 있어?mwoheogu iss-eo? | | 삼촌samchon삼촌samchon | 삼춘samchun삼춘samchun | * Dialects of Suwon and its surrounding areas. + The ending '~거야(geoya)' ends briefly with '~거(geo)' - example: "Where will you go?" | Pyojuneo | Suwon | | --- | --- | | 어디eodi갈gal거야?geoya?어디 갈 거야?eodi gal geoya? | 어디eodi갈gal거?geo?어디 갈 거?eodi gal geo? | | | Gangwon<Yeongseo/Yeongdong>/Central(강원<영서/영동>/중부) | Yeongseo (Gangwon (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea) west of the Taebaek Mountains), Yeongdong (Gangwon (South Korea)/Kangwŏn (North Korea), east of the Taebaek Mountains) * Gangwon Province is divided between Yeongseo and Yeongdong due to the Taebaek Mountains, so even if it is the same Gangwon Province, there is a significant difference in dialect between the two regions. * In the case of the Yeongseo dialect, the accent is slightly different from the dialect of Gyeonggi Province, but most of the vocabulary is similar to the dialect of Gyeonggi Province. * Unlike the Yeongseo dialect, Yeongdong dialect has a tone, such as Hamgyeong dialect and Gyeongsang dialect. * Gangwon dialect is the least spoken dialect of all dialects in South Korea except Jeju. * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Yeongseo | Yeongdong | | --- | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | -Lack of data- | - | | 하오hao하오hao | 하오,hao,하우hau하오, 하우hao, hau | 하오hao하오hao | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해오haeyo해오haeyo | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | * Ordinary way of speaking * + There are pronunciations, such as 'ㆉ(yoi)' and 'ㆌ(yui)', that you cannot hear in most regions of Korea. + The vowel 'ㅠ(yu)' is changed to 'ㅟ(wi)' or 'ㆌ(yui)'. - example: Vacation | Pyojuneo | Gangwon | | --- | --- | | 휴가hyuga휴가hyuga | 휘가hwiga휘가hwiga | * + Use '나(na)' a lot in questionable form. - example: "What are you doing lately?" | Pyojuneo | Gangwon(Yeongdong) | | --- | --- | | 요즘yojeum뭐해?mwohae?요즘 뭐해?yojeum mwohae? | 요즘yojeum뭐하나?mwohana?요즘 뭐하나?yojeum mwohana? | | | Chungcheong/Central(충청/중부) | Daejeon, Sejong, Chungcheong region (South Korea) * Chungcheong dialect is considered to be the softest dialect to hear among all dialects of Korean. * Chungcheong dialect is one of the most recognized dialects in South Korea, along with Jeolla dialect and Gyeongsang dialect. * Chungcheong dialect was the most commonly used dialect by aristocrats(Yangban) during the Joseon dynasty, along with dialects in northern Gyeongsang Province. * In the case of Chungcheong dialect, it is a dialect belonging to the central dialect along with Gyeonggi, Gangwon, and Hwanghae dialects, but some scholars view it as a separate dialect separated from the central dialect. In addition, some scholars classify southern Chungcheong dialect regions such as Daejeon, Sejong, and Gongju as the southern dialect such as Jeolla and Gyeongsang dialects. * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Chungcheong | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | 하시오hasio(충남 서해안 일부 지역)(Some areas on the west coast of South Chungcheong Province)하시오hasio | | 하오hao하오hao | 하게hage하게hage | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해유haeyu(기본)(General)해유 (기본)haeyu (General) | * Ordinary way of speaking * + The vowel 'ㅑ(ya)' that comes to the ending is changed to 'ㅕ(yeo)'. - example: 1) "What are you talking about?" 2) "What are you doing?" | Pyojuneo | Chungcheong | | --- | --- | | 무슨museun소리야?soliya?무슨 소리야?museun soliya? | 뭔mwon소리여~?soliyeo~?뭔 소리여~?mwon soliyeo~? | | 뭐하는mwohaneun거야?geoya?뭐하는 거야?mwohaneun geoya? | 뭐허는mwoheoneun거여~?geoyeo~?//뭐하는mwohaneun겨~?gyeo~?뭐허는 거여~? / 뭐하는 겨~?mwoheoneun geoyeo~? / mwohaneun gyeo~? | * + 'ㅔ(e)' is mainly changed to 'ㅣ(i)', and 'ㅐ(ae)' is mainly changed to 'ㅑ(ya)' or 'ㅕ(yeo)'. - example: 1) "He/She/They said he/she/they put it outside." 2) "Would you like to eat this?" 3) "Okay." | Pyojuneo | Chungcheong | | --- | --- | | 그거geugeo바깥에다가bakkat-edaga뒀대dwossdae그거 바깥에다가 뒀대geugeo bakkat-edaga dwossdae | 고거gogeo바깥이다가bakkat-idaga뒀댜~dwossdya~고거 바깥이다가 뒀댜~gogeo bakkat-idaga dwossdya~ | | 이거igeo먹을래?meog-eullae?이거 먹을래?igeo meog-eullae? | 여거yeogeo먹을려?meog-eullyeo?//이거igeo먹을쳐?meog-eulchyeo?여거 먹을려? / 이거 먹을쳐?yeogeo meog-eullyeo? / igeo meog-eulchyeo? | | 그래geulae그래geulae | 그려~geulyeo~//그랴~geulya~//기여~giyeo~//겨~gyeo~그려~ / 그랴~ / 기여~ / 겨~geulyeo~ / geulya~ / giyeo~ / gyeo~ | * + The ending '겠(gett)' is mainly pronounced as '겄(geott)', and the ending'까(kka)' is mainly pronounced as '께(kke)'. - example: "I've put it all away, so it'll be okay." | Pyojuneo | Chungcheong | | --- | --- | | 내가naega다da치워뒀으니까chiwodwoss-eunikka괜찮겠지gwaenchanhgettji내가 다 치워뒀으니까 괜찮겠지naega da chiwodwoss-eunikka gwaenchanhgettji | 내가naega다da치워뒀으니께chiwodwoss-eunikke갠찮겄지gaenchanhgeottji내가 다 치워뒀으니께 갠찮겄지naega da chiwodwoss-eunikke gaenchanhgeottji | The rest is almost similar to the Gyeonggi dialect. | | Jeolla/Southwestern(전라/서남) | Gwangju, Jeolla region (South Korea) * Jeolla dialect is a dialect that feels rough along with Gyeongsang dialect. Especially it is well known for its swearing. * Jeolla dialect speakers, along with Gyeongsang dialect speakers, have high self-esteem in their local dialects. * Many Jeolla dialect speakers can be found not only in Jeolla Province but also in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, because Jeolla Province itself was alienated from development, so many Jeolla residents came to Seoul and Gyeonggi Province. * Much of Northern Jeolla, especially in areas close to Southern Chungcheong like Jeonju, Gunsan and Wanju have traditionally had weaker accents compared to the south, and in some cases, might be more closer to the Chungcheong dialect in terms of vocabulary and intonation. * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Jeolla | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | 허씨요heossiyo(기본)(General)허씨요 (기본)heossiyo (General) | | 하오hao하오hao | 허소heoso허소heoso | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 허라(우)heola(u)(서중부 지역)(West Central Region)허라(우)heola(u) | * Ordinary way of speaking * + The vowel 'ㅢ(ui)' is pronounced as 'ㅡ(eu)'. - example: Doctor | Pyojuneo | Jeolla | | --- | --- | | 의사uisa의사uisa | 으사eusa으사eusa | * + The ending '지(ji)' is pronounced as '제(je)'. - example: "That's right." | Pyojuneo | Jeolla | | --- | --- | | 그렇지geuleohji그렇지geuleohji | 그라제geulaje//글제geulje그라제 / 글제geulaje / geulje | * + Use a lot of '잉(ing)' at the end of words. - example: "It's really pretty." | Pyojuneo | Jeolla | | --- | --- | | 진짜jinjja예쁘다yeppeuda진짜 예쁘다jinjja yeppeuda | 참말로chammallo이쁘다잉~ippeudaing~//참말로chammallo귄있다잉~gwin-ittdaing~참말로 이쁘다잉~ / 참말로 귄있다잉~chammallo ippeudaing~ / chammallo gwin-ittdaing~ | Famously, natives of Southern Jeolla pronounce certain combinations of vowels in Korean more softly, or omit the latter vowel entirely. | Pyojuneo | Jeolla | | --- | --- | | 육학년yoog-**kak**-nyeon육학년yoog-**kak**-nyeon | 유각년yoog-**ag**-nyeon유각년yoog-**ag**-nyeon | | 못해mot-**tae**못해mot-**tae** | 모대mo-**dae**모대mo-**dae** | However, in the case of '모대(modae)', it is also observed in South Chungcheong Province and some areas of southern Gyeonggi Province close to South Chungcheong Province. The rest is almost similar to the Chungcheong dialect. | | Gyeongsang/Southeastern(경상/동남) | Busan, Daegu, Ulsan, Gyeongsang region (South Korea) * Gyeongsang dialect is the best known dialect of all South Korean dialects. This is known not only by Koreans but also by foreigners interested in Korean culture. * Gyeongsang dialect is also known as the most rough and macho-like dialect of all South Korean dialects. * Gyeongsang dialect has a tone like Hamgyeong dialect and Yeongdong dialect. * Gyeongsang dialect is the most common dialect in dramas among all Korean dialects except for Gyeonggi dialect. * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Gyeongsang | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | 하이소haiso하이소haiso | | 하오hao하오hao | 하소haso하소haso | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | 해예haeye//해요haeyo해예 / 해요haeye / haeyo | * Ordinary way of speaking * + In question, '노(no)' and '나(na)' are mainly used. Use '나(na)' when asking for a short answer, and '노(no)' when asking for a specific answer. - example: 1) "Have you eaten?" 2) "What did you eat?" | Pyojuneo | Gyeongsang | | --- | --- | | 너neo밥bab먹었어?meog-eott-eo?너 밥 먹었어?neo bab meog-eott-eo? | 니ni밥bab뭇나?mutna?니 밥 뭇나?ni bab mutna? | | 뭐mwo먹었어?meog-eoss-eo?뭐 먹었어?mwo meog-eoss-eo? | 뭐mwo먹었노?meog-eossno?뭐 먹었노?mwo meog-eossno? | * + When talking, the sentence often ends with '~다 아이가(~da aiga)'. - example: "You said so." | Pyojuneo | Gyeongsang | | --- | --- | | 네가nega그렇게geuleohge말했잖아.malhaettjanh-a.네가 그렇게 말했잖아.nega geuleohge malhaettjanh-a. | 니가niga그렇게geuleohge말했다malhaettda아이가.aiga.니가 그렇게 말했다 아이가.niga geuleohge malhaettda aiga. | * + '~하다(~hada)' is pronounced as '~카다(~kada)'. - example: "Why are you doing that?" | Pyojuneo | Gyeongsang | | --- | --- | | 왜wae그렇게geuleohge하는haneun거야?geoya?왜 그렇게 하는 거야?wae geuleohge haneun geoya? | 와wa그geu카는데?kaneunde?와 그 카는데?wa geu kaneunde? | The rest is almost similar to the Jeolla dialect. | | *Jeju (제주)*\* | Jeju Island/Province (South Korea); sometimes classified as a separate language in the Koreanic language family* example: Hangul[*page needed*] + Pyojuneo: 한글 (*Hangul*) + Jeju: ᄒᆞᆫ글 (*Hongul*) * Honorific | Pyojuneo | Jeju | | --- | --- | | 하십시오hasibsio하십시오hasibsio | ᄒᆞᆸ서hobseoᄒᆞᆸ서hobseo | | 하오hao하오hao | ᄒᆞᆸ소hobsoᄒᆞᆸ소hobso | | 해요haeyo해요haeyo | ᄒᆞ여마씀hobyeomasseum//양yang//예yeᄒᆞ여마씀 / 양 / 예hobyeomasseum / yang / ye | | | North–South differences ----------------------- The language used in the North and the South exhibit differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary. ### Pronunciation In North Korea, palatalization of /si/ is optional, and /t͡ɕ/ can be pronounced [z] between vowels. Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently (such as the examples below). The pronunciations below are given in Revised Romanization, McCune–Reischauer and modified Hangul (what the Korean characters would be if one were to write the word as pronounced). | Word | RR | Meaning | Pronunciation | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | North | South | | RR | MR | Chosungul | RR | MR | Hangul | | 읽고 | il**g**o | to read (continuative form) | il**k**o | il**k**o | (일)**코** | il**kk**o | il**kk**o | (일)**꼬** | | 압록강 | am**n**okgang | Amnok River | am**r**okgang | am**r**okkang | **암**(록)**깡** | am**n**okkang | am**n**okkang | **암녹깡** | | 독립 | dong**n**ip | independence | dong**r**ip | tong**r**ip | **동**(립) | dong**n**ip | tong**n**ip | **동닙** | | 관념 | gwa**nn**yeom | idea / sense / conception | gwa**ll**yeom | kwa**ll**yŏm | **괄렴** | gwa**nn**yeom | kwa**nn**yŏm | (관)**념** | | 혁신적\* | hyeoksin**j**eok | innovative | hyeoksin**jj**eok | hyŏksin**tch**ŏk | (혁)**씬쩍** | hyeoksin**j**eok | hyŏksin**j**ŏk | (혁)**씬**(적) | \* In the North, similar pronunciation is used whenever the hanja "的" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in ㄴ, ㅁ or ㅇ. \* In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word. ### Spelling Some words are spelled differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same. | Word | Meaning | Pronunciation (RR/MR) | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | North spelling | South spelling | | 해빛 | 햇빛 | sunshine | haeppit (haepit) | The "sai siot" ('ㅅ' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North. | | 벗꽃 | 벚꽃 | cherry blossom | beotkkot (pŏtkkot) | | | 못읽다 | 못 읽다 | cannot read | modikda (modikta) | Spacing. | | 한나산 | 한라산 | Hallasan | hallasan (hallasan) | When a ㄴㄴ combination is pronounced as *ll*, the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, whereas the Hangul is changed in the South. | | 규률 | 규율 | rules | gyuyul (kyuyul) | In words where the original hanja is spelt "렬" or "률" and follows a vowel, the initial ㄹ is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the ㄹ is dropped in the spelling. | ### Spelling *and* pronunciation Basically, the standard languages of North and South Korea, including pronunciation and vocabulary, are both linguistically based on the Seoul dialect, but in North Korea, words have been modified to reflect the theories of scholars like Kim Tu-bong, who sought a refined language, as well as political needs. Some differences are difficult to explain in terms of political ideas, such as North Korea's use of the word *rajio*(라지오).: | Word | Meaning | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | | North spelling | North pronun. | South spelling | South pronun. | | 력량 | ryeongryang (ryŏngryang) | 역량 | yeongnyang (yŏngnyang) | strength | Initial *r'*s are dropped if followed by *i* or *y* in the South Korean version of Korean. | | 로동 | rodong (rodong) | 노동 | nodong (nodong) | work | Initial *r'*s are demoted to an *n* if not followed by *i* or *y* in the South Korean version of Korean. | | 원쑤 | wonssu (wŏnssu) | 원수 | wonsu (wŏnsu) | mortal enemy | "Mortal enemy" and "field marshal" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to Kim Il Sung, Kim Jong Il or Kim Jong Un as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced 쑤 in the North. | | 라지오 | rajio (rajio) | 라디오 | radio (radio) | radio | In South Korea, the expression *rajio* is considered a Japanese expression that was introduced during the Japanese colonial rule and does not properly represent the pronunciation of Korean. | | 우 | u (u) | 위 | wi (wi) | on; above | | | 안해 | anhae (anhae) | 아내 | anae (anae) | wife | | | 꾸바 | kkuba (kkuba) | 쿠바 | kuba (k'uba) | Cuba | When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases. | | 페 | pe (p'e) | 폐 | pye (p'ye), pe (p'e) | lungs | In the case where *ye* comes after a consonant, such as in *hye* and *pye*, it is pronounced without the palatal approximate. North Korean orthography reflects this pronunciation nuance. | In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example: | Original name | North Korea transliteration | English name | South Korea transliteration | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Spelling | Pronunciation | Spelling | Pronunciation | | Ulaanbaatar | 울란바따르 | ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ) | Ulan Bator | 울란바토르 | ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ) | | København | 쾨뻰하븐 | koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn) | Copenhagen | 코펜하겐 | kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen) | | al-Qāhirah | 까히라 | kkahira (kkahira) | Cairo | 카이로 | kairo (k'airo) | ### Grammar Some grammatical constructions are also different: | Word | Meaning | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | | North spelling | North pronun. | South spelling | South pronun. | | 되였다 | doeyeotda (toeyŏtta) | 되었다 | doeeotda (toeŏtta) | past tense of 되다 (doeda/toeda), "to become" | All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in ㅣ in the stem (i.e. ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅚ, ㅟ and ㅢ) in the North use 여 instead of the South's 어. | | 고마와요 | gomawayo (komawayo) | 고마워요 | gomawoyo (komawŏyo) | thanks | ㅂ-irregular verbs in the North use 와 (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable. | | 할가요 | halgayo (halkayo) | 할까요 | halkkayo (halkkayo) | Shall we do? | Although the Hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed ㄲ sound). | ### Punctuation In the North, guillemets (《 and 》) are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones (" and ") are standard (although 『 』 and 「 」 are also used). ### Vocabulary Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South: | Word | Meaning | Remarks | | --- | --- | --- | | North word | North pronun. | South word | South pronun. | | 문화주택 | munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek) | 아파트 | apateu (ap'at'ŭ) | Apartment | 아빠트 (appateu/appat'ŭ) is also used in the North. | | 조선말 | joseonmal (chosŏnmal) | 한국어 | han-guk'eo (han-guk'ŏ) | Korean language | The Japanese pronunciation of 조선말 was used throughout Korea and Manchuria during Japanese imperial rule, but after liberation, the government chose the name 대한민국 (Daehanminguk) which was derived from the name immediately prior to Japanese imperial rule. The syllable 한 (Han) was drawn from the same source as that name (in reference to the Han people). Read more. | | 곽밥 | gwakbap (kwakpap) | 도시락 | dosirak (tosirak) | lunch box | | | 동무 | dongmu (tongmu) | 친구 | chin-gu (ch'in-gu) | Friend | 동무 was originally a non-ideological word for "friend" used all over the Korean peninsula, but North Koreans later adopted it as the equivalent of the Communist term of address "comrade". As a result, to South Koreans today the word has a heavy political tinge, and so they have shifted to using other words for friend like *chingu* (친구) or *beot* (벗). South Koreans use *chingu* (친구) more often than *beot* (벗). Such changes were made after the Korean War and the ideological battle between the anti-Communist government in the South and North Korea's communism. | Geographic distribution ----------------------- Korean is spoken by the Korean people in both South Korea and North Korea, and by the Korean diaspora in many countries including the People's Republic of China, the United States, Japan, and Russia. Currently, Korean is the fourth most popular foreign language in China, following English, Japanese, and Russian. Korean-speaking minorities exist in these states, but because of cultural assimilation into host countries, not all ethnic Koreans may speak it with native fluency. ### Official status * Highway sign in Korean,Reunification Highway, Pyongyang, North KoreaHighway sign in Korean, Reunification Highway, Pyongyang, North Korea * Highway sign in Korean and English,Gyeongbu Expressway, Daegu, South KoreaHighway sign in Korean and English, Gyeongbu Expressway, Daegu, South Korea * Highway sign in Korean and Chinese,Hunwu Expressway, Yanbian, ChinaHighway sign in Korean and Chinese, Hunwu Expressway, Yanbian, China Korean is the official language of South Korea and North Korea. It, along with Mandarin Chinese, is also one of the two official languages of China's Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. In North Korea, the regulatory body is the Language Institute of the Academy of Social Sciences (사회과학원 어학연구소; 社會科學院語學硏究所, *Sahoe Gwahagweon Eohag Yeonguso*). In South Korea, the regulatory body for Korean is the Seoul-based National Institute of the Korean Language, which was created by presidential decree on 23 January 1991. ### King Sejong Institute Established pursuant to Article 9, Section 2, of the Framework Act on the National Language, the King Sejong Institute is a public institution set up to coordinate the government's project of propagating Korean language and culture; it also supports the King Sejong Institute, which is the institution's overseas branch. The King Sejong Institute was established in response to: * An increase in the demand for Korean language education; * a rapid increase in Korean language education thanks to the spread of the culture (*hallyu*), an increase in international marriage, the expansion of Korean enterprises into overseas markets, and enforcement of employment licensing system; * the need for a government-sanctioned Korean language educational institution; * the need for general support for overseas Korean language education based on a successful domestic language education program. ### TOPIK Korea Institute The TOPIK Korea Institute is a lifelong educational center affiliated with a variety of Korean universities in Seoul, South Korea, whose aim is to promote Korean language and culture, support local Korean teaching internationally, and facilitate cultural exchanges. The institute is sometimes compared to language and culture promotion organizations such as the King Sejong Institute. Unlike that organization, however, the TOPIK Korea Institute operates within established universities and colleges around the world, providing educational materials. In countries around the world, Korean embassies and cultural centers (한국문화원) administer TOPIK examinations. Foreign language ---------------- For native English-speakers, Korean is generally considered to be one of the most difficult foreign languages to master despite the relative ease of learning Hangul. For instance, the United States' Defense Language Institute places Korean in Category IV with Japanese, Chinese (Mandarin and Cantonese), and Arabic, requiring 64 weeks of instruction (as compared to just 26 weeks for Category I languages like Italian, French, and Spanish) to bring an English-speaking student to a limited working level of proficiency in which they have "sufficient capability to meet routine social demands and limited job requirements" and "can deal with concrete topics in past, present, and future tense." Similarly, the Foreign Service Institute's School of Language Studies places Korean in Category IV, the highest level of difficulty. The study of the Korean language in the United States is dominated by Korean American heritage language students, who in 2007 were estimated to form over 80% of all students of the language at non-military universities. However, Sejong Institutes in the United States have noted a sharp rise in the number of people of other ethnic backgrounds studying Korean between 2009 and 2011, which they attribute to rising popularity of South Korean music and television shows. In 2018, it was reported that the rise in K-Pop was responsible for the increase in people learning the language in US universities. ### Testing There are two widely used tests of Korean as a foreign language: the Korean Language Proficiency Test (KLPT) and the Test of Proficiency in Korean (TOPIK). The Korean Language Proficiency Test, an examination aimed at assessing non-native speakers' competence in Korean, was instituted in 1997; 17,000 people applied for the 2005 sitting of the examination. The TOPIK was first administered in 1997 and was taken by 2,274 people. Since then the total number of people who have taken the TOPIK has surpassed 1 million, with more than 150,000 candidates taking the test in 2012. TOPIK is administered in 45 regions within South Korea and 72 nations outside of South Korea, with a significant portion being administered in Japan and North America, which would suggest the targeted audience for TOPIK is still primarily foreigners of Korean heritage. This is also evident in TOPIK's website, where the examination is introduced as intended for Korean heritage students. See also -------- * Outline of Korean language * Korean count word * Korean Cultural Center (KCC) * Korean dialects * Korean language and computers * Korean mixed script * Korean particles * Korean proverbs * Korean sign language * Korean romanization + McCune–Reischauer + Revised romanization of Korean + SKATS + Yale romanization of Korean * List of English words of Korean origin * Vowel harmony * History of Korean * Korean films + Cinema of North Korea + Cinema of South Korea Further reading --------------- * Argüelles, Alexander; Kim, Jong-Rok (2000). *A Historical, Literary and Cultural Approach to the Korean Language*. Seoul, South Korea: Hollym. * Argüelles, Alexander; Kim, Jongrok (2004). *A Handbook of Korean Verbal Conjugation*. Hyattsville, Maryland: Dunwoody Press. * Argüelles, Alexander (2007). *Korean Newspaper Reader*. Hyattsville, Maryland: Dunwoody Press. * Argüelles, Alexander (2010). *North Korean Reader*. Hyattsville, Maryland: Dunwoody Press. * Brown, L. (2015). "Expressive, Social and Gendered Meanings of Korean Honorifics". *Korean Linguistics*. **17** (2): 242–266. doi:10.1075/kl.17.2.04bro. * Chang, Suk-jin (1996). *Korean*. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-55619-728-4. (Volume 4 of the *London Oriental and African Language Library*). * Cho, Young A. (2006). "Gender Differences in Korean Speech". In Sohn, Ho-min (ed.). *Korean Language in Culture and Society*. University of Hawaii Press. p. 189. * Cho, Sungdai; Whitman, John (2020). *Korean: A Linguistic Introduction*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51485-9. * Hulbert, Homer B. (1905). *A Comparative Grammar of the Korean Language and the Dravidian Dialects in India*. Seoul. * Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, S. Robert (2011). *A History of the Korean Language*. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66189-8. * Martin, Samuel E. (1966). "Lexical Evidence Relating Japanese to Korean". *Language*. **42** (2): 185–251. doi:10.2307/411687. JSTOR 411687. * Martin, Samuel E. (1990). "Morphological clues to the relationship of Japanese and Korean". In Baldi, Philip (ed.). *Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology*. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs. Vol. 45. pp. 483–509. * Martin, Samuel E. (2006). *A Reference Grammar of Korean: A Complete Guide to the Grammar and History of the Korean Language – 韓國語文法總監*. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8048-3771-2. * Miller, Roy Andrew (1971). *Japanese and the Other Altaic Languages*. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-52719-0. * Miller, Roy Andrew (1996). *Languages and History: Japanese, Korean and Altaic*. Oslo, Norway: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture. ISBN 974-8299-69-4. * Ramstedt, G. J. (1928). "Remarks on the Korean language". *Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne*. **58**. * Rybatzki, Volker (2003). "Middle Mongol". In Janhunen, Juha (ed.). *The Mongolic languages*. London, England: Routledge. pp. 47–82. ISBN 0-7007-1133-3. * Starostin, Sergei A.; Dybo, Anna V.; Mudrak, Oleg A. (2003). *Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages*. Leiden, South Holland: Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 90-04-13153-1. In 3 volumes. * Sohn, Ho-Min (2001) [1999]. *The Korean Language*. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521369435. * Sohn, Ho-Min (2006). *Korean Language in Culture and Society*. Boston, MA: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8248-2694-9. * Song, J.-J. (2005). *The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context*. London, England: Routledge. * Trask, R. L. (1996). *Historical linguistics*. Hodder Arnold. * Vovin, Alexander (2010). *Koreo-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin*. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai'i Press. * Whitman, John B. (1985). *The Phonological Basis for the Comparison of Japanese and Korean* (PhD thesis). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University. Unpublished Harvard University PhD dissertation. * Yeon, Jaehoon; Brown, Lucien (2011). *Korean: A Comprehensive Grammar*. London, England: Routledge.

Korean language

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language

In competitive sports, **doping** is the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs by athletic competitors as a way of cheating. The term *doping* is widely used by organizations that regulate sporting competitions. The use of drugs to enhance performance is considered unethical, and is prohibited by most international sports organizations, including the International Olympic Committee. Furthermore, athletes (or athletic programs) taking explicit measures to evade detection exacerbate the ethical violation with overt deception and cheating. The origins of doping in sports go back to the very creation of sport itself. From ancient usage of substances in chariot racing to more recent controversies in doping in baseball, doping in tennis, doping at the Olympic Games, and doping at the Tour de France, popular views among athletes have varied widely from country to country over the years. The general trend among authorities and sporting organizations over the past several decades has been to strictly regulate the use of drugs in sport. The reasons for the ban are mainly the health risks of performance-enhancing drugs, the equality of opportunity for athletes, and the exemplary effect of drug-free sport for the public. Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the "spirit of sport". History ------- The use of drugs in sports goes back centuries, about all the way back to the very invention of the concept of sports. In ancient times, when the fittest of a nation were selected as athletes or combatants, they were fed diets and given treatments considered beneficial to help increase muscle. For instance, Scandinavian mythology says Berserkers could drink a mixture called "butotens" to greatly increase their physical power at the risk of insanity, which is thought to have been prepared using the *Amanita muscaria* mushroom. The ancient Olympics in Greece have been alleged to have had forms of doping. In ancient Rome, where chariot racing had become a huge part of their culture, athletes drank herbal infusions to strengthen them before chariot races. A participant in an endurance walking race in Britain, Abraham Wood, said in 1807 that he had used laudanum (which contains opiates) to keep him awake for 24 hours while competing against Robert Barclay Allardyce. By April 1877, walking races had stretched to 800 kilometres (500 mi) and the following year, also at the Agricultural Hall in Islington, London, to 840 kilometres (520 mi). The *Illustrated London News* chided: It may be an advantage to know that a man can travel 520 miles in 138 hours, and manage to live through a week with an infinitesimal amount of rest, though we fail to perceive that anyone could possibly be placed in a position where his ability in this respect would be of any use to him [and] what is to be gained by a constant repetition of the fact. The event proved popular, however, with 20,000 spectators attending each day. Encouraged, the promoters developed the idea and soon held similar races for cyclists. "...and much more likely to endure their miseries publicly; a tired walker, after all, merely sits down – a tired cyclist falls off and possibly brings others crashing down as well. That's much more fun". The fascination with six-day bicycle races spread across the Atlantic and appealed to the crowds in America as well. And the more spectators paid at the gate, the higher the prizes could be and the greater was the incentive of riders to stay awake—or be kept awake—to ride the greatest distance. Their exhaustion was countered by soigneurs (the French word for "healers"), helpers akin to seconds in boxing. Among the treatments they supplied was nitroglycerine, a drug used to stimulate the heart after cardiac attacks and which was credited with improving riders' breathing. Riders had hallucinations from the exhaustion and perhaps the drugs. The American champion Major Taylor refused to continue the New York race, saying: "I cannot go on with safety, for there is a man chasing me around the ring with a knife in his hand." Public reaction turned against such trials, whether individual races or in teams of two. One report said: An athletic contest in which the participants 'go queer' in their heads, and strain their powers until their faces become hideous with the tortures that rack them, is not sport, it is brutality. It appears from the reports of this singular performance that some of the bicycle riders have actually become temporarily insane during the contest... Days and weeks of recuperation will be needed to put the racers in condition, and it is likely that some of them will never recover from the strain. The father of anabolic steroids in the United States was John Ziegler (1917–1983), a physician for the U.S. weightlifting team in the mid-20th century. In 1954, on his tour to Vienna with his team for the world championship, Ziegler learned from his Russian colleague that the Soviet weightlifting team's success was due to their use of testosterone as a performance-enhancing drug. Deciding that U.S. athletes needed chemical assistance to remain competitive, Ziegler worked with the CIBA Pharmaceutical Company to develop an oral anabolic steroid. This resulted in the creation of methandrostenolone, which appeared on the market in 1960 under the brand name Dianabol. During the Olympics that year, the Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed and died while competing in the 100-kilometer (62-mile) race. An autopsy later revealed the presence of amphetamines and a drug called nicotinyl tartrate in his system. The American specialist in doping, Max M. Novich, wrote: "Trainers of the old school who supplied treatments which had cocaine as their base declared with assurance that a rider tired by a six-day race would get his second breath after absorbing these mixtures." John Hoberman, a professor at the University of Texas in Austin, Texas, said six-day races were "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion." Prevalence ---------- Over 30% of athletes participating in 2011 World Championships in Athletics admitted having used banned substances during their careers. According to a study commissioned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), actually 44% of them had used them. Nevertheless, only 0.5% of those tested were caught. The entire Russian track and field team was banned from the 2016 Olympic Games, as the Russian State had sponsored and essentially sanctioned their doping program. ### Goldman's dilemma Goldman's dilemma, or the Goldman dilemma, is a question that was posed to elite athletes by physician, osteopath and publicist Bob Goldman, asking whether they would take a drug that would guarantee them success in sport, but cause them to die after five years. In his research, as in previous research by Mirkin, approximately half the athletes responded that they would take the drug, but modern research by James Connor and co-workers has yielded much lower numbers, with athletes having levels of acceptance of the dilemma that were similar to the general population of Australia. Substances ---------- The most common prohibited substances for doping in sport are: * Anabolic steroids (most common), which increase muscle mass and physical strength. * Stimulants (second most common), which increase excitement and decrease the sensation of fatigue. Examples of well known stimulants include caffeine, cocaine, amphetamine, modafinil, and ephedrine. Caffeine, although a stimulant, has not been banned by the International Olympic Committee or the World Anti Doping Agency since 2004. It has a positive effect on various physical parameters, most of all endurance, but also on velocity, strength, reaction time and specific actions like throwing performance. Other ways of cheating that change the body without using foreign substances include injecting one’s own red blood cells as done with doping at the Tour de France, treating blood with UV light or the use of a hyperbaric chamber (not currently banned), and, potentially, gene doping. ### Anabolic steroids Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) were first isolated, identified and synthesized in the 1930s, and are now used therapeutically in medicine to induce bone growth, stimulate appetite, induce male puberty, and treat chronic wasting conditions, such as cancer and AIDS. Anabolic steroids also increase muscle mass and physical strength, and are therefore used in sports and bodybuilding to enhance strength or physique. Known side effects include harmful changes in cholesterol levels (increased low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein), acne, high blood pressure, and liver damage. Some of these effects can be mitigated by taking supplemental drugs. AAS use in sports began in October 1954 when John Ziegler, a doctor who treated American athletes, went to Vienna with the American weightlifting team. There he met a Russian physician who, over "a few drinks", repeatedly asked "What are you giving your boys?" When Ziegler returned the question, the Russian said that his own athletes were being given testosterone. Returning to America, Ziegler tried low doses of testosterone on himself, on the American trainer Bob Hoffman and on two lifters, Jim Park and Yaz Kuzahara. All gained more weight and strength than any training programme would produce but there were side-effects. Ziegler sought a drug without after-effects and hit upon the anabolic steroid methandrostenolone, first made in the US in 1958 by Ciba and marketed as Dianabol (colloquially known as "d-bol"). The results were so impressive that lifters began taking more, and steroids spread to other sports. Paul Lowe, a former running back with the San Diego Chargers American football team, told a California legislative committee on drug abuse in 1970: "We had to take them [steroids] at lunchtime. He [an official] would put them on a little saucer and prescribed them for us to take them and if not he would suggest there might be a fine." Olympic statistics show the weight of shot putters increased 14 percent between 1956 and 1972, whereas steeplechasers weight increased 7.6 per cent. The gold medalist pentathlete Mary Peters said: "A medical research team in the United States attempted to set up extensive research into the effects of steroids on weightlifters and throwers, only to discover that there were so few who weren't taking them that they couldn't establish any worthwhile comparisons." Brand name Dianabol is no longer produced but the drug methandrostenolone itself is still made in many countries and other, similar drugs are made elsewhere. The use of anabolic steroids is now banned by all major sporting bodies, including the ATP, WTA, ITF, International Olympic Committee, FIFA, UEFA, all major professional golf tours, the National Hockey League, Major League Baseball, the National Basketball Association, the European Athletic Association, WWE, the NFL, and the UCI. However, drug testing can be wildly inconsistent and, in some instances, has gone unenforced. A number of studies measuring anabolic steroid use in high school athletes found that out of all 12th grade students, 6.6 percent of them had used anabolic steroids at some point in their high school careers or were approached and counseled to use them. Of those students who acknowledged doping with anabolic–androgenic steroids, well over half participated in school-sponsored athletics, including football, wrestling, track and field, and baseball. A second study showed 6.3 percent of high school student Football players admitted to current or former AAS use. At the collegiate level, surveys show that AAS use among athletes range from 5 percent to 20 percent and continues to rise. The study found that skin changes were an early marker of steroid use in young athletes, and underscored the important role that dermatologists could play in the early detection and intervention in these athletes. #### 1988 Seoul Olympics A famous case of AAS use in a competition was Canadian Ben Johnson's victory in the 100 m at the 1988 Summer Olympics. He subsequently failed the drug test when stanozolol was found in his urine. He later admitted to using the steroid as well as Dianabol, testosterone, Furazabol, and human growth hormone amongst other things. Johnson was stripped of his gold medal as well as his world-record performance. Carl Lewis was then promoted one place to take the Olympic gold title. Lewis had also run under the current world record time and was therefore recognized as the new record holder. Johnson was not the only participant whose success was questioned: Lewis had tested positive at the Olympic Trials for pseudoephedrine, ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. Linford Christie of Great Britain was found to have metabolites of pseudoephedrine in his urine after a 200m heat at the same Olympics, but was later cleared of any wrongdoing. Of the top five competitors in the race, only former world record holder and eventual bronze medalist Calvin Smith of the US never failed a drug test during his career. Smith later said: "I should have been the gold medalist." The CBC radio documentary, *Rewind*, "Ben Johnson: A Hero Disgraced" broadcast on 19 September 2013, for the 25th anniversary of the race, stated 20 athletes tested positive for drugs but were cleared by the IOC at this 1988 Seoul Olympics. An IOC official stated that endocrine profiles done at those games indicated that 80 percent of the track and field athletes tested showed evidence of long-term steroid use, although not all were banned. ### Stimulants Stimulants are drugs that usually act on the central nervous system to modulate mental function and behavior, increasing an individual's sense of excitement and decreasing the sensation of fatigue. In the World Anti-Doping Agency list of prohibited substances, stimulants are the second largest class after the anabolic steroids. Benzedrine is a trade name for amphetamine. The Council of Europe says it first appeared in sport at the Berlin Olympics in 1936. It was produced in 1887 and the derivative, Benzedrine, was isolated in the U.S. in 1934 by Gordon Alles. Its perceived effects gave it the street name "speed". British troops used 72 million amphetamine tablets in the Second World War and the RAF got through so many that "Methedrine won the Battle of Britain" according to one report. The problem was that amphetamine leads to a lack of judgement and a willingness to take risks, which in sport could lead to better performances but in fighters and bombers led to more crash landings than the RAF could tolerate. The drug was withdrawn but large stocks remained on the black market. Amphetamine was also used legally as an aid to slimming and also as a thymoleptic before being phased out by the appearance of newer agents in the 1950s. Everton, one of the top clubs in the English football league, were champions of the 1962–63 season, and it was done, according to a national newspaper investigation, with the help of Benzedrine. Word spread after Everton's win that the drug had been involved. The newspaper investigated, cited where the reporter believed it had come from, and quoted the goalkeeper, Albert Dunlop, as saying: I cannot remember how they first came to be offered to us. But they were distributed in the dressing rooms. We didn't have to take them but most of the players did. The tablets were mostly white but once or twice they were yellow. They were used through the 1961–62 season and the championship season which followed it. Drug-taking had previously been virtually unnamed in the club. But once it had started we could have as many tablets as we liked. On match days they were handed out to most players as a matter of course. Soon some of the players could not do without the drugs. The club agreed that drugs had been used but that they "could not possibly have had any harmful effect." Dunlop, however, said he had become an addict. In November 1942, the Italian cyclist Fausto Coppi took "seven packets of amphetamine" to beat the world hour record on the track. In 1960, the Danish rider Knud Enemark Jensen collapsed during the 100 km team time trial at the Olympic Games in Rome and died later in hospital. The autopsy showed he had taken amphetamine and another drug, Ronicol, which dilates the blood vessels. The chairman of the Dutch cycling federation, Piet van Dijk, said of Rome that "dope – whole cartloads – [were] used in such royal quantities." The 1950s British cycling professional Jock Andrews would joke: "You need never go off-course chasing the peloton in a big race – just follow the trail of empty syringes and dope wrappers." The Dutch cycling team manager Kees Pellenaars told of a rider in his care: I took him along to a training camp in Spain. The boy changed then into a sort of lion. He raced around as though he was powered by rockets. I went to talk to him. He was really happy he was riding well and he told me to look out for him. I asked if he wasn't perhaps "using something" and he jumped straight up, climbed on a chair and from deep inside a cupboard he pulled out a plastic bag full of pills. I felt my heart skip a beat. I had never seen so many fireworks together. With a soigneur we counted the pills: there were 5,000 of them, excluding hormone preparations and sleeping pills. I took them away, to his own relief. I let him keep the hormones and the sleeping pills. Later he seemed to have taken too many at once and he slept for a couple of days on end. We couldn't wake him up. We took him to hospital and they pumped out his stomach. They tied him to his bed to prevent anything going wrong again. But one way or another he had some stimulant and fancied taking a walk. A nurse came across him in the corridor, walking along with the bed strapped to his back. Currently modafinil is being used throughout the sporting world, with many high-profile cases attracting press coverage as prominent United States athletes have failed tests for this substance. Some athletes who were found to have used modafinil protested as the drug was not on the prohibited list at the time of their offence, however, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) maintains it is a substance related to those already banned, so the decisions stand. Modafinil was added to the list of prohibited substances on 3 August 2004, ten days before the start of the 2004 Summer Olympics. One approach of athletes to get around regulations on stimulants is to use new designer stimulants, which have not previously been officially prohibited, but have similar chemical structures or biological effects. Designer stimulants that attracted media attention in 2010 included mephedrone, ephedrone, and fluoroamphetamines, which have chemical structures and effects similar to ephedrine and amphetamine. ### Strychnine These "de facto experiments investigating the physiology of stress as well as the substances that might alleviate exhaustion" were not unknown outside cycling. Thomas Hicks, an American born in England on 7 January 1875, won the Olympic marathon in 1904. He crossed the line behind a fellow American Fred Lorz, who had been transported for 11 miles of the course by his trainer, leading to his disqualification. However, Hicks's trainer Charles Lucas, pulled out a syringe and came to his aid as his runner began to struggle. I therefore decided to inject him with a milligram of sulphate of strychnine and to make him drink a large glass brimming with brandy. He set off again as best he could [but] he needed another injection four miles from the end to give him a semblance of speed and to get him to the finish. The use of strychnine, at the time, was thought necessary to survive demanding races, according to sports historians Alain Lunzenfichter and historian of sports doping, Dr Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, who said: It has to be appreciated that at the time the menace of doping for the health of athletes or of the purity of competition had yet to enter the morals because, after this marathon, the official race report said: The marathon has shown from a medical point of view how drugs can be very useful to athletes in long-distance races. Hicks was, in the phrase of the time, "between life and death" but recovered, collected his gold medal a few days later, and lived until 1952. Nonetheless, he never again took part in athletics. Countries --------- ### East Germany (the GDR) In 1977 one of East Germany's best sprinters, Renate Neufeld, fled to the West with the Bulgarian she later married. A year later she said that she had been told to take drugs supplied by coaches while training to represent East Germany at the 1980 Summer Olympics. At 17, I joined the East Berlin Sports Institute. My speciality was the 80m hurdles. We swore that we would never speak to anyone about our training methods, including our parents. The training was very hard. We were all watched. We signed a register each time we left for dormitory and we had to say where we were going and what time we would return. One day, my trainer, Günter Clam, advised me to take pills to improve my performance: I was running 200m in 24 seconds. My trainer told me the pills were vitamins, but I soon had cramp in my legs, my voice became gruff and sometimes I couldn't talk any more. Then I started to grow a moustache and my periods stopped. I then refused to take these pills. One morning in October 1977, the secret police took me at 7am and questioned me about my refusal to take pills prescribed by the trainer. I then decided to flee, with my fiancé. She brought with her to the West grey tablets and green powder she said had been given to her, to members of her club, and to other athletes. The West German doping analyst Manfred Donike reportedly identified them as anabolic steroids. She said she stayed quiet for a year for the sake of her family. But when her father then lost his job and her sister was expelled from her handball club, she decided to tell her story. East Germany closed itself to the sporting world in May 1965. In 1977 the shot-putter Ilona Slupianek, who weighed 93 kg, failed a test for anabolic steroids at the European Cup meeting in Helsinki and thereafter athletes were tested before they left the country. At the same time, the Kreischa testing laboratory near Dresden passed into government control; it reputedly made around 12,000 tests a year on East German athletes but without any being penalised. The International Amateur Athletics Federation (IAAF) suspended Slupianek for 12 months, a penalty that ended two days before the European championships in Prague. In the reverse of what the IAAF hoped, sending her home to East Germany meant she was free to train unchecked with anabolic steroids, if she wanted to, and then compete for another gold medal, which she won. After that, almost nothing emerged from the East German sports schools and laboratories. A rare exception was the visit by the sports-writer and former athlete, Doug Gilbert of the *Edmonton Sun*, who said: Dr (Heinz) Wuschech knows more about anabolic steroids than any doctor I have ever met, and yet he cannot discuss them openly any more than Geoff Capes or Mac Wilkins can openly discuss them in the current climate of amateur sports regulation. What I did learn in East Germany was that they feel there is little danger from anabolica, as they call it, when the athletes are kept on strictly monitored programmes. Although the extremely dangerous side-effects are admitted, they are statistically no more likely to occur than side-effects from the birth control pill. If, that is, programmes are constantly medically monitored as to dosage. Other reports came from the occasional athlete who fled to the West – 15 of them between 1976 and 1979. One, the ski-jumper Hans-Georg Aschenbach, said: "Long-distance skiers start having injections to their knees from the age 14 because of their intensive training." He said: "For every Olympic champion, there are at least 350 invalids. There are gymnasts among the girls who have to wear corsets from the age of 18 because their spine and their ligaments have become so worn... There are young people so worn out by the intensive training that they come out of it mentally blank [*lessivés* – washed out], which is even more painful than a deformed spine." After the 1990 German reunification, on 26 August 1993 the records were opened and evidence found that the Stasi, the state secret police, supervised systematic doping of East German athletes from 1971 until reunification in 1990. Doping existed in other countries, says the expert Jean-Pierre de Mondenard, both communist and capitalist, but the difference with East Germany was that it was a state policy. The *Sportvereinigung Dynamo* (English:*Dynamo Sports Club*) was especially singled out[*by whom?*] as a center for doping in the former East Germany. Many former club officials and some athletes found themselves charged after the dissolution of the country. Victims of doping, trying to gain justice and compensation, set up a special page on the internet to list people involved in doping in the GDR. State-endorsed doping began with the Cold War of 1947–1991, when every Eastern Bloc gold represented an ideological victory. From 1974, Manfred Ewald, the head of East Germany's sports federation, imposed blanket doping. At the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City, the country of 17 million collected nine gold medals. Four years later the total was 20 and in 1976 it doubled again to 40. Ewald was quoted as having told coaches, "They're still so young and don't have to know everything." In July 2000 Ewald received a 22-month suspended sentence, to the outrage of his victims. Often, doping took place without the knowledge of the athletes, some of them as young as ten years of age. It is estimated[*by whom?*] that around 10,000 former athletes bear the physical and mental scars of years of drug abuse; one of them, Rica Reinisch, a triple Olympic champion and world record-setter at the 1980 Summer Olympics, has since had numerous miscarriages and recurring ovarian cysts. Two former Dynamo Berlin club doctors, Dieter Binus, chief of the national women's team[*which?*] from 1976 to 1980, and Bernd Pansold, in charge of the sports medicine center in East Berlin, were committed for trial for allegedly supplying 19 teenagers with illegal substances. Binus was sentenced in August, Pansold in December 1998 – both were found guilty of administering hormones to underage female athletes from 1975 to 1984. Virtually no East German athlete ever failed an official drugs test, though Stasi files show that many did produce failed tests at Kreischa, the Saxon laboratory (German:*Zentrales Dopingkontroll-Labor des Sportmedizinischen Dienstes*) that was at the time approved by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), now called the *Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry* (IDAS). In 2005, 15 years after the end of East Germany, the manufacturer of the drugs, Jenapharm, still found itself involved in numerous lawsuits from doping victims, being sued by almost 200 former athletes. Former Sport Club Dynamo athletes Daniela Hunger and Andrea Pollack publicly admitted to doping and accused their coaches for being responsible. Another former Sport Dynamo athlete, Ilona Slupianek, was disqualified for doping. (*Ilona Slupianek failed a test along with three Finnish athletes at the 1977 European Cup, becoming the only East German athlete ever to be convicted of doping*) Based on the admission by Pollack, the United States Olympic Committee asked for the redistribution of gold medals won in the 1976 Summer Olympics. Despite court rulings in Germany that substantiate claims of systematic doping by some East German swimmers, the IOC executive board announced that it has no intention of revising the Olympic record books. In rejecting the American petition on behalf of its women's medley relay team in Montreal and a similar petition from the British Olympic Association on behalf of Sharron Davies, the IOC made it clear that it wanted to discourage any such appeals in the future. ### West Germany The 800-page *"Doping in Germany from 1950 to today"* study details how the West German government helped fund a wide-scale doping programme. West Germany encouraged and covered up a culture of doping across many sports for decades. Clemens Prokop, head of Germany's athletics federation, told Reuters Television in an interview, "It is a bit of a problem that there is a short version that has been published and that names have not been named." Immediately after the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final, rumors emerged that the West German team had taken performance-enhancing substances. Several members of the team fell ill with jaundice, presumably from a contaminated needle. Members of the team later claimed they had been injected with glucose, and the team physician Franz Loogen said in 2004 that the players had only been given Vitamin C before the game. A Leipzig University study in 2010 posited that the West German players had been injected with the banned substance methamphetamine. According to the German Olympic Sports Association (DOSB), doping was common in the West German athletes of the 1980s. West German heptathlete Birgit Dressel died at age 26 due to sudden multiple organ failure, triggered at least in part by long-term steroid abuse. In the newly emerging doping discussion in 2013 after submission of the final report of the anti-doping commission, the former German sprinter Manfred Ommer accused the Freiburg physician Armin Klümper: "Klümper was the largest doper on this planet." ### China China conducted a state-sanctioned doping programme on athletes in the 1980s and 1990s. The majority of revelations of Chinese doping have focused on swimmers and track and field athletes, such as Ma Junren's *Ma Family Army* (馬家軍). More recently, three Chinese weightlifters were stripped of their gold Olympic medals for doping at the 2008 Summer Olympics. In a July 2012 interview published by the *Sydney Morning Herald* newspaper, Chen Zhangho, the lead doctor for the Chinese Olympic team at the Los Angeles, Seoul and Barcelona Olympics told of how he had tested hormones, blood doping and steroids on about fifty elite athletes. Chen also accused the United States, the Soviet Union and France of using performance-enhancing drugs at the same time as China. In 2012 and 2017 Xue Yinxian revealed systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games (and in other international sport events). He has claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in the systematic Chinese government doping program and that they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. He stated that the entirety of international medals (both in the Olympics and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. This is contrary to previous statements by the Chinese government, which had denied involvement in systematic doping, claiming that athletes doped individually. The International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency have investigated these allegations. ### Soviet Union According to British journalist Andrew Jennings, a KGB colonel stated that the agency's officers had posed as anti-doping authorities from the IOC to undermine doping tests and that Soviet athletes were "rescued with [these] tremendous efforts". On the topic of the 1980 Summer Olympics, a 1989 Australian study said "There is hardly a medal winner at the Moscow Games, certainly not a gold medal winner, who is not on one sort of drug or another: usually several kinds. The Moscow Games might as well have been called the Chemists' Games." A member of the IOC Medical Commission, Manfred Donike, privately ran additional tests with a new technique for identifying abnormal levels of testosterone by measuring its ratio to epitestosterone in urine. Twenty percent of the specimens he tested, including those from sixteen gold medalists, would have resulted in disciplinary proceedings had the tests been official. The results of Donike's unofficial tests later convinced the IOC to add his new technique to their testing protocols. The first documented case of "blood doping" occurred at the 1980 Summer Olympics as a runner was transfused with two pints of blood before winning medals in the 5000 m and 10,000 m. Documents obtained in 2016 revealed the Soviet Union's plans for a statewide doping system in track and field in preparation for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. Dated prior to the country's decision to boycott the Games, the document detailed the existing steroids operations of the program, along with suggestions for further enhancements. The communication, directed to the Soviet Union's head of track and field, was prepared by Dr. Sergey Portugalov of the Institute for Physical Culture. Portugalov was also one of the main figures involved in the implementation of the Russian doping program prior to the 2016 Summer Olympics. ### Russia Systematic doping in Russian sports has resulted in 47 Olympic and tens of world championships medals being stripped from Russian competitors—the most of any country, more than four times the number of the runner-up, and more than 30% of the global total. Russia also has the most competitors that have been caught doping at the Olympic Games, with more than 200. Russian doping is distinct from doping in other countries because in Russia the state supplied steroids and other drugs to sportspeople. Due to widespread doping violations, including an attempt to sabotage ongoing investigations by the manipulation of computer data, on 9 December 2019 the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) banned Russia from all international sport for four years. As at the 2018 Winter Olympics, WADA will allow individual cleared Russian athletes to compete neutrally under a title to be determined (which may not include the name "Russia", unlike the use of "Olympic Athletes from Russia" in 2018). Russia later filed an appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) against the WADA decision. The Court of Arbitration for Sport, on review of Russia's appeal of its case from WADA, ruled on 17 December 2020 to reduce the penalty that WADA had imposed. Instead of banning Russia from sporting events, the ruling allowed Russia to participate at the Olympics and other international events, but for a period of two years the team cannot use the Russian name, flag, or anthem and must present themselves as "Neutral Athlete" or "Neutral Team". The ruling does allow for team uniforms to display "Russia" on the uniform as well as the use of the Russian flag's colors within the uniform's design, although the name should be up to equal predominance as the "Neutral Athlete/Team" designation. Russia can appeal the decision. On 19 February 2021, it was announced that Russia would compete under the acronym "ROC", after the name of the Russian Olympic Committee. On aftermatch, the IOC announced that the Russian national flag would be substituted by the flag of the Russian Olympic Committee. It would also be allowed to use team uniforms bearing the words "Russian Olympic Committee", or the acronym "ROC" would be added. On 15 April 2021, the uniforms for the Russian Olympic Committee athletes were unveiled, featuring the colours of the Russian flag. On 22 April 2021, the replacement for Russia's anthem was approved by the IOC, after an earlier choice of the patriotic Russian war song "Katyusha" was rejected. A fragment of Pyotr Tchaikovsky's Piano Concerto No. 1 is used. ### United States The United States has had eight Olympic medals stripped for doping violations. In all cases, the US government or the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) had nothing to do with it, and sanctioned athletes acted on their own. In the case of swimmer Rick DeMont, the USOC recognized his gold-medal performance in the 1972 Summer Olympics in 2001, but only the IOC has the power to restore his medal, and it has as of 2017[update] refused to do so. DeMont originally won the gold medal in 4:00.26. Following the race, the IOC stripped him of his gold medal after his post-race urinalysis tested positive for traces of the banned substance ephedrine contained in his prescription asthma medication, Marax. The positive test following the 400 meter freestyle final also deprived him of a chance at multiple medals, as he was not permitted to swim in any other events at the 1972 Olympics, including the 1,500-meter freestyle for which he was the then-current world record-holder. Before the Olympics, DeMont had properly declared his asthma medications on his medical disclosure forms, but the USOC had not cleared them with the IOC's medical committee. In 2003, Wade Exum, the United States Olympic Committee's director of drug-control administration from 1991 to 2000, gave copies of documents to *Sports Illustrated* that revealed that some 100 American athletes failed drug tests from 1988 to 2000, arguing that they should have been prevented from competing in the Olympics but were nevertheless cleared to compete; those athletes included Carl Lewis, Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard. Before showing the documents to *Sports Illustrated*, Exum tried to use them in a lawsuit against USOC, accusing the organization of racial discrimination and wrongful termination against him and cover-up over the failed tests. the Denver federal Court summarily dismissed his case for lack of evidence. The USOC labelled his case "baseless" as he himself was the one in charge of screening the anti-doping test program of the organization and clarifying that the athletes were cleared according to the rules. Carl Lewis broke his silence on allegations that he was the beneficiary of a drugs cover-up, admitting he had failed tests for banned substances, but claiming he was just one of "hundreds" of American athletes who were allowed to escape bans, concealed by the USOC. Lewis has acknowledged that he failed three tests during the 1988 US Olympic trials, which under international rules at the time should have prevented him from competing in the 1988 Summer Olympics. Former athletes and officials came out against the USOC cover-up. "For so many years I lived it. I knew this was going on, but there's absolutely nothing you can do as an athlete. You have to believe governing bodies are doing what they are supposed to do. And it is obvious they did not," said former American sprinter and 1984 Olympic champion, Evelyn Ashford. Exum's documents revealed that Carl Lewis had tested positive three times at the 1988 Olympics trials for minimum amounts of pseudoephedrine, ephedrine, and phenylpropanolamine, which were banned stimulants. Bronchodilators are also found in cold medication. Due to the rules, his case could have led to disqualification from the Seoul Olympics and suspension from competition for six months. The levels of the combined stimulants registered in the separate tests were 2 ppm, 4 ppm and 6 ppm. Lewis defended himself, claiming that he had accidentally consumed the banned substances. After the supplements that he had taken were analyzed to prove his claims, the USOC accepted his claim of inadvertent use, since a dietary supplement he ingested was found to contain "Ma huang", the Chinese name for Ephedra (ephedrine is known to help weight-loss). Fellow Santa Monica Track Club teammates Joe DeLoach and Floyd Heard were also found to have the same banned stimulants in their systems, and were cleared to compete for the same reason. The highest level of the stimulants Lewis recorded was 6 ppm, which was regarded as a positive test in 1988 but is now regarded as negative test. The acceptable level has been raised to ten parts per million for ephedrine and twenty-five parts per million for other substances. According to the IOC rules at the time, positive tests with levels lower than 10 ppm were cause of further investigation but not immediate ban. Neal Benowitz, a professor of medicine at UC San Francisco who is an expert on ephedrine and other stimulants, agreed that "These [levels] are what you'd see from someone taking cold or allergy medicines and are unlikely to have any effect on performance." Following Exum's revelations the IAAF acknowledged that at the 1988 Olympic Trials the USOC indeed followed the correct procedures in dealing with eight positive findings for ephedrine and ephedrine-related compounds in low concentration. The federation also reviewed in 1988 the relevant documents with the athletes' names undisclosed and stated that "the medical committee felt satisfied, however, on the basis of the information received that the cases had been properly concluded by the USOC as 'negative cases' in accordance with the rules and regulations in place at the time and no further action was taken". Association football -------------------- There have been few incidents of doping in football, mainly due to FIFA's belief that education and prevention with constant in and out-of-competition controls play a key role in making high-profile competitions free of performance-enhancing drugs. The FIFA administration work alongside team physicians to fight for dope free competitions, having them sign a joint declaration that states they agree with having routine blood testing to check for blood doping before any FIFA World Cup. In 2014, the biological passport was introduced in the 2014 FIFA World Cup; blood and urine samples from all players before the competition and from two players per team and per match are analysed by the Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses. ### World Cups A study titled "Doping in Germany from 1950 to today", published in August 2013, stated that some members of the Germany national team received injections during their successful world cup 1954. Erik Eggers, who wrote about the preanabolic period in the study, was sure that the injections didn't contain vitamin C ("They could have just eaten an orange") but assumed that they contained Pervitin. It also stated that Pervitin (an upper, also used massively by soldiers in World War 2) was widespread in German football in the 1940s. The study, 800 pages in length and costing 450.000 Euro, was done by Berlin’s Humboldt University and financed by the institute of sports science. Mohammed Kaci Saïd, Djamel Menad, Tedj Bensaoula, Medi Cerbah, Mohamed Chaib, Salah Larbès, Abdelkader Tlemçani, members of Algerias national side in the 1980s, claim that they were given performance enhancing drugs. They suspect this to be the reason why they all fathered disabled children. Chaib, father of three disabled children, demanded the medical records and was told they didn't exist anymore. Rashid Hanafi, team doctor back then, also suspected there were suspicious practices going on. He told CNN that he was "not allowed to take a look at the medical records of the players any more when Rogov took over as coach in 1981". Alexander Tabartschuk, main doctor of the team, said he only handed vitamins. Algeria fell victim to the Disgrace of Gijón in 1982 and won the African Cup eight years later. 1987 Toni Schumacher recounted a huge amount of hormons, pills and injections (Liesen, head of the doctor team, injected 3000 himself) being used by national players during the World Cup 1986 in Mexico (see next chapter). Argentina took "speedy coffee" before the qualifier for the world cup 1994 against Australia, at least this is what Maradona said in May 2011. It should make them run faster, but also caused sleeping problems. He also found it suspicious that only the deciding match (against Australia) had no anti-doping control. Grondona, chairman of AFA back then, responded that there were no tests because Maradona, who already had a drug history, might not have passed. Maradona tested positive in the world cup. Right after the world cup 1998, all of the drug testing samples were destroyed. If the same would have happened in the Tour de France, Armstrong wouldn't have been caught, former WADA director Dr. Alain Garnier argued. Marie-Georges Buffet, sports minister at that time, also recalls that she felt pressurised when she initiated an unannounced test in december 1997. There were no more unannounced tests after that. Jean-Pierre Paclet, physician of Les Bleus in 1998, mentions "abnormal haematocrit values" in his book. Gary Neville, former english international, recalled that "some of the players started taking injections from (...) a Frenchman called Dr Rougier". After some felt an energy boost, there was "a queue to see the doctor before the Argentina match". ### Football Clubs In the 1960s, Inter Milan has its greatest period of success known as *[La] Grande Inter* ("Great Inter"), achieved when Helenio Herrera was their manager. He won seven trophies with the club. In 2004, Ferruccio Mazzola, Inter player during that period, accused him of distributing performance enhancing drugs, including amphetamines, among the team players, especially the substitute players "who often served as guinea pigs for trying new pills and see if they worked." When he found out that some in the team were spitting them out, he dissolved them in coffee to make sure they were consumed, a practice known as *Caffè di Herrera* ("Herrera's Coffee"). In 2010, Inter sued Mazzola but lost the case, the court believed him. One of the reasons he spoke up were the serious medical conditions and/or deaths of some of his former members: Giuliano Taccola, then team's captain Armando Picchi (died aged 36 due to cancer), Marcello Giusti, Carlo Tagnin, Mauro Bicicli, Ferdinando Miniussi, Enea Masiero and Pino Longoni. He suspected the drugs to be the cause of their sufferings. in 2015, his brother Sandro, who denied everything at the beginning, admitted that the incidents happened. In the 1970s performance enhancing drugs were used on a regular basis according to witnesses of that period, mostly in Ajax, Feyenoord and AZ Alkmaar during competitive matches, including the 1970 and 1972 Intercontinental Cups won by the first two cited clubs. Jan Peters recounted drug use before the big games. They seemed to work as he felt energy boosts and euphoria. Johnny Rep, former Ajax player, claimed that "everyone was on something". He recounted injections for everyone on 1 November 1979, ahead of a match of his team, Saint-Etienne, against PSV Eindhoven. Pierre Poty, who was physician of the club at that time, also revealed that he worked with uppers and reasoned it with the fantastic effects. Fritz Kessel, also physician, worked for the dutch national side for 30 years and revealed that drugs were common in the 1974 and 1978 FIFA World Cups. He said that to Guido Derksen, writer of *Voetbal Myseries*, who wrote that players "consumed tons of amphetamines." An investigative commission of sports medicine in Freiburg claims that in the late 1970s and in the 1980s Stuttgart and Freiburg football clubs were operating with Anabolika. VfB Stuttgart reordered Anabolika at least once. In 1987, Toni Schumacher wrote about a long-running tradition of doping in the Bundesliga, claiming that lots of players were taking Captagon. He himself experimented with it and the effects were: Increased aggression, lower pain threshold, increased focus, confidence and endurance. The by effect was sleeping problems. In Köln he was chauffeuring his colleagues to the doctor who gave them pills and injections, presumably anabolics and stimulants. In the national team he mentioned a "walking chemist" and hormone use. Despite being supported by Paul Breitner he had to leave Köln after 544 games. Later on, his statements about doping in the Bundesliga were supported by Per Roentved, Hans Werner Moors, Dieter Schatzscheider, Hans-Josef Kapellmann, Peter Neururer, Benno Möhlmann, Uwe Nester, Peter Geyer (who talked about procedure, quantity and side effects), Jürgen Röber, Jürgen Stumm and Peter Harms (both medics). Juventus won the 1996 UEFA Champions League Final, but the victory remains controversial because of accusations of doping. The Juventus team has been accused of using erythropoietin (EPO) and the matter went to trial in 2004. In November 2004, club doctor Riccardo Agricola was given a 22-month prison sentence and fined €2,000 for sporting fraud by providing performance enhancing drugs, specifically EPO, to players between 1994 and 1998, Leading hematologist Giuseppe d'Onofrio said that it was "practically certain" that midfielders Antonio Conte and Alessio Tacchinardi had taken EPO to overcome brief bouts of anemia, and that it was "very probable" that seven other players – Alessandro Birindelli, Alessandro Del Piero, Didier Deschamps, Dimas, Paolo Montero, Gianluca Pessotto and Moreno Torricelli – had taken EPO in small doses. In April 2005, the Court of Arbitration for Sport gave the following advisory opinion, in part: "The use of pharmaceutical substances which are not expressly prohibited by sports law, and which cannot be considered as substances similar or related to those expressly prohibited, is not to be sanctioned by disciplinary measures. However, regardless of the existence or not of any judgement rendered by a State court, sports authorities are under the obligation to prosecute the use of pharmaceutical substances which are prohibited by sports law or any other anti-doping rule violation in order to adopt disciplinary measures." In December 2005, Agricola was acquitted of the charges by Turin's court of appeal. In March 2007, in the final verdict by the Supreme Court of Cassation, stated: "that in the years of 1994 to 1998 there was no ascertained positive case of doping substances by Juventus players, that the purchase of erythropoietin or its administration to the athletes of the club does not emerge from any act of the trial, and that the same expert had identified the possibility of an administration of erythropoietin in distant terms from the sure evidence ("very probable" and in two cases "practically certain"): it is that there fore, the judgement of probability and not of certainty, did not allow for a statement of responsibility." The verdict also went on to say: "In response to the conclusion taken, the territorial court notes that there were no deferred values higher than the limits set in the various antidoping protocols and that the situation of the Juventus players, both with reference to the average hematological values, and in relation to that of material balance, did not differ from the national average population. At Olympique Marseille, doping also took place according to Marcel Desailly, Jean-Jaques Eydelie, Chris Waddle and Tony Cascarino. They told about stimulants taken prior to their big games, which made them more energetic and keen. According to Eydelie, "all (of them) took a series of injections" in the Champions League Final 1993, except Rudi Völler. All this was no surprise for Arsene Wenger, who said everyone in France assumed something like that going on. Additionally, Desailly and Cascarino claimed that Bernard Tapie, the president himself, distributed pills and injections. Author Mondenard also mentioned "injections for everyone". Tapie only admitted that some players took Captagon. 2013 it had been announced that Fuentes received up to €327,000 annually from Real Sociedad. This was detected by auditors from Ernst & Young at the behest of Iñaki Badiola, president of the club in 2008. The documentation of the doctor also contained the inscriptions "RSOC" a couple of times and "Cuentas [bills] Asti" which most probably stands for Astiazarán, president of the club from 2000 to 2005. In 2003 Real Sociedad finished second in the Spanish League, missing the title by two points. The well-known medic was hired by Real Madrid and FC Barcelona, too, according to Le Monde. They had access to confidential documents like training schedules. Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) ------------------------------------ In December 2013, the UFC began a campaign to drug test their entire roster randomly all year-round. Random testing, however, became problematic for the promotion as it began to affect revenue, as fighters who had tested positive would need to be taken out of fights, which adversely affected fight cards, and therefore pay-per-view sales. If the UFC were not able to find a replacement fighter fights would have to be cancelled. According to Steven Marrocco of MMAjunkie.com, about 31% of UFC fighters subjected to random testing since the program first started have failed due to using performance-enhancing drugs. That is approximately five failed tests for every sixteen random screenings. From July 2015, the UFC has advocated to all commissions that every fighter be tested in competition for every card. Lorenzo Feritta, who at the time was one of the presidents of the UFC, said, "We want 100 percent of the fighters tested the night they compete". Also, in addition to the drug testing protocols in place for competitors on fight night, the UFC conducts additional testing for main event fighters or any fighters that are due to compete in championship matches. This includes enhanced, random 'out of competition' testing for performance-enhancing drugs, with both urine and blood samples being taken. The UFC also announced that all potential UFC signees would be subject to mandatory pre-contract screening for performance-enhancing drugs prior to being offered a contract with the promotion. Endurance sports ---------------- The use of performance-enhancing drugs in sport has become an increasing problem across a wide range of sports. It is defined as any substance or drug that, when taken, gives an athlete an unfair advantage relative to a "clean" athlete. The banning of these drugs promotes a level playing field and equality among athletes. The use of 'the suit' in swimming, which gives athletes an advantage in the way of hydrodynamics, has been banned from international competition due to the unfair advantage it delivered. The drugs taken by athletes differ widely based on the performance needs of the sport. Erythropoietin (EPO) is largely taken by endurance athletes who seek a higher level of red blood cells, which leads to more oxygenated blood, and a higher VO2 max. An athlete's VO2 max is highly correlated with success within endurance sports such as swimming, long-distance running, cycling, rowing, and cross-country skiing. EPO has recently become prevalent amongst endurance athletes due to its potency and low degree of detectability when compared to other methods of doping such as blood transfusion. While EPO is believed to have been widely used by athletes in the 1990s, there was not a way to directly test for the drug until 2002 as there was no specific screening process to test athletes . Athletes at the Olympic Games are tested for EPO through blood and urine tests. Stringent guidelines and regulations can lessen the danger of doping that has existed within some endurance sports. ### Cycling #### *The Convicts of the Road* In 1924, a journalist Albert Londres followed the Tour de France for the French newspaper *Le Petit Parisien*. At Coutances he heard that the previous year's winner, Henri Pélissier, his brother Francis and a third rider, Maurice Ville, had resigned from the competition after an argument with the organiser Henri Desgrange. Pélissier explained the problem—whether or not he had the right to take off a jersey—and went on to talk of drugs, reported in Londres' race diary, in which he invented the phrase *Les Forçats de la Route* (*The Convicts of the Road*): "You have no idea what the Tour de France is," Henri said. "It's a Calvary. Worse than that, because the road to the Cross has only 14 stations and ours has 15. We suffer from the start to the end. You want to know how we keep going? Here..." He pulled a phial from his bag. "That's cocaine, for our eyes. This is chloroform, for our gums." "This," Ville said, emptying his shoulder bag "is liniment to put warmth back into our knees." "And pills. Do you want to see pills? Have a look, here are the pills." Each pulled out three boxes. "The truth is," Francis said, "that we keep going on dynamite." Henri spoke of being as white as shrouds once the dirt of the day had been washed off, then of their bodies being drained by diarrhea, before continuing: "At night, in our rooms, we can't sleep. We twitch and dance and jig about as though we were doing St Vitus's Dance..." "There's less flesh on our bodies than on a skeleton," Francis said. Francis Pélissier said much later: "Londres was a famous reporter but he didn't know about cycling. We kidded him a bit with our cocaine and our pills. Even so, the Tour de France in 1924 was no picnic." The acceptance of drug-taking in the Tour de France was so complete by 1930, when the race changed to national teams that were to be paid for by the organisers, that the rule book distributed to riders by the organiser, Henri Desgrange, reminded them that drugs were not among items with which they would be provided. The use of Pot Belge by road cyclists in continental Europe exemplifies a cross-over between recreational and performance-enhancing abuse of drugs by sportsman. #### Festina affair In 1998, the entire Festina team were excluded from the Tour de France following the discovery of a team car containing large amounts of various performance-enhancing drugs. The team director later admitted that some of the cyclists were routinely given banned substances. Six other teams pulled out in protest including Dutch team TVM who left the tour still being questioned by the police. The Festina scandal overshadowed cyclist Marco Pantani's tour win, but he himself later failed a test. The infamous "Pot Belge" or "Belgian mix" has a decades-long history in pro cycling, among both riders and support staff. David Millar, the 2003 World-Time Trial Champion, admitted using EPO, and was stripped of his title and suspended for two years. Roberto Heras was stripped of his victory in the 2005 Vuelta a España and suspended for two years after testing positive for EPO. #### Floyd Landis Floyd Landis was the initial winner of the 2006 Tour de France. But a urine sample taken from Landis immediately after his Stage 17 win has twice tested positive for banned synthetic testosterone as well as a ratio of testosterone to epitestosterone nearly three times the limit allowed by World Anti-Doping Agency rules. The International Cycling Union stripped him of his 2006 Tour de France title. Second place finisher Óscar Pereiro was officially declared the winner. #### Lance Armstrong case Lance Armstrong was world number one in 1996. In the same year he recovered from severe testicular cancer and continued to break records and win his seventh Tour de France in 2005. After beating cancer and breaking records he was accused of doping. Teammates of Lance had been caught taking EPO (Erythropoietin), which made the accusations against Armstrong stronger. On 22 October 2012 Lance Armstrong was officially stripped of his Tour de France titles since 1 August 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the Lance Armstrong Foundation. He later admitted to doping in an interview with Oprah Winfrey. ### Other endurance sports In triathlon, 2004 Hawaii Ironman winner Nina Kraft, was disqualified for a positive test to EPO. She remains the only Hawaii Ironman winner to be disqualified for doping offences. Sports lawyer Michelle Gallen has said that the pursuit of doping athletes has turned into a modern-day witch-hunt. Non-endurance sports -------------------- In sports where physical strength is favored, athletes have used anabolic steroids, known for their ability to increase physical strength and muscle mass. The drugs mimic the effect of testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the body. They were developed after Eastern Bloc countries demonstrated success in weightlifting during the 1940s. At the time they were using testosterone, which carried with it negative side effects, and anabolic steroids were developed as a solution. The drugs have been used across a wide range of sports from football and basketball to weightlifting and track and field. While not as life-threatening as the drugs used in endurance sports, anabolic steroids have negative side effects, including: ### Side effects in men * Acne * Impaired liver function * Impotency * Breast formation (Gynecomastia) * Increase in oestrogen * Suppression of spermatogenesis: As endogenous testosterone is the major regulator of the HPG axis, the exogenous testosterone and androgen anabolic steroids exert a suppressive effect of LH and FSH, leading to a decrease in intratesticular and secreted testosterone, decrease in spermatogenesis and sperm production. * Lack of libido and erectile dysfunction: especially occurs in those men abusing aromatisable androgen anabolic steroids, resulting in high oestrogen levels. Although physiological levels of oestrogens are necessary for normal sexual function, the high doses and the imbalance between testosterone and estradiol appear to be the cause of sexual dysfunction. * Increased sex drive * Male pattern baldness * Risk of heart failure ### Side effects in women * Hair loss * Male pattern baldness * Hypertrophy of the clitoris * Increased sex drive * Irregularities of the menstrual cycle * Development of masculine facial traits * Increased coarseness of the skin * Premature closure of the epiphysis * Deepening of the voice In countries where the use of these drugs is controlled, there is often a black market trade of smuggled or counterfeit drugs. The quality of these drugs may be poor and can cause health risks. In countries where anabolic steroids are strictly regulated, some have called for regulatory relief. Anabolic steroids are available over-the-counter in some countries such as Thailand and Mexico. Sports that are members of the IOC also enforce drug regulations; for example bridge. Reaction from sports organizations ---------------------------------- Many sports organizations have banned the use of performance-enhancing drugs and have very strict rules and penalties for people who are caught using them. The International Amateur Athletic Federation, now World Athletics, was the first international governing body of sport to take the situation seriously. In 1928 they banned participants from doping, but with little in the way of testing available they had to rely on the word of the athlete that they were clean. It was not until 1966 that FIFA and Union Cycliste Internationale (cycling) joined the IAAF in the fight against drugs, followed by the International Olympic Committee the following year. Progression in pharmacology has always outstripped the ability of sports federations to implement rigorous testing procedures but since the creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999, it has become more effective to catch athletes who use drugs. The first tests for athletes were at the 1966 European Championships and two years later the IOC implemented their first drug tests at both the Summer and Winter Olympics. Anabolic steroids became prevalent during the 1970s and after a method of detection was found they were added to the IOC's prohibited substances list in 1975, after which the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal were the first Olympic games which tested for them. Over the years, different sporting bodies have evolved differently in the struggle against doping. Some, such as athletics and cycling, are becoming increasingly vigilant against doping. However, there has been criticism that sports such as football (soccer) and baseball are doing nothing about the issue, and letting athletes implicated in doping get away unpunished. Some commentators maintain that, as outright prevention of doping is an impossibility, all doping should be legalised. However, most disagree with this, pointing out the claimed harmful long-term effects of many doping agents. Opponents claim that with doping legal, all competitive athletes would be compelled to use drugs, and the net effect would be a level playing field but with widespread health consequences. A common rebuttal to this argument asserts that anti-doping efforts have been largely ineffective due to both testing limitations and lack of enforcement, and so sanctioned steroid use would not be markedly different from the situation already in existence. Another point of view is that doping could be legalized to some extent using a drug whitelist and medical counseling, such that medical safety is ensured, with all usage published. Under such a system, it is likely that athletes would attempt to cheat by exceeding official limits to try to gain an advantage; this could be considered conjecture as drug amounts do not always correlate linearly with performance gains. The influence of popular culture -------------------------------- ### Social pressures Social pressure is one of the factors that leads to doping in sport. The media and society work together to construct a view of what masculinity and femininity should look like. Adolescent athletes are constantly influenced by what they see on the media, and some go to extreme measures to achieve the ideal image since society channels Judith Butler's definition of gender as a performative act. Examples of social pressures were given in a study done on an online bodybuilding community where bodybuilders doped because they felt like it was a rite of passage to be accepted into the community, and to feel validated. Both men and women are being materialized in the context of doping in sport; in an interview involving 140 men, it was concluded that "bodily practices are essential for masculine identity," and it was determined that the media highly publicizes female athletes who were strong, and thin. This leads to the issue of the consumption of performance enhancement drugs to achieve muscular or thin figures, and the assumption that the opponents are also taking performance-enhancing drugs, deeming it as an acceptable behavior to conform to. In addition, society's embracement of the "winning is everything" spirit leads many athletes to participate in doping, hoping that they will not be caught. ### Physical pressures Elite athletes have financial competitive motivations that cause them to dope and these motivations differ from that of recreational athletes. The common theme among these motivations is the pressure to physically perform. In a study of 101 individuals, 86% responded that their use of performance enhancement drugs were influenced by the potential athletic success, 74% by the economic aspect, and 30% by self-confidence and social recognition related reasons. In another study of 40 people, it was concluded that athletes used performance enhancement drugs for healing purposes so that they were an able competitor for the economic rewards involved with elite sports. Physical pressures often overlap with social pressures to have a certain body build. This is the case with muscle dysmorphia, where an athlete wants a more muscular physique for functionality and self- image purposes. The most popular motive for athletes to take supplements is to prevent any nutrient deficiencies and to strengthen the immune system. These factors all focus on improving the body for performance. ### Psychological motivations Psychology is another factor to take into consideration in doping in sport. It becomes a behavioral issue when the athlete acknowledges the health risks associated with doping, yet participates in it anyway. This has to do with the psychological thinking that the drug will make one feel invincible. The individuals are very egotistic in their way of thinking and their motivation is dependent on the performance enhancement drug since they believe that it delivers the results. On a study on health psychology, Quirk points out three different psychological aspects that lead one to dope: social cognition, stress and strain, and addiction. The social and physical pressures can alter an athlete's way of thinking, leading them to believe that they must take performance enhancement drugs since everyone else is doing it, known as "the doping dilemma." Anti-doping organizations and legislation ----------------------------------------- * In 1999, initiated by the International Olympic Committee to fight against doping in sport, the World Anti-Doping Agency had been founded. After the doping scandal in cycling in the summer 1998 the International Olympic Committee (IOC) decided to establish the WADA to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight of against doping in sport. The headquarters for WADA is in Montreal, Canada. The WADA is the supreme international authority and is allowed to do doping tests and can determine which substances are illegal. * In February 2011, the United States Olympic Committee and the Ad Council launched an anti-steroid campaign called Play Asterisk Free aimed at teens. The campaign first launched in 2008 under the name "Don't Be An Asterisk!". * In October 2012, the USADA released evidence to corroborate their doping claim against cyclist Lance Armstrong. According to USADA CEO Travis T. Tygart, the evidence against Armstrong includes, "...scientific data and laboratory test results that further prove the use, possession and distribution of performance enhancing drugs". * On 1 November 1989, US Senator Joseph Biden introduced S. 1829, The Steroid Trafficking Act of 1989. The purpose of the act was simple: It would "amend the Controlled Substances Act to further restrict the use of steroids. By designating anabolic steroids as a Schedule II controlled substance, the bill would crack down on illegal steroid use". (Senate Judiciary Committee, 2002, p. 282). * In January 2021, The government of Kenya unanimously passed the anti-doping bill into law that will enable the country to comply with the World 2021 anti-doping code. Test methods ------------ ### Urine test Under established doping control protocols, the athlete will be asked to provide a urine sample, which will be divided into two, each portion to be preserved within sealed containers bearing the same unique identifying number and designation respectively as A- and B-samples. An athlete whose A-sample has tested positive for a prohibited substance is requested an analysis of his or her B-sample after a confirmation test on sample A that delivered the same results. If the B-sample test results match the A-sample results, then the athlete is considered to have a positive test, otherwise, the test results are negative. This confirmation process ensures the safety of the individual. ### Blood test *see also:* blood doping The blood test detects illegal performance enhancement drugs through the measurement of indicators that change with the use of recombinant human erythropoietin: 1. Hematocrit 2. Reticulocytes 3. Level of Iron ### Gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS The gas chromatography-combustion-IRMS is a way to detect any variations in the isotopic composition of an organic compound from the standard. This test is used to detect whether or not synthetic testosterone was consumed, leading to an increased abnormal testosterone/epitestosterone (T/E) level. Assumptions: * 98.9% of the carbon atoms in nature are 12C * the remaining 1.1% are 13C The lower the 13C  to 12C  ratio, the more likely that synthetic testosterone was used. ### Athlete biological passport The athlete biological passport is a program that tracks the location of an athlete to combat doping in sports. This means that the athlete can be monitored and drug tested wherever they are and this data can be compared to the history of their doping test results. There is an ongoing discussion about how this measure can be seen as a violation of an individual's privacy. ### Re-testing of samples According to Article 6.5 in the World Anti-Doping Code samples may be re-tested later. Samples from high-profile events, such as the Olympic Games, are now re-tested up to eight years later to take advantage of new techniques for detecting banned substances. ### Cheating the tests Athletes seeking to avoid testing positive use various methods. The most common methods include: * Urine replacement, which involves replacing dirty urine with clean urine from someone who is not taking banned substances. Urine replacement can be done by catheterization or with a prosthetic penis such as The Original Whizzinator. * Diuretics, used to cleanse the system before having to provide a sample (which have also been placed in lists of banned substances themselves to circumvent this practice). * Blood transfusions, which increase the blood's oxygen carrying capacity, in turn increasing endurance without the presence of drugs that could trigger a positive test result. * To avoid being tested during training periods, athletes can make themselves unavailable. To mitigate this, athletes have to report their location at any time. If intended doping tests could not be done because the athlete could not be found, three times during a year, it's considered a doping violation, same as refusing a test. There is a website and a phone app, called ADAMS, in which athletes are expected to report their location. ### Validity Donald Berry, writing in the journal *Nature*, has called attention to potential problems with the validity of ways in which many of the standardised tests are performed;[*subscription required*] in his article, as described in an accompanying editorial, Berry > argues that anti-doping authorities have not adequately defined and publicized how they arrived at the criteria used to determine whether or not a test result is positive [which are] ...calibrated in part by testing a small number of volunteers taking the substance in question. [Berry argues] ...that individual labs need to verify these detection limits in larger groups that include known dopers and non-dopers under blinded conditions that mimic what happens during competition. > > The editorial closes, saying "Nature believes that accepting 'legal limits' of specific metabolites without such rigorous verification goes against the foundational standards of modern science, and results in an arbitrary test for which the rate of false positives and false negatives can never be known." Defense ------- G. Pascal Zachary argues in a *Wired* essay that legalizing performance-enhancing substances, as well as genetic enhancements once they became available, would satisfy society's need for übermenschen and reverse the decline in public interest in sports. Sports scholar Verner Moller argues that society is hypocritical when it holds athletes to moral standards, but do not conform to those morals themselves. Fox Sports writer Jen Floyd Engel stated in an article, "We live in a pharmacological society. We live in a society of short cuts, of fake this and enhanced that, and somehow we keep trying to sell the line that sports has become this evil empire of cheating. The reality is athletes are merely doing what so many of us do and celebrate and watch every single day of our lives." Sociologist Ellis Cashmore argues that what is considered doping is too arbitrary: transfusing blood cells is not allowed, but other methods of boosting blood cell count, such as hypobaric chambers, are allowed. Other scholars have advanced similar arguments. Legal ----- Anti-doping policies instituted by individual sporting governing bodies may conflict with local laws. A notable case includes the National Football League (NFL)'s inability to suspend players found with banned substances, after it was ruled by a federal court that local labor laws superseded the NFL's anti-doping regime. The challenge was supported by the National Football League Players Association. Athletes caught doping may be subject to penalties from their local, as well from the individual sporting, governing body. The legal status of anabolic steroids varies from country to country. Fighters found using performance-enhancing drugs in mixed martial arts competitions (e.g. the UFC) could face civil and/or criminal charges once Bill S-209 passes. Under certain circumstances, when athletes need to take a prohibited substance to treat a medical condition, therapeutic use exemptions may be granted. See also -------- * Cheating in sports * McLaren Report * Mitchell Report * Doping at the Olympic Games * Cheating at the Paralympic Games * Doping in Russia * Doping in China * Doping in the United States * Doping in East Germany * BALCO scandal * Caffeine use for sport * Cannabis and sports * Concussions in sport * Doping in pigeon racing * Equine drug testing * Gene doping * Mechanical doping * Stem cell doping * Technology doping Further reading --------------- * Collins, Rory (2017). "Lowering Restrictions on Performance Enhancing Drugs in Elite Sports". *Inquiries Journal*. **9** (3). Retrieved 7 July 2017. * Franke WW, Berendonk B (July 1997). "Hormonal doping and androgenization of athletes: a secret program of the German Democratic Republic government". *Clinical Chemistry*. **43** (7): 1262–79. doi:10.1093/clinchem/43.7.1262. PMID 9216474. * Mottram, David (2005); *Drugs in Sport*, Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37564-1. * Murray, Thomas H. (2008); "Sports Enhancement", in *From Birth to Death and Bench to Clinic: The Hastings Center Bioethics Briefing Book for Journalists, Policymakers, and Campaigns*. * Pope J, Harrison G, Wood RI, Rogol A, Nyberg F, Bowers L, Bhasin S (2014). "Adverse health consequences of performance-enhancing drugs: An endocrine society scientific statement". *Endocrine Reviews*. **35** (3): 341–375. doi:10.1210/er.2013-1058. PMC 4026349. PMID 24423981. * Waddington and Smith (2008); *An Introduction to Drugs in Sport*, Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-43125-5. * Collins, Rory (2017). "Lowering Restrictions on Performance Enhancing Drugs in Elite Sports". *Inquiries Journal*. **9** (3). Retrieved 7 July 2017. * Milton, Toby. "The History of Performance-Enhancing Drugs In Thoroughbred Racing". Retrieved 15 April 2023. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)

Doping in sport

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doping_in_sport

| | | --- | | --- | **Track gauge**| By transport mode | | --- | | Tram **·** Rapid transitMiniature **·** Scale model | | By size (list) | | | | | --- | | Graphic list of track gauges | | --- | | | **Minimum** | |   | **Minimum** | |   | Fifteen inch | 381 mm | (15 in) | | --- | | | **Narrow** | |   | * 600 mm * Two foot * Two foot three inch | * 600 mm * 610 mm * 686 mm | * (1 ft 11+5⁄8 in) * (2 ft) * (2 ft 3 in) | |   | * 750 mm * Bosnian gauge * Two foot six inch | * 750 mm * 760 mm * 762 mm | * (2 ft 5+1⁄2 in) * (2 ft 5+15⁄16 in) * (2 ft 6 in) | |   | * Swedish three foot * 900 mm * Three foot * Italian metre | * 891 mm * 900 mm * 914 mm * 950 mm | * (2 ft 11+3⁄32 in) * (2 ft 11+7⁄16 in) * (3 ft) * (3 ft1+13⁄32 in) | |   | Metre | 1,000 mm | (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) | |   | Three foot six inch | 1,067 mm | (3 ft 6 in) | |   | Four foot | 1,219 mm | (4 ft 0 in) | |   | Four foot six inch | 1,372 mm | (4 ft 6 in) | |   | 1432 mm | 1,432 mm | (4 ft 8+3⁄8 in) | | --- | |   | **Standard** | 1,435 mm | (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | | --- | | | **Broad** | |   | * Italian broad gauge * Dresden gauge | * 1,445 mm * 1,450 mm | * (4 ft 8+7⁄8 in) * (4 ft 9+3⁄32 in) | |   | Leipzig gauge | 1,458 mm | (4 ft 9+13⁄32 in) | |   | Toronto gauge | 1,495 mm | (4 ft 10+7⁄8 in) | |   | * 1520 mm * Five foot | * 1,520 mm * 1,524 mm | * (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) * (5 ft) | |   | * Pennsylvania gauge * Pennsylvania gauge * Five foot three inch | * 1,581 mm * 1,588 mm * 1,600 mm | * (5 ft 2+1⁄4 in) * (5 ft 2+1⁄2 in) * (5 ft 3 in) | |   | Baltimore gauge | 1,638 mm | (5 ft 4+1⁄2 in) | |   | * Iberian gauge * Five foot six inch | * 1,668 mm * 1,676 mm | * (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in) * (5 ft 6 in) | |   | Six foot | 1,829 mm | (6 ft) | |   | Brunel | 2,140 mm | (7 ft 1⁄4 in) | | | Change of gauge | | Break-of-gauge **·** Dual gauge **·** Conversion (list) **·** Bogie exchange **·** Variable gauge | | By location | | North America **·** South America **·** Europe **·** Australia | | World map, rail gauge by region | In rail transport, **track gauge** (in American English, alternatively **track gage**) is the distance between the two rails of a railway track. All vehicles on a rail network must have wheelsets that are compatible with the track gauge. Since many different track gauges exist worldwide, gauge differences often present a barrier to wider operation on railway networks. The term derives from the metal bar, or gauge, that is used to ensure the distance between the rails is correct. Railways also deploy two other gauges to ensure compliance with a required standard. A *loading gauge* is a two-dimensional profile that encompasses a cross-section of the track, a rail vehicle and a maximum-sized load: all rail vehicles and their loads must be contained in the corresponding envelope. A *structure gauge* specifies the outline into which structures (bridges, platforms, lineside equipment etc.) must not encroach. Uses of the term ---------------- The most common use of the term "track gauge" refers to the transverse distance between the inside surfaces of the two load-bearing rails of a railway track, usually measured at 12.7 millimetres (0.50 inches) to 15.9 millimetres (0.63 inches) below the top of the rail head in order to clear worn corners and allow for rail heads having sloping sides. The term derives from the "gauge", a metal bar with a precisely positioned lug at each end that track crews use to ensure the actual distance between the rails lies within tolerances of a prescribed standard: on curves, for example, the spacing is wider than normal. Deriving from the name of the bar, the distance between these rails is also referred to as the track gauge. Choice of gauge --------------- ### Early track gauges The earliest form of railway was a wooden wagonway, along which single wagons were manhandled, almost always in or from a mine or quarry. Initially the wagons were guided by human muscle power; subsequently by various mechanical methods. Timber rails wore rapidly: later, flat cast-iron plates were provided to limit the wear. In some localities, the plates were made L-shaped, with the vertical part of the L guiding the wheels; this is generally referred to as a "plateway". Flanged wheels eventually became universal, and the spacing between the rails had to be compatible with that of the wagon wheels. As the guidance of the wagons was improved, short strings of wagons could be connected and pulled by teams of horses, and the track could be extended from the immediate vicinity of the mine or quarry, typically to a navigable waterway. The wagons were built to a consistent pattern and the track would be made to suit the needs of the horses and wagons: the gauge was more critical. The Penydarren Tramroad of 1802 in South Wales, a plateway, spaced these at 4 ft 4 in (1,321 mm) over the outside of the upstands. The Penydarren Tramroad probably carried the first journey by a locomotive, in 1804, and it was successful for the locomotive, but unsuccessful for the track: the plates were not strong enough to carry its weight. A considerable progressive step was made when cast iron edge rails were first employed; these had the major axis of the rail section configured vertically, giving a much stronger section to resist bending forces, and this was further improved when fish-belly rails were introduced. Edge rails required a close match between rail spacing and the configuration of the wheelsets, and the importance of the gauge was reinforced. Railways were still seen as local concerns: there was no appreciation of a future connection to other lines, and the choice of track gauge was still a pragmatic decision based on local requirements and prejudices, and probably determined by existing local designs of (road) vehicles. Thus, the Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway (1826) in the West of Scotland used 4 ft 6 in (1,372 mm); the Dundee and Newtyle Railway (1831) in the north-east of Scotland adopted 4 ft 6+1⁄2 in (1,384 mm); the Redruth and Chasewater Railway (1825) in Cornwall chose 4 ft (1,219 mm). The Arbroath and Forfar Railway opened in 1838 with a gauge of 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm), and the Ulster Railway of 1839 used 6 ft 2 in (1,880 mm). ### "Standard" gauge appears Locomotives were being developed in the first decades of the 19th century; they took various forms, but George Stephenson developed a successful locomotive on the Killingworth Wagonway, where he worked. His designs were successful, and when the Stockton and Darlington Railway was opened in 1825, it used his locomotives, with the same gauge as the Killingworth line, 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm). The Stockton and Darlington line was very successful, and when the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, the first intercity line, was opened in 1830, it used the same gauge. It too was very successful, and the gauge, widened to 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in or 1,435 mm and named "standard gauge", was well on its way to becoming the established norm. ### Gauge differences The Liverpool and Manchester was quickly followed by other trunk railways, with the Grand Junction Railway and the London and Birmingham Railway forming a huge critical mass of standard gauge. When Bristol promoters planned a line from London, they employed the innovative engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel. He decided on a wider gauge, to give greater stability, and the Great Western Railway adopted a gauge of 7 ft (2,134 mm), later eased to 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm). This became known as *broad gauge*. The Great Western Railway (GWR) was successful and was greatly expanded, directly and through friendly associated companies, widening the scope of broad gauge. At the same time, other parts of Britain built railways to standard gauge, and British technology was exported to European countries and parts of North America, also using standard gauge. Britain polarised into two areas: those that used broad gauge and those that used standard gauge. In this context, standard gauge was referred to as "narrow gauge" to indicate the contrast. Some smaller concerns selected other non-standard gauges: the Eastern Counties Railway adopted 5 ft (1,524 mm). Most of them converted to standard gauge at an early date, but the GWR's broad gauge continued to grow. The larger railway companies wished to expand geographically, and large areas were considered to be under their control. When a new independent line was proposed to open up an unconnected area, the gauge was crucial in determining the allegiance that the line would adopt: if it was broad gauge, it must be friendly to the Great Western railway; if narrow (standard) gauge, it must favour the other companies. The battle to persuade or coerce that choice became very intense, and became referred to as "the gauge wars". As passenger and freight transport between the two areas became increasingly important, the difficulty of moving from one gauge to the other—the *break of gauge*—became more prominent and more objectionable. In 1845 a Royal Commission on Railway Gauges was created to look into the growing problem, and this led to the Regulating the Gauge of Railways Act 1846, which forbade the construction of broad gauge lines unconnected with the broad gauge network. The broad gauge network was eventually converted—a progressive process completed in 1892, called gauge conversion. The same Act mandated the gauge of 5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm) for use in Ireland. ### Gauge selection in other countries As railways were built in other countries, the gauge selection was pragmatic: the track would have to fit the rolling stock. If locomotives were imported from elsewhere, especially in the early days, the track would be built to fit them. In some cases standard gauge was adopted, but many countries or companies chose a different gauge as their national gauge, either by governmental policy, or as a matter of individual choice. Terminology ----------- *Standard gauge* is generally known world-wide as being 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Terms such as *broad gauge* and *narrow gauge* do not have any fixed meaning beyond being materially wider or narrower than standard. In British practice, the space between the rails of a track is colloquially referred to as the "four-foot", and the space between two tracks the "six-foot", descriptions relating to the respective dimensions. ### Standard gauge In modern usage the term "standard gauge" refers to 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Standard gauge is dominant in a majority of countries, including those in North America, most of western Europe, North Africa and the Middle east, and in China. ### Broad gauge In modern usage, the term "broad gauge" generally refers to track spaced significantly wider than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Broad gauge is the dominant gauge in countries in Indian subcontinent, the former Soviet Union (CIS states, Baltic states, Georgia and Ukraine), Mongolia and Finland, Spain, Portugal, Argentina, Chile and Ireland. It is also used for the suburban railway systems in South Australia, and Victoria, Australia. ### Medium gauge The term "medium gauge" had different meanings throughout history, depending on the local dominant gauge in use. In 1840s, the 1,600 mm (5 ft 3 in) Irish gauge was considered a medium gauge compared to Brunel's 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) broad gauge and the 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) narrow gauge, which became the modern standard gauge. ### Narrow gauge In modern usage, the term "narrow gauge" generally refers to track spaced significantly narrower than 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in). Narrow gauge is the dominant or second dominant gauge in countries of Southern, Central Africa, East Africa, Southeast Asia, Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Central America and South America, During the period known as "the Battle of the gauges", Stephenson's standard gauge was commonly known as "narrow gauge", while Brunel's railway's 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) gauge was termed "broad gauge". Many narrow gauge railways were built in mountainous regions such as Wales, the Rocky Mountains of North America, Central Europe and South America. Industrial railways and mine railways across the world are often narrow gauge. Sugar cane and banana plantations are mostly served by narrow gauges. ### Minimum-gauge Very narrow gauges of under 2 feet (610 mm) were used for some industrial railways in space-restricted environments such as mines or farms. The French company Decauville developed 500 mm (19+3⁄4 in) and 400 mm (15+3⁄4 in) tracks, mainly for mines; Heywood developed 15 in (381 mm) gauge for estate railways. The most common minimum-gauges were 15 in (381 mm), 400 mm (15+3⁄4 in), 16 in (406 mm), 18 in (457 mm), 500 mm (19+3⁄4 in) or 20 in (508 mm). ### Break of gauge Through operation between railway networks with different gauges was originally impossible; goods had to be transshipped and passengers had to change trains. This was obviously a major obstacle to convenient transport, and in Great Britain, led to political intervention. On narrow gauge lines, Rollbocks or transporter wagons are used: standard gauge wagons are carried on narrow gauge lines on these special vehicles, generally with rails of the wider gauge to enable those vehicles to roll on and off at transfer points. On the Transmongolian Railway, Russia and Mongolia use 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) while China uses the standard gauge of 1,435 mm. At the border, each carriage is lifted and its bogies are changed. The operation can take several hours for a whole train of many carriages. Other examples include crossings into or out of the former Soviet Union: Ukraine/Slovakia border on the Bratislava–L'viv train, and the Romania/Moldova border on the Chișinău-Bucharest train. A system developed by Talgo and Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) of Spain uses variable gauge wheelsets; at the border between France and Spain, through passenger trains are drawn slowly through apparatus that alters the gauge of the wheels, which slide laterally on the axles. A similar system is used between China and Central Asia, and between Poland and Ukraine, using the SUW 2000 and INTERGAUGE variable axle systems. China and Poland use standard gauge, while Central Asia and Ukraine use 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in). ### Dual gauge When individual railway companies have chosen different gauges and have needed to share a route where space on the ground is limited, mixed gauge (or dual gauge) track, in which three (sometimes four) rails are supported in the same track structure, can be necessary. The most frequent need for such track was at the approaches to city terminals or at break-of-gauge stations. Tracks of multiple gauges involve considerable costs in construction (including signalling work) and complexities in track maintenance, and may require some speed restrictions. They are therefore built only when absolutely necessary. If the difference between the two gauges is large enough – for example between 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge and 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) – three-rail dual-gauge is possible, but if not – for example between 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) and 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge – four rails must be used. Dual-gauge rail lines occur (or have occurred) in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Japan, North Korea, Spain, Switzerland, Tunisia and Vietnam. On the GWR, there was an extended period between political intervention in 1846 that prevented major expansion of its 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) broad gauge and the final gauge conversion to standard gauge in 1892. During this period, many locations practicality required mixed gauge operation, and in station areas the track configuration was extremely complex. This was compounded by the common rail having to be at the platform side in stations; therefore, in many cases, standard-gauge trains needed to be switched from one side of the track to the other at the approach. A special fixed point arrangement was devised for the purpose, where the track layout was simple enough. In some cases, mixed gauge trains were operated with wagons of both gauges. For example, MacDermot wrote: > In November 1871 a novelty in the shape of a *mixed-gauge* goods train was introduced between Truro and Penzance. It was worked by a narrow-gauge engine, and behind the narrow-gauge trucks came a broad-gauge match-truck with wide buffers and sliding shackles, followed by the broad-gauge trucks. Such trains continued to run in West Cornwall until the abolition of the Broad Gauge; they had to stop or come down to walking pace at all stations where fixed points existed and the narrow portion side-stepped to right or left. > > Nominal track gauge ------------------- The nominal track gauge is the distance between the inner faces of the rails. In current practice, it is specified at a certain distance below the rail head as the inner faces of the rail head (the *gauge faces*) are not necessarily vertical. Some amount of tolerance is necessarily allowed from the nominal gauge to allow for wear, etc.; this tolerance is typically greater for track limited to slower speeds, and tighter for track where higher speeds are expected (as an example, in the US the gauge is allowed to vary between 4 ft 8 in (1,420 mm) to 4 ft 10 in (1,470 mm) for track limited to 10 mph (16 km/h), while 70 mph (110 km/h) track is allowed only 4 ft 8 in (1,420 mm) to 4 ft 9+1⁄2 in (1,460 mm). Given the allowed tolerance, it is a common practice to widen the gauge slightly in curves, particularly those of shorter radius (which are inherently slower speed curves). Rolling stock on the network must have running gear (wheelsets) that are compatible with the gauge, and therefore the gauge is a key parameter in determining interoperability, but there are many others – see below. In some cases in the earliest days of railways, the railway company saw itself as an infrastructure provider only, and independent hauliers provided wagons suited to the gauge. Colloquially the wagons might be referred to as "four-foot gauge wagons", say, if the track had a gauge of four feet. This nominal value does not equate to the flange spacing, as some freedom is allowed for. An infrastructure manager might specify new or replacement track components at a slight variation from the nominal gauge for pragmatic reasons. Units ----- The gauge is defined in Imperial units, metric units or SI units. Imperial units were established in the United Kingdom by *The Weights and Measures Act of 1824*. The United States customary units for length did not agree with the Imperial system until 1959, when one international yard was defined as 0.9144 meters and, as derived units, 1 foot (=1⁄3 yd) as 0.3048 meter and 1 inch (=1⁄36 yd) as 25.4 mm. The list shows the Imperial and other units that have been used for track gauge definitions: | Unit | SI equivalent | Track gauge example | | --- | --- | --- | | Imperial foot | 304.8 mm | | | Castilian foot | 278.6 mm | * 6 Castilian feet = 1,672 mm (5 ft 5+13⁄16 in) * 2 Castilian feet 558 mm (1 ft 9+31⁄32 in) | | Portuguese foot | 332.8 mm | 5 Portuguese feet = 1,664 mm (5 ft 5+1⁄2 in) | | Swedish foot | 296.904 mm | * 3 Swedish feet = 891 mm (2 ft 11+3⁄32 in) * 2.7 Swedish feet = 802 mm (2 ft 7+9⁄16 in) | | Prussian foot (Rheinfuß) | 313.85 mm | 2+1⁄2 Prussian feet = 785 mm (2 ft 6+29⁄32 in) | | Austrian fathom | 1520 mm | 1⁄2 Austrian fathom = 760 mm (2 ft 5+15⁄16 in) | Temporary way – permanent way ----------------------------- A **temporary way** is the temporary track often used for construction, to be replaced by the permanent way (the structure consisting of the rails, fasteners, sleepers/ties and ballast (or slab track), plus the underlying subgrade) when construction nears completion. In many cases narrow-gauge track is used for a temporary way because of the convenience in laying it and changing its location over unimproved ground. In restricted spaces such as tunnels, the temporary way might be double track even though the tunnel will ultimately be single track. The Airport Rail Link in Sydney had construction trains of 900 mm (2 ft 11+7⁄16 in) gauge, which were replaced by permanent tracks of 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) gauge. During World War I trench warfare led to a relatively static disposition of infantry, requiring considerable logistics to bring them support staff and supplies (food, ammunition, earthworks materials, etc.). Dense light railway networks using temporary narrow gauge track sections were established by both sides for this purpose. In 1939 it was proposed to construct the western section of the Yunnan–Burma Railway using a gauge of 15+1⁄4 in (387 mm), since such tiny or "toy" gauge facilitates the tightest of curves in difficult terrain. Maintenance standards --------------------- Infrastructure owners specify permitted variances from the nominal gauge, and the required interventions when non-compliant gauge is detected. For example, the Federal Railroad Administration in the US specifies that the actual gauge of a 1,435 mm track that is rated for a maximum of 60 mph (96.6 km/h) must be between 4 ft 8 in (1,422 mm) and 4 ft 9.5 in (1,460 mm). Advantages and disadvantages of different track gauges ------------------------------------------------------ Speed, capacity, and economy are generally objectives of rail transport, but there is often an inverse relationship between these priorities. There is a common misconception that a narrower gauge permits a tighter turning radius, but for practical purposes, there is no meaningful relationship between gauge and curvature. ### Construction cost Narrower gauge railways usually cost less to build because they are usually lighter in construction, using smaller cars and locomotives (smaller loading gauge), as well as smaller bridges, smaller tunnels (smaller structure gauge). Narrow gauge is thus often used in mountainous terrain, where the savings in civil engineering work can be substantial. It is also used in sparsely populated areas, with low potential demand, and for temporary railways that will be removed after short-term use, such as for construction, the logging industry, the mining industry, or large-scale construction projects, especially in confined spaces (see Temporary way – permanent way). For temporary railways which will be removed after short-term use, such as those used in logging, mining or large-scale construction projects, especially in confined spaces, such as when constructing the Channel Tunnel, a narrow-gauge railway is substantially cheaper and easier to install and remove. Such railways have almost vanished, due to the capabilities of modern trucks. In many countries, narrow-gauge railways were built as branch lines to feed traffic to standard-gauge lines due to lower construction costs. The choice was often not between a narrow- and standard-gauge railway, but between a narrow-gauge railway and none at all. Broader gauge railways are generally more expensive to build, because they are usually heavier in construction, use larger cars and locomotives (larger loading gauge), as well as larger bridges, larger tunnels (larger structure gauge). But broader gauges offer higher speed and capacity. For routes with high traffic, greater capacity may more than offset the higher initial cost of construction. ### Interchangeability The value or utility a user derives from a good or service depends on the number of users of compatible products – the "network effect" in economics. Network effects are typically positive, resulting in a given user deriving more value from a product as other users join the same network. At national levels, the network effect has resulted in commerce extending beyond regional and national boundaries. Increasingly, many governments and companies have made their railways' engineering and operational standards compatible in order to achieve interchangeability – hence faster, longer-distance train operation. A major barrier to achieving interchangeability, however, is path dependence – in this context the persistence of an already adopted standard to which equipment, infrastructure and training has become aligned. Since adopting a new standard is difficult and expensive, continuing with an existing standard can remain attractive, unless longer-term benefits are given appropriate weight. An example of the consequences of path dependence is the persistence in the United Kingdom – the earliest nation to develop and adopt railway technologies – of structure gauges that are too small to allow the larger rolling stock of continental Europe to operate in the UK. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard has resulted in the historical multitude of track gauges dwindling to a small number that predominate worldwide. When interchangeability has not been achieved, freight and passengers must be transferred through time-consuming procedures requiring manual labour and substantial capital expenditure. Some bulk commodities, such as coal, ore, and gravel, can be mechanically transshipped, but even this is time-consuming, and the equipment required for the transfer is often complex to maintain. If rail lines of different gauges coexist in a network and a break of gauge exists, it is difficult in times of peak demand to move rolling stock to where it is needed. Sufficient rolling stock must be available to meet a narrow-gauge railway's peak demand, which might be greater in comparison to a broader-gauge network, and the surplus equipment generates no cash flow during periods of low demand. In regions where narrow-gauge lines form a small part of the rail network (as was the case on Russia's Sakhalin Railway), extra cost is involved in designing, manufacturing or importing narrow-gauge equipment. Solutions to interchangeability problems include bogie exchanges, a rollbock system, dual gauge, variable gauge, or gauge conversion. Dominant railway gauges ----------------------- More than half of the world's railways are built to 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge.[*when?*] New railways have been built in Africa to standard gauge. Most of the narrow-gauge railways in India are being converted to the dominant, broad-gauge. | System | Installation | | --- | --- | | Gauge | Name | in km | in miles |  % world | by location | | 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) | Metre gauge | 95,000 | 59,000 | 7.2% | Argentina (11,000 km or 6,800 mi), Brazil (23,489 km or 14,595 mi), Bolivia, northern Chile, Greece (in the disused Peloponnese network), Spain (Feve, FGC, Euskotren, FGV, SFM), Switzerland (RhB, MOB, BOB, MGB), Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Bangladesh, East Africa, Vietnam | | 1,067 mm (3 ft 6 in) | Three foot six inch gauge | 112,000 | 70,000 | 8.5% | Southern and Central Africa; Nigeria (most); Indonesia (Java and Sumatera) ; Japan; Taiwan; Philippines; New Zealand; and the Australian states of Queensland, Western Australia, Tasmania and South Australia. | | 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) | Standard gauge | 720,000 | 450,000 | 54.9% | Albania, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil (194 km or 121 mi), Bulgaria, Canada, China, Croatia, Cuba, Czech Republic, Denmark, Djibouti, DR Congo (Kamina-Lubumbashi section, planned), Ethiopia, France, Germany, Great Britain (United Kingdom), Greece, Hong Kong, Hungary, India (only used in rapid transit and High-speed rail), Indonesia (Aceh, LRT Jabodetabek, LRT Jakarta, MRT Jakarta East - West Line Corridor, High-Speed rail in Indonesia, and Sulawesi), Italy, Israel, Kenya (Mombasa–Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway), Laos, Liechtenstein, Lithuania (Rail Baltica), Luxembourg, Macedonia, Mexico, Montenegro, Netherlands, North Korea, Norway, Panama, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Singapore MRT, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Korea, Spain (AVE, Alvia and FGC), Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela, north Vietnam. Also private companies' lines and JR high-speed lines in Japan. High-speed lines in Taiwan. Gautrain commuter system in South Africa. New lines in Tanzania and Nigeria. | | 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in) | Russian Gauge | 220,000 | 140,000 | 16.8% | Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Mongolia, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan. *(all contiguous – redefined from 1,524 mm (5 ft))* | | 1,524 mm (5 ft) | 7,065 | 4,390 | 0.5% | Estonia, Finland*(contiguous, and generally compatible, except high speed trains, with 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+27⁄32 in)* | | 1,600 mm (5 ft 3 in) | Five foot three inch gauge | 9,800 | 6,100 | 0.7% | Ireland, Northern Ireland (United Kingdom) (1,800 km or 1,100 mi), and in the Australian states of Victoria and South Australia (4,017 km or 2,496 mi), Brazil (4,057 km or 2,521 mi)[*when?*] | | 1,668 mm (5 ft 5+21⁄32 in) | Iberian gauge | 15,394 | 9,565 | 1.2% | Portugal, Spain. Sometimes referred to as *Iberian gauge*. In Spain the Administrador de Infraestructuras Ferroviarias (ADIF) managed 11,683 km (7,259 mi) of this gauge and 22 km (14 mi) of mixed gauge at end of 2010. The Portuguese Rede Ferroviária Nacional (REFER) managed 2,650 km (1,650 mi) of this gauge of this track at the same date. | | 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) | Five foot six inch gauge | 134,008 | 83,269 | 10.2% | India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Argentina, Chile, BART in the United States San Francisco Bay Area | | ### Prevalence Total for each group of gauges in 2020: | Gauge | Installation (km) | Installation (mi) | Percentage (2020) | Percentage (2014) | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Narrow gauge(s) | 233,391 | 145,022 | 17.5% | 15.8% | | Standard gauge | 807,616 | 501,829 | 60.6% | 54.9% | | Broad gauge(s) | 290,705 | 180,636 | 21.8% | 29.3% | | Totals | 1,331,712 | 827,487 | 100% | 100% | Future ------ Further convergence of rail gauge use seems likely, as countries seek to build inter-operable networks, and international organisations seek to build macro-regional and continental networks. Almost all new high-speed rail lines are built to standard gauge, except in Uzbekistan and Russia. ### Europe The European Union has set out to develop inter-operable freight and passenger rail networks across its area, and is seeking to standardise gauge, signalling and electrical power systems. EU funds have been dedicated to assist Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in the building of some key railway lines (Rail Baltica) of standard gauge, and to assist Spain and Portugal in the construction of high-speed lines to connect Iberian cities to one another and to the French high-speed lines. The EU has developed plans for improved freight rail links between Spain, Portugal, and the rest of Europe. ### Trans-Asian Railway The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) is planning a Trans-Asian Railway that will link Europe and the Pacific, with a Northern Corridor from Europe to the Korean Peninsula, a Southern Corridor from Europe to Southeast Asia, and a North–South corridor from Northern Europe to the Persian Gulf. All these would encounter breaks of gauge as they cross Asia. Current plans have mechanized facilities at the breaks of gauge to move containers from train to train rather than widespread gauge conversion. The Northern Corridor through Russia already operates since before year 2000, with increasing volumes China–Europe. ### The Americas [*needs update*] * 2008: Proposed link between Venezuela and Colombia[*needs update*] * 2008: Venezuela via Brazil to Argentina – standard gauge[*needs update*] * 2008: A proposed metre gauge line across Southern Paraguay to link Argentina at Resistencia to Brazil at Cascavel; both those lines are 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge, and the new line would allow "bioceanic" running from the Atlantic port of Paranaguá in Brazil to that of Antofagasta in Chile on the Pacific.[*needs update*] ### Africa The East African Railway Master Plan is a proposal for rebuilding and expanding railway lines connecting Ethiopia, Djibouti, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Tanzania, South Sudan and beyond. The plan is managed by infrastructure ministers from participating East African Community countries in association with transport consultation firm CPCS Transcom. Older railways are of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge or 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) gauge. Newly rebuilt lines will use standard gauge. Regular freight and passenger services began on the standard gauge Mombasa–Nairobi railway in 2017 and on the standard gauge Addis Ababa–Djibouti railway in 2018. Lines for iron ore to Kribi in Cameroon are likely to be 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge with a likely connection to the same port from the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3+3⁄8 in) metre gauge Cameroon system.[*needs update*] Nigeria's railways are mostly 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) Cape gauge. The Lagos–Kano Standard Gauge Railway is a gauge conversion project by the Nigerian Government to create a north–south standard gauge rail link. The first converted segment, between Abuja and Kaduna, was completed in July 2016. The African Union has a 50-year plan to connect the capital cities and major centres by high-speed railways. Timeline -------- | Gauge | Date | Chosen by | | --- | --- | --- | | 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) | 1825 | George Stephenson | | 5 ft (1,524 mm) | 1827 | Horatio Allen for the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company | | 1 ft 11+1⁄2 in (597 mm) | 1836 | Henry Archer for the Festiniog Railway to easily navigate mountainous terrain (Britain's first steam-hauled narrow gauge passenger service in 1865) (originally horse-drawn) | | 7 ft 1⁄4 in (2,140 mm) | 1838 | I. K. Brunel | | 5 ft (1,524 mm) | 1842 | George Washington Whistler for the Moscow – Saint Petersburg Railway based on Southern US practice | | 5 ft 3 in (1,600 mm) | 1846 | chosen in Ireland as a compromise | | 5 ft 6 in (1,676 mm) | 1853 | Lord Dalhousie in India following Scottish practice | | 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) | 1862 | Carl Pihl for the Røros Line in Norway to reduce costs | | 3 ft 6 in (1,067 mm) | 1865 | Abraham Fitzgibbon for the Queensland Railways to reduce costs | | 3 ft (914 mm) | 1870 | William Jackson Palmer for the Denver & Rio Grande Railway to reduce costs (inspired by the Festiniog Railway) | | 2 ft (610 mm) | 1877 | George E. Mansfield for the Billerica and Bedford Railroad to reduce costs (inspired by the Festiniog Railway) | | 2 ft 6 in (762 mm) | 1887 | Everard Calthrop to reduce costs; had designs for a matching fleet of rolling stock | See also -------- * List of track gauges * Rapid transit track gauge * List of tram systems by gauge and electrification * Loading gauge * Minimum railway curve radius * Overhead line * Rail profile * Rail terminology * Rail transport modelling scales * Railway coupling * Structure gauge * Third rail * Track gauge conversion

Track gauge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_gauge

**Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus** (/ˈskɪp.i.oʊ/, /ˈsɪp-/, Latin: [ˈskiːpioː]; 236/235–c. 183 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time, his greatest military achievement was the defeat of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202 BC. This victory in Africa earned him the epithet *Africanus*, literally meaning "the African," but meant to be understood as a conqueror of Africa. Scipio's conquest of Carthaginian Iberia culminated in the Battle of Ilipa in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered a hero by the Roman people, primarily for his victories against Carthage, Scipio had many opponents, especially Cato the Elder, who hated him deeply. In 187 BC, he was tried in a show trial alongside his brother for bribes they supposedly received from the Seleucid king Antiochos III during the Roman–Seleucid War. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of his peers, Scipio left Rome and retired from public life at his villa in Liternum. Early years ----------- ### Family Scipio Africanus was born as **Publius Cornelius Scipio** in 236 BC to his then-homonymous father and Pomponia into the family of the Cornelii Scipiones. His family was one of the major still-extant patrician families and had held multiple consulships within living memory: his great-grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus and grandfather Lucius Cornelius Scipio had both been consuls and censors. His father had held the consulship of 218 BC, his uncle was consul in 222 BC, and his mother's brothers – Manius Pomponius Matho and Marcus Pomponius Matho – were both consuls in 233 and 231, respectively. ### Early military service The Second Punic war started in the spring of 218 BC when the Roman ultimatum to Carthage demanding that Hannibal withdraw from Saguntum in Spain was rejected. Scipio's father was consul that year and the younger Scipio joined him in the campaign to stop Hannibal's march on Italy. In a short cavalry engagement between Scipio's father and Hannibal at the river Ticinus near modern Pavia, Polybius claims that the son saved his father's life after the father was encircled by enemy horsemen. Other sources, however, credit an unnamed Ligurian slave. Two years later, in 216 BC, Scipio served as military tribune. He survived the disastrous Battle of Cannae – his father-in-law, the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus, was there slain – and, after the battle, rallied survivors at Canusium. According to Livy, when he heard that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and other young nobles were discussing a plan to abandon the republic and go overseas to serve as mercenaries, Scipio stormed into the meeting and forced all of them at sword-point to swear to Jupiter and the Capitoline triad that they would never abandon Rome. This story is probably a late invention, as it does not appear in Polybius. The next year, in 213 BC, he was elected curule aedile and served with his cousin Marcus Cornelius Cethegus. His candidacy was opposed by one of the plebeian tribunes on the grounds that he had not yet reached the minimum age, but after the voters expressed such eagerness to vote for him, the tribune desisted. Second Punic War ---------------- ### Campaign in Hispania From the start of the war through to 211 BC, Scipio's father and uncle – Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus – were in command of Rome's armies in Spain. They made some headway when the Carthaginians were forced to withdraw a considerable portion of their forces to handle a revolt by Syphax of Numidia. Through the seven years from 218, the brothers had successfully extended Roman control deep into Carthaginian territory. However, disaster struck in 211 BC when the brothers divided their forces to attack three separate Carthaginian armies and were defeated in detail. The brothers fell in separate battles against the Carthaginians, who were led by Hasdrubal Barca, Mago Barca, and Hasdrubal Gisco; the two Barcas were Hannibal's brothers. Initially, Gaius Claudius Nero – who was praetor in 212 BC – was sent to contain the situation. But in 210 BC, the assembly elected Scipio to take command. Modern scholars dismiss the Livian narrative of senatorial indecision and have instead suggested that the senate chose Scipio but forced a popular vote to legitimise an irregular command. Giving Scipio command was an extraordinary act, as he at this point had never held a praetorship or consulship, but was regardless granted *imperium pro consule*, taking command on his arrival to Spain in the early autumn. He was the first person to have been given proconsular imperium without having held consular office. He went to Spain with some 10,000 reinforcements and was joined by another commander, Marcus Junius Silanus, who was dispatched *pro praetore* and soon assumed command of Nero's army. Seeking to defeat the three Carthaginian armies in detail, the next year, 209 BC, saw Scipio's first major campaign: he besieged Carthago Nova (modern Cartagena), which was a major Carthaginian logistics hub and of substantial strategic importance. In the battle, he captured the city by sending a wading party across the lagoon to the city's north when it reached low tide, he told the troops that he had a vision in which the god Neptune had promised aid; this alleged vision played a role in the rapid development of a Scipionic legend around him and his family. Storming the city rapidly and with little ability to tell combatants and civilians apart, Scipio ordered his men to massacre all they encountered and pillage any structures; Polybius viewed the massacre as intended to terrorise the Spanish population into rapidly surrendering and included an anecdote of Romans being so thorough as to cut even the dogs and other animals in half. He then forced the surrender of Mago in the citadel and rapidly switched his tune, sparing the remaining citizens and only enslaving the town's non-citizens. He then took the three hundred Spanish hostages into his custody, giving them gifts, guaranteeing their safety and that of their families, and promising them freedom if their respective communities would ally with Rome. After the battle, several Spanish tribes defected to the Romans. The next year, 208 BC, Scipio fought Hasdrubal north of the river Baetis, near Baecula. While Scipio was victorious, the battle was indecisive and Hasdrubal escaped north with most of his army across the Pyrenees for Italy; Hasdrubal and his army reached Italy in 207, where they were eventually defeated in the Battle of the Metaurus with the army destroyed and Hasdrubal slain. The following year, Hasdrubal was replaced by a certain Hanno, who was captured by Junius Silanus in Celtiberia. Following the army under Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, which retreated to Gades (modern Cádiz), Scipio's brother took Orongis (modern Jaén) before a decisive victory in 206 BC at the Battle of Ilipa, north of modern Seville, forced the Carthaginians to withdraw from the peninsula. In mopping-up operations, Scipio captured Ilourgeia and Castulo, inflicting severe punishment on the former for having killed refugees from his army. Other Roman commanders captured other towns in Spain, including Astapa, whose inhabitants committed mass suicide. After a quickly-suppressed revolt by Spanish tribes when false rumours of Scipio's death from illness spread, he crossed into Africa to solicit the support of Syphax and thence into western Hispania to meet Massinissa for the same purpose. Syphax pledged loyalty but eventually joined with the Carthaginians; Massinissa, however, joined with the Romans with a small contingent when Syphax expelled him the kingdom of Massylii. Meanwhile, Gades surrendered to the Romans. Some time c. 206 BC, Scipio also founded the town of Italica (located about 9 km northwest of Seville), which later became the birthplace of the emperors, Trajan, Hadrian, and Theodosius I. With a general victory across the peninsula, Scipio then returned to Rome to stand for the consulship of 205 BC, leaving Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Manlius Acidinus in command. He returned to Rome late in the year; according to Livy he was denied a triumph, on the grounds that he was *privatus* – that is, *sine magistratu*, – and had never been elected to a magistracy with imperium. ### African campaign Scipio was elected unanimously to the consulship of 205 BC amid much enthusiasm; he was 31 and still technically too young to be consul. When he entered into office, he demanded that the senate assign him the province of Africa and threatened to take the matter to the popular assemblies if it refused to do so. Despite fierce opposition from the princeps senatus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the senate bowed to his pressure and he received Sicily with permission to cross into Africa if he wished. Fabius' opposition may have been related to jealousy of Scipio's popularity, but also was likely informed by the failed African campaign c. 255 BC under Marcus Atilius Regulus during the First Punic War, which saw the Carthaginians' war efforts renewed. The senate, regardless, assigned Scipio no additional soldiers, leading him to recruit an army of volunteers; Livy reports that from his clients and supporters in Italy, he mustered some 30 warships and 7,000 men. He spent most of his consulship preparing his troops in Sicily for the invasion of Africa. He captured Locri on the toe of Italy that year, and left one Pleminius in command there. After Pleminius assumed command, he robbed the city's temple and tortured and killed two military tribunes. For these crimes, the senate had Pleminius placed under arrest; Scipio was also implicated but was cleared the next year. #### Invasion of Africa His imperium was prorogued into 205 BC and in that year, he crossed with his men into Africa and besieged Utica before withdrawing and pretending in the winter to negotiate with the Carthaginians. During those pretended negotiations, Scipio mapped out the enemy camps and launched a night attack that was successful in destroying them and killing a large number of the enemy. The armies then fought in the Battle of the Great Plains some time early in the new year (his *imperium* was prorogued until the war's completion) and after capturing Syphax of Numidia, restored Massinissa to the kingdom. The Carthaginians reacted to the defeat by recalling their generals Hannibal and Mago from Italy and launching their fleet against Scipio's to cut off their supply lines. Scipio was forced into a naval battle near Utica, but was able to avert disaster, losing only some sixty transport ships. Another set of peace negotiations occurred, with the Carthaginians eventually agreeing to abandon all territorial claims in the Mediterranean and beyond, limit her rights to expand in Africa, recognize Massinissa's kingdom, give up all but twenty of her ships, and pay a war indemnity. However, during the negotiations, the Carthaginians – suffering from starvation – attacked a Roman food convoy, leading to protests to be sent and envoys exchanged. Amid further attempts to remove him from command – one of the consuls of 203 BC, Gnaeus Servilius Caepio, attempted to substitute himself for Scipio to claim credit for the final blow against Carthage; the consuls of 202 BC coveted the African command for the same reason – Scipio refused peace terms at a parley with Hannibal in 202 BC. With the support of Masinissa's Numidian cavalry, the Battle of Zama was fought shortly after; the Romans won after a tactically uninteresting battle and Carthage then again sued for peace. In the new year, 201 BC, Scipio remained in Africa to conclude negotiations, which saw Carthage's territory kept to the status quo ante bellum, Carthage restore to the Romans all captured goods and persons, Carthaginian disarmament of all but ten triremes, and Carthage needing to ask for Roman permission to make any war. Massinissa's territory in Numidia was to be confirmed; and a war indemnity of 10,000 talents was to be paid over the next fifty years. Although the consul of 201 BC, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus attempted to oppose the peace so that he could continue the war in Scipio's place, the peace terms were ratified by the assembly in Rome, bringing the war to a final close. #### Return On his return, Scipio celebrated a triumph over Hannibal, the Carthaginians, and Syphax. There, he took the agnomen *Africanus* ("the African"), for his victories. By this point, Scipio's career reached far beyond his peers even though he was only in his early thirties. On his return, he deposited some 123,000 pounds of silver into the Roman treasury and distributed 400 asses each to his soldiers. His popularity among the plebs was also astonishing – the Scipionic legend, which in later forms depicted him a son of Jupiter, – and heralded great political success. This success, however, turned many Roman aristocrats into his enemies, largely to oppose his further aggrandisement or out of jealousy. Even during his consulship, he had been opposed by Fabius Maximus and others, especially after stories circulated of his being saluted as king and god in Spain. His intended role in Roman politics, however, remained traditional. Later life ---------- ### Censorship and second consulship In the year 199 BC, Scipio was elected censor with Publius Aelius Paetus as his colleague. Their censorship was largely unremarkable, but saw Scipio named as princeps senatus, a title which he retained for the next two *lustra*. After this point, the classicist Howard Hayes Scullard believed that Scipio's political position entered an eclipse. This is disputed. After the required ten years between consulships had elapsed, Scipio secured election to the consulship of 194 BC. During his second consulship, he wanted to succeed Titus Quinctius Flamininus in Greece and advocated for a stronger Roman presence in the Aegean to guard against Antiochus III, but was unsuccessful. He instead fought the Boii and Ligurians in northern Italy, against whom the Romans had been continuously campaigning since 201 BC. Scipio let his co-consul, Tiberius Sempronius Longus, take the leading role in the fighting and returned to Rome to hold the consular elections. In 193 BC, Scipio is said to have taken part in two embassies. The first was to Africa, where he was one of three sent to arbitrate a boundary dispute between Carthage and Masinissa: the commission left the matter undecided, possibly on purpose. The second embassy is said to have been to Asia and, on the basis of travel time, could not have happened. During the alleged embassy, Scipio is apocryphally said to have discussed the best generals with Hannibal at Ephesus. ### War with Antiochus In 192 BC, Rome declared war on Antiochus, who – after a cold war with the Romans starting from the close of the Second Macedonian War through to 193 BC – had invaded Greece. Antiochus' initial push into Greece was met with little enthusiasm by the locals, who were well-treated in a peaceful and largely open interstate system in the aftermath of the Roman proclamation of Greek freedom. It did not help that the cities that he did take had to be taken by force. The consul of 191 BC, Manius Acilius Glabrio, arrived in the spring and promptly defeated Antiochus at the Battle of Thermopylae – Antiochus lost the battle and was forced back across the Aegean to Ephesus within six months of the war's start. The consul of 190 BC was Scipio Africanus' brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who was assigned by the senate to Greece with permission to cross into Asia. He appointed his older brother, Scipio Africanus, as one of his legates. While en route, Roman armies and fleets quickly overwhelmed Antiochus' defences, forcing him to retreat from the Hellespont and Abydos; by October 190 BC, when the Scipios arrived, the Romans had an army in Asia minor. Antiochus offered terms – a war indemnity to cover half the cost of the war and abandonment of his claims to Smyrna, Lapsacus, Alexandria Troas, and other towns – but the Scipiones rejected the offer based on the Roman war aim of reshaping to their benefit the Aegean balance of power. They responded by demanding Antiochus cede all territory to the Taurus mountains and pay an indemnity covering the entire cost of the war; the demands were so extreme he immediately broke off negotiations. Late in the year, around mid-December, Antiochus' forces engaged the Romans at Magnesia; even though they outnumbered the Romans and allies by at least two to one, Antiochus' army of some 60,000 men was routed. Shortly before Magnesia, Antiochus offered Scipio Africanus a bribe to secure favourable peace terms, which Africanus rejected. At the battle itself, he claimed illness, but was selected to present the Roman peace terms regardless. The credit for the victory accrued to his brother and commander, Lucius. The peace terms presented at Sardis were largely the Roman demands prior to the battle: Antiochus would cede all territory outside the Taurus line (eventually determined to be from Cape Sarpedon in Cilicia through to the river Tanais), pay a war indemnity of 15,000 talents to Rome with a separate 400 talents to Eumenes, all exiles and enemies of Rome would be handed over (including Hannibal) along with twenty hostages (including Antiochus' youngest son). ### Trials of the Scipios The 190s BC saw a re-emergence of attempts by the aristocratic elite to put limits on individual ambitions. The return of the Scipiones to Rome saw claims over Lucius Scipio's triumph disputed: critics thought the Scipiones had been fighting a weak enemy and that the war had actually truly been won a year earlier at Thermopylae. His triumph, however, was approved regardless. Lucius' attempt to secure from the senate a prorogation to oversee the settlement of Asia also was rejected; no exception would be made to the general post-Hannibalic war rule against promagistrates. Lucius Scipio adopted the cognomen *Asiagenes* and at his triumph brought some 137,420 pounds of silver, 224,000 tetradrachms, 140,000 gold coins, 234 gold crowns, 1231 ivory tusks, and more into the city. His soldiers were granted bonuses of 25 denarii each, with more to officers and cavalry. These enormous amounts of plunder triggered moral panic at Rome about the possible diversion of those funds to extravagant private use. These troubles related to the broader matter of charting the boundaries of power that magistrates could exercise abroad, especially in relation of monies obtained in war. A confusing mess of stories related to the Scipiones' legal troubles are recorded in the ancient sources. Scipio Asiagenes was in fact indicted. He was not alone, his successor in Asia – Gnaeus Manlius Vulso – also was brought up on charges. Regardless, the trial forced a full accounting of cash paid by Antiochus to Manlius and Asiagenes. After Asiagenes was fined – either by a special court or by tribunician legislation – he refused to pay the fine, claiming poverty, and was only saved from prison when one of the plebeian tribunes, usually identified as Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, interceded. Africanus was around the same time challenged in the senate. A senator demanded that he produce his account-books for the Antiochene campaign and account for the monies allotted to pay his troops. He responded with indignation and declared that he owed no reckoning. Securing the account-books from his brother, he waved them before the senators and then tore them up, asking the rhetorical question as to how the senate could be concerned with a mere 3,000 talents when he had brought 15,000 into the treasury by conquering Spain, Africa, and Asia. One story, given by Valerius Antias, indicates that one of the tribunes at the urging of Cato the Elder brought charges against Scipio Africanus alleging bribery and theft. Antias then has Scipio respond with a rousing oration detailing his services to the republic and noting that the day is the anniversary of the Battle of Zama. At this notice, he then leads an impromptu procession to sacrifice at the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus amid thunderous applause, leaving the prosecutors embarrassed. This story, however, "generates little confidence". The legal troubles proved little trouble for the Scipiones, as evidence by Asiagenes' lavish games in 186 and vigorous campaign for the censorship of 184 (he was unsuccessful). Friends of the Scipiones continued to win consular elections. Scipio himself retired to Liternum; "the idea that he retired in semi-exile or ignominy is pure romance". ### Death Scipio retired to his country seat at Liternum on the coast of Campania, where he died. There are multiple dates reported for his death. Polybius and Rutilius, who both lived shortly after his death, report that he died in 183 BC; the later historian Valerius Antias reported that he died in 187 BC. Livy, arguing against both dates in his history, believed Scipio died c. 185 BC, rejecting both dates with the argument that if Scipio lived to 183 he would be noted as *princeps senatus* and that Scipio had to have lived to 185 BC to have been prosecuted by the Naevius who was tribune in that year. However, most modern sources, such as the *Oxford Classical Dictionary*, prefer 183 BC. It is not clear where Scipio Africanus was buried. There are three main possibilities. The first is the Tomb of the Scipios in Rome. Nothing survives in the literary record documenting his burial there, however. The second is his villa at Liternum: it was later owned by Seneca the Younger, who in a letter expressed his belief that an altar there was Africanus' tomb. The third is the pyramidal Meta Romuli which was ahistorically dubbed the *Sepulcrum Scipionis* during the Renaissance. Marriage and issue ------------------ Scipio married Aemilia Tertia, daughter of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae. She was also the sister of another consul, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus. Scipio's marriage was fruitful. They had three sons: * Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, who became praetor in 177 BC; * Lucius Cornelius Scipio, who became praetor in 174 BC; and * Publius Cornelius Scipio, who was inducted into the augurate in 180 BC. They also had two daughters. Both were named Cornelia. The elder married Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum. The younger Cornelia married Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and became mother to the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus. None of his sons had legitimate issue. However, his son Publius adopted the son of Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus, who became known as Scipio Aemilianus. Scipio's only descendants living through the late Republican period were the descendants of his two daughters. His younger daughter's last surviving child Sempronia, wife and then widow of Scipio Aemilianus – his adoptive grandson – was alive as late as 102 BC. Personality and traits ---------------------- ### Roman opinions of Scipio Scipio was a man of great intellect and culture who could speak and read Greek, wrote his own memoirs in Greek and became also noted for his introduction of the clean shaven face fashion among the Romans according to the example of Alexander the Great instead of wearing the beard. This man's fashion lasted until the time of emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138) and then was revived again by Constantine the Great (r. 306–337). He also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful orator, the secret of his sway being his deep self-confidence and radiant sense of fairness. To his political opponents, he was often harsh and arrogant, but towards others singularly gracious and sympathetic. His Graecophile lifestyle, and his unconventional way of wearing the Roman toga, raised much opposition among some Senators of Rome, led by Cato the Elder who felt that Greek influence was destroying Roman culture. Cato, as a loyalist of Fabius Maximus, had been sent out as quaestor to Scipio in Sicily circa 204 BC to investigate charges of military indiscipline, corruption, and other offence against Scipio; none of those charges was found true by the tribunes of the plebs accompanying Cato (it may or may not be significant that years later, as censor, Cato degraded Scipio's brother Scipio Asiaticus from the Senate. It is certainly true that some Romans of the day viewed Cato as a representative of the old Romans, and Scipio and his like as Graecophiles). He often visited the temple of Jupiter and made offerings there. There was a belief that he was a special favourite of heaven and actually communicated with the gods. It is quite possible that he himself honestly shared this belief. However, the strength of this belief is evident, even a generation later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio, was elected to the consulship from the office of tribune. His rise was spectacular and letters survive from soldiers under his command in Hispania show that they believed that he possessed the same abilities as his grandfather. The elder Scipio was a spiritual man as well as a soldier and statesman, and was a priest of Mars. The ability which he is supposed to have possessed is called by the old name, "second sight", and he is supposed to have had prescient dreams in which he saw the future. Livy describes this belief as it was perceived then, without offering his opinion as to its veracity. Polybius made a case that Scipio's successes resulted from good planning, rational thinking and intelligence, which he said was a higher sign of the gods' favour than prophetic dreams. Polybius suggested that people had only said that Scipio had supernatural powers because they had not appreciated the natural mental gifts which facilitated Scipio's achievements. ### The continence of Scipio The Roman historian Valerius Maximus, writing in the first century AD, alleged that Scipio Africanus had a weakness for beautiful women, and knowing this, some of his soldiers presented him with a beautiful young woman captured in New Carthage. The woman turned out to be the fiancée of an important Iberian chieftain and Scipio chose to act as a general and not an ordinary soldier in restoring her, virtue and ransom intact, to her fiancé. This episode was frequently depicted by painters of the Renaissance and early modern era as the Continence of Scipio. According to Valerius Maximus, Scipio had a relationship from circa 191 BC with one of his own serving girls, which his wife magnanimously overlooked. The affair, if it lasted from circa 191 BC to Scipio's death 183 BC, might have resulted in issue (not mentioned); what is mentioned is that the girl was freed by Aemilia Paulla after Scipio's death and married to one of his freedmen. This account is only found in Valerius Maximus (Memorable Deeds and Sayings 6.7.1–3. L) writing in the first century AD, some decades after Livy. Valerius Maximus is hostile to Scipio Africanus in other matters such as his frequent visits to the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which Maximus saw as "fake religion." Lost works ---------- Scipio is said to have written his memoirs in Greek, but those are lost (perhaps destroyed) along with the history written by his elder son and namesake (adoptive father of Scipio Aemilianus) and his Life by Plutarch. As a result, contemporary accounts of his life, particularly his childhood and youth, are virtually non-existent. Even Plutarch's account of Scipio's life, written much later, has been lost. What remains are accounts of his doings in Polybius, Livy's Histories (which say little about his private life), supplemented with the surviving histories of Appian and Cassius Dio, and the odd anecdote in Valerius Maximus. Of these, Polybius was the closest to Scipio Africanus in age and in connections, but his narrative may be biased by his friendship with Scipio's close relatives and that the primary source of his information about Africanus came from one of his best friends, Gaius Laelius. Legacy ------ ### Military Scipio is considered by many to be one of Rome's greatest generals; he never lost a battle. Skillful alike in strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring his soldiers with confidence. Livy reports that, as a Roman commissioner to Ephesus following the defeat of Antiochus III, on meeting the exiled Hannibal, Scipio took the opportunity to ask Hannibal's opinion of the "greatest commander," to which Hannibal named Alexander the Great as the first and Pyrrhus as the second. Livy continues, "On Scipio's again asking him whom he regarded as the third, Hannibal, without any hesitation, replied, 'Myself.' Scipio smiled and asked, 'What would you say if you had vanquished me?' 'In that case,' replied Hannibal, 'I should say that I surpassed Alexander and Pyrrhus, and all other commanders in the world.' Scipio was delighted with the turn which the speaker had with true Carthaginian adroitness given to his answer, and the unexpected flattery it conveyed, because Hannibal had set him apart from the ordinary run of military captains as an incomparable commander." Metellus Scipio, a descendant of Scipio, commanded legions against Julius Caesar in Africa until his defeat at the Battle of Thapsus in 49 BC. Popular superstition was that only a Scipio could win a battle in Africa, so Julius Caesar assigned a distant relative of Metellus to his staff in order to say that he too had a Scipio fighting for him. ### Political Scipio was the first Roman general to expand Roman territories outside Italy and islands around the Italian mainland. He conquered the Carthaginian territory of Iberia for Rome, although the two Iberian provinces were not fully pacified for a couple of centuries. His defeat of Hannibal at Zama paved the way for Carthage's eventual destruction in 146 BC. His interest in a Graecophile lifestyle had tremendous influence on the Roman elite; more than a century later, even the conservative Cato Uticensis (great-grandson of the elder Cato) espoused Greek philosophy. Scipio did not introduce Greek ideas or art to the Romans, but his ardent support for the Greek way of life coupled with his own charisma had its inevitable impact. Less beneficially, the Scipios may have led the way in the inevitable chasm that grew up between the Roman elite and the Roman masses, in terms of the way the elite was educated and lived and in the amount of wealth they possessed. Scipio supported land distribution for his veterans in a tradition harking back to the earliest days of the Republic, yet his actions were seen as somewhat radical by conservatives. In being a successful general who demanded lands for his soldiers, Scipio may have led the way for later generals such as Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar. Unlike Marius or Caesar, however, he did not seek to use his charisma and reputation to weaken the Republic. The true measure of Scipio's character in this regard can perhaps be seen by his behaviour shortly after returning in triumph from Africa to a grateful Rome. Scipio refused to accept demands for him to become perpetual consul and dictator. For his self-restraint in putting the good of the republic ahead of his own gain, Scipio was praised by Livy for showing uncommon greatness of mind—an example conspicuously not emulated by Marius, Sulla or Caesar. The relatives of Scipio continued to dominate the republic for a couple of generations. This domination came to an end in the tumults between the Gracchi brothers, who were his grandsons, and their other relatives in the period from 133 to 122 BC. The Gracchi brothers championed land redistribution in order to boost the ranks of potential Roman soldiers, as Roman soldiers needed to own land to be enfranchised for service in the legions and the number of Roman land owners was withering. They were lynched by their relatives who disapproved of their methods and perhaps had economic reasons to fear the land redistribution. After the fall of the Gracchi, the house of Caecilius became more prominent. However, the Scipiones maintained their aristocratic lustre, providing the consular general who unsuccessfully prevented Sulla's second march on Rome and Metellus Scipio whose daughter was the last wife of Pompey the Great, and who took over command in the civil war against Julius Caesar after the death of Pompey. The granddaughter of Gaius Gracchus, Fulvia, was also unusually prominent for a Roman woman in the affairs of the late republic, marrying Publius Clodius, Gaius Curio and Mark Antony in turn. At a later date, some Roman emperors claimed descent from Scipio Africanus. Cultural depictions ------------------- ### Classical literature Scipio appears or is mentioned in passing in Cicero's *De Republica* and *De Amicitia*, and in Silius Italicus' *Punica* (Cicero was mentored by prominent Romans whose ancestors had been associated with Scipio). As a Roman hero, Scipio appears in Book VI of the *Aeneid* where he is shown to Aeneas in a vision in the underworld. Scipio figures prominently in Livy's "Ab urbe condita libri" and is named as an example of a warrior at the end of Book III of Lucretius' *De rerum natura*. ### Medieval literature Scipio is mentioned four times in Dante's *Divine Comedy*: in "Inferno"—Canto XXXI, in "Purgatorio"—Canto XXIX, and in "Paradiso"—Cantos VI and XXVII. ### Renaissance literature and art Scipio is the hero of Petrarch's Latin epic *Africa*. 'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a stock motif in exemplary literature and art, as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice between Virtue and Luxury. *The Continence of Scipio*, depicting his clemency and sexual restraint after the fall of Carthago Nova, was an even more popular subject. Versions of the subject were painted by many artists from the Renaissance through to the 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicolas Poussin. Scipio is mentioned in Machiavelli's work *The Prince* (Chapter XVII "Concerning Cruelty And Clemency, And Whether It Is Better To Be Loved Than Feared"). Milton mentions Scipio in Book 9 of *Paradise Lost* and in Book 3 of *Paradise Regained*. Raphael's painting *Vision of a Knight* is thought to be a depiction of Scipio. ### Music Publius Cornelius Scipio was the title character of a number of Italian operas composed during the baroque period of music, including settings by George Frideric Handel, Leonardo Vinci, and Carlo Francesco Pollarolo. The march from Handel's setting, entitled *Scipione*, remains the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards. Scipio is also referenced in the Italian national anthem. ### Film and television Shortly before Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Benito Mussolini commissioned an epic film depicting the exploits of Scipio. *Scipione l'africano*, written by Carmine Gallone, won the Mussolini Cup for the greatest Italian film at the 1937 Venice Film Festival. In 1971 Luigi Magni scripted and directed the movie *Scipione, detto anche l'Africano* (Scipio, aka "the African"), starring Marcello Mastroianni, Vittorio Gassman, Silvana Mangano and Woody Strode, in which the historical events are portrayed in a light and satirical mode, with some intentional references to the political events of the time in which the movie was made. In the 1983 BBC mini-series *The Cleopatras*, Scipio is portrayed by Geoffrey Whitehead. In the 2000 film *Gladiator*, the first battle in the Colosseum is meant to re-enact Scipio Africanus's battle of Zama against Hannibal's barbarian horde. In the film, Maximus ruins the re-enactment by leading the gladiators, who are meant to represent Hannibal's forces, to victory over Scipio's legionaries. In the 2006 television film Hannibal, he is portrayed by British actor Shaun Dingwall, notably at the battles of Cannae and Zama. ### Video games Scipio features as a playable character, represented by a cataphract, in the Battle of Zama in *Age of Empires: The Rise of Rome*. He also appears in the Haemimont Games video game *Imperivm III: The Great Battles of Rome, Centurion: Defender of Rome,* and in the Hannibal at the Gates campaign in *Total War: Rome II.* Scipio appears twice as a playable character in the Mobile/PC Game Rise of Kingdoms. Offices ------- The following table is derived from Broughton 1952, p. 555 unless otherwise indicated. | Year (BC) | Office | Colleague | Comment | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | 216 | Military tribune | * Appius Claudius Pulcher * Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus * Quintus Fabius Maximus * Gnaeus Octavius * Lucius Publicius Bibulus * Publius Sempronius Tuditanus | | | 213 | Curule aedile | Marcus Cornelius Cethegus | | | 216–210 | Proconsul | | Spain | | 205 | Consul | Publius Licinius Crassus Dives | Assigned Sicily *extra sortem*, then further assigned Africa | | 204–201 | Proconsul | | Continuously prorogued in Africa; victor of Zama in 202 | | 199 | Censor | Publius Aelius Paetus | | | 199–189 | Princeps senatus | | Chosen *princeps senatus* in his own censorship | | 194 | Consul | Tiberius Sempronius Longus | Fought the Boii and Ligurians | | 193 | Legate (ambassador) | | Sent to Africa to settle boundary dispute and thence possibly to Asia | | 190 | Legate (lieutenant) | | Served under his brother, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus | | 184? | Legate? | | Possibly legate in Etruria | See also -------- * Scipio–Paullus–Gracchus family tree References ---------- ### Modern sources * Astin, A E; et al., eds. (1989). *Rome and the Mediterranean to 133 BC*. Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23448-4. OCLC 916019669. + Briscoe, John. "The Second Punic War". In CAH2 8 (1989), pp. 44–80. + Errington, R M. "Rome against Philip and Antiochus". In CAH2 8 (1989), pp. 244–289. * Briscoe, John (2012). "Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Publius, 'the elder'". *Oxford Classical Dictionary* (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1867. ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. * Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1951). *The magistrates of the Roman republic*. Vol. 1. New York: American Philological Association. * Broughton, Thomas Robert Shannon (1952). *The magistrates of the Roman republic*. Vol. 2. New York: American Philological Association. * Drogula, Fred (2015). *Commanders & command in the Roman republic and early empire*. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-4696-2314-6. OCLC 905949529. * Etcheto, Henri (2012). *Les Scipions: famille et pouvoir à Rome à l'époque républicaine* (in French). Bordeaux: Ausonius Éditions. ISBN 978-2-35613-073-0. * Goldsworthy, Adrian (2003). *In the name of Rome: the men who won the Roman empire*. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-22183-1. * Gruen, Erich (1995). "The "fall" of the Scipios". In Malkin, I; Rubinsohn, Z W (eds.). *Leaders and masses in the Roman world*. Mnemosyne Supplements. Vol. 139. Brill. pp. 59–90. doi:10.1163/9789004329447\_006. ISBN 978-9-0040-9917-3. * Miles, Gary B (1995). *Livy: reconstructing early Rome*. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-5017-2461-9. * Torregaray Pagola, Elena (1998). *La elaboración de la tradición sobre los Cornelii Scipiones: pasado histórico y conformación simbólica*. Zaragoza: Institución Fernando el Católico. ISBN 84-7820-445-8. OCLC 40997693. * Scullard, H H (1929). *Scipio Africanus in the Second Punic War* (PhD thesis). Cambridge University. * Zmeskal, Klaus (2009). *Adfinitas* (in German). Vol. 1. Passau: Verlag Karl Stutz. ISBN 978-3-88849-304-1. ### Primary sources * Livy (1905) [1st century AD]. *From the Founding of the City*. Translated by Roberts, Canon – via Wikisource. * Orosius. *History against the pagans*. * Polybius (1922–27) [2nd century BC]. *Histories*. Loeb Classical Library. Translated by Paton, W R. Cambridge: Harvard University Press – via LacusCurtius. * Valerius Maximus (2004). *Memorable deeds and sayings: one thousand tales from ancient Rome*. Translated by Walker, Henry. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-675-0. OCLC 53231884. Further reading --------------- * Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Scipio § *Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus*". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 405–406. * Scullard, H H (1970). *Scipio Africanus: soldier and politician*. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-40012-1. OCLC 80462. | Political offices | | --- | | Preceded byL. Veturius PhiloQ. Caecilius Metellus | **Roman consul** 205 BC With: **P. Licinius Crassus Dives** | Succeeded byM. Cornelius CethegusP. Sempronius Tuditanus | | Preceded byL. Valerius FlaccusCato the Censor | **Roman consul II** 194 BC With: **Ti. Sempronius Longus** | Succeeded byL. Cornelius MerulaQ. Minucius Thermus | | Preceded byG. Claudius NeroM. Livius Salinator | **Roman censor** 199 BC With: **P. Aelius Paetus** | Succeeded byG. Cornelius CethegusSex. Aelius Paetus Catus |

Scipio Africanus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scipio_Africanus

In physics, the **special theory of relativity**, or **special relativity** for short, is a scientific theory of the relationship between space and time. In Albert Einstein's original treatment, the theory is based on two postulates: 1. The laws of physics are invariant (identical) in all inertial frames of reference (that is, frames of reference with no acceleration). 2. The speed of light in vacuum is the same for all observers, regardless of the motion of light source or observer. Origins and significance ------------------------ Special relativity was originally proposed by Albert Einstein in a paper published on 26 September 1905 titled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". The incompatibility of Newtonian mechanics with Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and, experimentally, the Michelson–Morley null result (and subsequent similar experiments) demonstrated that the historically hypothesized luminiferous aether did not exist. This led to Einstein's development of special relativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations involving all motions and especially those at a speed close to that of light (known as *relativistic velocities*). Today, special relativity is proven to be the most accurate model of motion at any speed when gravitational and quantum effects are negligible. Even so, the Newtonian model is still valid as a simple and accurate approximation at low velocities (relative to the speed of light), for example, everyday motions on Earth. Special relativity has a wide range of consequences that have been experimentally verified. They include the relativity of simultaneity, length contraction, time dilation, the relativistic velocity addition formula, the relativistic Doppler effect, relativistic mass, a universal speed limit, mass–energy equivalence, the speed of causality and the Thomas precession. It has, for example, replaced the conventional notion of an absolute universal time with the notion of a time that is dependent on reference frame and spatial position. Rather than an invariant time interval between two events, there is an invariant spacetime interval. Combined with other laws of physics, the two postulates of special relativity predict the equivalence of mass and energy, as expressed in the mass–energy equivalence formula E = m c 2 {\displaystyle E=mc^{2}} E = mc^2, where c {\displaystyle c} c is the speed of light in vacuum. It also explains how the phenomena of electricity and magnetism are related. A defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of Newtonian mechanics with the Lorentz transformations. Time and space cannot be defined separately from each other (as was previously thought to be the case). Rather, space and time are interwoven into a single continuum known as "spacetime". Events that occur at the same time for one observer can occur at different times for another. Until several years later when Einstein developed general relativity, which introduced a curved spacetime to incorporate gravity, the phrase "special relativity" was not used. A translation sometimes used is "restricted relativity"; "special" really means "special case". Some of the work of Albert Einstein in special relativity is built on the earlier work by Hendrik Lorentz and Henri Poincaré. The theory became essentially complete in 1907. The theory is "special" in that it only applies in the special case where the spacetime is "flat", that is, where the curvature of spacetime (a consequence of the energy–momentum tensor and representing gravity) is negligible. To correctly accommodate gravity, Einstein formulated general relativity in 1915. Special relativity, contrary to some historical descriptions, does accommodate accelerations as well as accelerating frames of reference. Just as Galilean relativity is now accepted to be an approximation of special relativity that is valid for low speeds, special relativity is considered an approximation of general relativity that is valid for weak gravitational fields, that is, at a sufficiently small scale (e.g., when tidal forces are negligible) and in conditions of free fall. But general relativity incorporates non-Euclidean geometry to represent gravitational effects as the geometric curvature of spacetime. Special relativity is restricted to the flat spacetime known as Minkowski space. As long as the universe can be modeled as a pseudo-Riemannian manifold, a Lorentz-invariant frame that abides by special relativity can be defined for a sufficiently small neighborhood of each point in this curved spacetime. Galileo Galilei had already postulated that there is no absolute and well-defined state of rest (no privileged reference frames), a principle now called Galileo's principle of relativity. Einstein extended this principle so that it accounted for the constant speed of light, a phenomenon that had been observed in the Michelson–Morley experiment. He also postulated that it holds for all the laws of physics, including both the laws of mechanics and of electrodynamics. Traditional "two postulates" approach to special relativity ------------------------------------------------------------ > > "Reflections of this type made it clear to me as long ago as shortly after 1900, i.e., shortly after Planck's trailblazing work, that neither mechanics nor electrodynamics could (except in limiting cases) claim exact validity. Gradually I despaired of the possibility of discovering the true laws by means of constructive efforts based on known facts. The longer and the more desperately I tried, the more I came to the conviction that only the discovery of a universal formal principle could lead us to assured results ... How, then, could such a universal principle be found?" > > > Albert Einstein: *Autobiographical Notes* Einstein discerned two fundamental propositions that seemed to be the most assured, regardless of the exact validity of the (then) known laws of either mechanics or electrodynamics. These propositions were the constancy of the speed of light in vacuum and the independence of physical laws (especially the constancy of the speed of light) from the choice of inertial system. In his initial presentation of special relativity in 1905 he expressed these postulates as: * The principle of relativity – the laws by which the states of physical systems undergo change are not affected, whether these changes of state be referred to the one or the other of two systems in uniform translatory motion relative to each other. * The principle of invariant light speed – "... light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity [speed] *c* which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body" (from the preface). That is, light in vacuum propagates with the speed *c* (a fixed constant, independent of direction) in at least one system of inertial coordinates (the "stationary system"), regardless of the state of motion of the light source. The constancy of the speed of light was motivated by Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and the lack of evidence for the luminiferous ether. There is conflicting evidence on the extent to which Einstein was influenced by the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. In any case, the null result of the Michelson–Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance. The derivation of special relativity depends not only on these two explicit postulates, but also on several tacit assumptions (made in almost all theories of physics), including the isotropy and homogeneity of space and the independence of measuring rods and clocks from their past history. Following Einstein's original presentation of special relativity in 1905, many different sets of postulates have been proposed in various alternative derivations. But the most common set of postulates remains those employed by Einstein in his original paper. A more mathematical statement of the principle of relativity made later by Einstein, which introduces the concept of simplicity not mentioned above is: > *Special principle of relativity*: If a system of coordinates K is chosen so that, in relation to it, physical laws hold good in their simplest form, the *same* laws hold good in relation to any other system of coordinates K′ moving in uniform translation relatively to K. > > Henri Poincaré provided the mathematical framework for relativity theory by proving that Lorentz transformations are a subset of his Poincaré group of symmetry transformations. Einstein later derived these transformations from his axioms. Many of Einstein's papers present derivations of the Lorentz transformation based upon these two principles. Principle of relativity ----------------------- ### Reference frames and relative motion Reference frames play a crucial role in relativity theory. The term reference frame as used here is an observational perspective in space that is not undergoing any change in motion (acceleration), from which a position can be measured along 3 spatial axes (so, at rest or constant velocity). In addition, a reference frame has the ability to determine measurements of the time of events using a "clock" (any reference device with uniform periodicity). An event is an occurrence that can be assigned a single unique moment and location in space relative to a reference frame: it is a "point" in spacetime. Since the speed of light is constant in relativity irrespective of the reference frame, pulses of light can be used to unambiguously measure distances and refer back to the times that events occurred to the clock, even though light takes time to reach the clock after the event has transpired. For example, the explosion of a firecracker may be considered to be an "event". We can completely specify an event by its four spacetime coordinates: The time of occurrence and its 3-dimensional spatial location define a reference point. Let's call this reference frame *S*. In relativity theory, we often want to calculate the coordinates of an event from differing reference frames. The equations that relate measurements made in different frames are called *transformation equations*. ### Standard configuration To gain insight into how the spacetime coordinates measured by observers in different reference frames compare with each other, it is useful to work with a simplified setup with frames in a *standard configuration.* With care, this allows simplification of the math with no loss of generality in the conclusions that are reached. In Fig. 2-1, two Galilean reference frames (i.e., conventional 3-space frames) are displayed in relative motion. Frame S belongs to a first observer O, and frame S′ (pronounced "S prime" or "S dash") belongs to a second observer O′. * The *x*, *y*, *z* axes of frame S are oriented parallel to the respective primed axes of frame S′. * Frame S′ moves, for simplicity, in a single direction: the *x*-direction of frame S with a constant velocity *v* as measured in frame S. * The origins of frames S and S′ are coincident when time *t* = 0 for frame S and *t′* = 0 for frame S′. Since there is no absolute reference frame in relativity theory, a concept of "moving" doesn't strictly exist, as everything may be moving with respect to some other reference frame. Instead, any two frames that move at the same speed in the same direction are said to be *comoving*. Therefore, *S* and *S′* are not *comoving*. ### Lack of an absolute reference frame The principle of relativity, which states that physical laws have the same form in each inertial reference frame, dates back to Galileo, and was incorporated into Newtonian physics. But in the late 19th century the existence of electromagnetic waves led some physicists to suggest that the universe was filled with a substance they called "aether", which, they postulated, would act as the medium through which these waves, or vibrations, propagated (in many respects similar to the way sound propagates through air). The aether was thought to be an absolute reference frame against which all speeds could be measured, and could be considered fixed and motionless relative to Earth or some other fixed reference point. The aether was supposed to be sufficiently elastic to support electromagnetic waves, while those waves could interact with matter, yet offering no resistance to bodies passing through it (its one property was that it allowed electromagnetic waves to propagate). The results of various experiments, including the Michelson–Morley experiment in 1887 (subsequently verified with more accurate and innovative experiments), led to the theory of special relativity, by showing that the aether did not exist. Einstein's solution was to discard the notion of an aether and the absolute state of rest. In relativity, any reference frame moving with uniform motion will observe the same laws of physics. In particular, the speed of light in vacuum is always measured to be *c*, even when measured by multiple systems that are moving at different (but constant) velocities. ### Relativity without the second postulate From the principle of relativity alone without assuming the constancy of the speed of light (i.e., using the isotropy of space and the symmetry implied by the principle of special relativity) it can be shown that the spacetime transformations between inertial frames are either Euclidean, Galilean, or Lorentzian. In the Lorentzian case, one can then obtain relativistic interval conservation and a certain finite limiting speed. Experiments suggest that this speed is the speed of light in vacuum. Lorentz invariance as the essential core of special relativity --------------------------------------------------------------- ### Alternative approaches to special relativity Einstein consistently based the derivation of Lorentz invariance (the essential core of special relativity) on just the two basic principles of relativity and light-speed invariance. He wrote: > The insight fundamental for the special theory of relativity is this: The assumptions relativity and light speed invariance are compatible if relations of a new type ("Lorentz transformation") are postulated for the conversion of coordinates and times of events ... The universal principle of the special theory of relativity is contained in the postulate: The laws of physics are invariant with respect to Lorentz transformations (for the transition from one inertial system to any other arbitrarily chosen inertial system). This is a restricting principle for natural laws ... > > Thus many modern treatments of special relativity base it on the single postulate of universal Lorentz covariance, or, equivalently, on the single postulate of Minkowski spacetime. Rather than considering universal Lorentz covariance to be a derived principle, this article considers it to be the fundamental postulate of special relativity. The traditional two-postulate approach to special relativity is presented in innumerable college textbooks and popular presentations. Textbooks starting with the single postulate of Minkowski spacetime include those by Taylor and Wheeler and by Callahan. This is also the approach followed by the Wikipedia articles Spacetime and Minkowski diagram. ### Lorentz transformation and its inverse Define an event to have spacetime coordinates (*t*, *x*, *y*, *z*) in system *S* and (*t′*, *x′*, *y′*, *z′*) in a reference frame moving at a velocity v with respect to that frame, *S′*. Then the Lorentz transformation specifies that these coordinates are related in the following way: t ′ = γ   ( t − v x / c 2 ) x ′ = γ   ( x − v t ) y ′ = y z ′ = z , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}t'&=\gamma \ (t-vx/c^{2})\\x'&=\gamma \ (x-vt)\\y'&=y\\z'&=z,\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}t'&=\gamma \ (t-vx/c^{2})\\x'&=\gamma \ (x-vt)\\y'&=y\\z'&=z,\end{aligned}}} where γ = 1 1 − v 2 c 2 {\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} {\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} is the Lorentz factor and *c* is the speed of light in vacuum, and the velocity *v* of *S′*, relative to *S*, is parallel to the *x*-axis. For simplicity, the *y* and *z* coordinates are unaffected; only the *x* and *t* coordinates are transformed. These Lorentz transformations form a one-parameter group of linear mappings, that parameter being called rapidity. Solving the four transformation equations above for the unprimed coordinates yields the inverse Lorentz transformation: t = γ ( t ′ + v x ′ / c 2 ) x = γ ( x ′ + v t ′ ) y = y ′ z = z ′ . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}t&=\gamma (t'+vx'/c^{2})\\x&=\gamma (x'+vt')\\y&=y'\\z&=z'.\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}t&=\gamma (t'+vx'/c^{2})\\x&=\gamma (x'+vt')\\y&=y'\\z&=z'.\end{aligned}}} This shows that the unprimed frame is moving with the velocity −*v*, as measured in the primed frame. There is nothing special about the *x*-axis. The transformation can apply to the *y*- or *z*-axis, or indeed in any direction parallel to the motion (which are warped by the *γ* factor) and perpendicular; see the article Lorentz transformation for details. A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is known as a Lorentz scalar. Writing the Lorentz transformation and its inverse in terms of coordinate differences, where one event has coordinates (*x*1, *t*1) and (*x′*1, *t′*1), another event has coordinates (*x*2, *t*2) and (*x′*2, *t′*2), and the differences are defined as * Eq. 1:    Δ x ′ = x 2 ′ − x 1 ′   ,   Δ t ′ = t 2 ′ − t 1 ′   . {\displaystyle \Delta x'=x'\_{2}-x'\_{1}\ ,\ \Delta t'=t'\_{2}-t'\_{1}\ .} {\displaystyle \Delta x'=x'_{2}-x'_{1}\ ,\ \Delta t'=t'_{2}-t'_{1}\ .} * Eq. 2:    Δ x = x 2 − x 1   ,     Δ t = t 2 − t 1   . {\displaystyle \Delta x=x\_{2}-x\_{1}\ ,\ \ \Delta t=t\_{2}-t\_{1}\ .} {\displaystyle \Delta x=x_{2}-x_{1}\ ,\ \ \Delta t=t_{2}-t_{1}\ .} we get * Eq. 3:    Δ x ′ = γ   ( Δ x − v Δ t )   ,     {\displaystyle \Delta x'=\gamma \ (\Delta x-v\,\Delta t)\ ,\ \ } {\displaystyle \Delta x'=\gamma \ (\Delta x-v\,\Delta t)\ ,\ \ } Δ t ′ = γ   ( Δ t − v   Δ x / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \ \left(\Delta t-v\ \Delta x/c^{2}\right)\ .} {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \ \left(\Delta t-v\ \Delta x/c^{2}\right)\ .} * Eq. 4:    Δ x = γ   ( Δ x ′ + v Δ t ′ )   ,   {\displaystyle \Delta x=\gamma \ (\Delta x'+v\,\Delta t')\ ,\ } {\displaystyle \Delta x=\gamma \ (\Delta x'+v\,\Delta t')\ ,\ } Δ t = γ   ( Δ t ′ + v   Δ x ′ / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle \Delta t=\gamma \ \left(\Delta t'+v\ \Delta x'/c^{2}\right)\ .} {\displaystyle \Delta t=\gamma \ \left(\Delta t'+v\ \Delta x'/c^{2}\right)\ .} If we take differentials instead of taking differences, we get * Eq. 5:    d x ′ = γ   ( d x − v d t )   ,     {\displaystyle dx'=\gamma \ (dx-v\,dt)\ ,\ \ } {\displaystyle dx'=\gamma \ (dx-v\,dt)\ ,\ \ } d t ′ = γ   ( d t − v   d x / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle dt'=\gamma \ \left(dt-v\ dx/c^{2}\right)\ .} {\displaystyle dt'=\gamma \ \left(dt-v\ dx/c^{2}\right)\ .} * Eq. 6:    d x = γ   ( d x ′ + v d t ′ )   ,   {\displaystyle dx=\gamma \ (dx'+v\,dt')\ ,\ } {\displaystyle dx=\gamma \ (dx'+v\,dt')\ ,\ } d t = γ   ( d t ′ + v   d x ′ / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle dt=\gamma \ \left(dt'+v\ dx'/c^{2}\right)\ .} {\displaystyle dt=\gamma \ \left(dt'+v\ dx'/c^{2}\right)\ .} ### Graphical representation of the Lorentz transformation Figure 3-1. Drawing a Minkowski spacetime diagram to illustrate a Lorentz transformation. Spacetime diagrams (Minkowski diagrams) are an extremely useful aid to visualizing how coordinates transform between different reference frames. Although it is not as easy to perform exact computations using them as directly invoking the Lorentz transformations, their main power is their ability to provide an intuitive grasp of the results of a relativistic scenario. To draw a spacetime diagram, begin by considering two Galilean reference frames, S and S', in standard configuration, as shown in Fig. 2-1. **Fig. 3-1a.** Draw the x {\displaystyle x} x and t {\displaystyle t} t axes of frame S. The x {\displaystyle x} x axis is horizontal and the t {\displaystyle t} t (actually c t {\displaystyle ct} ct) axis is vertical, which is the opposite of the usual convention in kinematics. The c t {\displaystyle ct} ct axis is scaled by a factor of c {\displaystyle c} c so that both axes have common units of length. In the diagram shown, the gridlines are spaced one unit distance apart. The 45° diagonal lines represent the *worldlines* of two photons passing through the origin at time t = 0. {\displaystyle t=0.} {\displaystyle t=0.} The slope of these worldlines is 1 because the photons advance one unit in space per unit of time. Two events, A {\displaystyle {\text{A}}} {\displaystyle {\text{A}}} and B , {\displaystyle {\text{B}},} {\displaystyle {\text{B}},} have been plotted on this graph so that their coordinates may be compared in the S and S' frames. **Fig. 3-1b.** Draw the x ′ {\displaystyle x'} x' and c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} axes of frame S'. The c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} axis represents the worldline of the origin of the S' coordinate system as measured in frame S. In this figure, v = c / 2. {\displaystyle v=c/2.} {\displaystyle v=c/2.} Both the c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} and x ′ {\displaystyle x'} x' axes are tilted from the unprimed axes by an angle α = tan − 1 ⁡ ( β ) , {\displaystyle \alpha =\tan ^{-1}(\beta ),} {\displaystyle \alpha =\tan ^{-1}(\beta ),} where β = v / c . {\displaystyle \beta =v/c.} {\displaystyle \beta =v/c.} The primed and unprimed axes share a common origin because frames S and S' had been set up in standard configuration, so that t = 0 {\displaystyle t=0} t=0 when t ′ = 0. {\displaystyle t'=0.} {\displaystyle t'=0.} **Fig. 3-1c.** Units in the primed axes have a different scale from units in the unprimed axes. From the Lorentz transformations, we observe that ( x ′ , c t ′ ) {\displaystyle (x',ct')} {\displaystyle (x',ct')} coordinates of ( 0 , 1 ) {\displaystyle (0,1)} (0,1) in the primed coordinate system transform to ( β γ , γ ) {\displaystyle (\beta \gamma ,\gamma )} {\displaystyle (\beta \gamma ,\gamma )} in the unprimed coordinate system. Likewise, ( x ′ , c t ′ ) {\displaystyle (x',ct')} {\displaystyle (x',ct')} coordinates of ( 1 , 0 ) {\displaystyle (1,0)} (1,0) in the primed coordinate system transform to ( γ , β γ ) {\displaystyle (\gamma ,\beta \gamma )} {\displaystyle (\gamma ,\beta \gamma )} in the unprimed system. Draw gridlines parallel with the c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} axis through points ( k γ , k β γ ) {\displaystyle (k\gamma ,k\beta \gamma )} {\displaystyle (k\gamma ,k\beta \gamma )} as measured in the unprimed frame, where k {\displaystyle k} k is an integer. Likewise, draw gridlines parallel with the x ′ {\displaystyle x'} x' axis through ( k β γ , k γ ) {\displaystyle (k\beta \gamma ,k\gamma )} {\displaystyle (k\beta \gamma ,k\gamma )} as measured in the unprimed frame. Using the Pythagorean theorem, we observe that the spacing between c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} units equals ( 1 + β 2 ) / ( 1 − β 2 ) {\textstyle {\sqrt {(1+\beta ^{2})/(1-\beta ^{2})}}} {\textstyle {\sqrt {(1+\beta ^{2})/(1-\beta ^{2})}}} times the spacing between c t {\displaystyle ct} ct units, as measured in frame S. This ratio is always greater than 1, and ultimately it approaches infinity as β → 1. {\displaystyle \beta \to 1.} {\displaystyle \beta \to 1.} **Fig. 3-1d.** Since the speed of light is an invariant, the *worldlines* of two photons passing through the origin at time t ′ = 0 {\displaystyle t'=0} {\displaystyle t'=0} still plot as 45° diagonal lines. The primed coordinates of A {\displaystyle {\text{A}}} {\displaystyle {\text{A}}} and B {\displaystyle {\text{B}}} {\displaystyle {\text{B}}} are related to the unprimed coordinates through the Lorentz transformations and *could* be approximately measured from the graph (assuming that it has been plotted accurately enough), but the real merit of a Minkowski diagram is its granting us a geometric view of the scenario. For example, in this figure, we observe that the two timelike-separated events that had different x-coordinates in the unprimed frame are now at the same position in space. While the unprimed frame is drawn with space and time axes that meet at right angles, the primed frame is drawn with axes that meet at acute or obtuse angles. This asymmetry is due to unavoidable distortions in how spacetime coordinates map onto a Cartesian plane, but the frames are actually equivalent. Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation ---------------------------------------------------- The consequences of special relativity can be derived from the Lorentz transformation equations. These transformations, and hence special relativity, lead to different physical predictions than those of Newtonian mechanics at all relative velocities, and most pronounced when relative velocities become comparable to the speed of light. The speed of light is so much larger than anything most humans encounter that some of the effects predicted by relativity are initially counterintuitive. ### Invariant interval In Galilean relativity, an object's length ( Δ r {\displaystyle \Delta r} \Delta r) and the temporal separation between two events ( Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t} \Delta t) are independent invariants, the values of which do not change when observed from different frames of reference. In special relativity, however, the interweaving of spatial and temporal coordinates generates the concept of an **invariant interval**, denoted as Δ s 2 {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}}: Δ s 2 = def c 2 Δ t 2 − ( Δ x 2 + Δ y 2 + Δ z 2 ) {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}\;{\overset {\text{def}}{=}}\;c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-(\Delta x^{2}+\Delta y^{2}+\Delta z^{2})} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}\;{\overset {\text{def}}{=}}\;c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-(\Delta x^{2}+\Delta y^{2}+\Delta z^{2})} The interweaving of space and time revokes the implicitly assumed concepts of absolute simultaneity and synchronization across non-comoving frames. The form of Δ s 2 , {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2},} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2},} being the *difference* of the squared time lapse and the squared spatial distance, demonstrates a fundamental discrepancy between Euclidean and spacetime distances. The invariance of this interval is a property of the *general* Lorentz transform (also called the Poincaré transformation), making it an isometry of spacetime. The general Lorentz transform extends the standard Lorentz transform (which deals with translations without rotation, that is, Lorentz boosts, in the x-direction) with all other translations, reflections, and rotations between any Cartesian inertial frame. In the analysis of simplified scenarios, such as spacetime diagrams, a reduced-dimensionality form of the invariant interval is often employed: Δ s 2 = c 2 Δ t 2 − Δ x 2 {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}\,=\,c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-\Delta x^{2}} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}\,=\,c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-\Delta x^{2}} Demonstrating that the interval is invariant is straightforward for the reduced-dimensionality case and with frames in standard configuration: c 2 Δ t 2 − Δ x 2 = c 2 γ 2 ( Δ t ′ + v Δ x ′ c 2 ) 2 − γ 2   ( Δ x ′ + v Δ t ′ ) 2 = γ 2 ( c 2 Δ t ′ 2 + 2 v Δ x ′ Δ t ′ + v 2 Δ x ′ 2 c 2 ) − γ 2   ( Δ x ′ 2 + 2 v Δ x ′ Δ t ′ + v 2 Δ t ′ 2 ) = γ 2 c 2 Δ t ′ 2 − γ 2 v 2 Δ t ′ 2 − γ 2 Δ x ′ 2 + γ 2 v 2 Δ x ′ 2 c 2 = γ 2 c 2 Δ t ′ 2 ( 1 − v 2 c 2 ) − γ 2 Δ x ′ 2 ( 1 − v 2 c 2 ) = c 2 Δ t ′ 2 − Δ x ′ 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-\Delta x^{2}&=c^{2}\gamma ^{2}\left(\Delta t'+{\dfrac {v\Delta x'}{c^{2}}}\right)^{2}-\gamma ^{2}\ (\Delta x'+v\Delta t')^{2}\\&=\gamma ^{2}\left(c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}+2v\Delta x'\Delta t'+{\dfrac {v^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}}{c^{2}}}\right)-\gamma ^{2}\ (\Delta x'^{\,2}+2v\Delta x'\Delta t'+v^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2})\\&=\gamma ^{2}c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\gamma ^{2}v^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\gamma ^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}+\gamma ^{2}{\dfrac {v^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}}{c^{2}}}\\&=\gamma ^{2}c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}\left(1-{\dfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)-\gamma ^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}\left(1-{\dfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)\\&=c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\Delta x'^{\,2}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}c^{2}\Delta t^{2}-\Delta x^{2}&=c^{2}\gamma ^{2}\left(\Delta t'+{\dfrac {v\Delta x'}{c^{2}}}\right)^{2}-\gamma ^{2}\ (\Delta x'+v\Delta t')^{2}\\&=\gamma ^{2}\left(c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}+2v\Delta x'\Delta t'+{\dfrac {v^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}}{c^{2}}}\right)-\gamma ^{2}\ (\Delta x'^{\,2}+2v\Delta x'\Delta t'+v^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2})\\&=\gamma ^{2}c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\gamma ^{2}v^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\gamma ^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}+\gamma ^{2}{\dfrac {v^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}}{c^{2}}}\\&=\gamma ^{2}c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}\left(1-{\dfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)-\gamma ^{2}\Delta x'^{\,2}\left(1-{\dfrac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}\right)\\&=c^{2}\Delta t'^{\,2}-\Delta x'^{\,2}\end{aligned}}} The value of Δ s 2 {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}} is hence independent of the frame in which it is measured. In considering the physical significance of Δ s 2 {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}} {\displaystyle \Delta s^{2}}, there are three cases to note: * **Δs2 > 0:** In this case, the two events are separated by more time than space, and they are hence said to be *timelike* separated. This implies that | Δ x / Δ t | < c , {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|<c,} {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|<c,} and given the Lorentz transformation Δ x ′ = γ   ( Δ x − v Δ t ) , {\displaystyle \Delta x'=\gamma \ (\Delta x-v\,\Delta t),} {\displaystyle \Delta x'=\gamma \ (\Delta x-v\,\Delta t),} it is evident that there exists a v {\displaystyle v} v less than c {\displaystyle c} c for which Δ x ′ = 0 {\displaystyle \Delta x'=0} {\displaystyle \Delta x'=0} (in particular, v = Δ x / Δ t {\displaystyle v=\Delta x/\Delta t} {\displaystyle v=\Delta x/\Delta t}). In other words, given two events that are timelike separated, it is possible to find a frame in which the two events happen at the same place. In this frame, the separation in time, Δ s / c , {\displaystyle \Delta s/c,} {\displaystyle \Delta s/c,} is called the *proper time*. * **Δs2 < 0:** In this case, the two events are separated by more space than time, and they are hence said to be *spacelike* separated. This implies that | Δ x / Δ t | > c , {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|>c,} {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|>c,} and given the Lorentz transformation Δ t ′ = γ   ( Δ t − v Δ x / c 2 ) , {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \ (\Delta t-v\Delta x/c^{2}),} {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \ (\Delta t-v\Delta x/c^{2}),} there exists a v {\displaystyle v} v less than c {\displaystyle c} c for which Δ t ′ = 0 {\displaystyle \Delta t'=0} {\displaystyle \Delta t'=0} (in particular, v = c 2 Δ t / Δ x {\displaystyle v=c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x} {\displaystyle v=c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x}). In other words, given two events that are spacelike separated, it is possible to find a frame in which the two events happen at the same time. In this frame, the separation in space, − Δ s 2 , {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-\Delta s^{2}}},} {\displaystyle {\sqrt {-\Delta s^{2}}},} is called the *proper distance*, or *proper length*. For values of v {\displaystyle v} v greater than and less than c 2 Δ t / Δ x , {\displaystyle c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x,} {\displaystyle c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x,} the sign of Δ t ′ {\displaystyle \Delta t'} \Delta t' changes, meaning that the temporal order of spacelike-separated events changes depending on the frame in which the events are viewed. But the temporal order of timelike-separated events is absolute, since the only way that v {\displaystyle v} v could be greater than c 2 Δ t / Δ x {\displaystyle c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x} {\displaystyle c^{2}\Delta t/\Delta x} would be if v > c . {\displaystyle v>c.} {\displaystyle v>c.} * **Δs2 = 0:** In this case, the two events are said to be *lightlike* separated. This implies that | Δ x / Δ t | = c , {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|=c,} {\displaystyle |\Delta x/\Delta t|=c,} and this relationship is frame independent due to the invariance of s 2 . {\displaystyle s^{2}.} {\displaystyle s^{2}.} From this, we observe that the speed of light is c {\displaystyle c} c in every inertial frame. In other words, starting from the assumption of universal Lorentz covariance, the constant speed of light is a derived result, rather than a postulate as in the two-postulates formulation of the special theory. ### Relativity of simultaneity Consider two events happening in two different locations that occur simultaneously in the reference frame of one inertial observer. They may occur non-simultaneously in the reference frame of another inertial observer (lack of absolute simultaneity). From **Equation 3** (the forward Lorentz transformation in terms of coordinate differences) Δ t ′ = γ ( Δ t − v Δ x c 2 ) {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \left(\Delta t-{\frac {v\,\Delta x}{c^{2}}}\right)} {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \left(\Delta t-{\frac {v\,\Delta x}{c^{2}}}\right)} It is clear that the two events that are simultaneous in frame *S* (satisfying Δ*t* = 0), are not necessarily simultaneous in another inertial frame *S′* (satisfying Δ*t′* = 0). Only if these events are additionally co-local in frame *S* (satisfying Δ*x* = 0), will they be simultaneous in another frame *S′*. The Sagnac effect can be considered a manifestation of the relativity of simultaneity. Since relativity of simultaneity is a first order effect in v {\displaystyle v} v, instruments based on the Sagnac effect for their operation, such as ring laser gyroscopes and fiber optic gyroscopes, are capable of extreme levels of sensitivity. ### Time dilation The time lapse between two events is not invariant from one observer to another, but is dependent on the relative speeds of the observers' reference frames (e.g., the twin paradox which concerns a twin who flies off in a spaceship traveling near the speed of light and returns to discover that the non-traveling twin sibling has aged much more, the paradox being that **at constant velocity** we are unable to discern which twin is non-traveling and which twin travels). Suppose a clock is at rest in the unprimed system *S*. The location of the clock on two different ticks is then characterized by Δ*x* = 0. To find the relation between the times between these ticks as measured in both systems, **Equation 3** can be used to find: Δ t ′ = γ Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t'=\gamma \,\Delta t} \Delta t' = \gamma\, \Delta t  for events satisfying  Δ x = 0   . {\displaystyle \Delta x=0\ .} \Delta x = 0 \ . This shows that the time (Δ*t′*) between the two ticks as seen in the frame in which the clock is moving (*S′*), is *longer* than the time (Δ*t*) between these ticks as measured in the rest frame of the clock (*S*). Time dilation explains a number of physical phenomena; for example, the lifetime of high speed muons created by the collision of cosmic rays with particles in the Earth's outer atmosphere and moving towards the surface is greater than the lifetime of slowly moving muons, created and decaying in a laboratory. #### Langevin's light-clock Paul Langevin, an early proponent of the theory of relativity, did much to popularize the theory in the face of resistance by many physicists to Einstein's revolutionary concepts. Among his numerous contributions to the foundations of special relativity were independent work on the mass-energy relationship, a thorough examination of the twin paradox, investigations into rotating coordinate systems, and a novel derivation of the Lorentz transformation that utilized a hypothetical "light-clock", a box of perfectly reflecting walls where a light signal reflects back and forth from opposite faces. The concept of time dilation is frequently taught using a version of Langevin's light-clock that is traveling in uniform inertial motion perpendicular to a line connecting the two mirrors. Consider the scenario illustrated in Fig. 4-2A. Observer A holds a light-clock of length L {\displaystyle L} L as well as an electronic timer with which she measures how long it takes a pulse to make a round trip up and down along the light-clock. Although observer A is traveling rapidly along a train, from her point of view the emission and receipt of the pulse occur at the same place, and she measures the interval using a single clock located at the precise position of these two events. For the interval between these two events, observer A finds t A = 2 L / c . {\displaystyle t\_{A}=2L/c.} {\displaystyle t_{A}=2L/c.} A time interval measured using a single clock which is motionless in a particular reference frame is called a *proper time interval.* Fig. 4-2B illustrates these same two events from the standpoint of observer B, who is parked by the tracks as the train goes by at a speed of v . {\displaystyle v.} v. Instead of making straight up-and-down motions, observer B sees the pulses moving along a zig-zag line. However, because of the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light, the speed of the pulses along these diagonal lines is the same c {\displaystyle c} c that observer A saw for her up-and-down pulses. B measures the speed of the vertical component of these pulses as ± c 2 − v 2 , {\displaystyle \pm {\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}},} {\displaystyle \pm {\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}},} so that the total round-trip time of the pulses is t B = 2 L / c 2 − v 2 {\displaystyle t\_{B}=2L/{\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}\,} {\displaystyle t_{B}=2L/{\sqrt {c^{2}-v^{2}}}\,} = t A / 1 − v 2 / c 2 . {\displaystyle =t\_{A}/{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}.} {\displaystyle =t_{A}/{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}.} Note that for observer B, the emission and receipt of the light pulse occurred at different places, and he measured the interval using two stationary and synchronized clocks located at two different positions in his reference frame. The interval that B measured was therefore *not* a proper time interval because he did not measure it with a single resting clock. #### Reciprocal time dilation In the above description of the Langevin light-clock, the labeling of one observer as stationary and the other as in motion was completely arbitrary. One could just as well have observer B carrying the light-clock and moving at a speed of v {\displaystyle v} v to the left, in which case observer A would perceive B's clock as running slower than her local clock. There is no paradox here, because there is no independent observer C who will agree with both A and B. Observer C necessarily makes his measurements from his own reference frame. If that reference frame coincides with A's reference frame, then C will agree with A's measurement of time. If C's reference frame coincides with B's reference frame, then C will agree with B's measurement of time. If C's reference frame coincides with neither A's frame nor B's frame, then C's measurement of time will disagree with *both* A's and B's measurement of time. The reciprocity of time dilation between two observers in separate inertial frames leads to the so-called twin paradox, which is not a paradox at all, because in order for the two observers to compare their proper times, the symmetry of the situation must be broken: At least one of the two observers must change their state of motion to match that of the other. ### Length contraction The dimensions (e.g., length) of an object as measured by one observer may be smaller than the results of measurements of the same object made by another observer (e.g., the ladder paradox involves a long ladder traveling near the speed of light and being contained within a smaller garage). Similarly, suppose a measuring rod is at rest and aligned along the *x*-axis in the unprimed system *S*. In this system, the length of this rod is written as Δ*x*. To measure the length of this rod in the system *S′*, in which the rod is moving, the distances *x′* to the end points of the rod must be measured simultaneously in that system *S′*. In other words, the measurement is characterized by Δ*t′* = 0, which can be combined with **Equation 4** to find the relation between the lengths Δ*x* and Δ*x′*: Δ x ′ = Δ x γ {\displaystyle \Delta x'={\frac {\Delta x}{\gamma }}} \Delta x' = \frac{\Delta x}{\gamma}   for events satisfying  Δ t ′ = 0   . {\displaystyle \Delta t'=0\ .} \Delta t' = 0 \ . This shows that the length (Δ*x′*) of the rod as measured in the frame in which it is moving (*S′*), is *shorter* than its length (Δ*x*) in its own rest frame (*S*). Time dilation and length contraction are not merely appearances. Time dilation is explicitly related to our way of measuring *time intervals* between events that occur at the same place in a given coordinate system (called "co-local" events). These time intervals (which can be, and are, actually measured experimentally by relevant observers) are *different* in another coordinate system moving with respect to the first, unless the events, in addition to being co-local, are also simultaneous. Similarly, length contraction relates to our measured distances between separated but simultaneous events in a given coordinate system of choice. If these events are not co-local, but are separated by distance (space), they will *not* occur at the same *spatial distance* from each other when seen from another moving coordinate system. ### Lorentz transformation of velocities Consider two frames *S* and *S′* in standard configuration. A particle in *S* moves in the x direction with velocity vector u . {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} .} {\mathbf {u}}. What is its velocity u ′ {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} } in frame *S′* ? We can write | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | u | = u = d x / d t . {\displaystyle \mathbf {|u|} =u=dx/dt\,.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {|u|} =u=dx/dt\,.} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(7)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | | u ′ | = u ′ = d x ′ / d t ′ . {\displaystyle \mathbf {|u'|} =u'=dx'/dt'\,.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {|u'|} =u'=dx'/dt'\,.} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(8)** | Substituting expressions for d x ′ {\displaystyle dx'} {\displaystyle dx'} and d t ′ {\displaystyle dt'} {\displaystyle dt'} from **Equation 5** into **Equation 8**, followed by straightforward mathematical manipulations and back-substitution from **Equation 7** yields the Lorentz transformation of the speed u {\displaystyle u} u to u ′ {\displaystyle u'} u': | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u ′ = d x ′ d t ′ = γ ( d x − v d t ) γ ( d t − v d x c 2 ) = d x d t − v 1 − ( v c 2 ) ( d x d t ) = u − v 1 − u v / c 2 . {\displaystyle u'={\frac {dx'}{dt'}}={\frac {\gamma (dx-vdt)}{\gamma \left(dt-{\frac {vdx}{c^{2}}}\right)}}={\frac {{\frac {dx}{dt}}-v}{1-\left({\frac {v}{c^{2}}}\right)\left({\frac {dx}{dt}}\right)}}={\frac {u-v}{1-uv/c^{2}}}.} {\displaystyle u'={\frac {dx'}{dt'}}={\frac {\gamma (dx-vdt)}{\gamma \left(dt-{\frac {vdx}{c^{2}}}\right)}}={\frac {{\frac {dx}{dt}}-v}{1-\left({\frac {v}{c^{2}}}\right)\left({\frac {dx}{dt}}\right)}}={\frac {u-v}{1-uv/c^{2}}}.} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(9)** | The inverse relation is obtained by interchanging the primed and unprimed symbols and replacing v {\displaystyle v} v with − v   . {\displaystyle -v\ .} {\displaystyle -v\ .} | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u = u ′ + v 1 + u ′ v / c 2 . {\displaystyle u={\frac {u'+v}{1+u'v/c^{2}}}.} {\displaystyle u={\frac {u'+v}{1+u'v/c^{2}}}.} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(10)** | For u {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } \mathbf {u} not aligned along the x-axis, we write: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u = ( u 1 ,   u 2 ,   u 3 ) = ( d x / d t ,   d y / d t ,   d z / d t )   . {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =(u\_{1},\ u\_{2},\ u\_{3})=(dx/dt,\ dy/dt,\ dz/dt)\ .} {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} =(u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3})=(dx/dt,\ dy/dt,\ dz/dt)\ .} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(11)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u ′ = ( u 1 ′ ,   u 2 ′ ,   u 3 ′ ) = ( d x ′ / d t ′ ,   d y ′ / d t ′ ,   d z ′ / d t ′ )   . {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} =(u\_{1}',\ u\_{2}',\ u\_{3}')=(dx'/dt',\ dy'/dt',\ dz'/dt')\ .} {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} =(u_{1}',\ u_{2}',\ u_{3}')=(dx'/dt',\ dy'/dt',\ dz'/dt')\ .} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(12)** | The forward and inverse transformations for this case are: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u 1 ′ = u 1 − v 1 − u 1 v / c 2   , u 2 ′ = u 2 γ ( 1 − u 1 v / c 2 )   , u 3 ′ = u 3 γ ( 1 − u 1 v / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle u\_{1}'={\frac {u\_{1}-v}{1-u\_{1}v/c^{2}}}\ ,\qquad u\_{2}'={\frac {u\_{2}}{\gamma \left(1-u\_{1}v/c^{2}\right)}}\ ,\qquad u\_{3}'={\frac {u\_{3}}{\gamma \left(1-u\_{1}v/c^{2}\right)}}\ .} {\displaystyle u_{1}'={\frac {u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v/c^{2}}}\ ,\qquad u_{2}'={\frac {u_{2}}{\gamma \left(1-u_{1}v/c^{2}\right)}}\ ,\qquad u_{3}'={\frac {u_{3}}{\gamma \left(1-u_{1}v/c^{2}\right)}}\ .} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(13)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | u 1 = u 1 ′ + v 1 + u 1 ′ v / c 2   , u 2 = u 2 ′ γ ( 1 + u 1 ′ v / c 2 )   , u 3 = u 3 ′ γ ( 1 + u 1 ′ v / c 2 )   . {\displaystyle u\_{1}={\frac {u\_{1}'+v}{1+u\_{1}'v/c^{2}}}\ ,\qquad u\_{2}={\frac {u\_{2}'}{\gamma \left(1+u\_{1}'v/c^{2}\right)}}\ ,\qquad u\_{3}={\frac {u\_{3}'}{\gamma \left(1+u\_{1}'v/c^{2}\right)}}\ .} {\displaystyle u_{1}={\frac {u_{1}'+v}{1+u_{1}'v/c^{2}}}\ ,\qquad u_{2}={\frac {u_{2}'}{\gamma \left(1+u_{1}'v/c^{2}\right)}}\ ,\qquad u_{3}={\frac {u_{3}'}{\gamma \left(1+u_{1}'v/c^{2}\right)}}\ .} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(14)** | **Equation 10** and **Equation 14** can be interpreted as giving the *resultant* u {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } {\mathbf {u}} of the two velocities v {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} } \mathbf {v} and u ′ , {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} ,} {\displaystyle \mathbf {u'} ,} and they replace the formula u = u ′ + v {\displaystyle \mathbf {u=u'+v} } {\displaystyle \mathbf {u=u'+v} } which is valid in Galilean relativity. Interpreted in such a fashion, they are commonly referred to as the *relativistic velocity addition (or composition) formulas*, valid for the three axes of *S* and *S′* being aligned with each other (although not necessarily in standard configuration). We note the following points: * If an object (e.g., a photon) were moving at the speed of light in one frame (i.e., *u* = ±*c* or *u′* = ±*c*), then it would also be moving at the speed of light in any other frame, moving at |*v*| < *c*. * The resultant speed of two velocities with magnitude less than *c* is always a velocity with magnitude less than *c*. * If both |*u*| and |*v*| (and then also |*u′*| and |*v′*|) are small with respect to the speed of light (that is, e.g., |*u*/*c*| ≪ 1), then the intuitive Galilean transformations are recovered from the transformation equations for special relativity * Attaching a frame to a photon (*riding a light beam* like Einstein considers) requires special treatment of the transformations. There is nothing special about the *x* direction in the standard configuration. The above formalism applies to any direction; and three orthogonal directions allow dealing with all directions in space by decomposing the velocity vectors to their components in these directions. See Velocity-addition formula for details. ### Thomas rotation Figure 4-3. Thomas–Wigner rotation The composition of two non-collinear Lorentz boosts (i.e., two non-collinear Lorentz transformations, neither of which involve rotation) results in a Lorentz transformation that is not a pure boost but is the composition of a boost and a rotation. Thomas rotation results from the relativity of simultaneity. In Fig. 4-3a, a rod of length L {\displaystyle L} L in its rest frame (i.e., having a proper length of L {\displaystyle L} L) rises vertically along the y-axis in the ground frame. In Fig. 4-3b, the same rod is observed from the frame of a rocket moving at speed v {\displaystyle v} v to the right. If we imagine two clocks situated at the left and right ends of the rod that are synchronized *in the frame of the rod,* relativity of simultaneity causes the observer in the rocket frame to observe (not *see*) the clock at the right end of the rod as being advanced in time by L v / c 2 , {\displaystyle Lv/c^{2},} {\displaystyle Lv/c^{2},} and the rod is correspondingly observed as tilted. Unlike second-order relativistic effects such as length contraction or time dilation, this effect becomes quite significant even at fairly low velocities. For example, this can be seen in the spin of moving particles, where Thomas precession is a relativistic correction that applies to the spin of an elementary particle or the rotation of a macroscopic gyroscope, relating the angular velocity of the spin of a particle following a curvilinear orbit to the angular velocity of the orbital motion. Thomas rotation provides the resolution to the well-known "meter stick and hole paradox". ### Causality and prohibition of motion faster than light In Fig. 4-4, the time interval between the events A (the "cause") and B (the "effect") is 'time-like'; that is, there is a frame of reference in which events A and B occur at the *same location in space*, separated only by occurring at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A precedes B in all frames accessible by a Lorentz transformation. It is possible for matter (or information) to travel (below light speed) from the location of A, starting at the time of A, to the location of B, arriving at the time of B, so there can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the effect). The interval AC in the diagram is 'space-like'; that is, there is a frame of reference in which events A and C occur simultaneously, separated only in space. There are also frames in which A precedes C (as shown) and frames in which C precedes A. But no frames are accessible by a Lorentz transformation, in which events A and C occur at the same location. If it were possible for a cause-and-effect relationship to exist between events A and C, paradoxes of causality would result. For example, if signals could be sent faster than light, then signals could be sent into the sender's past (observer B in the diagrams). A variety of causal paradoxes could then be constructed. Causality violation: Beginning of scenario resulting from use of a fictitious instantaneous communicatorCausality violation: B receives the message before having sent it.Figure 4-5. Causality violation by the use of fictitious "instantaneous communicators" Consider the spacetime diagrams in Fig. 4-5. A and B stand alongside a railroad track, when a high-speed train passes by, with C riding in the last car of the train and D riding in the leading car. The world lines of A and B are vertical (*ct*), distinguishing the stationary position of these observers on the ground, while the world lines of C and D are tilted forwards (*ct′*), reflecting the rapid motion of the observers C and D stationary in their train, as observed from the ground. 1. Fig. 4-5a. The event of "B passing a message to D", as the leading car passes by, is at the origin of D's frame. D sends the message along the train to C in the rear car, using a fictitious "instantaneous communicator". The worldline of this message is the fat red arrow along the − x ′ {\displaystyle -x'} -x' axis, which is a line of simultaneity in the primed frames of C and D. In the (unprimed) ground frame the signal arrives *earlier* than it was sent. 2. Fig. 4-5b. The event of "C passing the message to A", who is standing by the railroad tracks, is at the origin of their frames. Now A sends the message along the tracks to B via an "instantaneous communicator". The worldline of this message is the blue fat arrow, along the + x {\displaystyle +x} {\displaystyle +x} axis, which is a line of simultaneity for the frames of A and B. As seen from the spacetime diagram, B will receive the message before having sent it out, a violation of causality. It is not necessary for signals to be instantaneous to violate causality. Even if the signal from D to C were slightly shallower than the x ′ {\displaystyle x'} x' axis (and the signal from A to B slightly steeper than the x {\displaystyle x} x axis), it would still be possible for B to receive his message before he had sent it. By increasing the speed of the train to near light speeds, the c t ′ {\displaystyle ct'} {\displaystyle ct'} and x ′ {\displaystyle x'} x' axes can be squeezed very close to the dashed line representing the speed of light. With this modified setup, it can be demonstrated that even signals only *slightly* faster than the speed of light will result in causality violation. Therefore, **if** causality is to be preserved, one of the consequences of special relativity is that no information signal or material object can travel faster than light in vacuum. This is not to say that *all* faster than light speeds are impossible. Various trivial situations can be described where some "things" (not actual matter or energy) move faster than light. For example, the location where the beam of a search light hits the bottom of a cloud can move faster than light when the search light is turned rapidly (although this does not violate causality or any other relativistic phenomenon). Optical effects --------------- ### Dragging effects In 1850, Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault independently established that light travels more slowly in water than in air, thus validating a prediction of Fresnel's wave theory of light and invalidating the corresponding prediction of Newton's corpuscular theory. The speed of light was measured in still water. What would be the speed of light in flowing water? In 1851, Fizeau conducted an experiment to answer this question, a simplified representation of which is illustrated in Fig. 5-1. A beam of light is divided by a beam splitter, and the split beams are passed in opposite directions through a tube of flowing water. They are recombined to form interference fringes, indicating a difference in optical path length, that an observer can view. The experiment demonstrated that dragging of the light by the flowing water caused a displacement of the fringes, showing that the motion of the water had affected the speed of the light. According to the theories prevailing at the time, light traveling through a moving medium would be a simple sum of its speed *through* the medium plus the speed *of* the medium. Contrary to expectation, Fizeau found that although light appeared to be dragged by the water, the magnitude of the dragging was much lower than expected. If u ′ = c / n {\displaystyle u'=c/n} {\displaystyle u'=c/n} is the speed of light in still water, and v {\displaystyle v} v is the speed of the water, and u ± {\displaystyle u\_{\pm }} {\displaystyle u_{\pm }} is the water-borne speed of light in the lab frame with the flow of water adding to or subtracting from the speed of light, then u ± = c n ± v ( 1 − 1 n 2 )   . {\displaystyle u\_{\pm }={\frac {c}{n}}\pm v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)\ .} {\displaystyle u_{\pm }={\frac {c}{n}}\pm v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)\ .} Fizeau's results, although consistent with Fresnel's earlier hypothesis of partial aether dragging, were extremely disconcerting to physicists of the time. Among other things, the presence of an index of refraction term meant that, since n {\displaystyle n} n depends on wavelength, *the aether must be capable of sustaining different motions at the same time.* A variety of theoretical explanations were proposed to explain Fresnel's dragging coefficient, that were completely at odds with each other. Even before the Michelson–Morley experiment, Fizeau's experimental results were among a number of observations that created a critical situation in explaining the optics of moving bodies. From the point of view of special relativity, Fizeau's result is nothing but an approximation to **Equation 10**, the relativistic formula for composition of velocities. u ± = u ′ ± v 1 ± u ′ v / c 2 = {\displaystyle u\_{\pm }={\frac {u'\pm v}{1\pm u'v/c^{2}}}=} {\displaystyle u_{\pm }={\frac {u'\pm v}{1\pm u'v/c^{2}}}=} c / n ± v 1 ± v / c n ≈ {\displaystyle {\frac {c/n\pm v}{1\pm v/cn}}\approx } {\displaystyle {\frac {c/n\pm v}{1\pm v/cn}}\approx } c ( 1 n ± v c ) ( 1 ∓ v c n ) ≈ {\displaystyle c\left({\frac {1}{n}}\pm {\frac {v}{c}}\right)\left(1\mp {\frac {v}{cn}}\right)\approx } {\displaystyle c\left({\frac {1}{n}}\pm {\frac {v}{c}}\right)\left(1\mp {\frac {v}{cn}}\right)\approx } c n ± v ( 1 − 1 n 2 ) {\displaystyle {\frac {c}{n}}\pm v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)} {\displaystyle {\frac {c}{n}}\pm v\left(1-{\frac {1}{n^{2}}}\right)} ### Relativistic aberration of light Because of the finite speed of light, if the relative motions of a source and receiver include a transverse component, then the direction from which light arrives at the receiver will be displaced from the geometric position in space of the source relative to the receiver. The classical calculation of the displacement takes two forms and makes different predictions depending on whether the receiver, the source, or both are in motion with respect to the medium. (1) If the receiver is in motion, the displacement would be the consequence of the aberration of light. The incident angle of the beam relative to the receiver would be calculable from the vector sum of the receiver's motions and the velocity of the incident light. (2) If the source is in motion, the displacement would be the consequence of light-time correction. The displacement of the apparent position of the source from its geometric position would be the result of the source's motion during the time that its light takes to reach the receiver. The classical explanation failed experimental test. Since the aberration angle depends on the relationship between the velocity of the receiver and the speed of the incident light, passage of the incident light through a refractive medium should change the aberration angle. In 1810, Arago used this expected phenomenon in a failed attempt to measure the speed of light, and in 1870, George Airy tested the hypothesis using a water-filled telescope, finding that, against expectation, the measured aberration was identical to the aberration measured with an air-filled telescope. A "cumbrous" attempt to explain these results used the hypothesis of partial aether-drag, but was incompatible with the results of the Michelson–Morley experiment, which apparently demanded *complete* aether-drag. Assuming inertial frames, the relativistic expression for the aberration of light is applicable to both the receiver moving and source moving cases. A variety of trigonometrically equivalent formulas have been published. Expressed in terms of the variables in Fig. 5-2, these include cos ⁡ θ ′ = cos ⁡ θ + v / c 1 + ( v / c ) cos ⁡ θ {\displaystyle \cos \theta '={\frac {\cos \theta +v/c}{1+(v/c)\cos \theta }}} {\displaystyle \cos \theta '={\frac {\cos \theta +v/c}{1+(v/c)\cos \theta }}}   **OR**   sin ⁡ θ ′ = sin ⁡ θ γ [ 1 + ( v / c ) cos ⁡ θ ] {\displaystyle \sin \theta '={\frac {\sin \theta }{\gamma [1+(v/c)\cos \theta ]}}} {\displaystyle \sin \theta '={\frac {\sin \theta }{\gamma [1+(v/c)\cos \theta ]}}}   **OR**   tan ⁡ θ ′ 2 = ( c − v c + v ) 1 / 2 tan ⁡ θ 2 {\displaystyle \tan {\frac {\theta '}{2}}=\left({\frac {c-v}{c+v}}\right)^{1/2}\tan {\frac {\theta }{2}}} {\displaystyle \tan {\frac {\theta '}{2}}=\left({\frac {c-v}{c+v}}\right)^{1/2}\tan {\frac {\theta }{2}}} ### Relativistic Doppler effect #### Relativistic longitudinal Doppler effect The classical Doppler effect depends on whether the source, receiver, or both are in motion with respect to the medium. The relativistic Doppler effect is independent of any medium. Nevertheless, relativistic Doppler shift for the longitudinal case, with source and receiver moving directly towards or away from each other, can be derived as if it were the classical phenomenon, but modified by the addition of a time dilation term, and that is the treatment described here. Assume the receiver and the source are moving *away* from each other with a relative speed v {\displaystyle v\,} v\, as measured by an observer on the receiver or the source (The sign convention adopted here is that v {\displaystyle v} v is *negative* if the receiver and the source are moving *towards* each other). Assume that the source is stationary in the medium. Then f r = ( 1 − v c s ) f s {\displaystyle f\_{r}=\left(1-{\frac {v}{c\_{s}}}\right)f\_{s}} {\displaystyle f_{r}=\left(1-{\frac {v}{c_{s}}}\right)f_{s}} where c s {\displaystyle c\_{s}} c_{s} is the speed of sound. For light, and with the receiver moving at relativistic speeds, clocks on the receiver are time dilated relative to clocks at the source. The receiver will measure the received frequency to be f r = γ ( 1 − β ) f s = 1 − β 1 + β f s . {\displaystyle f\_{r}=\gamma \left(1-\beta \right)f\_{s}={\sqrt {\frac {1-\beta }{1+\beta }}}\,f\_{s}.} {\displaystyle f_{r}=\gamma \left(1-\beta \right)f_{s}={\sqrt {\frac {1-\beta }{1+\beta }}}\,f_{s}.} where * β = v / c {\displaystyle \beta =v/c} {\displaystyle \beta =v/c}  and * γ = 1 1 − β 2 {\displaystyle \gamma ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}}} \gamma ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-\beta ^{2}}}} is the Lorentz factor. An identical expression for relativistic Doppler shift is obtained when performing the analysis in the reference frame of the *receiver* with a moving source. #### Transverse Doppler effect The transverse Doppler effect is one of the main novel predictions of the special theory of relativity. Classically, one might expect that if source and receiver are moving transversely with respect to each other with no longitudinal component to their relative motions, that there should be no Doppler shift in the light arriving at the receiver. Special relativity predicts otherwise. Fig. 5-3 illustrates two common variants of this scenario. Both variants can be analyzed using simple time dilation arguments. In Fig. 5-3a, the receiver observes light from the source as being blueshifted by a factor of γ {\displaystyle \gamma } \gamma . In Fig. 5-3b, the light is redshifted by the same factor. ### Measurement versus visual appearance Time dilation and length contraction are not optical illusions, but genuine effects. Measurements of these effects are not an artifact of Doppler shift, nor are they the result of neglecting to take into account the time it takes light to travel from an event to an observer. Scientists make a fundamental distinction between *measurement* or *observation* on the one hand, versus *visual appearance*, or what one *sees*. The measured shape of an object is a hypothetical snapshot of all of the object's points as they exist at a single moment in time. But the visual appearance of an object is affected by the varying lengths of time that light takes to travel from different points on the object to one's eye. For many years, the distinction between the two had not been generally appreciated, and it had generally been thought that a length contracted object passing by an observer would in fact actually be *seen* as length contracted. In 1959, James Terrell and Roger Penrose independently pointed out that differential time lag effects in signals reaching the observer from the different parts of a moving object result in a fast moving object's visual appearance being quite different from its measured shape. For example, a receding object would *appear* contracted, an approaching object would *appear* elongated, and a passing object would have a skew appearance that has been likened to a rotation. A sphere in motion retains the circular outline for all speeds, for any distance, and for all view angles, although the surface of the sphere and the images on it will appear distorted. Both Fig. 5-4 and Fig. 5-5 illustrate objects moving transversely to the line of sight. In Fig. 5-4, a cube is viewed from a distance of four times the length of its sides. At high speeds, the sides of the cube that are perpendicular to the direction of motion appear hyperbolic in shape. The cube is actually not rotated. Rather, light from the rear of the cube takes longer to reach one's eyes compared with light from the front, during which time the cube has moved to the right. At high speeds, the sphere in Fig. 5-5 takes on the appearance of a flattened disk tilted up to 45° from the line of sight. If the objects' motions are not strictly transverse but instead include a longitudinal component, exaggerated distortions in perspective may be seen. This illusion has come to be known as *Terrell rotation* or the *Terrell–Penrose effect*. Another example where visual appearance is at odds with measurement comes from the observation of apparent superluminal motion in various radio galaxies, BL Lac objects, quasars, and other astronomical objects that eject relativistic-speed jets of matter at narrow angles with respect to the viewer. An apparent optical illusion results giving the appearance of faster than light travel. In Fig. 5-6, galaxy M87 streams out a high-speed jet of subatomic particles almost directly towards us, but Penrose–Terrell rotation causes the jet to appear to be moving laterally in the same manner that the appearance of the cube in Fig. 5-4 has been stretched out. Dynamics -------- Section *Consequences derived from the Lorentz transformation* dealt strictly with kinematics, the study of the motion of points, bodies, and systems of bodies without considering the forces that caused the motion. This section discusses masses, forces, energy and so forth, and as such requires consideration of physical effects beyond those encompassed by the Lorentz transformation itself. ### Equivalence of mass and energy As an object's speed approaches the speed of light from an observer's point of view, its relativistic mass increases thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The energy content of an object at rest with mass *m* equals *mc*2. Conservation of energy implies that, in any reaction, a decrease of the sum of the masses of particles must be accompanied by an increase in kinetic energies of the particles after the reaction. Similarly, the mass of an object can be increased by taking in kinetic energies. In addition to the papers referenced above—which give derivations of the Lorentz transformation and describe the foundations of special relativity—Einstein also wrote at least four papers giving heuristic arguments for the equivalence (and transmutability) of mass and energy, for *E* = *mc*2. Mass–energy equivalence is a consequence of special relativity. The energy and momentum, which are separate in Newtonian mechanics, form a four-vector in relativity, and this relates the time component (the energy) to the space components (the momentum) in a non-trivial way. For an object at rest, the energy–momentum four-vector is (*E*/*c*, 0, 0, 0): it has a time component which is the energy, and three space components which are zero. By changing frames with a Lorentz transformation in the x direction with a small value of the velocity v, the energy momentum four-vector becomes (*E*/*c*, *Ev*/*c*2, 0, 0). The momentum is equal to the energy multiplied by the velocity divided by *c*2. As such, the Newtonian mass of an object, which is the ratio of the momentum to the velocity for slow velocities, is equal to *E*/*c*2. The energy and momentum are properties of matter and radiation, and it is impossible to deduce that they form a four-vector just from the two basic postulates of special relativity by themselves, because these do not talk about matter or radiation, they only talk about space and time. The derivation therefore requires some additional physical reasoning. In his 1905 paper, Einstein used the additional principles that Newtonian mechanics should hold for slow velocities, so that there is one energy scalar and one three-vector momentum at slow velocities, and that the conservation law for energy and momentum is exactly true in relativity. Furthermore, he assumed that the energy of light is transformed by the same Doppler-shift factor as its frequency, which he had previously shown to be true based on Maxwell's equations. The first of Einstein's papers on this subject was "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend upon its Energy Content?" in 1905. Although Einstein's argument in this paper is nearly universally accepted by physicists as correct, even self-evident, many authors over the years have suggested that it is wrong. Other authors suggest that the argument was merely inconclusive because it relied on some implicit assumptions. Einstein acknowledged the controversy over his derivation in his 1907 survey paper on special relativity. There he notes that it is problematic to rely on Maxwell's equations for the heuristic mass–energy argument. The argument in his 1905 paper can be carried out with the emission of any massless particles, but the Maxwell equations are implicitly used to make it obvious that the emission of light in particular can be achieved only by doing work. To emit electromagnetic waves, all you have to do is shake a charged particle, and this is clearly doing work, so that the emission is of energy. ### Einstein's 1905 demonstration of *E* = *mc*2 In his fourth of his 1905 Annus mirabilis papers, Einstein presented a heuristic argument for the equivalence of mass and energy. Although, as discussed above, subsequent scholarship has established that his arguments fell short of a broadly definitive proof, the conclusions that he reached in this paper have stood the test of time. Einstein took as starting assumptions his recently discovered formula for relativistic Doppler shift, the laws of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum, and the relationship between the frequency of light and its energy as implied by Maxwell's equations. Figure 6-1. Einstein's 1905 derivation of *E* = *mc*2 Fig. 6-1 (top). Consider a system of plane waves of light having frequency f {\displaystyle f} f traveling in direction ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } \phi relative to the x-axis of reference frame *S*. The frequency (and hence energy) of the waves as measured in frame *S′* that is moving along the x-axis at velocity v {\displaystyle v} v is given by the relativistic Doppler shift formula which Einstein had developed in his 1905 paper on special relativity: f ′ f = 1 − v c cos ⁡ ϕ 1 − v 2 / c 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {f'}{f}}={\frac {1-{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}} {\displaystyle {\frac {f'}{f}}={\frac {1-{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}} Fig. 6-1 (bottom). Consider an arbitrary body that is stationary in reference frame *S*. Let this body emit a pair of equal-energy light-pulses in opposite directions at angle ϕ {\displaystyle \phi } \phi with respect to the x-axis. Each pulse has energy L / 2 {\displaystyle L/2} L/2. Because of conservation of momentum, the body remains stationary in *S* after emission of the two pulses. Let E 0 {\displaystyle E\_{0}} E_{0} be the energy of the body before emission of the two pulses and E 1 {\displaystyle E\_{1}} E_{1} after their emission. Next, consider the same system observed from frame *S′* that is moving along the x-axis at speed v {\displaystyle v} v relative to frame *S*. In this frame, light from the forwards and reverse pulses will be relativistically Doppler-shifted. Let H 0 {\displaystyle H\_{0}} H_{0} be the energy of the body measured in reference frame *S′* before emission of the two pulses and H 1 {\displaystyle H\_{1}} H_{1} after their emission. We obtain the following relationships: E 0 = E 1 + 1 2 L + 1 2 L = E 1 + L {\displaystyle E\_{0}=E\_{1}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L=E\_{1}+L} {\displaystyle E_{0}=E_{1}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L=E_{1}+L} H 0 = H 1 + 1 2 L 1 − v c cos ⁡ ϕ 1 − v 2 / c 2 + 1 2 L 1 + v c cos ⁡ ϕ 1 − v 2 / c 2 = H 1 + L 1 − v 2 / c 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}H\_{0}&=H\_{1}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L{\tfrac {1-{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L{\tfrac {1+{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}\\&=H\_{1}+{\tfrac {L}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}\end{aligned}}} {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}H_{0}&=H_{1}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L{\tfrac {1-{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}+{\tfrac {1}{2}}L{\tfrac {1+{\tfrac {v}{c}}\cos {\phi }}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}\\&=H_{1}+{\tfrac {L}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}\end{aligned}}} From the above equations, we obtain the following: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ( H 0 − E 0 ) − ( H 1 − E 1 ) = L ( 1 1 − v 2 / c 2 − 1 ) {\displaystyle \quad \quad (H\_{0}-E\_{0})-(H\_{1}-E\_{1})=L\left({\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}-1\right)} {\displaystyle \quad \quad (H_{0}-E_{0})-(H_{1}-E_{1})=L\left({\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}-1\right)} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-1)** | The two differences of form H − E {\displaystyle H-E} {\displaystyle H-E} seen in the above equation have a straightforward physical interpretation. Since H {\displaystyle H} H and E {\displaystyle E} E are the energies of the arbitrary body in the moving and stationary frames, H 0 − E 0 {\displaystyle H\_{0}-E\_{0}} {\displaystyle H_{0}-E_{0}} and H 1 − E 1 {\displaystyle H\_{1}-E\_{1}} {\displaystyle H_{1}-E_{1}} represents the kinetic energies of the bodies before and after the emission of light (except for an additive constant that fixes the zero point of energy and is conventionally set to zero). Hence, | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | K 0 − K 1 = L ( 1 1 − v 2 / c 2 − 1 ) {\displaystyle \quad \quad K\_{0}-K\_{1}=L\left({\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}-1\right)} {\displaystyle \quad \quad K_{0}-K_{1}=L\left({\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-v^{2}/c^{2}}}}-1\right)} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-2)** | Taking a Taylor series expansion and neglecting higher order terms, he obtained | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | K 0 − K 1 = 1 2 L c 2 v 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad K\_{0}-K\_{1}={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {L}{c^{2}}}v^{2}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad K_{0}-K_{1}={\frac {1}{2}}{\frac {L}{c^{2}}}v^{2}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-3)** | Comparing the above expression with the classical expression for kinetic energy, *K.E.* = 1/2*mv*2, Einstein then noted: *"If a body gives off the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass diminishes by L/c2."* Rindler has observed that Einstein's heuristic argument suggested merely that energy *contributes* to mass. In 1905, Einstein's cautious expression of the mass–energy relationship allowed for the possibility that "dormant" mass might exist that would remain behind after all the energy of a body was removed. By 1907, however, Einstein was ready to assert that *all* inertial mass represented a reserve of energy. "To equate *all* mass with energy required an act of aesthetic faith, very characteristic of Einstein." Einstein's bold hypothesis has been amply confirmed in the years subsequent to his original proposal. For a variety of reasons, Einstein's original derivation is currently seldom taught. Besides the vigorous debate that continues until this day as to the formal correctness of his original derivation, the recognition of special relativity as being what Einstein called a "principle theory" has led to a shift away from reliance on electromagnetic phenomena to purely dynamic methods of proof. ### Elastic collisions Examination of the collision products generated by particle accelerators around the world provides scientists evidence of the structure of the subatomic world and the natural laws governing it. Analysis of the collision products, the sum of whose masses may vastly exceed the masses of the incident particles, requires special relativity. In Newtonian mechanics, analysis of collisions involves use of the conservation laws for mass, momentum and energy. In relativistic mechanics, mass is not independently conserved, because it has been subsumed into the total relativistic energy. We illustrate the differences that arise between the Newtonian and relativistic treatments of particle collisions by examining the simple case of two perfectly elastic colliding particles of equal mass. (*Inelastic* collisions are discussed in Spacetime#Conservation laws. Radioactive decay may be considered a sort of time-reversed inelastic collision.) Elastic scattering of charged elementary particles deviates from ideality due to the production of Bremsstrahlung radiation. #### Newtonian analysis Fig. 6-2 provides a demonstration of the result, familiar to billiard players, that if a stationary ball is struck elastically by another one of the same mass (assuming no sidespin, or "English"), then after collision, the diverging paths of the two balls will subtend a right angle. (a) In the stationary frame, an incident sphere traveling at 2**v** strikes a stationary sphere. (b) In the center of momentum frame, the two spheres approach each other symmetrically at ±**v**. After elastic collision, the two spheres rebound from each other with equal and opposite velocities ±**u**. Energy conservation requires that |u| = |v|. (c) Reverting to the stationary frame, the rebound velocities are **v ± u.** The dot product (**v + u**) • (**v − u**) = v2 − u2 = 0, indicating that the vectors are orthogonal. #### Relativistic analysis Consider the elastic collision scenario in Fig. 6-3 between a moving particle colliding with an equal mass stationary particle. Unlike the Newtonian case, the angle between the two particles after collision is less than 90°, is dependent on the angle of scattering, and becomes smaller and smaller as the velocity of the incident particle approaches the speed of light: The relativistic momentum and total relativistic energy of a particle are given by | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | p → = γ m v → and E = γ m c 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad {\vec {p}}=\gamma m{\vec {v}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad E=\gamma mc^{2}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad {\vec {p}}=\gamma m{\vec {v}}\quad {\text{and}}\quad E=\gamma mc^{2}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-4)** | Conservation of momentum dictates that the sum of the momenta of the incoming particle and the stationary particle (which initially has momentum = 0) equals the sum of the momenta of the emergent particles: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | γ 1 m v 1 → + 0 = γ 2 m v 2 → + γ 3 m v 3 → {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma \_{1}m{\vec {v\_{1}}}+0=\gamma \_{2}m{\vec {v\_{2}}}+\gamma \_{3}m{\vec {v\_{3}}}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma _{1}m{\vec {v_{1}}}+0=\gamma _{2}m{\vec {v_{2}}}+\gamma _{3}m{\vec {v_{3}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-5)** | Likewise, the sum of the total relativistic energies of the incoming particle and the stationary particle (which initially has total energy mc2) equals the sum of the total energies of the emergent particles: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | γ 1 m c 2 + m c 2 = γ 2 m c 2 + γ 3 m c 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma \_{1}mc^{2}+mc^{2}=\gamma \_{2}mc^{2}+\gamma \_{3}mc^{2}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma _{1}mc^{2}+mc^{2}=\gamma _{2}mc^{2}+\gamma _{3}mc^{2}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-6)** | Breaking down (**6-5**) into its components, replacing v {\displaystyle v} v with the dimensionless β {\displaystyle \beta } \beta , and factoring out common terms from (**6-5**) and (**6-6**) yields the following: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | β 1 γ 1 = β 2 γ 2 cos ⁡ θ + β 3 γ 3 cos ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta \_{1}\gamma \_{1}=\beta \_{2}\gamma \_{2}\cos {\theta }+\beta \_{3}\gamma \_{3}\cos {\phi }} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta _{1}\gamma _{1}=\beta _{2}\gamma _{2}\cos {\theta }+\beta _{3}\gamma _{3}\cos {\phi }} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-7)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | β 2 γ 2 sin ⁡ θ = β 3 γ 3 sin ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta \_{2}\gamma \_{2}\sin {\theta }=\beta \_{3}\gamma \_{3}\sin {\phi }} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta _{2}\gamma _{2}\sin {\theta }=\beta _{3}\gamma _{3}\sin {\phi }} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-8)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | γ 1 + 1 = γ 2 + γ 3 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma \_{1}+1=\gamma \_{2}+\gamma \_{3}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \gamma _{1}+1=\gamma _{2}+\gamma _{3}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-9)** | From these we obtain the following relationships: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | β 2 = β 1 sin ⁡ ϕ { β 1 2 sin 2 ⁡ ϕ + sin 2 ⁡ ( ϕ + θ ) / γ 1 2 } 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta \_{2}={\frac {\beta \_{1}\sin {\phi }}{\{\beta \_{1}^{2}\sin ^{2}{\phi }+\sin ^{2}(\phi +\theta )/\gamma \_{1}^{2}\}^{1/2}}}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta _{2}={\frac {\beta _{1}\sin {\phi }}{\{\beta _{1}^{2}\sin ^{2}{\phi }+\sin ^{2}(\phi +\theta )/\gamma _{1}^{2}\}^{1/2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-10)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | β 3 = β 1 sin ⁡ θ { β 1 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ + sin 2 ⁡ ( ϕ + θ ) / γ 1 2 } 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta \_{3}={\frac {\beta \_{1}\sin {\theta }}{\{\beta \_{1}^{2}\sin ^{2}{\theta }+\sin ^{2}(\phi +\theta )/\gamma \_{1}^{2}\}^{1/2}}}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \beta _{3}={\frac {\beta _{1}\sin {\theta }}{\{\beta _{1}^{2}\sin ^{2}{\theta }+\sin ^{2}(\phi +\theta )/\gamma _{1}^{2}\}^{1/2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-11)** | | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | cos ⁡ ( ϕ + θ ) = ( γ 1 − 1 ) sin ⁡ θ cos ⁡ θ { ( γ 1 + 1 ) 2 sin 2 ⁡ θ + 4 cos 2 ⁡ θ } 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \cos {(\phi +\theta )}={\frac {(\gamma \_{1}-1)\sin {\theta }\cos {\theta }}{\{(\gamma \_{1}+1)^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta +4\cos ^{2}\theta \}^{1/2}}}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \cos {(\phi +\theta )}={\frac {(\gamma _{1}-1)\sin {\theta }\cos {\theta }}{\{(\gamma _{1}+1)^{2}\sin ^{2}\theta +4\cos ^{2}\theta \}^{1/2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-12)** | For the symmetrical case in which ϕ = θ {\displaystyle \phi =\theta } {\displaystyle \phi =\theta } and β 2 = β 3 , {\displaystyle \beta \_{2}=\beta \_{3},} {\displaystyle \beta _{2}=\beta _{3},} (**6-12**) takes on the simpler form: | | | | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | cos ⁡ θ = β 1 { 2 / γ 1 + 3 β 1 2 − 2 } 1 / 2 {\displaystyle \quad \quad \cos {\theta }={\frac {\beta \_{1}}{\{2/\gamma \_{1}+3\beta \_{1}^{2}-2\}^{1/2}}}} {\displaystyle \quad \quad \cos {\theta }={\frac {\beta _{1}}{\{2/\gamma _{1}+3\beta _{1}^{2}-2\}^{1/2}}}} | | | | | | --- | --- | --- | |   |   |   | |   | | **(6-13)** | ### How far can you travel from the Earth? Since nothing can travel faster than light, one might conclude that a human can never travel farther from Earth than ~100 light years. You would easily think that a traveler would never be able to reach more than the few solar systems which exist within the limit of 100 light years from Earth. However, because of time dilation, a hypothetical spaceship can travel thousands of light years during a passenger's lifetime. If a spaceship could be built that accelerates at a constant 1*g*, it will, after one year, be travelling at almost the speed of light as seen from Earth. This is described by: v ( t ) = a t 1 + a 2 t 2 c 2 {\displaystyle v(t)={\frac {at}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {a^{2}t^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} {\displaystyle v(t)={\frac {at}{\sqrt {1+{\frac {a^{2}t^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}} where *v*(*t*) is the velocity at a time *t*, *a* is the acceleration of the spaceship and *t* is the coordinate time as measured by people on Earth. Therefore, after one year of accelerating at 9.81 m/s2, the spaceship will be travelling at *v* = 0.712*c* and 0.946*c* after three years, relative to Earth. After three years of this acceleration, with the spaceship achieving a velocity of 94.6% of the speed of light relative to Earth, time dilation will result in each second experienced on the spaceship corresponding to 3.1 seconds back on Earth. During their journey, people on Earth will experience more time than they do - since their clocks (all physical phenomena) would really be ticking 3.1 times faster than those of the spaceship. A 5-year round trip for the traveller will take 6.5 Earth years and cover a distance of over 6 light-years. A 20-year round trip for them (5 years accelerating, 5 decelerating, twice each) will land them back on Earth having travelled for 335 Earth years and a distance of 331 light years. A full 40-year trip at 1*g* will appear on Earth to last 58,000 years and cover a distance of 55,000 light years. A 40-year trip at 1.1*g* will take 148,000 Earth years and cover about 140,000 light years. A one-way 28 year (14 years accelerating, 14 decelerating as measured with the astronaut's clock) trip at 1*g* acceleration could reach 2,000,000 light-years to the Andromeda Galaxy. This same time dilation is why a muon travelling close to *c* is observed to travel much farther than *c* times its half-life (when at rest). Relativity and unifying electromagnetism ---------------------------------------- Theoretical investigation in classical electromagnetism led to the discovery of wave propagation. Equations generalizing the electromagnetic effects found that finite propagation speed of the **E** and **B** fields required certain behaviors on charged particles. The general study of moving charges forms the Liénard–Wiechert potential, which is a step towards special relativity. The Lorentz transformation of the electric field of a moving charge into a non-moving observer's reference frame results in the appearance of a mathematical term commonly called the magnetic field. Conversely, the *magnetic* field generated by a moving charge disappears and becomes a purely *electrostatic* field in a comoving frame of reference. Maxwell's equations are thus simply an empirical fit to special relativistic effects in a classical model of the Universe. As electric and magnetic fields are reference frame dependent and thus intertwined, one speaks of *electromagnetic* fields. Special relativity provides the transformation rules for how an electromagnetic field in one inertial frame appears in another inertial frame. Maxwell's equations in the 3D form are already consistent with the physical content of special relativity, although they are easier to manipulate in a manifestly covariant form, that is, in the language of tensor calculus. Theories of relativity and quantum mechanics -------------------------------------------- *Special* relativity can be combined with quantum mechanics to form relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum electrodynamics. How *general* relativity and quantum mechanics can be unified is one of the unsolved problems in physics; quantum gravity and a "theory of everything", which require a unification including general relativity too, are active and ongoing areas in theoretical research. The early Bohr–Sommerfeld atomic model explained the fine structure of alkali metal atoms using both special relativity and the preliminary knowledge on quantum mechanics of the time. In 1928, Paul Dirac constructed an influential relativistic wave equation, now known as the Dirac equation in his honour, that is fully compatible both with special relativity and with the final version of quantum theory existing after 1926. This equation not only described the intrinsic angular momentum of the electrons called *spin*, it also led to the prediction of the antiparticle of the electron (the positron), and fine structure could only be fully explained with special relativity. It was the first foundation of *relativistic quantum mechanics*. On the other hand, the existence of antiparticles leads to the conclusion that relativistic quantum mechanics is not enough for a more accurate and complete theory of particle interactions. Instead, a theory of particles interpreted as quantized fields, called *quantum field theory*, becomes necessary; in which particles can be created and destroyed throughout space and time. Status ------ Special relativity in its Minkowski spacetime is accurate only when the absolute value of the gravitational potential is much less than *c*2 in the region of interest. In a strong gravitational field, one must use general relativity. General relativity becomes special relativity at the limit of a weak field. At very small scales, such as at the Planck length and below, quantum effects must be taken into consideration resulting in quantum gravity. But at macroscopic scales and in the absence of strong gravitational fields, special relativity is experimentally tested to extremely high degree of accuracy (10−20) and thus accepted by the physics community. Experimental results which appear to contradict it are not reproducible and are thus widely believed to be due to experimental errors. Special relativity is mathematically self-consistent, and it is an organic part of all modern physical theories, most notably quantum field theory, string theory, and general relativity (in the limiting case of negligible gravitational fields). Newtonian mechanics mathematically follows from special relativity at small velocities (compared to the speed of light) – thus Newtonian mechanics can be considered as a special relativity of slow moving bodies. See classical mechanics for a more detailed discussion. Several experiments predating Einstein's 1905 paper are now interpreted as evidence for relativity. Of these it is known Einstein was aware of the Fizeau experiment before 1905, and historians have concluded that Einstein was at least aware of the Michelson–Morley experiment as early as 1899 despite claims he made in his later years that it played no role in his development of the theory. * The Fizeau experiment (1851, repeated by Michelson and Morley in 1886) measured the speed of light in moving media, with results that are consistent with relativistic addition of colinear velocities. * The famous Michelson–Morley experiment (1881, 1887) gave further support to the postulate that detecting an absolute reference velocity was not achievable. It should be stated here that, contrary to many alternative claims, it said little about the invariance of the speed of light with respect to the source and observer's velocity, as both source and observer were travelling together at the same velocity at all times. * The Trouton–Noble experiment (1903) showed that the torque on a capacitor is independent of position and inertial reference frame. * The Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace (1902, 1904) showed that length contraction does not lead to birefringence for a co-moving observer, in accordance with the relativity principle. Particle accelerators routinely accelerate and measure the properties of particles moving at near the speed of light, where their behavior is completely consistent with relativity theory and inconsistent with the earlier Newtonian mechanics. These machines would simply not work if they were not engineered according to relativistic principles. In addition, a considerable number of modern experiments have been conducted to test special relativity. Some examples: * Tests of relativistic energy and momentum – testing the limiting speed of particles * Ives–Stilwell experiment – testing relativistic Doppler effect and time dilation * Experimental testing of time dilation – relativistic effects on a fast-moving particle's half-life * Kennedy–Thorndike experiment – time dilation in accordance with Lorentz transformations * Hughes–Drever experiment – testing isotropy of space and mass * Modern searches for Lorentz violation – various modern tests * Experiments to test emission theory demonstrated that the speed of light is independent of the speed of the emitter. * Experiments to test the aether drag hypothesis – no "aether flow obstruction". Technical discussion of spacetime --------------------------------- ### Geometry of spacetime #### Comparison between flat Euclidean space and Minkowski space Special relativity uses a "flat" 4-dimensional Minkowski space – an example of a spacetime. Minkowski spacetime appears to be very similar to the standard 3-dimensional Euclidean space, but there is a crucial difference with respect to time. In 3D space, the differential of distance (line element) *ds* is defined by d s 2 = d x ⋅ d x = d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 + d x 3 2 , {\displaystyle ds^{2}=d\mathbf {x} \cdot d\mathbf {x} =dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}+dx\_{3}^{2},} {\displaystyle ds^{2}=d\mathbf {x} \cdot d\mathbf {x} =dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2},} where *d***x** = (*dx*1, *dx*2, *dx*3) are the differentials of the three spatial dimensions. In Minkowski geometry, there is an extra dimension with coordinate *X*0 derived from time, such that the distance differential fulfills d s 2 = − d X 0 2 + d X 1 2 + d X 2 2 + d X 3 2 , {\displaystyle ds^{2}=-dX\_{0}^{2}+dX\_{1}^{2}+dX\_{2}^{2}+dX\_{3}^{2},} {\displaystyle ds^{2}=-dX_{0}^{2}+dX_{1}^{2}+dX_{2}^{2}+dX_{3}^{2},} where *d***X** = (*dX*0, *dX*1, *dX*2, *dX*3) are the differentials of the four spacetime dimensions. This suggests a deep theoretical insight: special relativity is simply a rotational symmetry of our spacetime, analogous to the rotational symmetry of Euclidean space (see Fig. 10-1). Just as Euclidean space uses a Euclidean metric, so spacetime uses a Minkowski metric. Basically, special relativity can be stated as the *invariance of any spacetime interval* (that is the 4D distance between any two events) when viewed from *any inertial reference frame*. All equations and effects of special relativity can be derived from this rotational symmetry (the Poincaré group) of Minkowski spacetime. The actual form of *ds* above depends on the metric and on the choices for the *X*0 coordinate. To make the time coordinate look like the space coordinates, it can be treated as imaginary: *X*0 = *ict* (this is called a Wick rotation). According to Misner, Thorne and Wheeler (1971, §2.3), ultimately the deeper understanding of both special and general relativity will come from the study of the Minkowski metric (described below) and to take *X*0 = *ct*, rather than a "disguised" Euclidean metric using *ict* as the time coordinate. Some authors use *X*0 = *t*, with factors of *c* elsewhere to compensate; for instance, spatial coordinates are divided by *c* or factors of *c*±2 are included in the metric tensor. These numerous conventions can be superseded by using natural units where *c* = 1. Then space and time have equivalent units, and no factors of *c* appear anywhere. #### 3D spacetime If we reduce the spatial dimensions to 2, so that we can represent the physics in a 3D space d s 2 = d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 − c 2 d t 2 , {\displaystyle ds^{2}=dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2},} {\displaystyle ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2},} we see that the null geodesics lie along a dual-cone (see Fig. 10-2) defined by the equation; d s 2 = 0 = d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 − c 2 d t 2 {\displaystyle ds^{2}=0=dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2}} {\displaystyle ds^{2}=0=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2}} or simply d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 = c 2 d t 2 , {\displaystyle dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}=c^{2}dt^{2},} {\displaystyle dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}=c^{2}dt^{2},}  which is the equation of a circle of radius *c dt*. #### 4D spacetime If we extend this to three spatial dimensions, the null geodesics are the 4-dimensional cone: d s 2 = 0 = d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 + d x 3 2 − c 2 d t 2 {\displaystyle ds^{2}=0=dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}+dx\_{3}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2}} {\displaystyle ds^{2}=0=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-c^{2}dt^{2}} so d x 1 2 + d x 2 2 + d x 3 2 = c 2 d t 2 . {\displaystyle dx\_{1}^{2}+dx\_{2}^{2}+dx\_{3}^{2}=c^{2}dt^{2}.} {\displaystyle dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}=c^{2}dt^{2}.} As illustrated in Fig. 10-3, the null geodesics can be visualized as a set of continuous concentric spheres with radii = *c dt*. This null dual-cone represents the "line of sight" of a point in space. That is, when we look at the stars and say "The light from that star which I am receiving is X years old", we are looking down this line of sight: a null geodesic. We are looking at an event a distance d = x 1 2 + x 2 2 + x 3 2 {\textstyle d={\sqrt {x\_{1}^{2}+x\_{2}^{2}+x\_{3}^{2}}}} {\textstyle d={\sqrt {x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}}}} away and a time *d/c* in the past. For this reason the null dual cone is also known as the "light cone". (The point in the lower left of the Fig. 10-2 represents the star, the origin represents the observer, and the line represents the null geodesic "line of sight".) The cone in the −*t* region is the information that the point is "receiving", while the cone in the +*t* section is the information that the point is "sending". The geometry of Minkowski space can be depicted using Minkowski diagrams, which are useful also in understanding many of the thought experiments in special relativity. ### Physics in spacetime #### Transformations of physical quantities between reference frames Above, the Lorentz transformation for the time coordinate and three space coordinates illustrates that they are intertwined. This is true more generally: certain pairs of "timelike" and "spacelike" quantities naturally combine on equal footing under the same Lorentz transformation. The Lorentz transformation in standard configuration above, that is, for a boost in the *x*-direction, can be recast into matrix form as follows: ( c t ′ x ′ y ′ z ′ ) = ( γ − β γ 0 0 − β γ γ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ) ( c t x y z ) = ( γ c t − γ β x γ x − β γ c t y z ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}ct'\\x'\\y'\\z'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &-\beta \gamma &0&0\\-\beta \gamma &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}ct\\x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma ct-\gamma \beta x\\\gamma x-\beta \gamma ct\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}.} {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}ct'\\x'\\y'\\z'\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &-\beta \gamma &0&0\\-\beta \gamma &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}ct\\x\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}\gamma ct-\gamma \beta x\\\gamma x-\beta \gamma ct\\y\\z\end{pmatrix}}.} In Newtonian mechanics, quantities that have magnitude and direction are mathematically described as 3d vectors in Euclidean space, and in general they are parametrized by time. In special relativity, this notion is extended by adding the appropriate timelike quantity to a spacelike vector quantity, and we have 4d vectors, or "four-vectors", in Minkowski spacetime. The components of vectors are written using tensor index notation, as this has numerous advantages. The notation makes it clear the equations are manifestly covariant under the Poincaré group, thus bypassing the tedious calculations to check this fact. In constructing such equations, we often find that equations previously thought to be unrelated are, in fact, closely connected being part of the same tensor equation. Recognizing other physical quantities as tensors simplifies their transformation laws. Throughout, upper indices (superscripts) are contravariant indices rather than exponents except when they indicate a square (this should be clear from the context), and lower indices (subscripts) are covariant indices. For simplicity and consistency with the earlier equations, Cartesian coordinates will be used. The simplest example of a four-vector is the position of an event in spacetime, which constitutes a timelike component *ct* and spacelike component **x** = (*x*, *y*, *z*), in a contravariant position four-vector with components: X ν = ( X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = ( c t , x , y , z ) = ( c t , x ) . {\displaystyle X^{\nu }=(X^{0},X^{1},X^{2},X^{3})=(ct,x,y,z)=(ct,\mathbf {x} ).} {\displaystyle X^{\nu }=(X^{0},X^{1},X^{2},X^{3})=(ct,x,y,z)=(ct,\mathbf {x} ).} where we define *X*0 = *ct* so that the time coordinate has the same dimension of distance as the other spatial dimensions; so that space and time are treated equally. Now the transformation of the contravariant components of the position 4-vector can be compactly written as: X μ ′ = Λ μ ′ ν X ν {\displaystyle X^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\nu }X^{\nu }} {\displaystyle X^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}_{\nu }X^{\nu }} where there is an implied summation on ν {\displaystyle \nu } \nu from 0 to 3, and Λ μ ′ ν {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\nu }} \Lambda^{\mu'}{}_{\nu} is a matrix. More generally, all contravariant components of a four-vector T ν {\displaystyle T^{\nu }} T^\nu transform from one frame to another frame by a Lorentz transformation: T μ ′ = Λ μ ′ ν T ν {\displaystyle T^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\nu }T^{\nu }} {\displaystyle T^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}_{\nu }T^{\nu }} Examples of other 4-vectors include the four-velocity U μ , {\displaystyle U^{\mu },} {\displaystyle U^{\mu },} defined as the derivative of the position 4-vector with respect to proper time: U μ = d X μ d τ = γ ( v ) ( c , v x , v y , v z ) = γ ( v ) ( c , v ) . {\displaystyle U^{\mu }={\frac {dX^{\mu }}{d\tau }}=\gamma (v)(c,v\_{x},v\_{y},v\_{z})=\gamma (v)(c,\mathbf {v} ).} {\displaystyle U^{\mu }={\frac {dX^{\mu }}{d\tau }}=\gamma (v)(c,v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})=\gamma (v)(c,\mathbf {v} ).} where the Lorentz factor is: γ ( v ) = 1 1 − v 2 c 2 v 2 = v x 2 + v y 2 + v z 2 . {\displaystyle \gamma (v)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\qquad v^{2}=v\_{x}^{2}+v\_{y}^{2}+v\_{z}^{2}.} {\displaystyle \gamma (v)={\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}\qquad v^{2}=v_{x}^{2}+v_{y}^{2}+v_{z}^{2}.} The relativistic energy E = γ ( v ) m c 2 {\displaystyle E=\gamma (v)mc^{2}} E = \gamma(v)mc^2 and relativistic momentum p = γ ( v ) m v {\displaystyle \mathbf {p} =\gamma (v)m\mathbf {v} } \mathbf{p} = \gamma(v)m \mathbf{v} of an object are respectively the timelike and spacelike components of a contravariant four-momentum vector: P μ = m U μ = m γ ( v ) ( c , v x , v y , v z ) = ( E c , p x , p y , p z ) = ( E c , p ) . {\displaystyle P^{\mu }=mU^{\mu }=m\gamma (v)(c,v\_{x},v\_{y},v\_{z})=\left({\frac {E}{c}},p\_{x},p\_{y},p\_{z}\right)=\left({\frac {E}{c}},\mathbf {p} \right).} {\displaystyle P^{\mu }=mU^{\mu }=m\gamma (v)(c,v_{x},v_{y},v_{z})=\left({\frac {E}{c}},p_{x},p_{y},p_{z}\right)=\left({\frac {E}{c}},\mathbf {p} \right).} where *m* is the invariant mass. The four-acceleration is the proper time derivative of 4-velocity: A μ = d U μ d τ . {\displaystyle A^{\mu }={\frac {dU^{\mu }}{d\tau }}.} {\displaystyle A^{\mu }={\frac {dU^{\mu }}{d\tau }}.} The transformation rules for *three*-dimensional velocities and accelerations are very awkward; even above in standard configuration the velocity equations are quite complicated owing to their non-linearity. On the other hand, the transformation of *four*-velocity and *four*-acceleration are simpler by means of the Lorentz transformation matrix. The four-gradient of a scalar field φ transforms covariantly rather than contravariantly: ( 1 c ∂ ϕ ∂ t ′ ∂ ϕ ∂ x ′ ∂ ϕ ∂ y ′ ∂ ϕ ∂ z ′ ) = ( 1 c ∂ ϕ ∂ t ∂ ϕ ∂ x ∂ ϕ ∂ y ∂ ϕ ∂ z ) ( γ + β γ 0 0 + β γ γ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}{\dfrac {1}{c}}{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial t'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial x'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial y'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial z'}}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}{\dfrac {1}{c}}{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial t}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial x}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial y}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial z}}\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &+\beta \gamma &0&0\\+\beta \gamma &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}.} {\displaystyle {\begin{pmatrix}{\dfrac {1}{c}}{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial t'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial x'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial y'}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial z'}}\end{pmatrix}}={\begin{pmatrix}{\dfrac {1}{c}}{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial t}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial x}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial y}}&{\dfrac {\partial \phi }{\partial z}}\end{pmatrix}}{\begin{pmatrix}\gamma &+\beta \gamma &0&0\\+\beta \gamma &\gamma &0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}.} which is the transpose of: ( ∂ μ ′ ϕ ) = Λ μ ′ ν ( ∂ ν ϕ ) ∂ μ ≡ ∂ ∂ x μ . {\displaystyle (\partial \_{\mu '}\phi )=\Lambda \_{\mu '}{}^{\nu }(\partial \_{\nu }\phi )\qquad \partial \_{\mu }\equiv {\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\mu }}}.} {\displaystyle (\partial _{\mu '}\phi )=\Lambda _{\mu '}{}^{\nu }(\partial _{\nu }\phi )\qquad \partial _{\mu }\equiv {\frac {\partial }{\partial x^{\mu }}}.} only in Cartesian coordinates. It's the covariant derivative which transforms in manifest covariance, in Cartesian coordinates this happens to reduce to the partial derivatives, but not in other coordinates. More generally, the *co*variant components of a 4-vector transform according to the *inverse* Lorentz transformation: T μ ′ = Λ μ ′ ν T ν , {\displaystyle T\_{\mu '}=\Lambda \_{\mu '}{}^{\nu }T\_{\nu },} {\displaystyle T_{\mu '}=\Lambda _{\mu '}{}^{\nu }T_{\nu },} where Λ μ ′ ν {\displaystyle \Lambda \_{\mu '}{}^{\nu }} {\displaystyle \Lambda _{\mu '}{}^{\nu }} is the reciprocal matrix of Λ μ ′ ν {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\nu }} \Lambda^{\mu'}{}_{\nu}. The postulates of special relativity constrain the exact form the Lorentz transformation matrices take. More generally, most physical quantities are best described as (components of) tensors. So to transform from one frame to another, we use the well-known tensor transformation law T θ ′ ι ′ ⋯ κ ′ α ′ β ′ ⋯ ζ ′ = Λ α ′ μ Λ β ′ ν ⋯ Λ ζ ′ ρ Λ θ ′ σ Λ ι ′ υ ⋯ Λ κ ′ ϕ T σ υ ⋯ ϕ μ ν ⋯ ρ {\displaystyle T\_{\theta '\iota '\cdots \kappa '}^{\alpha '\beta '\cdots \zeta '}=\Lambda ^{\alpha '}{}\_{\mu }\Lambda ^{\beta '}{}\_{\nu }\cdots \Lambda ^{\zeta '}{}\_{\rho }\Lambda \_{\theta '}{}^{\sigma }\Lambda \_{\iota '}{}^{\upsilon }\cdots \Lambda \_{\kappa '}{}^{\phi }T\_{\sigma \upsilon \cdots \phi }^{\mu \nu \cdots \rho }} {\displaystyle T_{\theta '\iota '\cdots \kappa '}^{\alpha '\beta '\cdots \zeta '}=\Lambda ^{\alpha '}{}_{\mu }\Lambda ^{\beta '}{}_{\nu }\cdots \Lambda ^{\zeta '}{}_{\rho }\Lambda _{\theta '}{}^{\sigma }\Lambda _{\iota '}{}^{\upsilon }\cdots \Lambda _{\kappa '}{}^{\phi }T_{\sigma \upsilon \cdots \phi }^{\mu \nu \cdots \rho }} where Λ χ ′ ψ {\displaystyle \Lambda \_{\chi '}{}^{\psi }} \Lambda_{\chi'}{}^{\psi} is the reciprocal matrix of Λ χ ′ ψ {\displaystyle \Lambda ^{\chi '}{}\_{\psi }} \Lambda^{\chi'}{}_{\psi}. All tensors transform by this rule. An example of a four-dimensional second order antisymmetric tensor is the relativistic angular momentum, which has six components: three are the classical angular momentum, and the other three are related to the boost of the center of mass of the system. The derivative of the relativistic angular momentum with respect to proper time is the relativistic torque, also second order antisymmetric tensor. The electromagnetic field tensor is another second order antisymmetric tensor field, with six components: three for the electric field and another three for the magnetic field. There is also the stress–energy tensor for the electromagnetic field, namely the electromagnetic stress–energy tensor. #### Metric The metric tensor allows one to define the inner product of two vectors, which in turn allows one to assign a magnitude to the vector. Given the four-dimensional nature of spacetime the Minkowski metric *η* has components (valid with suitably chosen coordinates) which can be arranged in a 4 × 4 matrix: η α β = ( − 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ) {\displaystyle \eta \_{\alpha \beta }={\begin{pmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha \beta }={\begin{pmatrix}-1&0&0&0\\0&1&0&0\\0&0&1&0\\0&0&0&1\end{pmatrix}}} which is equal to its reciprocal, η α β {\displaystyle \eta ^{\alpha \beta }} \eta^{\alpha\beta}, in those frames. Throughout we use the signs as above, different authors use different conventions – see Minkowski metric alternative signs. The Poincaré group is the most general group of transformations which preserves the Minkowski metric: η α β = η μ ′ ν ′ Λ μ ′ α Λ ν ′ β {\displaystyle \eta \_{\alpha \beta }=\eta \_{\mu '\nu '}\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\alpha }\Lambda ^{\nu '}{}\_{\beta }} {\displaystyle \eta _{\alpha \beta }=\eta _{\mu '\nu '}\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}_{\alpha }\Lambda ^{\nu '}{}_{\beta }} and this is the physical symmetry underlying special relativity. The metric can be used for raising and lowering indices on vectors and tensors. Invariants can be constructed using the metric, the inner product of a 4-vector *T* with another 4-vector *S* is: T α S α = T α η α β S β = T α η α β S β = invariant scalar {\displaystyle T^{\alpha }S\_{\alpha }=T^{\alpha }\eta \_{\alpha \beta }S^{\beta }=T\_{\alpha }\eta ^{\alpha \beta }S\_{\beta }={\text{invariant scalar}}} {\displaystyle T^{\alpha }S_{\alpha }=T^{\alpha }\eta _{\alpha \beta }S^{\beta }=T_{\alpha }\eta ^{\alpha \beta }S_{\beta }={\text{invariant scalar}}} Invariant means that it takes the same value in all inertial frames, because it is a scalar (0 rank tensor), and so no Λ appears in its trivial transformation. The magnitude of the 4-vector *T* is the positive square root of the inner product with itself: | T | = T α T α {\displaystyle |\mathbf {T} |={\sqrt {T^{\alpha }T\_{\alpha }}}} {\displaystyle |\mathbf {T} |={\sqrt {T^{\alpha }T_{\alpha }}}} One can extend this idea to tensors of higher order, for a second order tensor we can form the invariants: T α α , T α β T β α , T α β T β γ T γ α = invariant scalars , {\displaystyle T^{\alpha }{}\_{\alpha },T^{\alpha }{}\_{\beta }T^{\beta }{}\_{\alpha },T^{\alpha }{}\_{\beta }T^{\beta }{}\_{\gamma }T^{\gamma }{}\_{\alpha }={\text{invariant scalars}},} {\displaystyle T^{\alpha }{}_{\alpha },T^{\alpha }{}_{\beta }T^{\beta }{}_{\alpha },T^{\alpha }{}_{\beta }T^{\beta }{}_{\gamma }T^{\gamma }{}_{\alpha }={\text{invariant scalars}},} similarly for higher order tensors. Invariant expressions, particularly inner products of 4-vectors with themselves, provide equations that are useful for calculations, because one doesn't need to perform Lorentz transformations to determine the invariants. #### Relativistic kinematics and invariance The coordinate differentials transform also contravariantly: d X μ ′ = Λ μ ′ ν d X ν {\displaystyle dX^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}\_{\nu }dX^{\nu }} {\displaystyle dX^{\mu '}=\Lambda ^{\mu '}{}_{\nu }dX^{\nu }} so the squared length of the differential of the position four-vector *dXμ* constructed using d X 2 = d X μ d X μ = η μ ν d X μ d X ν = − ( c d t ) 2 + ( d x ) 2 + ( d y ) 2 + ( d z ) 2 {\displaystyle d\mathbf {X} ^{2}=dX^{\mu }\,dX\_{\mu }=\eta \_{\mu \nu }\,dX^{\mu }\,dX^{\nu }=-(cdt)^{2}+(dx)^{2}+(dy)^{2}+(dz)^{2}} {\displaystyle d\mathbf {X} ^{2}=dX^{\mu }\,dX_{\mu }=\eta _{\mu \nu }\,dX^{\mu }\,dX^{\nu }=-(cdt)^{2}+(dx)^{2}+(dy)^{2}+(dz)^{2}} is an invariant. Notice that when the line element *d***X**2 is negative that √−*d***X**2 is the differential of proper time, while when *d***X**2 is positive, √*d***X**2 is differential of the proper distance. The 4-velocity *U*μ has an invariant form: U 2 = η ν μ U ν U μ = − c 2 , {\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ^{2}=\eta \_{\nu \mu }U^{\nu }U^{\mu }=-c^{2}\,,} {\displaystyle \mathbf {U} ^{2}=\eta _{\nu \mu }U^{\nu }U^{\mu }=-c^{2}\,,} which means all velocity four-vectors have a magnitude of *c*. This is an expression of the fact that there is no such thing as being at coordinate rest in relativity: at the least, you are always moving forward through time. Differentiating the above equation by *τ* produces: 2 η μ ν A μ U ν = 0. {\displaystyle 2\eta \_{\mu \nu }A^{\mu }U^{\nu }=0.} {\displaystyle 2\eta _{\mu \nu }A^{\mu }U^{\nu }=0.} So in special relativity, the acceleration four-vector and the velocity four-vector are orthogonal. #### Relativistic dynamics and invariance The invariant magnitude of the momentum 4-vector generates the energy–momentum relation: P 2 = η μ ν P μ P ν = − ( E c ) 2 + p 2 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} ^{2}=\eta ^{\mu \nu }P\_{\mu }P\_{\nu }=-\left({\frac {E}{c}}\right)^{2}+p^{2}.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} ^{2}=\eta ^{\mu \nu }P_{\mu }P_{\nu }=-\left({\frac {E}{c}}\right)^{2}+p^{2}.} We can work out what this invariant is by first arguing that, since it is a scalar, it doesn't matter in which reference frame we calculate it, and then by transforming to a frame where the total momentum is zero. P 2 = − ( E rest c ) 2 = − ( m c ) 2 . {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} ^{2}=-\left({\frac {E\_{\text{rest}}}{c}}\right)^{2}=-(mc)^{2}.} {\displaystyle \mathbf {P} ^{2}=-\left({\frac {E_{\text{rest}}}{c}}\right)^{2}=-(mc)^{2}.} We see that the rest energy is an independent invariant. A rest energy can be calculated even for particles and systems in motion, by translating to a frame in which momentum is zero. The rest energy is related to the mass according to the celebrated equation discussed above: E rest = m c 2 . {\displaystyle E\_{\text{rest}}=mc^{2}.} {\displaystyle E_{\text{rest}}=mc^{2}.} The mass of systems measured in their center of momentum frame (where total momentum is zero) is given by the total energy of the system in this frame. It may not be equal to the sum of individual system masses measured in other frames. To use Newton's third law of motion, both forces must be defined as the rate of change of momentum with respect to the same time coordinate. That is, it requires the 3D force defined above. Unfortunately, there is no tensor in 4D which contains the components of the 3D force vector among its components. If a particle is not traveling at *c*, one can transform the 3D force from the particle's co-moving reference frame into the observer's reference frame. This yields a 4-vector called the four-force. It is the rate of change of the above energy momentum four-vector with respect to proper time. The covariant version of the four-force is: F ν = d P ν d τ = m A ν {\displaystyle F\_{\nu }={\frac {dP\_{\nu }}{d\tau }}=mA\_{\nu }} {\displaystyle F_{\nu }={\frac {dP_{\nu }}{d\tau }}=mA_{\nu }} In the rest frame of the object, the time component of the four-force is zero unless the "invariant mass" of the object is changing (this requires a non-closed system in which energy/mass is being directly added or removed from the object) in which case it is the negative of that rate of change of mass, times *c*. In general, though, the components of the four-force are not equal to the components of the three-force, because the three force is defined by the rate of change of momentum with respect to coordinate time, that is, *dp*/*dt* while the four-force is defined by the rate of change of momentum with respect to proper time, that is, *dp*/*dτ*. In a continuous medium, the 3D *density of force* combines with the *density of power* to form a covariant 4-vector. The spatial part is the result of dividing the force on a small cell (in 3-space) by the volume of that cell. The time component is −1/*c* times the power transferred to that cell divided by the volume of the cell. This will be used below in the section on electromagnetism. See also -------- * **People**: + Max Planck + Hermann Minkowski + Max von Laue + Arnold Sommerfeld + Max Born * **Relativity**: + History of special relativity + Doubly special relativity + Bondi k-calculus + Einstein synchronisation + Rietdijk–Putnam argument + Special relativity (alternative formulations) + Relativity priority dispute * **Physics**: + Einstein's thought experiments + physical cosmology + Relativistic Euler equations + Lorentz ether theory + Moving magnet and conductor problem + Shape waves + Relativistic heat conduction + Relativistic disk + Born rigidity + Born coordinates * **Mathematics**: + Lorentz group + Relativity in the APS formalism * **Philosophy**: + actualism + conventionalism * **Paradoxes**: + Ehrenfest paradox + Bell's spaceship paradox + Velocity composition paradox + Lighthouse paradox Primary sources --------------- 1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Albert Einstein (1905) "*Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper*", *Annalen der Physik* 17: 891; English translation On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by George Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett (1923); Another English translation On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by Megh Nad Saha (1920). 2. ↑ "Science and Common Sense", P. W. Bridgman, *The Scientific Monthly*, Vol. 79, No. 1 (Jul. 1954), pp. 32–39. 3. ↑ The Electromagnetic Mass and Momentum of a Spinning Electron, G. Breit, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. 12, p.451, 1926 4. ↑ Kinematics of an electron with an axis. Phil. Mag. 3:1-22. L. H. Thomas.] 5. 1 2 Einstein, Autobiographical Notes, 1949. 6. ↑ Einstein, "Fundamental Ideas and Methods of the Theory of Relativity", 1920 7. ↑ Einstein, On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It, 1907; "The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences in Modern Physics", 1910; "The Theory of Relativity", 1911; Manuscript on the Special Theory of Relativity, 1912; Theory of Relativity, 1913; Einstein, Relativity, the Special and General Theory, 1916; The Principal Ideas of the Theory of Relativity, 1916; What Is The Theory of Relativity?, 1919; The Principle of Relativity (Princeton Lectures), 1921; Physics and Reality, 1936; The Theory of Relativity, 1949. 8. ↑ Yaakov Friedman (2004). *Physical Applications of Homogeneous Balls*. Progress in Mathematical Physics. Vol. 40. pp. 1–21. ISBN 978-0-8176-3339-4. 9. ↑ Das, A. (1993) *The Special Theory of Relativity, A Mathematical Exposition*, Springer, ISBN 0-387-94042-1. 10. ↑ Schutz, J. (1997) Independent Axioms for Minkowski Spacetime, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, ISBN 0-582-31760-6. 11. ↑ Lorentz, H.A. (1902). "The rotation of the plane of polarization in moving media" (PDF). *Huygens Institute - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)*. **4**: 669–678. Bibcode:1901KNAB....4..669L. Retrieved 15 November 2018. 12. 1 2 Lorentz, H. A. (1904). "Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light" (PDF). *Huygens Institute - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)*. **6**: 809–831. Bibcode:1903KNAB....6..809L. Retrieved 15 November 2018. 13. ↑ Lorentz, Hendrik (1895). "Investigation of oscillations excited by oscillating ions". *Attempt at a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies (Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern)*. Leiden: E. J. Brill. (subsection § 31). 14. ↑ Lin, Shih-Chun; Giallorenzi, Thomas G. (1979). "Sensitivity analysis of the Sagnac-effect optical-fiber ring interferometer". *Applied Optics*. **18** (6): 915–931. Bibcode:1979ApOpt..18..915L. doi:10.1364/AO.18.000915. PMID 20208844. S2CID 5343180. 15. ↑ Shaw, R. (1962). "Length Contraction Paradox". *American Journal of Physics*. **30** (1): 72. Bibcode:1962AmJPh..30...72S. doi:10.1119/1.1941907. S2CID 119855914. 16. ↑ G. A. Benford; D. L. Book & W. A. Newcomb (1970). "The Tachyonic Antitelephone". *Physical Review D*. **2** (2): 263–265. Bibcode:1970PhRvD...2..263B. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.2.263. S2CID 121124132. 17. ↑ Zeeman, Pieter (1914). "Fresnel's coefficient for light of different colours. (First part)". *Proc. Kon. Acad. Van Weten*. **17**: 445–451. Bibcode:1914KNAB...17..445Z. 18. ↑ Zeeman, Pieter (1915). "Fresnel's coefficient for light of different colours. (Second part)". *Proc. Kon. Acad. Van Weten*. **18**: 398–408. Bibcode:1915KNAB...18..398Z. 19. ↑ Terrell, James (15 November 1959). "Invisibility of the Lorentz Contraction". *Physical Review*. **116** (4): 1041–1045. Bibcode:1959PhRv..116.1041T. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.116.1041. 20. ↑ Penrose, Roger (24 October 2008). "The Apparent Shape of a Relativistically Moving Sphere". *Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society*. **55** (1): 137–139. Bibcode:1959PCPS...55..137P. doi:10.1017/S0305004100033776. S2CID 123023118. 21. 1 2 3 Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content? A. Einstein, *Annalen der Physik.* **18**:639, 1905 (English translation by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffery) 22. ↑ *On the Inertia of Energy Required by the Relativity Principle*, A. Einstein, Annalen der Physik 23 (1907): 371–384 23. 1 2 3 Champion, Frank Clive (1932). "On some close collisions of fast β-particles with electrons, photographed by the expansion method". *Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character*. The Royal Society Publishing. **136** (830): 630–637. Bibcode:1932RSPSA.136..630C. doi:10.1098/rspa.1932.0108. S2CID 123018629. Retrieved 3 January 2023. 24. ↑ Baglio, Julien (26 May 2007). "Acceleration in special relativity: What is the meaning of "uniformly accelerated movement" ?" (PDF). Physics Department, ENS Cachan. Retrieved 22 January 2016. 25. 1 2 P.A.M. Dirac (1930). "A Theory of Electrons and Protons". *Proceedings of the Royal Society*. **A126** (801): 360–365. Bibcode:1930RSPSA.126..360D. doi:10.1098/rspa.1930.0013. JSTOR 95359. 26. ↑ C.D. Anderson (1933). "The Positive Electron". *Phys. Rev*. **43** (6): 491–494. Bibcode:1933PhRv...43..491A. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491. Further reading --------------- ### Texts by Einstein and text about history of special relativity * Einstein, Albert (1920). *Relativity: The Special and General Theory*. * Einstein, Albert (1996). *The Meaning of Relativity*. Fine Communications. ISBN 1-56731-136-9 * Logunov, Anatoly A. (2005). *Henri Poincaré and the Relativity Theory* (transl. from Russian by G. Pontocorvo and V. O. Soloviev, edited by V. A. Petrov). Nauka, Moscow. ### Textbooks * Charles Misner, Kip Thorne, and John Archibald Wheeler (1971) *Gravitation*. W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-0334-3 * Post, E.J., 1997 (1962) *Formal Structure of Electromagnetics: General Covariance and Electromagnetics*. Dover Publications. * Wolfgang Rindler (1991). *Introduction to Special Relativity* (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-853952-0; ISBN 0-19-853952-5 * Harvey R. Brown (2005). Physical relativity: space–time structure from a dynamical perspective, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-927583-1; ISBN 978-0-19-927583-0 * Qadir, Asghar (1989). *Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory*. Singapore: World Scientific Publications. p. 128. Bibcode:1989rist.book.....Q. ISBN 978-9971-5-0612-4. * French, A. P. (1968). *Special Relativity (M.I.T. Introductory Physics)* (1st ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393097931. * Silberstein, Ludwik (1914). *The Theory of Relativity*. * Lawrence Sklar (1977). *Space, Time and Spacetime*. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03174-6. * Lawrence Sklar (1992). *Philosophy of Physics*. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-0625-4. * Sergey Stepanov (2018). *Relativistic World*. De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110515879. * Taylor, Edwin, and John Archibald Wheeler (1992). *Spacetime Physics* (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-2327-1. * Tipler, Paul, and Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). *Modern Physics* (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-7167-4345-0. ### Journal articles * Alvager, T.; Farley, F. J. M.; Kjellman, J.; Wallin, L.; et al. (1964). "Test of the Second Postulate of Special Relativity in the GeV region". *Physics Letters*. **12** (3): 260–262. Bibcode:1964PhL....12..260A. doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91095-9. * Darrigol, Olivier (2004). "The Mystery of the Poincaré–Einstein Connection". *Isis*. **95** (4): 614–26. doi:10.1086/430652. PMID 16011297. S2CID 26997100. * Wolf, Peter; Petit, Gerard (1997). "Satellite test of Special Relativity using the Global Positioning System". *Physical Review A*. **56** (6): 4405–09. Bibcode:1997PhRvA..56.4405W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.56.4405. * Special Relativity Scholarpedia * Rindler, Wolfgang (2011). "Special relativity: Kinematics". *Scholarpedia*. **6** (2): 8520. Bibcode:2011SchpJ...6.8520R. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.8520. External links -------------- ### Original works * *Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper* Einstein's original work in German, Annalen der Physik, Bern 1905 * *On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies* English Translation as published in the 1923 book *The Principle of Relativity*. ### Special relativity for a general audience (no mathematical knowledge required) * Einstein Light An award-winning, non-technical introduction (film clips and demonstrations) supported by dozens of pages of further explanations and animations, at levels with or without mathematics. * Einstein Online Archived 2010-02-01 at the Wayback Machine Introduction to relativity theory, from the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics. * Audio: Cain/Gay (2006) – Astronomy Cast. Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity ### Special relativity explained (using simple or more advanced mathematics) * Bondi K-Calculus – A simple introduction to the special theory of relativity. * Greg Egan's *Foundations*. * The Hogg Notes on Special Relativity A good introduction to special relativity at the undergraduate level, using calculus. * Relativity Calculator: Special Relativity – An algebraic and integral calculus derivation for *E* = *mc*2. * MathPages – Reflections on Relativity A complete online book on relativity with an extensive bibliography. * Special Relativity An introduction to special relativity at the undergraduate level. * * *Relativity: the Special and General Theory* at Project Gutenberg, by Albert Einstein * Special Relativity Lecture Notes is a standard introduction to special relativity containing illustrative explanations based on drawings and spacetime diagrams from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. * Understanding Special Relativity The theory of special relativity in an easily understandable way. * An Introduction to the Special Theory of Relativity (1964) by Robert Katz, "an introduction ... that is accessible to any student who has had an introduction to general physics and some slight acquaintance with the calculus" (130 pp; pdf format). * Lecture Notes on Special Relativity by J D Cresser Department of Physics Macquarie University. * SpecialRelativity.net – An overview with visualizations and minimal mathematics. * Relativity 4-ever? The problem of superluminal motion is discussed in an entertaining manner. ### Visualization * Raytracing Special Relativity Software visualizing several scenarios under the influence of special relativity. * Real Time Relativity The Australian National University. Relativistic visual effects experienced through an interactive program. * Spacetime travel A variety of visualizations of relativistic effects, from relativistic motion to black holes. * Through Einstein's Eyes The Australian National University. Relativistic visual effects explained with movies and images. * Warp Special Relativity Simulator A computer program to show the effects of traveling close to the speed of light. * Animation clip on YouTube visualizing the Lorentz transformation. * Original interactive FLASH Animations from John de Pillis illustrating Lorentz and Galilean frames, Train and Tunnel Paradox, the Twin Paradox, Wave Propagation, Clock Synchronization, etc. * lightspeed An OpenGL-based program developed to illustrate the effects of special relativity on the appearance of moving objects. * Animation showing the stars near Earth, as seen from a spacecraft accelerating rapidly to light speed.

Special relativity

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity

33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.100°N 44.100°E / 33.100; 44.100 The **Akkadian Empire** (/əˈkeɪdiən/) was the first ancient empire of Mesopotamia after the long-lived civilization of Sumer. It was centered in the city of Akkad (/ˈækæd/) and its surrounding region. The empire united Akkadian and Sumerian speakers under one rule. The Akkadian Empire exercised influence across Mesopotamia, the Levant, and Anatolia, sending military expeditions as far south as Dilmun and Magan (modern Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Oman) in the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests by its founder Sargon of Akkad. Under Sargon and his successors, the Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam and Gutium. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though the meaning of this term is not precise, and there are earlier Sumerian claimants. Sources ------- ### Contemporary sources Epigraphic sources from the Sargonic (Akkadian Empire) period are in relatively short supply, partly because the capital Akkad, like the capitals of the later Mitanni and Sealand, has not yet been located, though there has been much speculation. Some cuneiform tablets have been excavated at cities under Akkadian Empire control like Eshnunna and Tell Agrab. Other tablets, lamentably, have become available on the antiquities market and are held in museums and private collections such as those from the Akkadian governor in Adab. Internal evidence allows their dating to the Sargonic period and sometimes to the original location. Archives are especially important to historians and only a few have become available. The most important is probably the Me-sag Archive which has been published in recent times. The tablets, about 500 in number with about half published, are held primarily at the Babylonian Collection of the Yale University and Baghdad Museum with a few others scattered about. The tablets date to the period of late in the reign of Naram-Sin to early in the reign of Shar-kali-shari. They are believed to be from a town between Umma and Lagash and Me-sag to be the governor of Umma. An archive of 47 tablets was found at the excavation of Tell el-Suleimah in the Hamrin Basin. Various royal inscriptions by the Akkadian rulers have also been found. Most of the original examples are short, or very fragmentary like the Victory Stele of Naram-Sin and the Sargonic victory stele from Telloh. A few longer ones are known because of later copies made, often from the much later Old Babylonian period. While this are assumed to be mostly accurate it is difficult to known if they were edited to reflect current political conditions. One of the longer surviving examples is the Bassetki Statue, the copper base of a Narim-Sin statue: > "Naram-Sin, the mighty, king of Agade, when the four quarters together revolted against him, through the love which the goddess Astar showed him, he was victorious in nine battles in one in 1 year, and the kings whom they (the rebels[?]) had raised (against him), he captured. In view of the fact that he protected the foundations of his city from danger, (the citizens of his city requested from Astar in Eanna, Enlil in Nippur, Dagan in Tuttul, Ninhursag in Kes, Ea in Eridu, Sin in Ur, Samas in Sippar, (and) Nergal in Kutha, that (Naram-Sin) be (made) the god of their city, and they built within Agade a temple (dedicated) to him. As for the one who removes this inscription, may the gods Samas, Astar, Nergal, the bailiff of the king, namely all those gods (mentioned above) tear out his foundations and destroy his progeny." > > > A number of fragments of royal statues of Manishtushu all bearing portions of a "standard inscription". Aside from a few minor short inscriptions this is the only known contemporary source for this ruler. An excerpt: > "Man-istusu, king of the world: when he conquered Ansan and Sirihum, had ... ships cross the Lower Sea. The cities across the Sea, thirty-two (in number), assembled for battle, but he was victorious (over them). Further, he conquered their cities, [st]ru[c]k down their rulers and aft[er] he [roused them (his troops)], plundered as far as the Silver Mines. He quarried the black stone of the mountains across the Lower Sea, loaded (it) on ships, and moored (the ships) at the quay of Agade" > > > Manishtushu Obelisk, with close-up of the text. 2270–2255 BC, Louvre Museum Before the Akkadian Empire calendar years were marked by Regnal Numbers. During Sargonic times a system of year names was used. This practice continued until the end of the Old Babylonian period, for example "Year in which the divine Hammu[rabi] the king Esznunna destroyed by a flood". Afterwards, Regnal Numbers were used by all succeeding kingdoms. During the Akkadian Empire 3 of the presumed 40 Sargon year names are known, 1 (presumed 9) of Rimush, 20 (presumed 56) of Naram-Sin, and 18 (presumed 18) of Shar-kali-shari. Recently a single year name of has been found "In the year that Dūr-Maništusu was established". There are also perhaps a dozen more known which cannot be firmly linked to a ruler. Especially with the paucity of other inscriptions, year names are extremely important in determining the history of the Akkadian Empire. As an example, from this year name we know that the empire was in conflict with the Gutians long before its end, attest the name of a Gutian ruler, and mark the building of two temples in Babylon to assist excavations. > "In the year in which Szarkaliszarri laid the foundations of the temples of the goddess Annunitum and of the god Aba in Babylon and when he defeated Szarlak, king of Gutium" > > The final contemporary source are seals and sealings. These are especially important here with the shortage of other Akkadian Empire epigraphics and very useful for historians. As an example, two seals and one sealing were found in the Royal Cemetary at Ur which contained the name of Sargons's daughter En-hedu-ana. This provide confirmation of her. The seals read "En-hedu-ana, daughter of Sargon: Ilum-pal[il] (is) her coiffeur" and "Adda, estate supervisor/majordomo of En-hedu-ana". At Tell Mozan (ancient Urkesh) brought to light a clay sealing of Tar'am-Agade (Akkad loves <her>), a previously unknown daughter of Naram-Sin, who was possibly married to an unidentified local *endan* (ruler). ### Later copies and literary compositions So great was the Akkadian Empire, especially Sargon and Narim-Sin, that its history was passed down for millenia. This ranged on one end to purported copies of still existing Sargonic period inscriptions to literary tales made up from the whole cloth at the other. A few examples: * Great Rebellion Against Naram-Sin - At one point in his reign much of the Empire, especially in the old mainly Sumerian city-states, rose up against Naram-Sin. The revolt was crushed but the echoes of the event were passed down in history. Some of the tales, like "Naram-Sin and the Enemy Hordes" (Old Babylonian - purported to be a copy of an inscription at the temple of Nergal in Cutha) and "Gula-AN and the Seventeen Kings against Naram-Sin" were literary compositions which further developed and changed the themes. The earliest examplar, from the Old Babylonian period, is found in several incomplete tablets and fragments, which differ somewhat, purporting to be copies of an inscription on a statue of Naram-Sin standing in the Ekur temple of Enlil at Nippur. Because it aligns with known contemporary inscriptions and year name it is considered authentic, which the usual Mesopotamian slant that something going wrong means you displeased the gods. > "... By the verdict of the goddess Astar-Annunltum, Naram-Sin, the mighty, [was vic]torious over the Kisite in battle at TiWA. [Further], Ili-resi, the general; Ilum-muda, Ibbi-Zababa, Imtalik, (and) Puzur-Asar, captains of Kis; and Puzur-Ningal, governor of TiWA; Ili-re'a, his captain; Kullizum, captain of Eres; Edam'u, captain of Kutha ..." > > > * Cursing of Agade - A purely literary composition which was handed down for millennia in Mesopotamia. Composed in the Ur III period, a century or at most two after the events, it is essentially agitprop. After a long period of Akkadian dominance the Sumerians from the south ar back in ascendancy. The Ur rule is sometimes called the Neo-Sumerian Empire. This composition lays all the troubles before the rise of Ur at the feet of the Akkadian Empire (because Naram-Sin leveled the Ekur temple of Enlil while rebuilding it causing the eight chief deities of Mesopotamia to withdraw their support and protection from Akkad). While basically fiction, it is still useful to historians. > "...Enlil brought out of the mountains those who do not resemble other people, who are not reckoned as part of the Land, the Gutians, an unbridled people, with human intelligence but canine instincts and monkeys' features. Like small birds they swooped on the ground in great flocks. Because of Enlil, they stretched their arms out across the plain like a net for animals. Nothing escaped their clutches, no one left their grasp. Messengers no longer traveled the highways, the courier's boat no longer passed along the rivers. The Gutians drove the trusty (?) goats of Enlil out of their folds and compelled their herdsmen to follow them, they drove the cows out of their pens and compelled their cowherds to follow them. Prisoners manned the watch. Brigands occupied the highways. The doors of the city gates of the Land lay dislodged in mud, and all the foreign lands uttered bitter cries from the walls of their cities ..." > > There were a number of these, passed down as part of scribel tradition including The Birth Legend of Sargon (Neo-Assyrian), Weidner Chronicle, and the Geographical Treatise on Sargon of Akkad's Empire. ### Archaeology Identifying architectural remains is hindered by the fact that there are sometimes no clear distinctions between features thought to stem from the preceding Early Dynastic period, and those thought to be Akkadian. Likewise, material that is thought to be Akkadian continues to be in use into the Ur III period. There is a similar issue with cuneiform tablets. In the early Akkadian Empire tablets and the signs on them are much like those from earlier periods, before developing into the much different Classical Sargonic style. With the capital, Akkad, still unlocated, archaeological remains of the empire are still to be found, mainly at the cities they established regional governors. An example would be Adab where Naram-Sin establish direct imperial control after Adab joined the "great revolt". After destroying the city of Mari the Akkadian Empire rebuilt it as an administrative center with an imperial governor. The city of Nuzi was established by the Akkadians and a number of economic and administrative texts were found there. Similarly, there are Marad, Nippur, Tutub and Ebla. Excavation at the modern site of Tell Brak has suggested that the Akkadians rebuilt a city ("Brak" or "Nagar") on this site, for use as an administrative center. The city included two large buildings including a complex with temple, offices, courtyard, and large ovens. Dating and periodization ------------------------ The Akkadian period is generally dated to 2334–2154 BC (according to the middle chronology). The short-chronology dates of 2270–2083 BC are now considered less likely. It was preceded by the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamia (ED) and succeeded by the Ur III Period, although both transitions are blurry. For example, it is likely that the rise of Sargon of Akkad coincided with the late ED Period and that the final Akkadian kings ruled simultaneously with the Gutian kings alongside rulers at the city-states of both Uruk and Lagash. The Akkadian Period is contemporary with EB IV (in Israel), EB IVA and EJ IV (in Syria), and EB IIIB (in Turkey). ### Timeline of rulers The relative order of Akkadian kings is clear, while noting that the Ur III version of the Sumerian King List inverts the order of Rimush and Manishtushu. The absolute dates of their reigns are approximate (as with all dates prior to the Late Bronze Age collapse *c.* 1200 BC). | Ruler | | Middle chronologyAll dates BC | Family tree | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Sargon | | 2334–2279 | | | Rimush | | 2278–2270 | | Manishtushu | | 2269–2255 | | Naram-Sin | | 2254–2218 | | Shar-Kali-Sharri | | 2217–2193 | | Dudu | Alabaster vase of Dudu of Akkad Louvre Museum AO 31549 | 2189–2169 | | Shu-turul | Votive_hammer_of_Shu-turul | 2168–2154 | History and development of the empire ------------------------------------- ### Pre-Sargonic Akkad The Akkadian Empire takes its name from the region and the city of Akkad, both of which were localized in the general confluence area of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although the city of Akkad has not yet been identified on the ground, it is known from various textual sources. Among these is at least one text predating the reign of Sargon. Together with the fact that the name Akkad is of non-Akkadian origin, this suggests that the city of Akkad may have already been occupied in pre-Sargonic times. ### Sargon of Akkad The Bible refers to Akkad in Genesis 10:10–12, which states: "The beginning of his Nimrod's kingdom was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the land of Shinar. Out of that land he went forth into Assyria, and built Nineveh, and Rehoboth-Ir, and Calah, and Resen between Nineveh and Calah (the same is the great city)." Nimrod's historical identity is unknown or debated, but Nimrod has been identified as Sargon of Akkad by some, and others have compared him with the legendary Gilgamesh, king of Uruk (Erech). Sargon of Akkad defeated and captured Lugal-zage-si in the Battle of Uruk and conquered his empire. The earliest records in the Akkadian language date to the time of Sargon. Sargon was claimed to be the son of La'ibum or Itti-Bel, a humble gardener, and possibly a hierodule, or priestess to Ishtar or Inanna. One legend related to Sargon in Neo-Assyrian times says that > My mother was a changeling, my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved the hills. My city is Azurpiranu (the wilderness herb fields), which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My changeling mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes, with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose not over me. The river bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took me as his son and reared me. Akki the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener. While I was gardener Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and (fifty?) ... years I exercised kingship. > > Later claims made on behalf of Sargon were that his mother was an "*entu*" priestess (high priestess). The claims might have been made to ensure a pedigree of nobility, since only a highly placed family could achieve such a position. Originally a cupbearer (Rabshakeh) to a king of Kish with a Semitic name, Ur-Zababa, Sargon thus became a gardener, responsible for the task of clearing out irrigation canals. The royal cupbearer at this time was in fact a prominent political position, close to the king and with various high level responsibilities not suggested by the title of the position itself. This gave him access to a disciplined corps of workers, who also may have served as his first soldiers. Displacing Ur-Zababa, Sargon was crowned king, and he entered upon a career of foreign conquest. Four times he invaded Syria and Canaan, and he spent three years thoroughly subduing the countries of "the west" to unite them with Mesopotamia "into a single empire". However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached westward as far as the Mediterranean Sea and perhaps Cyprus (*Kaptara*); northward as far as the mountains (a later Hittite text asserts he fought the Hattian king Nurdaggal of Burushanda, well into Anatolia); eastward over Elam; and as far south as Magan (Oman) — a region over which he reigned for purportedly 56 years, though only four "year-names" survive. He consolidated his dominion over his territories by replacing the earlier opposing rulers with noble citizens of Akkad, his native city where loyalty would thus be ensured. Trade extended from the silver mines of Anatolia to the lapis lazuli mines in modern Afghanistan, the cedars of Lebanon and the copper of Magan. This consolidation of the city-states of Sumer and Akkad reflected the growing economic and political power of Mesopotamia. The empire's breadbasket was the rain-fed agricultural system and a chain of fortresses was built to control the imperial wheat production. Images of Sargon were erected on the shores of the Mediterranean, in token of his victories, and cities and palaces were built at home with the spoils of the conquered lands. Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia were also subjugated, and rebellions in Sumer were put down. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of the campaigns against Canaan and against Sarlak, king of Gutium. He also boasted of having subjugated the "four-quarters" — the lands surrounding Akkad to the north, the south (Sumer), the east (Elam), and the west (Martu). Some of the earliest historiographic texts (ABC 19, 20) suggest he rebuilt the city of Babylon (*Bab-ilu*) in its new location near Akkad. Sargon, throughout his long life, showed special deference to the Sumerian deities, particularly Inanna (Ishtar), his patroness, and Zababa, the warrior god of Kish. He called himself "The anointed priest of Anu" and "the great *ensi* of Enlil" and his daughter, Enheduanna, was installed as priestess to Nanna at the temple in Ur. Troubles multiplied toward the end of his reign. A later Babylonian text states: > In his old age, all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in Akkad (the city) [but] he went forth to battle and defeated them, he knocked them over and destroyed their vast army. > > It refers to his campaign in "Elam", where he defeated a coalition army led by the King of Awan and forced the vanquished to become his vassals. Also shortly after, another revolt took place: > the Subartu the upper country—in their turn attacked, but they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled their habitations, and he smote them grievously. > > ### Rimush and Manishtushu Sargon had crushed opposition even at old age. These difficulties broke out again in the reign of his sons, where revolts broke out during the nine-year reign of Rimush (2278–2270 BC), who fought hard to retain the empire, and was successful until he was assassinated by some of his own courtiers. According to his inscriptions, he faced widespread revolts, and had to reconquer the cities of Ur, Umma, Adab, Lagash, Der, and Kazallu from rebellious *ensis*: Rimush introduced mass slaughter and large scale destruction of the Sumerian city-states, and maintained meticulous records of his destructions. Most of the major Sumerian cities were destroyed, and Sumerian human losses were enormous: | | | --- | | Sumerian casualties from the campaigns of Rimush | | Destroyed cities: | **Adab** and **Zabala** | **Umma** and **KI.AN** | **Ur** and **Lagash** | **Kazallu** | **(Three battles in Sumer)** | TOTAL | | Killed | 15,718 | 8,900 | 8,049 | 12,052 | 11,322 | 56,041 | | Captured and enslaved | 14,576 | 3,540 | 5,460 | 5,862 | \_ | 29,438 | | "Expelled and annihilated" | \_ | 5,600 | 5,985 | \_ | 14,100 | 25,685 | | Rimush's elder brother, Manishtushu (2269–2255 BC) succeeded him. The latter seems to have fought a sea battle against 32 kings who had gathered against him and took control over their pre-Arab country, consisting of modern-day United Arab Emirates and Oman. Despite the success, like his brother he seems to have been assassinated in a palace conspiracy. ### Naram-Sin Manishtushu's son and successor, Naram-Sin (2254–2218 BC), due to vast military conquests, assumed the imperial title "King Naram-Sin, king of the four-quarters" (*Lugal Naram-Sîn, Šar kibrat 'arbaim*), the four-quarters as a reference to the entire world. He was also for the first time in Sumerian culture, addressed as "the god (Sumerian = DINGIR, Akkadian = *ilu*) of Agade" (Akkad), in opposition to the previous religious belief that kings were only representatives of the people towards the gods. He also faced revolts at the start of his reign, but quickly crushed them. Naram-Sin also recorded the Akkadian conquest of Ebla as well as Armanum and its king. To better police Syria, he built a royal residence at Tell Brak, a crossroads at the heart of the Khabur River basin of the Jezirah. Naram-Sin campaigned against Magan which also revolted; Naram-Sin "marched against Magan and personally caught Mandannu, its king", where he instated garrisons to protect the main roads. The chief threat seemed to be coming from the northern Zagros Mountains, the Lulubis and the Gutians. A campaign against the Lullubi led to the carving of the "Victory Stele of Naram-Suen", now in the Louvre. Hittite sources claim Naram-Sin of Akkad even ventured into Anatolia, battling the Hittite and Hurrian kings Pamba of Hatti, Zipani of Kanesh, and 15 others. The economy was highly planned. Grain was cleaned, and rations of grain and oil were distributed in standardized vessels made by the city's potters. Taxes were paid in produce and labour on public walls, including city walls, temples, irrigation canals and waterways, producing huge agricultural surpluses. This newfound Akkadian wealth may have been based upon benign climatic conditions, huge agricultural surpluses and the confiscation of the wealth of other peoples. In later Assyrian and Babylonian texts, the name *Akkad*, together with *Sumer*, appears as part of the royal title, as in the Sumerian LUGAL KI-EN-GI KI-URI or Akkadian *Šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi*, translating to "king of Sumer and Akkad". This title was assumed by the king who seized control of Nippur, the intellectual and religious center of southern Mesopotamia. During the Akkadian period, the Akkadian language became the lingua franca of the Middle East, and was officially used for administration, although the Sumerian language remained as a spoken and literary language. The spread of Akkadian stretched from Syria to Elam, and even the Elamite language was temporarily written in Mesopotamian cuneiform. Akkadian texts later found their way to far-off places, from Egypt (in the Amarna Period) and Anatolia, to Persia (Behistun). ### Submission of Sumerian kings The submission of some Sumerian rulers to the Akkadian Empire, is recorded in the seal inscriptions of Sumerian rulers such as Lugal-ushumgal, governor (ensi) of Lagash ("Shirpula"), circa 2230-2210 BC. Several inscriptions of Lugal-ushumgal are known, particularly seal impressions, which refer to him as governor of Lagash and at the time a vassal (𒀵, *arad*, "servant" or "slave") of Naram-Sin, as well as his successor Shar-kali-sharri. One of these seals proclaims: > “Naram-Sin, the mighty God of Agade, king of the four corners of the world, Lugal-ushumgal, the scribe, *ensi* of Lagash, is thy servant.” > > — Seal of Lugal-ushumgal as vassal of Naram-sin. It can be considered that Lugal-ushumgal was a collaborator of the Akkadian Empire, as was Meskigal, ruler of Adab. Later however, Lugal-ushumgal was succeeded by Puzer-Mama who, as Akkadian power waned, achieved independence from Shar-Kali-Sharri, assuming the title of "King of Lagash" and starting the illustrious Second Dynasty of Lagash. ### Collapse The empire of Akkad likely fell in the 22nd century BC, within 180 years of its founding, ushering in a "Dark Age" with no prominent imperial authority until the Third Dynasty of Ur. The region's political structure may have reverted to the *status quo ante* of local governance by city-states. By the end of Sharkalisharri's reign, the empire had begun to unravel. After several years (and 4 kings) of chaos Shu-turul and Dudu appear to have restored some centralized authority for several decades however they were unable to prevent the empire eventually collapsing outright, eventually ceding power to Gutians, based in Adab, who had been conquered by Akkad in the reign of Sharkalisharri. Little is known about the Gutian period, or how long it endured. Cuneiform sources suggest that the Gutians' administration showed little concern for maintaining agriculture, written records, or public safety; they reputedly released all farm animals to roam about Mesopotamia freely and soon brought about famine and rocketing grain prices. The Sumerian king Ur-Nammu (2112–2095 BC) cleared the Gutians from Mesopotamia during his reign. The *Sumerian King List*, describing the Akkadian Empire after the death of Shar-kali-shari, states: > Who was king? Who was not king? Irgigi the king; Nanum, the king; Imi the king; Ilulu, the king—the four of them were kings but reigned only three years. Dudu reigned 21 years; Shu-Turul, the son of Dudu, reigned 15 years. ... Agade was defeated and its kingship carried off to Uruk. In Uruk, Ur-ningin reigned 7 years, Ur-gigir, son of Ur-ningin, reigned 6 years; Kuda reigned 6 years; Puzur-ili reigned 5 years, Ur-Utu reigned 6 years. Uruk was smitten with weapons and its kingship carried off by the Gutian hordes. > > However, there are no known year-names or other archaeological evidence verifying any of these later kings of Akkad or Uruk, apart from several artefact referencing king Dudu of Akkad and Shu-turul. The named kings of Uruk may have been contemporaries of the last kings of Akkad, but in any event could not have been very prominent. > In the Gutian hordes, (first reigned) a nameless king; (then) Imta reigned 3 years as king; Shulme reigned 6 years; Elulumesh reigned 6 years; Inimbakesh reigned 5 years; Igeshuash reigned 6 years; Iarlagab reigned 15 years; Ibate reigned 3 years; ... reigned 3 years; Kurum reigned 1 year; ... reigned 3 years; ... reigned 2 years; Iararum reigned 2 years; Ibranum reigned 1 year; Hablum reigned 2 years; Puzur-Sin son of Hablum reigned 7 years; Iarlaganda reigned 7 years; ... reigned 7 years; ... reigned 40 days. Total 21 kings reigned 91 years, 40 days. > > The period between c. 2112 BC and 2004 BC is known as the Ur III period. Documents again began to be written in Sumerian, although Sumerian was becoming a purely literary or liturgical language, much as Latin later would be in Medieval Europe. One explanation for the end of the Akkadian empire is simply that the Akkadian dynasty could not maintain its political supremacy over other independently powerful city-states. #### Drought One theory, which remains controversial, associates regional decline at the end of the Akkadian period (and of the First Intermediary Period following the Old Kingdom in Ancient Egypt) with rapidly increasing aridity, and failing rainfall in the region of the Ancient Near East, caused by a global centennial-scale drought, sometimes called the 4.2 kiloyear event. Harvey Weiss has shown that > [A]rchaeological and soil-stratigraphic data define the origin, growth, and collapse of Subir, the third millennium rain-fed agriculture civilization of northern Mesopotamia on the Habur Plains of Syria. At 2200 BC, a marked increase in aridity and wind circulation, subsequent to a volcanic eruption, induced a considerable degradation of land-use conditions. After four centuries of urban life, this abrupt climatic change evidently caused abandonment of Tell Leilan, regional desertion, and the collapse of the Akkadian empire based in southern Mesopotamia. Synchronous collapse in adjacent regions suggests that the impact of the abrupt climatic change was extensive. > > Peter B. de Menocal has shown "there was an influence of the North Atlantic Oscillation on the streamflow of the Tigris and Euphrates at this time, which led to the collapse of the Akkadian Empire". More recent analysis of simulations from the HadCM3 climate model indicate that there was a shift to a more arid climate on a timescale that is consistent with the collapse of the empire. Excavation at Tell Leilan suggests that this site was abandoned soon after the city's massive walls were constructed, its temple rebuilt and its grain production reorganized. The debris, dust, and sand that followed show no trace of human activity. Soil samples show fine wind-blown sand, no trace of earthworm activity, reduced rainfall and indications of a drier and windier climate. Evidence shows that skeleton-thin sheep and cattle died of drought, and up to 28,000 people abandoned the site, presumably seeking wetter areas elsewhere. Tell Brak shrank in size by 75%. Trade collapsed. Nomadic herders such as the Amorites moved herds closer to reliable water suppliers, bringing them into conflict with Akkadian populations. This climate-induced collapse seems to have affected the whole of the Middle East, and to have coincided with the collapse of the Egyptian Old Kingdom. This collapse of rain-fed agriculture in the Upper Country meant the loss to southern Mesopotamia of the agrarian subsidies which had kept the Akkadian Empire solvent. Water levels within the Tigris and Euphrates fell 1.5 meters beneath the level of 2600 BC, and although they stabilized for a time during the following Ur III period, rivalries between pastoralists and farmers increased. Attempts were undertaken to prevent the former from herding their flocks in agricultural lands, such as the building of a 180 km (112 mi) wall known as the "Repeller of the Amorites" between the Tigris and Euphrates under the Ur III ruler Shu-Sin. Such attempts led to increased political instability; meanwhile, severe depression occurred to re-establish demographic equilibrium with the less favorable climatic conditions. Richard Zettler has critiqued the drought theory, observing that the chronology of the Akkadian empire is very uncertain and that available evidence is not sufficient to show its economic dependence on the northern areas excavated by Weiss and others. He also criticizes Weiss for taking Akkadian writings literally to describe certain catastrophic events. According to Joan Oates, at Tell Brak, the soil "signal" associated with the drought lies below the level of Naram-Sin's palace. However, evidence > may suggest a tightening of Akkadian control following the Brak 'event', for example, the construction of the heavily fortified 'palace' itself and the apparent introduction of greater numbers of Akkadian as opposed to local officials, perhaps a reflection of unrest in the countryside of the type that often follows some natural catastrophe. > > Furthermore, Brak remained occupied and functional after the fall of the Akkadians. In 2019, a study by Hokkaido University on fossil corals in Oman provides an evidence that prolonged winter shamal seasons led to the salinization of the irrigated fields; hence, a dramatic decrease in crop production triggered a widespread famine and eventually the collapse of the ancient Akkadian Empire. Government ---------- The Akkadian government formed a "classical standard" with which all future Mesopotamian states compared themselves. Traditionally, the *ensi* was the highest functionary of the Sumerian city-states. In later traditions, one became an *ensi* by marrying the goddess Inanna, legitimising the rulership through divine consent. Initially, the monarchical *lugal* (*lu* = man, *gal* =Great) was subordinate to the priestly *ensi*, and was appointed at times of troubles, but by later dynastic times, it was the *lugal* who had emerged as the preeminent role, having his own *"é"* (= house) or "palace", independent from the temple establishment. By the time of Mesalim, whichever dynasty controlled the city of Kish was recognised as *šar kiššati* (= king of Kish), and was considered preeminent in Sumer, possibly because this was where the two rivers approached, and whoever controlled Kish ultimately controlled the irrigation systems of the other cities downstream. As Sargon extended his conquest from the "Lower Sea" (Persian Gulf), to the "Upper Sea" (Mediterranean), it was felt that he ruled "the totality of the lands under heaven", or "from sunrise to sunset", as contemporary texts put it. Under Sargon, the *ensi*s generally retained their positions, but were seen more as provincial governors. The title *šar kiššati* became recognised as meaning "lord of the universe". Sargon is even recorded as having organised naval expeditions to Dilmun (Bahrain) and Magan, amongst the first organised military naval expeditions in history. Whether he also did in the case of the Mediterranean with the kingdom of Kaptara (possibly Cyprus), as claimed in later documents, is more questionable. With Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson, this went further than with Sargon, with the king not only being called "Lord of the Four-Quarters (of the Earth)", but also elevated to the ranks of the *dingir* (= gods), with his own temple establishment. Previously a ruler could, like Gilgamesh, become divine after death but the Akkadian kings, from Naram-Sin onward, were considered gods on earth in their lifetimes. Their portraits showed them of larger size than mere mortals and at some distance from their retainers. One strategy adopted by both Sargon and Naram-Sin, to maintain control of the country, was to install their daughters, Enheduanna and Emmenanna respectively, as high priestess to Sin, the Akkadian version of the Sumerian moon deity, Nanna, at Ur, in the extreme south of Sumer; to install sons as provincial *ensi* governors in strategic locations; and to marry their daughters to rulers of peripheral parts of the Empire (Urkesh and Marhashe). A well documented case of the latter is that of Naram-Sin's daughter Tar'am-Agade at Urkesh. Records at the Brak administrative complex suggest that the Akkadians appointed locals as tax collectors. Economy ------- The population of Akkad, like nearly all pre-modern states, was entirely dependent upon the agricultural systems of the region, which seem to have had two principal centres: the irrigated farmlands of southern Iraq that traditionally had a yield of 30 grains returned for each grain sown and the rain-fed agriculture of northern Iraq, known as the "Upper Country." Southern Iraq during Akkadian period seems to have been approaching its modern rainfall level of less than 20 mm (0.8 in) per year, with the result that agriculture was totally dependent upon irrigation. Before the Akkadian period, the progressive salinisation of the soils, produced by poorly drained irrigation, had been reducing yields of wheat in the southern part of the country, leading to the conversion to more salt-tolerant barley growing. Urban populations there had peaked already by 2,600 BC, and demographic pressures were high, contributing to the rise of militarism apparent immediately before the Akkadian period (as seen in the Stele of the Vultures of Eannatum). Warfare between city states had led to a population decline, from which Akkad provided a temporary respite. It was this high degree of agricultural productivity in the south that enabled the growth of the highest population densities in the world at this time, giving Akkad its military advantage. The water table in this region was very high and replenished regularly—by winter storms in the headwaters of the Tigris and Euphrates from October to March and from snow-melt from March to July. Flood levels, that had been stable from about 3,000 to 2,600 BC, had started falling, and by the Akkadian period were a half-meter to a meter lower than recorded previously. Even so, the flat country and weather uncertainties made flooding much more unpredictable than in the case of the Nile; serious deluges seem to have been a regular occurrence, requiring constant maintenance of irrigation ditches and drainage systems. Farmers were recruited into regiments for this work from August to October—a period of food shortage—under the control of city temple authorities, thus acting as a form of unemployment relief. Gwendolyn Leick has suggested that this was Sargon's original employment for the king of Kish, giving him experience in effectively organising large groups of men; a tablet reads, "Sargon, the king, to whom Enlil permitted no rival—5,400 warriors ate bread daily before him". Harvest was in the late spring and during the dry summer months. Nomadic Amorites from the northwest would pasture their flocks of sheep and goats to graze on the crop residue and be watered from the river and irrigation canals. For this privilege, they would have to pay a tax in wool, meat, milk, and cheese to the temples, who would distribute these products to the bureaucracy and priesthood. In good years, all would go well, but in bad years, wild winter pastures would be in short supply, nomads would seek to pasture their flocks in the grain fields, and conflicts with farmers would result. It would appear that the subsidizing of southern populations by the import of wheat from the north of the Empire temporarily overcame this problem, and it seems to have allowed economic recovery and a growing population within this region. ### Foreign trade As a result, Sumer and Akkad had a surplus of agricultural products but was short of almost everything else, particularly metal ores, timber and building stone, all of which had to be imported. The spread of the Akkadian state as far as the "silver mountain" (possibly the Taurus Mountains), the "cedars" of Lebanon, and the copper deposits of Magan, was largely motivated by the goal of securing control over these imports. One tablet, an Old Babylonian Period copy of an original inscription, reads: > "Sargon, the king of Kish, triumphed in thirty-four battles (over the cities) up to the edge of the sea (and) destroyed their walls. He made the ships from Meluhha, the ships from Magan (and) the ships from Dilmun tie up alongside the quay of Agade. Sargon the king prostrated himself before (the god) Dagan (and) made supplication to him; (and) he (Dagan) gave him the upper land, namely Mari, Yarmuti, (and) Ebla, up to the Cedar Forest (and) up to the Silver Mountain" > > — Inscription by Sargon of Akkad (ca.2270–2215 BC) International trade developed during the Akkadian period. Indus-Mesopotamia relations also seem to have expanded: Sargon of Akkad (circa 2300 or 2250 BC), was the first Mesopotamian ruler to make an explicit reference to the region of Meluhha, which is generally understood as being the Baluchistan or the Indus area. Culture ------- ### Akkadian art Nasiriyah Victory Stele of Naram-SinSoldier with sword, naked captives, on the Nasiriyah stele of Naram-Sin. In art, there was a great emphasis on the kings of the dynasty, alongside much that continued earlier Sumerian art. Little architecture remains. In large works and small ones such as seals, the degree of realism was considerably increased, but the seals show a "grim world of cruel conflict, of danger and uncertainty, a world in which man is subjected without appeal to the incomprehensible acts of distant and fearful divinities who he must serve but cannot love. This sombre mood ... remained characteristic of Mesopotamian art..." Akkadian sculpture is remarkable for its fineness and realism, which shows a clear advancement compared to the previous period of Sumerian art. * The Bassetki statue, another example of Akkadian artistic realismThe Bassetki statue, another example of Akkadian artistic realism * The Manishtushu statueThe Manishtushu statue * Statue of an Akkadian ruler. From Assur, Iraq, c. 2300 BC. Pergamon Museum.Statue of an Akkadian ruler. From Assur, Iraq, c. 2300 BC. Pergamon Museum. * Fragment of the statue of a devotee, with inscription in the name of Naram-Sin: "To the god Erra, for the life of Naram-Sin, the powerful, his companion, the king of the four regions, Shu'astakkal, the scribe, the majordomo, has dedicated his statue".Fragment of the statue of a devotee, with inscription in the name of Naram-Sin: "To the god Erra, for the life of Naram-Sin, the powerful, his companion, the king of the four regions, Shu'astakkal, the scribe, the majordomo, has dedicated his statue". #### Seals The Akkadians used visual arts as a vehicle of ideology. They developed a new style for cylinder seals by reusing traditional animal decorations but organizing them around inscriptions, which often became central parts of the layout. The figures also became more sculptural and naturalistic. New elements were also included, especially in relation to the rich Akkadian mythology. * Inscription "Adda, the scribe", hunting god with bow and an arrow, Ishtar with weapons rising from her shoulders, emerging sun-god Shamash, Zu bird of destiny, water god Ea with bull between legs, two-faced attendant god Usimu with right hand raised.Inscription "Adda, the scribe", hunting god with bow and an arrow, Ishtar with weapons rising from her shoulders, emerging sun-god Shamash, Zu bird of destiny, water god Ea with bull between legs, two-faced attendant god Usimu with right hand raised. * Akkadian seal depicting an agricultural scene. Louvre MuseumAkkadian seal depicting an agricultural scene. Louvre Museum * Summer God and Dumuzi. Louvre MuseumSummer God and Dumuzi. Louvre Museum * Ea wrestling with a water buffalo, and bull-man Enkidu fighting with a lion.Ea wrestling with a water buffalo, and bull-man Enkidu fighting with a lion. ### Language During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a *sprachbund*. Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around 2000 BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in Mesopotamia until the 1st century AD. ### Poet–priestess Enheduanna Sumerian literature continued in rich development during the Akkadian period. Enheduanna, the "wife (Sumerian *dam* = high priestess) of Nanna [the Sumerian moon god] and daughter of Sargon" of the temple of Sin at Ur, who lived c. 2285–2250 BC, is the first poet in history whose name is known. Her known works include hymns to the goddess Inanna, the *Exaltation of Inanna* and *In-nin sa-gur-ra*. A third work, the *Temple Hymns*, a collection of specific hymns, addresses the sacred temples and their occupants, the deity to whom they were consecrated. The works of this poet are significant, because although they start out using the third person, they shift to the first person voice of the poet herself, and they mark a significant development in the use of cuneiform. As poet, princess, and priestess, she was a person who, according to William W. Hallo, "set standards in all three of her roles for many succeeding centuries" In the *Exultation of Inanna*, > Enheduanna depicts Inanna as disciplining mankind as a goddess of battle. She thereby unites the warlike Akkadian Ishtar's qualities to those of the gentler Sumerian goddess of love and fecundity. She likens Inanna to a great storm bird who swoops down on the lesser gods and sends them fluttering off like surprised bats. Then, in probably the most interesting part of the hymn, Enheduanna herself steps forward in the first person to recite her own past glories, establishing her credibility, and explaining her present plight. She has been banished as high priestess from the temple in the city of Ur and from Uruk and exiled to the steppe. She begs the moon god Nanna to intercede for her because the city of Uruk, under the ruler Lugalanne, has rebelled against Sargon. The rebel, Lugalanne, has even destroyed the temple Eanna, one of the greatest temples in the ancient world, and then made advances on his sister-in-law. > > The kings of Akkad were legendary among later Mesopotamian civilizations, with Sargon understood as the prototype of a strong and wise leader, and his grandson Naram-Sin considered the wicked and impious leader (*Unheilsherrscher* in the analysis of Hans Gustav Güterbock) who brought ruin upon his kingdom. Technology ---------- A tablet from the periods reads, "(From the earliest days) no-one had made a statue of lead, (but) Rimush king of Kish, had a statue of himself made of lead. It stood before Enlil; and it recited his (Rimush's) virtues to the idu of the gods". The copper Bassetki Statue, cast with the lost wax method, testifies to the high level of skill that craftsmen achieved during the Akkadian period. See also -------- * List of cities of the ancient Near East * List of Mesopotamian deities * History of Mesopotamia * List of Mesopotamian dynasties Further reading --------------- * Gough, M.A, Historical Perception in the Sargonic Literary Tradition. The Implication of Copied Texts, Rosetta 1, pp 1–9, 2006 * Paszke, Marcin Z, "From Sargon To Narām-Sîn: some remarks on Akkadian military activity in the II nd half of the III rd millennium bc. The example of eastern campaigns", Acta Archaeologica Lodziensia 68, pp. 75-83, 2022 * Sallaberger, Walther; Westenholz, Aage (1999), *Mesopotamien. Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit*, Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, vol. 160/3, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, ISBN 978-3-525-53325-3 * E. A. Speiser, "Some Factors in the Collapse of Akkad", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 72, no. 3, pp. 97–101, (Jul. - Sep. 1952)

Akkadian Empire

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_Empire

**Ka** (К к; italics: *К к*) is a letter of the Cyrillic script. It commonly represents the voiceless velar plosive /k/, like the pronunciation of ⟨k⟩ in "**k**ing" or "**k**ick". History ------- The Cyrillic letter Ka was derived from the Greek letter Kappa (Κ κ). In the Early Cyrillic alphabet its name was како (*kako*), meaning "as". In the Cyrillic numeral system, Ka had a value of 20. Form ---- The Cyrillic letter Ka looks very similar, and corresponds to the Latin letter K. In many fonts, Cyrillic Ka is differentiated from its Latin and Greek counterparts by drawing one or both of its diagonal spurs with curved instead of straight. Also in some fonts the lowercase form of Ka has the vertical bar elongated above x-height, resembling the Latin lowercase k. Usage ----- In Russian, the letter Ka represents the plain voiceless velar plosive /k/ or the palatalized one /kʲ/; for example, the word *короткий* (*"short"*) contains both the kinds: [kɐˈrotkʲɪj]. The palatalized variant is pronounced when the following letter in the word is *ь*, *е*, *ё*, *и*, *ю*, or *я*. In Macedonian and Serbian it always represents the sound /k/. Related letters and other similar characters -------------------------------------------- * Κ κ/ϰ : Greek letter Kappa * K k : Latin letter K * Q q : Latin letter Q * C c : Latin letter C * X x : Latin letter X Computing codes --------------- Character information| Preview | К | к | | --- | --- | --- | | Unicode name | CYRILLIC CAPITAL LETTER KA | CYRILLIC SMALL LETTER KA | | Encodings | decimal | hex | dec | hex | | Unicode | 1050 | U+041A | 1082 | U+043A | | UTF-8 | 208 154 | D0 9A | 208 186 | D0 BA | | Numeric character reference | &#1050; | &#x41A; | &#1082; | &#x43A; | | Named character reference | &Kcy; | &kcy; | | KOI8-R and KOI8-U | 235 | EB | 203 | CB | | Code page 855 | 199 | C7 | 198 | C6 | | Code page 866 | 138 | 8A | 170 | AA | | Windows-1251 | 202 | CA | 234 | EA | | ISO-8859-5 | 186 | BA | 218 | DA | | Macintosh Cyrillic | 138 | 8A | 234 | EA | See also -------- * Ka with descender * Ka with hook * Ka with stroke * Ka with vertical stroke * Aleut Ka * Bashkir Ka * Kje

Ka (Cyrillic)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka_(Cyrillic)

Alexander the Great Map [Interactive fullscreen map]This is a stopgap mapping solution, while attempts are made to resolve technical difficulties with {{OSM Location map}}   current battle The **Battle of Gaugamela** (/ˌɡɔːɡəˈmiːlə/ *GAW-gə-MEE-lə*; Ancient Greek: Γαυγάμηλα, romanized: *Gaugámēla*, lit. 'the Camel's House'), also called the **Battle of Arbela** (Ἄρβηλα, *Árbēla*), took place in 331 BC between the forces of the Army of Macedon under Alexander the Great and the Persian Army under King Darius III. It was the second and final battle between the two kings, and is considered to be the final blow to the Achaemenid Empire, resulting in its complete conquest by Alexander. The fighting took place in Gaugamela, a village on the banks of the river Bumodus. The area today would be considered modern-day Erbil, Iraq, according to Urbano Monti's world map. Alexander's army was heavily outnumbered and modern historians say that "the odds were enough to give the most experienced veteran pause". Despite the overwhelming odds, Alexander's army emerged victorious due to the employment of superior tactics and the clever usage of light infantry forces. It was a decisive victory for the League of Corinth, and it led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire and of Darius III. Background ---------- In November 333 BC, King Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus to Alexander the Great, which resulted in the subsequent capture of his wife, his mother and his two daughters, Stateira II and Drypetis. Alexander's victory at Issus had also given him complete control of southern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). After the battle, King Darius retreated to Babylon where he regrouped with his remaining army that was there, on-site from a previous battle. Alexander fought at the Siege of Tyre (332 BC), which lasted from January to July, and the victory resulted in his control of the Levant. Alexander then again fought at the Siege of Gaza, which resulted in Persian troop counts becoming very low. Due to this, the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaeus, peacefully surrendered to Alexander.[*clarification needed*] ### Negotiations between Darius and Alexander Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts. Historians Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus, writing in the 1st and 2nd centuries, say that Darius had sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. The letter demanded that Alexander withdraw from Asia as well as release all of his prisoners. According to Curtius and Justin, Darius offered a ransom for his prisoners, although Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, and Alexander refused his demands. A second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander marriage with his daughter Stateira II, as well as all the territory west of the Halys River. Justin is less specific, and does not mention a specific daughter, and only speaks of a portion of Darius' kingdom. Diodorus Siculus (1st century Greek historian) likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship and a large ransom for Darius' captives. Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions the fact that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one that was favorable to his own interests. Again, Alexander refused Darius' offers. King Darius started to prepare for another battle with Alexander after the failure of the second negotiation attempt. Nevertheless, Darius made a third and final effort to negotiate with Alexander the Great after Alexander had departed from Egypt. Darius' third offer was much more generous. He praised Alexander for the treatment of his mother Sisygambis, offered him all territory west of the Euphrates, co-rulership of the Achaemenid Empire, the hand of one of his daughters and 30,000 talents of silver. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander explicitly deliberated this offer with his friends. Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, "If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty." Alexander reportedly replied, "So should I, if I were Parmenion." Alexander, in the end, refused the offer of Darius, and insisted that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to meet him in battle in order to decide who would be the sole king of Asia. The descriptions given by other historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus, but differ in details. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, which is also claimed by Justin and Plutarch (1st century). Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin had given the figure of 30,000. Arrian writes that Darius' third attempt took place during the Siege of Tyre, but the other historians place the second negotiation attempt at that time. In spite of everything, with the failure of his negotiation attempts, Darius had now decided to prepare for another battle with Alexander. Prelude ------- After settling affairs in Egypt, Alexander returned to Tyre during the spring of 331 BC. He reached Thapsacus in July or August. Arrian relates that Darius had ordered Mazaeus to guard the crossing of the Euphrates near Thapsacus with a force of 3,000 cavalry. He fled when Alexander's army approached to cross the river. ### Alexander's march through Mesopotamia After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander followed a northern route instead of a direct southeastern route to Babylon. While doing so he had the Euphrates and the mountains of Armenia on his left. The northern route made it easier to forage for supplies and his troops would not suffer the extreme heat of the direct route. Captured Persian scouts reported to the Macedonians that Darius had encamped past the Tigris River and wanted to prevent Alexander from crossing. Alexander found the Tigris undefended and succeeded in crossing it with great difficulty. In contrast, Diodorus mentions that Mazaeus was only supposed to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. He would not have bothered to defend it because he considered it impassable due to the strong current and depth of the river. Furthermore, Diodorus and Curtius Rufus mention that Mazaeus employed scorched-earth tactics in the countryside through which Alexander's army had to pass. After the Macedonian army had crossed the Tigris a lunar eclipse occurred. Following the calculations, the date must have been October 1 in 331 BC. Alexander then marched southward along the eastern bank of the Tigris. On the fourth day after the crossing of the Tigris his scouts reported that Persian cavalry had been spotted, numbering no more than 1000 men. When Alexander attacked them with his cavalry force ahead of the rest of his army, the Persian cavalry fled. Most of them escaped, but some were killed or taken prisoner. The prisoners told the Macedonians that Darius was not far away, with his encampment near Gaugamela. ### Strategic analysis Several researchers have criticized the Persians for their failure to harass Alexander's army and disrupt its long supply lines when it advanced through Mesopotamia. Classical scholar Peter Green thinks that Alexander's choice for the northern route caught the Persians off guard. Darius would have expected him to take the faster southern route directly to Babylon, just as Cyrus the Younger had done in 401 BC before his defeat in the Battle of Cunaxa. The use of the scorched-earth tactic and scythed chariots by Darius suggests that he wanted to repeat that battle. Alexander would have been unable to adequately supply his army if he had taken the southern route, even if the scorched-earth tactic had failed. The Macedonian army, underfed and exhausted from the heat, would then be defeated at the plain of Cunaxa by Darius. When Alexander took the northern route, Mazaeus must have returned to Babylon to bring the news. Darius most likely decided to prevent Alexander from crossing the Tigris. This plan failed because Alexander probably took a river crossing that was closer to Thapsacus than Babylon. He would have improvised and chosen Gaugamela as his most favourable site for a battle. Historian Jona Lendering argues the opposite and commends Mazaeus and Darius for their strategy. Darius would have deliberately allowed Alexander to cross the rivers unopposed in order to guide him to the battlefield of his own choice. Location -------- Darius chose a flat, open plain where he could deploy his larger forces, not wanting to be caught in a narrow battlefield as he had been at Issus two years earlier, where he could not deploy his huge army properly. Darius had his soldiers flatten the terrain before the battle, to give his 200 war chariots the best conditions. However, this did not matter. On the ground were a few hills and no bodies of water that Alexander could use for protection, and in the autumn the weather was dry and mild. The most commonly accepted opinion about the location is (36°22′N 43°15′E / 36.36°N 43.25°E / 36.36; 43.25), east of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq – suggested by archeologist Sir Aurel Stein in 1938. Size of Persian army -------------------- ### Modern estimates | **Units** | **Low estimate** | **High estimate** | | --- | --- | --- | | Infantry | < 40,000 | > 40,000 | | Cavalry | 12,000 | 40,000 | | Persian Immortals | 10,000 | 10,000 | | Greek mercenaries | 8,000 | 10,000 | | Bactrian cavalry | 1,000 | 2,000 | | Archers | 1,500 | 1,500 | | Scythed chariots | 200 | 200 | | War elephants | 15 | 15 | | Total | 52,000+ | 120,000 | It is possible that the Persian army could have numbered over 100,000 men. One estimate is that there were 25,000 peltasts, 10,000 Immortals, 2,000 Greek hoplites, 1,000 Bactrians, and 40,000 cavalry, 200 scythed chariots, and 15 war elephants. Hans Delbrück estimates Persian cavalry at 12,000 because of management issues, Persian infantry less than that of the Greek heavy infantry, and Greek mercenaries at 8,000. Warry estimates a total size of 91,000; Welman 90,000; Engels (1920); Green (1990) no larger than 100,000 and Thomas Harbottle 120,000. ### Ancient sources According to Arrian, Darius' force numbered 40,000 cavalry and 1,000,000 infantry, Diodorus Siculus put it at 200,000 cavalry and 800,000 infantry, Plutarch put it at 1,000,000 troops (without a breakdown in composition), while according to Curtius Rufus it consisted of 45,000 cavalry and 200,000 infantry. Furthermore, according to Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius, Darius had 200 chariots while Arrian mentions 15 war elephants. Included in Darius's infantry were about 2,000 Greek mercenary hoplites. According to Arrian, Indian troops were also deployed. He explains that Darius III "obtained the help of those Indians who bordered on the Bactrians, together with the Bactrians and Sogdianians themselves, all under the command of Bessus, the Satrap of Bactria". The Indians in question were probably from the area of Gandāra. Indian "hill-men" are also said by Arrian to have joined the Arachotians under Satrap Barsentes, and are thought to have been either the Sattagydians or the Hindush. While Darius had a significant advantage in numbers, most of his troops were of a lower quality than Alexander's. Alexander's pezhetairoi were armed with a six-metre pike, the sarissa. The main Persian infantry was poorly trained and equipped in comparison to Alexander's pezhetairoi and hoplites. The only respectable infantry Darius had were his 2,000 Greek hoplites and his personal bodyguard, the 10,000 Immortals. The Greek mercenaries fought in a phalanx, armed not with a heavy shield but with spears no longer than three metres, while the spears of the Immortals were two metres long. Among the other Persian troops, the most heavily armed were the Armenians, who were armed the Greek way and probably fought as a phalanx. Size of Macedonian army ----------------------- | **Units** | **Numbers** | | --- | --- | | Heavy infantry | 31,000 | | Light infantry | 9,000 | | Cavalry | 7,000 | Alexander commanded Greek forces from his kingdom of Macedon and the Hellenic League, along with Greek mercenaries and levies from the Paeonian and Thracian tributary peoples. According to Arrian, his forces numbered 7,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry. Most historians agree that the Macedonian army consisted of 31,000 heavy infantry, including mercenaries and hoplites from other allied Greek states in reserve, with an additional 9,000 light infantry consisting mainly of peltasts with some archers. The size of the Greek mounted army was about 7,000. The battle ---------- ### Initial dispositions The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. Darius had recruited the finest cavalry from his Eastern satrapies and from allied Scythian tribes[*clarification needed*] and deployed scythed chariots, for which he had ordered bushes and vegetation removed from the battlefield to maximize their effectiveness. He also had 15 Indian elephants supported by Indian chariots. However, the absence of any mention of those elephants during the battle and their later capture in the Persian camp indicate they were withdrawn. The reason might have been fatigue. Darius placed himself in the center with his best infantry, as was the tradition among Persian kings. He was surrounded by, on his right, the Carian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and Persian horse guards. In the right-center he placed Persian foot guards (Apple Bearers/Immortals to the Greeks), the Indian cavalry and his Mardian archers. On both flanks were the cavalry. Bessus commanded the left flank with the Bactrians, Dahae cavalry, Arachosian cavalry, Persian cavalry, Susian cavalry, Cadusian cavalry and Scythians. Chariots were placed in front with a small group of Bactrians. Mazaeus commanded the right flank with the Syrian, Median, Mesopotamian, Parthian, Sacian, Tapurian, Hyrcanian, Caucasian Albanian, Sacesinian, Cappadocian and Armenian cavalry. The Cappadocians and Armenians were stationed in front of the other cavalry units and led the attack. The Albanian cavalry were sent around to flank the Greek left. According to Curtius, the archers were all Amardi. The Macedonians were divided into two, with the right side under the direct command of Alexander and the left of Parmenion. Alexander fought with his Companion cavalry. With it was the Paionian and Greek light cavalry. The mercenary cavalry was divided into two groups, veterans on the flank of the right and the rest in front of the Agrians and Greek archers, who were stationed next to the phalanx. Parmenion was stationed on the left with the Thessalians, Greek mercenaries and Thracian cavalry. There they were to conduct a holding action while Alexander launched the decisive blow from the right. On the right-center were Cretan mercenaries. Behind them were Thessalian cavalry under Phillip, and Achaean mercenaries. To their right was another part of the allied Greek cavalry. From there came the phalanx, in a double line. Outnumbered over 5:1 in cavalry, with their line surpassed by over a mile, it seemed inevitable that the Greeks would be flanked by the Persians. The second line was given orders to deal with any flanking units should the situation arise. This second line consisted mostly of mercenaries. ### Beginning of the battle Alexander began by ordering his infantry to march in phalanx formation towards the center of the enemy line. The Macedonians advanced with the wings echeloned back at 45 degrees to lure the Persian cavalry to attack. While the phalanxes battled the Persian infantry, Darius sent a large part of his cavalry and some of his regular infantry to attack Parmenion's forces on the left. During the battle Alexander employed an unusual strategy which has been duplicated only a few times. While the infantry battled the Persian troops in the centre, Alexander began to ride all the way to the edge of the right flank, accompanied by his Companion Cavalry. His plan was to draw as much of the Persian cavalry as possible to the flanks, to create a gap within the enemy line where a decisive blow could then be struck at Darius in the centre. This required almost perfect timing and maneuvering and Alexander himself to act first. He would force Darius to attack (as they would soon move off the prepared ground), though Darius did not want to be the first to attack after seeing what happened at Issus against a similar formation. In the end, Darius' hand was forced, and he attacked. ### The cavalry battle in the Hellenic right wing The Scythian cavalry from the Persian left wing opened the battle by attempting to flank Alexander's extreme right. What followed was a long and fierce cavalry battle between the Persian left and the Macedonian right, in which the latter, being greatly outnumbered, was often hard-pressed. However, by careful use of reserves and disciplined charges, the Greek troops were able to contain their Persian counterparts, which would be vital for the success of Alexander's decisive attack. As told by Arrian: > Then the Scythian cavalry rode along the line, and came into conflict with the front men of Alexander's array, but he nevertheless still continued to march towards the right, and almost entirely got beyond the ground which had been cleared and levelled by the Persians. Then Darius, fearing that his chariots would become useless, if the Macedonians advanced into the uneven ground, ordered the front ranks of his left wing to ride round the right wing of the Macedonians, where Alexander was commanding, to prevent him from marching his wing any further. This being done, Alexander ordered the cavalry of the Grecian mercenaries under the command of Menidas to attack them. But the Scythian cavalry and the Bactrians, who had been drawn up with them, sallied forth against them and being much more numerous they put the small body of Greeks to rout. Alexander then ordered Aristo at the head of the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries to attack the Scythians, and the barbarians gave way. But the rest of the Bactrians, drawing near to the Paeonians and Grecian auxiliaries, caused their own comrades who were already in flight to turn and renew the battle; and thus they brought about a general cavalry engagement, in which more of Alexander's men fell, not only being overwhelmed by the multitude of the barbarians, but also because the Scythians themselves and their horses were much more completely protected with armour for guarding their bodies. Notwithstanding this, the Macedonians sustained their assaults, and assailing them violently squadron by squadron, they succeeded in pushing them out of rank. > > The tide finally turned in the Greek favor after the attack of Aretes' Prodromoi, likely their last reserve in this sector of the battlefield. By then, however, the battle had been decided in the center by Alexander himself. > The Persians also who were riding round the wing were seized with alarm when Aretes made a vigorous attack upon them. In this quarter indeed the Persians took to speedy flight; and the Macedonians followed up the fugitives and slaughtered them. > > ### Attack of the Persian scythed chariots Darius now launched his chariots at those troops under Alexander's personal command; many of the chariots were intercepted by the Agrianians and other javelin-throwers posted in front of the Companion cavalry. Those chariots who made it through the barrage of javelins charged the Macedonian lines, which responded by opening up their ranks, creating alleys through which the chariots passed harmlessly. The Hypaspists and the armed grooms of the cavalry then attacked and eliminated these survivors. ### Alexander's decisive attack As the Persians advanced farther and farther to the Greek flanks in their attack, Alexander slowly filtered in his rear guard. He disengaged his Companions and prepared for the decisive attack. Behind them were the guard's brigade along with any phalanx battalions he could withdraw from the battle. He formed his units into a giant wedge, with him leading the charge. The Persian infantry at the center was still fighting the phalanxes, hindering any attempts to counter Alexander's charge. This large wedge then smashed into the weakened Persian center, taking out Darius' royal guard and the Greek mercenaries. Darius was in danger of being cut off, and the widely held modern view is that he now broke and ran, with the rest of his army following him. This is based on Arrian's account: > For a short time there ensued a hand-to-hand fight; but when the Macedonian cavalry, commanded by Alexander himself, pressed on vigorously, thrusting themselves against the Persians and striking their faces with their spears, and when the Macedonian phalanx in dense array and bristling with long pikes had also made an attack upon them, all things together appeared full of terror to Darius, who had already long been in a state of fear, so that he was the first to turn and flee. > > ### The left flank Alexander could have pursued Darius at this point. However, he received desperate messages from Parmenion (an event that would later be used by Callisthenes and others to discredit Parmenion) on the left. Parmenion's wing was apparently encircled by the cavalry of the Persian right wing; being attacked from all sides, it was in a state of confusion. Alexander was faced with the choice of pursuing Darius and having the chance of killing him, ending the war in one stroke but at the risk of losing his army, or going back to the left flank to aid Parmenion and preserve his forces, thus letting Darius escape to the surrounding mountains. He decided to help Parmenion, and followed Darius later. While holding on the left, a gap had opened up between the left and center of the Macedonian phalanx, due to Simmias' brigade of pezhetairoi being unable to follow Alexander in his decisive attack, as they were being hard-pressed. The Persian and Indian cavalry in the center with Darius broke through. Instead of taking the phalanx or Parmenion in the rear, however, they continued towards the camp to loot. They also tried to rescue the Queen Mother, Sisygambis, but she refused to go with them. These raiders were in turn attacked and dispersed by the rear reserve phalanx as they were looting. What happened next was described by Arrian as the fiercest engagement of the battle, as Alexander and his companions encountered the cavalry of the Persian right, composed of Indians, Parthians and "the bravest and most numerous division of the Persians", desperately trying to get through to escape. Sixty Companions were killed in the engagement, and Hephaestion, Coenus and Menidas were all injured. Alexander prevailed, however, and Mazaeus also began to pull his forces back as Bessus had. However, unlike on the left with Bessus, the Persians soon fell into disorder as the Thessalians and other cavalry units charged forward at their fleeing enemy. Aftermath --------- After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his bodyguard pursued Darius. As at Issus, substantial loot was gained, with 4,000 talents captured, the King's personal chariot and bow and the war elephants. It was a disastrous defeat for the Persians and one of Alexander's finest victories. Darius managed to escape by horseback with a small corps of his forces remaining intact. The Bactrian cavalry and Bessus caught up with him, as did some of the survivors of the Royal Guard and 2,000 Greek mercenaries. At this point the Persian Empire was divided into two halves—East and West. On his escape, Darius gave a speech to what remained of his army. He planned to head further east and raise another army to face Alexander, assuming that the Greeks would head towards Babylon. At the same time he dispatched letters to his eastern satraps asking them to remain loyal. The satraps, however, had other intentions. Bessus murdered Darius before fleeing eastwards. When Alexander discovered Darius murdered, he was saddened to see an enemy he respected killed in such a fashion, and gave Darius a full burial ceremony at Persepolis, the former ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire, before angrily pursuing Bessus, capturing and executing him the following year. The majority of the remaining satraps gave their loyalty to Alexander and were allowed to keep their positions. The Achaemenid Persian Empire is traditionally considered to have ended with the death of Darius. See also -------- * Military tactics of Alexander the Great Sources ------- Ancient sources * Arrian (1893). Chinnock, E. J. (ed.). *Anabasis Alexandri*. * Diodorus Siculus (1963). Welles, C. Bradford (ed.). *Library of History*. Vol. 17. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-99464-5. * Plutarch (1936). "On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander". In Babbitt, Frank Cole (ed.). *Moralia*. Vol. 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 379‑487. ISBN 978-0-674-99336-5. * Plutarch (1919). "Life of Alexander". In Perrin, Bernadotte (ed.). *Lives*. Vol. 7. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 707‑741. ISBN 978-0-674-99110-1. * Justin (1853). Watson, John Selby (ed.). *Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus*. London: Henry G. Bohn. * Quintus Curtius Rufus (1880). Vogel, Theodor (ed.). *Histories of Alexander the Great*. London. Modern sources * Cummings, Lewis Vance (2004). *Alexander the Great*. New York, New York: Grove Press. ISBN 978-0-8021-4149-1. * Delbrück, Hans (1990). *History of the Art of War*. Translated by Walter J. Renfroe Jr. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-6584-4.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) * Doge, Theodore Ayrault (1918). *Alexander: A History of the Origin and Growth of the Art of War from the Earliest Times to the Battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301*. Tales End Press. ISBN 978-1-105-60250-4. * Engels, Donald W. (1980). *Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Greek Army*. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04272-8. * Fox, Robin Lane (2006). *Alexander the Great*. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-14-192598-1. * Fuller, J. F. C. (1987). *A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto*. A Military History of the Western World. Vol. 1. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80304-8. * Green, Peter (2013). *Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography*. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95469-4. * ——— (1993). *Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age*. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 1. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-08349-3. * Lendering, Jona (2004). "What Happened at Gaugamela?". * Hanson, Victor Davies (2007). *Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power*. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-307-42518-8. * Magee, Peter; Petrie, Cameron; Knox, Richard; Khan, Farid; Thomas, Ken (2005), "The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan", *American Journal of Archaeology*, vol. 109, pp. 711–741 * De Santis, Marc G. (2001). "At The Crossroads of Conquest". *Military Heritage*. **3** (3): 46–55, 97. * Van der Spek, R. J. (2003). "Darius III, Alexander the Great and Babylonian Scholarship". In Henkelman, W.; Kuhrt, A. (eds.). *A Persian Perspective: Essays in Memory of Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg*. Achaemenid History. Vol. 13. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten. pp. 289–342. ISBN 978-90-6258-413-0. * Ward, Steven R. (2014). *Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces*. Washington, D. C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-62616-032-3. * Warry, John (1998). *Warfare in the Classical World*. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 978-0-7607-1696-0. * Welman, Nick. "Major Battles". Archived from the original on 2007-10-16. * Welman, Nick. "About Alexander's Army". Archived from the original on 2007-10-16. Further reading --------------- * Marciak, Michal; Sobiech, Marcin; Pirowski, Tomasz (2020). "Alexander the Great's Route to Gaugamela and Arbela". *Klio*. **102** (2): 536–559. doi:10.1515/klio-2020-1005. S2CID 226279004. * Marciak, M.; Szypuła, B.; Sobiech, M.; Pirowski, T. (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela and the Question of Visibility on the Battlefield". *Iraq*. **83**: 87–103. doi:10.1017/irq.2021.11. S2CID 240824299. * Marciak, Michał; Wójcikowski, Robert S.; Morandi Bonacossi, Daniele; Sobiech, Marcin (2021). "The Battle of Gaugamela in the Navkur Plain in the Context of the Madedonian and Persian Art of Warfare". *Studia Iranica*. **50** (1): 7–68. doi:10.2143/SI.50.1.3291169.

Battle of Gaugamela

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Gaugamela

**Computing** is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology, digital art and software engineering. The term *computing* is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. History ------- The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before numeral systems. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the abacus, and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700–2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannon's 1938 paper "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations. The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947. In 1953, the University of Manchester built the first transistorized computer, the Manchester Baby. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. The metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, leading to what is known as the computer revolution or microcomputer revolution. Computer -------- A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type. The execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions. ### Computer hardware Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including central processing unit, memory and input/output. Computational logic and computer architecture are key topics in the field of computer hardware. ### Computer software Computer software, or just *software*, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of *programs, procedures, algorithms,* as well as its *documentation* concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term *hardware* (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible. Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. #### System software System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes operating systems, utility software, device drivers, window systems, and firmware. Frequently used development tools such as compilers, linkers, and debuggers are classified as system software. System software and middleware manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software. #### Application software Application software, also known as an *application* or an *app*, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software and media players. Many application programs deal principally with documents. Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user. Application software applies the power of a particular computing platform or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as Microsoft Office, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a *geography application for Windows* or an *Android application for education* or *Linux gaming*. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as killer applications. ### Computer network A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers **interconnected** by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. One well-known communications protocol is Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks. Another common protocol is the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines. #### Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support email. ### Computer programming Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language that is often more restrictive than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine. Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development. However, the term *programmer* may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new killer application. #### Computer programmer A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term *computer programmer* can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst. A programmer's primary computer language (C, C++, Java, Lisp, Python etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with *Web*. The term *programmer* can be used to refer to a software developer, software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst. However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming. ### Computer industry The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and computer networking infrastructures, manufacturing computer components and providing information technology services, including system administration and maintenance. The software industry includes businesses engaged in development, maintenance and publication of software. The industry also includes software services, such as training, documentation, and consulting. Sub-disciplines of computing ---------------------------- ### Computer engineering Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates. ### Software engineering Software engineering (SE) is the application of a systematic, disciplined and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software. It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived *software crisis* at the time. Software development, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015. ### Computer science Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as computational complexity theory, which studies fundamental properties of computational problems, are highly abstract, while others, such as computer graphics, emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of computer programming investigates the use of programming languages and complex systems. The field of human–computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. ### Cybersecurity The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes information and data privacy, preventing disruption of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software and data. ### Data science Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data. Data mining, big data, statistics and machine learning are all interwoven with data science. ### Information systems Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data. The ACM's *Computing Careers* describes IS as: > > "A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required." > > > The study of IS bridges business and computer science, using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline. The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design. ### Information technology Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-commerce and computer services. Research and emerging technologies ---------------------------------- DNA-based computing and quantum computing are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of quantum algorithms. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes DNA origami on photolithography and quantum antennae for transferring information between ion traps. By 2011, researchers had entangled 14 qubits. Fast digital circuits, including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux quantum technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of nanoscale superconductors. Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects. IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP). One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs. Another field of research is spintronics. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup. Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine photonics and spintronics. There is also research ongoing on combining plasmonics, photonics, and electronics. ### Cloud computing Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of Software as a Service, Platforms as a Service, and Infrastructure as a Service, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling. It allows individual users or small business to benefit from economies of scale. One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices. However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies. ### Quantum computing Quantum computing is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics. Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses qubits. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as quantum entanglement, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations. Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in molecular modeling. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations. See also -------- * Computational thinking * Creative computing * Electronic data processing * Enthusiast computing * Index of history of computing articles * Instruction set architecture * Lehmer sieve * List of computer term etymologies * Mobile computing * Scientific computing

Computing

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing

**Blaise of Sebaste** (Armenian: Սուրբ Վլասի, *Surb Vlasi*; Greek: Ἅγιος Βλάσιος, *Hágios Blásios*; Latin: *Blasius*) was a physician and bishop of Sebastea in historical Armenia (modern Sivas, Turkey) who is venerated as a Christian saint and martyr. Blaise is venerated as a saint in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Oriental Orthodox churches and is the patron saint of wool combers and ENT illnesses. In the Latin Church, his feast falls on 3 February; in the Eastern Churches, on 11 February. According to the *Acta Sanctorum*, he was martyred by being beaten, tortured with iron combs, and beheaded. Sources ------- The first reference to Blaise is the medical writings of Aëtius Amidenus (c. AD 500) where his aid is invoked in treating objects stuck in the throat. Marco Polo reported the place where "Messer Saint Blaise obtained the glorious crown of martyrdom", Sebastea; the shrine near the citadel mount was mentioned by William of Rubruck in 1253. However, it appears to no longer exist. Life ---- From being a healer of bodily ailments, Saint Blaise became an expert of souls, then retired for a time to a cavern where he remained in prayer. As bishop of Sebastea, Blaise instructed his people as much by his example as by his words, and the great virtues and sanctity of the servant of God were attested by many miracles. From all parts, the people came flocking to him for the cure of bodily and spiritual ills. He is said to have healed animals (who came to the saint on their own for his assistance) and to have been assisted by animals. In 316 the governor of Cappadocia and Lesser Armenia, Agricolaus, began a persecution by order of the Emperor Licinius, and Saint Blaise was seized. After his interrogation and a severe scourging, he was hurried off to prison and subsequently beheaded. The Acts of St. Blaise ---------------------- The legendary *Acts of St. Blaise* were written 400 years after his death, and are apocryphal and, perhaps, fictional. The legend is as follows: > > > Blaise, who had studied philosophy in his youth, was a doctor in Sebaste in Armenia, the city of his birth, who exercised his art with miraculous ability, good-will, and piety. When the bishop of the city died, he was chosen to succeed him, with the acclamation of all the people. His holiness was manifest through many miracles: from all around, people came to him to find cures for their spirit and their body; even wild animals came in herds to receive his blessing. In 316, Agricola, the governor of Cappadocia and of Lesser Armenia, having arrived in Sebastia at the order of the emperor Licinius to kill the Christians, arrested the bishop. As he was being led to jail, a mother set her only son, choking to death of a fish-bone, at his feet, and the child was cured straight away. Regardless, the governor, unable to make Blaise renounce his faith, beat him with a stick, ripped his flesh with iron combs, and beheaded him. > > > The blessing of St. Blaise -------------------------- According to the *Acts*, while Blaise was being taken into custody, a distraught mother, whose only child was choking on a fish bone, threw herself at his feet and implored his intercession. Touched at her grief, he offered up his prayers, and the child was cured. Consequently, Saint Blaise is invoked for protection against injuries and illnesses of the throat. In many places, on the day of his feast the blessing of St. Blaise is given: two candles (sometimes lit), blessed on the feast of the Presentation of the Lord (Candlemas), are held in a crossed position by a priest over the heads of the faithful or the people are touched on the throat with them. At the same time the following blessing is given: "Through the intercession of Saint Blaise, bishop and martyr, may God deliver you from every disease of the throat and from every other illness". Then the priest makes the sign of the cross over the faithful. Legend ------ As the governor's hunters led Blaise back to Sebastea, on the way, the story goes, they met a poor woman whose pig had been seized by a wolf. At the command of Blaise, the wolf restored the pig to its owner, alive and unhurt. When he had reached the capital and was in prison awaiting execution, the old woman whose pig he had saved came to see him, bringing two fine wax candles to dispel the gloom of his dark cell. In the West there was no group honoring St. Blaise prior to the eighth century. Cult of Saint Blaise -------------------- One of the Fourteen Holy Helpers, Blaise became one of the most popular saints of the Middle Ages. His followers became widespread in Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries and his legend is recounted in the 13th-century *Legenda Aurea*. Saint Blaise is the saint of the wild beast. He is the patron of the Armenian Order of Saint Blaise. In Italy he is known as *San Biagio*. In Spanish-speaking countries, he is known as San Blas, and has lent his name to many places (see San Blas). Several places in Portugal and Brazil are also named after him, where he is called São Brás (see São Brás). In Italy, Saint Blaise's remains rest at the Basilica over the town of Maratea, shipwrecked there during Leo III the Isaurian's iconoclastic persecutions. Many German churches, including the former Abbey of St. Blasius in the Black Forest and the church of Balve, are dedicated to Saint Blaise/Blasius. ### In Great Britain In Cornwall the town of St Blazey and the civil parish of St Blaise derive from his name, where the parish church is still dedicated to Saint Blaise. The council of Oxford in 1222 forbade all work on his festival. There is a church dedicated to Saint Blaise in the Devon hamlet of Haccombe, near Newton Abbot, one at Shanklin on the Isle of Wight and another at Milton near Abingdon in Oxfordshire, one of the country's smallest churches. It is located next to Haccombe house which is the family home of the Carew family, descendants of the vice admiral on board the *Mary Rose* at the time of her sinking. This church, unusually, retains the office of "archpriest". There is a St Blaise's Well in Bromley, London where the water was considered to have medicinal virtues. St Blaise is also associated with Stretford in Lancashire. A Blessing of the Throats ceremony is held on February 3 at St Etheldreda's Church in London and in Balve, Germany. The blessing is performed in many Catholic parish churches, often at the end of a morning Mass. The Blaise Castle Estate and the nearby Blaise Hamlet in Bristol derive their name from a thirteenth century chapel dedicated to St Blaise, built on a site previously occupied by an Iron Age fort and Roman temple. In Bradford, West Yorkshire a Catholic middle school named after St Blaise was operated by the Diocese of Leeds from 1961 to 1995. The name was chosen due to the connections of Bradford to the woollen industry and the method that St Blaise was martyred, with the woolcomb. Due to reorganisation the school closed down when Catholic middle schools were phased out, and the building was sold to Bradford Council to provide replacement accommodation for another local middle school which had burned down. Within a few months, St Blaise school was also severely damaged in a fire, and the remains of the building were demolished. A new primary school was built on the land, and most of the extensive grounds were sold off for housing. There is a 14th-century wall painting of St Blaise in All Saints Church, Kingston upon Thames, located by the market place, marking the significance of the wool trade in the economic expansion of the market town in the 14th and 15th centuries. ### In Croatia Saint Blaise (Croatian: *Sveti Vlaho or Sveti Blaž*) is the patron saint of the city of Dubrovnik and formerly the protector of the independent Republic of Ragusa. At Dubrovnik his feast is celebrated yearly on 3 February, when relics of the saint, his head, a bit of bone from his throat, his right hand and his left, are paraded in reliquaries. The festivities begin the previous day, Candlemas, when white doves are released. Chroniclers of Dubrovnik such as Rastic and Ranjina attribute his veneration there to a vision in 971 to warn the inhabitants of an impending attack by the Venetians, whose galleys had dropped anchor in Gruž and near Lokrum, ostensibly to resupply their water but furtively to spy out the city's defenses. St. Blaise (Blasius) revealed their pernicious plan to Stojko, a canon of St. Stephen's Cathedral. The Senate summoned Stojko, who told them in detail how St. Blaise had appeared before him as an old man with a long beard and a bishop's mitre and staff. In this form the effigy of Blaise remained on Dubrovnik's state seal and coinage until the Napoleonic era. Croatians all around the world celebrate the feast of Sveti Vlaho every year. ### In Iceland Saint Blaise (Icelandic: *Blasíus*) was prominent in Iceland, in particular Southwestern Iceland, where he was known for his purported miracle-working powers. Saint Blaise is mentioned in *Þorláks saga helga*, an Icelandic saga about Thorlak Thorhallsson, the patron saint of Iceland. ### In India St. Blaise Church, Sao Bras, Goa, India was a small Chapel built in 1541 by Croatian sailors and traders settled in the village. It was elevated to a Parish Church in 1563. The church is a replica of the one in Dubrovnik, dedicated to St. Blaise, the patron of the city. ### In Italy In the small village of Sicilì in Campania, Saint Blaise’s feast day is celebrated on February 3 but also May 14. Locals come to the shrine dedicated to him to show their respect and devotion but also to ask him for help with healing someone who has fallen ill where a special prayer is required. ### Blaise and Blasius of Jersey In England in the 18th and 19th centuries Blaise was adopted as mascot of woolworkers' pageants, particularly in Essex, Yorkshire, Wiltshire and Norwich. The popular enthusiasm for the saint is explained by the belief that Blaise had brought prosperity (as symbolised by the Woolsack) to England by teaching the English to comb wool. According to the tradition as recorded in printed broadsheets, Blaise came from Jersey, Channel Islands. Jersey was certainly a centre of export of woollen goods (as witnessed by the name *jersey* for the woollen textile). However, this legend is probably the result of confusion with a different saint, Blasius of Caesarea (*Caesarea* being also the Latin name of Jersey). Iconography ----------- In iconography, Blaise is represented holding two crossed candles in his hand (the Blessing of St. Blaise), or in a cave surrounded by wild beasts, as he was found by the hunters of the governor. He is often shown with the instruments of his martyrdom, steel combs. The similarity of these instruments of torture to wool combs led to his adoption as the patron saint of wool combers in particular, and the wool trade in general. He may also be depicted with crossed candles. Such crossed candles are used for the blessing of throats on his feast day, which falls on 3 February, the day after Candlemas on the General Roman Calendar. Blaise is traditionally believed to intercede in cases of throat illnesses, especially for fish-bones stuck in the throat. He is also called upon to aid in protection against obstructive sleep apnea since this involves the throat tissues interfering with breathing during sleep. (Non-OSA sleep disorders are typically invoked with the intercession of St. Dymphna since these are more neurological in nature.) Relics ------ There are multiple relics of Blaise in a variety of churches and chapels, including multiple whole bodies, at least four heads and several jaws, at least eight arms, and so on: > > With a little research, we would find Saint Blaise armed with a hundred arms, like the giant of the fable. The fingers, teeth, feet of this voluminous saint are too scattered for us to undertake to bring them together. > > > > > — Collin de Plancy, 1822 > > > See also -------- * Blessing of the Throats * Order of Saint Blaise * San Biagio (disambiguation) * Saint Blaise, patron saint archive * Festivity of Saint Blaise, the patron of Dubrovnik

Saint Blaise

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Blaise

**Hanau** (German pronunciation: [ˈhaːnaʊ̯]) is a town in the Main-Kinzig-Kreis, in Hesse, Germany. It is located 25 km east of Frankfurt am Main and is part of the Frankfurt Rhine-Main Metropolitan Region. Its station is a major railway junction and it has a port on the river Main, making it an important transport centre. The town is known for being the birthplace of Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm and Franciscus Sylvius. Since the 16th century it was a centre of precious metal working with many goldsmiths. It is home to Heraeus, one of the largest family-owned companies in Germany. Hanau, once the seat of the Counts of Hanau, lost much of its architectural heritage in World War II. A British air raid in 1945 created a firestorm, killing one sixth of the remaining population and destroying 98 percent of the old city and 80 percent of the city overall. In 1963, the town hosted the third *Hessentag* state festival. Until 2005, Hanau was the administrative centre of the Main-Kinzig-Kreis. On 19 February 2020, a gunman attacked two bars and a kiosk in Hanau, murdering nine people with roots outside Germany, before shooting his mother and himself. Geography --------- The historic core of Hanau is situated within a semicircle of the river Kinzig which flows into the river Main just west of the town. Today, after a substantial expansion during the 19th and 20th centuries it also extends to the river Main and after a restructuring of municipal borders within Hesse in the 1970s a couple of nearby villages and towns were incorporated. After this change, Hanau for the first time also extended to the south bank of the Main river. ### Climate On the 0 °C isotherm, Hanau has a humid continental climate as Eastern Germany with warm summer, classified by Köppen as *Dfb*. In the -3 °C isotherm has oceanic climate (*Cfb*) with some interior characteristics. Using the first definition used is the city most west of the continent below 200 m at sea level with this category. | Climate data for Hanau | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 13(55) | 18(64) | 26(79) | 30(86) | 33(91) | 35(95) | 36(97) | 36(97) | 31(88) | 27(81) | 20(68) | 16(61) | 36(97) | | Average high °C (°F) | 3(37) | 5(41) | 10(50) | 14(57) | 19(66) | 22(72) | 24(75) | 24(75) | 19(66) | 14(57) | 8(46) | 4(39) | 14(57) | | Average low °C (°F) | −2(28) | −1(30) | 2(36) | 4(39) | 8(46) | 11(52) | 13(55) | 12(54) | 9(48) | 5(41) | 2(36) | −2(28) | 5(41) | | Record low °C (°F) | −20(−4) | — | −12(10) | −5(23) | — | 3(37) | 4(39) | 2(36) | 1(34) | −2(28) | −9(16) | — | −20(−4) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 30(1.2) | 30(1.2) | 30(1.2) | 40(1.6) | 50(2.0) | 70(2.8) | 50(2.0) | 50(2.0) | 50(2.0) | 30(1.2) | 50(2.0) | 50(2.0) | 530(21.2) | | Average snowfall cm (inches) | 9(3.5) | 10(3.9) | 4(1.6) | trace | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 0(0) | 6(2.4) | 10(3.9) | 46(18) | | Average rainy days | 10 | 8 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 8 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 111 | | Average snowy days | 4 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 3 | 13 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 89 | 84 | 85 | 82 | 80 | 80 | 81 | 84 | 89 | 91 | 89 | 90 | 85 | | Mean daily sunshine hours | 1 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 4 | | Source: WeatherBase and Fremdenverkehrsbuero.info (temperature, rainy and sunny days) | ### Districts * Innenstadt (town center) * Nordwest (northwest) incl. Wilhelmsbad [de] * Südost (southeast) * Lamboy [de] * Steinheim [de] * Klein-Auheim (Hanau) [de] * Großauheim * Wolfgang [de] * Kesselstadt [de] * Mittelbuchen [de] Name ---- The name is derived from *Hagenowe*, which is a composition of *Haag* ('wood') and *Aue* ('open land by the side of a river'). History ------- ### Old town As a place of settlement Hanau was first mentioned in 1143. Formerly it was the site of a castle which used the waters of the river Kinzig as a defense. The castle belonged to a noble family, calling themselves "of Hanau" from the 13th century. Starting from this castle a village developed and became a town in 1303. As a result of this history, the main church of Hanau stood outside its walls in the village of *Kinzdorf*. The villagers moved into the town, *Kinzdorf* became an abandoned village leaving only the church. Only in the 15th century was the status of the Hanau parish church transferred to the church of Mary Magdalene within the town walls. Shortly after the first town walls were built at the beginning of the 14th century, the town outgrew this limit. Outside the wall, along the road to Frankfurt am Main a settlement developed (the *Vorstadt*) which was properly included in the fortifications of Hanau only when Hanau received completely new fortifications in Renaissance-style during the first half of the 16th century. These new fortifications enclosed three elements: The medieval castle, the medieval town of Hanau and the *Vorstadt*. ### New town #### Huguenots In 1597 Count Philipp Ludwig II attracted French Protestants (Huguenots) refugees, who had been admitted to Frankfurt but had only very limited accommodation, to found their own settlement south of Hanau. This happened under the direction of the then guardian of the Hanau count, Johann VI. von Nassau-Dillenburg, who hoped for significant economic and cultural advances from the settlement of the Réfugiés from south-west France. In return for the assurance of free exercise of their religion, the refugees undertook to become economically active in Hanau. Out of this tradition, goldsmiths are still trained in Hanau. Hanau also was the site of the first workshop to produce Faience within Germany. These new citizens were granted privileges and they formed their own community, church and administration for the "new town of Hanau" (*Neustadt Hanau*) wholly separate from the existing community. A stark contrast to the Catholic Church, but also to the Lutheran Church of the time, was the participation of lay people in church-governing functions, as well as the design of the church, especially the decalogues. Each congregation was led by the *Consistoire*, elected by congregation members for life, which is roughly comparable to today's church council. The descendants of the French Reformed religious refugees have assimilated in Hanau over time. #### Walloon-Dutch refugees and Jews In contrast to the Huguenots, the Walloon and Dutch Calvinist refugees came from an area of what is now the Netherlands, Belgium and the French Département Nord at the time of Spanish rule, the Spanish Netherlands. With the arrival of the Huguenots, Walloons and Dutch, Hanau's rise to become an important business location began. Until 1821, the new town had its own independent community, independent of the old town. The Reformed Walloon-Dutch community still exists today. Philipp Ludwig II also allowed Jews to settle in Hanau. From 1604 there was a Jewish community again. It took more than 200 years to amalgamate both. The new town – larger than the old one – was protected by a then very modern fortification in Baroque-style which proved a big asset only a few years later in the Thirty Years' War. The town survived a siege in 1637 with only minor damage. The new citizens formed the major economic and political power within the County of Hanau and in 1642 played a leading role in the succession of Count Fredrik Casimir of Hanau Lichtenberg into the County of Hanau-Münzenberg of which the town of Hanau was the capital. ### 17th century During the Thirty Years' War Hanau was taken by the Swedes in 1631. In 1636 it was besieged by the imperial troops, but was relieved on the 13th of June by William V, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, on account of which the day is still commemorated by the inhabitants. ### 18th century In 1736 Johann Reinhard III of Hanau-Lichtenberg, the last of the Counts of Hanau, died. Those parts of his county belonging to the County of Hanau-Münzenberg, which included Hanau, were inherited by the Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel. Due to dynastic troubles within this family the County of Hesse-Hanau was created a separate state from the Landgraviate until 1786. So Hanau stayed capital for another 50 years. Even after that it became – after Kassel – the town second in importance within Hesse-Kassel. ### 19th century During the Napoleonic Wars the Emperor himself ordered the fortifications of Hanau to be destroyed. This created a chance for both parts of the town to expand across their traditional limits. In 1813, the Battle of Hanau took place near the city between French troops and Austro-Bavarian forces. During the 1820s the administrations of both towns of Hanau were merged. The first common Mayor, who became Lord Mayor (Oberbürgermeister) was Bernhard Eberhard [de], later to become prime minister and minister of the interior of the Electorate of Hesse after the Revolution of 1848. With its pre-industrial workshops Hanau became a nucleus of a heavy industrialisation during the 19th century: From within the city (e.g.: Heraeus) as well as from outside (e.g. Degussa, Dunlop). This was heavily supported by its development as an important railway interchange of six railway lines, most of them main lines: * 1848: Frankfurt-Hanau Railway * 1854: Main–Spessart Railway * 1867: Frankfurt–Bebra Railway, eastern direction * 1873: Frankfurt–Bebra Railway, western direction * 1879/1881: Friedberg–Hanau Railway * 1882: Odenwald Railway #### Revolution of 1848 1848 Hanau was a centre of the German democratic movement and contributed significantly both in 1830 and in the Revolution of 1848. As part of this movement the German Gymnastic League (*Deutscher Turnerbund*) was founded here in 1848. Hanau was finally annexed to Prussia like all of Hesse-Kassel in 1866 after its Prince-elector took the Austrian side in the Austro-Prussian War. It remained part of Prussia until 1945. In the late 19th century Hanau became a major garrison town. Due to its interchange of railway lines a large detachment of military railway-engineers as well as other military units were stationed here. As a free-trade city, Hanau developed a silver manufacturing industry using fantasy hallmarks. Hanau silver was produced from the mid 19th to the early 20th Century. ### 20th century During World War II, the Jewish population were persecuted with the last Jews being deported in May 1942. Hanau was for the most part destroyed by British airstrikes in March 1945 a few days before it was taken by the U.S. Army. Around 87% of the town was destroyed. Of 15,000 inhabitants who remained in the city at the time, 2,500 died in the attack. The town housed one of the largest garrisons of the U.S. Army in Europe. Being an important strategic location in the so called Fulda Gap, the military community had a population of 45,000 military members, U.S. civilians and family members at its peak during the Cold War. The extensive U.S. facilities included Hanau Army Airfield, also known as *Fliegerhorst Langendiebach*. The garrison was closed in April 2018. Most of the former military areas have been converted to civil use in the meantime. ### 21st century In 2010, Hanau started a huge building project to completely redesign the inner city. These are the largest construction works in the town since the reconstruction after World War II. On 19 February 2020, eleven people—including the perpetrator—were killed in a spree shooting at two shisha bars and a flat in the town. The perpetrator, known as Tobias Rathjen, opened fire at Midnight Bar and Arena Bar in Hanau centre and Kesselstadt. Tobias then drove home, where he killed his mother, and shot himself. Economy ------- At present, many inhabitants work in the technological industry Heraeus) or commute to Frankfurt. Frankfurt International Airport is 30 km away. Population ---------- * With a population of 98,438 it is the sixth most populous town in Hesse. Having lost its status as administrative centre of the Main-Kinzig-Kreis (Main-Kinzig district) to Gelnhausen in 2005, proposals have been made that Hanau should form its own administrative district by 1 April 2021. * More than 20% of the inhabitants are foreign nationals, mostly Turkish workers. Jewish community ---------------- The earliest documentary evidence for the presence of Jews in Hanau dates from 1313. In the 17th and 18th centuries Hanau developed into an important center of Hebrew printing. The community numbered 540 persons 1805, 80 families in 1830, 447 persons in 1871, and 657 at the turn of the century. In 1925 there were 568 Jews in Hanau. Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- Hanau is twinned with: * France Conflans-Sainte-Honorine, France * United Kingdom Dartford, United Kingdom * France Francheville, France * Turkey Nilüfer, Turkey * China Taizhou, China * Japan Tottori, Japan * Russia Yaroslavl, Russia ### Friendly cities Hanau also has friendly relations with: * Germany Waltershausen, Germany * France Pays de Hanau, France Transport --------- ### Rail Hanau is a transportation hub in Germany, with its main station serving the following lines: * Frankfurt-Hanau Railway (RE / RB 55), * Main-Spessart-Bahn (from Hanau to Aschaffenburg Hauptbahnhof) (RE / RB 55), * Kinzig Valley Railway to Fulda (RE / RB 50), * Frankfurt-Bebraer railway (westbound) to Offenbach Hauptbahnhof, Frankfurt am Main Hauptbahnhof as well as the largely parallel south metropolitan S-Bahn, * Friedberg-Hanau railway (RB 33) and * Odenwaldbahn (RE / RB 64) towards Babenhausen, Groß-Umstadt-Wiebelsbach, Erbach and Eberbach. Besides the main station, the town is also served by Hanau West and Hanau-Wilhelmsbad on the Frankfurt-Hanau Railway, Großauheim on the Main-Spessart-Bahn, Wolfgang an der Kinzigtalbahn, the S-Bahn station at Steinheim (Main) on the South-Main S-Bahn, Hanau Nord at the Hanau-Friedberger Bahn and Hanau-Klein Auheim on the Odenwaldbahn. Sights ------ * *Deutsches Goldschmiedehaus [de]* * *Schloss Philippsruhe [de]* * *Wilhelmsbad [de]* (historic spa) * *Marienkirche (Hanau) [de]* (St Mary's Church) * *Wallonisch-Niederländische Kirche [de]* * Historic spa of Wilhelmsbad - today a part of HanauHistoric spa of Wilhelmsbad - today a part of Hanau * Schloss Philippsruhe*Schloss Philippsruhe* * Lion at Schloss Philippsruhe by Christian Daniel RauchLion at *Schloss Philippsruhe* by Christian Daniel Rauch * Amphitheater Hanau [de]*Amphitheater Hanau [de]* Notable people -------------- * Louis Appia (1818–1898), surgeon, member of the Geneva "Committee of Five" (precursor to the International Committee of the Red Cross) * J. C. C. Devaranne (1784–1813), was born in Hanau on 8 March 1784 * Siegmund Feniger, also known as Nyanaponika Thera, Buddhist monk * Jürgen Grasmück (1940–2007), author of horror fiction and science fiction stories, born in Hanau in 1940 * The Brothers Grimm (*Brüder Grimm*) collected many German fairy tales and started work on the German Glossary * Ludwig Emil Grimm (1790–1863), painter, younger brother of Jacob and Wilhelm * Solomon Hanau (1687–1746), 17th century Hebrew-language linguistic master * Hans Daniel Hassenpflug (1794–1862), German statesman * Paul Hindemith (1895–1963), composer * Stefan Jagsch (born 1986), extreme-right politician * Alois Kottmann (1929–2021), violinist, was born in Großauheim * Johann Peter Krafft (1780–1856), painter * Daniel la Rosa (born 1985), racing driver * Moritz Daniel Oppenheim (1800–1882), painter, often regarded as the first Jewish painter of the modern era * Bodo Sperling (born 1952) is a German painter and conceptual artist. * Karl Storck (1826–1887), Romanian sculptor, born in Hanau on 30 March 1887 * Hermann Volk (1903–1988), Roman-catholic bishop in Mainz * Rudi Völler (born 1960), football/soccer world champion 1990 and coach of the German national team, when it was runner-up in 2002 * Wilhelm Wagenfeld (1900–1990), Designer Sports ------ * Turngemeinde 1837 Hanau a.V. (TGH), one of the oldest of Germany's sports clubs * Hanauer Rudergesellschaft 1879 e.V. (HRG), one of Germany's oldest rowing clubs * 1. Hanauer FC 1893 e.V. (Hanau '93), Hesse's oldest association football club References ---------- 1. ↑ "Ergebnisse der letzten Direktwahl aller hessischen Landkreise und Gemeinden" (XLS) (in German). Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt. 5 September 2022. 2. ↑ "Die Bevölkerung der hessischen Gemeinden am 31. Dezember 2021" (PDF) (in German). Hessisches Statistisches Landesamt. June 2022. 3. ↑ "Updated Köppen-Geiger climate map of the world". *people.eng.unimelb.edu.au*. Retrieved 2018-12-19. 4. 1 2 3 Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hanau". *Encyclopædia Britannica*. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 908. 5. ↑ "Hanau silver". Antiques in Oxford. Retrieved 2020-10-05. 6. ↑ Schumacher, Karin; Schumacher, Hans-Jürgen (2003). *Zeitreise durch den Spessart (German)*. Wartberg Verlag. ISBN 3-8313-1075-0. 7. ↑ "Germany: Eleven dead in suspected far-right attack | DW | 20.02.2020". *DW.COM*. Deutsche Welle. 8. ↑ "Hanau". *Museum of The Jewish People - Beit Hatfutsot*. Archived from the original on 2020-08-01. Retrieved 2019-07-21. 9. 1 2 "Internationale Beziehungen". *hanau.de* (in German). Hanau. Retrieved 2021-02-12.

Hanau

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanau

The **Highlands** (Scots: *the Hielands*; Scottish Gaelic: *a’ Ghàidhealtachd* [ə ˈɣɛːəl̪ˠt̪ʰəxk], 'the place of the Gaels') is a historical region of Scotland.[*failed verification*] Culturally, the Highlands and the Lowlands diverged from the Late Middle Ages into the modern period, when Lowland Scots replaced Scottish Gaelic throughout most of the Lowlands. The term is also used for the area north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, although the exact boundaries are not clearly defined, particularly to the east. The Great Glen divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands. The Scottish Gaelic name of **A' Ghàidhealtachd** literally means "the place of the Gaels" and traditionally, from a Gaelic-speaking point of view, includes both the Western Isles and the Highlands. The area is very sparsely populated, with many mountain ranges dominating the region, and includes the highest mountain in the British Isles, Ben Nevis. During the 18th and early 19th centuries the population of the Highlands rose to around 300,000, but from c. 1841 and for the next 160 years, the natural increase in population was exceeded by emigration (mostly to Canada, the United States, Australia and New Zealand, and migration to the industrial cities of Scotland and England.) The area is now one of the most sparsely populated in Europe. At 9.1/km2 (24/sq mi) in 2012, the population density in the Highlands and Islands is less than one seventh of Scotland's as a whole, comparable with that of Bolivia, Chad and Russia. The Highland Council is the administrative body for much of the Highlands, with its administrative centre at Inverness. However, the Highlands also includes parts of the council areas of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Argyll and Bute, Moray, North Ayrshire, Perth and Kinross, Stirling and West Dunbartonshire. The Scottish Highlands is the only area in the British Isles to have the taiga biome as it features concentrated populations of Scots pine forest: see Caledonian Forest. It is the most mountainous part of the United Kingdom. History ------- ### Culture Between the 15th century and the mid-20th century, the area differed from most of the Lowlands in terms of language. In Scottish Gaelic, the region is known as the **Gàidhealtachd**, because it was traditionally the Gaelic-speaking part of Scotland, although the language is now largely confined to The Hebrides. The terms are sometimes used interchangeably but have different meanings in their respective languages. Scottish English (in its Highland form) is the predominant language of the area today, though Highland English has been influenced by Gaelic speech to a significant extent. Historically, the "Highland line" distinguished the two Scottish cultures. While the Highland line broadly followed the geography of the Grampians in the south, it continued in the north, cutting off the north-eastern areas, that is Eastern Caithness, Orkney and Shetland, from the more Gaelic Highlands and Hebrides. Historically, the major social unit of the Highlands was the clan. Scottish kings, particularly James VI, saw clans as a challenge to their authority; the Highlands was seen by many as a lawless region. The Scots of the Lowlands viewed the Highlanders as backwards and more "Irish". The Highlands were seen as the overspill of Gaelic Ireland. They made this distinction by separating Germanic "Scots" English and the Gaelic by renaming it "Erse" a play on Eire. Following the Union of the Crowns, James VI had the military strength to back up any attempts to impose some control. The result was, in 1609, the Statutes of Iona which started the process of integrating clan leaders into Scottish society. The gradual changes continued into the 19th century, as clan chiefs thought of themselves less as patriarchal leaders of their people and more as commercial landlords. The first effect on the clansmen who were their tenants was the change to rents being payable in money rather than in kind. Later, rents were increased as Highland landowners sought to increase their income. This was followed, mostly in the period 1760–1850, by agricultural improvement that often (particularly in the Western Highlands) involved clearance of the population to make way for large scale sheep farms. Displaced tenants were set up in crofting communities in the process. The crofts were intended not to provide all the needs of their occupiers; they were expected to work in other industries such as kelping and fishing. Crofters came to rely substantially on seasonal migrant work, particularly in the Lowlands. This gave impetus to the learning of English, which was seen by many rural Gaelic speakers to be the essential "language of work". Older historiography attributes the collapse of the clan system to the aftermath of the Jacobite risings. This is now thought less influential by historians. Following the Jacobite rising of 1745 the British government enacted a series of laws to try to suppress the clan system, including bans on the bearing of arms and the wearing of tartan, and limitations on the activities of the Scottish Episcopal Church. Most of this legislation was repealed by the end of the 18th century as the Jacobite threat subsided. There was soon a rehabilitation of Highland culture. Tartan was adopted for Highland regiments in the British Army, which poor Highlanders joined in large numbers in the era of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1790–1815). Tartan had largely been abandoned by the ordinary people of the region, but in the 1820s, tartan and the kilt were adopted by members of the social elite, not just in Scotland, but across Europe. The international craze for tartan, and for idealising a romanticised Highlands, was set off by the Ossian cycle, and further popularised by the works of Walter Scott. His "staging" of the visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 and the king's wearing of tartan resulted in a massive upsurge in demand for kilts and tartans that could not be met by the Scottish woollen industry. Individual clan tartans were largely designated in this period and they became a major symbol of Scottish identity. This "Highlandism", by which all of Scotland was identified with the culture of the Highlands, was cemented by Queen Victoria's interest in the country, her adoption of Balmoral as a major royal retreat, and her interest in "tartenry". ### Economy Recurrent famine affected the Highlands for much of its history, with significant instances as late as 1817 in the Eastern Highlands and the early 1850s in the West. Over the 18th century, the region had developed a trade of black cattle into Lowland markets, and this was balanced by imports of meal into the area. There was a critical reliance on this trade to provide sufficient food, and it is seen as an essential prerequisite for the population growth that started in the 18th century. Most of the Highlands, particularly in the North and West was short of the arable land that was essential for the mixed, run rig based, communal farming that existed before agricultural improvement was introduced into the region. Between the 1760s and the 1830s there was a substantial trade in unlicensed whisky that had been distilled in the Highlands. Lowland distillers (who were not able to avoid the heavy taxation of this product) complained that Highland whisky made up more than half the market. The development of the cattle trade is taken as evidence that the pre-improvement Highlands was not an immutable system, but did exploit the economic opportunities that came its way. The illicit whisky trade demonstrates the entrepreneurial ability of the peasant classes. Agricultural improvement reached the Highlands mostly over the period 1760 to 1850. Agricultural advisors, factors, land surveyors and others educated in the thinking of Adam Smith were keen to put into practice the new ideas taught in Scottish universities. Highland landowners, many of whom were burdened with chronic debts, were generally receptive to the advice they offered and keen to increase the income from their land. In the East and South the resulting change was similar to that in the Lowlands, with the creation of larger farms with single tenants, enclosure of the old run rig fields, introduction of new crops (such as turnips), land drainage and, as a consequence of all this, eviction, as part of the Highland clearances, of many tenants and cottars. Some of those cleared found employment on the new, larger farms, others moved to the accessible towns of the Lowlands. In the West and North, evicted tenants were usually given tenancies in newly created crofting communities, whilst their former holdings were converted into large sheep farms. Sheep farmers could pay substantially higher rents than the run rig farmers and were much less prone to falling into arrears. Each croft was limited in size so that the tenants would have to find work elsewhere. The major alternatives were fishing and the kelp industry. Landlords took control of the kelp shores, deducting the wages earned by their tenants from the rent due and retaining the large profits that could be earned at the high prices paid for the processed product during the Napoleonic wars. When the Napoleonic wars finished in 1815, the Highland industries were affected by the return to a peacetime economy. The price of black cattle fell, nearly halving between 1810 and the 1830s. Kelp prices had peaked in 1810, but reduced from £9 a ton in 1823 to £3 13s 4d a ton in 1828. Wool prices were also badly affected. This worsened the financial problems of debt-encumbered landlords. Then, in 1846, potato blight arrived in the Highlands, wiping out the essential subsistence crop for the overcrowded crofting communities. As the famine struck, the government made clear to landlords that it was their responsibility to provide famine relief for their tenants. The result of the economic downturn had been that a large proportion of Highland estates were sold in the first half of the 19th century. T M Devine points out that in the region most affected by the potato famine, by 1846, 70 per cent of the landowners were new purchasers who had not owned Highland property before 1800. More landlords were obliged to sell due to the cost of famine relief. Those who were protected from the worst of the crisis were those with extensive rental income from sheep farms. Government loans were made available for drainage works, road building and other improvements and many crofters became temporary migrants – taking work in the Lowlands. When the potato famine ceased in 1856, this established a pattern of more extensive working away from the Highlands. The unequal concentration of land ownership remained an emotional and controversial subject, of enormous importance to the Highland economy, and eventually became a cornerstone of liberal radicalism. The poor crofters were politically powerless, and many of them turned to religion. They embraced the popularly oriented, fervently evangelical Presbyterian revival after 1800. Most joined the breakaway "Free Church" after 1843. This evangelical movement was led by lay preachers who themselves came from the lower strata, and whose preaching was implicitly critical of the established order. The religious change energised the crofters and separated them from the landlords; it helped prepare them for their successful and violent challenge to the landlords in the 1880s through the Highland Land League. Violence erupted, starting on the Isle of Skye, when Highland landlords cleared their lands for sheep and deer parks. It was quietened when the government stepped in, passing the Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Act, 1886 to reduce rents, guarantee fixity of tenure, and break up large estates to provide crofts for the homeless. This contrasted with the Irish Land War underway at the same time, where the Irish were intensely politicised through roots in Irish nationalism, while political dimensions were limited. In 1885 three Independent Crofter candidates were elected to Parliament, which listened to their pleas. The results included explicit security for the Scottish smallholders in the "crofting counties"; the legal right to bequeath tenancies to descendants; and the creation of a Crofting Commission. The Crofters as a political movement faded away by 1892, and the Liberal Party gained their votes. #### Whisky production Today, the Highlands are the largest of Scotland's whisky producing regions; the relevant area runs from Orkney to the Isle of Arran in the south and includes the northern isles and much of Inner and Outer Hebrides, Argyll, Stirlingshire, Arran, as well as sections of Perthshire and Aberdeenshire. (Other sources treat The Islands, except Islay, as a separate whisky producing region.) This massive area has over 30 distilleries, or 47 when the Islands sub-region is included in the count. According to one source, the top five are The Macallan, Glenfiddich, Aberlour, Glenfarclas and Balvenie. While Speyside is geographically within the Highlands, that region is specified as distinct in terms of whisky productions. Speyside single malt whiskies are produced by about 50 distilleries. According to *Visit Scotland*, Highlands whisky is "fruity, sweet, spicy, malty". Another review states that Northern Highlands single malt is "sweet and full-bodied", the Eastern Highlands and Southern Highlands whiskies tend to be "lighter in texture" while the distilleries in the Western Highlands produce single malts with a "much peatier influence". ### Religion The Scottish Reformation achieved partial success in the Highlands. Roman Catholicism remained strong in some areas, owing to remote locations and the efforts of Franciscan missionaries from Ireland, who regularly came to celebrate Mass. There remain significant Catholic strongholds within the Highlands and Islands such as Moidart and Morar on the mainland and South Uist and Barra in the southern Outer Hebrides. The remoteness of the region and the lack of a Gaelic-speaking clergy undermined the missionary efforts of the established church. The later 18th century saw somewhat greater success, owing to the efforts of the SSPCK missionaries and to the disruption of traditional society after the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In the 19th century, the evangelical Free Churches, which were more accepting of Gaelic language and culture, grew rapidly, appealing much more strongly than did the established church. For the most part, however, the Highlands are considered predominantly Protestant, belonging to the Church of Scotland. In contrast to the Catholic southern islands, the northern Outer Hebrides islands (Lewis, Harris and North Uist) have an exceptionally high proportion of their population belonging to the Protestant Free Church of Scotland or the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The Outer Hebrides have been described as the last bastion of Calvinism in Britain and the Sabbath remains widely observed. Inverness and the surrounding area has a majority Protestant population, with most locals belonging to either The Kirk or the Free Church of Scotland. The church maintains a noticeable presence within the area, with church attendance notably higher than in other parts of Scotland. Religion continues to play an important role in Highland culture, with Sabbath observance still widely practised, particularly in the Hebrides. Historical geography -------------------- In traditional Scottish geography, the Highlands refers to that part of Scotland north-west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which crosses mainland Scotland in a near-straight line from Helensburgh to Stonehaven. However the flat coastal lands that occupy parts of the counties of Nairnshire, Morayshire, Banffshire and Aberdeenshire are often excluded as they do not share the distinctive geographical and cultural features of the rest of the Highlands. The north-east of Caithness, as well as Orkney and Shetland, are also often excluded from the Highlands, although the Hebrides are usually included. The Highland area, as so defined, differed from the Lowlands in language and tradition, having preserved Gaelic speech and customs centuries after the anglicisation of the latter; this led to a growing perception of a divide, with the cultural distinction between Highlander and Lowlander first noted towards the end of the 14th century. In Aberdeenshire, the boundary between the Highlands and the Lowlands is not well defined. There is a stone beside the A93 road near the village of Dinnet on Royal Deeside which states 'You are now in the Highlands', although there are areas of Highland character to the east of this point. A much wider definition of the Highlands is that used by the Scotch whisky industry. Highland single malts are produced at distilleries north of an imaginary line between Dundee and Greenock, thus including all of Aberdeenshire and Angus. Inverness is regarded as the Capital of the Highlands, although less so in the Highland parts of Aberdeenshire, Angus, Perthshire and Stirlingshire which look more to Aberdeen, Dundee, Perth, and Stirling as their commercial centres. ### Highland Council area The Highland Council area, created as one of the local government regions of Scotland, has been a unitary council area since 1996. The council area excludes a large area of the southern and eastern Highlands, and the Western Isles, but includes Caithness. *Highlands* is sometimes used, however, as a name for the council area, as in the former *Highlands and Islands Fire and Rescue Service*. *Northern* is also used to refer to the area, as in the former *Northern Constabulary*. These former bodies both covered the Highland council area and the island council areas of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles. Highland Council signs in the Pass of Drumochter, between Glen Garry and Dalwhinnie, say "Welcome to the Highlands". ### Highlands and Islands Much of the Highlands area overlaps the Highlands and Islands area. An electoral region called *Highlands and Islands* is used in elections to the Scottish Parliament: this area includes Orkney and Shetland, as well as the Highland Council local government area, the Western Isles and most of the Argyll and Bute and Moray local government areas. *Highlands and Islands* has, however, different meanings in different contexts. It means Highland (the local government area), Orkney, Shetland, and the Western Isles in *Highlands and Islands Fire and Rescue Service*. *Northern*, as in *Northern Constabulary*, refers to the same area as that covered by the fire and rescue service. ### Historical crossings There have been trackways from the Lowlands to the Highlands since prehistoric times. Many traverse the Mounth, a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the North Sea slightly north of Stonehaven. The most well-known and historically important trackways are the Causey Mounth, Elsick Mounth, Cryne Corse Mounth and Cairnamounth. ### Courier delivery Although most of the Highlands is geographically on the British mainland, it is somewhat less accessible than the rest of Britain; thus most UK couriers categorise it separately, alongside Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, and other offshore islands. They thus charge additional fees for delivery to the Highlands, or exclude the area entirely. Whilst the physical remoteness from the largest population centres inevitably leads to higher transit cost, there is confusion and consternation over the scale of the fees charged and the effectiveness of their communication, and the use of the word Mainland in their justification. Since the charges are often based on postcode areas, many far less remote areas, including some which are traditionally considered part of the lowlands, are also subject to these charges. Royal Mail is the only delivery network bound by a Universal Service Obligation to charge a uniform tariff across the UK. This, however, applies only to mail items and not larger packages which are dealt with by its Parcelforce division. Geology ------- The Highlands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven. This part of Scotland is largely composed of ancient rocks from the Cambrian and Precambrian periods which were uplifted during the later Caledonian Orogeny. Smaller formations of Lewisian gneiss in the northwest are up to 3 billion years old. The overlying rocks of the Torridon Sandstone form mountains in the Torridon Hills such as Liathach and Beinn Eighe in Wester Ross. These foundations are interspersed with many igneous intrusions of a more recent age, the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and the Cuillin of Skye. A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of Old Red Sandstone found principally along the Moray Firth coast and partially down the Highland Boundary Fault. The Jurassic beds found in isolated locations on Skye and Applecross reflect the complex underlying geology. They are the original source of much North Sea oil. The Great Glen is formed along a transform fault which divides the Grampian Mountains to the southeast from the Northwest Highlands. The entire region was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages, save perhaps for a few nunataks. The complex geomorphology includes incised valleys and lochs carved by the action of mountain streams and ice, and a topography of irregularly distributed mountains whose summits have similar heights above sea-level, but whose bases depend upon the amount of denudation to which the plateau has been subjected in various places. Climate ------- The region is much warmer than other areas at similar latitudes (such as Kamchatka in Russia, or Labrador in Canada) because of the Gulf Stream making it cool, damp and temperate. The Köppen climate classification is “Cfb” at low altitudes, then becoming “Cfc”, “Dfc” and “ET” at higher altitudes. Places of interest ------------------ * An Teallach * Aonach Mòr (Nevis Range ski centre) * Arrochar Alps * Balmoral Castle * Balquhidder * Battlefield of Culloden * Beinn Alligin * Beinn Eighe * Ben Cruachan hydro-electric power station * Ben Lomond * Ben Macdui (second highest mountain in Scotland and UK) * Ben Nevis (highest mountain in Scotland and UK) * Cairngorms National Park * Cairngorm Ski centre near Aviemore * Cairngorm Mountains * Caledonian Canal * Cape Wrath * Carrick Castle * Castle Stalker * Castle Tioram * Chanonry Point * Conic Hill * Culloden Moor * Dunadd * Duart Castle * Durness * Eilean Donan * Fingal's Cave (Staffa) * Fort George * Glen Coe * Glen Etive * Glen Kinglas * Glen Lyon * Glen Orchy * Glenshee Ski Centre * Glen Shiel * Glen Spean * Glenfinnan (and its railway station and viaduct) * Grampian Mountains * Hebrides * Highland Folk Museum – The first open-air museum in the UK. * Highland Wildlife Park * Inveraray Castle * Inveraray Jail * Inverness Castle * Inverewe Garden * Iona Abbey * Isle of Staffa * Kilchurn Castle * Kilmartin Glen * Liathach * Lecht Ski Centre * Loch Alsh * Loch Ard * Loch Awe * Loch Assynt * Loch Earn * Loch Etive * Loch Fyne * Loch Goil * Loch Katrine * Loch Leven * Loch Linnhe * Loch Lochy * Loch Lomond * Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park * Loch Lubnaig * Loch Maree * Loch Morar * Loch Morlich * Loch Ness * Loch Nevis * Loch Rannoch * Loch Tay * Lochranza * Luss * Meall a' Bhuiridh (Glencoe Ski Centre) * Scottish Sea Life Sanctuary at Loch Creran * Rannoch Moor * Red Cuillin * Rest and Be Thankful stretch of A83 * River Carron, Wester Ross * River Spey * River Tay * Ross and Cromarty * Smoo Cave * Stob Coire a' Chàirn * Stac Polly * Strathspey Railway * Sutherland * Tor Castle * Torridon Hills * Urquhart Castle * West Highland Line (scenic railway) * West Highland Way (Long-distance footpath) * Wester Ross Gallery ------- * The Glenfinnan Viaduct from below.The Glenfinnan Viaduct from below. * The SaddleThe Saddle * Loch Scavaig, Isle of SkyeLoch Scavaig, Isle of Skye * InvernessInverness * The islands of Loch MareeThe islands of Loch Maree * The interior of Smoo Cave, SutherlandThe interior of Smoo Cave, Sutherland * Cape Wrath Lighthouse in the far NW of the HighlandsCape Wrath Lighthouse in the far NW of the Highlands * BlavenBlaven * Gair LochGair Loch * The Kyle of DurnessThe Kyle of Durness * The Quirang, Isle of SkyeThe Quirang, Isle of Skye * Two hinds in the HighlandsTwo hinds in the Highlands * Loch an LòinLoch an Lòin * Highland Cattle originates from the Scottish HighlandsHighland Cattle originates from the Scottish Highlands See also -------- * Ben Nevis * Buachaille Etive Mòr * Fauna of Scotland * Highland 2007 * James Hunter (historian), historian who wrote several books related to the Scottish Highlands * List of fauna of the Scottish Highlands * List of towns and villages in the Scottish Highlands * Mountains and hills of Scotland Further reading --------------- * Baxter, Colin, and C. J. Tabraham. *The Scottish Highlands* (2008), heavily illustrated * Gray, Malcolm. *The Highland Economy, 1750–1850* (Edinburgh, 1957) * Humphreys, Rob, and Donald Reid. *The Rough Guide to Scottish Highlands and Islands* (3rd ed. 2004) * Keay, J. and J. Keay. *Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland* (1994) * Kermack, William Ramsay. *The Scottish Highlands: a short history, c. 300–1746* (1957) * Lister, John Anthony. *The Scottish Highlands* (1978) 57°07′N 4°43′W / 57.12°N 4.71°W / 57.12; -4.71

Scottish Highlands

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Highlands

**Yinchuan** (UK: /jɪnˈtʃwæn/, US: /-tʃwɑːn/; simplified Chinese: 银川; traditional Chinese: 銀川; pinyin: *Yínchuān*) is the capital of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, China, and was the capital of the Tangut-led Western Xia dynasty. It has an area of 8,874.61 km2 (3,426.51 sq mi) and a total population of 2,859,074 according to the 2020 Chinese census, and its built-up area was home to 1,901,793 inhabitants spread between three urban districts. The city's name literally means "silver river". Yinchuan is now the permanent site for the China-Arab Expo, a platform for cultural and economic exchanges between China and Arab countries. The city is also home to Ningxia University, the largest regional comprehensive university under the Project 211 in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. History ------- The area that is now Yinchuan was home to Shuidonggou, China's earliest paleolithic site. It dates from over 30,000 years ago, Later in Chinese prehistory, rock art was created in the Helan mountains adjacent to modern-day Yinchuan. Yinchuan was originally a county under the name of *Fuping* in the 1st century BCE; its name was changed to *Huaiyuan* in the 6th century CE. ### Western Xia and Mongol Conquest After the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907, Yinchuan came under the control of the Tanguts. In 1038, the Tangut leader Yuanhao declared himself emperor of the Great Xia and made Yinchuan his capital, at that time known as "Xingqing" (simplified Chinese: 兴庆; traditional Chinese: 興慶; pinyin: *Xīngqìng*). This provoked much of the native Han population to emigrate. Several of Yinchuan's important cultural sites were built under the Western Xia, such as the Pagoda of Chengtian and the Western Xia mausoleums. In the autumn of 1209, the Mongols invaded Western Xia. They laid siege to Yinchuan, which by this point was known as "Zhongxing". The garrison of 150,000 managed to hold out against the Mongols, although Western Xia submitted to Mongol suzerainty regardless. After Xia attempted to reassert its independence, in 1227 the Mongols returned and slaughtered the city's entire population. Ghenghis Khan died during the siege under debated circumstances. The Mongols knew the city as "Iryai". ### Ming and Qing dynasties Under the Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1911) dynasties, it was a prefecture of Ningxia. During the Dungan revolt, Dungan forces massacred 100,000 people in Yinchuan. In 1739, the city was heavily affected by the Yinchuan–Pingluo earthquake. A maximum intensity of XII was determined on the Chinese seismic intensity scale, and XI on the Mercalli intensity scale. The earthquake collapsed most houses, temples, offices, and a city wall 10 m (33 ft) tall and 6 m (20 ft) wide. Ground fissures up to an meter wide, and 100 m (330 ft) long, and great subsidence were accounted in historical records. Over 15,300 people killed and the city was completely levelled. Blazing fires burned all the way through the night as many canals were destroyed, shutting off the flow of water. The ground opened for more than 100 m (330 ft), where sand and black water erupted. Aftershocks persisted for more than two years with the largest being a 5.5 on February 13 that same year. ### 20th century In 1928, when the province of Ningxia was formed from part of Gansu, Yinchuan became the capital city. In 1954, when Ningxia province was abolished, the city was put in Gansu province; but, with the establishment of the Ningxia Hui autonomous region in 1958, Yinchuan once again became the capital. Traditionally, Yinchuan was an administrative and commercial center. In the 1950s, the city had many commercial enterprises, and there were some handicrafts, but no modern industry. The city has since grown considerably. Extensive coal deposits discovered on the eastern bank of the Yellow River, near Shizuishan, 100 km (62 mi) to the north, have made Shizuishan a coal-mining center. Yinchuan, however, remains largely non-industrial. The immediate plains area, intensively irrigated by a system developed as long ago as the Han (206 BC–AD 220) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, is extremely productive. Yinchuan is the chief agricultural market and distribution center for this area and also deals in animal products from the herds tended by nomads in the surrounding grasslands. It is a market for grain and has flour mills, as well as rice-hulling and oil-extraction plants. The wool produced in the surrounding plains supplies a woolen-textile mill. During the nationwide 1989 Protests that followed the death of Hu Yaobang, Yinchuan was the site of student demonstrations responding to the April 26 Editorial. On May 28 numbers dropped drastically when only 3,000 students took to the streets. A similar number of people would march again, this time with wreaths and banners, when they heard the news about the June 4 crackdown in Beijing. On July 23, 1993, China Northwest Airlines Flight 2119in route from Yinchuan Xihuayuan Airport to Beijing Capital International Airport crashed into a lake after it was unable to get airborne while attempting to take off at Yinchuan Airport, killing 54 passengers and 1 crew member on board. ### 21st century On 21 June 2023, a gas explosion inside of a barbecue restaurant in Yinchuan killed at least 31 people and injured 7 others. Geography --------- Yinchuan lies in the middle of the Yinchuan Plain. It is sheltered from the deserts of Mongolia by the high ranges of the Helan Mountains to its west. The Yellow River runs through Yinchuan from southwest to northeast. The average elevation of Yinchuan is 1,100 meters (about 3,608 feet). The urban center of Yinchuan lies about halfway between the Yellow River and the edge of Helan Mountains. ### Climate Yinchuan has a cold desert climate (Köppen *BWk*) with an annual rainfall of 186 mm (7.32 in). Yinchuan has distinct seasons, with dry, cold winters, late springs and short summers. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from −7.3 °C (18.9 °F) in January to 23.9 °C (75.0 °F) in July, with the annual mean at 9.5 °C (49.1 °F). Diurnal temperature variation tends to be large due to the aridity, which also partly contributes to the sunny climate; with monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 63 percent in three months to 71 percent in November, the city receives 2,906 hours of bright sunshine annually. There are 158 frost-free days. | Climate data for Yinchuan (1981–2010 normals, extremes 1951–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 16.7(62.1) | 19.4(66.9) | 26.7(80.1) | 35.1(95.2) | 36.5(97.7) | 37.0(98.6) | 39.3(102.7) | 37.8(100.0) | 35.7(96.3) | 27.7(81.9) | 24.0(75.2) | 15.9(60.6) | 39.3(102.7) | | Average high °C (°F) | −0.5(31.1) | 4.3(39.7) | 11.2(52.2) | 19.3(66.7) | 24.5(76.1) | 28.4(83.1) | 29.9(85.8) | 28.0(82.4) | 23.4(74.1) | 17.1(62.8) | 8.0(46.4) | 0.9(33.6) | 16.2(61.2) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | −7.3(18.9) | −2.8(27.0) | 4.0(39.2) | 11.8(53.2) | 17.8(64.0) | 22.1(71.8) | 23.9(75.0) | 21.9(71.4) | 16.7(62.1) | 9.7(49.5) | 1.7(35.1) | −5.2(22.6) | 9.5(49.2) | | Average low °C (°F) | −12.8(9.0) | −8.7(16.3) | −2.0(28.4) | 4.8(40.6) | 11.0(51.8) | 15.7(60.3) | 18.1(64.6) | 16.3(61.3) | 10.9(51.6) | 3.7(38.7) | −3.1(26.4) | −10.0(14.0) | 3.7(38.6) | | Record low °C (°F) | −30.6(−23.1) | −25.4(−13.7) | −19.3(−2.7) | −11.7(10.9) | −3.8(25.2) | 3.9(39.0) | 11.1(52.0) | 6.8(44.2) | −3.3(26.1) | −9.0(15.8) | −15.8(3.6) | −29.3(−20.7) | −30.6(−23.1) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 1.2(0.05) | 2.2(0.09) | 6.1(0.24) | 8.8(0.35) | 23.9(0.94) | 23.9(0.94) | 35.6(1.40) | 44.0(1.73) | 24.5(0.96) | 9.4(0.37) | 2.3(0.09) | 1.0(0.04) | 182.9(7.2) | | Average precipitation days (≥ 0.1 mm) | 1.2 | 1.4 | 2.3 | 2.6 | 4.1 | 5.6 | 7.9 | 8.7 | 5.7 | 3.4 | 1.4 | 0.8 | 45.1 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 55 | 49 | 45 | 40 | 46 | 53 | 61 | 66 | 66 | 60 | 62 | 60 | 55 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 205.7 | 201.1 | 232.6 | 255.5 | 287.1 | 285.3 | 281.8 | 267.2 | 240.2 | 231.9 | 214.3 | 203.1 | 2,905.8 | | Percent possible sunshine | 68 | 67 | 63 | 65 | 65 | 64 | 63 | 63 | 65 | 67 | 71 | 69 | 66 | | Source: China Meteorological Administration (precipitation days and sunshine 1971–2000) | Administrative divisions ------------------------ | Map | | --- | | **Xingqing** **Xixia** **Jinfeng** **YongningCounty** **HelanCounty** **Lingwu(city)** | | Name | Simplified Chinese | Hanyu Pinyin | Xiao'erjing | Population(2019) | Area (km2) | Density (/km2) | | **City proper** | | Xingqing District | 兴庆区 | *Xīngqìng Qū* | ثٍْ‌ٿٍْ ٿِيُوِ‎ | 755,441 | 768 | 984 | | Jinfeng District | 金凤区 | *Jīnfèng Qū* | ڭٍ‌فٍْ ٿِيُوِ‎ | 369,296 | 290 | 1,273 | | Xixia District | 西夏区 | *Xīxià Qū* | ثِ‌ثِيَا ٿِيُوِ‎ | 362,842 | 987 | 368 | | **Satellite cities** | | Lingwu City | 灵武市 | *Língwǔ Shì* | لِئٍ‌وُ شِ‎ | 296,122 | 4,639 | 64 | | **Rural** | | Yongning County | 永宁县 | *Yǒngníng Xiàn* | يٌ‌نِئٍ ثِيًا‎ | 245,570 | 1,295 | 190 | | Helan County | 贺兰县 | *Hèlán Xiàn* | حَ‌لًا ثِيًا‎ | 263,832 | 1,600 | 165 | Demographics ------------ ### Ethnic groups As of 2019, 72.43% of the city's population is Han Chinese, 25.79% is Hui, and 1.78% are other ethnic minorities. Of the city's six county-level divisions, all have a super-majority of Han Chinese people sans the county-level city of Lingwu, which is majority Hui. ### Urbanization Of the city's population, 79.05% live in urban areas as of 2019. This proportion is highest in Xixia District, where 91.28% of the population lives in urban areas, and is lowest in Lingwu, where 58.22% of the population lives in urban areas. Economy ------- The city's gross domestic product per capita was ¥31,436 (US$4,526) in 2008, ranking 197th of 659 Chinese cities. In 2010, Yinchuan was designated as the site for the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum. At the national level, Yinchuan hosts various events such as the China-Arab States Expo, to function as a commercial link between China and Arab States. Yinchuan has an aircraft tire plant owned by Singapore-based Giti Tire. Yinchuan classifies itself as a 'smart city', where modern technology is employed such as facial recognition for public transport payments, connected trash bins and digital citizen service centres. Transportation -------------- * It is served by Yinchuan Hedong International Airport. It is 25 km (16 mi) from Yinchuan and has flights to Beijing, Chengdu, Dunhuang, Guangzhou, Shanghai, Xian, and Zhengzhou. * It is served by a river port at Hengcheng, about 15 km (9.3 mi) to the east. Until the 1950s the river, which is navigable downstream as far as Baotou in the Inner Mongolian autonomous region and upstream to Zhongwei and Zhongning, was the chief communication link. * Highways also link the city to Baotou along the river, to Lanzhou in Gansu province to the southwest, to Wuwei in Gansu to the west, and to Xi'an in Shaanxi province to the southeast. * Since 1958 the city has been served by Yinchuan railway station on the Baotou–Lanzhou railway and is thus linked to other parts of China by rail. The Taiyuan–Zhongwei–Yinchuan railway opened in 2011. * China National Highway 211 * G69 Yinchuan–Baise Expressway * Yinchuan is the first Chinese city to implement a monorail beyond demonstrational use, transporting visitors around the Yinchuan International Flower Expo park. Culture ------- Although most residents are Han Chinese, Yinchuan is a center for the Muslim Hui people, who constitute slightly over a quarter of the population. Hui Muslims play a vital role as being middlemen in trade between the Middle East and China, and the China-Middle East trade has become increasingly important to the country. Consequently, the national government has started constructing a $3.7 billion Islamic theme park called "World Muslim City" in Yinchuan. Unlike Uyghurs, who faces far more restrictions in religious freedoms, Hui Muslims generally do not seek independence from China and have a cultural affinity to the Han, and are far more assimilated into mainstream Chinese life. A number of cultural festivals are celebrated in Yinchuan. These include an Internet Film Festival, a Car and Motorcycle Tourism Festival, and a International Poetry Festival. Until 2000, Yinchuan was also the traditional host of a August festival celebrating the harvesting of Goji berries (a major product of Ningxia). Tourism ------- The city's attractions include the Sand-lake, the Western Xia tombs, and the China Western film Studios. Sand Lake is a lake in a desert 35 miles north of Yinchuan with birds, reeds, lotus and fish. The Western Xia Imperial Tombs are 15.5 miles west of Yinchuan on east side of Mt. Helan. Since June 1972, nine imperial tombs and 253 lesser tombs have been unearthed, which are as grand as Ming Tombs in Beijing. With a total area of more than 19.3 square miles, it is unique among royal burials. China West Film Studio, which has been famed as 'One Superb in China, and Treasure of Ningxia Province', is at the eastern foot of the magnificent Helanshan Mountain, 25 kilometers from the railway station of Yinchuan City, and 48 kilometers from Hedong Airport. It produced The Herdsman, Red Sorghum, Lover's Grief over the Yellow River, New Dragon Gate Inn, Ashes of Time, A Chinese Odyssey, Qiao's Grand Courtyard (TV series) and nearly one hundred other films. In 2018, John Cena lived for five months in Yinchuan while working on a film, *Project X-Traction*, with Jackie Chan (the movie was never ultimately released). There are two pagodas in Yinchuan that are part of the 'Eight Famous Scenery of Ningxia': one is the Haibao Pagoda in the northern suburb and the other is the Chengtiansi Pagoda in the west. Parts of the Great Wall are near the city. Colleges and universities ------------------------- * Ningxia University * Ningxia Medical University See also -------- * List of twin towns and sister cities in China

Yinchuan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yinchuan

**Kermanshah** (Persian: کرمانشاه, romanized: *Kermânšâh* [keɾmɒːnˈʃɒː] (), Kurdish: کرماشان, romanized: *Kirmaşan*), is the capital of Kermanshah Province, located 525 kilometres (326 miles) from Tehran in the western part of Iran. According to the 2016 census, its population is 946,681 (2021 estimate 1,047,000). A majority of the people of Kermanshah are bilingual in Southern Kurdish and Persian, and the city is the largest Kurdish city in Iran. Kermanshah has a moderate and mountainous climate. Most of the inhabitants of Kermanshah are Shia Muslims, but there are also Sunni Muslims, Christians, and followers of Yarsanism. Etymology --------- "Kermanshah" derives from the Sasanian-era title *Kirmanshah*, which translates as "King of Kerman". Famously, this title was held by the son of Shapur III, Prince Bahram, who was bestowed with the title upon being appointed governor of the province of Kirman (present-day Kerman Province). Later, in 390, when he had already succeeded his father as Bahram IV (r. 388–399), he founded Kermanshah, and applied his former title to the new city, i.e. "(City of the) King of Kerman". After the revolution in 1979, the city was named **Ghahramanshahr** for a short period of time, and later the name of the city as well as the province changed to Bakhtaran, apparently due to the presence of the word "Shah" in the original name. Bakhtaran means western, which refers to the location of the city and the province within Iran. After the Iran–Iraq War, however, the city was renamed Kermanshah, as it resonated more with the desire of its residents, the Persian literature, and the collective memory of the Iranians. History ------- Historical population| Year | Pop. | ±% p.a. | | --- | --- | --- | | 1986 | 560,514 | —     | | 1991 | 624,084 | +2.17% | | 1996 | 692,986 | +2.12% | | 2006 | 794,863 | +1.38% | | 2011 | 851,405 | +1.38% | | 2016 | 946,651 | +2.14% | | source: | ### Prehistory Because of its antiquity, attractive landscapes, rich culture and Neolithic villages, Kermanshah is considered one of the cradles of prehistoric cultures. According to archaeological surveys and excavation, the Kermanshah area has been occupied by prehistoric people since the Lower Paleolithic period, and continued to later Paleolithic periods till late Pleistocene period. The Lower Paleolithic evidence consists of some handaxes found in the Gakia area to the east of the city. The Middle Paleolithic remains have been found in various parts of the province, especially in the northern vicinity of the city in Tang-e Kenesht, Tang-e Malaverd and near Taq-e Bostan. Neanderthal Man existed in the Kermanshah region during this period and the only discovered skeletal remains of this early human in Iran was found in three caves and rockshelter situated in Kermanshah province. The known Paleolithic caves in this area are Warwasi, Qobeh, Malaverd and Do-Ashkaft Cave. The region was also one of the first places in which human settlements including Asiab, Qazanchi, Sarab, Chia Jani, and Ganj-Darreh were established between 8,000 and 10,000 years ago. This is about the same time that the first potteries pertaining to Iran were made in Ganj-Darreh, near present-day Harsin. In May 2009, based on a research conducted by the university of Hamadan and UCL, the head of Archeology Research Center of Iran's Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization announced that the one of the oldest prehistoric village in the Middle East dating back to 9800 B.P., was discovered in Sahneh, located west of Kermanshah. Remains of later village occupations and early Bronze Age are found in a number of mound sites in the city itself. The city contains 4 archaeological mound sites: Chogha Kaboud, Chogha Golan, Morad Hasel, and Tappa Gawri. ### Sassanid Kermanshah In ancient Iranian mythology, construction of the city is attributed to Tahmuras, the third king of Pishdadian dynasty. It is believed that the Sassanids have constructed Kermanshah and Bahram IV (he was called Kermanshah, meaning king of Kerman) gave his name to this city. It was a glorious city in Sassanid period about the 4th century AD when it became the capital city of Persian Empire and a significant health center serving as the summer resort for Sassanid kings. In AD 226, following a two-year war led by the Persian Emperor, Ardashir I, against "Kurdish" tribes in the region, the empire reinstated a local "Kurdish" prince, Kayus of Medya, to rule Kermanshah. At the time, the term "Kurd" was used as a social term, designating Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group. The word became an ethnic identity in the 12th and 13th century. Within the dynasty known as the House of Kayus (also *Kâvusakân*) remained a semi-independent kingdom lasting until AD 380 before Ardashir II removed the dynasty's last ruling member. ### Islamic era Kermanshah was conquered by the Arabs in 629 AD. Under Seljuk rule in the eleventh century, it became the major cultural and commercial center in western Iran and the southern Kurdish-inhabited areas as a whole. The Safavids fortified the town, and the Qajars repulsed an attack by the Ottomans during Fath Ali Shah's rule (1797–1834). Kermanshah was occupied by Ottomans between 1723–1729 and 1731–1732. ### Modern history Occupied by the Imperial Russian army in 1914, followed by the Ottoman Army in 1915 during World War I, it was evacuated in 1917 when the British forces arrived there to expel the Ottomans. Kermanshah played an important role in the Iranian Constitutional Revolution during the Qajar dynasty period and the Republic Movement in Pahlavi dynasty period. The city was harshly damaged during the Iran–Iraq War, and although it was rebuilt, it has not yet fully recovered. Climate ------- Kermanshah has a climate which is heavily influenced by the proximity of the Zagros mountains, classified as a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (*Csa*). The city's altitude and exposed location relative to westerly winds makes precipitation a little bit high (more than twice that of Tehran), but at the same time produces huge diurnal temperature swings especially in the virtually rainless summers, which remain extremely hot during the day. Kermanshah experiences rather cold winters and there are usually rainfalls in fall and spring. Snow cover is seen for at least a couple of weeks in winter. | Climate data for Kermanshah, Iran (1951–2010) | | --- | | Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year | | Record high °C (°F) | 20.2(68.4) | 21.8(71.2) | 28.4(83.1) | 33.7(92.7) | 38.5(101.3) | 43.0(109.4) | 44.1(111.4) | 44.0(111.2) | 40.4(104.7) | 34.4(93.9) | 28.4(83.1) | 25.4(77.7) | 44.1(111.4) | | Average high °C (°F) | 7.4(45.3) | 9.8(49.6) | 14.8(58.6) | 20.2(68.4) | 26.3(79.3) | 33.7(92.7) | 38.0(100.4) | 37.5(99.5) | 32.8(91.0) | 25.5(77.9) | 16.7(62.1) | 10.3(50.5) | 22.8(72.9) | | Daily mean °C (°F) | 1.9(35.4) | 3.7(38.7) | 8.0(46.4) | 12.8(55.0) | 17.4(63.3) | 22.9(73.2) | 27.3(81.1) | 26.7(80.1) | 21.9(71.4) | 16.2(61.2) | 9.4(48.9) | 4.4(39.9) | 14.4(57.9) | | Average low °C (°F) | −3.6(25.5) | −2.4(27.7) | 1.3(34.3) | 5.4(41.7) | 8.5(47.3) | 12.1(53.8) | 16.6(61.9) | 16.0(60.8) | 11.1(52.0) | 6.8(44.2) | 2.0(35.6) | −1.4(29.5) | 6.0(42.9) | | Record low °C (°F) | −24(−11) | −27.0(−16.6) | −11.3(11.7) | −6.1(21.0) | −1.0(30.2) | 2.0(35.6) | 8.0(46.4) | 8.0(46.4) | 1.2(34.2) | −3.5(25.7) | −17.0(1.4) | −17(1) | −27.0(−16.6) | | Average precipitation mm (inches) | 60.0(2.36) | 58.5(2.30) | 80.3(3.16) | 64.7(2.55) | 29.2(1.15) | 1.2(0.05) | 0.5(0.02) | 0.3(0.01) | 2.1(0.08) | 25.5(1.00) | 55.9(2.20) | 61.0(2.40) | 439.2(17.28) | | Average precipitation days | 8.6 | 8.4 | 9.3 | 8.3 | 4.6 | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.4 | 3.1 | 5.9 | 7.4 | 56.6 | | Average snowy days | 5.4 | 4.0 | 1.8 | 0.2 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 2.6 | 14.3 | | Average relative humidity (%) | 73 | 68 | 60 | 56 | 47 | 28 | 23 | 22 | 25 | 39 | 59 | 70 | 48 | | Mean monthly sunshine hours | 142.7 | 152.3 | 190.1 | 210.3 | 273.3 | 346.8 | 348.2 | 337.5 | 304.4 | 245.2 | 189.9 | 150.9 | 2,891.6 | | Source: Iran Meteorological Organization (records), (temperatures), (precipitation), (humidity), (days with precipitation and snow), (sunshine) | Main sights ----------- Kermanshah sights include Kohneh Bridge, Behistun Inscription, Taghbostan, Temple of Anahita, Dinavar, Ganj Dareh, Essaqwand Rock Tombs, Sorkh Deh chamber tomb, Malek Tomb, Hulwan, Median dakhmeh (Darbad, Sahneh), Parav cave, Do-Ashkaft Cave, Tekyeh Moaven al-molk, Dokan Davood Inscription, Sar Pol-e-Zahab, Tagh e gara, Patagh pass, Sarab Niloufar, Ghoori Ghale Cave, Khajeh Barookh's House, Chiyajani Tappe, Statue of Herakles in Behistun complex, Emad al doleh Mosque, Tekyeh Biglarbeigi, Hunters cave, Jamé Mosque of Kermanshah, Godin Tepe, Bas relief of Gotarzes II of Parthia, and Anobanini bas relief. ### Taq-e Bostan Taghbostan is a series of large rock reliefs from the era of Sassanid Empire of Persia, the Iranian dynasty which ruled western Asia from 226 to 650 AD. This example of Sassanid art is located 5 km (3 mi) from the city center of Kermanshah in western Iran. It is located in the heart of the Zagros mountains, where it has endured almost 1,700 years of wind and rain. The carvings, some of the finest and best-preserved examples of Persian sculpture under the Sassanids, include representations of the investitures of Ardashir II (379–383) and Shapur III (383–388). Like other Sassanid symbols, Taghbostan and its relief patterns accentuate power, religious tendencies, glory, honor, the vastness of the court, game and fighting spirit, festivity, joy, and rejoicing. Sassanid kings chose a beautiful setting for their rock reliefs along an historic Silk Road caravan route waypoint and campground. The reliefs are adjacent a sacred spring that empties into a large reflecting pool at the base of a mountain cliff. Taghbostan and its rock relief are one of the 30 surviving Sassanid relics of the Zagros Mountains. According to Arthur Pope, the founder of Iranian art and archeology Institute in the US, "art was characteristic of the Iranian people and the gift which they endowed the world with." One of the most impressive reliefs inside the largest grotto or *ivan* is the gigantic equestrian figure of the Sassanid king Khosrow II (591-628 AD) mounted on his favorite charger, Shabdiz. Both horse and rider are arrayed in full battle armor. The arch rests on two columns that bear delicately carved patterns showing the tree of life or the sacred tree. Above the arch and located on two opposite sides are figures of two winged angels with diadems. Around the outer layer of the arch, a conspicuous margin has been carved, jagged with flower patterns. These patterns are also found in the official costumes of Sassanid kings. Equestrian relief panel measured on 16.08.07 approx. 7.45 m across by 4.25 m high. ### Behistun The Behistun inscription is considered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Behistun Inscription (also *Bisitun* or *Bisutun*, Modern Persian: بیستون; Old Persian: *Bagastana*, meaning "the god's place or land") is a multi-lingual inscription located on Mount Behistun. The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. A British army officer, Henry Rawlinson, had the inscription transcribed in two parts, in 1835 and 1843. Rawlinson was able to translate the Old Persian cuneiform text in 1838, and the Elamite and Babylonian texts were translated by Rawlinson and others after 1843. Babylonian was a later form of Akkadian: both are Semitic languages. In effect, then, the inscription is to cuneiform what the Rosetta Stone is to Egyptian hieroglyphs: the document most crucial in the decipherment of a previously lost script. The inscription is approximately 15 metres high by 25 meters wide, and 100 meters up a limestone cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of Babylonia and Media (Babylon and Ecbatana). It is extremely inaccessible as the mountainside was removed to make the inscription more visible after its completion. The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 593 lines in eight columns and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius, holding a bow as a sign of kingship, with his left foot on the chest of a figure lying on his back before him. The prostrate figure is reputed to be the pretender Gaumata. Darius is attended to the left by two servants, and ten one-metre figures stand to the right, with hands tied and rope around their necks, representing conquered peoples. Faravahar floats above, giving his blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was (oddly enough) Darius' beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with iron pins and lead. ### Qajar dynasty monuments During the Qajar dynasty (1794 to 1925), Kermanshah Bazaar, mosques and tekyehs such as Tekyeh Biglarbeygi and Moaven al-molk Mosque, and beautiful houses such as Khajeh Barookh's House were built. Tekyeh Biglarbeygi is well known for unique mirror decoration. Tekyeh Biglarbeygi was made during Qajar dynasty by efforts of Abdullah khan Biglarbeygi. Tekyeh Moaven al-molk is unique because it has many pictures on the walls that relate to shahnameh, despite some of its more religious ones. Khajeh Barookh's House is located in the old district of Faizabad, a Jewish neighborhood of the city. It was built by a Jewish merchant of the Qajar period, named Barookh/Baruch. The house, an historical depiction of Iranian architecture, was renamed "Randeh-Kesh House", after the last owner, is a "daroongara"(inward oriented) house and is connected through a vestibule to the exterior yard and through a corridor to the interior yard. Surrounding the interior yard are rooms, brick pillars making the iwans(porches) of the house, and step-like column capitals decorated with brick-stalactite work. This house is among the rare Qajar houses with a private bathroom. ### Bazaars Kermanshah is home to at least one bazaar dating back to the Qajar period. **Kermanshah Grand Bazaar** or ***Tarike Bazaar*** was built around 1820 when Prince Mohammad Ali Mirza Dowlatshah of Qajar dynasty governed over Kermanshah, and used to be the largest grand bazaar of Middle East during its time. Economy ------- Kermanshah is one of the western agricultural core of Iran that produces grain, rice, vegetable, fruits, and oilseeds, however Kermanshah is emerging as a fairly important industrial city; there are two industrial centers with more than 256 manufacturing units in the suburb of the city. These industries include petrochemical refinery, textile manufacturing, food processing, carpet making, sugar refining, and the production of electrical equipment and tools. Kermanshah Oil Refining Company (KORC) established in 1932 by British companies, is one of the major industries in the city. After recent changes in Iraq, Kermanshah has become one of the main importing and exporting gates of Iran. Education --------- ### Higher education More than 49 thousands students are educating in 9 governmental and private universities in the city. Established in 1968 as the *Kermanshah Graduate School of Nursing*, the Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences was the first university in the west part of Iran. The medical school as a division of *Razi University* was established in 1976 and admitted some students in general practice. Razi University established in 1972 was the second university in the west part of Iran and is the most-prominent higher education institute in Kermanshah province and also west part of the country. In 2020, Razi University ranked 24th in Iran and 1300th in the world by the U.S. News in universities of all countries of the world based upon 13 factors. Some of Kermanshah universities are: * Islamic Azad University of Kermanshah * Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences * Kermanshah University of Technology * Payame Noor University * Razi University ### Schools Mohtashamiyeh (Persian: محتشمیه), established in 1899, was the first modern school in Kermanshah founded by Husseinali-Khan Mohandes-e Guran. Khalq Study Hall (Persian: قرائتخانۀ خلق) was the first study hall in Kermanshah and also an adult school founded in 1909. Alliance Israélite school of Kermanshah founded by the Alliance Israélite Universelle in 1904. The Azodiyeh State School for Misses (Persian: مدرسه دولتی دوشیزگان عضدیه) was the first girls' school, founded in 1922. The first private school in Kermanshah was founded in 1991. Notable people -------------- ### Arts * Ali Mohammad Afghani, novelist * Seyed Khalil Alinezhad, Tanbour master * Mahshid Amirshahi, writer * Nozar Azadi, actor * Ali Ashraf Darvishian, novelist and writer * Pouran Derakhshandeh, film director, producer, screenwriter * Reza Shafiei Jam, actor * Mirza Mohammad Reza Kalhor, calligrapher * Mir Jalaleddin Kazzazi, writer * Rahim Moeini Kermanshahi, poet, lyricist * Alexis Kouros, writer, documentary-maker, director, and producer * Abolghasem Lahouti, poet * Doris Lessing, writer, 2007 winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature (born in Kermanshah to British parents) * Aref Lorestani, actor, comedian * Shahram Mokri, film director * Nicky Nodjoumi, modern painter * Reza Fieze Norouzi, actor * Guity Novin, painter & graphic designer * Mohammad Salemy, artist, curator, writer * Rashid Yasemi, one of the Five-Masters of Persian Literature ### Music * Evin Agassi, singer * Kayhan Kalhor, musician * Mojtaba Mirzadeh, master of violin and setar * Roknoddin Mokhtari, violin player * Ali Akbar Moradi, musician and tanbour player * Shahram Nazeri, vocalist and musician * Sohrab Pournazeri, musician * Sousan (Golandam Taherkhani), singer * Marganita Vogt-Khofri, pianist, classical musician, and vocalist * Bahramji, musician and santur player ### Politics and military * Ebrahim Azizi, member and spokesman of the Guardian Council * Abdol Ali Badrei, commander of the Imperial Iranian Army and the Imperial Guard * Hanif Bali, member of Swedish Riksdag * Karim Sanjabi, Iran's attorney during oil nationalization movement, former foreign minister * Bijan Namdar Zangeneh, minister of Petroleum ### Sciences * Shahram Amiri, nuclear scientist * Massoud Azarnoush, archaeologist * Al-Dinawari, botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer and mathematician * Fereidoun Biglari, archaeologist ### Sports * Makwan Amirkhani, mixed martial artist, UFC fighter * Kourosh Bagheri, world weightlifting champion * Homa Hosseini, rower * Ali Mazaheri, 2006 Asian Games gold medalist, Asian champion & Olympic boxer * Mohammad Hassan Mohebbi, light heavyweight freestyle wrestler & Iran's national team coach * Mohammad Hossein Mohebbi, freestyle wrestler * Yadollah Mohebbi, 125 kg freestyle wrestler and nephew of Mohammad Hossein Mohebbi and Mohammad Hassan Mohebbi * Mohammad Ranjbar, former Iran national football team player and head coach * Kianoush Rostami, world weight lifting champion * Neda Shahsavari, table tennis champion * Mohammad Torkashvand, volleyball champion * Mehran Shahintab, Basketball champion & head coach of the Iranian national team Iran Basketball Federation * Peter Warr, businessman, racing driver and a manager for several Formula One teams * Saeid Ahmadi, world champion gold and silver medalist in karate Gallery ------- * * Anahita Temple in Kangavar Anahita Temple in Kangavar * Mount DalekhaniMount Dalekhani * Ghouri Ghaleh CaveGhouri Ghaleh Cave * Close-Up of Bisotun InscriptionClose-Up of Bisotun Inscription * Taghbostan CarvingTaghbostan Carving Twin towns – sister cities -------------------------- See also -------- * Kalhor * Visual Art High school of Kermanshah Footnotes --------- 1. ↑ Women playing harp while the king is standing in a boat holding his bow and arrows, from 6th century Sassanid Iran.

Kermanshah

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermanshah

A **developing country** is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. The term **low and middle-income country** (**LMIC**) and **Newly emerging economy (NEE)** are often used interchangeably but refers only to the economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high, upper-middle, lower-middle, and low income countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries. There are controversies over the term's use, as some feel that it perpetuates an outdated concept of "us" and "them". In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing/developed world categorization" had become less relevant and that they will phase out the use of that descriptor. Instead, their reports will present data aggregations for regions and income groups. The term "Global South" is used by some as an alternative term to developing countries. Developing countries tend to have some characteristics in common often due to their histories or geographies. For example, they commonly have: lower levels of access to safe drinking water, sanitation and hygiene, energy poverty, higher levels of pollution (e.g. air pollution, littering, water pollution, open defecation), higher proportions of people with tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases), more road traffic accidents, and generally poorer quality infrastructure. In addition, there are also often high unemployment rates, widespread poverty, widespread hunger, extreme poverty, child labour, malnutrition, homelessness, substance abuse, prostitution, overpopulation, civil disorder, human capital flight, a large informal economy, high crime rates (extortion, robbery, burglary, murder, homicide, arms trafficking, sex trafficking, drug trafficking, kidnapping, rape), low education levels, economic inequality, school desertion, inadequate access to family planning services, teenage pregnancy, many informal settlements and slums, corruption at all government levels, and political instability. Unlike developed countries, developing countries lack rule of law. Access to healthcare is often low. People in developing countries usually have lower life expectancies than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality, child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. The effects of climate change are expected to impact developing countries more than high-income countries, as most of them have a high climate vulnerability or low climate resilience. Developing countries often have lower median ages than developed countries. Population ageing is a global phenomenon, but population age has risen more slowly in developing countries. Development aid or development cooperation is financial aid given by foreign governments and other agencies to support developing countries' economic, environmental, social, and political development. If the Sustainable Development Goals which were set up by the United Nations for the year 2030 are achieved, they would overcome many of these problems. Bangladesh has consistently achieved an annual GDP growth rate that surpasses Pakistan's by approximately 2.5 percentage points each year. Terms used to classify countries -------------------------------- There are several terms used to classify countries into rough levels of development. Classification of any given country differs across sources, and sometimes, these classifications or the specific terminology used is considered disparaging. ### By income groups The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita calculated using the Atlas method, re-set each year on July 1: 1. low income countries (similar to least developed countries) 2. lower-middle income countries 3. upper-middle income countries 4. high income countries (similar to developed countries) The three groups that are not "high income" are together referred to as "low and middle income countries" (LMICs). For example, for 2022 fiscal year, a low income country is defined as one with a GNI per capita less than 1,045 in current US$; a lower middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 1,046 to 4,095 in current US$; an upper middle-income country is one with GNI per capita between 4,096 to 12,695 in current US$, and a high income country is one with GNI per capita of more than 12,696 in current US$. Historical thresholds are documented. ### By markets and economic growth Use of the term "market" instead of "country" usually indicates specific focus on the characteristics of the countries' capital markets as opposed to the overall economy. * Developed countries and developed markets * Developing countries include in decreasing order of economic growth or size of the capital market: + Newly industrialized countries + Emerging markets + Frontier markets + Least developed countries (also called less economically developed country) Under other criteria, some countries are at an intermediate stage of development, or, as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) put it, following the fall of the Soviet Union, "countries in transition": all those of Central and Eastern Europe (including Central European countries that still belonged to the "Eastern Europe Group" in the UN institutions); the former Soviet Union (USSR) countries in Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan); and Mongolia. By 2009, the IMF's World Economic Outlook classified countries as advanced, emerging, or developing, depending on "(1) per capita income level, (2) export diversification—so oil exporters that have high per capita GDP would not make the advanced classification because around 70% of its exports are oil, and (3) degree of integration into the global financial system". ### By geography Developing countries can also be categorized by geography: * Small Island Developing States (a group of developing countries that are small island countries which tend to share similar sustainable development challenges: small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments). * Landlocked Developing Countries (landlocked countries often experience economic and other disadvantages) ### By other parameters * Heavily indebted poor countries, a definition by a program of the IMF and World Bank * Transition economy, moving from a centrally planned to market-driven economy * Multi-dimensional clustering system: with the understanding that different countries have different development priorities and levels of access to resources and institutional capacities and to offer a more nuanced understanding of developing countries and their characteristics, scholars have categorized them into five distinct groups based on factors such as levels of poverty and inequality, productivity and innovation, political constraints and dependence on external flows. ### By self declaration In general, the WTO accepts any country's claim of itself being "developing". Certain countries that have become "developed" in the last 20 years by almost all economic metrics, still insist to be classified as "developing country", as it entitles them to a preferential treatment at the WTO, countries such as Brunei, Hong Kong, Kuwait, Macao, Qatar, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates have been cited and criticized for this self-declared status. Measure and concept of development ---------------------------------- Development can be measured by economic or human factors. Developing countries are, in general, countries that have not achieved a significant degree of industrialization relative to their populations, and have, in most cases, a medium to low standard of living. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The development of a country is measured with statistical indices such as income per capita (per person), gross domestic product per capita, life expectancy, the rate of literacy, freedom index and others. The UN has developed the Human Development Index (HDI), a compound indicator of some of the above statistics, to gauge the level of human development for countries where data is available. The UN had set Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the world's countries and leading development institutions, in order to evaluate growth. These goals ended in 2015, to be superseded by the Sustainable Development Goals. The concept of the developing nation is found, under one term or another, in numerous theoretical systems having diverse orientations – for example, theories of decolonization, liberation theology, Marxism, anti-imperialism, modernization, social change and political economy. Another important indicator is the sectoral changes that have occurred since the stage of development of the country. On an average, countries with a 50% contribution from the secondary sector (manufacturing) have grown substantially. Similarly countries with a tertiary sector stronghold also see a greater rate of economic development. Associated theories ------------------- The term "developing countries" has many research theories associated with it (in chronological order): * Modernization theory – to explain the process of modernization within societies * Dependency theory – the notion that resources flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states, enriching the latter at the expense of the former * Development theory – a collection of theories about how desirable change in society is best achieved. * Post-Development theory – holds that the whole concept and practice of development is a reflection of Western-Northern hegemony over the rest of the world Criticisms of the term ---------------------- There is criticism for using the term "developing country". The term could imply inferiority of this kind of country compared with a developed country. It could assume a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of economic development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan, choose not to follow. Alternative measurements such as gross national happiness have been suggested as important indicators. One of the early criticisms that questioned the use of the terms "developing" and "underdeveloped" countries was voiced in 1973 by prominent historian and academic Walter Rodney who compared the economic, social and political parameters between the United States and countries in Africa and Asia.[*clarification needed*] There is "no established convention" for defining "developing country". According to economist Jeffrey Sachs, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century.[*page needed*] The late global health expert Hans Rosling has argued against the terms, calling the concept "outdated" since the terms are used under the prerequisite that the world is divided in rich and poor countries, while the fact is that the vast majority of countries are middle-income. Given the lack of a clear definition, sustainability expert Mathis Wackernagel and founder of Global Footprint Network, emphasizes that the binary labeling of countries is "neither descriptive nor explanatory". Wackernagel and Rosling both argue that in reality, there are not two types of countries, but over 200 countries, all faced with the same laws of nature, yet each with unique features. The term "developing" refers to a current situation and not a changing dynamic or expected direction of development. Since the late 1990s, countries identified by the UN as developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than those in the developed countries category. To moderate the euphemistic aspect of the word "developing", international organizations have started to use the term less economically developed country for the poorest nations – which can, in no sense, be regarded as developing. This highlights that the standard of living across the entire developing world varies greatly. In 2015, the World Bank declared that the "developing / developed world categorization" had become less relevant, due to worldwide improvements in indices such as child mortality rates, fertility rates and extreme poverty rates. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators (WDI), the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between "developed" and "developing" countries in the presentation of its data, considering the two-category distinction outdated. Accordingly, World Bank is phasing out use of that descriptor. Instead, the reports by Worldbank (such as the WDI and the Global Monitoring Report) now include data aggregations for the whole world, for regions, and for income groups – but not for the "developing world". Related terms ------------- The term low and middle-income country (LMIC) is often used interchangeably with "developing country" but refers only to the economy of the countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries. ### Global South The term "Global South" began to be used more widely since about 2004. It can also include poorer "southern" regions of wealthy "northern" countries. The Global South refers to these countries' "interconnected histories of colonialism, neo-imperialism, and differential economic and social change through which large inequalities in living standards, life expectancy, and access to resources are maintained". The concept of Global North and Global South (or North–South divide in a global context) is used to describe a grouping of countries along the lines of socio-economic and political characteristics. The Global South is a term broadly comprises Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia without Israel, Japan, and South Korea, and Oceania without Australia and New Zealand, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Most of humanity resides in the Global South. Many countries in the Global South are characterized by low-income, dense population, poor infrastructure, and often political or cultural marginalization. The Global South forms one side of the divide, while on the other side is the Global North (broadly comprising Northern America and Europe, Israel, Japan and South Korea, as well as Australia and New Zealand, according to the UNCTAD). As such, the terms Global North and Global South do not refer to the directional North-south as many of the Global South countries are geographically located in the Northern Hemisphere. Countries that are developed are considered as Global North countries, while those developing are considered as Global South countries. The term as used by governmental and developmental organizations was first introduced as a more open and value-free alternative to "Third World" and similarly potentially "valuing" terms like developing countries. Countries of the Global South have been described as newly industrialized or are in the process of industrializing, and are frequently current or former subjects of colonialism. ### Third World (outdated) The term "Third World" arose during the Cold War and it was used to define countries that remained non-aligned with either NATO or the Warsaw Pact. The United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Western European nations and their allies represented the "First World", while the Soviet Union, China, Cuba, North Korea, Vietnam and their allies represented the "Second World". This terminology provided a way of broadly categorizing the nations of the Earth into three groups based on political divisions. Due to the complex history of evolving meanings and contexts, there is no clear or agreed-upon definition of the Third World. Strictly speaking, "Third World" was a political, rather than an economic, grouping. Common characteristics ---------------------- ### Government, politics and administration Many developing countries have only attained full self-determination and democracy after the second half of the 20th century. Many were governed by an imperial European power until decolonization. Political systems in developing countries are diverse, but most states had established some form of democratic governments by the early 21st century, with varying degrees of success and political liberty. The inhabitants of developing countries were introduced to democratic systems later and more abruptly than their Northern counterparts and were sometimes targeted by governmental and non-governmental efforts to encourage participation. 'Effective citizenship' is defined by sociologist Patrick Heller as: "closing [the] gap between formal legal rights in the civil and political arena, and the actual capability to meaningfully practice those rights". Beyond citizenship, the study of the politics of cross-border mobility in developing countries has also shed valuable light in migration debates, seen as a corrective to the traditional focus on developed countries. Some political scientists identify a 'typology of nationalizing, developmental, and neoliberal migration management regimes' across developing countries. ### Economy Following independence and decolonization in the 20th century, most developing countries had dire need of new infrastructure, industry and economic stimulation. Many relied on foreign investment. This funding focused on improving infrastructure and industry, but led to a system of systemic exploitation. They exported raw materials, such as rubber, for a bargain. Companies based in the Western world have often used the cheaper labor in developing countries for production. The West benefited significantly from this system, but left developing countries undeveloped. This arrangement is sometimes called neocolonialism, meaning a system in which less-developed countries are taken advantage of by developed countries. It does not necessarily mean that former colonies are still controlled by their former colonizer; it refers to colonial-like exploitation. Developing countries are often helping further develop rich countries, rather than being developed themselves. Several institutions have been established with the goal of putting an end to this system. One of these institutions is the New International Economic Order. They have a 'no-strings-attached' policy that promotes developing countries remaining or becoming self-sufficient. More specifically, they advocate sovereignty over natural resources and industrialization. Coalitions of developing nations, like the NIEO, frequently lobby for parity in the world stage. The rise of China might imply the rise of the BRIC countries. Common challenges ----------------- The global issues most often discussed by developing countries include globalisation, global health governance, health, and prevention needs. This is contrasted by issues developed nations tend to address, such as innovations in science and technology. Most developing countries have these criteria in common: * High levels of poverty – measured based on GNI per capita averaged over three years. For example, if the GNI per capita is less than US$1,025 (as of 2018) the country is regarded as a least developed country. * Human resource weakness (based on indicators of nutrition, health, education and adult literacy). * Economic vulnerability (based on instability of agricultural production, instability of exports of goods and services, economic importance of non-traditional activities, merchandise export concentration, handicap of economic smallness, and the percentage of population displaced by natural disasters). Among other challenges, developing countries have a higher risk of suffering a balance of payments crisis. ### Urban slums According to UN-Habitat, around 33% of the urban population in the developing world in 2012, or about 863 million people, lived in slums. In 2012, the proportion of urban population living in slums was highest in Sub-Saharan Africa (62%), followed by South Asia (35%), Southeast Asia (31%) and East Asia (28%). The UN-Habitat reports that 43% of urban population in developing countries and 78% of those in the least developed countries live in slums. Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters and social conflicts. For example, as populations expand in poorer countries, rural people move to cities in extensive urban migration that results in the creation of slums. In some cities, especially in countries in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, slums are not just marginalized neighborhoods holding a small population; slums are widespread, and are home to a large part of urban population. These are sometimes called "slum cities". ### Violence against women Several forms of violence against women are more prevalent in developing countries than in other parts of the world. Acid throwing is associated with Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and the Indian Subcontinent. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. Abuse related to payment of bride price (such as violence, trafficking and forced marriage) is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is another form of violence against women which is still occurring in many developing countries. It is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Developing countries with the highest rate of women who have been cut are Somalia (with 98% of women affected), Guinea (96%), Djibouti (93%), Egypt (91%), Eritrea (89%), Mali (89%), Sierra Leone (88%), Sudan (88%), Gambia (76%), Burkina Faso (76%), and Ethiopia (74%). Due to globalization and immigration, FGM is spreading beyond the borders of Africa, Asia and the Middle East, and to countries such as Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, New Zealand, the U.S., and UK. The Istanbul Convention prohibits female genital mutilation (Article 38). As of 2016, FGM has been legally banned in many African countries. According to UN Women facts and figures on ending violence against women, it is estimated that 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical and sexual violence by intimate partners or sexual violence by a non-partner (not including sexual harassment) at some point in their lives. Evidence shows women who have had experienced physical or sexual intimate partner violence report higher rates of depression, having an abortion and acquiring HIV, compared to women who have not had experienced any physical or sexual violence. Data from the Middle East and North Africa shows that men who witnessed their fathers against their mothers, and men who experienced some form of violence as children, more likely have reported perpetrating intimate partner violence in their adult relationships. ### Healthcare and public health The status of healthcare that the general public can access is substantially different between developing countries and developed countries. People in developing countries usually have a lower life expectancy than people in developed countries, reflecting both lower income levels and poorer public health. The burden of infectious diseases, maternal mortality, child mortality and infant mortality are typically substantially higher in those countries. Developing countries also have less access to medical health services generally, and are less likely to have the resources to purchase, produce and administer vaccines, even though vaccine equity worldwide is important to combatting pandemics, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Undernutrition is more common in developing countries. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women – in particular while pregnant or breastfeeding – children under five years of age, and the elderly. Malnutrition in children and stunted growth of children is the cause for more than 200 million children under five years of age in developing countries not reaching their developmental potential. About 165 million children were estimated to have stunted growth from malnutrition in 2013. In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same communities as undernutrition. The following list shows the further significant environmentally-related causes or conditions, as well as certain diseases with a strong environmental component: * Illness/disease (malaria, tuberculosis, AIDS, etc.): Illness imposes high and regressive cost burdens on families in developing countries. * Tropical and infectious diseases (neglected tropical diseases) * Unsafe drinking water, poor sanitation and hygiene * Indoor air pollution in developing nations * Pollution (e.g. air pollution, water pollution) * Motor vehicle collisions * Unintentional poisoning * Non communicable diseases and weak healthcare systems ### Water, sanitation, hygiene (WASH) Access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services is at very low levels in many developing countries. In 2015 the World Health Organization (WHO) estimated that "1 in 3 people, or 2.4 billion, are still without sanitation facilities" while 663 million people still lack access to safe and clean drinking water. The estimate in 2017 by JMP states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. The majority of these people live in developing countries. About 892 million people or 12 percent of the global population, practiced open defecation instead of using toilets in 2016. Seventy-six percent (678 million) of the 892 million people practicing open defecation in the world live in just seven countries. Countries with a high number of people openly defecating are India (348 million), followed by Nigeria (38.1 million), Indonesia (26.4 million), Ethiopia (23.1 million), Pakistan (19.7 million), Niger (14.6 million) and Sudan (9.7 million). Sustainable Development Goal 6 is one of 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the UN in 2015. It calls for clean water and sanitation for all people. This is particularly relevant for people in developing countries. ### Energy In 2009, about 1.4 billion of people in the world lived without electricity. 2.7 billion relied on wood, charcoal, and dung (dry animal dung fuel) for home energy requirements. This lack of access to modern energy technology limits income generation, blunts efforts to escape poverty, affects people's health due to indoor air pollution, and contributes to global deforestation and climate change. Small-scale renewable energy technologies and distributed energy options, such as onsite solar power and improved cookstoves, offer rural households modern energy services. Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative. Renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty alleviation by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting. Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. ### Pollution #### Water pollution Water pollution is a major problem in many developing countries. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution: An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases) every day. About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted. As of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. However, after a series of reforms, China's environment began to demonstrate enormous improvements around the 2010s. Under the leadership of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, a sizable fraction of high-pollution industries have been gradually phased out and many illegally polluting factories were sanctioned or closed. A considerable amount of effort went to enforce environmental regulations at regional levels and holding persons of malpractice accountable, including officials and firm managers. The slogan "clear waters and green mountains are as valuable as gold and silver mountains" proposed by Chinese leader Xi Jinping in 2005 signifies China's determination in amending environmental burdens created during industrialization while shifting to more sustainable modes of development and adopting high-end industries. Water bodies around the country are much cleaner than a decade ago and steadily approaching natural levels in pollutants. In 2021, China introduced the "coal to gas" policy as one of many policies directed towards achieving peak carbon emissions in 2060. Coal combustion in homes, power stations and production industries constitutes 60% of total energy consumption in China and is the main source of water and air pollution. It is speculated that pollution sources will be progressively eliminated as China reaches the upper tiers of developing countries. Further details of water pollution in several countries, including many developing countries: #### Indoor air pollution Indoor air pollution in developing nations is a major health hazard. A major source of indoor air pollution in developing countries is the burning of biomass. Three billion people in developing countries across the globe rely on biomass in the form of wood, charcoal, dung, and crop residue, as their domestic cooking fuel. Because much of the cooking is carried out indoors in environments that lack proper ventilation, millions of people, primarily poor women and children face serious health risks. Globally, 4.3 million deaths were attributed to exposure to IAP in developing countries in 2012, almost all in low and middle income countries. The South East Asian and Western Pacific regions bear most of the burden with 1.69 and 1.62 million deaths, respectively. Almost 600,000 deaths occur in Africa. An earlier estimate from 2000 put the death toll between 1.5 million and 2 million deaths. Finding an affordable solution to address the many effects of indoor air pollution is complex. Strategies include improving combustion, reducing smoke exposure, improving safety and reducing labor, reducing fuel costs, and addressing sustainability. ### Climate change #### Particular vulnerability to climate change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has confirmed that warming of the climate system due to human intervention is 'unequivocal'. The effects of climate change will be felt around the globe and will result in events such as extreme weather events, droughts, floods, biodiversity loss, disease and sea level rise, which are dangerous for societies and the environment. Although 79% of carbon emissions are produced by developed countries, and developing countries have not been the major cause of climate change, they are the most at risk from the effects of these changes and may face challenges in adapting to climate change due to the intersecting issues of high climate vulnerability, low economic status, restricted access to technology, failing infrastructure and limited access to financial resources. Where a country is particularly vulnerable to climate change they are called "highly climate vulnerable". This applies to many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, fragile states or failed states like Afghanistan, Haiti, Myanmar, and Somalia, as well as to Small Island Developing States. In the cases where developing countries produce only small quantities of greenhouse gas emissions per capita but are very vulnerable to the negative effects of global warming, the term "forced riders" as opposed to the "free riders" has been used as a descriptor. Such countries include Comoros, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, São Tomé and Príncipe, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Climate vulnerability has been quantified in the Climate Vulnerability Monitor reports of 2010 and 2012. Climate vulnerability in developing countries occurs in four impact areas: health, extreme weather, habitat loss, and economic stress. A report by the Climate Vulnerability Monitor in 2012 estimated that climate change causes 400,000 deaths on average each year, mainly due to hunger and communicable diseases in developing countries. These effects are most severe for the world's poorest countries. Internationally there is recognition of the mismatch between those that have caused climate change and those which will suffer the most from climate change, termed "climate justice". It has been a topic for discussion at some of the United Nations Climate Change Conferences (COP). "When we think about livelihoods at risk from climate change impacts, we know that people living in developing countries, and especially the least-developed countries and small island states, often have the least financial resources to adapt," says Nancy Saich, the European Investment Bank’s chief climate change expert. #### Impacts A changing climate also results in economic burdens. The economies in Least Developed Countries have lost an average of 7% of their gross domestic product for the year 2010, mainly due to reduced labor productivity. Rising sea levels cost 1% of GDP to the least developed countries in 2010 – 4% in the Pacific – with 65 billion dollars annually lost from the world economy. Another example is the impact on fisheries: approximately 40 countries are acutely vulnerable to the impact of greenhouse gas emissions on fisheries. Developing countries with large fisheries sectors are particularly affected. During the Cancún COP16 in 2010, donor countries promised an annual $100 billion by 2020 through the Green Climate Fund for developing countries to adapt to climate change. However, concrete pledges by developed countries have not been forthcoming. Emmanuel Macron (President of France) said at the 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Bonn (COP 23): "Climate change adds further injustice to an already unfair world". Economic development and climate are inextricably linked, particularly around poverty, gender equality, and energy. Tackling climate change will only be possible if the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are met, in particular Sustainable Development Goal 13 on climate action. Climate stress is likely to add to existing migration patterns in developing countries and beyond but is not expected to generate entirely new flows of people. A report by the World Bank in 2018 estimated that around 143 million people in three regions (Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Latin America) could be forced to move within their own countries to escape the slow-onset impacts of climate change. They will migrate from less viable areas with lower water availability and crop productivity and from areas affected by rising sea level and storm surges. In spite of the cumulative stressors and challenges faced by developing countries in adapting to the effects of climate change, there are those that are world leaders in the field such as Bangladesh. Bangladesh created a national programme in 2009 focused on how the country would adapt to climate change (the first country to do so). It established a fund to support these plans, spending on average $1 billion annually in this regard. ### Population growth Over the last few decades, global population growth has largely been driven by developing countries, which often have higher birth rates (higher fecundity rate) than developed countries. According to the United Nations, family planning can help to slow population growth and decrease poverty in these countries. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria, the March 2019 attacks against Fulani herders in Mali, the Sudanese nomadic conflicts and other conflicts in the countries of the Sahel region have been exacerbated by climate change, land degradation, and population growth. Droughts and food shortages have been also linked to the Northern Mali conflict. ### Poor governance Many developing countries are considered flawed democracies or authoritarian regimes by democracy indices such as the V-Dem Democracy indices and Democracy Index (The Economist). Following decolonization and independence, elites have often had oligarchic control of the government. The establishment of a healthy democratic state has often been challenged by widespread corruption and nepotism and a low confidence and participation in democratic process. Political instability and political corruption are common problems. To fully reach the goal of a low level of corruption, developing countries are usually using special steps for different establishments inside their territories, such as : * Development or creation of a fair public administration system that is not partially based on corruption and is entirely based on the values and laws of the country * Better investigation towards the sources of the corruption and probable causes of that particular action * Publicly informing the residents about the source of corruption and negative influence on the countries economy * Regulation of the official positions of an individual to not be the source of abuse for corruption. * Creation of special laws dedicated to the corruption itself for specific establishments ### Others Other common challenges include: Increased and intensified industrial and agricultural production and emission of toxic chemicals directly into the soil, air, and water, unsustainable use of energy resources; high dependency on natural resources for livelihood, leading to unsustainable exploitation or depletion of those resources; child marriage, indebtedness (see Debt of developing countries) and under performing civil service (see Civil service reform in developing countries), food insecurity, illiteracy and unemployment.The economies of many developing nations are tried to primary products and a majority of their exports go to advanced nations. When advanced nations encounter economic downturns, they can quickly transmitted to their developing country trading partners as seen in global economic downturn of 2008–2009. Opportunities ------------- * Human Capital * Trade Policy: Countries with more restrictive policies have not grown as fast as countries with open and less distorted trade policies. * Investment: Investment has a positive effect on growth. * Education * Aid for Trade: Included in Sustainable Development Goal 8 under Target 8.a.1 Increase aid for trade is an initiative to help developing countries practice trade and benefit. Aid for trade is to assist developing countries in trade related programmes, priotise trade and trade capacity, improve trade performance and reduce poverty. * Global partnership: A provision of Sustainable Development Goal 17 which advocates for international investment and support to achieve innovative technological development, access to market, and fair trade for developing countries. Country lists ------------- ### Developing countries according to International Monetary Fund The following are considered developing economies according to the International Monetary Fund's World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023[update]. * Afghanistan * Albania * Algeria * Angola * Antigua and Barbuda * Argentina * Armenia * Azerbaijan * Bahamas * Bahrain * Bangladesh * Barbados * Belarus * Belize * Benin * Bhutan * Bolivia * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Brazil * Brunei * Bulgaria * Burkina Faso * Burundi * Cambodia * Cameroon * Cape Verde * Central African Republic * Chad * China * Chile * Colombia * Comoros * Democratic Republic of the Congo * Republic of the Congo * Costa Rica * Côte d'Ivoire * Djibouti * Dominica * Dominican Republic * Ecuador * Egypt * El Salvador * Equatorial Guinea * Eritrea * Eswatini (Swaziland) * Ethiopia * Fiji * Gabon * The Gambia * Georgia * Ghana * Grenada * Guatemala * Guinea * Guinea-Bissau * Guyana * Haiti * Honduras * Hungary * India * Indonesia * Iran * Iraq * Jamaica * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kenya * Kiribati * Kosovo * Kuwait * Kyrgyzstan * Laos * Lebanon * Lesotho * Liberia * Libya * Madagascar * Malawi * Malaysia * Maldives * Mali * Marshall Islands * Mauritania * Mauritius * Mexico * Federated States of Micronesia * Moldova * Mongolia * Montenegro * Morocco * Mozambique * Myanmar * Namibia * Nauru * Nepal * Nicaragua * Niger * Nigeria * North Macedonia * Oman * Pakistan * Palau * Palestine * Panama * Papua New Guinea * Paraguay * Peru * Poland * Philippines * Qatar * Romania * Russia * Rwanda * Saudi Arabia * Saint Kitts and Nevis * Saint Lucia * Saint Vincent and the Grenadines * Samoa * São Tomé and Príncipe * Senegal * Serbia * Seychelles * Sierra Leone * Solomon Islands * Somalia * South Africa * South Sudan * Sri Lanka * Sudan * Suriname * Syria * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Thailand * Timor-Leste * Togo * Tonga * Trinidad and Tobago * Tunisia * Turkey * Turkmenistan * Tuvalu * Uganda * Ukraine * United Arab Emirates * Uruguay * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Venezuela * Vietnam * Yemen * Zambia * Zimbabwe **Countries not listed by IMF** * Abkhazia * Cuba * North Korea * Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic * South Ossetia ### Upper middle income countries by World Bank * Albania * American Samoa * Argentina * Armenia * Azerbaijan * Belarus * Belize * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Botswana * Brazil * Bulgaria * China * Colombia * Costa Rica * Cuba * Dominica * Dominican Republic * Ecuador * Equatorial Guinea * Fiji * Gabon * Georgia * Grenada * Guatemala * Guyana * Iraq * Jamaica * Jordan * Kazakhstan * Kosovo * Libya * Malaysia * Maldives * Marshall Islands * Mauritius * Mexico * Moldova * Montenegro * Namibia * North Macedonia * Palau * Paraguay * Peru * Russian Federation * Serbia * South Africa * St. Lucia * St. Vincent and the Grenadines * Suriname * Thailand * Tonga * Turkiye * Turkmenistan * Tuvalu ### Lower middle income countries by World Bank * Algeria * Angola * Bangladesh * Benin * Bhutan * Bolivia * Cabo Verde * Cambodia * Cameroon * Comoros * Congo, Rep. * Cote d'Ivoire * Djibouti * Egypt, Arab Rep. * El Salvador * Eswatini * Ghana * Haiti * Honduras * India * Indonesia * Iran, Islamic Rep. * Kenya * Kiribati * Kyrgyz Republic * Lao PDR * Lebanon * Lesotho * Mauritania * Micronesia, Fed. Sts. * Mongolia * Morocco * Myanmar * Nepal * Nicaragua * Nigeria * Pakistan * Papua New Guinea * Philippines * Samoa * Sao Tome and Principe * Senegal * Solomon Islands * Sri Lanka * Tajikistan * Tanzania * Timor-Leste * Tunisia * Ukraine * Uzbekistan * Vanuatu * Vietnam * West Bank and Gaza * Zimbabwe ### Countries and regions that are graduated developed economies The following list, including the Four Asian Tigers and new Eurozone European Union countries (except for Czech Republic), were historically considered developing countries and regions until the 1990s, and are now listed as advanced economies (developed countries and regions) by the IMF. Time in brackets is the time to be listed as advanced economies. * Hong Kong (since 1997) * Israel (since 1997) * Singapore (since 1997) * South Korea (since 1997) * Taiwan (since 1997) * Cyprus (since 2001) * Slovenia (since 2007) * Malta (since 2008) * Czech Republic (since 2009, since 2006 by World Bank) * Slovakia (since 2009) * Estonia (since 2011) * Latvia (since 2014) * Lithuania (since 2015) * Andorra (since 2021) * Croatia (since 2023) Three economies lack data before being listed as advanced economies. However, because of the lack of data, it is difficult to judge whether they were advanced economies or developing economies before being listed as advanced economies. * San Marino (since 2012) * Macau (since 2016) * Puerto Rico (since 2016) ### Newly industrialized countries Ten countries belong to the "newly industrialized country" classification. They are countries whose economies have not yet reached a developed country's status but have, in a macroeconomic sense, outpaced their developing counterparts: * Brazil * China * India * Indonesia * Malaysia * Mexico * Philippines * South Africa * Thailand * Turkey ### BRICS countries Five countries belong to the "emerging markets" groups and are together called the BRIC countries: * Brazil (since 2006) * Russia (since 2006) * India (since 2006) * China (since 2006) * South Africa (since 2010) Society and culture ------------------- ### Media coverage Western media tends to present a generalized view of developing countries through biased media coverage; mass media outlets tend to focus disproportionately on poverty and other negative imagery. This common coverage has created a dominant stereotype of developing countries: "the 'South' is characterized by socioeconomic and political backwardness, measured against Western values and standards." Mass media's role often compares the Global South to the North and is thought to be an aid in the divide. Mass media has also played a role in what information the people in developing countries receive. The news often covers developed countries and creates an imbalance of information flow. The people in developing countries do not often receive coverage of the other developing countries but instead gets generous amounts of coverage about developed countries. See also -------- * Colonialism * Economic miracle * International development * Land reform * List of countries by wealth per adult * Women migrant workers from developing countries

Developing country

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developing_country

**Jasmine** (taxonomic name: ***Jasminum***; /ˈjæsmɪnəm/, *YASS-min-əm*) is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family of Oleaceae. It contains around 200 species native to tropical and warm temperate regions of Eurasia, Africa, and Oceania. Jasmines are widely cultivated for the characteristic fragrance of their flowers. A number of unrelated plants contain the word "jasmine" in their common names (see Other plants called "jasmine"). Description ----------- Jasmine can be either deciduous (leaves falling in autumn) or evergreen (green all year round), and can be erect, spreading, or climbing shrubs and vines. Their leaves are borne in opposing or alternating arrangement and can be of simple, trifoliate, or pinnate formation. ### Flowers and fruit The flowers are typically around 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter. They are white or yellow, although in rare instances they can be slightly reddish. The flowers are borne in cymose clusters with a minimum of three flowers, though they can also be solitary on the ends of branchlets. Each flower has about four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They have two stamens with very short filaments. The bracts are linear or ovate. The calyx is bell-shaped. They are usually very fragrant. The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe. The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However, natural polyploidy exists, particularly in *Jasminum sambac* (triploid 3n=39), *Jasminum flexile* (tetraploid 4n=52), *Jasminum mesnyi* (triploid 3n=39), and *Jasminum angustifolium* (tetraploid 4n=52). Distribution and habitat ------------------------ Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Eurasia, Africa, Australasia and Oceania, although only one of the 200 species is native to Europe. Their center of diversity is in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Several jasmine species have become naturalized in Mediterranean Europe. For example, the so-called Spanish jasmine (*Jasminum grandiflorum*) was originally from West Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Northeast Africa, and East Africa, and is now naturalized in the Iberian peninsula. *Jasminum fluminense* (which is sometimes known by the inaccurate name "Brazilian Jasmine") and *Jasminum dichotomum* (Gold Coast Jasmine) are invasive species in Hawaii and Florida. *Jasminum polyanthum*, also known as White Jasmine, is an invasive weed in Australia. Etymology --------- The name comes from Old French *jessemin*, from Persian: یاسمن‎, romanized: *yāsamin* which is derived from the Middle Persian word *yāsaman*. After the Muslim conquest of Persia it was borrowed as *yāsamīn* (يَاسَمِين) in Arabic. Through Persian , the name entered Ottoman Turkish and then to Middle French around 1570. The word was first used in English in the 16th century. The Persian name is also where the genus name Jasminum comes from. Taxonomy -------- Species belonging to the genus are classified under the tribe Jasmineae of the olive family (Oleaceae). *Jasminum* is divided into five sections—*Alternifolia*, *Jasminum*, *Primulina*, *Trifoliolata*, and *Unifoliolata*. ### Species Species include: * *J. abyssinicum* Hochst. ex DC. – forest jasmine * *J. adenophyllum* Wall. – bluegrape jasmine, pinwheel jasmine, princess jasmine * *J. andamanicum* N.P.Balakr. & N.G.Nair * *J. angulare* Vahl * *J. angustifolium* (L.) Willd. * *J. auriculatum* Vahl – Indian jasmine, needle-flower jasmine * *J. azoricum* L. * *J. beesianum* Forrest & Diels – red jasmine * *J. dichotomum* Vahl – Gold Coast jasmine * *J. didymum* G.Forst. * *J. dispermum* Wall. * *J. elegans* Knobl. * *J. elongatum* (P.J.Bergius) Willd. * *J. floridum* Bunge * *J. fluminense* Vell. * *J. fruticans* L. * *J. grandiflorum* L. – Catalan jasmine, jasmin odorant, royal jasmine, Spanish jasmine * *J. grandiflorum* L.Vell. * *J. humile* L. – Italian jasmine, Italian yellow jasmine * *J. lanceolarium* Roxb. * *J. laurifolium* Roxb. ex Hornem. angel-wing jasmine * *J. malabaricum* Wight * *J. mesnyi* Hance – Japanese jasmine, primrose jasmine, yellow jasmine * *J. multiflorum* (Burm.f.) Andrews – Indian jasmine, star jasmine, winter jasmine * *J. multipartitum* Hochst. – starry wild jasmine * *J. nervosum* Lour. * *J. nobile* C.B.Clarke * *J. nudiflorum* Lindl. – winter jasmine * *J. odoratissimum* L. – yellow jasmine * *J. officinale* L. – common jasmine, jasmine, jessamine, poet's jasmine, summer jasmine, white jasmine * *J. parkeri* Dunn – dwarf jasmine * *J. polyanthum* Franch. * *J. sambac* (L.) Aiton – Arabian jasmine, Sambac jasmine * *J. simplicifolium* G.Forst. * *J. sinense* Hemsl. * *J. subhumile* W.W.Sm. * *J. subtriplinerve* Blume * *J. tortuosum* Willd. * *J. urophyllum* Hemsl. * *J. volubile* Jacq.. * Jasminum sambac "Grand Duke of Tuscany"*Jasminum sambac* "Grand Duke of Tuscany" * A double-flowered cultivar of Jasminum sambac in flower with an unopened bud.A double-flowered cultivar of *Jasminum sambac* in flower with an unopened bud. * Jasmine budsJasmine buds * Lifecycle of Arabian jasmine flowerLifecycle of Arabian jasmine flower * Jasmine flowersJasmine flowers Jasmonates ---------- Jasmine lends its name to jasmonate plant hormones, as methyl jasmonate isolated from the oil of *Jasminum grandiflorum* led to the discovery of the molecular structure of jasmonates. Jasmonates occur ubiquitously across the plant kingdom, having key roles in responses to environmental cues, such as heat or cold stress, and participate in the signal transduction pathways of many plants. Cultural importance ------------------- Jasmine is cultivated commercially for domestic and industrial uses, such as the perfume industry. It is used in rituals like marriages, religious ceremonies, and festivals. Jasmine flower vendors sell garlands of jasmine, or in the case of the thicker *motiyaa* (in Hindi) or *mograa* (in Marathi) varieties, bunches of jasmine are common. They may be found around entrances to temples, on major thoroughfares, and in major business areas. A change in presidency in Tunisia in 1987 and the Tunisian Revolution of 2011 are both called "Jasmine revolutions" in reference to the flower. "Jasmine" is a common female given name. * surface of Jasmine teasurface of Jasmine tea * The White Jasmine Branch, painting of ink and color on silk by Chinese artist Zhao Chang, early 12th century *The White Jasmine Branch*, painting of ink and color on silk by Chinese artist Zhao Chang, early 12th century * Jasmine used as garlandJasmine used as garland * Jasmine flower bloomingJasmine flower blooming * Jasmine flowers harvest in Reggio Calabria, Italy (1965)Jasmine flowers harvest in Reggio Calabria, Italy (1965) ### Symbolism Several countries and states consider jasmine as a national symbol. * Syria: The Syrian city Damascus is called the City of Jasmine. * Hawaii: *Jasminum sambac* ("*pikake*") is a common flower used in leis and is the subject of many Hawaiian songs. * Indonesia: *Jasminum sambac* is the national flower, adopted in 1990. It goes by the name "*melati putih*" and is used in wedding ceremonies for ethnic Indonesians, especially on the island of Java. * Pakistan: *Jasminum officinale* is known as the "*chambeli*" or "*yasmin*", it is the national flower. * Philippines: *Jasminum sambac* is the national flower. Adopted in 1935, it is known as "*sampaguita*" in the islands. It is usually strung in garlands which are then used to adorn religious images. * Thailand: Jasmine flowers are used as a symbol of motherhood. * Tunisia: The national flower of Tunisia is jasmine. It was chosen as a symbol for the 2010 Tunisian Revolution. Other plants called "jasmine" ----------------------------- * Brazilian jasmine *Mandevilla sanderi* * Cape jasmine *Gardenia* * Carolina jasmine *Gelsemium sempervirens* * Crape jasmine *Tabernaemontana divaricata* * Chilean jasmine *Mandevilla laxa* * Jasmine rice, a type of long-grain rice * Madagascar jasmine *Stephanotis floribunda* * New Zealand jasmine *Parsonsia capsularis* * Night-blooming jasmine *Cestrum nocturnum* * Night-flowering jasmine *Nyctanthes arbor-tristis* * Orange jasmine *Murraya paniculata* * Red jasmine *Plumeria rubra* * Star jasmine, Confederate jasmine *Trachelospermum jasminoides* * Tree jasmine (disambiguation) Further reading --------------- * "*Jasminum* Linn". *Flora of Pakistan*: 12. Retrieved 2008-06-03. * Metcalf, Allan A. (1999). *The World in So Many Words*. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-395-95920-9.

Jasmine

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jasmine

A **bone** is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have complex internal and external structures. They are lightweight yet strong and hard and serve multiple functions. **Bone tissue** (osseous tissue), which is also called **bone** in the uncountable sense of that word, is hard tissue, a type of specialised connective tissue. It has a honeycomb-like matrix internally, which helps to give the bone rigidity. Bone tissue is made up of different types of bone cells. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are involved in the formation and mineralisation of bone; osteoclasts are involved in the resorption of bone tissue. Modified (flattened) osteoblasts become the lining cells that form a protective layer on the bone surface. The mineralised matrix of bone tissue has an organic component of mainly collagen called *ossein* and an inorganic component of bone mineral made up of various salts. Bone tissue is mineralized tissue of two types, cortical bone and cancellous bone. Other types of tissue found in bones include bone marrow, endosteum, periosteum, nerves, blood vessels and cartilage. In the human body at birth, there are approximately 300 bones present; many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear. The Greek word for bone is ὀστέον ("osteon"), hence the many terms that use it as a prefix—such as osteopathy. In anatomical terminology, including the Terminologia Anatomica international standard, the word for a bone is *os* (for example, os breve, os longum, os sesamoideum). Structure --------- Bone is not uniformly solid, but consists of a flexible matrix (about 30%) and bound minerals (about 70%) which are intricately woven and endlessly remodeled by a group of specialized bone cells. Their unique composition and design allows bones to be relatively hard and strong, while remaining lightweight. Bone matrix is 90 to 95% composed of elastic collagen fibers, also known as ossein, and the remainder is ground substance. The elasticity of collagen improves fracture resistance. The matrix is hardened by the binding of inorganic mineral salt, calcium phosphate, in a chemical arrangement known as bone mineral, a form of calcium apatite. It is the mineralization that gives bones rigidity. Bone is actively constructed and remodeled throughout life by special bone cells known as osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Within any single bone, the tissue is woven into two main patterns, known as cortical and cancellous bone, each with a different appearance and characteristics. ### Cortex The hard outer layer of bones is composed of **cortical bone**, which is also called **compact bone** as it is much denser than cancellous bone. It forms the hard exterior (cortex) of bones. The cortical bone gives bone its smooth, white, and solid appearance, and accounts for 80% of the total bone mass of an adult human skeleton. It facilitates bone's main functions—to support the whole body, to protect organs, to provide levers for movement, and to store and release chemical elements, mainly calcium. It consists of multiple microscopic columns, each called an osteon or Haversian system. Each column is multiple layers of osteoblasts and osteocytes around a central canal called the haversian canal. Volkmann's canals at right angles connect the osteons together. The columns are metabolically active, and as bone is reabsorbed and created the nature and location of the cells within the osteon will change. Cortical bone is covered by a periosteum on its outer surface, and an endosteum on its inner surface. The endosteum is the boundary between the cortical bone and the cancellous bone. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cortical bone is the osteon. ### Trabeculae **Cancellous bone**, or **spongy bone**, also known as **trabecular bone**, is the internal tissue of the skeletal bone and is an open cell porous network that follows the material properties of biofoams. Cancellous bone has a higher surface-area-to-volume ratio than cortical bone and it is less dense. This makes it weaker and more flexible. The greater surface area also makes it suitable for metabolic activities such as the exchange of calcium ions. Cancellous bone is typically found at the ends of long bones, near joints, and in the interior of vertebrae. Cancellous bone is highly vascular and often contains red bone marrow where hematopoiesis, the production of blood cells, occurs. The primary anatomical and functional unit of cancellous bone is the trabecula. The trabeculae are aligned towards the mechanical load distribution that a bone experiences within long bones such as the femur. As far as short bones are concerned, trabecular alignment has been studied in the vertebral pedicle. Thin formations of osteoblasts covered in endosteum create an irregular network of spaces, known as trabeculae. Within these spaces are bone marrow and hematopoietic stem cells that give rise to platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. Trabecular marrow is composed of a network of rod- and plate-like elements that make the overall organ lighter and allow room for blood vessels and marrow. Trabecular bone accounts for the remaining 20% of total bone mass but has nearly ten times the surface area of compact bone. The words *cancellous* and *trabecular* refer to the tiny lattice-shaped units (trabeculae) that form the tissue. It was first illustrated accurately in the engravings of Crisóstomo Martinez. ### Marrow Bone marrow, also known as myeloid tissue in red bone marrow, can be found in almost any bone that holds cancellous tissue. In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with red marrow or hematopoietic marrow, but as the child ages the hematopoietic fraction decreases in quantity and the fatty/ yellow fraction called marrow adipose tissue (MAT) increases in quantity. In adults, red marrow is mostly found in the bone marrow of the femur, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones. ### Vascular supply Bone receives about 10% of cardiac output. Blood enters the endosteum, flows through the marrow, and exits through small vessels in the cortex. In humans, blood oxygen tension in bone marrow is about 6.6%, compared to about 12% in arterial blood, and 5% in venous and capillary blood. ### Cells Bone is metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells. These cells include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, but osteoclasts are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes. Within the marrow of the bone there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. #### Osteoblast Osteoblasts are mononucleate bone-forming cells. They are located on the surface of osteon seams and make a protein mixture known as osteoid, which mineralizes to become bone. The osteoid seam is a narrow region of a newly formed organic matrix, not yet mineralized, located on the surface of a bone. Osteoid is primarily composed of Type I collagen. Osteoblasts also manufacture hormones, such as prostaglandins, to act on the bone itself. The osteoblast creates and repairs new bone by actually building around itself. First, the osteoblast puts up collagen fibers. These collagen fibers are used as a framework for the osteoblasts' work. The osteoblast then deposits calcium phosphate which is hardened by hydroxide and bicarbonate ions. The brand-new bone created by the osteoblast is called osteoid. Once the osteoblast is finished working it is actually trapped inside the bone once it hardens. When the osteoblast becomes trapped, it becomes known as an osteocyte. Other osteoblasts remain on the top of the new bone and are used to protect the underlying bone, these become known as lining cells. #### Osteocyte Osteocytes are cells of mesenchymal origin and originate from osteoblasts that have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by a bone matrix that they themselves produced. The spaces the cell body of osteocytes occupy within the mineralized collagen type I matrix are known as lacunae, while the osteocyte cell processes occupy channels called canaliculi. The many processes of osteocytes reach out to meet osteoblasts, osteoclasts, bone lining cells, and other osteocytes probably for the purposes of communication. Osteocytes remain in contact with other osteocytes in the bone through gap junctions—coupled cell processes which pass through the canalicular channels. #### Osteoclast Osteoclasts are very large multinucleate cells that are responsible for the breakdown of bones by the process of bone resorption. New bone is then formed by the osteoblasts. Bone is constantly remodeled by the resorption of osteoclasts and created by osteoblasts. Osteoclasts are large cells with multiple nuclei located on bone surfaces in what are called *Howship's lacunae* (or *resorption pits*). These lacunae are the result of surrounding bone tissue that has been reabsorbed. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a monocyte stem-cell lineage, they are equipped with phagocytic-like mechanisms similar to circulating macrophages. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival, active enzymes, such as tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, are secreted against the mineral substrate. The reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts also plays a role in calcium homeostasis. ### Composition Bones consist of living cells (osteoblasts and osteocytes) embedded in a mineralized organic matrix. The primary inorganic component of human bone is hydroxyapatite, the dominant bone mineral, having the nominal composition of Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. The organic components of this matrix consist mainly of type I collagen—"organic" referring to materials produced as a result of the human body—and inorganic components, which alongside the dominant hydroxyapatite phase, include other compounds of calcium and phosphate including salts. Approximately 30% of the acellular component of bone consists of organic matter, while roughly 70% by mass is attributed to the inorganic phase. The collagen fibers give bone its tensile strength, and the interspersed crystals of hydroxyapatite give bone its compressive strength. These effects are synergistic. The exact composition of the matrix may be subject to change over time due to nutrition and biomineralization, with the ratio of calcium to phosphate varying between 1.3 and 2.0 (per weight), and trace minerals such as magnesium, sodium, potassium and carbonate also be found. Type I collagen composes 90–95% of the organic matrix, with the remainder of the matrix being a homogenous liquid called ground substance consisting of proteoglycans such as hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate, as well as non-collagenous proteins such as osteocalcin, osteopontin or bone sialoprotein. Collagen consists of strands of repeating units, which give bone tensile strength, and are arranged in an overlapping fashion that prevents shear stress. The function of ground substance is not fully known. Two types of bone can be identified microscopically according to the arrangement of collagen: woven and lamellar. * Woven bone (also known as *fibrous bone*), which is characterized by a haphazard organization of collagen fibers and is mechanically weak. * Lamellar bone, which has a regular parallel alignment of collagen into sheets ("lamellae") and is mechanically strong. Woven bone is produced when osteoblasts produce osteoid rapidly, which occurs initially in all fetal bones, but is later replaced by more resilient lamellar bone. In adults, woven bone is created after fractures or in Paget's disease. Woven bone is weaker, with a smaller number of randomly oriented collagen fibers, but forms quickly; it is for this appearance of the fibrous matrix that the bone is termed *woven*. It is soon replaced by lamellar bone, which is highly organized in concentric sheets with a much lower proportion of osteocytes to surrounding tissue. Lamellar bone, which makes its first appearance in humans in the fetus during the third trimester, is stronger and filled with many collagen fibers parallel to other fibers in the same layer (these parallel columns are called osteons). In cross-section, the fibers run in opposite directions in alternating layers, much like in plywood, assisting in the bone's ability to resist torsion forces. After a fracture, woven bone forms initially and is gradually replaced by lamellar bone during a process known as "bony substitution." Compared to woven bone, lamellar bone formation takes place more slowly. The orderly deposition of collagen fibers restricts the formation of osteoid to about 1 to 2 µm per day. Lamellar bone also requires a relatively flat surface to lay the collagen fibers in parallel or concentric layers. #### Deposition The extracellular matrix of bone is laid down by osteoblasts, which secrete both collagen and ground substance. These synthesise collagen within the cell and then secrete collagen fibrils. The collagen fibers rapidly polymerise to form collagen strands. At this stage, they are not yet mineralised, and are called "osteoid". Around the strands calcium and phosphate precipitate on the surface of these strands, within days to weeks becoming crystals of hydroxyapatite. In order to mineralise the bone, the osteoblasts secrete vesicles containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves the phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on. More particularly, bone mineral is formed from globular and plate structures. Types ----- One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance.One way to classify bones is by their shape or appearance. There are five types of bones in the human body: long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid. * Long bones are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than its width; and by an epiphysis, a rounded head at each end of the shaft. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and areas of spongy, cancellous bone at the ends of the bones. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are the eight carpal bones of the wrist, the seven articulating tarsal bones of the ankle and the sesamoid bone of the kneecap. Long bones such as the clavicle, that have a differently shaped shaft or ends are also called *modified long bones*. * Short bones are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones. * Flat bones are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Most of the bones of the skull are flat bones, as is the sternum. * Sesamoid bones are bones embedded in tendons. Since they act to hold the tendon further away from the joint, the angle of the tendon is increased and thus the leverage of the muscle is increased. Examples of sesamoid bones are the patella and the pisiform. * Irregular bones do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. Often this irregular shape is due to their many centers of ossification or because they contain bony sinuses. The bones of the spine, pelvis, and some bones of the skull are irregular bones. Examples include the ethmoid and sphenoid bones. Terminology ----------- In the study of anatomy, anatomists use a number of anatomical terms to describe the appearance, shape and function of bones. Other anatomical terms are also used to describe the location of bones. Like other anatomical terms, many of these derive from Latin and Greek. Some anatomists still use Latin to refer to bones. The term "osseous", and the prefix "osteo-", referring to things related to bone, are still used commonly today. Some examples of terms used to describe bones include the term "foramen" to describe a hole through which something passes, and a "canal" or "meatus" to describe a tunnel-like structure. A protrusion from a bone can be called a number of terms, including a "condyle", "crest", "spine", "eminence", "tubercle" or "tuberosity", depending on the protrusion's shape and location. In general, long bones are said to have a "head", "neck", and "body". When two bones join, they are said to "articulate". If the two bones have a fibrous connection and are relatively immobile, then the joint is called a "suture". Development ----------- The formation of bone is called ossification. During the fetal stage of development this occurs by two processes: intramembranous ossification and endochondral ossification. Intramembranous ossification involves the formation of bone from connective tissue whereas endochondral ossification involves the formation of bone from cartilage. **Intramembranous ossification** mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the skull but also the mandible, maxilla, and clavicles; the bone is formed from connective tissue such as mesenchyme tissue rather than from cartilage. The process includes: the development of the ossification center, calcification, trabeculae formation and the development of the periosteum. **Endochondral ossification** occurs in long bones and most other bones in the body; it involves the development of bone from cartilage. This process includes the development of a cartilage model, its growth and development, development of the primary and secondary ossification centers, and the formation of articular cartilage and the epiphyseal plates. Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called "primary ossification centers." They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth. They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones. Secondary ossification occurs after birth and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones. The diaphysis and both epiphyses of a long bone are separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the epiphyseal plate). At skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), all of the cartilage is replaced by bone, fusing the diaphysis and both epiphyses together (epiphyseal closure). In the upper limbs, only the diaphyses of the long bones and scapula are ossified. The epiphyses, carpal bones, coracoid process, medial border of the scapula, and acromion are still cartilaginous. The following steps are followed in the conversion of cartilage to bone: 1. Zone of reserve cartilage. This region, farthest from the marrow cavity, consists of typical hyaline cartilage that as yet shows no sign of transforming into bone. 2. Zone of cell proliferation. A little closer to the marrow cavity, chondrocytes multiply and arrange themselves into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae. 3. Zone of cell hypertrophy. Next, the chondrocytes cease to divide and begin to hypertrophy (enlarge), much like they do in the primary ossification center of the fetus. The walls of the matrix between lacunae become very thin. 4. Zone of calcification. Minerals are deposited in the matrix between the columns of lacunae and calcify the cartilage. These are not the permanent mineral deposits of bone, but only a temporary support for the cartilage that would otherwise soon be weakened by the breakdown of the enlarged lacunae. 5. Zone of bone deposition. Within each column, the walls between the lacunae break down and the chondrocytes die. This converts each column into a longitudinal channel, which is immediately invaded by blood vessels and marrow from the marrow cavity. Osteoblasts line up along the walls of these channels and begin depositing concentric lamellae of matrix, while osteoclasts dissolve the temporarily calcified cartilage. Functions --------- | Functions of bone | | --- | | **Mechanical*** Protection * Gives structure * Facilitates movement * Facilitates hearing | | **Synthetic*** Contains bone marrow | | **Metabolic*** Stores calcium * Helps regulate the acid-base balance | Bones have a variety of functions: ### Mechanical Bones serve a variety of mechanical functions. Together the bones in the body form the skeleton. They provide a frame to keep the body supported, and an attachment point for skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments and joints, which function together to generate and transfer forces so that individual body parts or the whole body can be manipulated in three-dimensional space (the interaction between bone and muscle is studied in biomechanics). Bones protect internal organs, such as the skull protecting the brain or the ribs protecting the heart and lungs. Because of the way that bone is formed, bone has a high compressive strength of about 170 MPa (1,700 kgf/cm2), poor tensile strength of 104–121 MPa, and a very low shear stress strength (51.6 MPa). This means that bone resists pushing (compressional) stress well, resist pulling (tensional) stress less well, but only poorly resists shear stress (such as due to torsional loads). While bone is essentially brittle, bone does have a significant degree of elasticity, contributed chiefly by collagen. Mechanically, bones also have a special role in hearing. The ossicles are three small bones in the middle ear which are involved in sound transduction. ### Synthetic The cancellous part of bones contain bone marrow. Bone marrow produces blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Blood cells that are created in bone marrow include red blood cells, platelets and white blood cells. Progenitor cells such as the hematopoietic stem cell divide in a process called mitosis to produce precursor cells. These include precursors which eventually give rise to white blood cells, and erythroblasts which give rise to red blood cells. Unlike red and white blood cells, created by mitosis, platelets are shed from very large cells called megakaryocytes. This process of progressive differentiation occurs within the bone marrow. After the cells are matured, they enter the circulation. Every day, over 2.5 billion red blood cells and platelets, and 50–100 billion granulocytes are produced in this way. As well as creating cells, bone marrow is also one of the major sites where defective or aged red blood cells are destroyed. ### Metabolic * Mineral storage – bones act as reserves of minerals important for the body, most notably calcium and phosphorus. Determined by the species, age, and the type of bone, bone cells make up to 15 percent of the bone. Growth factor storage—mineralized bone matrix stores important growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors, transforming growth factor, bone morphogenetic proteins and others. * Fat storage – marrow adipose tissue (MAT) acts as a storage reserve of fatty acids. * Acid-base balance – bone buffers the blood against excessive pH changes by absorbing or releasing alkaline salts. * Detoxification – bone tissues can also store heavy metals and other foreign elements, removing them from the blood and reducing their effects on other tissues. These can later be gradually released for excretion. * Endocrine organ – bone controls phosphate metabolism by releasing fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23), which acts on kidneys to reduce phosphate reabsorption. Bone cells also release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat. * Calcium balance – the process of bone resorption by the osteoclasts releases stored calcium into the systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating calcium balance. As bone formation actively *fixes* circulating calcium in its mineral form, removing it from the bloodstream, resorption actively *unfixes* it thereby increasing circulating calcium levels. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations. Remodeling ---------- Bone is constantly being created and replaced in a process known as remodeling. This ongoing turnover of bone is a process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape. This is accomplished through osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Cells are stimulated by a variety of signals, and together referred to as a remodeling unit. Approximately 10% of the skeletal mass of an adult is remodelled each year. The purpose of remodeling is to regulate calcium homeostasis, repair microdamaged bones from everyday stress, and to shape the skeleton during growth. Repeated stress, such as weight-bearing exercise or bone healing, results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress (Wolff's law). It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's piezoelectric properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress. The action of osteoblasts and osteoclasts are controlled by a number of chemical enzymes that either promote or inhibit the activity of the bone remodeling cells, controlling the rate at which bone is made, destroyed, or changed in shape. The cells also use paracrine signalling to control the activity of each other. For example, the rate at which osteoclasts resorb bone is inhibited by calcitonin and osteoprotegerin. Calcitonin is produced by parafollicular cells in the thyroid gland, and can bind to receptors on osteoclasts to directly inhibit osteoclast activity. Osteoprotegerin is secreted by osteoblasts and is able to bind RANK-L, inhibiting osteoclast stimulation. Osteoblasts can also be stimulated to increase bone mass through increased secretion of osteoid and by inhibiting the ability of osteoclasts to break down osseous tissue. Increased secretion of osteoid is stimulated by the secretion of growth hormone by the pituitary, thyroid hormone and the sex hormones (estrogens and androgens). These hormones also promote increased secretion of osteoprotegerin. Osteoblasts can also be induced to secrete a number of cytokines that promote reabsorption of bone by stimulating osteoclast activity and differentiation from progenitor cells. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone and stimulation from osteocytes induce osteoblasts to increase secretion of RANK-ligand and interleukin 6, which cytokines then stimulate increased reabsorption of bone by osteoclasts. These same compounds also increase secretion of macrophage colony-stimulating factor by osteoblasts, which promotes the differentiation of progenitor cells into osteoclasts, and decrease secretion of osteoprotegerin. Volume ------ Bone volume is determined by the rates of bone formation and bone resorption. Recent research has suggested that certain growth factors may work to locally alter bone formation by increasing osteoblast activity. Numerous bone-derived growth factors have been isolated and classified via bone cultures. These factors include insulin-like growth factors I and II, transforming growth factor-beta, fibroblast growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, and bone morphogenetic proteins. Evidence suggests that bone cells produce growth factors for extracellular storage in the bone matrix. The release of these growth factors from the bone matrix could cause the proliferation of osteoblast precursors. Essentially, bone growth factors may act as potential determinants of local bone formation. Research has suggested that cancellous bone volume in postmenopausal osteoporosis may be determined by the relationship between the total bone forming surface and the percent of surface resorption. Clinical significance --------------------- A number of diseases can affect bone, including arthritis, fractures, infections, osteoporosis and tumors. Conditions relating to bone can be managed by a variety of doctors, including rheumatologists for joints, and orthopedic surgeons, who may conduct surgery to fix broken bones. Other doctors, such as rehabilitation specialists may be involved in recovery, radiologists in interpreting the findings on imaging, and pathologists in investigating the cause of the disease, and family doctors may play a role in preventing complications of bone disease such as osteoporosis. When a doctor sees a patient, a history and exam will be taken. Bones are then often imaged, called radiography. This might include ultrasound X-ray, CT scan, MRI scan and other imaging such as a Bone scan, which may be used to investigate cancer. Other tests such as a blood test for autoimmune markers may be taken, or a synovial fluid aspirate may be taken. ### Fractures In normal bone, fractures occur when there is significant force applied or repetitive trauma over a long time. Fractures can also occur when a bone is weakened, such as with osteoporosis, or when there is a structural problem, such as when the bone remodels excessively (such as Paget's disease) or is the site of the growth of cancer. Common fractures include wrist fractures and hip fractures, associated with osteoporosis, vertebral fractures associated with high-energy trauma and cancer, and fractures of long-bones. Not all fractures are painful. When serious, depending on the fractures type and location, complications may include flail chest, compartment syndromes or fat embolism. Compound fractures involve the bone's penetration through the skin. Some complex fractures can be treated by the use of bone grafting procedures that replace missing bone portions. Fractures and their underlying causes can be investigated by X-rays, CT scans and MRIs. Fractures are described by their location and shape, and several classification systems exist, depending on the location of the fracture. A common long bone fracture in children is a Salter–Harris fracture. When fractures are managed, pain relief is often given, and the fractured area is often immobilised. This is to promote bone healing. In addition, surgical measures such as internal fixation may be used. Because of the immobilisation, people with fractures are often advised to undergo rehabilitation. ### Tumors There are several types of tumor that can affect bone; examples of benign bone tumors include osteoma, osteoid osteoma, osteochondroma, osteoblastoma, enchondroma, giant-cell tumor of bone, and aneurysmal bone cyst. ### Cancer Cancer can arise in bone tissue, and bones are also a common site for other cancers to spread (metastasise) to. Cancers that arise in bone are called "primary" cancers, although such cancers are rare. Metastases within bone are "secondary" cancers, with the most common being breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, and kidney cancer. Secondary cancers that affect bone can either destroy bone (called a "lytic" cancer) or create bone (a "sclerotic" cancer). Cancers of the bone marrow inside the bone can also affect bone tissue, examples including leukemia and multiple myeloma. Bone may also be affected by cancers in other parts of the body. Cancers in other parts of the body may release parathyroid hormone or parathyroid hormone-related peptide. This increases bone reabsorption, and can lead to bone fractures. Bone tissue that is destroyed or altered as a result of cancers is distorted, weakened, and more prone to fracture. This may lead to compression of the spinal cord, destruction of the marrow resulting in bruising, bleeding and immunosuppression, and is one cause of bone pain. If the cancer is metastatic, then there might be other symptoms depending on the site of the original cancer. Some bone cancers can also be felt. Cancers of the bone are managed according to their type, their stage, prognosis, and what symptoms they cause. Many primary cancers of bone are treated with radiotherapy. Cancers of bone marrow may be treated with chemotherapy, and other forms of targeted therapy such as immunotherapy may be used. Palliative care, which focuses on maximising a person's quality of life, may play a role in management, particularly if the likelihood of survival within five years is poor. ### Other painful conditions * Osteomyelitis is inflammation of the bone or bone marrow due to bacterial infection. * Osteomalacia is a painful softening of adult bone caused by severe vitamin D deficiency. * Osteogenesis imperfecta * Osteochondritis dissecans * Ankylosing spondylitis * Skeletal fluorosis is a bone disease caused by an excessive accumulation of fluoride in the bones. In advanced cases, skeletal fluorosis damages bones and joints and is painful. ### Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone where there is reduced bone mineral density, increasing the likelihood of fractures. Osteoporosis is defined in women by the World Health Organization as a bone mineral density of 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass, relative to the age and sex-matched average. This density is measured using dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA), with the term "established osteoporosis" including the presence of a fragility fracture. Osteoporosis is most common in women after menopause, when it is called "postmenopausal osteoporosis", but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids. Osteoporosis usually has no symptoms until a fracture occurs. For this reason, DEXA scans are often done in people with one or more risk factors, who have developed osteoporosis and are at risk of fracture. One of the most important risk factors for osteoporosis is advanced age. Accumulation of oxidative DNA damage in osteoblastic and osteoclastic cells appears to be a key factor in age-related osteoporosis. Osteoporosis treatment includes advice to stop smoking, decrease alcohol consumption, exercise regularly, and have a healthy diet. Calcium and trace mineral supplements may also be advised, as may Vitamin D. When medication is used, it may include bisphosphonates, Strontium ranelate, and hormone replacement therapy. ### Osteopathic medicine Osteopathic medicine is a school of medical thought originally developed based on the idea of the link between the musculoskeletal system and overall health, but now very similar to mainstream medicine. As of 2012[update], over 77,000 physicians in the United States are trained in osteopathic medical schools. Osteology --------- The study of bones and teeth is referred to as osteology. It is frequently used in anthropology, archeology and forensic science for a variety of tasks. This can include determining the nutritional, health, age or injury status of the individual the bones were taken from. Preparing fleshed bones for these types of studies can involve the process of maceration. Typically anthropologists and archeologists study bone tools made by *Homo sapiens* and *Homo neanderthalensis*. Bones can serve a number of uses such as projectile points or artistic pigments, and can also be made from external bones such as antlers. Other animals ------------- Bird skeletons are very lightweight. Their bones are smaller and thinner, to aid flight. Among mammals, bats come closest to birds in terms of bone density, suggesting that small dense bones are a flight adaptation. Many bird bones have little marrow due to them being hollow. A bird's beak is primarily made of bone as projections of the mandibles which are covered in keratin. Some bones, primarily formed separately in subcutaneous tissues, include headgears (such as bony core of horns, antlers, ossicones), osteoderm, and os penis/ os clitoris. A deer's antlers are composed of bone which is an unusual example of bone being outside the skin of the animal once the velvet is shed. The extinct predatory fish *Dunkleosteus* had sharp edges of hard exposed bone along its jaws. The proportion of cortical bone that is 80% in the human skeleton may be much lower in other animals, especially in marine mammals and marine turtles, or in various Mesozoic marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, among others. This proportion can vary quickly in evolution; it often increases in early stages of returns to an aquatic lifestyle, as seen in early whales and pinnipeds, among others. It subsequently decreases in pelagic taxa, which typically acquire spongy bone, but aquatic taxa that live in shallow water can retain very thick, pachyostotic, osteosclerotic, or pachyosteosclerotic bones, especially if they move slowly, like sea cows. In some cases, even marine taxa that had acquired spongy bone can revert to thicker, compact bones if they become adapted to live in shallow water, or in hypersaline (denser) water. Many animals, particularly herbivores, practice osteophagy—the eating of bones. This is presumably carried out in order to replenish lacking phosphate. Many bone diseases that affect humans also affect other vertebrates—an example of one disorder is skeletal fluorosis. Society and culture ------------------- Bones from slaughtered animals have a number of uses. In prehistoric times, they have been used for making bone tools. They have further been used in bone carving, already important in prehistoric art, and also in modern time as crafting materials for buttons, beads, handles, bobbins, calculation aids, head nuts, dice, poker chips, pick-up sticks, arrows, scrimshaw, ornaments, etc. Bone glue can be made by prolonged boiling of ground or cracked bones, followed by filtering and evaporation to thicken the resulting fluid. Historically once important, bone glue and other animal glues today have only a few specialized uses, such as in antiques restoration. Essentially the same process, with further refinement, thickening and drying, is used to make gelatin. Broth is made by simmering several ingredients for a long time, traditionally including bones. Bone char, a porous, black, granular material primarily used for filtration and also as a black pigment, is produced by charring mammal bones. Oracle bone script was a writing system used in Ancient China based on inscriptions in bones. Its name originates from oracle bones, which were mainly ox clavicle. The Ancient Chinese (mainly in the Shang dynasty), would write their questions on the oracle bone, and burn the bone, and where the bone cracked would be the answer for the questions. To point the bone at someone is considered bad luck in some cultures, such as Australian aborigines, such as by the Kurdaitcha. The wishbones of fowl have been used for divination, and are still customarily used in a tradition to determine which one of two people pulling on either prong of the bone may make a wish. Various cultures throughout history have adopted the custom of shaping an infant's head by the practice of artificial cranial deformation. A widely practised custom in China was that of foot binding to limit the normal growth of the foot. Additional images ----------------- * Cells in bone marrowCells in bone marrow * Scanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnificationScanning electron microscope of bone at 100× magnification * Structure detail of an animal boneStructure detail of an animal bone See also -------- * Artificial bone * Bone health * Distraction osteogenesis * National Bone Health Campaign * Skeleton Further reading --------------- * Katja Hoehn; Marieb, Elaine Nicpon (2007). *Human Anatomy & Physiology* (7th ed.). San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-5909-1. * Bryan H. Derrickson; Tortora, Gerard J. (2005). *Principles of anatomy and physiology*. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-68934-8. * Davidson, Stanley (2010). Colledge, Nicki R.; Walker, Brian R.; Ralston, Stuart H. (eds.). *Davidson's principles and practice of medicine*. Illustrated by Robert Britton (21st ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-7020-3085-7. * Deakin, Barbara Young; et al. (2006). *Wheater's functional histology : a text and colour atlas* (5th ed.). London: Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-443-068-508. – *drawings by Philip J.* * Hall, Arthur C.; Guyton, John E. (2005). *Textbook of medical physiology* (11th ed.). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. ISBN 978-0-7216-0240-0. * Anthony, S. Fauci; Harrison, T.R.; et al. (2008). *Harrison's principles of internal medicine* (17th ed.). New York [etc.]: McGraw-Hill Medical. ISBN 978-0-07-147692-8. – *Anthony edits the current version; Harrison edited previous versions.*

Bone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bone