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wikiHow is a “wiki,” similar to Wikipedia, which means that many of our articles are co-written by multiple authors. To create this article, 27 people, some anonymous, worked to edit and improve it over time. This article has been viewed 463,680 times. Phone technology has changed rapidly in recent years, allowing with a variety of different methods for making phone calls. While cell phones have grown much more popular, it can still be very important to be able to make calls from land lines as well as calls through the Internet. Method 1 of 3:Calling from a Cell Phone 1Open the "Phone" application. Depending on what brand of operating system your phone uses, most phones will have an application used to make calls. This application will usually resemble an image of a phone or be labelled "Phone" and be located on the home screen of your device. - Other or older models of cell phones may have their phone "application" located as a button or key on the phone. 2Dial the number you want to call. In your application's or on your phone's keypad, dial the number you want to call. Make sure your phone number consists of all necessary numbers such as the number's area code. Press "Call" (usually a green button with a phone icon on it) to begin your call. - It's important your cell phone has service and is able to make calls. If you have not purchased a cell phone plan or a working subscriber identity module (SIM) card inserted in your mobile phone, you will not be able to make calls on your cell phone. 3Call an existing contact if you'd prefer. On your phone, open up the "Contacts" icon or application. A list of saved contacts will appear and you can find the name of the person you want to call. Here you can view your contact's information to find out their number and to call them. - Some smartphones will have symbols that resemble a phone located beside your contact's name or number. Simply press the symbol to dial the number. - Some mobile phones will display an option to "Call" the contact". Select this option to begin your call. 4Hang up. Depending on the model of your cell phone, ending a call can be done by waiting for the other person on the line to hang up or by touching a button or icon on your phone to hang up. - Most icons or buttons that end calls will be red. - With flip phones, you can simply flip the phone closed to hang up. Method 2 of 3:Calling With Skype 1Register an account on Skype. Go to Skype's website or open your Skype application and click "Create an account" and register if you haven't already. Enter the required information on the "Register" page. Skype requires you to register an account in order to use Skype. - When you're registering, you will have the option to add credit or a monthly subscription to your Skype account. Skype is an alternative way to dial locally or internationally. Rates will differ depending on where you're from and which region you are choosing to call. Skype Credit is a pay-as-you-go phone service while monthly subscriptions offer you packages based on who you want to call. X Research source 2Download Skype. In order to make calls, you will have to install Skype as an application on your computer or smartphone. Go to Skype's website and click "Downloads". Select your computer's operating system, mobile device, or other device that you wish to use for Skype. - Alternatively, your computer or smartphone should have a Skype application you can download directly from your operating system's app store such as the App Store for Apple products or from the Google Store for Androids. 3Sign in. Once you have installed Skype, you can sign in using the username and password that you registered. - If you have forgotten your password or username, click "Can't access your account?" to reset or recover your account information. 4Skype a contact. You can choose to have a video or audio-only call with a contact or several contacts at the same time for free. To make a Skype call with a contact: - Add your contact or contacts. If you have the Skype username of a friend that you want to call, click on the "+" icon near the right-hand side of your window that is next to the "Search" bar. - Click "Add Contact...". - Enter the username and click "Find." - Add the contact once you have found them by clicking the green "+" button on the right side. You can send a message to your friend or contact to let them know who it is. - Wait for your friend to accept your contact request. - Click your "Contacts" icon on the left side of your Skype window. - Choose how you want to Skype your contact. For each of your contacts, you will see three buttons to the right of their name. The left-most blue button initiates a text chat, the middle green button initiates a video call, and the right-most green button initiates a phone call. 5Make a phone call to a phone number. This is different from Skype calling a contact which you can do fore free. Instead of calling someone's Skype, you are actually calling someone's phone number which may be connected to a landline or cell phone. A connection fee may also apply depending on the region that you are calling to. In order oo make a phone call on Skype: - Make sure you have enough credits or that you have purchased a phone plan from Skype. If you do not have enough Skype credits, add credit to your account by clicking the button below your display name in the top left. Or purchase a subscription plan on the website. - Click on the phone icon in the top right portion of the window. This will bring up a phone number pad on your screen. - Dial the number. You may have to add a country code, which can be easily done by clicking the downward-facing arrow on the number pad. - Press the green "Call" button to begin your call. 6Hang up. Whether you called a contact or another phone number, you will see a red "Hang Up" button. Click on this to end your call. Method 3 of 3:Calling from a Land Line 1Make sure the phone is working. You will need to check several things to ensure your phone is able to function: - Check to see that the phone line from the phone set is plugged into a phone jack in the wall. - Make sure you are covered by a phone company. In order to make any calls, your phone must be covered and activated by a phone company. 2Remove the handset. Phone sets can come in all shapes and sizes, but most will have a handset that can be removed from the rest of the device so that you can hold it to your ear and mouth. - If receiver piece does not have a keypad on it, it should be connected to a second device with a keypad and receiver dock. Ensure your receiver is connected to a dock. - Portable landline phones will have their own docking station to be charged but otherwise do not need to be connected to it at all times. 3Wait for a dial tone. After you have picked up the handset, hold it to your ear and make sure that you hear the continuous buzzing sound that tells you that you are able to make a call. - Portable landline phones will have a button you will need to press in order to start a call. In most phones, this button will be green or labelled "Call" or "Dial". 4Dial the number you want to call. Depending on the type of phone you have, you can do this by pressing buttons on the handset or keypad. Make sure your phone number consists of all necessary numbers such as the number's area code. - Your call should automatically go through after you complete dialling. A ringing tone should sound. 5Hang up. When you are done with your conversation, hang up the phone. This may be different for different models of phones. Some phones have a hang-up button (often colored red), while others must be placed back into the cradle on the phone set. - If you do not hang up properly or forget to, you will hear a beeping sound that tells you to. QuestionI want to call somebody, but I don't want my phone number to appear on their phone. How do I hide my number?Community AnswerwikiHow has an article that covers making your mobile number appear as a private number, which you might find helpful. QuestionHow do I make a phone call from an iPad?Community AnswerUse FaceTime, Skype, or another audio/video chat app. You can only use your iPad to make phone calls through apps. QuestionHow can I make a phone call with Facebook?Community AnswerYou will need to use the messenger app and have the person you are calling already on your friends' list. Open up the messenger app, then click on the person you want to call; this will bring up the conversation window. In the upper right corner of the conversation window, there should be an icon that looks like a telephone. If you click on this icon, you will be able to call this person. QuestionHow do I make a call on my iPad mini?Community AnswerYou can use FaceTime and Skype for video calls. If you want a free phone number, consider TextNow, TextFree, or Textplus. QuestionHow can I make a phone call using Microsoft Lync?Community AnswerVisit the Microsoft support page for Lync or the related wikiHow page on How to Share on Microsoft Lync to learn how to make a call. QuestionHow can I make a phone call from an iPad?Community AnswerYou can open up the FaceTime app and dial the number you want to call from there. You can also download other communication apps designed to allow you to make phone calls. QuestionHow can I make a call from my computer?Community AnswerYou can download Viber, WhatsApp, Skype, Skype for Business or Telegram as your computer calling app. - Skype and other applications that make calls through the internet require you to have a stable internet connection. - If you are calling someone internationally, your phone company may charge you an extra connectivity fee. - Even if the call is encrypted, the call can still be recorded and used by law enforcement if they have a search warrant, so be careful on what you say over the phone. About This Article To call someone on a cell phone, start by pressing the phone button on the phone's screen or keypad. Then, dial the number you want to reach, including the area code. Once you've typed out the number, click the call button to place the call. When you're done on the phone, end the call by pressing the end call button on the phone's screen or keypad, which is usually red. If you're using Skype or making your call from a landline, keep reading to learn more!

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Organisms exposed over many generations to stressful environmental conditions may adapt by changing their behaviour, structural form or biology. This ensures their health and survival is maintained. Adaptation typically occurs through natural selection. Bioinformatics is about storing, retrieving, organizing and analysing biological data, and it relies on many areas of computer science, mathematics and engineering to do this. Bioinformatics is fundamental to genomics research because extraordinarily large quantities of information are held in each strand of DNA. For example, when long strands of DNA are sequenced, they are first broken into fragments because gene-sequencing machines can only handle small stretches of DNA at a time. Once these random fragments are sequenced, powerful supercomputers are needed to compare overlapping sections and recreate the original, long strand. Similar to a household budget that balances income and expenditure, a carbon budget is an estimate of carbon sources (i.e. incoming) and sinks (i.e. outgoing) in an ecosystem. On the Great Barrier Reef, carbon cycles across the reef shelf, moving between the air, water column and seabed. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to form carbonic acid. This increased acidity of the water dissolves the calcium carbonate shells of many shelled organisms such as molluscs and coral. Carbon chemistry is the science of measuring the properties and behaviour of carbon in the ocean. A catchment (also called river basin or watershed) is a region of land where water from rainfall drains downhill into a body of water, such as a river, lake, dam, estuary, wetland, sea or ocean. Crustose coralline algae (CCA) are rock-hard calcareous red algae that fulfil two key functional roles in coral reef ecosystems: they contribute significantly to reef calcification and cementation, and they induce larval settlement of many benthic organisms (such as corals and sponges). Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. The concentration of chlorophyll in a water body indicates the amount of phytoplankton (microscopic algae & cyanobacteria) in the water. This can be measured in-situ by collecting water samples or remotely from satellite colour images. Phytoplankton are a natural part of the reef water ecosystem and are food for many marine organisms, however elevated numbers (a bloom) can be a sign of nutrient pollution. Citizen science is research conducted by amateur or nonprofessional scientists. Citizen science may be performed by individuals, teams, or networks of volunteers. Examples of citizen science networks that collect data on the Great Barrier Reef are: Coral Watch, Seagrass Watch, Mangrove Watch, Eye on the Reef and Project Manta If two reefs are connected, it means that individual organisms (e.g. fish and coral larvae) can successfully move between them, usually with the aid of ocean currents. Strong connectivity is crucial for many ecological processes, such as re-colonisation following a destructive storm event or movement in response to climate change. Occurs when the microscopic algae (see Symbiodinium) living within coral tissues are expelled due to a change in water chemistry (temperature, salinity, pH) leaving the coral skeleton looking bleached. If the Symbiodinium do not return before the coral starves, and they will only do so under optimum conditions, the coral dies. Coral disease has significantly affected coral reefs in the Caribbean and poses a growing threat to Australia's reefs. To date, more than seven coral diseases have been identified on Australian reefs (including white syndrome, black band, and brown band disease). The lethal mechanisms of these diseases are not well understood at present, however it is hypothesised that corals under stress (pollution, temperature), have a weakened defence and are more likely to become infected. Mass coral spawning was discovered on the Great Barrier Reef in the 1980’s by Professor Peter Harrison and colleagues. This discovery altered scientific understanding of how and when most reef corals reproduce and led to a global renaissance in coral reproduction studies. The mass coral spawning research on the Great Barrier Reef also enabled relatively predictable access to millions of spawned gametes and the development of techniques for rearing millions of larvae. These advances in knowledge have in turn led to the development of coral larval enhancement studies, sometimes referred to as larval ‘reseeding’. Advances in these studies are important because coral reproduction in natural environments can be highly inefficient. During spawning, clouds of coral eggs and sperm float in all directions, at the mercy of the currents, winds, and waves. When egg and sperm do eventually meet, many of the resulting larvae can drift away from reefs and die. Only very few of the larvae settling on reefs take hold and reach breeding age themselves. Coral eating starfish with the potential for population outbreaks which destroy vast areas of coral reefs. Foraminifera (Forams) are a highly abundant and diverse group of single celled organisms which live floating in the ocean or sedentary on the sea floor. Encased in a calcium shell Forams will be affected by ocean acidification. Due to their calcium carbonate shell, Forams play a crucial role in the sand budget of many coral cays. Changes in Foram populations can be used as indicators of coral reef health. The genome is the complete set of genetic material (DNA/RNA) of an organism. Genomics is the branch of molecular biology concerned with the structure, function, evolution, and mapping of genomes. Habitat structure mainly refers to the physical complexity of reef habitats. Reef environments with reduced habitat complexity will support only a fraction of the species and individuals found in complex flourishing reef habitats. High levels of habitat structure is a fundamental attribute of resilient coral reefs. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC is a scientific body tasked to evaluate the risk of climate change caused by human activity. The panel was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), two organizations of the United Nations (UN). Larval ‘reseeding’ is an innovative technique that produces millions of larvae from eggs and sperm captured during large-scale spawning events. The resulting larvae are delivered back onto the reef via large underwater mesh tents where their settlement and growth rates of the larvae are monitored and quantified. This technique is a novel means of repopulating reef ecosystems that may be damaged from coral bleaching or other causes. The technique has great potential for scaling-up restoration efforts to be ecologically meaningful at the individual reef scale. Mass larval enhancement also has significant advantages of producing greater genetic diversity among coral recruits, which is likely to improve their ability to adapt and increase resistance to future disturbances, thereby strengthening resilience and recovery rates. Climate change mitigation is the process of taking actions to reduce the extent of climate change. This is in contrast to adaptation, the process of adapting to new conditions which develop as a result of climate change (see Adaptation). An example of mitigation is planting trees to offset carbon emissions. Regular collection of water quality samples (e.g. nutrient concentration, water temperature) or biological observations (e.g. fish counts, coral counts), or images (photo transects, satellite imagery) used to measure and track changes in conditions at a specific location on the Reef. Ocean acidification is the name given to the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans (increasing acidity), caused by the absorption of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere. Reef Report Card The annual Reef Water Quality Protection Plan (Reef Plan) Report Card is produced by the Queensland Government and measures progress towards Reef Plan’s goals and targets. The information in these reports determines the success of Reef Plan and identifies whether further measures need to be taken to address water quality in the Great Barrier Reef. An area in which organisms can survive through a period of unfavourable conditions, e.g. periods of high temperatures, storm events, poor water quality. Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object. Remotely sensed ocean-colour data (collected by satellites) can be translated into maps of the world’s oceans, showing water temperature, freshwater river plumes and concentrations of sediment and algae. The ability of the Reef to resist and recover from disturbance. Genomic sequencing is the method used by researchers to read and decipher the genetic information found in DNA. Sequencing involves determining the precise order of the bases—the nucleotide subunits adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T)—in a string of DNA. There are various techniques to read the sequence of "letters" in genes and genomes. Surface films are comprised of naturally-occurring molecules that form very thin layers, one molecule thick. Scientists have observed that when applied to the surface of water, these surface films can be used to help regulate environmental conditions. For example, they can control evaporation from water storage reservoirs during periods of intense drought. Symbiodinium are micro-organisms that live in the tissue of corals, sea anemones and jellyfish, giving them life and colour. Like plants, Symbiodinium can photosynthesise to make food from sunlight and this food feeds the host coral. Corals expel their Symbiodinium when stressed, leaving them white (see Coral Bleaching), and if the Symbiodinium do not return the coral dies. A close ecological relationship between the individuals of two (or more) different species. Sometimes a symbiotic relationship benefits both species, sometimes one species benefits at the other's expense, and in other cases neither species benefits. Traits are any physical or biological features of an organism that do not necessarily relate to taxonomy or environment. For example, coral traits might be: growth rate or the number of zooxanthellae types an individual coral can support. Traits are relatively stable over time and differ across individuals (e.g. some corals grow fast whereas others grow slow). Upwelling is the phenomenon where cool nutrient-rich water from deep waters is pushed towards the ocean surface. The nutrients brought to the surface typically stimulate phytoplankton (microscopic green algae) growth and productive fisheries. The physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water in relationship to a set of standards. Zooplankton are floating or weakly swimming animals that rely on water currents to move any great distance. They are usually larger than phytoplankton, ranging from tiny copepods, less than a centimetre long, to jellyfishes and colonial salps that may be metres long. They are the favourite food of a great many marine animals so camouflaging themselves is a very important survival strategy. Developing effective camouflage when you live in clear, blue water is no easy matter. The best solution and the one most often used by members of the zooplankton is to be as transparent as possible or, in the case of many surface floating jellyfishes, blue. Zooxanthellae is the colloquial name for Symbiodinium (See Symbiodinium)

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The author has an interest in the outdoors and the health benefits of what's found in nature. What Is a Tulip Tree? The tulip poplar is also known as the tulip tree or the yellow poplar. It is a hardwood tree that's native to most of the eastern United States. It is not a true poplar tree but instead is a member of the magnolia tree family. In some regions of the United States, tulip poplars can reach heights of 160 feet and higher. There have been records of tulip poplar trees reaching heights of up to 190 feet. Yet most of them will, on average, reach heights of 70 to 100 feet. The tulip poplar is also a quick-growing tree. A plus for the tulip poplar is that it tends to live longer than other fast-growing trees. It's also a hardwood, which many fast-growing trees are not. The trees flourish best in low shade/full sun with well-drained soil. Young tulip poplars are vulnerable to damage from vines of wild grapes. The vines can weigh the tree down. They can also decrease the amount of sunlight that reaches the young tulip poplars. Poison ivy and other vines pose the same threat to damaging the tree. The flowers of a tulip poplar tree tend to show in the spring in southern regions of the United States. While, in more northern regions, they bloom later in spring in June. The trees begin to show their first blooms when the tree is within ten to fifteen years of their age. The colors of the tree's flowers can be pale green or yellow. The coloring may be dependent on the temperature of the region and many other factors. There have also been occurrences of the flowers on a tulip poplar tree being white in color. This is a rare occurrence though and is not uniform across the tree's blooms. The flowers also have an orange-colored segment. The appearance of the flowers is where the tree gets its name since its petals resemble tulips. The amount of nectar produced can be around a tablespoon per flower, and it is why the tree is popular with beekeepers. The nectar is also popular because it also contributes to the rich and strong flavor of poplar honey. Use as a Raw Material The tulip poplar is also popular as a lower-cost and strong wood for furniture, flooring, and many other uses. Another popular use is as siding. In the past, it was also used as an alternative to siding made from white pine wood. It is a low-cost alternative in many respects for consumer use and applications. The tulip poplar was also used as beams in houses, cabins, and barns. This was due to its strength and resistance to termites. Medicinal and Dietary Uses The bark of a tulip poplar, when boiled in water, was used as a medicinal tea for treating typhoid and malaria. It was used as an alternative to quinine. The inner bark was useful in treating rheumatism and arthritis. This was also a common use of the bark of many trees within the magnolia family. The tea from the bark, when boiled down, is also useful as a cough syrup. The flowers of the tulip poplar have been used, when prepared, as an ointment for soothing skin and aiding in healing burns. The oldest living tulip poplar tree, at present, is the Queens Giant in New York City. It is believed to be between 350 and 400 years old. Its age may be up to 450 years old. It is also 133.8 feet in height when it was last measured in 2005. Tulip Poplar from the University of Kentucky Department of Horticulture Tulip Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) from the University of Minnesota Liriodendron tulipifera from the Floridata Plant Encyclopedia Read More From Owlcation Questions & Answers Question: Is a tulip poplar tree an evergreen tree? Answer: The tulip poplar isn't an evergreen tree and its leaves turn a brilliant golden-yellow in autumn. Question: Is it normal for a tulip poplar to drip an excessive amount of sap in the spring - to the point where many leaves are wet? Answer: Most of the time it isn't. The excessive amount of sap may be due to insects feeding on your tree. Which can be more common when there is a wet spring, with more rain than usual, in a region. See https://www.farmanddairy.com/news/yellow-poplar-tr... to learn more. Question: I planted a tulip poplar in Houston, The leaves come out looking good and then start to look variegated. A local nursery told me that they thought the tree was hungry and recommended an all-purpose dry organic fertilizer. I've been feeding the trees and still get the variegated leaves which in the past year have developed black spots and fallen off, Can tell me what to do to help my tree? Each spring the leaves come out looking like the tree we had in my childhood backyard in Memphis, TN. Answer: It's possible that your catalpa is being affected by a fungus and the continued use of 10-10-10 fertilizer will help the tree fight the effects of any disease. The page at https://plantdiseasehandbook.tamu.edu/landscaping/... gives more insight into diseases that catalpas are susceptible to. For what's causing the damage to your tree's leaves, you may want to inquire about fungicides that are suited for treating your catalpa tree (if needed). Question: I live in Atlanta, and my Tulip Poplar is losing leaves already. Is this normal? Answer: Sometimes a little bit of leaf loss is normal. Mainly because of stress due to possible drought conditions and the recent heat. There are some tips for caring for your tulip poplar during these hot days of summer at https://www.houzz.com/discussions/1675952/tulip-po... Question: I have a two-year-old tulip poplar that I transplanted this past summer. Unfortunately, a deer bit the top 3 inches off of it. Will it still be ok, or should I start with a new tree? Answer: It should be fine just as long as the tree still has some branches and its height is still well above the ground. If you haven't, you can also build a protective cage around the tree to prevent deer from causing more damage to the tree. A good video with instructions on building one is at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vHK735aa66s. Question: My two-year-old tulip poplar tree has three lower limbs that do not have leaf buds. Should I cut them off? Answer: As long as you're sure that the branches are dead then yes, you can cut the limbs off. It is best to cut off any dead, diseased, or damaged branches when you find them. Question: Is the Tulip Poplar a "dirty" tree that'll litter your lawn in the fall? Answer: Yes, Tulip Poplar trees do tend to require a little more effort in the fall when cleaning up their leaves; they also drop their fruit. Question: Do deer eat tulip poplars? Answer: Deer will feed on the leaves, small branches, and buds of tulip poplars, but will eat from other types of trees more often. Other animals, such as squirrels, will also eat the leaves, branches, and buds of a tulip poplar. Due to this, it is important to protect young trees and prevent animals from damaging your tulip poplar. Question: I have one growing right next to my house, it has grown fast and is about 20 feet tall now. I fear it's too close to the house. How can I move my tulip poplar tree if the roots are deep? Answer: Unless you have a lot of experience with moving large trees and the correct equipment, it's not something that should be attempted. It would be best to contact a professional company to inspect the tree and move it if needed. An idea of what goes into the process of moving a large tree can be read at https://www.deeproot.com/blog/blog-entries/the-rea... Question: Is it normal that smaller branches die off each year up through the canopy? Answer: It may or may not be normal depending on the amount of dead branches. Especially since tulip poplars are susceptible to certain diseases. If you have any concerns about your tree then you may want to have your tree looked at by a professional. Question: What animal would eat the bark from a poplar tulip tree? Answer: There are a few animals that would eat the bark of the tulip poplar and other trees. You can find a list at https://wildlife-damage-management.extension.org/b... which also includes how to spot which animal has been eating the bark on your tree(s). Question: Can the tulip poplar live in Georgia clay soil? Answer: It can, but you may need to "prep" the soil first. The pH of the soil should be between 4.5 and 7.5 with 6.6 to 7.5 being the optimal pH for a tulip poplar. If needed, a product called ClayMend (and similar products) can help to improve the pH of red clay soil. Along with it, you will also want to add compost. If you have any local tree nurseries or farms that sell trees, then they may be able to give you more details and plans on how to grow tulip poplars in your soil. Question: Can you grow a Tulip Poplar from a fallen flower? Answer: No. Instead, you can grow them from your tree's seeds or from a sapling. http://homeguides.sfgate.com/germination-requireme... has more information on how to grow a Tulip Poplar tree. Question: When is the best time to trim or prune a tulip poplar? Answer: It is best to do it in the fall after the tree has gone dormant. The two articles below give more details on when and how to trim tulip poplars. Question: Can tulip poplars grow in calcareous soils? Answer: Tulips poplars may not grow in calcareous soils due to their intolerance for chalky soils and soils that are rich in lime Question: What is the use of tulip tree? Answer: Tulip trees are useful for providing shade and for adding beauty and color to a yard. Their leaves change color into a brilliant yellow in autumn. A tulip tree is also known to attract hummingbirds and butterflies. Question: When we had our 100+-year-old tulip poplar trimmed of lower branches recently, the climber noticed a very large cavity in the trunk. The cavity is about 3x1.5 feet in size and located in the center of the upper branches. Do we need to take this tree down or will it be safe to leave alone? Answer: It does sound like your tulip poplar is damaged and may need to be taken down. You should get a second opinion though and have a tree professional in your area inspect your tree. Question: One of my large Tulip Poplar recently fell onto another large tree beside it. When I checked further I noticed the bottom of the tree had significant rot. I had recently cleared a lot of kudzu from the same area the previous year. Any idea of how this rot began? Maybe due to the overgrown kudzu? Answer: Kudzu can definitely cause damage to a tree that leads to rot. Not only is it known to smother out trees but the vines can also pull nutrients and moisture from a tree. Which can cause the wood to rot straight through the tree? The overgrown kudzu is the most likely culprit for what led to the rot on your tulip poplar. Question: Is the tulip poplar susceptible to Verticillium wilt? Answer: Short answer, yes. Tulip poplars are just one of the hundreds of trees and other plants that are susceptible to Verticillium wilt. You can read more at https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/1998/3-13-1... Question: I have about a 40-year-old Poplar/tulip tree next to my garage. I recently found that my shingles were eaten through at the rain grooves and the wood above my gutters is rotted or gone. Is there acidity in this tree or leaves that could cause this? Answer: It's possible that an accumulation of the sap from your tulip poplar caused the damage. You can read more about that and tulip tree scale at https://www.wthr.com/article/tulip-tree-scale-caus... where it says the sap (aka honeydew) has been known to damage the exterior of vehicles. Which means it may also cause damage to shingles. Question: When was the Tulip Poplar chosen as the state tree for Tennessee? Answer: The Tulip Poplar become the state tree for Tennessee in 1947. See also: https://sos.tn.gov/products/state-tree Question: When can I expect my Tulip Poplar's leaves to come out this year? Answer: It's not easy to figure when leaves will start appearing on your Tulip Poplar, but you can estimate by seeing when buds begin appearing on the branches. © 2017 Ron Noble Ron Noble (author) on August 11, 2019: In autumn, after the leaves have already fallen off the tree, is the best time. Here's a useful guide on pruning your tulip poplar: https://www.hawkslandscape.com/tulip-tree-pruning-... geoff on August 11, 2019: we have tulip tree planted from a sapling 2 years ago in southern Ontario, Canada. it is growing quite aggressively. Looks like a 4' tall bush. Should some of the leaves be trimmed off and if so, when is the best time? Ron Noble (author) on May 28, 2019: Yes, it is possible to pollard a tulip poplar. The article at https://www.thespruce.com/pollarding-trees-what-it... covers the subject. Amy Bond on May 26, 2019: I have a tulip popular growing close to my house can i trim it and keep it small around 15 feet?

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What Is Organization Development? The term organization development, or OD, the label most commonly used for the field, has been in use since at least 1960. In the ’60s and early ’70s, jokes about what the abbreviation OD meant were common. Today, few people in the world of large organizations associate OD with overdose, olive drab, or officer of the day, however. Organization development as a field may not yet be sufficiently known to be defined in the dictionary or explained in the Encyclopedia Britannica, but it has survived some turbulent times and will be around for the foreseeable future. Although not defined in these well-known standards for definitions, organization development is defined in the Encyclopedia of Management Theory, Volume Two (Kessler, 2013) albeit requiring more than five double-columned pages. Moreover if we do check Webster’s dictionary and look for the definition of development, we will find that part of the definition is as follows: - Evolve possibilities - Make active - Promote growth - Make available or usable resources the organization has - Move from an original position to one that provides more opportunity for effective use In other words, we could hardly do better attempting to find a more appropriate lead-in to what OD means. Explaining what OD is and what people do who practice OD continues to be difficult nevertheless because the field is still being shaped to some degree and because the practice of OD is more of a process than a step-by-step procedure. That is, OD is a consideration in general of how work is done, what the people who carry out the work believe and feel about their efficiency and effectiveness, rather than a specific, concrete, step-by-step linear procedure for accomplishing something. An example should help to explain. The following case represents a fairly strict, purist stance for determining what OD is and what it is not. A Case: Organization Development or Crisis Management? The client organization was a division of a large U.S. manufacturing corporation. The division consisted of two plants, both of which manufactured heavy electrical equipment. The division was in trouble at the time I (Burke) was hired as an OD consultant. There were quality and control problems and customers were complaining. The complaints concerned not only poor quality, but also late delivery of products—inevitably weeks, if not months, later than promised. Several weeks prior to my arrival at the divisional offices, a senior vice president (VP) from the corporation’s headquarters had visited with the division’s top management team, a group of six men. The corporate VP was very much aware of the problems, and he was anything but pleased about the state of affairs. At the end of his visit, he made a pronouncement, stating in essence that, unless this division was “turned around” within six months, he would close it down. This ultimatum would mean loss of jobs for more than 1,000 people, including, of course, the division’s top management team. Although the two plants in this division were unionized, the corporate VP had the power and the support from his superiors to close the division if he deemed it necessary. For several months before this crisis, the division general manager had taken a variety of steps to try to correct the problems. He had held problem-solving meetings with his top management team; he had fired the head of manufacturing and brought in a more experienced man; he spent time on the shop floor talking with first-line supervisors and workers; he authorized experiments to be conducted by the production engineers to discover better methods; and he even conducted a mass rally of all employees at which he exhorted them to do better. After the rally, signs were placed throughout the division announcing the goal: to become number one among all the corporation’s divisions. None of these steps seemed to make any difference. The general manager also sought help from the corporate staff of employee relations and training specialists. One of these specialists made several visits to the division and eventually decided that an outside consultant with expertise in organization development could probably help. I was contacted by this corporate staff person, and an exploratory visit was arranged. My initial visit, only a few weeks after the corporate vice president had made his visit and his pronouncement, consisted largely of (1) talking at length with the general manager, (2) observing briefly most of the production operations, (3) meeting informally with the top management team so that questions could be raised and issues explored, and, finally, (4) discussing the action steps I proposed. I suggested we start at the top. I would interview each member of the top management team at some length and report back to them as a group what I had diagnosed from these interviews; then we would jointly determine the appropriate next steps. They agreed to my proposal. A couple of weeks later, I began by interviewing the six members of the top management team (see Figure 1.1) for about an hour each. They gave many reasons for the division’s problems, some of the presumed causes contradicting others. What became apparent was that, although the division’s goals were generally understandable, they were not specific enough for people to be clear about priorities. Moreover, there were interpersonal problems, such as conflict between the head of marketing and the head of employee relations. (The marketing manager believed that the employee relations manager was never forceful enough, and the employee relations manager perceived the marketing manager as a blowhard.) We decided to have a two-and-a-half-day meeting of the top management team at a hotel some 90 miles away to work on clarifying priorities and ironing out some of the interpersonal problems. Figure 1.1 Organization Chart: Top Management Team of Manufacturing Division The off-site meeting was considered successful because much of what we set out to accomplish was achieved—a clearer understanding of the problems and concerns and an agenda for action. The crucial problem did indeed surface. A layer or two of the organizational onion had been peeled away, and we were finally getting at not only some causes but specifics that we could address with confidence that we were moving in the right direction. The key problem that surfaced was the lack of cooperation between the two major divisional functions—engineering and manufacturing. As the organization chart in Figure 1.1 shows, the division was organized according to function. The primary advantages of a functional organization are clarity about organizational responsibilities because of the division of labor and the opportunities for continuing development of functional expertise within a single unit. The disadvantages also stem from the distinct divisions of responsibility. Because marketing does marketing and manufacturing manufactures, the two rarely meet. In this case, the problem was between engineering and manufacturing. The design engineers claimed that the manufacturing people did not follow their specifications closely enough, while the manufacturing people claimed that the design engineers did not consider that the machinery for manufacturing was old and worn. Because of the condition of the machinery, the manufacturing people were not able to follow the design engineers’ specifications to the desired tolerances. Each group blamed the other for the drop in overall product quality and for the delays in delivery of the product to the firm’s customers. This kind of conflict is common in organizations that are organized functionally. The advantages of such organizations are clear, of course, but a premium is placed on the need for cooperation and communication across functional lines. Moreover, the pressures of daily production schedules make it difficult for managers to pull away and clearly diagnose the situation when conflicts occur between functions. Managers spend a great deal of time fighting fires—that is, treating symptoms rather than causes. An outside consultant who is not caught up in this day-to-day routine can be more objective. Thus, my primary role as consultant to this division was diagnostician. The next step was to deal with this problem of intergroup conflict. Another off-site meeting was held about a month later with the top six people from engineering and their equivalent number from manufacturing. These men were predominantly engineers, either design engineers assigned to the engineering function or production engineers working in the manufacturing operation. These two functions were supposed to interact closely. The design engineers sent blueprint-like plans to manufacturing for production of the specified electrical equipment. The manufacturing people reiterated their complaint that the design tolerances were too stringent for their worn-out machinery to handle. Meeting the design specifications would require purchasing new machinery, but the cost was prohibitive. “And besides,” they added, “those design guys never set foot on the shop floor anyway, so how would they know whether we complied with their specs or not?” These comments and the attitudes they reflect are illustrative and common. Communication is rarely what it should be between groups in such organizations. It is also common, perhaps natural, for functional groups to distance themselves from one another to protect their own turf. Using a standard OD intergroup problem-solving format, I worked with the two groups to understand and clarify their differences, to reorganize the two groups temporarily into three four-person, cross-functional groups to solve problems, and to plan specific action steps they could take to correct their intergroup problems. The object in such a format is to provide a procedure for bringing conflict to the surface to enable those affected to understand it and manage a solution more productively. An initial exchange of perceptions allows the parties to see how each group sees itself and the other group. Next comes identification of the problems that exist between the two groups. Finally, mixed groups of members from both functions work together to plan action steps that will alleviate the conflict and solve many of the problems. See “Conflict in Organizations” (Burke, 2014a) for a detailed description of this process and see Figure 1.2 for a summary of its application in this case. Figure 1.2 Example of Intergroup Problem-Solving Process The outcome of this intergroup meeting clearly suggested yet another step. A major problem needing immediate attention was that the manufacturing group was not working well as a team. The design engineers produced evidence that they often got different answers to the same design production problem from different manufacturing people. Thus, the next consulting step was to help conduct a team-building session for the top group of the manufacturing function. Approximately two months after the intergroup session, I met off-site for two days with the production engineers and general foremen of manufacturing. In this session, we set specific manufacturing targets, established production priorities, clarified roles and responsibilities, and even settled a few interpersonal conflicts. By this time, I had been working with the division on and off for close to nine months. After my team-building session with the manufacturing group, I was convinced that I had begun to see some of the real causes of the divisional problems; until then, I had been dealing primarily with symptoms, not causes. I noticed, for example, that the first-line supervisors had no tangible way of rewarding their hourly workers; they could use verbal strokes—“Nice job, Alice,” or “Keep up the good work, Joe”—but that was about it. They could use negative reinforcement, however, if they so chose—for example, threatening a one- or two-week layoff without pay if performance did not meet standards. This type of action was within the bounds of the union contract. The hourly employees were paid according to what is called a measured day-work system. Their pay was based on what an industrial engineer had specified as an average rate of productivity for a given job during an eight-hour day. Incentive to produce more for extra pay was not part of the system. I suggested to the division general manager that a change in the reward system might be in order. At that suggestion, the blood seemed to drain from his face. He explained that the present president of the corporation was the person who, years before, had invented the measured day-work system. He did not believe in incentive systems. The division general manager made it clear that he was not about to suggest to the corporate president, the big boss, that the measured day-work system should perhaps be scrapped. I discussed this matter with my original corporate contact, the staff specialist. He confirmed the origin of the reward system and stated that changing the reward system was not an option. I became extremely frustrated at this point. I thought that I had finally discovered a basic cause of divisional, if not corporate, production problems, but it became apparent that this root of the problem was not going to be dug up. The next step I nonetheless recommended in the overall problem-solving process—to change some elements of the reward system for hourly employees, if not the entire system—was not a step the division general manager was willing to take. The corporate staff person was also unwilling to push for change in this aspect of the system. My consulting work with the division ended shortly thereafter. The point of this consultation case is as follows: What I used as a consultant was the standard methodology of organization development, but the project was not, in the final analysis, organization development. Having described the case, I will now use it as a vehicle for clarifying what OD is and what it is not.

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Both sides were unwilling to give in to the other and, finally, the matter was left unresolved. This perception is prevalent among history school teachers who, perhaps, have not read widely on the subject to form such an opinion. What is not delved into here is the fact that history has to be a balanced account or narrative and students must be made to use their thinking skills to analyse and evaluate historical facts rather than be swayed by foregone conclusions. More recently, with the decline in education standards in Pakistan and history textbooks being used for ideological purposes, the perception and knowledge of history as a discrete subject discipline has deteriorated considerably. Consequently, history lessons can be used for either eulogising the British colonial rulers; for the defamation of the Hindus; or belittling our Mughal heritage. K.K. Aziz, a Pakistani historian, in an interview shortly before his death had said that the Mughals had left nothing behind except for monuments and gardens. The neglect of the Social Sciences in our educational policies has had a detrimental effect on the importance of historical research and the writing of historical accounts post partition. It is only historical scholarship which can project a balanced view of the Mughal Empire in a detached way using primary sources to explain the era. Historians such as Percival Spear use a sensible way of approaching the study of Mughal and British rule of India. In A History of India (Volume II) he takes a look at both the periods separately as two different entities and says that the Mughals and the British each ruled India for approximately two hundred plus years. However, with the rise of the technological age coinciding with British rule, the status of Mughal India is relegated to a decaying state and deteriorating society. This assumption throws up the impression that it was always like that under the Mughals. Conversely, when studying both Mughal and British periods separately, Percival Spear says that British India is greatly indebted to Mughal India in many ways on the one hand while on the other, the impressive Mughal dynasty surpasses any other in the previous thousand years. Akbar S. Ahmed’s well-researched and insightful Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity — The Search for Saladin (OUP) terms the Mughal Empire as the “super power” of their age. In modern language that would mean economic superiority and prosperity of the people of that nation state. It would also mean, in today’s context, a large arsenal, technological advancement and a stable, viable, democratic governance with a literate population. When we look at the historian’s view of labeling the 17th century as “the great age of the Mughals”, the underpinning is that their rule matched the might of the other powers of their age such as the great Sophia of Constantinople and grand Cham of Persia. Nevertheless, Mughal India from the layman’s perspective is often denigrated to a baser level and the British rule of India highlighted as being the real benefactor of the modern states of Pakistan and India. To correct the obvious, let us take an overview of the life and times of the Mughals. One indicator of a civilisation is what it has generated in terms of knowledge and how literate is its population. William Dalrymple writes in his highly-regarded book The Last Mughal (2006) that Delhi was a celebrated intellectual centre and by about 1850 was at its cultural peak with “six famous madressahs and at least four smaller ones, nine newspapers in Urdu and Persian, five intellectual journals published out of Delhi College, innumerable printing presses and publishers, and no fewer than 130 Yunani doctors.” He quotes Colonel William Sleeman as admitting that the madressah education given in Delhi was “quite remarkable”. Sleeman himself wrote on a visit to Delhi, the Mughal capital: “Perhaps there are few communities in the world among whom education is more generally diffused than among Mohammadans in India. He who holds an office worth Rs20 a month commonly gives his sons an education equal to that of a Prime Minister. They learn through the medium of Arabic and Persian, what young men in our colleges learn through those of Greek and Latin — that is grammar, rhetoric and logic.” Leitner’s report of 1882 confirms the educational status of just the Punjab as having 330,000 pupils learning “all the sciences in Arabic and Sanskrit schools and colleges, as well as Oriental literature, Oriental law, Logic, Philosophy and Medicine were taught to the highest standard”. After 1857, when the British system of education took hold the number of pupils taking this form of education diminished to 190,000. Nevertheless, Leitner’s analysis of the indigenous system of education proved that it was far superior to that set by the British in 1835 with Macaulay’s Minute on Education for the Indian colony. How then was education delivered in Mughal times? Firstly, schooling of Mughal princes was taken very seriously. Great importance was given to an all round education of the princes with the study of logic, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, law and medicine. Particular emphasis was put on female education by Mughal emperors and most princesses were highly educated, too. Secondly, almost all Mughal emperors encouraged education by setting up schools and seminaries with generous grants to scholars, writers, poets and teachers to keep up the high standard of education. Although Akbar was unlettered, he gave much thought to education, syllabi and their content, and the teaching methodology for his subjects. Ain-i-Akbari records that there were 52 universities in and around Thatta in Sind during Jehangir’s time. Poets and historians have left outstanding literary works in prose, poetry, history and religious study. Mughal emperors Babar and Jehangir wrote their own biographies — Tuzk-i-Barbari and Tuzk-i-Jehangiri. Under Aurangzeb, the Fatwa-i-Alamgiri was compiled which added to the literature on Muslim law. Most books were transcribed by hand, yet a personal library was essential for a Mughal scholar as well as a Mughal nobleman. In 1641, the library at Agra contained 24,000 volumes and was valued at six and a half million rupees. When the Imperial Library at Delhi was torched by the British in 1803, the vast accumulated knowledge of the Mughal Empire was lost forever. Literacy in Mughal times is gauged by a reading public among whom the most commonly read books were Gulistan, Bostan, Akhlaq-i-Nasiri and Anwaar-i-Suhaili. Education is also visible in the conduct of governance and administration. Ministers were well read and the empire functioned effectively with separate departments dealing with Agriculture, Trade, Justice, Education, Military and the running of the royal households. Law and order was maintained throughout the empire with justice accorded by Qazis and Muftis, a system later emulated by the British. Finally, the promotion of the arts and literature during Mughal times could not have been possible without a high standard of education. The historian Rawlinson says that “the high degree of culture in Mughal India was largely the result of the excellent system of education.” Most civilisations such as the Greek, Egyptian, Persian and Byzantium are judged by their artistic expression in paintings, sculpture and monuments. The renaissance is mostly depicted in the myriad of paintings now on display in Florence, Italy. The undeniable flourishing of artistic expression through painting, poetry and architectural magnificence in the Mughal period is witness to the high degree of civilisation attained by them. The miniature school of paintings evolved in this period and the art form of calligraphy developed greatly and is beautifully evident in all their buildings. As to the monuments, tombs, forts, and mosques that Mughal architecture left to India is a testament to the highly-skilled craftsmanship and engineering marvels of the era. The water systems of the gardens and forts were developed for the heat of the subcontinent and their planning can only be attributed to an educated mind. The architectural ethereal beauty of the Taj Mahal has not been surpassed to this day and has earned it the position of one of the wonders of the world. In modern times it has managed to contribute to the Indian economy as a tourist attraction that cannot be overlooked. Tourism relies on an exposition of a country’s visible achievements in the form of monasteries, churches, courts of law, palaces and museums. Hence, Mughal buildings and gardens are a valuable asset for Pakistan’s culture and history. In spite of this, the legacy of the Mughals most relevant in today’s Pakistan is the religious tolerance for the other communities in India. The Mughals were imperialists or kings by profession and Muslims by birth and circumstance. The religious orthodoxy did play a part in their rule but it never interfered with the belief of the bulk of the population which was Hindu, Buddhist and Sikh. Their places of worship were respected and their customs and festivals upheld so much so that in 1857, both Muslims and Hindus rallied around the Mughal emperor to expel the British from India. Accurate knowledge of the legacy of the Mughals in education is vital to our new generations as libraries and a reading culture is now missing in the lives of ordinary Pakistanis. Teachers need to have a holistic education encompassing a multi-disciplinary approach rather than just a command of their subject. In many cases, Pakistan Studies is taught by those who, perhaps, just have a working knowledge of History and Geography from their school days. Thus, knowledge from a biased history textbook is likely to be passed on to students by a teacher not too familiar with historical nuances and biases. Thus, the cultural and historical heritage of a nation must be safeguarded at all costs for its future depends on it. The writer, Ismat Riaz is an educational consultant based in Lahore. firstname.lastname@example.org

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PUB 540 Oswego Outbreak Case Study In the epidemiological study, the outbreak of diseases depend on various factors. In other words, disease can be caused by different forms of infections that are either occurring naturally in the environment of manmade. Measuring the outbreak of diseases involves the collection and analysis of data to understand the risk factors. Data are always collected from the respondents on various possible causes of the disease outbreaks. There are different methods that can be applied in the process of data analysis to determine the accuracy of the data analysis outcomes. Contingency table is one of the best approach of analyzing and interpreting the cause of a disease (Aygören-Pürsün et al., 2018). Before engaging in the use of contingency table, there is always the need to determine the frequencies and to understand different aspects of the data for accurate outcomes (Carcillo et al., 2017). Investigation of the disease outbreaks involved different procedures which has to be successfully followed. Every step ought to be covered to ensure the accurate prediction can be made. In the above case, the first step involved in the disease outbreak is the identification of the possible. The second step involved the identification of the food products and the kinds of pathogens that cause that spread or the disease outbreak. The investigation processes should also involve the possible agents involved in the spread of the disease among the populations. In the above case study, there was the analysis of disease outbreaks from the food products (Roche et al., 2015). Some of the food products that were presented include cabbage, Jello, mashed potatoes, cakes, coffee, milk, fruit salad etc. The data was collected at different dates and the respondent were asked whether they consumed the food product. The interview was a “Yes” or “No” answer. From the analysis, there was the determination of the attack rate and the attack rate ratio. The outcomes were determined from the responses obtained from the clients. From the ratios obtained in the process of analysis, the above scenario meets the definition of a disease outbreak (Panisello et al., 2016). The contingency tables presented clearly summarize the relationship that exist between the categorical variables that have been presented. The variables have been shown simultaneously (Tomza‐Marciniak et al., 2018). The steps required to investigate the disease outbreak involves the collection of data, which has already been presented in the Microsoft Excel. After the process of data collection, there was the determination or the calculation of risk ratios (Geng et al., 2017). The above computation was done for each of the food item presented in the table. The outcomes was presented in Oswego Line Listing Workbook. The frequencies presented in the table, Oswego Attack Rate Table was used to determine the attack rates and the attack rate ratios through the application of the Excel formulas (Saghafian et al. 2018). From the given risk ratios, there is a clear indication that the above criterion meets the definition of the disease (Kateri, 2015). The above steps aided in the investigation of the Oswego event through the presentation, analysis and interpretation of the data. For each information to be successful, there was careful analysis and presentation of data. Also, the processes of data collection were accurate and this led to the successful outcomes. The disease outbreak was facilitate of a means of transmission (Saghafian et al., 2018). In this case, the rout of transmission was through ingestion of pathogenic organisms that came from the contaminated food (Kent et al., 2017). The food contamination is often attributed to the exudes or faces which are transmitted by different agents. In the above case study, the contaminated food was consumed which led to the transfer of the disease into the body which later caused There are different control measures that can be taken into consideration in the above case (Sevá et al., 2017). Maintaining cleanliness is one of the best approach in controlling the disease outbreak. Recalling food product is another best approach that can be undertaken to control the spread of the disease. These are primary prevention measures that ought to be undertaken to manage the disease outbreak. Discuss the Possible Agents(S) Responsible For the Outbreak The possible agents responsible for cause of the disease outbreak is the pathogens found in the food items presented above. Disease outbreak is often caused by the infection that can transmitted from one person to the other when there is contact. In the above case, the disease outbreak was caused by the transfer of pathogens from the food products. The outbreak also occurred as a result of exposure to chemicals found in the food materials. There could also be exposure to radioactive chemicals. With the above factors, there was high possibility of rapid transfer of diseases from one person who consumed the food material to the other. From graph 1, the epidemiological curve indicates the measurements involving all the food components involved in the study process. The curve shows a sharp increase in the number of infections by the food products. In graph 2 the curve shows the number of participants measured against the variable, spinach. In other words. The epidemiological curve shows that there is low chances of disease outbreak for those who consumed spinach. In epidemiological curve 3, the trend shows that there is little chances of occurrence in the The curve in graph 4 shows the participants versus the variable Jello. The curve indicates that there is little chances in the disease outbreak when Jello is consumed. Aygören-Pürsün, E., Magerl, M., Maetzel, A., & Maurer, M. (2018). Epidemiology of Bradykinin-mediated angioedema: a systematic investigation of epidemiological studies. Orphanet journal of rare diseases, 13(1), 73. Retrieved from: Carcillo, J. A., Sward, K., Halstead, E. S., Telford, R., Jimenez-Bacardi, A., Shakoory, B., … & Hall, M. (2017). A systemic inflammation mortality risk assessment contingency table for severe sepsis. Pediatric critical care medicine: a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies, 18(2), 143. Retrieved from: 10.1097/PCC.0000000000001029 Geng, J., Xu, J., Nie, W., Peng, S., Zhang, C., & Luo, X. (2017). Regression analysis of major parameters affecting the intensity of coal and gas outbursts in laboratory. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, 27(2), 327-332. Retrieved from: Kateri, M. (2015). Contingency table analysis. Methods and implementation using R (First edition). Aachen, Germany: Editorial Advisory Booard. Retrieved from: Kent, P., Boyle, E., Keating, J. L., Albert, H. B., & Hartvigsen, J. (2017). Four hundred or more participants needed for stable contingency table estimates of clinical prediction rule performance. Journal of clinical epidemiology, 82, 137-148. Retrieved from: Panisello, P. J., Rooney, R., Quantick, P. C., & Stanwell-Smith, R. (2016). Application of foodborne disease outbreak data in the development and maintenance of HACCP systems. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 59(3), 221-234. Retrieved from: Roche, S. E., Garner, M. G., Wicks, R. M., East, I. J., & de Witte, K. (2015). How do resources influence control measures during a simulated outbreak of foot and mouth disease in Australia?. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 113(4), 436-446. Retrieved from: Saghafian, F., Malmir, H., Saneei, P., Milajerdi, A., Larijani, B., & Esmaillzadeh, A. (2018). Fruit and vegetable consumption and risk of depression: accumulative evidence from an updated systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. British journal of nutrition, 119(10), 1087-1101. Retrieved from: Sevá, A. D. P., Martcheva, M., Tuncer, N., Fontana, I., Carrillo, E., Moreno, J., & Keesling, J. (2017). Efficacies of prevention and control measures applied during an outbreak in Southwest Madrid, Spain. PloS one, 12(10), e0186372. Retrieved from: Tomza‐Marciniak, A., Stępkowska, P., Kuba, J., & Pilarczyk, B. (2018). Effect of bisphenol A on reproductive processes: a review of in vitro, in vivo and epidemiological studies. Journal of Applied Toxicology, 38(1), 51-80. Retrieved from:

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Some observations on Medieval India, History textbook for Class VII by Romila Thapar. (Relevant also for Medieval India, History textbook for Class XI by Satish Chandra, which is simply an enlarged version of the first text and shares all its traits.) The year 800 AD cannot rightly be regarded as marking the beginning of the medieval period in Indian history. The ancient civilization of the land continued to flourish as before at this time and underwent no dramatic discontinuity or change to warrant the closure of one era and the heralding of another. The Indian creative genius scaled new heights in the period between the 8th and 12th centuries, as is evidenced in the profusion of religious thinkers (Shankara and Ramanuja, among a host of others), the hectic pace of temple construction (examples include the Rajarajeshwara temple at Thanjavur, the Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho, the Jagannath temple at Puri and the Sun Temple at Konarak), and the spurt in the development of regional vernaculars. A number of discerning scholars abroad have questioned the application of the western concept of feudalism to the Indian society of this period. In particular, they have refuted the Marxist contention that there was a paucity of money and coins in the post-Gupta period and that this triggered off feudal conditions in India. On the contrary, they say, India had a thriving money economy and the evidence in the shape of the abundant coinage found has been deliberately overlooked by Indian Marxists in order to fit Indian history in the Leftist mould. Since all the processes that India was under going in this period in the realms specially of religion, language and literature were internally generated and internally rooted, it is difficult to comprehend the connection between this period (8th to 12th centuries) and the ensuing one (13th to 18th centuries), which clearly marked the ascendancy of external forces and culture. Clearly the forced clubbing together of highly disparate eras has been motivated solely by the desire to downplay the cataclysmic nature of the Muslim advent in India. In the circumstances, the second era in Indian history should properly begin with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 AD. Instead of focusing on the Hindu states of the 8th to the 12th centuries, which were in any case anathema to the Muslims, the introductory chapter should discuss the rise of Islam in Arabia, the basic tenets of the Muslim faith, the Islamic expansion, the Arab-non Arab tussle within the expanding Muslim polity, the status it accorded to its non-Muslim subjects, its treatment of the ancient civilizations and cultures in conquered Iran, Iraq, Egypt and Syria. The exclusivist nature of Islam and its rejection of pre-Islamic states, scripts, languages and cultures in the entire Middle East need to be adequately discussed. Since the Islamic advent was the real story of medieval India, it is wrong to forcibly bring the Cholas into the picture. The Cholas belonged neither to the feudal nor the Dark Age, nor did they share any features with Islamic states. There is also a deliberate attempt to interpolate caste tensions into Hindu society as is evident in the off-hand reference to Shudras. In reality, the so-called Shudras were dominant castes in many areas, they controlled large amounts of land and were a force to reckon with. Ethnographic studies have also recorded the pride they took in their Shudra status till as late as the 19th century when caste underwent a series of changes as a result of colonial intervention. The noted historian, Burton Stein has alluded to the close Brahmin-peasant partnership in the extension of cultivation in the south. In the discussion on religion, there is little attempt to highlight the fact that the reformist impulse came from within Hindu society and that many of its proponents were Brahmins. Misrepresentations about Indian society abound in this chapter as well. There are the standard stereotype references to the caste system with absolutely no appreciation of the elasticity that was its essential feature. In the context of the period under discussion, this elasticity is most vividly illustrated in the elevation of several nomad-pastoral communities into Agnikula Rajputs created by the Brahmins to specially defend the land against the invading mlechhas. Needless to say, this finds no mention in the text. The inclusion of Mohammed Ghazni alongside the Rajputs in the discussion on the kingdoms of North India is surprising unless, of course, the intention is to blur the distinction between the two. The rest of the chapter is a continuation of the half-truth and untruths in which the book abounds. There are again the motivated statements on land grants to Brahmins, the intention obviously being to reinforce the negative stereotypes of the latter. The pertinent point, however, is what percentage of such grants were actually given to Brahmins and what percentage to other sections of Hindu society. The references to the miserable plight of the peasants and the assertion that it mattered little to them whether they were ruled by Rajput or Turk flies in the face of later statements made by the authoress herself wherein she concedes that the land tax increased from one-third to almost half of the produce by the later Mughal period. Romila Thapars views here seem to be colored by her commitment to the Marxist ideology of dividing the human societies to classes, real or imaginary, as a basis for all analysis. The section on society presents a distorted view of the Indian social scene. It has long been conceded that the essential constituent of the Indian village community was its mutually dependent nature. The system was reciprocative in regard to services and redistributive in regard to agricultural produce. There was joint enterprise to raise the crops, to defend life and property from free-booters and natural calamities, there was even joint celebration of festivities. Outside observers, in fact, often noted with amazement that villages containing a sizeable number of caste groupings, could nonetheless exist as a unit. None of this finds mention in the text. The section on religion creates the impression that it was only with the advent of the Bhakti movement that the lower castes were brought into the Hindu spiritual ambit. This is incorrect. From the outset, only Vedic literature was outside the purview of the common people but the philosophical truths contained in it were popularized and made easily comprehensible through the wide dissemination of the Agamas, Ramayana and Mahabharata which incidentally also contained the Gita. The momentous fact that for the first time in Indian history the religion of the rulers was different from that of the ruled is not mentioned in this chapter. Nor the fact that from thence on, the economic exploitation of the peasantry was systematized as never before, courtesy, the system of measurement of land and record of actual production. The extremely closed nature of the governing class, with entry being restricted to immigrant Muslims, is also glossed over. There is no reference to Balbans well-advertised repugnance for even Hindu converts to Islam, nor the fact that the first Indian-born Muslim to accidentally stray in was soon executed. References to Hindu participation in the system are misleading. The so-called Hindu involvement was restricted to the clerical level, much as it was under the British. If Indian participation at the lower levels of the administration did not make the colonial state an Indo-British venture, surely the same logic should hold good here as well. The word jaziya does not occur even once in the discussion on the entire Sultanate period. Firozshah is described as interested in the ancient culture of India when the fact is that it was during his region that jaziya was levied on Brahmins for the first time. The pan-Islamic dimension of the political philosophy of the Sultanate has not even been alluded to. All the Sultans, without exception, looked to the Caliph as the source of their legitimacy. Even after the Caliph has been murdered and the Caliphate abolished (1258), his name continued to appear on the coins of the Sultans of India. They continued to swear allegiance to a hypothetical Caliph. The attempt to sanitize the activities of every Muslim ruler is particularly glaring in the case of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. The intensity of Hindu resistance is ignored, the savagery involved in the conversion of Kashmir is not even hinted at. Similarly, the religious dimension of the Vijaynagar-Bahmani dispute is totally missing in the narrative. The entire exercise is reminiscent of the attempts to white-wash Nazi history by their modern apologists. Despite the misleading assertions, there is simply no concrete evidence of Hindu-Muslim rapprochement in the Sultanate period. It is grossly improper to include Hindu princes, landholders and priests as constituents of the new aristocracy that arose at this time. The author should be asked to furnish the actual details of such participation. Leaving aside the ruling houses of Rajputana, Rajput resistance even in the neighbouring Katiher region (remained Rohelkhand after the Afghans) remained intense even throughout Mughal rule. Similarly, the participation of landholders in the ruling class remained restricted even under the Mughals, a point conceded by the late Prof. Athar Ali. To assert that the involvement of such groups was intense in the Sultanate period is a blatant form of dishonesty. It is also grotesque to talk of the respect of the Delhi Sultans for Brahmins and to suggest that both Brahmins and the Ulema were equally permitted to spread their faiths in the subcontinent. Nor is there any mention of the infamous pilgrimage tax. Aside from the reference to Mohammed Ghazni, there is no mention of temple destruction in this period. The talk of intermarriage between Turks, Afghans and Hindus who had been converted ignores the deep racialism of the rulers and the contempt they had for Indian Muslims. It is not mentioned that the non-Muslim partner of the marriage always had to convert to Islam. There is similar dishonesty in the discussion on the Sufis. There is no evidence to suggest that the Sufis advised Hindus to be better Hindus as the authoress alleges. Indeed, in the popular Indian folklore, Sufis are viewed as pioneer Muslims who ventured out to claim fresh territory for their faith. Warrior Sufis were active participants in frontier warfare. Moreover, Sufis did not challenge any of the precepts of Islam and always remained within the Islamic tradition. Contrary to the impression given, Muslims had no role in the development of the regional languages discussed here. Also, the architectural style remained distinctly Islamic and did not deviate from Islamic forms in the slightest, despite the addition of a few Hindu frills. Baburs well-known dislike for Hindustan is not mentioned, nor his association with the Ayodhya temple. The Renaissance and the Reformation in Europe are not relevant here. There is no hint at the complex processes that went into the shaping of Akbars policies, nor the fact that he started his reign as a conservative Sunni Muslim monarch. He, after all, re-christened Hindu holy cities (Prayag being the most notable), imposed the jaziya and pilgrimage tax, and even indulged in forcible conversions in the early part of his reign. Though he ultimately did seek a more neutral legitimation, at least by way of supplement, the state under him remained unmistakably Muslim. 70% of his nobility consisted of foreigner-Muslims. The Hindu representation was confined to the Rajputs, there being just four other Hindus in the upper echelons of the nobility. These were Birbal, Todar Mal, his son, and another Khatri. An alien tongue remained the court language and the language of administration. The translation of Hindu epics into Persian was intended to wean away the Hindu administrative elite from their own languages, and thrust Persian on them. Akbars so called patronage of Hindu writers also needs to be examined afresh, in view of the fact that the greatest Hindu writer of the age, Tulsidas, certainly received no state funding. The section on the Mansabadari system is poorly formulated and incapable of being comprehended by the students. The write-up on the Din-i-Ilahi smacks of total intellectual dishonesty. In the western world, it is by now generally accepted that the Ilahi was not influenced by, nor a concession, to Hinduism. In fact, nine of the ten virtues it enjoined were derived directly from the Koran, while the tenth was a commonplace basis of all Sufi thought. It should be noted that even his Hindu wife Jodhabai, was converted to Islam and buried with him in the manner of a Muslim at Sikandra. The omission of Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, the leading revivalist thinker of the time, is also indicative of the political agenda of the writers. There is almost total silence on the growing powers of orthodoxy in the reigns of Jehangir and Shah Jehan. The intention is to present them in as favourable a light as possible. Thus, Jehangirs revolt against his father, and his suspected involvement in the murder of Abul Fazl, who was a relatively liberal Muslim, find no mention in the text. The lengthy treatment given to the mythical chain of justice at Jehangirs palace further confirms the deliberately biased treatment of the subject. The cursory discussion on Aurangzeb, which is also appended to this chapter, is not only a masterly exercise in evasion, but also incomprehensible on its own terms. After reading the text, it still remains unclear why according to the authoress herself, the Sikhs, Marathas and Jats revolted against the Mughal domain. She further talks of Aurangzeb having trouble with the Rajputs, rather than vice versa. Incidentally, the word jaziya is used for the first and last time here (page 109 of the book), but the reader is not even told what this tax was all about. To further confuse matters, Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi is discussed in the middle of Aurangzeb, while there is no mention of Shah Waliullah. The most important characteristic of the post-Aurangzeb period was that the successor states continued to uphold and propagate the Mughal system and its Muslim values, and made no attempt to link with the indigenous ethos. Needless to say, this finds no mention in this chapter.

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Children typically learn from their ways and behaviour from their parents and elder relatives. Most children will grow up fine, but others may grow up with a warped world-view, prejudiced beliefs or have information restricted from them that can fuel hate, bigotry and mis-understanding in later life. Cinema gives us the gift of multiple world-views, and access to stories from around the globe, more so now than ever. We can see stories from marginalised groups, people that don’t speak our language, people in conflict, people that were led down the wrong path. Anything you wish to see, cinema has an offering for it. By showing children diverse and culturally significant films from a young age, perhaps the rising rates of prejudice and mis-understanding could be lessened. Here are just a handful of films that SQ believes should be recommended teaching in schools. BEASTS OF NO NATION (2015) Before I delve into Beasts of No Nation, I want to briefly stress my firm beliefs in the educational powers of film. I love that film allows the audience member to view humanity from all walks of life and corners of the world. Through this window into another person’s world, one develops compassion and knowledge of another’s circumstances and experiences. When I was growing up, a white girl from suburbia, I was allowed to watch whatever films I wanted. I was able to view, from a young age, situations that I would not normally be exposed to, especially those in other countries. I believe that it is important for schools to expose students to different films in order to open their eyes to situations beyond their homes and school halls to foster empathy and understanding. I would choose Beasts of No Nation in order to expose young adults to the wartime situations of another country, in this case the Sierra Leone Civil War. While the violent and terrible lives of child soldiers depicted in this film is not easy to watch, it is an important situation that we should not look away from. Cary Joji Fukunaga directs with his typical distinctive, elegiac flair to craft a beautifully shot film depicting a brutal and horrific story. Although it is important to recognize what the Huffington Post points out, the dangers in having African narratives be seen as nothing but war-ridden. This could perhaps be eradicated by showing other African-centered films or class discussions. Beasts of No Nation could open discussion about children’s relationship to violence around the world, the country of Africa, and how we can develop our attitudes to events in developing nations and international struggles. –Caroline Madden When right-wing idiots are spouting their usual ‘migrant crisis’ monologues, questions of national security are being put forward and xenophobia rising at an increasingly scary rate, Dheepan couldn’t have arrived at a more prominent time. Those reasons also probably lent a hand to its winning of the Palme d’Or at Cannes 2015. But awards aren’t everything, and Dheepan would still be an important and eye-opening piece of cinema regardless of its accolades. It digs deep into the lives of refugees, and sees the world through their eyes, instead of the hateful observations usually cast out by our right-wing media. The film follows Dheepan, an ex-solider of the Sri Lankan Civil War, who is aiming to seek refuge in France to better his life. We see him in the refugee camp, trying to find a pretend wife and daughter who will match the passports of a deceased family. It’s tragic but necessary, he takes a young girl away from her mother in promise of a better life for her, and finds a woman who vows to play the part of his wife to allow them to seek asylum. When in France, Dheepan straight away scours for jobs, and ends up selling novelty toys to tourists on the streets with a bunch of other refugees. That is until he finds a job on a housing development as the caretaker, and his ‘wife’ Yalini, becomes a carer for an old man in one of the houses. They work tirelessly to give their ‘daughter’ a better life and build themselves a new safe space away from the conflict of Sri Lanka. That is until they realise the housing estate is controlled by a drug lord, the son of the elderly man Yalini is taking care of. Struck with the same fear they have back home, Dheepan experiences extreme PTSD seeing the violence and weapons on the estate, when all he wants to do is be a hard-working man who can assimilate into French life. The situation escalates into a dramatic finale. The striking and most heart-breaking, even life-changing moments for me was seeing young Illayaal’s descent into education, away from her real friends and family, and not speaking any French, she finds it difficult to fit in, and is bullied by the French kids in her school. Dheepan experiences the same torments amongst his new work friends, in one scene after work when he is talking to Yalini, he explains how he cannot join in with their jokes, he doesn’t understand what is funny, and thinks he is a lesser person for not understanding their humour. These simple everyday tasks and occurrences that we take for granted, become monumental in the refugee’s experience, making their new world an often equally terrifying place than the one they came from. Dheepan should be taught in schools as it reverses the worldview. Seeing life from a migrant’s perspective, and how they deal with trauma, PTSD, language barriers and simple things such as conversation made me a much more sympathetic person, hopefully it would do the same for young children, and remove the seed of hate and prejudice before their parents plant it in them. –Chloe Leeson DISTRICT 9 (2009) Neill Blomkamp’s 2009 film District 9 is a seminal piece of work for a variety of reasons; however the one I wish to focus on is how it covers themes such as alienation, empathy, prejudice and how humans have an innate response of destroying things they do not understand. I am not usually a fan of films that use sci-fi elements like non-human species as a metaphor for social issues, as I feel that they tend to do more harm than good, by detracting from the very human issues created by prejudice and by using ridiculously over-the-top aliens to represent oppressed groups – most films end up perpetuating the idea that such groups are in fact “other” and should be viewed with suspicion and/or dislike. District 9 is the outlier to this trend, in my opinion and that is why if there was to be a film that was mandatory viewing in schools this should be it. Blomkamp uses the “Prawns” and the hardships they face due to segregation and prejudice from humans to show how unfounded and damaging our fear of the unknown really is. His decision to cast a complete unknown (Sharlto Copley) in the lead role and film it in the style of a documentary forces the audience to acknowledge the impact discrimination, in particular racial discrimination has on it’s victims and to start looking inwards and critiquing our own behaviour and beliefs. Having the leading character Wilkus start off as a bumbling bureaucrat that has totally bought into the media’s lies and negative portrayal of the ‘prawns’, viewing them as worthless – and ending up infected and morphing into one himself whilst having to rely on the help of the very ‘prawn’ he allowed to be beaten up – proves that the discriminatory beliefs and stereotypes held toward minority groups are merely a construction that implements fear as a means of control. District 9 can teach us a lot of things, and the more you watch it, the more is revealed – and that is what makes it so important. Any film that gets people questioning their own morals and beliefs and the societal structures around them is greatly influential in terms of helping the younger generations work towards creating a truly equal society. Although I am sure there are many films that teach the same ideas, what would make District 9 such a good fit for being part of a school syllabus is that it’s science-fiction themes may make sure its lessons are taken in by people who do not yet have an interest in more blunt, human-interest documentaries – and may subsequently start to, because of this film. The more people that start to question such things, the more change will occur, which is always a good thing. –Megan Gibb Kids (1995) should be shown in schools because it portrays the gravity and consequences of drug abuse, unsafe sex and teenage delinquency without exaggerating or romanticising the reality of it. What’s more, its cast – which includes Chloë Sevigny and Rosario Dawson in their breakthrough roles – look, speak and act in a way relatable and accessible to teens and young people. It doesn’t matter if you didn’t live in 90s NYC; the way naivety/maturity, innocence/sexuality and fear/ambivalence are juxtaposed and balanced like they are when one comes of age is seen throughout the movie. The nonchalance, amorality and rebellion within the storyline are enough to leave a mark on anyone; it’s a tough watch for sure. But it’s enough to make you feel like you walked down the path no-one should ever take, especially so young, and veered back on track in the space of one-and-a-bit hours. –Sharon Igbokwe Every once in a while, a film comes along that leaves a lasting impact on us, one that we can’t stop thinking about for days afterwards, that has us contemplating some of what we thought we knew. A few months ago, I watched Hong Khaou’s ‘Lilting’; a quietly powerful movie set in the heart of London that centres on a man that has recently lost his life partner. That may sound like a relatively simple premise and, honestly, it is. This is where the beauty of this film comes from; the simplicity of the plot. A man loses his boyfriend, his soulmate, the person he was supposed to spend his life with, and suddenly, while still trapped in the throes of grief, he finds himself having to explain everything to his partner’s mother; a Cambodian woman who speaks no English and was unaware of her son’s sexual orientation. And so, our story begins as we watch the protagonist, Richard, attempt, and often fail, to form a connection with Junn, the only remaining member of his boyfriend’s immediate family. What unfolds is a sweet, delicately made account of the effect that loss has on us and, as clichéd as this may sound, how our differences can unite us. ‘Lilting’ is not only a beautiful depiction of grief, love and hardship, but also a fantastic piece of representation for the LGBTQ+ community, as Richard and his partner’s, Kai, relationship is presented to us with nothing other than normalcy and tenderness. They argue, they debate over how to decorate their home, over who is giving who a lift somewhere, they share warmth and they share laughter. Just like the countless heterosexual pairings we’ve seen do in cinema. Through Richard and Kai, minorities are given the representation we deserve, as the love between the two men takes centre stage. Moreover, the film does an excellent job of portraying the importance of diversity in life, as Richard and Junn eventually come to form a bond in their mutual admiration for Kai, regardless of the fact that they speak different languages and of their contrasting views on the world. It is beautifully done, stunningly filmed and, for its outstanding depiction of life and all its’ aspects, it is a film that should be shown in schools. –Hannah Ryan Categories: Anything and Everything

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A good organizational structure lays out both a hierarchy and the flow of communication in a company. the Function of the School Current Conceptions of the Function of the School 5.1 Hilda Taba. Moreover, studies on teacher collaboration and teaming have shown that students benefit when teachers work together to promote student learning. The goal of the administrator is to keep the school's overall process flowing smoothly, making decisions that facilitate successful education. The IB-Diploma program is a demanding pre-university course of study that leads to external examinations. Planning a school and its campus layout needs to depict the premises, represent internal spaces, location of windows and direction of natural light. People are divided into different departments according to their job responsibilities or functions they serve in the company. There are a few different types of organizational charts. A functional organizational chart helps employees understand their roles within a company. People are divided into different departments according to their job responsibilities or functions they serve in the company. The research on school organization is clear: in general, small schools yield better results than large ones. Creately diagrams can be exported and added to Word, PPT (powerpoint), Excel, Visio or any other document. organizing function collects and coordinates all the necessary factors of the business. INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF TIANJIN No. Organizational charts (or hierarchy charts) are the graphical representation of an organization’s structure. An organizational chart, or organogram, is a diagram that shows how an organization is structured, and how the positions in the organization are related to each other. The Dean oversees all the academic and non-academic issues emerging in the school and prepares effective strategies in order to solve the issues and to maximize the efficiency of the school. The curriculum framework is interdisciplinary and focuses on the development of the whole child using inquiry based, concept driven teaching methodologies. For example, there is a manager in charge of marketing, and another in charge of production. Classroom management is the organizational function that requires teachers to perform various tasks like planning; organizing; coordinating; directing; controlling; communicating; housekeeping and nurturing. Organization chart is a diagrammatical presentation of relationships in an enterprise. 300350 ADVERTISEMENTS: Organization Charts: Types, Principles, Advantages and Limitations! Whether you’re a business, nonprofit, or government organization, a chart can help your employees understand the chain of command, with clear information on … Org charts have a variety of uses, and can be … This is a sample school organizational chart for a middle school organizational structure: Have a Try Right Now! Organizational charts are visual tools used by managers to help illustrate the roles and an organization’s hierarchy. School hours: 8:10am - 3:10pm An educational institution comprises of numerous individuals of various ranks, positions, and responsibilities. Organizational structure determines how the roles, power and responsibilities are assigned, controlled, and coordinated, and how information flows between the different levels of management .” Read more: The school is headed by the Director, who is immediately supported within each of the two main sections by the elementary and secondary principals. Another form of divisional org chart structure is the multi-divisional structure. The school's organizational plan addresses those issues that affect the school as a whole, such as the master schedule, the location of staff in different rooms, and the assignment of aides to teachers or teams. Sle of anizational chart for ems scientific diagram 10 printable anizational chart and its function forms templates fillable sles in word to filler functional anizational chart for powerpoint slidemodel 41 anizational chart templates word excel powerpoint psd 41 anizational chart … One of the principals also fulfils the role of Deputy Director. The organizing function entails primarily the structuring of student sub groups and defining of rules, as well as making preparations for the implementing of plans. Draw A Diagram Showing The Organisational Structure Of A School, Flow Chart Of A School Management Structure, Www Draw The Organizational Structure Of The School Business, ERD | Entity Relationship Diagrams, ERD Software for Mac and Win, Flowchart | Basic Flowchart Symbols and Meaning, Flowchart | Flowchart Design - Symbols, Shapes, Stencils and Icons, Electrical | Electrical Drawing - Wiring and Circuits Schematics. What's Organizational Design? Office of the Attorney General (AG) Office of the Deputy Attorney General (DAG) Office of the Associate Attorney General (ASG) Office of the Solicitor General (OSG) OSG Organizational Chart. Edit this example. Please share your thought with us […] The term is also used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages. Organizational charts are visual tools used by managers to help illustrate the roles and an organization’s hierarchy. The term is also used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages. Others include: divisional structure, matrix structure, and flat structure. 2. Secondary School: MYP and DP Coordinators; Subject Chair for each discipline. Comments (-1) Pasadena Unified School District. Providing a school organization with a school organizational chart can help its members determine how work is being distributed in an organization, how the management efficiently displays how things are being controlled, and how information is being processed all throughout the organization. This type of organization has an advantage over the Line as experts are appointed to run each department. Department of Justice Overview | DOJ Organizational Chart. The rationalized organizational structures and staffing patterns were a result of the thorough study of the DepEd Change Management Team (CMT) on the current structures, functions and staffing complement of the DepEd offices vis-à-vis the long-term education reforms, requirements of the learners and the changing environment, and national government policies. Basic Functional Organizational Charts Most of the time, every company will be divided into several departments, such as accounting, human resources, marketing, administration, and engineering. Organizational charts help map out this complexity into a visual presentation that’s easy to comprehend. Five IT Functions in an Organization. As the name suggests, organizational charts (or Organogram charts) display the internal structure or hierarchy within the organization. +86 22 2859 2001 They let clearly represent a sequence of the process steps, the order of operations, relationships between processes and responsible functional units (such as departments or positions). Organizational Chart; Organizational Chart. It is important for every business, no matter its size, to implement an organizational system. One of these formats is by function, which organizes the positions within the company by the purpose of the job or position. Easily editable via Creately. Alternatively, you … Transitory Provisions. The most common type is the hierarchical, top-down organizational chart that shows people by their functional position. How to Draw an Organization Chart | Organizational Structure ... Functional Diagram Of A School Organization, Diagram Of An Organisational Chart And Departments Of A School, How To Draw And Label School Organizational Chart, How To Draw A School Functional Organisational Of A School, How To Draw Functional Structure Of A School, School Management Structure In A Flow Diagram, Flow Chart Of Management Structure Of Any School, Management Organization Chart Of School, Diagram Of Organisational Chart Of A School. ... tasks and communications involved in running a school. Pasadena Unified School District; Organizational Chart; Organizational Charts. Organizing Function: One of the main functions of a business is organizing function. Elementary School: PYP Coordinator; Upper and Lower Elementary Coordinators; Language and Literacy Coordinator. An organizational chart, also called organigram or organogram, is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. Governance and Operations ensures the capacity of the organization to continuously improve and be strategic in managing the environment for which “teaching and learning” takes place. Alternatively, you can go for this Org Chart … 2020-2021 Organizational Chart . It identifies each job, its function and where it reports to within the organization.” A structure is then developed to establish how the organization operates to execute its goals. Our school is divided into two main sections: the Elementary School and the Secondary School, each headed by a sectional principal who reports to the Director. Business Flow Charts Examples & Samples; Management Flow Charts Examples & Samples; Whatever your organization is, be it a business, government, non-profit, and even school organization, the use of an organizational chart can help your employees, as well as those people who have no idea about your organization, understand how the chain of command goes in your organization. It is a graphical representation of different relationships amongst functions, departments, teams as well as individuals. 2 ... Management is that function of an organisation concerned with the co-ordination and Organizational Charts solution extends ConceptDraw PRO software with samples, templates and library of vector stencils for drawing the org charts. As the name suggests, organizational charts (or Organogram charts) display the internal structure or hierarchy within the organization. Edit this example. The Dean communicates with the directors, all the teaching and the non-teaching staffs, parents and the volunteers so as to ensure that the students get quality educatio… The functional organizational chart is structured with executives on the top and employees at the bottom. Educational Administration: Structure, Functions and Processes at State Government Level 1. IST is governed by a nine member Board of Governors who appoints the Director as the Head of School/Chief Educational Officer. Fire Department Organizational Chart. 22 Weishan Nan Lu By continuing to browse the ConceptDraw site you are agreeing to our. Employee names and titles and/or job positions are generally depicted in boxes or circles with lines linking them to other employees and departments. Within the two sections there are a number of school-wide and sectional leadership positions. • Assist in the collection of data and organization of them for use in program evaluation and for reporting to appropriate external accreditation bodies. Education and Science Organizational Chart This one here can be used for showing the structure of … Administration: 7:30am - 4:30pm, Air Quality Index Protocol And School-Wide Clean Air Filtration System, IST pandemic preparedness plan and stage descriptons, The Design Centre and Information Technology, Email Michael Conway – Secondary Principal, Email Justin Lobsey – Elementary Principal. In drawing up an organizational chart and their functions, each department knows its role to play, their chain of command and the workflow that’s specific to them. School organization refers to how schools arrange the resources of time, space, and personnel for maximum effect on student learning. Detailed classroom seating chart helps you visualize location of the blackboard and desks, taking into account the specifics of the room and its lighting, with a goal to design the classroom to be comfortable for each pupil and teacher. Edit this example . Its purpose is to illustrate the reporting relationships and chains of command within the organization.

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Technology has played an important role in making construction sites safer and more efficient. For example, with improved remote communications, employers can do more to ensure the safety of their work crews and job sites. This article expands on the role of technology in construction safety, especially in equipment with improved safety measures. Why Keep Construction Sites Safe? Construction can be dangerous for workers. In a 2017 report, construction ranked as a major cause of workplace fatalities, accounting for one-fifth of workers’ deaths for the year. A larger percentage of these deaths, 59.9%, is associated with one of four causes; Falls – This is the most prominent cause of construction death – 386 construction workers died from falls in 2017. Object Strikes – 8.2% of construction fatalities in 2017 were attributed to being hit by falling or flying objects. Electrocution – In third place is electrocution – 7.3% of construction workers’ deaths in 2017 resulted from electrocution. Caught by Objects – A considerable number of construction crew members died from being compressed by objects or caught between two objects. This accounted for 5.1% of recorded death. The government has empowered the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) to enforce regulations preventing injuries and deaths on construction sites in different industries. Some of these regulations are specific to construction. For example, employers are expected to protect their workers from falls by adhering to OSHA guidelines when it comes to fall protection. Scaffolding is another top regulation, with employers required to set up safe and stable scaffolding to prevent objects and crew members from falling, in line with OSHA’s requirements. OSHA also mandates employers to ensure ladders are used safely on jobsites. There are other general industry violations, most of which entail the usual construction site hazards. These include powered industrial trucks, failing to wear the right respiratory or eye protection gear, adequately dealing with hazardous energy sources, and not training employees in fall protection. The need to keep construction sites safe cannot be overemphasized. Interestingly, only newer and innovative technologies can solve these problems. For example, the safety and productivity of crew members can now be tracked easily, eliminating risks like fatigued operators, equipment problems, and workers ending up in dangerous positions. Role of Technology in Construction Construction has always been about the use of heavy, mechanical equipment. Contrary to popular views, these pieces of machinery have not been relegated. Instead, most of them have found their way into the current construction setting alongside other top innovations. It is even more exciting to note that further innovations are waiting to be tested and cleared for use in the field. There are tons of problems to be solved on jobsites, particularly about safety. That is why construction companies develop innovative ideas and solutions to keep their workers and equipment safe. The current construction machinery is designed to ensure safety, especially for the operators and other on-site people. While these safer and innovative solutions translate to significant financial investments, companies get excellent returns by spending less on injury compensations and productivity lost to downtime and accidents. Technology in Construction Safety More companies are looking into adopting technology to make their worksites safer and more efficient. These multiple methods of adoption include the use of drones, tracked equipment, and wearable technology. However, having so many options also come with a downside – choosing the right safety gear or feature is somewhat tricky. So, it is essential to do a safety evaluation to understand what areas of your site require improvement and the best gears to meet these requirements. The goal should be to improve in areas that most needs improved safety, thereby maximizing your investment in technology. Let’s look at some of the technology solutions available to construction employers; Most drones today are equipped with cameras offering a clear overview of the construction site. This eliminates the attending risk of using workers to achieve the same aim. It is an effective way of tracking your workers’ activities, ensuring they adhere to safety protocols. Drones are consumer products – you will find them in the most reputable electronics stores around. They are available in different models and sizes. Some advanced heavy-duty drones can carry minimal weights around the construction site. The extra lift in such drones comes in handy on multi-story jobsites or when working on a vast land area. Drones are not only faster but also more flexible and safer. The drone cameras also give workers visual access to areas that appear too dangerous for humans. For instance, a drone can better ensure safety and maximum productivity instead of sending a worker for a demolition inspection or bridge inspection. 2. Smart Gears and Clothing Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) protects the wearer’s body from worksite hazards. Technology brought about PPEs in the workplace, especially in clothes worn for protection. These include hard hats with carbon monoxide and detectors embedded inside. These hats can detect the presence of CO and alert the wearer of this odorless, colorless, and dangerous gas. There are other types of smart clothing, most of which are connected to an extensive information grid. For example, a geofence, an electronic virtual barrier, can alert supervisors of a breach and alarms with sounds that go off when workers approach prohibited areas. In addition, some smart garments can effectively track the physical signs of workers, including skin temperature, heart rate, and breathing. The supervisors can monitor these signs and recommend a break and adequate treatment where necessary. There are also specialized sensors that can detect the posture of a worker – a standard indicator of work fatigue. 3. Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Recent training for new operators now contains virtual and/or augmented reality. Virtual reality exposes users to a 100% computer-generated world, where they learn foundational machine operation and safety techniques. Augmented reality is the more advanced version – it puts a computerized overlay over a pair of clear glasses, allowing users to interact with the world around them. Augmented reality comes up with multiple real-life situations in the form of virtual challenges and requires the controller to interact with and control these situations via a particular machine. A comprehensive VR/AR training prepares operators for good and safe use of heavy equipment associated with their job descriptions. With AR, operators can easily detect dangers around them. For example, the special AR helmets can see alert signs when a user is nearing a possibly dangerous part of the worksite. Employers can also regulate the information accessible to workers to keep them safe and focused. 4. Mobile Reporting It is far easier and more efficient to track the location of employees if they are wearing GPS-enabled mobile devices. Such mobile devices can also document events of safety violations or similar situations on the jobsite. Based on the recorded information, supervisors can determine the exact location the problem occurred and prevent a future occurrence. Unlike conventional reporting, mobile reporting occurs as soon as the problem occurs. Mobile reporting is also easier than walk-in reporting; the reporter stays anonymous while reporting the incident. The issues on jobsites are better tracked with mobile reporting, leading to improved productivity and safety on the jobsite. However, mobile reporting is not perfect. For example, these mobile devices will only work on worksites with internet access. In addition, real-time monitoring and reporting of incidents are impossible without cellular activity. If you are in a remote jobsite with weak cell signals, you may resort to local sensors as your go-to site monitoring medium. 5. Site Monitoring The health and safety of workers and crew on a jobsite depend considerably on the environmental conditions. Supervisors can make better decisions regarding safety when they can adequately monitor temperature, noise, dust, and chemical levels around the site. This is achievable by installing specialized sensors designed to monitor the environmental conditions of the worksite. With access to real-time and accurate environmental data, supervisors can spot issues faster and proffer suitable solutions that keep everyone safe. Cat® Technology for Better Worksite Safety Every piece of Caterpillar® machinery is made with workers’ safety in mind. Downtime from injuries can slow the progress of a project and introduce unplanned costs. Caterpillar includes an inbuilt safety technology in all of its vehicles and offers wearable safety gears to ensure workers’ protection. All these ensure everyone is safe, especially operators and worksite crew. Let’s take a look at these technologies and devices: 1. Cat Connect The Cat Connect line of technology is designed to improve the safety and productivity of Cat heavy equipment. It combines efficient software and hardware in machinery to keep workers safe from injury resulting from worksite activities. This is an effective way of keeping your fatality statistics on construction sites low while ensuring minimum downtime. 2. Inbuilt Operator Monitoring Freeways and construction sites have two things in common: driver fatigue and distractions. But unlike cars that cannot prevent these disturbances, Cat vehicles are equipped with inbuilt operator monitoring systems that prevent dangerous driving. The cab section of Cat machinery usually comes with sensors that track the head and eye movement of the operators. These sensors look out for differences that could point to driver distraction. It is effective for drivers wearing sunglasses or operating the vehicle at night. If the system detects variations that suggest the driver is not focused enough on operating the vehicle, it sounds an alarm, and the seat vibrates. This is to alert and get them to refocus. Plus, the Caterpillar Safety Advisors record the incident for further assessment by the supervisor. Fatigue is also major issue operators tend to deal with on worksites. Inbuilt fatigue sensors in the cabs are designed to track unusual fatigue-related movements like consecutive nods or closed eyes. Either of these triggers the alarm and vibrates the seat. The incident is reported immediately to the supervisor. Based on this report, the supervisor can withdraw the operator from duty and allow them to rest sufficiently. Cat driver safety systems are flexible. The monitoring equipment can be in any heavy equipment on your worksite, both new and used. While some of these safety features are only factory-fitted in some more recent vehicles, you can install the driver safety system manually in your older fleet. Now you can keep your worksite safe and productive without buying newer Cat machinery. Aftermarket Caterpillar parts are also useful for this. 3. Remote-Controlled Equipment Drones are known for their mobility, which comes in handy when trying to access dangerous areas. Caterpillar integrates this fundamental idea on a larger scale in their heavy equipment. When using Cat machinery in hazardous situations, you can control the vehicle remotely rather than designating an actual operator. This is made possible by the Cat remote control choice of Cat Connect. It comes in two options, both of which can be installed into a new vehicle provided you request while ordering. The first is the line-of-sight operation, which allows the operator to control the vehicle from a safe distance on-site. It works effectively without a high-speed data connection. All the operator needs to do is be within sight of the vehicle. This option comes in handy for emergency remote operation needs. The second remote operation is the remote location, which requires a high-speed data connection and a centralized control station where operators can remotely control vehicles. The remote location option is better for long-time remote control of vehicles. Still, it requires a high-speed wireless data connection to ensure real-time and uninterrupted communication of controls. 4. Worker Detection Systems The Cat Detect relies on multiple methods to notify operators of where other workers are on the construction site at any point in time. The underlying passive radio frequency identification (RFID) technology ensures the response is never a false positive, making it easier for an operator to know exactly where other people are while using the vehicle. This is an efficient way of reducing the number of accidents on site. The first step is to install a small RFID sensor into every worker’s reflective vest and hard hat. These washable sensors work without a power supply and can be on at all times. Unlike active RFID sensors, these devices are passive and emit no radio waves. The second step is to install a detector on the vehicle, which sends out radio waves in search of the small RFID sensors. The radio waves are so strong that they can detect the sensors in workers lying and sitting on the ground. Once the detector identifies a sensor, it sends corresponding audio and visual signals to the driver via the in-cab display to alert them of a worker nearby. 5. Wearables that Detect Fatigue It is common to see construction site operators try to fight against fatigue. However, no one can beat nature. Even the most energetic operators cannot force their bodies to work against tiredness. Sleepiness sets in, leading to accidents caused by the loss of control of the heavy machinery. Therefore, a tired operator is dangerous to themselves and everyone else on the construction site. Caterpillar has found a way to prevent these ugly scenarios. Its proprietary wearable technology can track all workers’ fatigue levels, provided they are wearing the Cat smart band. First, the smart band collects data about sleep patterns, circadian rhythms, and other relevant metrics to estimate fatigue. Then, the band integrates this data into a special software that relies on bio-mathematical science to predict fatigue-induced sleep before it happens. This prediction is premised on a fatigue score estimated from the recorded sleep patterns uploaded to the cloud from the user’s smart band. The fatigue score of every operator is checked once they arrive on site, and based on this and other users’ ratings, a report is formed. This report can help supervisors decide who is most likely to stay awake long enough to operate the vehicle safely. In most cases, the report contains the already-estimated number of hours a worker can stay awake to work optimally. Once a worker reaches this limit, the supervisor can withdraw them from duty for a much-needed rest. If the fatigue score of a worker is below 70, there is a good chance such a worker will feel and react like they are drunk driving. Having such employees on a jobsite is outrightly dangerous to themselves and everyone around. Ensuring fatigued workers do not end up in the operator’s seat or anywhere else on the site is an effective way of avoiding accidents, minimizing downtime, and maximizing productivity. However, tired workers are more prone to wrong decisions and errors, leading to downtime and a drop in productivity. With this technology, supervisors can identify fatigued workers early and pull them off the jobsite before it is too late. Safety on a construction site is everybody’s business. Unfortunately, a single construction site worker’s negligence can affect others. That is why employers and supervisors must take safety seriously. Fortunately, technology has made it easier to keep jobsites safe and productive. This article has presented several tech-backed safety recommendations supervisors can adopt to keep their worksite free of accidents. Caterpillar®, as a renowned heavy equipment manufacturer, also has multiple safety technologies and devices specially created to prevent downtime and additional costs caused by worksite accidents. These technologies are open to both new and existing caterpillar fleets, and while they may appear expensive at first, they present excellent ROI in the long run.

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In this section, we summarize the main results according to the four research sub-questions on teaching practices, teacher beliefs, didactics, and assessment. In Sect. 4.5, we present the results across these perspectives to answer our initial hypotheses. Teaching practices at a distance To describe the teaching practices in times of school lockdown, we distinguish how the teachers set up their teaching (cf. the didactical configuration in the IO model) and the ways in which they used this setup (cf. the IO exploitation mode). To get more insight into how teachers set up their distance teaching, we asked them how they delivered their math teaching before and since the schools were closed (questionnaire items T3 and T4). Of the German teachers, 3% indicated they did not teach anymore since the school lockdown. In Flanders and the Netherlands, all respondents were still teaching. Table 2 shows which tools were used for delivering the teaching in each country before and since school closure. For each item, the percentage of teachers who use the tool is reported. In each of the three countries, math teachers indicate a strong increase in the use of video conferencing software, but to a lesser extent in Germany than in Flanders and the Netherlands. In Flanders, and to a lesser extent in Germany and the Netherlands, there is also a big increase in the use of homemade video clips. After the schools were closed, online learning environments (e.g., Desmos, DWO, GeoGebra Books, GeoGebra Tube, Math4All) and audience response systems (e.g., Socrative, Mentimeter, Kahoot!) have been used less in the three countries. When it comes to the use of online exercise platforms, online video clips, social media, and learning management systems, some discrepancies between the countries can be noted. The use of online exercise platforms (e.g., AlgebraKit, Bettermarks, DWO, Sowieso, software from the textbook publishing company) decreased remarkably in the Netherlands and Flanders while it slightly increased in Germany. The use of already available online video clips increased the most in Flanders, where online video clips had been used only rarely before the pandemic. An increase can also be observed for Germany, while no important change was observed for the Netherlands. Social media use for mathematical learning decreased in Flanders and the Netherlands whereas it slightly increased in Germany. The use of learning management systems increased in Flanders and Germany while it dropped in the Netherlands, probably because learning management systems had been used by a wide group of teachers in the Netherlands already before the crisis (94%). When it comes to delivery through asynchronous teaching formats (e.g., forum, sending out exercises via mail), the majority of the teachers (FL: 84%, GE: 92%, NL: 72%) used asynchronous formats weekly after the schools closed. However, the use of synchronous formats (e.g., video conferencing, simultaneous working with students in a shared document, live chats) differed between the countries (see Fig. 2). Remarkably, almost one-third of the German teachers (31%) did not use synchronous formats, compared to 9% in Flanders and 3% in the Netherlands. Only 47% of the German teachers used them every week, compared to 82% of the Flemish and 94% of the Dutch teachers. The use of asynchronous practices per country is shown in Fig. 3. Most Flemish mathematics teachers (65%) used Smartschool Live, local software available to nearly all schools (item T6) as a video conferencing system to connect with students. In the Netherlands, almost two-thirds (65%) of the mathematics teachers used Microsoft Teams. In Germany, various systems were used such as Microsoft Teams (14%), Zoom (13%), and Jitsi (10%). For item T7, the majority of the teachers in the Netherlands prepared mathematics lessons at distance by setting up groups for video conferencing (73%), setting up rules for behavior (66%), and giving instructions on how to use the platform (61%). In Flanders, most teachers gave instructions (64%) and set up rules for behavior (53%), and 50% of the Flemish mathematics teachers set up groups for video conferencing. As 40% of the German teachers did not have distant mathematics lessons yet, the overall percentages are lower here: 43% set up rules for behavior, 42% gave instructions on how to use the platform, and 41% set up groups for video conferencing. As a next step, we investigated how teachers used the video conferencing environment during teaching. Figure 4 summarizes the results of item T8. In the three countries, video conferencing lessons are mainly used for answering questions (FL: 91%, GE: 58%, NL: 96%), giving lectures to explain mathematical topics (75%, 39%, 90%, resp.), showing solutions to tasks (59%, 42%, 73%, resp.), asking to use online content (41%, 26%, 66%, resp.), and speaking with students about their progress and their way of working (61%, 35%, 62%, resp.). Activities such as students showing and presenting their work (8%, 21%, 18%) and engaging students in group work (6%, 8%, 10%) are sparse. Once more, the overall percentages for Germany are low here due to the number of German teachers who did not have video conferences so far. To summarize the findings on teacher practices, the main result is a drastic increase of the use of synchronous formats such as video conferencing (in Germany to a more limited extent), and a decrease in the use of mathematical tools embedded in online exercise platforms and learning environments, as well as of social media. As a starting point to consider teachers’ beliefs, item T1 in the questionnaire asks to what extent teachers like working with technology. Item T14 concerns their beliefs on how mathematics education at a distance provides opportunities for specific learning practices. We focused on the following practices: teaching algorithms (T14_1), focusing on mathematical concepts (T14_2), focusing on argumentation and reasoning (T14_3), working with complex mathematical tasks (T14_4), letting students discover mathematics on their own (T14_5), and letting students learn from their own mistakes (T14_6). In addition, one item referred to teachers’ beliefs about digital assessment (T18) and how much these beliefs changed (T19). Furthermore, teachers were asked about their confidence in using digital technology before the closing of schools (T9), their current confidence (T10) and their confidence for using digital formative assessment formats (T20), and the respective change of this confidence (T21). Table 3 gives an overview of the results on these items. In general, teachers stated that they liked working with technology (T1), and this opinion correlated positively with their confidence (T9): τ = 0.42. Teachers’ confidence before and during lockdown increased from 58 (T9) to 73 (T10) on a scale ranging from 0 to 100 and the two correlated (τ = 0.60). In particular, of the teachers who were not confident before the schools closed (30% of the sample, scoring less than 50 on T9), 69% indicated being confident during the school closures (T10 ≥ 50). Furthermore, teachers were quite positive on distance learning supporting teaching algorithms (T14_1) and providing means to make students discover mathematics on their own (T14_5). However, teachers were more negative about the opportunities of distance learning for teaching complex mathematical tasks (T14_4). Teachers’ confidence in using digital technology clearly increased during the closing of the schools (T9-T10). Their confidence on using digital formative assessment formats, however, was not very high (T20), and—even more important—increased only to a limited extent (T21). Country differences appeared: German teachers were less positive about distance learning, particularly for teaching mathematical concepts (T14_2) and argumentation and reasoning (T14_3). In addition, the confidence for using digital technology (T9, T10) of German teachers did not increase as much as in Flanders and the Netherlands. However, German teachers were particularly confident in using digital formative assessment formats (T20). To summarize, the findings suggest positive changes in teachers’ beliefs and confidences. Didactical approaches to distance mathematics education Questionnaire items T13, T16, and T17 concerned the teachers’ didactical approaches. Item T13 asks if mathematics teaching in times of school closure focused on rehearsing and practicing (T13_1), new topics (T13_2), conceptual understanding (T13_3), procedures and algorithms (T13_4), argumentation and reasoning (T13_5), and authentic complex tasks and modeling (T13_6). The results (see Table 4) show that teachers report paying attention to rehearsing, practicing, procedures, and algorithms (T13_1 and T13_4). In the meantime, they also claim a focus on new topics and conceptual understanding (T13_2 and T13_3). Finally, attention to argumentation and reasoning (T13_5) and authentic complex tasks (T13_6) is limited. However, we do not know whether this limited attention is a change compared to regular practices before school lockdown. The results on T13_1 show a remarkable difference between Germany and the other two countries (see Fig. 5). German teachers report more focus on rehearsing and practicing than their colleagues in other countries. An explanation might be the guidelines provided by some German ministries to do so (see Sect. 3.1). Item T16 investigates interactive formats used in the distant mathematics lessons, and in particular learning intentions and success criteria (T16_1), discussions and tasks (T16_2), feedback (T16_3), peer instruction (T16_4), self-checking (T16_5), and adapting teaching to formative assessment (T16_6). The mean values in Table 5 suggest that the interactive practices did occur on a more or less regular basis, but that giving peers a role in the learning process was only exploited to a limited extent. These findings hold for all countries, with the practice of having discussions and tasks to foster conceptual understanding as an exception (T16_2): Fig. 6 shows that German teachers paid little attention to this, probably caused by the limited use of synchronous video conferencing in Germany (see Sect. 4.1). Quite some attention is spent on activating students as responsible for their learning (Wiliam & Thompson, 2008), especially in the Netherlands (T16_5). However, teachers relatively seldom adapt their own teaching based on the results of formative assessments (T16_6). To summarize the results on the didactical approach to distance mathematics teaching, the initial hypothesis that teachers would focus on procedures and algorithms and on rehearsing and practicing skills is not confirmed, even if there are some indicators in this direction, in particular for the case of assessment. There is little attention for argumentation and reasoning, and for authentic, complex tasks. Some results suggest that the limited means for interaction through digital technology may hinder didactical approaches, probably mostly in countries where video conferencing is not used frequently, like Germany. Item T15 asks for the methods the teachers used to keep track of the mathematical learning and as such refers to formative assessment. The following methods are included: gathering written results (T15_1), live questions during video conferences (T15_2), live chat during video conferences (T15_3), assessment questions in the schools’ learning management system (T15_4), online learning environments (T15_5), commercial tutorial systems (T15_6), and audience response systems (T15_7). Table 6 summarizes the results. The most common method of assessment is gathering results from students (e.g., via email or a cloud system like Dropbox). A less frequently used approach was to keep track of students’ mathematical learning using assessment items in the schools’ learning management system or using live questions during a video conference (either verbally or using the chat window). Even more rare was the use of online learning environments, commercial tutorial systems, or audience response systems. Not surprisingly, formative assessment through video conferencing was used much less by German teachers, compared to their Flemish and Dutch colleagues. Item T17 investigates didactical aspects of assessment, and specifically addresses procedures and algorithms (T17_1), conceptual understanding (T17_2), argumentation and reasoning (T17_3), and authentic, complex tasks and modeling (T17_4). The results, shown in Table 7, are in line with the findings for item T13 on similar sub-items for teaching: teachers report paying attention to both procedures and algorithms, and to conceptual understanding in their assessment, even if the first seems to gain some more attention than the latter, and in assessment less than in teaching (item T13). This once more nuances our hypothesis that mathematics education at distance might focus on procedural skills at the cost of conceptual understanding. Also, in line with the results of T13 is the limited attention to argumentation and reasoning and to authentic, complex tasks (e.g., modeling tasks) in assessment. All in all, these results are very similar in all three countries. To summarize, the most-used formative assessment practices in distance mathematics include gathering student materials and video conferencing (with an exception for Germany). Other options, as suggested in the questionnaire, were rarely used. Assessment focused on procedural skills and a little less on conceptual understanding. There is little emphasis on argumentation and reasoning or other demanding activities such as modeling. Taking into account the limited confidence teachers have in their formative assessment skills through digital means (see Sect. 4.2), the overall picture is that formative assessment is an issue in distance mathematics education. Since we mainly focused on formative assessment, we know little about summative assessment practices. However, summative assessment in the form of high-stake tests was not recommended by the administration in most cases (see Sect. 3.1). Crossing boundaries between the four perspectives In this section, we explore the interplay between the four perspectives that impact teaching practice, that is, instrumental orchestrations, teacher beliefs, didactical approaches, and assessment. To do so, we focus on variables that seem to be the most relevant ones in terms of our hypotheses. For instrumental orchestrations, we include school technical facilities and support (T2) and the use of synchronous and asynchronous teaching formats (T5). For teacher beliefs and confidence, we concentrate on the corresponding items (T1, T9, T10, T14) and include teachers’ previous experience with digital tools (T3). For didactics, we focus on procedural versus conceptual approaches, and practicing old topics versus introducing new topics (T13). Concerning assessment, the items T18 and T20 are included. The overall Kendall’s Tau-b correlation matrix for these variables can be found in Appendix 3 (Table 10). In the matrix, values of 0.2 or higher are printed in bold, and the ones of − 0.2 or below in italic. Let us first consider the interplay between school technical facilities and support on the one hand, and synchronous and asynchronous orchestrations on the other. We would expect the correlation between school facilities and support on the one hand (T2_1 and T2_2) with synchronous distant orchestrations on the other (T5_1) to be important. However, for the three countries together, these correlations are small (Kendall’s Tau-b < 0.2). For Flanders and the Netherlands, a possible explanation might lie in the widespread availability of video conferencing software such as Smartschool Live (Flanders) and Microsoft Teams (the Netherlands). For Germany, this correlation is 0.2, which we interpret as modest support for the conjecture that school support did play a role in Germany in facilitating video conferencing. Second, we wonder how teachers’ beliefs and confidence relate to their (a)synchronous orchestrations and didactical approaches. Teachers’ beliefs are expressed in their appreciation of using digital technology (T1), their prior experience with digital tools (T3), and their prior confidence (T9). Despite our expectations, however, Appendix 3 shows positive but low correlations with synchronous orchestrations (T5_1), and with didactical approaches such as treating new topics under challenging circumstances or focusing on conceptual understanding (T13). As a possible explanation, it might be that teachers, no matter what their previous experience was, were under so much pressure in the lockdown situation that they faced the new challenges, despite their possible doubts or limited experience. Overall, we found little evidence that teachers’ preparation for the new situation in terms of prior views and experiences was decisive in their orchestrations and didactics. Third, we consider teachers’ beliefs and confidence before school closure and their views on digital assessment. As shown in Table 8, teachers’ general opinion and prior confidence (T1, T9) positively correlated with their views on the opportunities for distance formative assessment (T18) and on their confidence in the ability to use them (T20). We interpret this as a support for the conjecture that teachers’ views on using digital technology in general coincide with their views on distant formative assessment in particular.

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CC-MAIN-2022-33

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Even when colleges strived to supply the very best help and equitable distance studying alternatives, this was not at all times doable. Not all academic establishments might correctly equip all their lecturers with expertise to make sure a clean distant educating expertise. Some college students additionally fell behind due to outdated gadgets or weak web connections. This combine of things elevated studying gaps at particular person, class, institutional, and state ranges. As soon as they occur, studying gaps are arduous to shut. It takes weeks and even months to place college students again on observe. It’s not simple to make up for lacking lessons and competencies. If expertise is without doubt one of the predominant elements that stored studying afloat through the lockdown, it’s also key in closing studying gaps. An clever studying platform (ILP) is without doubt one of the options colleges can depend on for this objective. What are studying gaps in schooling? Studying gaps are the distinction between what college students ought to have realized by way of a selected curriculum and what they realized in actuality. For instance, in a international language class, the target might be for college students to progress from newbie to pre-intermediate stage in a single 12 months. College students who display a newbie’s competency stage by the tip of the 12 months have a studying hole. Leaning gaps occur for various causes: - College students can’t attend lessons as a result of sickness or private issues; - College students voluntarily skip lessons; - College students drop out of college, then enroll once more after a sure interval; - College students take an extended break earlier than transferring to a unique college; - College students face emotional issues that forestall them from correctly participating in lessons; - Lessons are canceled, rescheduled; - Frequent instructor replacements; - Colleges continually shift from distant to in-person lessons, which causes confusion and adaptation difficulties, particularly amongst youthful college students. In accordance with a 2021 McKinsey report, disruptions such attributable to the pandemic left Okay–12 college students 5 months behind in some key topics corresponding to Math. Studying gaps fluctuate rather a lot in complexity and depth. Some are fairly simple to shut. For instance, a pupil lacking one class is an issue lecturers can sort out with a bit of additional help. On their aspect, college students merely need to put in additional effort to make up for that lacking class by way of particular person research. Different gaps are tougher to deal with, particularly in the event that they have an effect on many college students or your entire classroom. These gaps want cautious evaluation and immediate intervention, which requires the joint effort of lecturers, mother and father, and different college workers members. There are various kinds of studying gaps, however often, all of them fall into considered one of these 5 classes: - Information gaps stem from a scarcity of right and adequate data; they are often attributable to poorly deliberate educating actions. For instance, some lecturers targeted on handing out written assignments and plenty of worksheets through the pandemic. Whereas these are nice educating supplies, they will’t substitute verbal explanations college students have to obtain as a way to perceive the whole lot. - Environmental gaps are attributable to environments that don’t provide correct studying circumstances, corresponding to a distraction-free studying area and good web connection. For the previous two years, many college students and lecturers have needed to make do with a lower than preferrred surroundings. - Ability gaps usually happen in schooling and usually are not at all times attributable to main disruptions. Expertise gaps open when college students don’t have adequate possibilities to follow what they’ve realized. This occurs in lessons which might be too massive or have hectic schedules. They’ll even stem from biases that trigger some college students to lag behind as they don’t seem to be actively inspired to take part in classes. - Motivation-related gaps are attributable to intrinsic causes; some college students are extra motivated to study than others as a result of they’ve larger self-efficacy and parental help, amongst many different elements that affect motivation. On the identical time, exterior elements, corresponding to instructor conduct, can decrease or improve pupil motivation. - Communication gaps have been one of many greatest points throughout lockdown. Lecturers and college students usually skilled communication issues, significantly as a result of poor web connectivity and outdated gadgets. Communication gaps are additionally attributable to inefficient teacher-student communication, whether or not educating occurs on-line or in particular person. Asking for pupil suggestions is vital to tackling this downside. How can lecturers determine them? Closing studying gaps is unattainable with out first figuring out them. Lecturers want to grasp their nature, scale (what number of college students are affected), and provide you with an motion plan to shut them. Studying gaps are not often a problem time can remedy. College students and lecturers need to take lively steps to shut them. The principle methods to determine studying gaps are by way of statement and analysis: - Commentary allows you to perceive which college students are up-to-date with their studying objectives and have acquired the abilities they want primarily based on the curriculum. You will get a normal concept by interacting with college students throughout lessons and checking their assignments; - Analysis is by definition the method of assessing college students’ acquired expertise. That is the place studying gaps come to gentle. Nonetheless, to actually determine and sort out studying gaps, grading checks shouldn’t be sufficient. You additionally have to have in mind their general efficiency and progress to determine how vast is the hole. Studying gaps are simpler to shut because of studying expertise that robotically tracks pupil progress and detects them early. So, lecturers can shut studying gaps sooner, earlier than they change into tougher to handle. The kind of expertise that has the best potential to do that is the clever studying platform (ILP). This AI-based device provides completely different aim and progress monitoring options, in addition to competency-based studying instruments and customized content material suggestions. All of those options work collectively to assist college students purchase data, show their mastery, and slowly progress by way of the tutorial content material at their very own tempo, thus avoiding studying gaps. The top result’s a lean studying, educating, and analysis course of the place no pupil is left behind. Due to this, extra extreme issues corresponding to college students dropping out of college might be prevented. Figuring out and shutting studying gaps by way of an clever studying platform An ILP can assist determine and shut studying gaps by way of knowledge evaluation. Tapping into the immense potential of knowledge is not only for the company world. Colleges and universities can streamline their exercise and supply higher companies by leveraging the potential of knowledge. Use competency-based studying Step one in understanding how effectively a pupil performs is to verify your lessons provide related competencies and that these are clear and in step with their content material. ILPs have devoted options that aid you do that by way of competency-based studying. These capabilities enable lecturers to affiliate competencies to the content material they train and the assignments college students want to finish. College students who don’t carry out effectively don’t show mastery of a sure competency. Due to this fact, they will undergo the content material once more and retake the task. Solely after efficiently finishing it, they will transfer on to the following subject. The ILP additionally offers a sooner strategy to assess pupil data by way of the ILP’s competency-related quiz system. By taking a fast quiz, college students and lecturers can instantly see the place the primary are at and if there are any data gaps. The platform checks quizzes in real-time and shows their ends in an intuitive dashboard. College students also can depend on these quizzes to self-assess their competencies. Particular person efficiency is on the market within the system, in addition to a outcomes overview of a bigger group of customers. These checks can serve firstly of the semester too. Lecturers can use them as a diagnostic evaluation to ascertain their college students’ competency stage. The aim of competency-based studying is to make sure college students purchase the abilities they want earlier than they progress to the following stage. That is additionally one of the crucial environment friendly educating strategies that forestall data gaps. Take actionable steps As soon as lecturers determine studying gaps, it’s crucial to take motion instantly. The ILP’s automation function helps spot these gaps and in addition notifies lecturers so that they have the possibility to do one thing about them. All they need to do is select the actions that they need to take. For instance, a instructor units a essential minimal threshold college students should obtain of their class for a selected competency, corresponding to: - Set a rating of fifty out of 100 factors or a threshold of <50%; - Or, use this rating might be =<30%; - Select a spread between two percentages corresponding to =30% and <50%. The concept is that it’s as much as every instructor to judge what’s the acceptable strategy to spot these studying gaps. If college students don’t attain the share wanted after finishing their classes and assignments, lecturers can set particular guidelines to inform the platform what to do, which permits the platform to take motion: Here’s a listing of really useful actions that assist shut studying gaps: - Ship a customized notification to the coed to allow them to know what are the steps required for them to efficiently grasp a sure competency; - Having a one-on-one session with the coed to debate their challenges or use the ILP’s social instruments (chats, teams, and so forth.). and ship extra assets to college students who’re failing to realize mastery to assist them enhance their expertise; - Routinely present or disguise a lesson or task (or a whole part comprised of classes and assignments). For instance, you would present a particular lesson that comprises less complicated explanations and tutorials to assist them catch up. Alternatively, they will disguise extra superior classes so college students don’t really feel overwhelmed. - Add them to a research group wherein college students obtain further help from the instructor, educating assistant, tutors, different college students, and so forth. For instance, if a pupil scores under 50% for a sure competency for a very long time (for instance, two weeks) the platform can add them to a research group. - Add a to-do merchandise corresponding to: meet me after college classes for further explanations. Different to-do objects might be: re-read the lesson, re-take the quiz, and so forth. This merchandise will even seem on a pupil’s to-do listing so that they gained’t overlook to take motion. - Enroll them in one other class that you just’ve created. For instance, to assist college students shut studying gaps, lecturers can create a micro class that comprises five-minute video classes with further explanations to allow them to work to grasp a sure idea. This works nice, particularly for college students who’ve missed sure pre-requisite competencies and might’t transfer on to harder topics earlier than closing these studying gaps. Allow personalised suggestions fueled by Synthetic Intelligence (AI) algorithms An ILP can assist college students shut data gaps, requiring minimal instructor intervention. This helps educators save time, particularly relating to curating content material and recommending the suitable assets for college students. That is doable thanks to those platforms’ highly effective synthetic intelligence (AI) algorithms. These algorithms analyze pupil efficiency and detect studying gaps. That is the way it works: - The ILP does an computerized evaluation of particular person pupil efficiency. It takes into consideration the coed’s general exercise: the lessons they’ve accomplished, when, their outcomes, late lessons, and others; - Based mostly on this evaluation, the ILP can shortly spot studying gaps. For instance, if the coed’s progress drops under 50% on a selected competency, the platform robotically sends personalised content material suggestions to assist them enhance their data. The content material is tailor-made to assist them shut studying gaps. Personalised suggestions can embrace: - Taking lessons created by their instructor or different lecturers in that establishment; - Lessons tailor-made to different grades or specializations; - Third-party content material from studying marketplaces corresponding to Udemy; - Related assets out there on the Web. Due to this good suggestions engine, lecturers get pleasure from the advantage of having a digital educating assistant that makes positive college students don’t lag behind on their assignments and competency achievement. Due to this fact, lecturers also can tweak the suggestions engine based on what their college students want. Closing studying gaps is simpler than ever earlier than Studying gaps in schooling are inevitable. College students don’t study on the identical tempo and there are additionally exterior elements that have an effect on their efficiency. Nonetheless, lecturers can spot and shut these gaps with the assistance of expertise. An ILP is without doubt one of the applied sciences that make this doable by way of correct efficiency evaluation and customized content material suggestions. Keep within the loop! We’ll hold you up to date with probably the most priceless EdTech suggestions and assets. Subscribe and by no means miss out! Ioana Solea is a passionate blogger and on-line international language instructor. She loves all issues edtech and he or she believes that it’s the way forward for educating. She writes about numerous matters, from on-line educating instruments to pedagogical methods.

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Slavery finally came to an end in the United States during the 1860s. But who should take credit for freeing the slaves? The slaves themselves or the Union Army that defeated the Confederacy in the US Civil War? Hannah McDermott tells us what she thinks… In a letter to Horace Greeley in August 1862, President Abraham Lincoln declared that his ‘paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery’. Yet by the end of the American Civil war the enslavement of blacks had been formally abolished thanks in part to legislation such as the Emancipation Proclamation, as well as the post-war 13th Amendment to the Constitution. In popular memory, the man responsible for these great changes to American society is Lincoln; remembered as the ‘Great Emancipator’ and depicted as physically breaking the shackles binding African Americans to their masters. Though it is true enough that the inauguration of this Illinois statesman and his Republican administration provided Southern slave owners with an excuse to push for secession and defend their property from what they claimed to be an imminent threat, Lincoln was very clear in his presidential campaign and at the outset of his presidential term that his aim was not to touch slavery where it already existed, but simply to prevent its expansion. Was the President, therefore, as integral to the demise of black enslavement as has been suggested? If the role of Lincoln as the driving force is to be questioned, it follows to ask what other influences were at play. More recently, some historians have done just this. In the wake of the social and political upheaval of the later 20th century, the American academy has produced a ‘new social history’, of which has led to a separate branch of Civil War historiography looking to the role of the slaves themselves in securing their own freedom. Historians such as Ira Berlin have emphasized the grass-roots movement of black slaves during the war, and their personal fight for freedom through escaping to Union territory and challenging the status quo. However, it is difficult to view these historical people and events in complete isolation. Thus, in this essay, I will examine the actions of slaves in conjunction with that of the Union army and also the administration in order to illustrate how the process was more complex and multi-layered than simply one person, or one group, as the harbinger of emancipation. Slaves and the Escape to Union Lines Slaves were far from the passive and docile creatures that some pro-slavery activists liked to suggest. A steady trickle made the passage North even before the Civil War began, where their presence shaped the anti-slavery activities of white northern men. Frederick Douglass, for example, was a former slave who had managed to escape from his southern house of bondage in 1838. Douglass brought a unique perspective that would influence the abolition movement since he was able to express the hardships of enslaved blacks, as well as demonstrate the intelligence and capabilities of African Americans to northern audiences. It was during the Civil War, however, that the number of slaves running away from their masters reached its peak and was largely based on the knowledge that refuge could be sought within the lines of the Union army. Prior to the Fugitive Slave Act, those who escaped to ‘free soil’, non-slaveholding regions, were considered to have self-emancipated; during the war, proximity to free soil was increased as the Union lines crept further and further south. From the outset of war, thousands of African Americans flooded Union camps, sometimes in family units, and left army generals wondering how they should respond. After entering Kentucky in the fall of 1861, General Alexander McDowell McCook appealed for guidance from his superior, General William T. Sherman, on how he should respond to the arrival of fugitive slaves. McCook worriedly declared to Sherman that ‘ten have come into my camp within as many hours’ and ‘from what they say, there will be a general stampeed [sic] of slaves from the other side of Green River.’ General Ambrose E. Burnside faced a similar situation in March 1862, describing how the federally occupied city of New Bern, North Carolina, was ‘overrun with fugitives from surrounding towns and plantations’ and that the ‘negroes…seemed to be wild with excitement and delight.’ Such encounters would continue throughout the war as slaves made the decision to leave behind their life of enslavement for the hope of a better life with the advancing ‘Yankees’. The Union Army: Active and Passive Advocates of Emancipation Though it is clear that slaves made the personal decision to runaway, it was one that was facilitated by the context of war. While there were exceptions to this, including stories of slaves found hiding in swamps only 100 feet from their master’s homes, most had a destination in mind when they fled. Archy Vaughn’s escape is a case in point. One spring evening in 1864, Archy Vaughn, a slave from a small town in Tennessee, made a potentially life-changing decision. As the sun went down, Vaughn stole an old mare and travelled to the ferry across the nearby Wolf River, hoping that he would be able to reach the federal lines he had heard were positioned at Laffayette Depot. Unfortunately for the Tennessean slave, luck was not on his side. Caught near the ferry, he was returned to his angry master, Bartlet Ciles, who decided that an appropriate form of punishment for such misbehavior was to castrate Vaughn and to cut off a piece of his left ear. In spite of the barbaric outcome, that Vaughn was hoping to ‘get into federal lines’ is demonstrative of how many slaves departed plantations on the basis that they would be able to seek refuge within the lines of the Union army. Indeed, the role of the Union army was crucial to the shaping of the future of fugitive slaves. Though this took various shapes and forms, it is a contribution that makes it impossible to view the road to freedom as one that slaves traversed alone and unaided. Some generals took a pragmatic approach to the situation they faced when entering slave-holding territory. General Benjamin Butler and his ‘contraband’ policy are noteworthy in this instance as examples of the army capitalizing on the events of the war. In July 1861, General Butler wrote a report to the Secretary of War detailing his view on how runaway slaves should be treated by the Union army which would become known as Butler’s ‘contraband’ theory. Here he made an emphatic resolution, decreeing that in rebel states, ‘I would confiscate that which was used to oppose my arms, and take all the property, which constituted the wealth of that state, and furnished the means by which the war is prosecuted.’ Hinting at the two-fold benefit of adding to the workforce of Union troops and damaging the rebellion’s foundation simultaneously, Butler’s theory that fugitive slaves were ‘contraband’ was the first to explicitly express the potential gains to be made from legitimizing the harboring of ex-slaves. Other generals were more vocal of their hatred towards slavery, and more aggressive in the tactics they employed. One incident was General John C. Frémont’s proclamation of August 30, 1861, which placed the state of Missouri under martial law, decreed that all property of those bearing arms in rebellion would be confiscated, including slaves, and that confiscated slaves would subsequently be declared free. Frémont’s proclamation at this stage in the war was provocative and quite blatantly breached official federal policy; slaves could be emancipated under martial law when they came into contact with Union lines, and this had certainly not been the case here. Lincoln ordered that the general rescind the proclamation, but its initial impact was not lost, for it had signaled the possible direction that the focus of the conflict could be turned toward, and substantiated southern beliefs that the northern war aims were centered around an impetus to rid the nation of the evils of slavery. Frémont was not alone in pushing the legal and political boundaries set by the administration, and similar occurrences repeated themselves throughout the war. Even when blocked by Lincoln, as in the case above, abolitionist Union officers were essential in the changing direction of the war. Whilst not all Union troops were politically motivated, the combination of those realizing the value of slaves in bolstering the war effort and those of an anti-slavery persuasion like General Frémont was an effective tool in aiding and sustaining the freedom of slaves across the United States. The Republican Administration and Emancipation In studying the response of the Union military it is easy to come to the conclusion that the federal government often lagged behind or was slow to respond to what was already happening within the Union army, or even that they were less supportive of the plight of the slaves during the war. Indeed Lincoln and his administration are often criticized on their attitude towards making the Civil War a war to free the slaves, particularly by historians who place the responsibility of slave emancipation on the efforts of the slaves themselves. Berlin describes the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation as ‘a document whose grand title promised so much but whose bland words delivered so little’, and further states that it freed not a single slave that had not been freed under the legislation passed by Congress the previous year in the Second Confiscation Act. First of all, that the First and Second Confiscation Acts were the products of the administration should be noted. The Second, as referenced by Berlin, declared that any person who thereafter aided the rebellion would have their slaves set free. Secondly, the notion that the Emancipation Proclamation was in essence no more than a grandly worded document without any backbone is false when it is understood how the proclamation’s inclusion of black conscription had wider repercussions for the Union military effort and the attainment of black freedom. Though examples of blacks serving in the military are visible before Lincoln’s proclamation, for instance Jim Lane’s 1st Kansas Colored Volunteer Infantry formed in 1862, the new federal policy made this a much more frequent occurrence. This is also to say nothing of the emotional and moral impact such a document made on the psyche of the African American community. Though it can be conceded that the Emancipation Proclamation positively contributed to emancipation efforts, it would be wrong to claim as James McPherson does that Lincoln played ‘the central role’ in ending the institution of bondage. The same is true for evaluations of subsequent abolitionist legislation, notably the Thirteenth Amendment. Oakes’ emphatic declaration that the amendment, which formally prohibited slavery across the United States, ‘irreversibly destroyed’ slavery is correct in highlighting the importance of an anti-slavery constitutional amendment but simultaneously overshadows the role played by non-political actors in the fight for freedom. The movement of slaves towards federal lines and the protection they were then given is surely comparable to the effects of the Thirteenth Amendment, despite being described by Carwardine as ‘the only means of guaranteeing that African Americans be “forever free”.’ Instead, as this essay has demonstrated, the freeing of slaves during the Civil War is best understood as a multi-layered, interactive process. Slaves were not passive participators; they could and would act on the opportunities to leave behind a life of slavery for one of freedom. Though things might not always go to plan, as Archy Vaughn’s violent tale illustrates, the impetus to leave among enslaved African Americans was strong. Nevertheless, they did not free themselves. The action of slaves alone was not enough to ensure freedom, and the slaves themselves knew this. The decision to seek refuge with the federal army is indicative of how slaves predicated their choice to leave from the very beginning on the support of Union military power. Members of the federal forces were also not passive agents in the emancipation journey. While General Frémont, for example, may have identified the need to destroy slavery from the very beginning of the conflict, by the end of the war there was a shared sentiment among the Union forces that the use of ex-slaves in the fight against the South, menial tasks and armed battle included, was a vital component of the war effort. The federal administration realized this too; implementing policies that further aided and legitimized the support given by the army to slaves, as well as enhanced the contributions made by slaves to the achievement of Union victory. Slaves were freed, therefore, through the interaction of the mutually reinforcing interests of fugitive slaves and the Union war effort. It was this collaboration that enabled the mutually beneficial outcome in which the Confederacy was defeated at the hands of an emancipating Union vanguard. Did you find this article fascinating? If so, tell the world. Share it, like it, or tweet about it by clicking on one of the buttons below… 1. To Horace Greeley, 22 August1862 in Roy P. Basler (ed.), The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953-1955) v, 389 2. James Oakes, Freedom National: the Destruction of Slavery in the United States, 1861-1865 (New York: London, 2013), pp. 194-96 3. Ira Berlin et al (eds.), Free At Last: A Documentary History of Slavery, Freedom, and the Civil War (New York, 1992), pp. 13-14 4. Ibid., pp. 35 5. Ibid., pp. 112-113 6. Ibid., pp. 113 7. General Butler’s “Contrabands”, 30 July 1861 in Henry Steele Commager and Milton Cantor (eds.), Documents of American History, 10th edn (New York, 1988) i, 396-97 8. Frémont’s Proclamation on Slaves, 30 August 1861 in Commager and Cantor (eds.), Documents of American History, i, 397-98 9. Oakes, Freedom National, pp. 215 10. Berlin, ‘Who Freed the Slaves?’, pp. 27-29 11. Second Confiscation Act, 17 July 1862 in United States, Statutes At Large (Boston, 1863) XII, pp. 589-92 12. James McPherson, ‘Who Freed the Slaves?’ in Drawn with the Sword (New York: Oxford, 1996), pp. 207 13. Oakes, Freedom National, pp. xiv 14. Carwardine, Lincoln, pp. 228

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How Can My Babys Ear Infection Be Treated - your baby is younger than three months old - symptoms do not get better after two to three days - your baby is in a lot of pain - there is fluid coming out of your babys ear - your baby is three to six months old and has a temperature of 39 degrees C or more - your baby has any other health conditions - both of your babys ears are affected. What Are Other Causes Of Ear Pain Other causes of ear pain include: - A sore throat. - Teeth coming in in a baby. - An infection of the lining of the ear canal. This is also called swimmers ear. - Pressure build up in the middle ear caused by allergies and colds. Last reviewed by a Cleveland Clinic medical professional on 04/16/2020. What Causes An Ear Infection An ear infection usually is caused by bacteria and often begins after a child has a sore throat, cold, or other upper respiratory infection. If the upper respiratory infection is bacterial, these same bacteria may spread to the middle ear if the upper respiratory infection is caused by a virus, such as a cold, bacteria may be drawn to the microbe-friendly environment and move into the middle ear as a secondary infection. Because of the infection, fluid builds up behind the eardrum. The ear has three major parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear, also called the pinna, includes everything we see on the outsidethe curved flap of the ear leading down to the earlobebut it also includes the ear canal, which begins at the opening to the ear and extends to the eardrum. The eardrum is a membrane that separates the outer ear from the middle ear. The middle earwhich is where ear infections occuris located between the eardrum and the inner ear. Within the middle ear are three tiny bones called the malleus, incus, and stapes that transmit sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The bones of the middle ear are surrounded by air. The inner ear contains the labyrinth, which help us keep our balance. The cochlea, a part of the labyrinth, is a snail-shaped organ that converts sound vibrations from the middle ear into electrical signals. The auditory nerve carries these signals from the cochlea to the brain. Also Check: How To Change Filter On Resound Hearing Aid Still Not Sure Head To The Doc The only way to be sure that your child has an ear infection is to visit your pediatrician. Take a baby younger than age 2 to the doctor if a cold and apparent discomfort don’t go away in two or three days, or if a fever doesn’t go away in one or two days. When your physician peeks in your child’s ear to check for signs of an infection, she’s looking at the eardrum to see if it is red, thick, or bulging. Kids Are Exposed To A Lot Of Germs Kids are more vulnerable to infections that can cause swelling in the eustachian tubes, too. Colds, allergies, and infections all cause mucus and pus to develop, building up in the inner ear. Kids are in school and daycare where theyre exposed to a lot of these contagions and havent yet built up immunity. Its important to remember that ear infections arent contagious, but if your child had a cold that virus can be passed on to other kids or your family. While theyre not germ-related, bottle feeding and secondhand smoke also raise childrens risk of developing ear infections. Dont Miss: Ear Curette Walgreens Don’t Miss: How To Get Water From Ear After Swimming Remedies And Treatments For Ear Infections Most home remedies for ear infections are focused on pain relief. Itâs usually possible to manage ear infection pain at home while waiting for the infection to go away. Itâs also important to monitor the infection closely. One popular method to relieve ear pain is putting a hot or cold compress, like a wet washcloth, on the ear. Make sure the compress is not too hot or too cold. You can try both temperatures to see if one helps more. Pain reliever medicines like acetaminophen, naproxen, or ibuprofen can also help relieve ear pain. Follow the dosing directions on the label for yourself or your child. Several over-the-counter ear drops are available as well. Most are homeopathic, meaning they are made from natural ingredients. Several studies have shown homeopathic medicines relieve pain and help ear infections heal more quickly. Sleeping position can also affect your ear infection healing time. Sleeping while sitting up can help drain the fluid from your ear. This may help to relieve pressure and reduce pain. Lastly, the natural substance xylitol might help prevent ear infections in children. Xylitol can be found in chewing gums or lozenges, and itâs naturally found in fruit and vegetable fibers. Many studies have shown success in preventing ear infections using xylitol. There are also several options you can take to avoid ear infections for yourself or your child. These include: How To Spot An Ear Infection Kids under age two are unable to simply say, My ear is killing me, making a baby ear infection difficult to detect. Jacobson says to look out for fever, especially if preceded by a cold, as well as crying, clinginess, loss of appetite and irritability. Children with an ear infection often wont sleep well, either, as pressure in the middle ear on the eustachian tubes increases when theyre lying down. And if you see fluid or pus draining from your childs ear, its a sure sign of infection. You may also notice your child pulling on or rubbing their ear. Recommended Reading: How Does Hearing Loss Affect Your Life Check If It’s An Ear Infection The symptoms of an ear infection usually start quickly and include: - discharge running out of the ear - a feeling of pressure or fullness inside the ear - itching and irritation in and around the ear - scaly skin in and around the ear Young children and babies with an ear infection may also: - rub or pull their ear - not react to some sounds - be irritable or restless - be off their food - keep losing their balance Most ear infections clear up within 3 days, although sometimes symptoms can last up to a week. If you, or your child, have a high temperature or you do not feel well enough to do your normal activities, try to stay at home and avoid contact with other people until you feel better. |Inner ear infection||Middle ear infection||Outer ear infection| |Can affect both children and adults||Usually affects children||Usually affects adults aged 45 to 75| |Caused by viral or bacterial infections||Caused by viruses like colds and flu||Caused by something irritating the ear canal, such as eczema, water or wearing earplugs| |Affects parts of the inner ear like the labyrinth and vestibular system, and can lead to labyrinthitis||Affects the eustachian tube, which connects the middle ear to the back of the nose||Affects the ear canal| Why Do Kids Get Ear Infections Kids get ear infections more than adults do for several reasons: - Their shorter, more horizontal eustachian tubes let bacteria and viruses find their way into the middle ear more easily. The tubes are also narrower, so more likely to get blocked. - Their adenoids, gland-like structures at the back of the throat, are larger and can interfere with the opening of the eustachian tubes. Other things that can put kids at risk include secondhand smoke, bottle-feeding, and being around other kids in childcare. Ear infections are more common in boys than girls. Ear infections are not contagious, but the colds that sometimes cause them can be. Infections are common during winter weather, when many people get upper respiratory tract infections or colds . Don’t Miss: How To Soothe Pain From Ear Infection Why Might My Toddler Have Chronic Ear Infections No one knows exactly why one child gets more ear infections than another or why one childs ear infections may linger but the following factors can raise the risk. - Day care. Kids in day care are exposed to more germs and bugs than kids who dont go to day care. Vaccinate your child against the flu. Make sure your child gets the influenza, or flu, vaccine every year. - Living with a smoker. Research shows children who are around smoke have greater incidences of ear infections. High levels of pollution can also increase the risk of ear infections. - Family history of ear infections. - Allergies. They can cause the upper airways and eustachian tubes to become inflamed or irritated. - Siblings. Having one or more siblings means more germs brought into the household. - Living in areas with long winters. Kids in these regions often get more upper-respiratory infections, which usually precede ear infections. - Gender. Boys tend to get more ear infections than girls, though experts dont know the reason. - Age. Children younger than 18 months are more prone to ear infections than older kids because babies and young toddlers immune systems are less developed and their eustachian tubes are smaller. - Other underlying health problems. They may compromise a childs immunity and make him more susceptible to ear infections. - Premature birth. Children who were born prematurely tend to have more ear infections than other kids. How Is An Ear Infection Treated - If a child doesnt have too much discomfort or a high fever, the doctor will likely wait 24 to 48 hours to see if the ear infection gets better on its own. If the child does not improve or gets worse, contact the doctor again. - You childs doctor will prescribe antibiotics if: - your child is moderately to severely ill with a high fever , - your child has severe pain, - the condition has not improved for 48 hours, or - the ear canal has new fluid. For an uncomplicated ear infection, children between 6 months and 2 years usually take an antibiotic for 10 days. Children over 2 years of age will take an antibiotic for 5 days. The doctor might suggest acetaminophen or ibuprofen to reduce the childs pain. Only give ibuprofen if your child is drinking reasonably well. Do not give ibuprofen to babies under 6 months old without first talking to your doctor. Do not give over-the-counter medications to babies and children under 6 years without first talking to your doctor. The only exceptions are medications used to treat fever, such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen. Children usually feel better within 1 day of starting an antibiotic, but make sure to finish it. Your doctor might want to see your child again to be sure the infection has cleared up completely. Fluid can remain in the middle ear without inflammation for a few weeks. Don’t Miss: Does High Frequency Hearing Loss Get Worse Ear Infections In Babies What Is It And What To Do Dear Dr. Mo: Following up on your post on parenting, I would like you to tell me more on ear infections in babies how to recognize them and what could bedone to mitigate such a difficult state for both a baby and her parents? Dear reader: Ear infections are relatively common in babies and small children, especially in those who start their daycare early on these are a must-have experience of any parenting adventure. They can have it several times a year, even up to 6, 7 and 8 etc. Although, if its that often, then we say these infections are recurring and a closer medical inspection and surveillance is needed with more aggressive therapy sometimes even a small surgical intervention but more on this nuisance later. The most common and unavoidable scenario is that you notice that your baby has a runny nose shes somewhat congested, sneezes, coughs a bit maybe but is otherwise fine. A couple days later, suddenly, shes burning up with fever, her cheeks are red, she may or may not tug on her ear and shes visibly agitated her appetite is reduced to basically just milk and even that may be difficult as sucking action could aggravate the pain in the ear shes most likely having what we call an Acute Ottitis Media a sudden onset of middle ear infection. As not all babies are alike, some may become more quiet than usual, responding to decreased auditory stimulation. How an ear infection happens? How can you treat your babys ear infection? A few words on prevention Symptoms Of Baby Ear Infections Many parents will notice their baby tugging on their ear or simply acting fussy and assume that they have an ear infection. However, while ear tugging and fussiness are sometimes signs of ear infections, they can also be the signs of teething, or just general crankiness. Lets look at all the possible signs of baby ear infections, and how to know whether its time to contact your pediatrician. Recommended Reading: Where Is Ear Wax Secreted From Seattle Children’s Urgent Care Locations If your childs illness or injury is life-threatening, call 911. Treatment for an Ear Infection Yellowish Or Whitish Fluid From The Ear With some infections, you will notice that there is a liquid discharge from the ear. The fluid tends to be yellow or white in color. This is a sure sign of an infection. It also means that your child has a ruptured eardrum, but do not panic, as the ear drum will repair itself once the infection has been taken care of. Also Check: Can You Pass A Hearing Test With Tinnitus Baby Ear Infection: Causes Symptoms Treatment Your baby has been battling a cold. Now theyre tugging at their ears and acting fussy. Last night they didnt sleep so well, either. Of course, they cant tell you what is wrong, but you cant help thinking they might have an ear infection. Could it be true? If so, how serious are ear infections in babies? And what should you do next? The good news is that ear infections are very common among children under the age of two, and they are also generally very treatable. Lets take a look at how ear infections affect babies, what causes them, what symptoms to look for, when you should take your baby to the doctor, how to prevent them in the first placeand most importantly, what can be done so that your little one feels better. When You Need Themand When You Dont Many children get ear infections. The infections are usually in the middle ear behind the eardrum. They may be caused by bacteria or by a virus. Doctors often treat bacterial infections with antibiotics. Antibiotics are strong medicines that kill bacteria. Infants and some babies and children do need antibiotics. But using antibiotics too often can be harmful. Heres why: In most cases, antibiotics are not needed. - They do not work for ear infections caused by viruses. - They do not help the pain. - Usually, viral infections and many bacterial infections go away on their own in two to three days, especially in children who are over two years old. First, call the doctor and treat the pain. If you suspect your child has an ear infection, you should call the doctors office and describe the symptoms. Usually, your doctor should ask you to wait a few days before bringing your child in. The main sign of an ear infection is pain, especially on the first day. Or, a child may have a fever. Start by giving your child an over-the-counter pain reliever, such as: - acetaminophen . - ibuprofen . Antibiotics do not relieve pain in the first 24 hours. They only have a small effect on pain after that. So, pain relievers are an important treatment, and usually they are the only treatment needed. When is treatment with antibiotics needed?If the infection is very painful and lasts more than a few days, chances are it is a bacterial infection. You May Like: How To Get Rid Of Ringing In My Ears What Causes Baby Ear Infections And How To Treat The Pain Your little one cant tell you his ear is aching. Here are the ear infection symptoms to watch out for and how to help soothe your baby’s pain. Any adult who has had an ear infection knows how painful it can beall the more reason why it hurts to see your baby with one. Unfortunately, baby ear infections are extremely common. Most kidsup to of 80 percentwill have one by age four, says Sheila Jacobson, a paediatrician at Clairhurst Pediatrics and part-time staff paediatrician at Torontos The Hospital for Sick Children.

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The English East India company - The English East India company was established on 31 December 100 as per the Royal Charter issued by the Queen of England, Elizabeth I. - The company had sent Captain Hawkins to the court of the Mughal Emperor, Jahangir in 1608 to secure permission to establish a “factory” (store house of goods) at Surat. - It was turned down initially. - However, in 1613, Jahangir issued the firman permitting the East India company to establish its first trading post at Surat. - Subsequently, Sir Thomas Roe obtained more trading rights and privileges for the East India company. - Accordingly, the English set up business centres at Agra, Ahmedabad and Broach. - Slowly the English East India company succeeded in expanding its area of trade. - In 1639, Francis Day established the city of Madras and constructed the Fort St. George. - On the west coast, the company obtained Bombay on lease from their king, Charles II for a recent of 10 pounds annum in 1668. - By the year 1690, Job Charnock, the agent of the East India company purchased three villages namely, Sutanuti, Govindpur and Kalikatta, which, in course of time, grew into the city of Calcutta. - It was fortified by Job Charnock, who named it Fort William after the English King William III. - The factories and trading centres which the English established all along the sea- coast of India were grouped under three presidencies namely Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. - After the Battle of Plassey in 1757 and the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the company became a political power. - India was under the East India company’s rule till 1858 when it came under the direct administration of the British Crown. - Robert Clive was the first governor of Fort William under the company’s rule. - He was succeeded by Verelst and Cartier. - In 1772, the company appointed Warren Hastings as the governor of Fort William. Reforms of Warren Hastings - When Warren Hastings assumed the administration of Bengal in 1772, he found it in utter chaos. - The financial position of the company became worse and the difficulties were intensified by famine. - Therefore, Warren Hastings realized the immediate need for introducing reforms. Abolition of the Dual system - The East India company decided to act as Diwan and to undertake the collection of revenue by its own agents. - Hence, the dual system introduced by Robert Clive was abolished. - As a measure to improve the finances of the company, Warren Hastings reduced the Nawab’s allowance of 32 lakhs of rupees to half that amount. - He also stopped the annual payment of 26 lakhs given to the Mughal Emperor. - After the abolition of the dual system, the responsibility of collecting the revenue fell on the shoulders of the company. - For that purpose, a Board of Revenue was established at Calcutta to supervise the collection of revenue. - English collectors were appointed in each district. - The treasury was removed from Murshidabad to Calcutta and an Accountant General was appointed. - Calcutta thus became the capital of Bengal in 1772 and shortly after of British India. - The Board of Revenue farmed out the lands by auction for a period of five years in order to find out their real value. - The zamindars were given priority in the auction. - However, certain good measures were taken to safeguards the interests of the peasants. - Arbitrary cesses and unreasonable fines were abolished. - Besides, restrictions were imposed on the enhancement of rent. - Yet, the system was a failure. - Many zamindars defaulted and the arrears of revenue accumulated. Reorganization of the Judicial system - The judicial system at the time of Warren Hastings ascendancy was a store- house of abuses. - The Nawab who was hitherto the chief administrator of justice, misused his powers. - Often, his judgement were careless. - The zamindars who acted as judges at lower levels within their own areas were highly corrupt and prejudiced. - On the whole, the judicial institution suffered from extreme corruption. - Warren Hastings felt the necessity of reorganizing the judicial system. - Each district was provided with a civil court under the collector and a criminal court an Indian judge. - To hear appeals from the district two appellate courts, one for civil cases and another for criminal cases, were established at Calcutta. - The highest civil court of appeal was called Sardar Diwari Adalat, which was to be presided over by the governor and two judges recruited from among the members of his council. - Similarly, the highest appellate criminal court was known as Sadar Nizamat Adalat which was to function under an Indian judge appointed by the governor- in- council. - Experts in Hindu and Muslim laws were provided to assist the judges. - A digest of Hindu laws was prepared in Sanskrit by learned Pandits and it was translated into Persian. - An English translation of it- Code of Hindu laws- was prepared by Halhed. Trade regulations and other Reforms - Warren Hastings abolished the system of dastaks, or free passes and regulated the internal trade. - He reduces the number of custom houses and enforced a uniform tariff of 2.5 percent for Indian and non- Indian goods. - Private trade by the Company’s servants continued but within enforceable limits. - Weavers were given better treatment and facilities were made to improve their condition. - He also introduced a uniform system of pre- paid postage system. - A bank was started in Calcutta - He improved the police in Calcutta and the dacoits were severely dealt with. The Regulating Act of 1773 - The Regulating Act of 1773 opened a new chapter in the constitutional history of the company. - Previously, the home government in England consisted of the court of Directors and the court of Proprietors. - The court of Directors were elected annually and practically managed the affairs of the company. - In India, each of the three presidencies was independent and responsible only to the home government. - The government of the presidency was conducted by a governor and a council. - The following conditions invited the parliamentary intervention in the company’s affairs. - The English East India company became a territorial power when it acquired a wide dominion in India and also the Diwani rights. - Its early administration was not only corrupt but notorious. - When the company was in financial trouble, its servants were affluent. - The disastrous famine which broke out in Bengal in 1770 affected the agriculturists. - As a result, the revenue collection was poor. - In short, the company was on the brink of bankruptcy for an immediate loan. - In 1773, the company approached the British government for an immediate loan. - It was under these circumstances that the parliament of England resolved to regulate the affairs of the company. - Lord North, the prime minister of England, appointed a select committee to inquire into the affairs of the company. - The report submitted by the committee paved the way for the enactment of the Regulating Act 1773. Provisions of the Act The Regulating Act reformed the company’s government at home and in India. The important provision of the Act were - The term of office of the members of the court of Directors was extended from one year to four years. One- fourth of them were to retire every year and the retiring Directors were not eligible for re- election. - The Governor of Bengal was styled the Governor- General of Fort William whose tenure of office was for a period of five years. - A council of four members was appointed to assist the Governor- General. The government was to be conducted in accordance with the decision of the majority. The Governor- General has a casting vote in case of a tie. - The Governor- General in council was made supreme over the other presidencies in matter of war and peace. - Provision was made in the Act for the establishment of a supreme court at Calcutta consisting of a chief justice and three junior judges. It was to be independent of the Governor- General in council. In 1774, the supreme court was established by a Royal Charter. - This Act prevented the servants of the company including the Governor- General, members of his council and the judge of the supreme court from receiving directly or indirectly any gifts in kind or cash. Merits and Demerits of the Act - The significance of the Regulating Act is that it brought the affairs of the company under the control of the parliament. - Besides, it proved that the Parliament of England was concerned about the welfare of Indians. - The greatest merit of this Act is that it put an end to the arbitrary rule of the company and provided a framework for all future enactments relating to the governing of India. - The main defect of the Act was that the Governor- General was made powerless because the council which was given supreme power often created deadlocks by over- ruling his decision. - However, many of these defects were rectified by the Pitt’s India Act of 784. Expansionist policy of Warren Hastings - Warren Hastings was known for his experiments policy. - His administration witnessed the Rohilla war, the first Anglo- Maratha war and the second Anglo- Mysore war. The Rohilla war (1774) - Rohikand was a small kingdom situated in between Oudh and the Marathas. - Its ruler was Hafiz Rahmat Khan. - He concluded a defensive treaty in 1772 with the Nawab of Oudh fearingan attack by the Marathas. - But no such attack took place. - But, the Nawab demanded money. - When Rahmat Khan evaded, the Nawab with the help of the British invded Rohilkand. - Warren Hastings, who sent the British troops against Rohilkand was severely criticized for his policy on Rohilla affair. First Anglo- Maratha war (1775-82) - The Marathas were largely remained disunited since the Third Battle of Panipet (1761). - The internal conflict among the Marathas was best utilized by the British in their expansionist policy. - In 1775, there was a dispute for the post of Peshwa between Madhav Rao and his uncle Raghunatha Rao. - The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunatha Rao in March 1775. - Raghunatha Rao promised to cede Bassein and Salsette to the British but later when he was unwilling to fulfill his promise, the British captured them. - This action of the Bombay government was not approved by Warren Hastings. - In 1776, Warren Hastings sent Colonel upon to settle the issue. - He cancelled the Treaty of Surat and concluded the Treaty of Purander with Nana Fadnavis, another Maratha leader. - According to this treaty Madhava Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa and the British retained Salsette along with a heavy war indemnity. - However, the Home authorities rejected the Treaty of Purander. - Warren Hastings also considered the Treaty of Purander as a ‘scrap of paper’ and sanctioned operations against the Marathas. - In the meantime, the British force sent by the Bombay government was defeated by the Marathas. - In 1781, Warren Hastings dispatched British troops under the command of Captain Popham. - He defeated the Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia, in a number of small battles and captured Gwalior. - Later in May 1782, the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia. - Accordingly, Salsette and Bassein were given to the British. - Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as the Peshwa. - The Treaty of Salbai established influence in Indian politics. - It provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas. - The Treaty also enabled the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas in recovering their territories from Haider Ali. - Thus, the British, on the one hand, saved themselves from the combined opposition of Indian powers and on the other succeeded in dividing the Indian powers. The Second Anglo- Mysore war (1780-84) - The first Anglo- Mysore war took place in 1767-69. - Haider Ali emerged victorious against the British and at the end of the war a defensive treaty was concluded between Haider Ali and the British. - After eleven years, the Second Mysore war broke out and the main causes for the second Anglo- Mysore war were: - The British failed to fulfill the terms of the defensive treaty with Haider when he was attacked by the Marathas in 1771. - There was an outbreak of hostilities between the English and the French (an ally of Haider) during the American war of Independence. - The British captured Mahe, a French settlement within Haider’s territories. - Haider Ali formed a grand alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabd and the Marathas against the British in 1779. - The war began when the British led their forces through Haiders territory without his permsission to capture Gunture in the Northern Sarkars. - Haider Ali defeated Colonel Baille and captured Arcot in 1780. - In the next year, Warren Hastings, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, divided the confederacy. - He made peace with the Nizam, won the friendship of Bhonsle and came to an understanding with the Scindia (both Marathas). - Consequently, Haider was isolated without any alliance. - He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Porto Novo in March 1781. - In December 1782, Haider died of cancer at the age of sixty and his death was kept secret till his son Tipu Sultan assumed power. - The second Mysore war came to an end by the Treaty of Mangalore in 1783. - Accordingly, all conquests were mutually restored and the prisoners on both sides were liberated. Pitt’s India Act, 1784 - The regulating act proved to be an unsatisfactory document as it failed in its objective. - In January 1784, Pitt the Younger (who became Prime Minister of England after the General Elections) introduced the India Bill in the British parliament. - Despite bitter debate in both the Houses, the bill was passed after seven months and it received royal assent in August 1784. - This was the famous Pitt’s India Act of 1784. - A Board of control consisting of six members were created. They were appointed by the Crown. - The court of Directors was retained without any alternation in its composition. - The Act also introduced significant changes in the Indian administration. - It reduced the number of the members of the Governor- General’s council from four to three including the Commander- in- Chief. - Pitt’s India act constitutes significant landmark with regard to the foreign policy of the company. - A critical review of the Act reveals that it had introduced a kind of contradiction in the function of the company. - The court of Directors controlled its commercial functions, whereas the Board of control maintained its political affairs. - In fact, the Board represented the King, and the Directors symbolized the company. The Impeachment of Warren Hastings - The Pott’s India Act of 1784 was a rude shock and bitter disappointment for Warren Hastings. - The Prime Minister’s speech censuring the policy of the government of Bengal was considered by Warren Hastings as a reflection on his personal character. - His image and reputation were tarnished in England. - Therefore, he resigned and left India in June 1785. - In 1787, Warren Hastings was impeached in the Parliament by Edmund Burke and the Whigs for his administrative excess. - Burke brought forward 22 charges against him. - The most important of them were related to the Rohilla war, the case of Nanda Kumar, the treatment of Raja Chait Singh of Benares and the pressures on the Begums of Oudh. - After a long trail which lasted till 1795, Warren Hastings was completely acquitted. - He received pension from the company and lived till 1818. Estimate of Warren Hastings - He was a gifted personality endowed with ‘strong will, great energy and resourcefulness’. - His long stay in Bengal in the shadow of the Mughal cultural tradition gave him, enough opportunity to learn oriental languages such as Bengali (the local language) and Persian (the diplomatic language) and to develop ‘oriental tastes’. - Since he considered Indian culture as a basis for sound Indian administration, he patronized the learning of Indian languages and arts. - His task was a challenging one since he was surrounded by hostile forces. - ‘He faced his external enemies with unflinching courage and unfailing resource, and his internal opponents with extraordinary patience and firmness’. - It was on the foundation which Warren Hastings laid down, that others erected a ‘stately edifice’.

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Effects of Alcoholism on Family When people think of alcohol addiction, they may only picture the impact it can have on the lives of those who become addicted and overlook the impact on the family. But the disease affects the family and friends of the addict in ways that you might not imagine. Learning how addiction can have a negative effect on families and friends of the person addicted to alcohol will help you understand that alcoholism is an issue that society needs to solve as soon as possible. Physical abuse and financial instability are just of few of the complications to which you could be exposed if someone you love is combating addiction. Learning about the threat and what you can do about it will increase your odds of getting the person you love on the path to recovery. Read on to learn more about the effects of alcoholism on family. STRUGGLING WITH AN ALCOHOL PROBLEM? Getting and staying sober is very challenging, but with the right support network and tools, it’s completely attainable. Effects of Alcoholism on Unborn Children Getting drunk can result in unplanned pregnancies, and not everyone will be able to stop drinking as soon as they learn about the child. You must take the time to understand how drinking can impact unborn children if you want to give them a fair shot at life. Since unborn children share blood, oxygen and nutrients with their mothers, women who drink will pass the alcohol to their unborn child. This issue will increase the child’s chance of being born with defects that can impact physical features and mental functionality. Pregnant women who are addicted to drinking must seek help right away so that they can protect their unborn children from harm. Young children and teenagers of alcoholics will also feel the impact of the disease in ways they might not realize. When someone is facing addiction and does not know how to combat the problem, drinking becomes a No. 1 priority. Normal obligations and the well-being of children will take a backseat to the addiction, causing some parents to neglect their children. Because children want to look up to their parents, they will often blame themselves for their parent’s drinking problem. When parents overlook the basic needs of their children, the children can experience low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness. Those who are not old enough to cook or prepare meals are at risk of malnutrition and starvation. Teenagers of alcoholics will often lash out to get attention or to battle the negative feelings associated with watching their parents throw their lives away. The resulting damage can last for years and be difficult to reverse, and some children never fully recover. Unfortunately, many children of alcoholics will turn to alcohol as well. Married to an Alcoholic When you want to get a clear picture of how alcoholism impacts families, learning how it can affect spouses is difficult. In many cases, a person may have met their spouse before the alcohol abuse was deemed to be a problem. In other situations, a person may think they will be able to change their spouse after some time. Without the right alcohol abuse treatment, most people won’t escape from the problem, and it will only get worse as time passes. Since people addicted to alcohol overlook their daily obligations, spouses need to take on extra responsibilities. This may lead to resentment and ultimately a lack of support when the person abusing alcohol decides to seek treatment. Parents and Other Family Members Parents and the other family members of alcoholics are often confused about how they should approach the problem, and everyone hates seeing addiction rob loved ones of their lives. People who are battling alcoholism will often ask to borrow money from their loved ones, and this issue can become complicated. On one hand, they don’t want to support the habit, but they also know that their loved one could opt to buy alcohol instead of getting food or paying rent. An alcoholic’s family members can face depression and other mental health issues themselves if they don’t know how to handle the addiction and the issues surrounding it. Domestic Violence Secondary to Alcohol Abuse Consuming alcohol can impair judgment and cause people to act impulsively, but alcohol withdrawals can cause agitation and mood swings. Whether or not alcoholics have access to alcohol, their family members may be exposed to domestic violence. When alcoholism leads to domestic violence, it often starts as small acts of aggression and gets progressively worse over time, and it can cause lasting damage to relationships if nobody stops the problem as soon as the red flags present themselves. Yelling can turn into hitting and punching before the victims realize the issue has grown out of control. Finding Help for Alcoholism If you are a friend or family member of an addict or are addicted and want to stop drinking before you have an impact on your family, you have come to the right place. When you enlist help from the staff at SpringBoard Recovery, we will learn about you and your unique situation so that we can craft a treatment plan that fits your needs. Admitting that you need help and reading this guide are the first steps toward a solution, so you are already on the right track. Our caring staff will take you by the hand and guide you through the healing and recovery process to optimize your odds of reaching a favorable outcome, and you are invited to start right away. Contact an addiction counselor now for help. Photo Credit: Kevin Delvecchio Frequently Asked Questions What is Alcoholism? Most professionals refer to alcoholism by another name – alcohol use disorder. When a person suffers from alcohol use disorder, they feel compelled to drink, regardless of the consequences. Their drinking behaviors lead to distress and harm for themselves and possibly for other people as well. AUD can be mild or it can be severe, depending on the symptoms a person is experiencing. When someone has AUD, they have strong cravings for alcohol. They are not in control of how much or how often they drink. They also feel anxious or irritable when they are not drinking. Is Alcoholism Genetic? Researchers have found that there is evidence that alcoholism can run in families. In fact, children of alcoholics are as much as four times more likely than other children to have a problem with alcohol abuse. But that does not mean that if a person has an alcoholic parent that they are destined to be an alcoholic themselves. There are other factors that play a role as well. Also everyone has a choice about whether they will follow in a relative’s footsteps. What Types of Relationship Problems Can Accompany Alcoholism? Alcoholism can cause a lot of problems in relationships. Usually the spouse is the one who bears most of the burden, but other types of relationships can be impacted as well. Alcoholics are often agitated, drowsy and confused, which can be hard to deal with. They may frequently make excuses for their absence or because they acted inappropriately at social gatherings. It is not uncommon for people with alcoholism to even refuse to attend an event if alcohol is not being served. Relationships can become strained when one partner is constantly worried about the other’s use of alcohol. It is not surprising that so many of these relationships become strained and eventually end. How Can Families Stop Enabling Alcoholics? One of the biggest and most common traps that families often find themselves falling into is the trap of enabling an alcoholic loved one’s behaviors. Most of the time, they think they are helping the alcoholic, but in reality, they are only making the problem worse. It can be difficult to stop enabling an alcoholic because of the love you have for them. But it must be done in order for them to see a need to recover. All too often, families will: - Make excuses for the alcoholic’s behavior to others. - Loan them money, which is used to purchase more alcohol. - Support them financially in other ways, such as paying their bills for them. - Take care of their children. - Rescue them when they have to face the legal consequences of their actions. All of the above should stop and families should learn how to set healthy boundaries that will encourage the alcoholic to get the help they need. Any consequences should be left for them to endure. It may be challenging, but it is really the most loving thing a family can do. What is the Best Way to Confront an Alcoholic About Their Drinking Problem? Please note that confronting an alcoholic is rarely going to end up with a positive result. It is much more likely that they will continue to drink and feel the need to defend their behaviors. Most families may find that they have more luck if they stage an intervention. This should only be done with a professional interventionist. They know exactly what to say and how to guide the family throughout the entire process. In many cases, interventions result in the alcoholic agreeing to get help for their addiction. It is an option that more families should consider because the majority of the time, it works well. How Can Families Support Their Alcoholic Loved Ones in Recovery? Families can do so much to support their alcoholic loved ones while they are in recovery. They can: - Agree to be available for family sessions during rehab. - Visit them while they are receiving treatment. - Offer to go to AA meetings with them. - Give them a lot of encouragement and be there to listen to them when needed. - Make sure to avoid serving alcohol at functions so that they are not tempted to drink. - Families with loved ones in recovery should also consider getting professional help for themselves. They can learn how to continue avoiding enabling behaviors and how to take care of themselves as they provide support. - Verywellmind: https://www.verywellmind.com/why-is-alcoholism-called-a-family-disease-63294 - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/fasd/alcohol-use.html - NACoA: https://nacoa.org/families/just-4-teens/ - Al-Anon Family Groups: https://al-anon.org/blog/dilemma-of-the-alcoholic-marriage/ - Al-Anon Family Groups: https://al-anon.org/newcomers/how-can-i-help-my/alcoholic-child/ - World Health Organization: https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/fs_intimate.pdf - Verywellmind: https://www.verywellmind.com/the-four-stages-of-alcohol-and-drug-rehab-recovery-67869 - Unsplash: https://unsplash.com/@kevindelvecchio?utm_medium=referral&utm_campaign=photographer-credit&utm_content=creditBadge - MedlinePlus: https://medlineplus.gov/alcoholusedisorderaud.html - US National Library of Medicine: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4056340/ - National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism: https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/niaaa-guide/index.htm - University of Pennsylvania Health System: https://www.uphs.upenn.edu/addiction/berman/family/enabling.html

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Tackling climate change is not easy. It means upending the status quo, inventing new technologies, and reducing the emissions causing global warming. In short, it means working together, for the same vital cause. Finding common ground on how to act is one of the biggest challenges in tackling climate change. Acknowledging that we all have a role to play and then agreeing to act collectively are critical to creating real-world impact. Robeco’s climate strategist, Lucian Peppelenbos, argues that investment capital is absolutely critical in this, but that the real economy needs to be guided by the right incentives for finance to be able to move too. These incentives need to be far-reaching. “For the real economy to decarbonize, you need policy frameworks, and you need consumers and technology to be onside. All of these pieces have to come together. It’s crucial for us as investors to reallocate capital towards the green, circular, low-carbon economy. But we depend critically on other pieces of the puzzle falling into place as well. I think that's the real challenge.” Governments have a critical role in putting effective incentives in place. This begins with establishing appropriate carbon pricing schemes and ensuring they are incorporated into economic decisions, so that investors and consumers can factor in the true cost of their actions. There’s still a long way to go in getting the incentives right. At present, only around a fifth of global emissions are priced, through a variety of carbon schemes. And most of these schemes are underpricing emissions – which means the incentives are not effective in changing behavior. Across various carbon pricing schemes, the weighted average price of carbon emissions per ton is an estimated USD 2 (World Bank data). Calculations show that pricing needs to reach USD 50 by the end of 2021 and USD 100 by 2030 to get us on the 1.5°C trajectory. In regions where pricing does appear to be more realistic, it has clearly changed behavior. Take Europe, where carbon is now priced at around EUR 30 to 35. “This is really accelerating the phase-out of coal. It’s driving innovation in industry, because low-carbon options begin to make business sense,” Peppelenbos says. He believes that the other crucial role for governments is to create long-term clarity. “They need to set clear boundaries, whether for emissions or technical standards, at a certain point in the future so that the market can do its job”. He cites the example of the Dutch government signaling years in advance that, as of January 2023, all commercial real estate must have an energy label of at least ‘C’ if the owners wish to let or sell the property. “As a result, all property is now being refurbished or taken off the market. The industry has had years to adapt itself, and the process has worked well.” Another example is the decision by multiple European countries to ban the sale of non-electric vehicles by 2030, a move that is driving huge innovation in the automobile industry. “So, the incentives combined with clarity on the long-term timeline force a phase-out and a transition in industry. There is time to adapt, and the requirements are reasonable and aligned with where we need to go. They also help people focus and spur innovation.” A vital aspect of ensuring we’re all moving towards transition is to recognize how our individual choices and actions shape global outcomes. While it’s easy to point the finger at companies that produce carbon-emitting products, we need to think about the role of consumer behavior, too. “We’ve focused for a long time on the oil and gas industry, blaming it for climate issues. And, while it does have a huge role as well as a responsibility, what we often forget is that the industry looks for oil on our behalf. As long as we think it’s normal to fly five times a year for a holiday trip, to eat large quantities of meat, and to discard clothes after a few months on wear, our behavior will be a big part of the problem.” For all of this to change, both supply and demand must change. “But I don’t buy into the narrative that consumers alone determine their behavior. It takes two to tango. Companies play a big role in determining what consumers want as well.” Developments in the judicial system are helping to accelerate this process. There are a growing number of cases of governments and companies being taken to court and challenged on the impact of their actions on the climate. Successful lawsuits have already been brought against the Dutch and French governments, for instance, for failing to fulfil their duty of care towards citizens to act on climate change. “As these cases build up, it creates jurisprudence that will support and accelerate the transition to a low-carbon economy.” The extent and pace of progress in the real economy will determine the investment opportunities and risks. “Although as investors we are future oriented and take a leadership role by signaling to the market which direction it needs to go, the real economy does set limits as to where these investment opportunities develop. We can’t work on a net zero portfolio without the real economy moving in the same direction,” Peppelenbos says. Meeting the challenge of getting all the elements lined up requires everybody to take responsibility. “While attributing blame to the oil industry, governments or the financial system may be justified, it is entirely the wrong approach right now – because we are all facing the same challenge and responsibility.” What’s more, we can’t wait for all the elements to come together before we step up to the plate. “Right now, each and every one of us must assume that role. What the world needs right now is distributed leadership.” The scale of the problem of data collection becomes clear when trying to establish where emissions come from in the first place. To give a clearer idea of their source, they are classified as either Scope 1, 2 or 3 emissions. In short, Scope 1 emissions are those directly generated by a company; Scope 2 are created by the generation of the electricity or heat needed to make a product; and Scope 3 are caused by the entire value chain, including the end user of the product over its life cycle. But it’s not simply a case of adding up tons of cubic meters of greenhouse gases – assuming that you could even access that information. There are three principal problems, stemming from the fact that by definition, any data acquired about anything is always historical. “A fundamental problem of carbon footprint data is that it is backward looking, with an average time lapse of around two years. So, if we're staring down the barrel of carbon, then we're currently looking at the reality of 2019,” says Robeco’s climate data scientist Thijs Markwat. “This means the data won’t tell you about the transition readiness of a company. What we really need is more forward-looking metrics. A carbon footprint as it is now doesn't tell me about whether the company is going to decarbonize in the future.” The second problem is not that there isn’t enough data, but that it comes from multiple and overlapping sources that are often contradictory. “Scope 1 and 2 data is relatively easy to obtain, but there’s hardly any correlation on the scale of it from the different data providers,” says Markwat. “The real problem is that it's not measured, it's modelled. That means it's estimated.” Furthermore, the scopes themselves do not tell us the whole story. For example, while a carmaker will produce relatively low Scope 1 and 2 emissions in making a petrol-driven car, the user of the vehicle would burn petrol over many years, causing very high Scope 3 emissions in exhaust fumes. But the data challenges should not keep us from acting. “The lack of data is being used as an excuse by some to avoid tackling the issue head on,” says Markwat. “We need to be careful not to frame the entire issue as a data challenge; it’s more of an analytical challenge caused by the data itself. We know what the carbon-intensive sectors are, so we can act on that.” The third issue is what metrics to use, as the current approach is largely quantitative when it needs to be qualitative as well. “The carbon footprint is the numerator, but then there's also the denominator,” says Markwat. “So, do you look at companies in terms of their carbon footprint per sales, or per enterprise value? These factors make huge differences when EU law requires one thing and laws in other regions and countries require something different. There needs to be a more focused approach.” In its simplest form, carbon pricing is a tax per ton on the amount of carbon emitted, and is typically levied by a government. Sweden has the highest carbon taxes in the world, charging about USD 120 per ton of CO2e, according to the World Bank Group’s ‘State and Trends of Carbon Pricing 2020’ report. Another means of dealing with emissions is through ‘cap and trade’ schemes, in which carbon allowances can be traded with other emitters subject to thresholds set by the governing authority. One of the most extensive of these is the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). In such schemes, the carbon price fluctuates according to the supply and demand of the allowances. The current price in the EU ETS is around EUR 33/t CO2e. Most countries, however, do not have either a carbon tax or a trading scheme, or operate them at such a low level that it doesn’t act as a deterrent to emissions. At the end of 2020, there were only 61 carbon pricing initiatives in place or planned in the world, consisting of 31 ETSs and 30 carbon taxes, the World Bank Group says. These cover 12 gigatons of carbon dioxide equivalent or only about 22% of global greenhouse emissions, up from 20% in 2019. Meanwhile, carbon prices remain substantially lower than needed to act as an incentive to meet the goals of the Paris Agreement. In 2017, the High-Level Commission on Carbon Prices estimated that a global carbon price of USD 40-80/tCO2e by 2020 and USD 500-100/tCO2e by 2030 would be needed to limit the increase in global warming to 2°C. The current global average price is about USD 2/tCO2e, according to the IMF. “At the global level, currently only 22% of carbon is being priced, which is really insufficient,” says climate change strategist Lucian Peppelenbos. “And the average global price of about USD 2/t CO2e is nowhere close to being serious.” “But there are some signs now that it is finally being taken more seriously. The price of carbon in Europe is now EUR 33/t CO2e, and that's really the price at which it starts to impact economic behavior. We’re already seeing the shift from coal-fired to gas-fired power production taking place at these price levels, and it is stimulating low-carbon innovation in industries.” The issue is clearly being taken more seriously within the EU, which has committed to becoming carbon neutral by 2050 in the European Green Deal. Its first target is to achieve a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990s levels by 2030. As part of this ambition, a Carbon Border Adjustment agreement is being drawn up to create a level playing field and protect European industries against cheaper, high-carbon products from outside the EU. “The ETS is the cornerstone of EU climate policy,” says Peppelenbos. “To achieve its objective of a 55% reduction by 2030, the EU understands that the carbon allowances will need to become scarcer, which will push up the price per ton of CO2. The carbon border tax would be a game changer globally.” Higher carbon prices and border taxes may be good for the climate, but won’t they harm the economy? One way of making it more palatable to those actually paying the taxes is to compare it with existing taxes on fuel. “If you take the average amount of taxes on gasoline in Europe, this would equate to a carbon price of around USD 300 per ton,” Peppelenbos says. “This taxation has not stopped the European car industry from being competitive, and it hasn’t stopped consumers from buying or driving cars. But it did help to produce much more efficient cars in Europe versus the world average.” “This shows that it’s possible to introduce higher prices without killing the car industry or consumer purchasing power. You just need to do it in a clever way; none of this needs to be a threat.” Lucian Peppelenbos - Climate Strategist “Put simply, it is reducing the carbon intensity of the portfolio by including companies with low emissions or which have made credible commitments to reduce their emissions. Similar to a portfolio’s financial performance, progress in this area requires continuous measurement against a reference point. Otherwise, the informational value of reported emissions is low. That reference could be the overall market, such as the emissions performance of a global index, or an internal standard such as a point in time from which a portfolio’s year-on-year progress is measured. The emissions amount is irrelevant; what matters is that you start to measure.” “It would be if company-reported data were complete, but the bulk of emissions generated is excluded from this, so true emissions performance is underestimated. Currently, companies report and investors measure emissions from production processes (Scope 1) and the electricity used to power those processes (Scope 2). But they don’t report emissions generated further along in the supply chain by a product’s consumers. Oil and gas producers have a high carbon footprint in the production phase, but that’s still only 20% of total emissions. The other 80% is generated when the oil is burned by customers (Scope 3).” “Oil and gas companies aren’t alone; economy-wide scope 3 emissions are underestimated. Many food companies, for example, have comparatively low operational footprints upstream, yet hefty unaccounted emissions from things such as deforestation and fertilizers in other parts of their supply chains. Comprehensive supply chain data is not yet calculated, publicly disclosed or considered by most investors (see Figure 1).” Source: Robeco, Trucost The graphic shows the annual weighted average carbon intensity (WACI) of constituents of the MSCI All World AC. Constituent emissions data are based on average annual emissions reported by companies for 2019. WACI measures the carbon intensity (Scope 1 + 2 + 3 emissions / enterprise value including cash in millions USD) for each portfolio company multiplied by its portfolio weight. “It can lead to the emissions of some companies and sectors being underestimated or overestimated. Many ‘green and clean’ solution providers have paradoxically high carbon emissions if you only take backward-looking emissions into account. For example, wind turbine operators, electric vehicle makers and hydrogen producers, are all clean technologies but their carbon-reducing benefits lie in the consumer use phase further down the supply chain. Given they may need steel for parts or use electricity from a carbon-intensive regional power grid, their Scope 1 and 2 emissions may still be high. That means their decarbonization potential is not being fully realized in portfolios. Predictive power is needed to combat this effect.” “Our most advanced decarbonization strategies take Scope 3 emissions into account. For other strategies, we use proprietary estimation techniques and third-party modelling to derive best case estimates of future emissions. This involves mapping out net zero transition pathways for sectors based on available or near-term technologies. Besides Scope 3 emissions, we incorporate other types of forward-looking data to help predict companies’ climate preparedness and future climate-adjusted performance. Which companies have strategic plans that incentivize a shift to low-carbon technologies and business models? How are they expected to benefit and profit from the net zero transition? Which are financially strong enough to make the capital investments needed to transition?” “The ultimate goal is to ensure client portfolios are climate proof by reducing their exposure to carbon risk and ensuring they are climate-ready. This is a much more complex responsibility, involving many more considerations than how a portfolio measures up against a benchmark in terms of emission reductions.” “ESG integration brings more information across a wide range of risk factors; social, economic, governance and environmental. This can be combined with financial analysis to more accurately assess future risks, evaluate financial performance and make better-informed investment decisions.” “Decarbonization, on the other hand, is often done to reduce climate risks as well as to combat climate change. An investor’s decision to decarbonize their portfolio is not always based on purely financial objectives. Often, it is motivated by a desire to invest in companies that are making positive impact by not contributing to climate change and environmental damage.” “The economy grows where capital flows, so channeling capital towards companies with strong carbon reduction momentum and away from laggers accelerates the transition to a carbon-free global economy. That said, selling the securities of a high carbon emitting company has no immediate effect on the real economy. Real world impact requires large pools of investors to ‘vote with their feet’ by refusing to own securities of heavy polluters. This will ultimately raise their financing costs and expedite change.” “However, there are caveats to this approach. For one, denying financing will hurt many companies that want to transition but need capital to do it. In addition, some heavy polluters are so cash-flow rich, they don’t need new capital. In the latter case, financing boycotts may have little effect. But even cash-rich companies care about their reputations, so if investors position their portfolios away from these companies, it sends an amplified, high-alert message to company management.” “Investors must also use active engagement and voting as a tool to exert their influence over company management. Given that carbon emissions are spread across entire economies and require major structural changes, engagement needs to take place not just with the company but also at the country level. Robeco has recently started engaging with country leaders to help them understand the aggregate effects of conflicting carbon policies at the national level. It is counterproductive to force some industries to decarbonize while allowing others to cut down forests or to offer protective subsidies to heavy carbon polluters. Country leaders must also understand that national decarbonization policies will impact their ability to attract global businesses, foreign investments and financing via sovereign bonds.”

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Chester, Pennsylvania facts for kids Home Rule Municipality William Penn Landing Site |Elevation||69 ft (21 m)| |Area||6.0 sq mi (15.5 km²)| |- land||4.8 sq mi (12 km²)| |- water||1.2 sq mi (3 km²), 20%| |Density||7,020.3 /sq mi (2,710.6 /km²)| |- summer (DST)||EDT (UTC-4)| |Area code||484, 610| |GNIS feature ID||1171694| |Designated:||October 13, 1947| Chester is a city in Delaware County, Pennsylvania, United States, with a population of 33,972 at the 2010 census. Chester is situated on the Delaware River, between the cities of Philadelphia and Wilmington, Delaware. The current mayor of Chester, Thaddeus Kirkland, was elected on November 3, 2015 and served his first day in office on January 4, 2016. The first European settlers in the area were Swedes. They called the settlement that became Chester first "Finlandia" (the Latin name for Finland), then "Upland" (see the Swedish province of Uppland and the borough of Upland). They built Fort Mecoponacka in 1641 to defend the settlement. By 1682, Upland was the most populous town of the new Province of Pennsylvania. On October 27, the ship Welcome arrived at the town, bearing William Penn on his first visit to the province. Penn renamed the settlement for the English city of Chester. Chester served as the county seat for Chester County, which then stretched from the Delaware River to the Susquehanna River. In 1789, the city became the county seat for the newly created Delaware County (whereupon Chester County became landlocked, with West Chester as its county seat), but the county seat was moved to the borough of Media in 1851. The courthouse is near the new City Hall building. Chester's naval shipyard supplied the Union during the Civil War, and the United States in subsequent wars until the shipyard at Philadelphia became dominant after World War II. America's largest postbellum shipyard, John Roach's Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works, was also located in Chester, and the location was repurposed by the Ford Motor Company with the Chester Assembly factory until 1961. The Sun Shipbuilding & Drydock Co., later Pennsylvania Shipyard & Dry Dock Company, was located in Chester until it closed in 1990. Two ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Chester in honor of the city. On April 10, 1917, an explosion at the Eddystone Ammunition Corporation near Chester resulted in the deaths of 133 workers, mostly women. Chester is one of numerous places that claim to be the birthplace of the hoagie sandwich. It is also known as the "Cradle of Rock 'n Roll", as Bill Haley & His Comets first performed and maintained their headquarters in the Chester area. The following are listed on the National Register of Historic Places: Delaware County National Bank, 1724 Chester Courthouse, Chester Waterside Station of the Philadelphia Electric Company, Old Main and Chemistry Building, William Penn Landing Site, and the former Second Street Bridge. Chester borders on (clockwise from southwest to northeast) Trainer Borough, Upper Chichester Township, Chester Township, Upland Borough, Parkside Borough, Brookhaven Borough, Nether Providence Township, Ridley Township, and Eddystone Borough in Pennsylvania. Across the Delaware River, the city faces Gloucester County, New Jersey, and while most of its riverfront borders Logan Township, the easternmost portion of the city borders Greenwich Township. The city has a total area of 6.0 square miles (15.6 km2), 4.8 square miles (12.5 km2) of which is land and 1.2 square miles (3.0 km2) of which (19.42%) is water, according to the United States Census Bureau. As of the census of 2010, there were 33,972 people living in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 17.2% White, 74.7% Black, 0.4% Native American, 0.6% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian, 3.9% of some other race, and 3.0% from two or more races. 9.0% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 11,662 households, out of which 37.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 19.5% were headed by married couples living together, 35.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.1% were non-families. 31.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.1% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64, and the average family size was 3.34. For the period 2010-2014, the estimated median annual income for a household in the city was $28,607, and the median income for a family was $34,840. Male full-time workers had a median income of $34,354 versus $30,634 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,516. About 27.3% of families and 33.1% of the total population were below the poverty line, including 47.7% of those under age 18 and 18.4% of those age 65 or over. In Chester, east-west streets are numbered, while north-south streets carry names. The main bisecting street, known as The Avenue of the States south of 9th Street and Edgmont Avenue north of it, is signed as both Pennsylvania Route 320 (southbound only; northbound PA Rt. 320 uses adjacent Madison Street to Interstate 95) and Pennsylvania Route 352. North of I-95, State Route 320 follows Providence Avenue. Between 1993 and 2006, the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT) widened and realigned Pennsylvania Route 291 from Trainer to Eddystone from a two-lane roadway to a five-lane roadway. This widening and realignment project, spearheaded by the late State Senator Clarence D. Bell of Upland, allows PA Route 291 to maintain at least two travel lanes in each direct between the refinery towns of Marcus Hook and Trainer and the Philadelphia International Airport, as well as promote the riverfront development in the city. Prior to the realignment, which was done first, the roadway followed 2nd Street to Crosby Street, then bore right onto E. 4th Street, widening to four lanes and becoming the "Industrial Highway" in Eddystone. Post-realignment, the road now follows W. 2nd Street to Concord Avenue, becoming the "Industrial Highway" past Concord Avenue and bypassing the Kimberly-Clark (formerly Scott Paper) processing facility. Highways and bridges Chester is served by two interstate highways: Interstate 95 and Interstate 476, which meet in nearby Eddystone. I-95 was built in the 1960s and originally terminated just north of the Chester/Eddystone line at the present-day I-95/I-476 junction. It was extended north in the 1970s, with the section around Philadelphia International Airport being completed in 1985. Three exits on I-95 allow access to Highland Avenue, Kerlin Street, and Edgmont Avenue/Avenue of the States (Rts. 320 & 352), with access to Widener University, via State Rt. 320. Of the three, only Kerlin Street is a partial exit, although the Avenue of the States exit was also a partial exit until the completion of a southbound on-ramp, spearheaded by the late State Sen. Bell, was completed in 2002. I-476, planned as an alternative route to State Rt. 320 since the 1920s and an original planned extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the 1950s (as part of the 1,000-mile (1,600 km) Turnpike network), was finally opened to traffic in 1992. An exit in Ridley Township at MacDade Boulevard (which becomes 22nd Street in Chester) allows access to I-476 without having to use I-95. Two federal highway routes, U.S. Route 13 and U.S. Route 322, also run through Chester. US 13 enters Chester from Trainer on W. 4th Street, becomes part of Highland Avenue between W. 4th Street and W. 9th Street, and then continues on 9th Street to Morton Avenue. US 13 follows Morton Avenue in the city's Sun Village section until it crosses Ridley Creek and becomes Chester Pike in Eddystone. US 322 enters Chester as a part of I-95 (merging on at Highland Avenue) and then departs I-95 at the Commodore Barry Bridge exit. Prior to the bridge's opening in 1974, US 322 would cross the Delaware River on the Chester-Bridgeport Ferry, via Flower Street, causing major backups because of limited space on the ferries. With the expansion of State Rt. 291 and the redevelopment of the Chester Waterfront, both the Delaware River Port Authority and PennDOT built a pair of entrance (westbound) and exit (eastbound) ramps to PA Rt. 291, providing direct access to the waterfront without using local streets. Talks have taken place for the reconstruction of US 322 from a two-lane road to a four-lane road between Chester and U.S. 1 in Concordville, and the Highland Avenue exit. The road currently requires traffic to merge onto I-95 in the left lane and requires changing lanes three times to the Commodore Barry Bridge exit ramp in less than a mile. Such a major undertaking would result in the demolition of numerous homes in the city's crime-plagued Highland Gardens section, along with condemning properties in nearby Chester Township, as I-95 passes through both municipalities between US 322 and the Commodore Barry Bridge. A $16.6 million project to fix up eight I-95 bridges will begin March 2017 and is expected to be finished in November 2018. Improvements to Chestnut Street and Morton Avenue are also included in the project. Public transportation in Chester is provided by the Southeastern Pennsylvania Transportation Authority (SEPTA), which acquired the former Suburban Philadelphia Transit Authority (aka "Red Arrow" Lines) in 1968. Seven bus routes (Routes 37, 109, 113, 114, 117, 118, and 119) serve the city, with the Chester Transportation Center in the city's business district, serving as the hub. Route 37 connects Chester with Philadelphia and the Philadelphia International Airport, while Route 113 from 69th Street Terminal connects Chester with the state of Delaware. Both Routes 37 and 113 provide direct service to the Harrah's Philadelphia Racetrack and Casino located within the city, with Route 113 also providing service to the Philadelphia Union's Talen Energy Stadium soccer-specific stadium on the city's waterfront. The city is also served by SEPTA's Wilmington/Newark Line commuter rail service, via Amtrak's Northeast Corridor. The Chester Transportation Center, serves as the main bus hub and the main train station in the city, while the Highland Avenue station, located approximately 4 miles (6 km) southwest of Chester T.C. station, is also served by Wilmington/Newark trains. A third station, at Lamokin Street, located approximately a mile east of the Commodore Barry Bridge at the junction of the NEC and the abandoned Penn Central Chester Creek Secondary Branch, was operated by SEPTA as a flagstop station until it was closed and demolished in 2003 due to low usage. Historically, the Chester Transportation Center was, like the Paoli station on the Paoli/Thorndale Line, both a commuter and intercity stop on the former Pennsylvania Railroad's New York–Washington route. But when Amtrak took over intercity rail passenger services in 1971, the Chester Transportation Center was bypassed, except from April 30, 1978, to October 29, 1983, when the Chesapeake stopped once daily in each direction between Philadelphia and Washington. Images for kids Chester, Pennsylvania Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.

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In 2014, the area bounded by Railroad Street, the former Pennsylvania Railroad Yards (now the site of a residential complex), 22nd Street, Liberty Avenue and 15th Street was designated by the National Park Service as the Strip Historic District, a National Historic District listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today, the Strip Historic District sits at the heart of the larger Strip District neighborhood which spans from 11th to 33rd Streets and the Allegheny River to the Hill District. From 1850 to 1964, the 13-block parcel made a significant contribution to Pittsburgh's commercial history, and its architecture continues to define the neighborhood. While the Strip Historic District initially developed in the mid-nineteenth century as an industrial center with numerous iron mills, foundries and factories, its street patterns and architecture reflects the neighborhood’s history as the epicenter of the regional produce industry and the hub for specialty food products. The architectural character of the Strip District reflects over 100 years of construction, ranging from one- and two-story brick commercial buildings to ten-story reinforced concrete buildings in various styles, with early twentieth century-style commercial buildings dominating the streetscape. Low-rise buildings tend to be clustered along Penn Avenue with a few multi-story buildings interspersed along the corridor. Larger warehouse and industrial buildings tend to be clustered along Smallman Street near the former Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building. The architectural styles reflected in the district illustrate its 100-year period of vitality with a few examples of early styles such as Greek Revival and Late Victorian, a more prevalent representation of the Commercial Style, Classical Revival, and Late Gothic Revival styles of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and several examples of the later Art Deco style of the 1920s and 1930s. Surviving mid- to late-nineteenth century buildings are scattered along Penn Avenue, but early twentieth-century commercial buildings dominate the landscape.1 As described in the National Register of Historic Places submission, Pittsburgh's Strip District developed quickly during the early- to mid-nineteenth century. From 1800 to 1860 the area transformed from a "rural retreat" to an area densely populated with homes, shops, schools, and churches. The area between 11th and 15th Streets was platted in 1814 and called the Northern Liberties of Pittsburgh. In 1829, the eastern border of the Northern Liberties was expanded to present-day 19th and 20th Streets. The Northern Liberties was annexed by the City of Pittsburgh as the Fifth Ward in 1837, and the area from 20th to 31st Streets was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1846 as the Ninth Ward. Substantial residential, commercial, and industrial development of the area occurred between 1840 and 1870. By mid-century, in addition to residents beginning to refer to the neighborhood as the “Strip District” based on its geographic qualities, the area was a vital and significant industrial center in Pittsburgh, with 16 iron and steel mills, foundries, and factories. By the 1860s, the population of the Strip District rose to approximately 12,000 residents; many of the residents worked as skilled laborers in the iron mills and glass houses.2 In 1852, the main line of the Pennsylvania Railroad was completed between Philadelphia and Pittsburgh, running through the Strip District on the south side of Liberty Avenue. The Allegheny Valley Railroad was completed to Pittsburgh from Oil City in 1870 on an alignment along the south side of the Allegheny River. A frame freight station was constructed in the 1870s on the north side of Railroad Street between 16th and 17th streets. Technological advances and the mechanization of iron and steel manufacturing processes brought about the demise of the iron rolling mill and the birth of larger, more fully integrated steel mills. The coke blast furnace, the Bessemer converter, and the open-hearth furnace established the "steel era." Steel mills and associated industries in the Strip contributed to Pittsburgh's national leadership in the production of steel between 1861 and 1905.3 But with the closing of the Liberty Avenue freight line in downtown Pittsburgh and the establishment of a produce yard in the Strip District, the Allegheny Valley Railroad was leased by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1900 and was purchased outright in 1910. It was at this time that the Strip District began the transition into a produce distribution center and the overall layout of the area as it exists today started to be defined. The district's location relative to downtown is critical to the understanding of the area and to its evolution into Pittsburgh's wholesale produce distribution center. Situated just behind the city's central business district and immediately accessible to established major rail lines and early major road networks, this location is precisely why the district developed and prospered for decades.4 Located on the Allegheny River floodplain where the terrain is relatively flat, you’ll still find the typical urban street grid of major thoroughfares and streets with small alleyways that was developed in the first half of the nineteenth century, modified in the 1880s, and again in the early 1900s.5 Man-made constraints such as the Pennsylvania Railroad produce yards along the Allegheny River and the main line rail yards southeast of Liberty Avenue further shaped the district, and have remained relatively unchanged. Stand at the corner of 16th and Smallman Streets and it’s easy to imagine the hustle and bustle of the neighborhood and the sounds of railcars being loaded with produce. Wholesale produce merchants first began streaming out of downtown to the neighboring Strip District around 1905. In response, enterprising real estate developer Joseph Watson Craig purchased land along the south side of Smallman Street and constructed a series of three- and four-story warehouses from 18th to 21st Streets. Between 1910 and 1930, the Pennsylvania Railroad expanded its freight yards so that they covered almost the entire area between 11th and 21st streets and Smallman Street and the Allegheny River.6 Homes and small manufacturing buildings were demolished and produce warehouses began to line the south side of Smallman Street. Some small neighborhood shops along Penn Avenue gave way to four-story and five-story buildings for wholesale produce merchants. Produce auction houses and wholesalers located mainly on Smallman Street, and smaller dealers located in shops mainly on Penn Avenue. “There was a strong tendency for dealers to congregate in any given location once a market was established. Sellers wanted to be where the buyers were in the habit of coming. Buyers, for their part, liked to shop and compare prices and quality and would perhaps buy one thing from one dealer and something else from another."7 “After a boom in production during World War I, the steel industry in the Strip District experienced a steady decline. Modern mills required larger tracts of land than the Strip District had to offer. Firms closed their doors or moved elsewhere. The Depression also took a heavy toll, and several Strip District firms closed during the 1930s. In spite of difficult times, the wholesale produce business continued to grow and became firmly established in the Strip District.8 By the start of the twentieth century, Pittsburgh had grown to become one of the principal auction markets in the United States. In 1906, 48 produce wholesalers supplied 178 fruit retailers in Pittsburgh and Allegheny City, with the majority of wholesalers operating within the Strip Historic District boundaries. By 1929, when the new Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building opened, 80 fruit wholesalers and brokers were supplying 257 fruit retailers.9 By the 1950s, Pittsburgh was the produce distribution center for 31 surrounding counties. There were 141 wholesale produce facilities in the Pittsburgh area, and 71 of those were in the Strip District.10 At this time, Strip District wholesalers were still serviced by rail: Fruits and vegetables arrived at the produce yards and were transferred to the Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building to be sold at its integral auction house, or produce was sold directly from boxcars in the rail yard. But that was all about to change. In 1952, Strip District wholesalers received 30 percent of fruits and vegetables by truck. By 1959, 50 percent of produce arrived by truck. The railroad reacted to this competition by refusing to let trucks park next to the terminal. This forced wholesalers to find other storage space for produce. Express companies responded to the railroads by setting up headquarters on the 2200 block of Smallman Street, a block away from the terminal."11 By the mid-1960s, only 30 to 40 percent of the city's produce was moving through the facilities in the Strip Historic District.12 Additionally, the original generation of produce workers were nearing retirement and the Produce Terminal was showing its age. After declaring bankruptcy in 1970, much of the Penn Central Transportation Company’s land holdings in the western part of the Strip District was sold to developers. 13 Though the produce industry changed drastically in the second half of the twentieth century, some wholesale firms stayed in the Strip and continued to operate out of the Terminal building. By the mid-1970s, only about 24 wholesalers were operating out of the Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building under a lease from Conrail. Some of the remaining produce firms expanded to retail and began to open direct-to-consumer food shops on Penn Avenue.14 In 1981, the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) used $1.1 million of City of Pittsburgh/1-IUD Community Development Block Grant funds to purchase the Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building in order to preserve it for use as a produce distribution center and to prevent alternate-use development. In 1983, the URA renovated the building to convert the former auction wing into modern office space, added the sawtooth loading docks on the building’s north side, and removed a bay on the west end to accommodate trucks. In 1986, the updated building continued to serve as a viable produce distribution center and also became home to The Society for Contemporary Craft, a mixed-media art gallery and interactive space for the community. But by the mid-1990s, about a dozen produce wholesalers were operating in the Strip District. By 2010, only eight produce distributors operated from the building.15 Retail replaced wholesale and came to dominate the Penn Avenue corridor of the Strip District. Even today, patrons still come to the Strip to purchase produce, but now they stay to indulge in specialty and ethnic food items, to shop for hip clothes and home goods, and to dine at restaurants and bars. But the Strip District still is one of the most distinctive, recognizable and authentic neighborhoods in the City of Pittsburgh. Despite various urban renewal efforts in the 1970s to the 1990s, the dynamic district has maintained its character and continues to operate, in some ways, as it did 100 years ago. The Strip District Terminal opened in 1929 as the Pennsylvania Railroad Fruit Auction & Sales Building to serve the tri-state area as a produce distribution hub. Iconic in length and design, the terminal functioned as the economic heart of the Strip District for more than 40 years. The Produce Terminal building was designed for transferring goods from one carrier to another with minimal provision for short-term storage. Perishable produce arrived, was inspected by potential buyers, and then was auctioned at the two-story east end of the building, after which it was transferred to the buyer for transport. The one-story length of the inspection shed was designed for loading and unloading boxcars from either side, with identical doors with box car spacing along each elevation. The red brick construction, Art Deco-influenced detailing of the brick and limestone parapet walls, and the original steel sash clerestory and monitor windows of the inspection shed continue to be character-defining features, even today. The most notable features are the paneled wood, center-hinged fold-up cargo doors on the inspection shed. While the loading docks at the real elevation were reconstructed in 1995, the original copper canopy remains. At the Smallman Street elevation, although slightly modified with the installation of stairs and railings, the original concrete loading dock and cantilevered steel frame canopies also remain. The low-rise, 1920s-era building extended five blocks along the northwest side of Smallman Street, while a mix of late- nineteenth and early-twentieth-century low-rise and multi-story warehouse and industrial buildings lined the street's southeast side. The pronounced setback of the Produce Terminal building widened the portion of Smallman Street from 16th Street to 21st Street to allow for the loading of vehicles from its elevated platforms. This dramatic five-block-long expanse is bordered lengthwise on the northwest by the terminal building and on the southeast by large multi-story former produce warehouses and industrial buildings, terminating with the façade of St. Stanislaus Kostka Roman Catholic Church centered along its northeast side. The visual result is that of an open market plaza, which is a character-defining feature of the Strip Historic District that very much contributes to the feeling of a produce distribution center and marketplace. The pivotal building takes up the majority of the northwest boundary of the district, influencing other prevalent design aspects of the district, including the plaza area of Smallman Street between 16th and 21st streets and the location of several large produce businesses along the southeast curb line of Smallman Street. Its influence is also prevalent in the rhythm of the surrounding buildings including those facing Smallman Street – some of the largest in the district – the one- and two-story buildings flanking Penn Avenue, and in the more modern, low-rise buildings which face Liberty Avenue.16 In 2014, the same year the District was granted historical designation by the National Register of Historic Places, the URA issued a request for proposals to preserve and transform the terminal building. In its RFP, the organization indicated that “along with Saint Stanislaus Church, the Produce Terminal is an architectural focal point that helps bridge the marketplace and the riverfront. Whether the eventual re-use of the Produce Terminal is boutique retail, professional offices, museum space, an indoor market or showrooms, it will act as a gathering place unto itself.” With a few Strip District adaptive reuse projects already under its belt, including Cork Factory Lofts and Lot 24, McCaffery Interests threw its hat in to the ring with a mixed-use vision for the terminal building that would enhance the energy and vitality of the bustling neighborhood. McCaffery’s vision returns the Produce Terminal to its rightful place as an essential piece of the neighborhood’s commercial and community fabric to remain an iconic feature of the neighborhood for the next 100 years. In 2019, the URA granted McCaffery a 99-year ground lease of the Produce Terminal. Later that year, ground was broken, and the new Strip District Terminal was launched. In collaboration with the City of Pittsburgh, its design partners and the Pittsburgh Water and Sewer Authority, Smallman Street infrastructure is being updated in conjunction with building construction to serve as a new transit corridor, complement the Penn Avenue retail and dining, and create a whole new destination in the Strip.

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Observation techniques are useful for field observation, usability studies, contextual inquiry, and everyday survival in an office environment. The ability to observe what people actually do in context is an incredibly powerful tool for any UX professional. Keen observation enables sharp insight and can result in more appropriate actions. But most people are not great observers. To be really good at making useful observations, you must practice training your attention. Highly effective observers learn to identify and focus on relevant aspects and dismiss the unimportant without bias. Sci-fi movies are a great way to practice observation skills. They offer a rich version of an environment foreign to us but familiar enough to be able to observe it effectively. They also offer the opportunity, through varied camera angles, to observe action from different perspectives. It is very difficult to learn to observe what is familiar to us, and the fresh technology of science fiction films, no matter how improbable, is a good way to deepen observation skills without bias. So let’s practice, and let’s make it fun. We’ll use one of my favorite recent sci-fi movies, a re-envisioning of a classic, Star Trek (2009). This movie offers many examples of interactions between humans and a variety of systems (touch screen, manual input, gesture-based, voice-recognition, and more), but for the purpose of this article, we’ll focus on the first scene that takes place on the bridge of the Enterprise. This brief scene involves an initial look at the assembled crew and the activities leading up to the launch and maiden voyage of the brand new starship. A Brief Description of the Scene The scene takes place between 40:15 and 42:38 minutes into the film. We’ll start examining the scene with the interaction between Captain Pike and the helmsman, Sulu. Sulu is at his station and is ordered by the Captain to prepare for launch. He interacts with his console and verbally reports readiness to the captain. When given the command to go to “maximum warp,” Sulu initiates the action (pushing a lever forward) but the ship fails to jump to warp speed. In fact, nothing happens. As Sulu struggles to understand the cause of the problem, the first officer, Spock, questions whether he has “disengaged the external initial dampener.” Sulu follows the advice of Spock and the ship is able to launch at maximum warp. Shortly after takeoff, the Captain asks Ensign Chekov, the ship’s navigator, to “begin ship-wide mission broadcast.” In order to access the ship’s intercom system, Chekov needs to verbally enter an access code. This code, nine-five-victor-victor-two, poses a problem for the heavily Russian-accented ensign. His pronunciation of “victor” as “wictor” causes an error and the voice recognition system won’t allow him to access the intercom. He attempts access again, visibly struggling to pronounce “victor,” and successfully activates the intercom and makes his announcement. This 2.5 minute scene is a great example because it easily demonstrates six key tips for making useful observations. Tip 1: Look for Pain Points Whether they are caused by a system or human error, are manifested as moments of confusion, times of low productivity, or any kind of difficulty, pain points represent obvious moments for more in-depth investigation. In the bridge scene there are two major pain points between the crew and the ship’s systems. The first pain point is experienced by Sulu, and indicates a problem with system feedback. Why was Sulu able to check readiness of other components but not warned when a function that would prevent launch was still engaged? Once an error occurred, why was there no rapid diagnosis tool available? When systems depend on specialized knowledge of users to fill in gaps in function, there is potential for major usability issues. The second major pain point in the scene with Chekov and the voice recognition system indicates problems with what I can only loosely term “internationalization.” On an intergalactic ship with crew from all over the universe, it might be reasonable to expect that a voice-commanded system could handle inflections, accents, or other vocal variations that would result from communications by non-native English speaking crew members of different species and cultures. It is important to note that pain points don’t always indicate system problems. They can also be an indicator of insufficient knowledge or training, process problems, or human error. Regardless of what they indicate, they are important details for closer examination. Tip 2: Articulate the Unspoken Non-verbal communication, actions/reactions, and human-human interactions are key nuances that can help you translate what is going on in a situation. The “unspoken” can add context so that it is easier to postulate causation theories and to articulate questions that will help with making insights. One major non-verbal interaction in this scene occurs when Sulu’s warp attempt fails and we see the other crew members turn and stare at him. As an outside observer, I would hypothesize that either errors are rare and cause for curiosity or that making an error is heinous and warrants shameful staring. Of course in this instance I can’t dig deeper into the stares that Sulu received, but they indicate something going on that I don’t fully understand and that I should pursue. Tip 3: Attach Numbers to Things Quantifying aspects of the experience will be important to evaluate the severity and prevalence of a problem or to determine importance and urgency of a task. (How frequently? How many times in a row?) For example: - Chekov must verbally state the access code twice before he can successfully access the ship’s intercom system - Four questions are asked of Sulu between the time that the warp failure occurs and when he solves the problem (three from the captain, one from the first officer.) - Seven tasks are verbally articulated by Sulu after the captain’s first command and before the warp failure: moorings retracted, dock control report ready, thrusters fired, separating from space dock, fleet’s cleared space dock, all ships ready for warp, course laid in. During a live observation session it is sometimes difficult to count everything, especially frequent things. Tick marks in the margin of your notes will help you keep track of major patterns (ratios such as “attempts-to-success” or “failures-to-completion of task”), and major patterns are most likely where you will find a lot of good insights. Tip 4: Observe What Does Not Happen Sometimes important insights can come from indicating when expected or common behaviors are not happening. Noting times when people are not talking, or when users are not interacting with a system, are good starting points. For example, notice that no one in the scene complains about the technology, even though it sometimes seems to cause inefficiency and delay. There are no rolled eyes or knowing looks exchanged. These observations don’t tell us why something is happening. Only further questioning could explain whether this indicates that errors don’t happen often or whether such expressions/reactions are frowned upon. But the lack of behavior does give us a starting point for further probing. I admire Sulu for not lamenting, “Sir, there was no warning message to tell me the dampeners were still engaged!” Tip 5: Be Descriptive Rather Than Interpretive You’ll never get from observation to insight if your notes aren’t objective and based on fact. It can be difficult to keep your mind in descriptive mode when observations trigger ideas, memories, or connections. Practicing “sticking to the facts” is a key to success. For example, a descriptive report of Sulu’s workstation would be: “The console consisted of a screen, a touch interface, and a lever. The pilot sat at the console to operate the ship, his screen viewable to the captain who sat above and behind him.” An interpretive description could be: “The console was an interesting mix of advanced and archaic instruments: a touch screen and an old-fashioned lever.” There are many ways to determine when you’re being interpretive, but I find the most common offences can be summed up in three points: - Your writing is literary. It sounds lyrical, it uses metaphor, or it has too many details, like describing a specific shade of blue. - Your notes make a lot of references. Observations contain self-references, comparisons, or abstract connections. - Your writing is explanatory. Your notes seem more instructive than empirical. A great way to test that your observations are more descriptive than interpretive is to see if what you’ve written can be visualized by someone else. Testing your notes by asking a colleague to make a sketch based on your description is good practice. If you do want to include interpretive aspects during your observation, indicate when you are being descriptive and when you are being interpretive. I always leave space in my notes for annotations and editorializing. I also have my own shorthand to indicate when I’m being interpretive. Tip 6: Question Assumptions As with any research study, assumptions should always be identified and questioned. There are two types of assumptions you need to be aware of: your assumptions and the assumptions of the people and systems you observe. I assumed the Captain knew everyone when he entered the bridge. The Captain assumed that everyone on the bridge was supposed to be there. But when the Captain engages Chekov he has to ask his name. And when Sulu fails in his warp attempt the Captain asks, “And you are a pilot, right?” (Although the tone of this is rather tongue-in-cheek.) These assumptions could have led to human error (what if Sulu wasn’t qualified to be sitting at that console?), but their relevancy to the task failures needs more evidentiary support. When Sulu failed to put the ship into warp, the Captain assumed human error. He asks, “Is the parking brake on?” This response to failure is something I keenly identified in my notes (by “keenly” I mean I circled it in red). Other assumptions that I could test by questioning: - I assume rank is the same as the military ranks I understand - I assume the physical setup is ergonomic - I assume that gestures (for the touch interfaces) are universal You want to identify and test as many assumptions as possible in order to strengthen the validity of your observations. Unchecked assumptions weaken valuable insights. Turning 2.5 Minutes of Observation into One Insight Using these six tips to make observations has led me to an important insight that might help me redesign the Enterprise’s interfaces: errors occur rarely and the system handles them inadequately. In some cases the system does not prevent error, and when error does occur, the system does not allow for graceful recovery. This insight is based on the observations of the assumptions that Sulu’s human error led to the failure to enter warp drive, the lack of complaining, how the crew stared at their failing teammate, and the dogged persistence of those failing in their tasks. Of course, when possible, I would first test this insight as a hypothesis, confirming it through heuristic evaluations, usability tests, or some other supplementary methodology. But insight isn’t the only foregone conclusion for an observation activity. Sometimes all you need to get out of an observation session is ideas as to where to investigate next. Whether in a usability lab test, in the field, or in the office, great observations can lead to the creation of great interactions. How would you redesign Enterprise’s system to make it more usable? Retrieved from http://uxpamagazine.org/to-boldly-go/ Comments are closed.

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Peculiarities of the woody plants re-bloom Автор: Opalko Olga Anatolievna, Opalko Anatoly Ivanovich Рубрика: Биология и биотехнология Статья в выпуске: 2 (12), 2015 года. The data of literary sources concerning the bloom of angiosperm plants and deviation in the development of a flower and inflorescence, in particular untimely flowering, was generalized; our observation results of some peculiarities of re-bloom of woody plants in the National Dendrological Park "Sofiyivka" of NAS of Ukraine (NDP "Sofiyivka") were discussed. The flowering process was formed during a long-term evolution of a propagation system of angiosperm plants as a basis of fertilization and further fruit and seed development. As a result of vernalization and photoperiodism reactions, flowering (under regular conditions) occurs in the most favorable period for pollination and fertilization of every plant. However, various deviations, in particular, the untimely (most frequently double, sometimes three- and four-fold) flowering occurs in this perfect process of generative organ formation of angiosperm plants. An increased number of reports about re-bloom (at the end of summer - at the beginning of fall) of the representatives of various woody plant species whose flowers usually blossom in May-June prompts the analysis of the available information concerning the mechanisms of flowering and the causes which lead to deviation of flowering processes. Flowering of the woody plant representatives of the collection fund of the NDP "Sofiyivka" was studied; statistics about re-bloom in different cities of Ukraine were monitored. The classification of re-bloom facts was carried out according to V.L. Vitkovskiy (1984). Although this classification has mostly a stated nature, it was good enough when being formulated and, with certain conditions, it can be applied nowadays. Accordingly, using this classification, abnormal cases can include facts of early summer-fall flowering and early winter flowering. A late spring flowering can be adaptive response of damaged plants to exogenous stresses, due to which the probability of sexual propagation remains. Early spring-early summer flowering is a dual-natured category which, under certain conditions, may have adaptive meaning and facilitate seminal propagation. Most cases of untimely flowering registered in NDP "Sofiyivka" represent a group of early summer-fall flowering, in some cases late spring flowering occurred though. Secondary flowering is usually connected with meteorological peculiarities of the year. Most frequently it is seen in very dry years, first of all, after hot and dry spring. The rebloom can have an adaptive nature in case of development seeds with full germination, moreover the immature germs of underdeveloped seeds formed from the flowers of early summer-fall flowering can be used in breeding programs. Dichogamy, fasciation, florigen, heterostyly, hermaphrodite plants, intercalary meristems, protandry, protogyny, sexual polymorphism Короткий адрес: https://readera.org/14967465 IDR: 14967465 | DOI: 10.15688/jvolsu11.2015.2.2 Список литературы Peculiarities of the woody plants re-bloom - Abdzhunusheva T.B. Assessment of the Diversity of Cotoneaster in a Botanical Garden Named After E. Gareeva of National Academy of Sciences of Kyrgyz Republic. The Herald of Kyrgyz National Agrarian University, 2011, no. 2 (20), pp. 46-48.. - Abe M., et al. FD, a bZIP Protein Mediating Signals From the Floral Pathway Integrator FT at the Shoot Apex. Science, 2005, vol. 309, no. 5737, pp. 1052-1056. - Bassi D., Monet R. Botany and Taxonomy. Layne D.R., Bassi D., eds. The Peach: Botany, Production and Uses. Wallingford, CABI, 2008, pp. 1-36. - Bilokin I.P. Growth and Development of Plants. Kyiv, Vysshaya shkola Publ., 1975. 432 p. (in Ukrainian). - Buyanov M.F. The Secondary (Autumnal) Flowering and Fruiting of White Mulberry. Botanical Journal, 1956, vol. 41, no. 10, pp. 1102-1108.. - Case A.L., Barrett S.C.H. Environmental Stress and the Evolution of Dioecy: Wurmbea Dioica (Colchicaceae) in Western Australia. Evolutionary Ecology, 2004, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 145-164. - Chailakhyan M.Kh. Regulation of Flowering in Higher Plants. Moscow, Nauka Publ., 1988. 560 p.. - Chandler W.H. Fruit Growing. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1925. 794 p. - Darwin C.R. The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. London, John Murray, 1876. 482 p. Fig. 6. Late spring flowering of Malus×prunifolia (Willd.) Borkh. var. Rinki (Koidz.) Rehd. f. fastigiatabifera (Dieck) Al. Teod. (NDP "Sofiyivka", May 19, 2009) БИОЛОГИЯ И БИОТЕХНОЛОГИЯ ISSN 2306-4153. 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Menstrual health is a broad term and encompasses menstrual hygiene management practices and the interventions that link menstruation to health, well-being and gender education. Significance in India Before we learn more about menstruation, here’s a little note on why it is an important subject in India. Menstruation is still considered a taboo in some Indian societies. Due to this, a lot of people lack the basic knowledge of menstrual health. As a result, they are unable to educate their future generations. Millions of women face significant barriers and are denied a dignified and comfortable experience with menstrual hygiene management. It is important to create awareness and educate these women on reproductive health and create a platform where information is available to all. It is a natural fact of life and a monthly occurrence. Every month, a woman’s body starts preparing for pregnancy, the Graafian follicle located in the ovary continues to mature and eventually ruptures to release the ovum during ovulation. If the released ovum is not fertilized once it reaches the uterus, menstruation occurs. During menstruation, the endometrium lining of the uterus starts degenerating and its blood vessels breakdown. It is then externally discharged in the form of blood and mucosal tissues known as “menstrual flow”. Some Important Terms Menarche: The onset of the first menstrual flow. It occurs around the age of 11-14 years. Menopause: The permanent cessation of the menstrual cycle. It occurs between the age of 45 and 50 years. Menstrual Cycle – The reproductive cycle of primates (monkeys, apes, human beings etc.) It is repeated at an average interval of 28-29 days and is divided into four phases: Menstrual phase- It marks the beginning of the cycle and is characterized by menstrual flow, when fertilization has failed. The duration of this phase is between 3-5 days. Follicular phase- This phase extends from the 6th day to the 13th day. During this phase, the primary follicle grows into the Graafian follicle and the endometrium of the uterine starts to regenerate. The level of estrogens is maximum. Ovulatory phase- On the 14th day of the menstrual cycle, the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the Follicular Stimulating hormone (FHS – maintains levels of estrogen) levels are at its peak. LH surge is the maximum level of LH during mid-cycle and its indices rupture of the Graafian follicle. Luteal phase- During this phase, the ruptured Graafian follicle enlarges and forms a yellow ball of mass called the corpus luteum. It continues to secrete progesterone for 7 days which is in turn controlled by LH. If the released ovum is not fertilized, the corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans. The progesterone levels lower and the body enters the menstrual phase again. The Difference Between Menstrual Cycle and Estrous CycleMenstrual cycle Estrous cycleIt occurs in primates such as apes, monkeys and human beings.It occurs in non-primates such as cows, dogs, reptiles etc.It is divided into four phases: menstrual, follicular, luteal and ovulatory.It is divided into two phases: Follicular and luteal.Blood flows during the menstrual phase as broken endometrium is discharged.Blood is not discharged during any phase as the degenerated endometrium is reabsorbed.There is no heat period and copulation occurs at any time.There is an estrus/heat production during ovulation and copulation occurs only at that period. Important Menstrual Hygiene Practices Avoid keeping the pad on for a long duration no matter how super-absorbent they are. Use of clean products- make sure all feminine products are properly sealed and unused to prevent any infection. Ensure proper disposal of sanitary products as it is harmful to both you and the people around you. Ensure your genital area is clean and dry. Wet or damp area are most prone to bacterial growth. Caption: Wash your hand after disposing of feminine products Credit: pexels Purpose of menstrual hygiene Reducing respiratory tract infection (RTIs): This is the most common form of infection in women of menstruating age. Avoid Unhygienic habits like using dirty cloths or sanitary napkins longer than 5 hours. This can promote growth of bacteria and yeast like E.coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Bacteria invade the urinary tract entirely and cause extreme pain during urination and may even cause fever. Ensuring good reproductive health: RTIs can lead to degeneration of the reproductive tract by microbes that destroy the mucosal layer, causing serious damage to the ovaries, fallopian tube and uterine wall. To avoid potential rashes: During menstruation the moisture level around the genital goes up. The combination of moisture and heat contributes to bacteria buildup and leads to contact dermatitis. The skin will then be more prone to friction and the area around the genital will now become itchy, sore and inflamed. Reducing risk of cervical cancer: This type of cancer causes malignant tumors on the lowermost part of the uterus known as the cervix. It is caused by the Human Papilloma Virus which is transmitted either sexually or due to unhygienic handling of menstruating waste. This is why it is important to ensure proper disposal of sanitary products and maintain proper sanitization afterwards. Cap: Tampons increase risk of TSS credits: pexel Toxic shock syndrome (TSS): A Rare but Serious Condition. The bacteria Staphylococcus aureus formed by bacterial build up during RTI often results in Toxic shock syndrome, a life-threatening complication. Women who wear tampons are at a higher risk. Women suffering from TSS will develop high fever, rapid drop in blood pressure, diarrhea and muscle aches. If not treated, a person’s organs such as liver and kidney may begin to fail or it could lead to seizures and heart failure. There have also been some few cases where amputations were involved. Menstrual Hygiene Products There are two most common types of menstrual products to absorb menstrual flow: External products such as pad and liners are attached to the underpants and absorb menstrual flow after it leaves the body. Internal products such as tampons and menstrual cups are inserted in the vaginal tract and absorbs menstrual flow before it leaves the body. Both types of products have been approved by the FDA. However, there is a small risk of Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) with tampons recorded. Caption: sanitary pads. Credit: pixabay The Impact of Menstrual Products on the Environment The pollution of sanitary waste has become a highly discussed topic. Over 400 million pads are manufactured in India annually. The chemical composition in sanitary pads causes leaching, groundwater pollution and loss of soil fertility. Moreover, there has been no clarification or distinct method of disposal as scientists are still trying to decide if it comes under the category of wet or dry waste. As awareness starts increasing in India, people have been actively promoting the idea of sustainable menstruation and the use of menstrual cups and its advantages are being popularized. Caption: Bell-shaped menstrual cup Credit: foter It is a bell-shaped, flexible device made of silicone, latex or rubber that is inserted into the vagina to collect menstrual blood. Depending on the type and size of the product, it can be left in place for 4-12 hours. The biggest advantage is that the cup can be simply removed, rinsed and then inserted again, making it the most sustainable and eco-friendly feminine product. Not only is this extremely convenient but also inexpensive. It has proven to be safe and just as effective as sanitary pads and tampons. How to Use It Firstly, picking the right sized menstrual cup for your body is important to ensure a painless and comfortable experience. The cup is designed to open up inside the vagina and create a small suction force with the vaginal wall to keep it in place. Before inserting it in, make sure you read the instructions that come with it. The easiest and most convenient way to insert it is to fold the cup in half, creating a U-shaped fold. Then guiding into the vagina, rim first. To ensure that it is well placed, rotate the stem of the cup when it is half an inch away from the opening to place it higher for maximum effectiveness. This will also ensure that the cup has completely opened inside the vaginal tract. Once it is correctly placed and suctioned, there will not be any discomfort or pain. Credits : foter Caption: Menstrual hygiene Maintenance- Cup Cleaning and Care Menstrual cup cleaning is easy and very low maintenance. With proper care, they can last for years. They must be cleaned and sterilized, both during your period and between cycles. Most brands ideally provide you with a specific soap for your cup but since they are non-porous materials, any soap will suffice. Fill the cup with soapy water and let it sit for some time. Although, keep in mind some perfume soaps can affect the vaginal ph. Then flip the cup over and squeeze the cup, let the soapy water escape through the suction hole to ensure proper cleansing. Use a soft brush if necessary. Once it’s rinsed and dried out, it’s as good as new. Alcohol-free and fragrance-free cleansing wipes are good alternatives and can be used in public places. Credits: picjumbo Caption: Menstrual cups are safe to sleep in Menstrual cups are a great alternative to wearing pads or using tampons. The maximum number of hours one can wear a menstrual cup is 12, while for pads and tampons it is 6 and 8 respectively. Further, those bulky maxi-night pads worn at night can get extremely uncomfortable due to friction. This problem can be easily resolved with the use of a menstrual cup. So, it is safe to say that not only is it a feasible alternative, but an advantage as menstrual cups can be worn for longer and are safer, especially during the night.

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From Sherlock Holmes to Hercule Poirot and Lord Peter Wimsey 2nd November 2021 We were treated to two brilliant lectures by Richard Burnip who is an actor, writer and historian of the theatre. Richard is a long-standing Arts Society lecturer and he has a wealth of knowledge on his subjects. This study day gave him the opportunity to expand on two generations of detective fiction and how these were taken from the page to the screen. Richard began by giving us tremendous insight into Arthur Conan Doyle’s background as a GP and his inspiration for Holmes from his old mentor, Dr Joseph Bell. Bell was a surgeon and lecturer at Edinburgh University famed for his powers of observation and deduction in diagnosis. His observations in revealing the backgrounds of his patients inspired Doyle to attribute such qualities to Holmes. Whilst still practising as a GP Doyle wrote his first Holmes story, a ‘Study in Scarlet’ in 1887. It was not a huge success and eventually appeared in Beeton’s Christmas Annual. Doyle only wrote four full novels, all the other well-known stories were short and appeared in magazine form between 1890-1899. Very early on the stories (ostensibly written by his friend Dr Watson) were short episodes that appeared in the magazines. Early illustrations were done by Charles Doyle, Arthur’s father. Notably the ‘Sign of Four’ in 1890, which appeared in Lippicott’s magazine, was written in a single month. Thereafter short stories about Holmes exploits appeared in the Strand Magazine and were handsomely illustrated by Sidney Paget. Doyle and Paget brought Holmes to life and he was seen with a variety of hats and pipes. Paget set the image of Holmes in all his disguises and together with Doyle’s brilliant tales, they formed the image of Holmes we have today. In the 1890s copyright was fragile and directors were beginning to put Holmes on the stage. Holmes was often portrayed by the actor Henry Irving, a master of disguise, who was able to develop the character and persona so well known today. Over the years Holmes has been portrayed by numerous famous actors including, William Gillett, Harry Saintsbury, Lionel Barrymore, Basil Rathbone, Jeremy Brett and Benedict Cumberbatch. All have brought their own interpretation to the role. In 1893 Moriarty first appeared and caused the ‘death’ of Holmes in the ‘Final Problem’. Doyle then wrote other things and also went to the Boer War as a doctor. On his return in 1903, he brought Holmes back to life in ‘The Return of Sherlock Holmes’ and ‘The Empty House’. Between 1903-1914 Doyle wrote more short stories which were brilliantly illustrated, often in colour. Following the First World War Doyle devoted much of his time to the cause of Spiritualism. But he was tempted back to writing about Holmes in the 1920s, though all the stories are set in the 1890s. 1927 saw the last new story in the Strand magazine and in 1929 Saintsbury did his final stage tour. Doyle died in 1930, leaving the legacy of the most famous fictional detective ever known. Agatha Christie and Dorothy L Sayers The two most famous female crime writers of the pre-war era, Christie and Sayers created two of the most loved and admired character detectives in the form of Hercule Poirot and Lord Peter Wimsey. Richard’s second lecture centred on these two wonderful characters and in particular those areas of London most inhabited by them. Richard took us on a visual tour of Mayfair and St James where these characters lived, worked and played. Between 1932 and the 1940s Sayers wrote several LPW novels and about 20 short stories and gradually introduced familiar characters such as Harriet Vane and Bunter. In 1932 Sayers wrote ‘Have His Carcass’ in which we first meet M’Lord. We follow his butler, Bunter, into a cinema in Haymarket and Richard showed us the probable location. Sayers had a flat in Dover Street and knew all the clubs in St James. It is probable that ‘The Unpleasantness at the Bellona Club’ was situated at 94 Piccadilly in the Naval and Military Club and LPWs new flat was probably on the sight that is now Park Lane Hotel and South Audley Street is almost certainly the location for the ‘mysterious woman’. These characters too have been portrayed on stage and screen most notably Ian Carmichael and Edward Petherbridge. Both of these actors would know South Audley Street and the St James Clubland well. Harriet Vane first appeared in ‘Strong Poison’ and has also been played by Constance Cummings and Veronica Thurleigh on stage in 1936 and Harriet Walters on TV in the 1980s. Agatha Christie, probably the most prolific crime novelist of all time wrote dozens of novels and short stories featuring Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. She sold the film rights of the Marple novels to MGM and this resulted in several ‘awful’ films starring Margaret Rutherford as the aging spinster PI. Christie also wrote ‘The Mousetrap’ which is still the longest running play in the West End. With a brief gap during WW2 it has been running for over 70 years. Christies characters also feature in Mayfair and St James and ‘Sleeping Murder’ 1940 brought Marple to the Haymarket theatre. In ‘The Secret Adversary’ Tommy and Tuppence met at Dover Street Station. Although this no longer exists as an underground station, the frontage is still identifiable on Dover Street. Arlington House on Arlington Street SW1 is probably the venue for Poirot’s flat. Her model for Bertram’s Hotel is probably Flemings Hotel in Mayfair where Christie stayed as a young girl. It is tiny and has not changed much during the twentieth century. And ‘Hays Mews’ which features in ‘Murder in the Mews’ is probably modelled on Bardsley Garden Mews. Poirot would have been right at home in Chesterfield House, near Audley Square, where he could have consulted with Lord Peter and Harriet. What a treat we had. We roamed around late Victorian London and then were escorted through the high echelons of society through Mayfair and St James. Thank you, Richard, for the most entertaining morning. The Genius of Leonardo da Vinci 16th October 2019 To most of us, Leonardo da Vinci is regarded as a renowned painter and sculptor and yet, in reality, his talents and interests went so much further: anatomy, war machinery, architecture, water engineering, aerodynamics and botany. It was interesting that our Study Day was led by a retired surgeon rather than an art specialist. Leonardo da Vinci, an illegitimate child, was born in a small village between Pisa and Florence in 1452 and raised by his grandmother. He had no formal schooling and spent a lot of time in the countryside around his home, studying nature and drawing. He was never without a notebook and drew everything he saw with explicit notes alongside all executed in mirror writing. At the age of 17 he was apprenticed to Verrochio in Florence where it was apparent very early on that he had great talent. He came to the notice of the Medici family and received commissions. At the same time he became interested in the structure of the human body and attended dissections where he made copious anatomical drawings. Whilst there are around 15 – 20 oil paintings currently attributed to da Vinci, there are over 7,000 drawings in existence. In 1480, he moved to Milan to work for the Sforza family promoting himself primarily as a war engineer, designing all manner of war machinery. He did, however, continue painting and it was during this period that he painted ‘The Virgin of the Rocks’ and ‘The Last Supper’. For good measure, he also tried his hand at architectural designs, though none of these were ever constructed. He returned to Florence in 1506 where he was appointed Water Engineer and was charged with making the river Arno navigable from Florence to the sea. Responding to the need to raise and lower boats, he invented the first lock, the design of which has barely altered in the last 500 years. His interests were inexhaustible: he studied flight by watching birds and designed a basic parachute and helicopter; he explored map making and marine architecture, designed machinery and created the first ‘exploding’ drawings for engineers. It was here he painted the ‘Mona Lisa’ and his final painting, ‘Leda and the Swan’. All the time he continued his anatomical drawings and so accurate are they that many of these are used by medical students today. In his later life, he was particularly interested in embryonic development and made many drawings of embryos at different stages of growth. The Church at the time was violently opposed to these drawings and he was reported to the pope where he fell from favour. By this time, he was an old and frail man, and he was invited by the French king, Francois 1er, to come to Amboise in France where he died in May 1519. By the end of the Study Day, we had learnt of the full range and talent of this incredible man: artist, sculptor, engineer and designer. Unquestionably, he certainly was a genius. WILLIAM MORRIS AND BURNE-JONES: DEVOTING THEIR LIVES TO ART 10TH April 2019 In a highly informative day, Dr Suzanne Fagence-Cooper brought a clear perspective to the way in which Morris and Burne-Jones, both in collaboration and separately, brought their approach to art to change the development of the decorative arts in the late nineteenth century. To understand their achievements, it is necessary to consider the key contributors to nineteenth century art history and the atmosphere at the time. Above all was the influence of Ruskin and his views that the ‘teaching of art is the teaching of all things’ and the importance of collaboration: ‘no work of art is by a single man/woman’. The lifelong friendship and collaboration between Morris and Burne-Jones existed despite them coming form very different backgrounds. Morris came from a wealthy family and had a private income, whereas Burne-Jones was more of a realist as a result of a working-class upbringing in Birmingham. When they met at Exeter College Oxford in 1853, they were destined for careers in the church, but they were subjected to many influences which drew them to art and the relationship between man and heaven. Burne-Jones felt that ‘heaven starts 6 inches above our heads’. Angels featured in many of his early works and in later commissions for churches. He considered them to be androgynous and was criticised for depicting them as too manly for a woman and too feminine for a man. Early influences were Oxford and its cloisters and college chapels and Ruskin’s view which sought to establish the relationship between the actual world and the gothic. After a walking tour in northern France, Morris and Burne-Jones decided against the church and in 1855 decided to ‘dedicate ourselves to art’. Morris was able to undertake further education in architectural studies, Burne-Jones, with no formal artistic training attended the Working Men’s College. There he met Ruskin and Dante Gabrielle Rossetti, who were his tutors. This college was unique at the time, delivering lectures to women as well as men. There Burne-Jones learnt the value of looking back at the works of the past and was especially influenced by the asymmetry of the Ducal Palace in Venice and the paintings of Fra Angelico and Jan Van Eyck. The first major collaboration between Burne-Jones and Morris was the debating chamber at the Oxford Union. They painted Arthurian legends, which have deteriorated badly due to their lack of knowledge of mural painting. Their inspiration came from the 13th century Mallory’s Morte D’Arthur. Their other collaborations came from Jane Burden, an embroiderer (who later married Morris in 1859) and became their muse for Guinevere. She inspired Morris to write his poem ‘In Defence of Guinevere’. They had two daughters, one of whom worked with Janey to produce beautiful embroidered designs for Morris’s textiles. Burne-Jones also married and his wife Georgie made her own career in woodcuts. The 1850’s and 1860’s saw an upsurge of industrial design, partly inspired by the Great Exhibition of 1851. Morris perceived it as representing only functional design, but nevertheless it helped encourage wider opportunities for design in the home. The newly married Morris moved out to Bexley Heath to avoid the widespread disease in London and there he and the architect Philip Webb created the Red House, with its asymmetrical design. It created a place for experimentation in home furnishing, including Morris’s designs for fabric, wallpaper and furniture, in which Janey collaborated. They formed Morris and Co and encourage other artists to design beautiful items for domestic use. Their artistic circle continued, with Burne-Jones and Georgie joining Morris and Janey at the Red House and later at Kelmscott Manor. Rossetti also joined them and used Janey as his model for many of his works and they became lovers. Morris meanwhile, was driven by his need to work and accepted the affair, which ended when Rossetti became addicted to opioids. Kelmscott became a place of retreat for artists and Janey remained there all her life, after Morris’s death in 1896. Morris revived the art of stained glass and Burne-Jones turned much of his attention to creating some of the most beautiful and iconic piece of work in churches throughout England. In 1896, after several years work, the Kelmscott Chaucer was published, with illustrations by Burne-Jones, featuring asymmetrical borders. Their collaboration was so intense, that when Morris died in 1896, Burne-Jones said it was ‘like the halving of his life’. He only survived until 1898. Thus Dr Fagence-Cooper ended our study day which had covered one of the most important periods of change for decorative arts, and all who attended gained from the extensive knowledge of such a distinguished art historian.

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Roaring Fork Valley towns bursting with history From a recorded-history standpoint, the Roaring Fork Valley is a fairly young place. Prospectors first entered the valley, then inhabited by the Ute tribe, in the late 19th century. But the discovery of silver in Aspen and the lure of the hot waters in Glenwood Springs started things with a bang, and quickly changed the complexion of this once-remote valley.Since then, the fortunes of the valley’s inhabitants have swung wildly through times of struggle and times of plenty. From Glenwood to Aspen, and from Marble to Basalt, each community in this one-of-a-kind watershed has its own history and personality. Here are short histories of each, in alphabetical order. A world-class, year-round resort today, Aspen’s past is as exciting as its future.The town, nestled at the foot of Independence Pass in the Roaring Fork Valley, was originally home to the Ute Indians. They were undisturbed due to the rugged terrain and inclement weather that kept prospectors at bay.But, in the late 1800s, the push was on to find silver. And with Leadville being the second largest city in Colorado at the time, it was certain that the settlement then called Ute City would be “discovered.”And discovered it was. By 1892, the town has been renamed Aspen, a railroad ran through it, and the population had swelled to 12,000 residents. It also had six newspapers, four schools, three banks, a volunteer fire department, 10 churches, a modern hospital, an opera house and a small, but flourishing brothel district on Durant Avenue.But the boom wouldn’t last. When Congress repealed the Sherman Act and the silver-mining industry went bust, so did Aspen. Ranching took over as the mainstay, but by 1930, the town’s population had dwindled to 700. These were the “Quiet Years.”But again, Aspen would do an about-face. With the construction of a 10-passenger boat tow in the late 1930s and the cutting of Roch’s Run on what is now Aspen Mountain, a ski town was born. It rise to prominence continued with the 1941 national ski championships. World War II temporarily halted ski development in Aspen, but when dozens of 10th Mountain Division veterans returned to Colorado after the war, the creation of a resort resumed. With the official opening of Lift One in 1947, Aspen’s future as a ski town was sealed.But Aspen is a chameleon of sorts, changing colors with passing years. Thus, with the introduction of Walter and Elizabeth Paepcke’s Aspen Idea in the middle of the century, Aspen would become an intellectual and cultural mecca, in addition to a ski town. The Aspen institute and the Aspen Music Festival and School, for example, grew out of the Paepcke’s efforts to establish a cultural retreat in the Rockies, and those institutions remain central to Aspen’s culture and economy today.Decades later, when celebrities like Goldie, Kurt, Barbie and Jack discovered Aspen’s charms, the town would become known as “Glitter Gulch,” a vacation destination for the world’s rich and famous. So from the flush days of silver mining to the lean “Quiet Years,” and from the romance of ranching to the rise of skiing, Aspen’s history is as colorful as this one-of-a-kind town remains to this day.- Jeanne McGovern Basalt’s name may be rooted in the black igneous rock that surrounds the area, but its history is a bit more colorful.Founded in the early 1880s, the town was once called Fryingpan Town. The town was so named due to this local legend: In typical Old West fashion, a party of prospectors was camped along the Fryingpan River when they were attacked by a band of Indians (most likely Utes). One man was badly wounded and was left behind while his companions went for help. They hid the injured man in a cave and marked the spot by tying a frying pan to nearby tree limbs. When rescue soldiers finally arrived, they found the man had died, but the frying pan was still hanging there.Years later, when the Midland Railroad had laid tracks through the Roaring Fork Valley and created a townsite of its own, the settlers of Fryingpan Town relocated across the river to what was then called Aspen Junction.Then, in 1895, the burgeoning railroad town was renamed Basalt and thus incorporated in 1901. Basalt remained a railroad town until 1918, as the Midland brought passengers and freight from Leadville to the Roaring Fork Valley through the town via Hagerman Pass – a rocky and rugged ride filled with rockslides, snowdrifts, derailments and a storied tunnel through the Continental Divide. These hardships only reinforced Basalt’s resilience as a town, as it ebbed and flowed from a railroad town to a ranching town to its role today as a bedroom community for Aspen and a resort in its own right with fine restaurants, unique boutiques, Gold Medal fishing on the Roaring Fork and Fryingpan rivers, and much more.- Jeanne McGovern Known for its potato-growing heritage since the 1900s, Carbondale still celebrates with its annual Potato Day Festival in the fall, which has taken place for more than 100 years.Carbondale was founded in 1883 and incorporated in 1888. The town was named for the Pennsylvania hometown of John Mankin, one of Carbondale’s founders.Along with potatoes, Carbondale also supplied the nearby towns of Aspen and Glenwood Springs with labor and coal to help run their industries.A local farmer and Irish mining immigrant, Thomas McClure, is also credited with developing the “Red McClure” potato, and for cutting the first road leading from the Crystal River Valley over “McClure’s Pass” to the North Fork of the Gunnison River.Located at the confluence of the Roaring Fork and Crystal River Valleys, the Carbondale area was known for its abundance of fish and game.Carbondale’s most impressive landmark is the 13,000-foot twin peaks of Mount Sopris, named for the early explorer, Captain Richard Sopris. He came through the area on a mapping and prospecting expedition in 1860. According to Ute Indian historians, the valley’s early inhabitants called the mountain “Wemagooah Kazuhchich,” or “Ancient Mountain Heart Sits There.”Today, Carbondale is a thriving arts center, and the town celebrates its artistic heritage each year with one of the area’s premier summer festivals, Carbondale Mountain Fair, held the last weekend of July.- Heidi Rice Once crowded with gamblers, gunslingers, prostitutes and riddled with camp tents, saloons and brothels, Glenwood Springs was known as “Defiance” when it was first settled by white people in 1883. The Ute Indians had been driven out of the valley in 1879 to reservations in Utah, leaving behind their beloved Yampah Hot Springs.Town founder Isaac Cooper’s wife, Sarah, got the town’s name changed to Glenwood Springs, after her home town of Glenwood, Iowa. The town was incorporated in 1885, when Colorado was just nine years old.Glenwood Springs was at first a spa retreat. The arrival of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad in 1887, construction of the world-famous Hot Springs Lodge and Pool in 1888, and of the Hotel Colorado in 1893, set the town up as a popular tourist destination.The town attracted historical figures, including President Teddy Roosevelt, gunfighter “Doc” Holliday, train robber “Kid Curry” and bootlegger Al Capone. High society figures would arrive in private rail cars and stay for weeks at the Hotel Colorado.Holliday, a dentist, professional gambler and survivor of the shootout at the O.K. Corral, came to in Glenwood Springs in hopes of recovering from tuberculosis. He died in 1887 at age 36, and is buried in the city’s historic Linwood Cemetery. Kid Curry, a member of Butch Cassidy’s Wild Bunch, was also buried at Linwood after he died in a 1904 shootout in Parachute.- Heidi Rice Before white people moved into the Crystal River Valley, it was a sacred hunting ground for the Native American Ute culture. By the 1870s, prospectors for gold and silver had filtered north from Crested Butte. The search for silver was unsuccessful, but the discovery of marble in 1882 created a mining boom unique to the upper Crystal valley.The beautiful white marble cut from the Yule Creek Quarry was displayed at the 1893 World Columbian Exposition in Chicago. This generated enough commercial interest in Yule marble that it was used for the interior of the state Capitol building in Denver and to supply finishing mills in the east.By 1905, three marble quarries were operating in Marble. The Colorado Yule Marble Co, organized in 1906, leased the Crystal River Railroad and built seven miles of new track into Marble, naming the spur the Crystal River & San Juan Railroad. In its boom years, Marble had two newspapers and bustled with people who filled the churches, school, theater, five general stores, two hotels, a drugstore, a dry goods store, two pool halls, a Masonic Lodge, two barbershops and six saloons. The Marble quarry supplied white stone for monuments and buildings across the United States, including the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington, Va.But when the market for marble collapsed, the town’s population dropped to 50 people.In recent times, the high school, built in 1910, was refurbished to house the Marble Charter School and the Marble Historical Museum. Residents also restored the historic Marble City State Bank Building.- Heidi Rice Redstone was established in the late 19th century by industrialist John Cleveland Osgood as part of a coal mining enterprise. Osgood built Redstone at a cost of $5 million to realize his business plans, including construction of the Crystal River Railroad, the Coal Basin mines and the Redstone coke ovens.Osgood constructed more than 80 cottages, along with what is now known as the Redstone Inn, for his coal miners, cokers and their families. He also built a theater, school, library, lodge and a clubhouse in the town.For his second wife, a Swedish countess, Osgood constructed Cleveholm Manor, commonly called Redstone Castle, completed in 1901. The opulent, 42-room, Tudor-style mansion was part of a 72-acre property that also included servants’ quarters, a gamekeeper’s lodge, a carriage house and a greenhouse.The mines closed in 1908, and in 1924 Osgood returned to his castle with his third wife, Lucille, to redevelop Redstone as a resort, but he died before its completion. Lucille inherited Osgood’s entire estate and attempted to run the Redstone Inn as a resort hotel, but it failed in the Great Depression. By 1941, Redstone had a population of 14.Today, the Redstone Inn, Redstone Castle and the Osgood Gamekeeper’s Lodge are all listed on the National Historic Register. The inn offers year-round dining and accommodations. Tours of the Redstone Castle are offered on weekends.- Heidi Rice Attracted by miles of verdant soils in a bowl shaped, high-altitude valley, early settlers to Snowmass were self-reliant ranchers who lived, worked and even played a little in an isolated area that was a good half-day horseback trip from the upstart mining town of Aspen. The children of these half-dozen or so ranching families, who came here beginning in the 1880s, learned their ABCs in a one-room schoolhouse that still operates today as a pre-school.The ranching lifestyle remained essentially unchanged, even through the Great Depression, until the late 1950s when some Aspen ski enthusiasts set their sights on the Brush Creek valley. They initially visited the upper reaches of Baldy Mountain via a single-engine aircraft; further explorations were made on snowcats and and on foot.The Janss Corporation of Los Angeles began to quietly acquire some of the ranch parcels and by 1964, partnered with the Aspen Ski Corporation to begin construction of a European-style, multi-village ski development. By December 1967, five chairlifts had been built, a handful of lodges and restaurants constructed and the Snowmass-at-Aspen resort was officially born. Development of outlying parcels continued in Snowmass during the 1970s, with subdivisions springing up, additional skier amenities being added and the local-serving shopping area, the Snowmass Center, seeing completion. On the site of the old Hoaglund Ranch, Anderson Ranch Arts Center opened its barn doors to host the Village’s creative community.The town truly came of age during this decade; in 1977, Snowmass Village became a municipality with its own elected Town Council and assumed responsibilities such as road maintenance and trash pickup. The years since incorporation have seen multiple fortunes won and lost: A boom in luxury developments and multi-million-dollar gentlemen’s ranches were offset by two high-profile bankruptcies, the latest involving the front-and-center Base Village.Today, Snowmass Ski Area boasts more than 3,000 acres of ski terrain and 21 lifts. Summer activities include a weekly music performance on Fanny Hill augmented by special events from a national mountain bike race to the Labor Day music festival. June’s Chili Pepper and Brew fest, and the fall hot-air balloon weekend reflect the effort to expand the viable business season. Last fall’s historic discovery of Ice Age bones and plant materials, considered one of the most significant in the American West, have re-infused Snowmass Village with excitement.- Madeleine Osberger Rest areas and recreation facilities along Interstate 70 in Glenwood Canyon, including boat put-ins, trails and the paved bike path, have been routinely closed to nonpermit public use during flash flood watches. Support Local Journalism Support Local Journalism Readers around Aspen and Snowmass Village make the Aspen Times’ work possible. Your financial contribution supports our efforts to deliver quality, locally relevant journalism. Now more than ever, your support is critical to help us keep our community informed about the evolving coronavirus pandemic and the impact it is having locally. Every contribution, however large or small, will make a difference. Each donation will be used exclusively for the development and creation of increased news coverage. Start a dialogue, stay on topic and be civil. If you don't follow the rules, your comment may be deleted. User Legend: Moderator Trusted User

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Corrigan and Williams Corrigan and Williams Mairead Corrigan-Maguire (born 1944) and Betty Williams-Perkins (born 1943) were the founders of the women's peace movement in Northern Ireland in 1976. The movement sponsored marches by women from the rival communities in the province in protest against violence and drew international attention and acclaim. They were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1976 when their efforts were credited with reducing the death toll in Northern Ireland by half. Mairead Corrigan, born January 27, 1944, was the second child in a West Belfast Catholic working class family of five girls and two boys. She attended St. Vincent's Primary School and as a teenager went to Miss Gordon's Commercial College in Belfast, which qualified her for a clerical position. She advanced to become the confidential secretary to the managing director of the Guinness Brewery in Belfast. Her organizational involvement was primarily church-oriented, being an activist member of the Legion of Mary, a lay Catholic religious and welfare society, in which she supervised recreational activities for children and teenagers in the bleak West Belfast areas. This spurred her interest in assisting the community. As a Catholic, Corrigan was influenced by the traditions of her religion, but not those of the Republicans, those factions of Northern Ireland's Catholic minority who were fighting to unite the province with the Republic of Ireland. Betty Williams was born on May 22, 1943, in a Catholic sector of Belfast known as Andersonstown, the eldest daughter of a mixed family (her father was Protestant and her mother Catholic, her grandfather Jewish). She attended St. Teresa's Primary School and St. Dominic's Grammar (high) School and afterwards took secretarial courses. When she was 13, her mother was incapacitated by a stroke and Williams was responsible for raising her younger sister. When she was 18 she married an English Protestant, Ralph Williams, an engineer in the merchant marine, and traveled with him considerably. They had a son and a daughter, although the marriage was ultimately dissolved. She worked as an office receptionist. Her involvement in social activism was nonexistent until she witnessed the tragedy that occurred in front of her on a Belfast Street in August 1976. The hostility that lay between the minority Catholic and majority Protestant communities in Northern Ireland caused strife for years. The central issue were the contradictory aspirations of both factions: the Catholics wanted unification with the Republic of Ireland and the Protestants wanted to maintain their union with Britain. The era of troubles that began after 1969 was prompted specifically by Catholic complaints of discriminatory treatment by the Northern Irish state, especially in policing, welfare, social benefits, and public employment. The British, at the request of the Northern Irish Protestants, sent military forces to serve as peace keepers in 1969. What followed this intervention was guerrilla warfare and terrorism by revolutionary nationalists, especially the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) within the Catholic community, and sectarian murders of Catholics by assorted Protestant militants such as the Ulster Volunteer Force. The loss of life because of the strife had reached an average of over 200 a year in a community were homicide had once been a rare phenomenon. On August 10, 1976 Corrigan and Williams were brought together when three children of Mairead Corrigan's sister, Anne Maguire, were killed when hit by an IRA getaway car whose driver had been shot dead by British soldiers. Mairead Corrigan and her brother-in-law Jackie Maguire condemned the IRA on television for having brought on the tragedy. Betty Williams, who had witnessed the tragedy, went about in the Catholic areas securing 6,000 signatures to a peace petition which she read on television. The women met at the Maguire children's funeral and formed Women for Peace (renamed Community of the Peace People), which before the end of August held three peace marches, the last of which saw the Protestant women of the Shankill Road area receiving the Catholics from the Falls area at an assembly of over 35,000. With this broad-based non-sectarian character similar rallies continued elsewhere in Northern Ireland for the remainder of the year as well as supporting rallies in Dublin and London. Sinn Fein, the political wing of the IRA, condemned the movement as "one-sided and deceptive" and for duping thousands of well-meaning people. There were physical attacks on the marchers for "selling-out" and Corrigan and Williams were suspected by both sides of "collaborating with the enemy." At times they were severely beaten and their lives threatened. However, they persisted spreading their word of peace throughout the world. It worked. International sympathy evoked hundreds of thousands of dollars in contributions to the peace movement. In October 1977 a belated Nobel Peace Prize for 1976 was awarded to Corrigan and Williams, who also received honorary doctorates from Yale University and the Carl von Ossietzky Medal for Courage from the Berlin chapter of the International League for Human Rights. Corrigan was convinced that only reeducating the entire populace would stop the killing. "Unfortunately we never question our educational system. If we stop to evaluate a lot of our old ideas and concepts, we find that they're myths, that they're false; and that bigotry has created the fear and hatred that divides our peoples." Williams also found no sense in the violence, and in response to IRA calls for peace with justice she responded, "Where was the justice in the death of a child not yet three years old. … All I could see was that young men and boys of my area were becoming violent, aggressive, almost murderers; and that they were rapidly becoming the heroes of my community. Was that justice?" By early 1978 the popular enthusiasm for the movement had waned. In addition, there appeared personal criticisms of the founders, who had been accepting an honorarium for their activities in view of their having given up their regular employment to devote full-time attention to the cause. Keeping a portion of the $140,000 Nobel Peace Prize enabled them to give up the honorarium but intensified such criticism even though a large part of the prize money went to the organization. The travels and renown of both ladies naturally invited jealousy and accusations of personal ambition. Accordingly, Corrigan and Williams resigned the leadership of the Peace People that year to give others a turn at directing the movement, although they remained active members. Even before this the movement, which from the beginning had the journalistic and organizational advice of Ciaran McKeown, a Belfast correspondent for the Irish Press, had changed its tactics from mass rallies to lower level small group meetings, especially in troubled neighborhoods. It also sought to stimulate local community efforts for better youth recreational facilities and even to the encouragement of local industry. The group's criticism of established politicians was met by the politicians' disregard of a movement which was inherently outside of politics and regular political institutions. Furthermore, the Peace People had directed criticism at the authorities and the security forces as well as at the terrorists. The tragedy that had inspired the formation of the peace group, the deaths of the Maguire children, was compounded on January 21, 1980, when their distraught mother Anne took her own life. The following year Mairead Corrigan married her widowed brother-in-law Jack Maguire, who had two surviving children, and they had a son. Corrigan-Maguire returned to the Community of Peace People (a.k.a. Peace People Organization) traveling throughout the world with her message of non-violent solutions to the world's great problems. In 1982 Betty Williams married an educator, James T. Perkins with whom she has a daughter. She moved to Florida with her family in 1986 after 10 years of struggling for peace in Northern Ireland. She traveled the state lecturing for a nuclear freeze, and against the death penalty in keeping with her views of non-violence and justice. She also wrote children's fiction. The rhetorical disregard by Corrigan and Williams for the political process obviously was insufficient for formulating a permanent solution to the Northern Irish problem. However, they were able to dramatically and memorably demonstrate to the province and the world the outrage in both communities at the bloodletting of the terrorists. Their own essentially non-political backgrounds made them appropriate figures for making such a statement for an end to violence. The peace movement must have had not a small part in explaining the striking reduction in casualties since 1976, as the number of deaths from violence dropped by about one-half to an annual average of under 100. In September 1994, the IRA called a cease fire in Northern Ireland and the following month most of the violent Protestant groups followed suit. These actions led to peace talks with the governments of Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, and Great Britain. Sein Fein's leader Gerry Adams was also included in the discussions. Without the efforts of Corrigan-Maguire and Williams-Perkins, the peace process might never have been initiated. In an interview in 1993, Corrigan defined the philosophy that was the core of her involvement in the peace movement "I respect the life of each human person, and I will never take another human life. And that is my strongest identity, before any flag or religion. We need to recognize that life is sacred and that we are involved in a mystery. The human family is struggling toward a new kind of identity, allowing us to see people in the South of Ireland, people in England, people in Burma, people in Chicago as our brothers and sisters, who deserve absolute respect for their lives, opinions and welfare." A study of both women appeared the year immediately after the peace movement started: Richard Deutsch, Mairead Corrigan/Betty Williams (1977). Marcia Conta's Women forHuman Rights (1979) offers a general description of the women. More information about the peace movement and Mairead Corrigan's involvement can be found in the April 20, 1994 issues of the Christian Century's article Toward a higher identity: an interview with Mairead Corrigan Maguire. For a general understanding of the issues see Paul Arthur, The Government and Politics of Northern Ireland (1980); Patrick Buckland, A History of Northern Ireland (1981); and Padraig O'Malley, The Uncivil Wars (1983). □

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27 notecards = 7 pages (4 cards per page) Explain why microbial growth refers to a population rather than a cell in size. If a bacterium has a generation time of 30 minutes, and you start with a 100 cells at a time 0, how many cells will you have in 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes. Why would placing potato salad in a cooler affect cell growth? -After a cell has increased in size and doubled all of its parts divides. -200, 400, 800, 1600 -It will grow at ideal room temperature. Describe Binary fission and how it relates to generation time. When a cell has increased in size and doubled all of its parts, it divides. The increase in cell numbers is exponential. The time it takes for a population to double in number is the generation time. Describe a Biofilm and give one positive and one negative impact that biofilms have on humans. Biofilm is a polysaccharide-encased community of microorganisms. Positive: Bioremediation effors use bacteria to degrade harmful chemicals, are enhanced by biofilms. Negative: It is estimated that 65% of human bacterial infections involve biofilms. Explain why bacteria grow naturally in mixed communities sometimes cannot yet be grown in pure culture. Metabolic wastes of one species may serve as a nutrient for another. The conditions in these close associations are difficult to reproduce in the lab. Give three examples of biofilms. Describe a situation in which the activities of one species benefit another. Why would bacteria in a biofilm be more resistant to harmful chemicals? -Kitchen drain gunk, dental plaque, and slime on rocks in the stream. - A Microbe found in the mouth can consume O2 during their metabolism, creating a microenvironments that lack O2 which can benefit a different organism. -The structure of biofilm shields the microbes growing within it, and bacteria in a biofilm may be hundreds of times more resistant to disinfectants than are their planktonic counterparts. Describe how the Streak-plate method is used to obtain a pure culture, and how the resulting culture can be stored. A sterilized inoculating loop (1) is dipped into a culture (2) and is then lightly drawn several times across an agar plate. (3) The loop is sterilized again, (4) and a new series of streaks is made at an angle to the first set. (5) The loop is sterilzed a final time, (6) and another set of parallel streaks is made. (7) The successive streaks dilute the concentration of cells. By the third set of streaks, cells should be separated enough so that isolated colonies develop after incubation. Once a pure culture has been created it can be maintained as a stock culture. Often stock cultures are stored in the refrigerator on an agar slant. What properties of agar make it ideal for use in bacteriological media? How does the streak-plate method separate individual cells? What might be a reason that medically significant bacteria can be grown in pure culture more often than environmental organisms? -Agar is undegradeable by bacteria, could be sterilized at high temperatures, the temperature range of the agar allows it to add nutrients at a low temperature (solid below 45degrees), stays solid at ideal temparture for bacteria (which is around 37 degrees), its clear and transluscent so easier to see bacteria. -We dilute it so it gets less and less everytime we streak it. -Because medically significant bacteria surivive in environments similar to humans. Describe the five distinct stages of a growth curve, and compare this closed system to colony growth and continuous culture. (1) Lag phase -(cell preps to divide binary fission), (2) Exponential Phase (Log phase)-early log produces primary metabolites and the later log phase produces secondary metabolites), (3) Stationary Phase (cells grow to death is equal), (4) Death Phase (the number dying is more than growth), (5) Phase of Prolonged Decline (slower gradual decrease of living cells, they are the ones that adapt to the harsh environment). Closed system are not renewed, nor are waste products removed. To maintain cells in a state of continuous growth, nutrients must be contiuously added and waste products removed. Explain the difference between the two stages of the exponential phase. In early log phase the cells produce primary metabolites (amino acids and proteins) directed toward cell growth. During the late log phase the cells begin synthesizing different enzymes and other proteins which produce secondary metabolites (antibiotics). Describe how a chemostat keeps a culture in a continuous stage of growth. A chemostat continually drips fresh medium into a liquid culture contained in a growth chamber. With each drop that enters, an equivalent volume, containing cells, wastes, spent medium, leaves through an outlet. A constant cell density and generation of log phase cells can be maintained. List the descriptive terms that express a prokaryote's requirements for temperature. Psychrophile - Arctic temp; -5° and 15°C Psychrotroph - Causes food spoilage; 20°C and 30°C Mesophile - Disease-causing bacteria; 25°C and 45°C Thermophile - Hot springs and compost heaps; 45°C and 70°C Hyperthermophile - Archaea; >70°C List the descriptive terms that express a prokaryote's requirements for oxygen. Obligate aerobe - requires O2 Obligate anaerobe - cannot multiply in the presence of O2 Facultative anaerobe - Grows best if O2 is present, but can grow without. Facultative means it is flexible, can use aerobic respiration or fermentation or anaerobic respiration. Microaerophile - Requires small amounts of O2 but higher concentrations are inhibitory. Gastric and duodenal ulcers. Aertolerant anaerobe (obligate fermentor) - Indifferent to O2. i.e.Strep throat. List the descriptive terms that express a prokaryote's requirements for pH and water availability. Neutrophile - Multiplies in the range of pH 5 to 8 Acidophile - Grows optimally at a pH below 5.5 Alkalophile - Grows optimally at a pH above 8.5 Osmotolerant - Can grow in relatively high salt solutions, up to approximately 10% NaCL. Halophile - Requires high levels of sodium chloride. Describe four environmental factors that influence the growth of bacteria? -Temperature - Thermostabilty appears to be due to protein structure. Oxygen (O2) Availability - Oxygen requirement/tolerance reflects the organism's energy-converting mechanisms (aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation) and its ability to detoxify O2 derivatives. pH - Prokaryotes that live in pH extremes appear to maintain a near neutral internal pH by pumping protons out of or into the cell. Water availability - Prokaryotes that can grow in high solute solutions maintain the availabillity of water in the cell by increasing their internal solute concentration. List the catergories into which bacteria can be classified according to their requirements for oxygen. Obligate aerobe: Catalase: 2H2O -> 2H2O + O2; Superoxide dismutase: 2O2 - + 2H+ -> O2 + H2O2 Facultative anaerobe: Catalase, superoxide dismutase Obligate anaerobe: Neither catalase nor superoxide dismutase in most Microaerophile: Small amounts of catalase and superoxide dismutase Aerotolerant: Superoxide dismutase Why would small organic compounds affect the water content? - If the solute concentration is higher outside the cell, water moves out. The dehydrated cytoplasm shrinks from the cell wall, a process called plasmolysis. Give an example of a bacterium that is Fastitious (Microorganisms displaying a wide spectrum in their growth factor requirements.) Neisseria require at least 40 additional ingredients, including 7 vitamins and all of the 20 amino acids. Lactobacillus is grown in a medium that lacks a specific viamin, but supplemented with a food product. The growth amount of the bacteria is used to determine the quantity of specific vitamins in a food product. Define the term Photoautotroph, Chemolithoautotroph, Photoheterotroph, and Chemoorganoheterotroph. Photoautotroph - Plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria; energy source: sunlight, Carbon source: CO2 Photoheterotroph - Facultative capabilities; energy source: sunlight, Carbon source: Organic compounds Chemolithoautotroph - Mamilian cells, fungi, bacteria metabolizing organic compounds; energy source: inorganic chemicals, Carbon source: CO2 Chemoorganoheterotroph - most similar to humans and animals; Energy source: Organic compounds, Carbon Source: Organic compounds Compare and contrast complex media, chemically defined media, selective media, and differential media. Complex medium - variety of ingredients, tasty soup for microbes Chemically defined media - precise amounts of pure chemicals Selective media - Thayer-Martin agar, MacConkey agar; use to detect or isolate an organism by adding complex media. Differential media - MacConkey agar; contain substance that certain bacteria change in a recognizable way. Adding solution that will cause a bacteria to react. Organisms require a source of major and trace elements. Heterotrophs use an organic carbon source, and autotrophs use CO2. Phototrophs harvest the energy of sunlight, and chemotrophs obtain energy by degrading chemicals. List the major elements other than carbon required for growth of bacteria. Oxygen and hydrogen - component of cellular constituents (amino acids, lipids, nucleic acids, and sugars) Nitrogen - component of amino acids and nucleic acids Sulfur - component of some amino acids Phosphorus - component of nucleic acids, membrane, and lipids Potassium, magnesium, and calcium - required for the functioning of certain enzymes, additional functions as well. Iron - part of certain enzymes. What is the carbon source of a photoautotroph? Of a chemoautotroph? Why would human-made materials (such as plastics) be degrade only slowly or not at all? Photoautotroph's and Chemoautotroph's require CO2 Because human-made materials are not ideal sources of energy for organisms. Explain how the correct atmospheric conditions are provided to cultivate obligate aerobes, capnophiles, microaerophiles, and obligate anaerobes. Obligate aerobes - tubes or flasks containing media are shaken providing maximum aeration. Capnophiles - candle jar, requires increased CO2 along with approximately 15% oxygen. Microaerophiles - gastight jar, require O2 concentration less than canophiles. Obligate anaerobes - airtight anaerobe jar, anaerobic chamber, cells killed when exposed to O2 for even a short time. Describe the purpose of an enrichment culture. Provides conditions in a broth that perferentially enhance the growth of one particular species in a mixed population. This is helpful in isolating an organism from natural sources when the bacterium of interest is present in small numbers. Distinguish between a selective medium and a differential medium. In selective enrichment the medium and incubation conditions favor the growth of the desired species over other bacteria in the same sample. Where as differential media contains a substance that certain bacteria change in a recognizable way. Describe two methods used to create anaerobic conditions. Would bacteria that cannot utilize lactose be able to grow on MacConkey agar? Anaerobe Jar - the hydrogen released from the generator combines with any O2 to form water, therby producing an anaerobic environment. Anaerobic chamber - enclosed compartment can be maintained as an anaerobic environment. MacConkey Agar - will expose Lactose-negative colonies as tan or colorless. Compare and contrast direct cell counts, viable cell counts, measuring biomass, and detecting cell products to measure bacterial growth. Direct cell counts - used to determine total number of cells; count includes living and dead cells. Viable cell counts - Used to determine the number of viable bacteria in a smaple, but that number only includes those that cna grow in given conditions. Requires an incubation period of approximately 24 hours or longer. Selective and differential media can be used to enumerate specific species of bacteria. Measuring biomass - Biomass cna be correlated to cell number. Measuring cell products - Methods are rapid but results must be correlated to cell number. Frequently used to detect growth, but not routinely used for quantitation. Why is an MPN an estimate rather than an accurate number? Why would a direct microscope count yield a higher number than a pour plate if a sample of seawater was examined by both methods? The nitrogen in microorganisms will typically be present in what molecules? MPN is a statistical assay of cell numbers based on the theory of probability.

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By Raymond Hyser April 22-23, 2021 Institute for Historical Studies, University of Texas at Austin This conference brings together diverse scholars whose work grapples with the challenges that climate change presents to the discipline of history. Participants will address precedents for this “unprecedented” crisis by uncovering and analyzing the historical roots and analogues of contemporary climate change across a wide range of eras and areas around the world. Can history offer an alternative to visions of the future that appear to be determined by prevailing climate models, and help provide us with new ways of understanding human agency? Climate in Context Panel Summaries Session I: Emerging Perspectives: A Graduate Student Roundtable The first panel of the conference was a roundtable comprised of five graduate students from the University of Texas at Austin’s History Department. Although temporally and geographically diverse in their areas of focus, each panelist engages with environmental issues in their research. For each of their presentations, they were tasked with discussing how climate change intersects with their own work. In his presentation, “An Upwelling of Stone: Climate Change and Infrastructure Agendas in Early Modern India,” Jonathan Seefeldt discussed Rajsamand, a large-scale precolonial dam in the present-day western Indian state of Rajasthan built between 1662 to 1676 AD. Using Rajsamand, Seefeldt problematizes the broadly-conceived notion that these massive infrastructure projects were projections of kingly power by highlighting that the dam’s construction was less a prestige project than a response to failed monsoons, unusual regional aridity, and mounting social strain. Diana Heredia-López’s presentation, “Cultivating Parasitism: Early Modern Insect Crops and the Limits of Commodification,” discussed the need to investigate the different manifestations of parasitism throughout the Plantationocene and the non-linear trajectories of plantation agriculture by exploring the seventeenth-century project to scale-up the production of cochineal in the Yucatan Peninsula. Jesse Ritner’s presentation, “Skiing in Variable Conditions: Climate Adoptation, Profitability, and Repercussions,” discussed how modern ski resorts used highly profitable snow-making technologies to adapt to variable climates that provide inconsistent or insufficient snowfall for ski resorts. In “Drafting Blueprints: Critiquing the Past to Fight Climate Injustice Today,” Micaela Valadez’s presentation explored the history of Communities Organized for Public Service (COPS) in San Antonio, Texas to critique the historiography of the organization as being unbalanced and not contending with the organization’s decision to not use the rhetoric of race or class when agitating for change. In doing so, she argued that if historians are to help in the current climate justice movement, they need to divert their attention to understanding how communities of color fight against environmental and climate injustice. Brooks Winfree’s presentation, “African Americans, Slavery, and the Long History of Environmental Degradation in the Cotton South,” advocates for historians to consider slavery and enslaved people’s interest in forging alternative understandings of the land by considering how the cotton-based plantation zone of the nineteenth-century Gulf South became a contested site of competing ideas of environmental use. Session II: Historicizing Climate In the second session of the conference, four scholars explore the historical ways of knowing climate in temporally and geographically different contexts. Dr. Clark L. Alejandrino’s presentation, “Beyond Numbers: Knowing Typhoons in Late Imperial China,” argued against the fetish for numbers that dominate the study of past storms and, to some extent, historical climatology. He argued that historians need to take seriously the diverse, non-numeric ways that people along the southern coast of China recognized, understood, and conceived typhoons in the past. In Dr. Jorge Cañizares-Esguerra’s talk, “The Anthropocene and Epistemological Colonialism: The 18th-Century Spanish American Origins of Humboldt’s Global Histories of the Earth and Climate Change,” he critiqued the historiography of Alexander von Humboldt and his role in creating the intellectual genealogies of the Anthropocene. While Humboldt played an important role in spreading environmentalism throughout North America and Europe, in his work Humboldt largely erases both the physical and intellectual communities he interacted with in Latin America. In “Measuring by Proxy,” Dr. Melissa Charenko explored how scientists’ use of climate proxies, preserved physical characteristics of past climates that stand in for direct meteorological measurements, constrained and compelled what they thought about climate’s past and future. She focused on predictions derived from tree rings in the 1920s and the predictive limitations of pollen analysis in the 1980s given the unprecedented future of global climate change. Dr. Deborah Coen’s presentation, “Degrees of Vulnerability: Why We Need a Feminist History of Climate Science,” discussed the discourse surrounding the diverse concepts of human vulnerability that has developed since the 1970s and hypothesized that this evolving discourse reveals the influence of the global feminist movement in the 1980s and 1990s. She advocates that a history of the science of climate vulnerability should attend to the presence of this past, the living legacy of two centuries of efforts to separate the knowing human subject from the human object of geophysical influence. Session III: Contextualizing the Climate Crisis In the third session of the conference, four scholars explore the causes and consequences of the climate crisis with a focus on the intimate connections between fossil fuels, race, colonialism, and capitalism. Dr. Christopher Sellers’s talk, entitled “Gathering Clouds over Petropolis: A Prolegomena,” he focused on a single historical thread within the anthropogenesis of climate change: the oil industry. Centered on two locales, the eastern coast of Texas around Houston and the southern coast of Veracruz in Mexico, Sellers offered more local and human scales of historical action that explored how corporations, governments, and other institutions created and sustained the material conduits that have provided for the world’s growing petroleum needs over the last century. In Dr. Andreas Malm’s presentation, he discusses the book White Skin, Black Fuel: On the Danger of Fossil Fascism that he co-authored with the Zetkin Collective. The book is the first study that critically engages with the far right’s role in the current climate crisis and how fossil-fueled technologies were born steeped in racism. The racist legacy of fossil fuels has led to the far-right’s defense of the fossil fuel industry and their anti-climate change policies. In Dr. Andrew Curley’s talk, “The Cene Scene: Modernization Myths, Navajo Coal Development, and the Making of Arizona,” he discussed the “cene” narratives of writing history within larger geological frameworks and stressed the importance of indigenous understandings of temporality in relation to water resources in the American Southwest. When considering the “cenes,” we must ask what future is enabled for indigenous people and knowledge when we understand all of time through these broad geological lenses. He advocated that the metrics and theorizations of our current geological era must account for the struggles Black and Indigenous peoples, and there must be space for demands for decolonization and abolition in climate debates. Victor Seow, in his presentation, “States of Second Nature,” discussed the interrelationship between the state and nature. The role of the state, while not ignored in studies of climate, is often pushed to the background. Seow argued that modern states play an active role in engendering environmental change and that we need to extend our inquiries beyond the capitalist systems that are often the points of focus. He ended with a discussion of turning toward a statist solution to the climate crisis, a crisis that modern states were complicit in. Session IV: Practicing What We Preach: A Roundtable In the fourth session of the conference, five scholars present their ideas on how the historical profession and academia in general can be more responsive to the climate crisis. Dr. Andrea Gaynor’s presentation, “We Use the Living Earth to Make Our Histories,” argued that historians often engage in disavowing the problems of climate change and our contribution to them in the course of our historical work. She advocated that historians have important roles to play in disrupting the disavowal of the climate and biodiversity crises through modifying how we conduct our professional work and acting to modify the institutional and wider social frameworks that we operate within. Dr. J. T. Roane’s talk, “Rural Black Social Life in the Chesapeake After the 1933 Great Hurricane,” discussed the strong relationship between Black communities and waterscapes in the Tidewater region of Virginia. With the onset of industrialization in the nineteenth century, Black people were increasingly excluded from the waterscapes that played such vital roles to Black communities. In Dr. Justin Hosbey’s presentation, “Louisiana: Race, Justice, and the Ecological Legacies of the Plantation Economy,” he discussed how the humanitarian crisis triggered by Hurricane Katrina in 2005 exposed the racial violence and class domination that structures New Orleans and the broader American South. He analyzed how the politics of space, place, and class in Black New Orleans has been transformed by post-Katrina redevelopment policies and that these reconstruction projects can be read as anti-Black spatial tactics. Dr. Paul N. Edwards’ presentation, “Writing History into the Sixth IPCC Assessment Report,” discussed his work as one of the few social scientists working on the sixth Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Assessment Report and the challenges of integrating historical research into the IPCC Assessment Report. Dr. Dolly Jørgensen’s presentation, “Isn’t all Environmental Humanities ‘Environmental Humanities in Practice’?,” discussed how after she and Dr. Franklin Ginn took over as co-editors of the Environmental Humanities journal in January 2020 they sought to make the journal more inclusive of environmental humanities practices. As part of this effort, they introduced a new category of journal article, “Environmental Humanities in Practice,” and discuss the tension in this decision to develop a separate category of scholarship geared toward outreach. Session V: Going Public with Climate History: A Roundtable In session five of the conference, five scholars discussed the public-facing aspects of their work and how work about climate history, climate change, and environmental humanities gets translated to the public. Dr. D. O. McCullough’s talk, “Specific Constraints for a Universal Challenge: Navigating Resources and Space to Create a History of Climate Science Exhibition,” explored the challenges and possibilities of using museum exhibits to communicate the history of climate science and offered several suggestions for so effectively. He advocated for curators of history of climate science exhibitions to draw their narratives from the objects available for display, to treat their own institutions as artifacts to model critical reflection about past practices in meteorology and climate, and to foreground museum space and audience in the design process. Dr. Bethany Wiggin’s presentation, “When Will It Be Over? Water, Flood, Toxics, and the Duration of Colonial Legacies in Philadelphia,” explored climate impacts as ongoing colonial relations and explores the coloniality of climate change through a series of inter-related public humanities projects developed in Philadelphia amidst flash floods, refinery explosions, and school children’s hopes and dreams for Philadelphia in 2100. In Dr. Prasannan Parthasarathi’s talk, “Indian Ocean Current,” he discussed the “Indian Ocean Current: Six Artistic Narratives,” an exhibit at Boston College’s McMullen Museum of Art that he co-curated with Salim Currimjee. The exhibit integrated material on climate change, ocean science, and the crisis of fisheries with perspectives from six contemporary artists from around the western Indian Ocean World. Dr. Tom Chandler and Dr. Adam Clulow’s presentation, “Modeling Virtual Angkor: An Evolutionary Approach to a Single Urban Space,” discussed how the Virtual Angkor Project aims recreates the sprawling Cambodian metropolis of Angkor, the largest settlement complex of the preindustrial world, at the height of the Khmer Empire’s power and influence in Southeast Asia. They explore the long development of the project, the challenges involved in modelling the historical environment, and the question of climate variability and the decline of Angkor.

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Scholars may debate on how religions emerge though it would be valid to state that any religion appears from a need in it. Often, new religious movements emerge and evolve in response to the changing social, economic or political environments or, even more often, during turbulent times on the threshold of epochs, clashes of worldviews, or degradation of old values. At times, religion results from one person with a progressive view and ideas ahead of their time. The person becomes a prophet or a religious leader that gathers followers and shares his or her teaching aimed at anything ranging from peace promotion, to education or preparation for a spiritual revolution, etc. Let alone the differences in religions’ essence and scholarly approaches to them, one truth about religions is universal. Regardless of its reliance on the cult of nature, God or some higher power, religion is an artifact – man-made and man-oriented. Christianity is an ideal case to study religion in cross-section, with a research focus on the mechanism of its formation. In historical context, Christianity was invoked by the other, already existing Jewish religion. The Jews had been anticipating the coming of the Messiah for a long time, and the waiting reached its critical point. In addition, in political terms, the Jewish priesthood was shaken by the rigidities, “haughty leaders” and “stiff rituals” (Guisepi, n.d.). The Christian faith resulted partially from a necessity to bring changes into the state of religious affairs in the region. In other words, it was called on as an instrument of religious salvation, although it was initially aimed to save the Jews, not the whole humankind, as it would later unfold. Christianity was conceived during the first decades of the Roman Empire, in the eastern part of the, as a half-conscious answer to the existing situation. Interestingly, it started as a deliberately separate local faith cluster to develop into a religion with a world-wide coverage, eventually (Guisepi, n.d.). Aside from historical, political and religious predispositions and precursors, Christianity is an example of a religion initiated and popularized by a single man. In human terms, the Christian faith originated with the persona of Jesus of Nazareth, the claimed-to-be Son of God and a local prophet and teacher. Jesus was a charismatic leader who preached in Israel during the reign of Augustus. He urged a purification of the Jewish religion, advocated for freeing of Israel and establishing the God’s Kingdom on Earth. The code of Jesus’ preaching was based on the kernel concepts, such as humanism, mercy, forgiveness, love and peace. Because of his charisma and nontrivial leadership skills, as well as the appealing ideas that he reinforced in the people’s minds, Jesus became popular among the local poor and aroused concerns in the rich, along with the Jewish religious leaders who viewed him as a dangerous agitator (Guisepi, n.d.). When Jesus’ teaching gained momentum, the empowered leaders of the Roman Empire tried to arrest the spread of the new religion by arresting and terminating the faith’s inspirer. As a result, Jesus was crucified. Nevertheless, the effects were contrary to the expectations: instead of losing faith along with losing their leader, the followers came to believe in Jesus’ resurrection. The latter proved His divine origin and gave a new religion an even stronger momentum. Soon enough, it spread among the Middle-Eastern Jewish communities, over the Roman Empire and beyond its borders (Guisepi, n.d.). Some of Jesus’ followers left the territories to bring the message, as well as to avoid the intense persecution that did not cease with the death of Christ. In fact, during the first centuries of its existence, Christianity was considered a cult, and Christians – a sect. The pivotal event that ended the epoch of persecution for Christianity is Constantine’s conversion to it in circa 312 AD. The reconsideration of Christianity from a cult into a rightful religion did not happen overnight, but was a gradual evolution of social and political perception. The traditional explanation and record of Christianity’s emergence is accurate and concrete. However, if one interprets the notions “origins” or “roots” in a more philosophical way, it would be possible to claim that the Christian faith is rooted in history, per se. According to Frans Jozef van Beeck, it is a historical religion, down to its core. Christianity makes people committed to the present moment, though at the same time being past-driven and future-oriented. From a Christian point of view, the whole history is the continuous story of salvation that has started with Jesus and lasts at present day. Thus, the historical origins of Christianity are grounded in the reinterpretation of the world history, as a whole, and Israeli history, in particular. “The Christian faith takes its origin from, and encompasses, historic events of divine origin”. Hence, Christianity is a historical religion, in all senses. As any ambiguous, controversial or complex phenomenon, religion has its negatives. Among the commonly mentioned negative effects is the idea that religion deprives a person of the right of a free choice and free will. In other words, some people consider religion a force that “brainwashes” people and transforms them into an obedient crowd that is easy to manipulate. Another negative aspect of religion is its connections with politics. Indeed, religion has always been inseparable from the political life. Often, political authorities used religion as a means of collecting money, shaping political views, or merely as a means of control (all three via the institution of church). Basically, the two aforementioned concerns are interlinked, though their validity is subjective. Among the objective negative effects of religion is the believers’ frequent refusal to get medical treatment. Above all negatives, religions can clash and become the reasons for wars. “If there were no Hindus and Muslims to fight each other, perhaps India and Pakistan would not be on the brink of war. If Jews and Muslims/Arabs hadn’t been at it for millennia, maybe there would be no conflict in the Middle East”. The choice of faith may result either from the environment into which an individual is born (as an inter-generation religious continuity) or from a conscious, informed choice (as a rule, while already being an adult). In the first scenario, a child is born into a certain religious community and raised in it. Inevitably and naturally, he/she absorbs the religious teachings, norms and traditions from the immediate environment of a family, a wider society or church. In the second scenario, an individual may be born into an atheist environment or grows up as such, and starts to feel propensity to a particular religion based either on subjective perception or objective factors, such as extensive information search or education. Thus, one may visit a church of a particular denomination and feel “at home” in it, or attend a university course on the world religions and decide that one of them resonates with his or her personality. At times, people convert from their “born-into” religions to the ones of their choosing. Speaking poetically, sometimes a religion finds a person and not vice versa. According to an eloquent title of an article in The Christian Post, “Most Americans pick and choose religious beliefs”. People become Christians for various reasons. Among the most appealing are Jesus’ teachings on love, humanism and peace. By focusing on these values, people who convert to Christianity seek to become better persons. A belief in afterlife and God’s reward is the second reason. A belief in the judgment day (or, better to say, a fear of it) is another “popular” reason for people to become Christians. Interestingly, the recent studies say that people not only choose religion for themselves, but also “customize” the religion of their choosing. Among the people who consider themselves Christians, many prefer to ignore some of the religious dogmas of their denomination while favoring those that they like or can follow. Inter alia, half of the Christian respondents in the USA believe that Satan is a fiction, one-third think that Jesus was a sinner, two-fifths believe they are not obliged to share the Gospel with other people, and one-quarter consider the Bible inaccurate in some/many aspects. It is difficult to qualify the phenomenon of “customized faith” as either negative or positive though the tendency to manipulate religious beliefs in a convenient way is hardly a good practice. The essence of any religion is to teach the followers a set of basic rules and values. Dismissing some of them means betraying the original teaching and giving oneself freedom in deeds that the religion considers unworthy or sinful. Some may argue that religions change with time and there is nothing wrong about “modern” interpretations of religious teachings. However, there is a difference between a religion’s attempt to keep up with the times in order to remain appealing or valid, and a person’s attempt to reshape religion, self-handedly and single-mindedly, for meeting personal needs. The author of the article calls such people “the pack of pick and choose your religious beliefs”. People become religious for many reasons. Perhaps, the most widespread scenario is distress, illness or a near-death experience. In situations when people need help or hope and science, medicine or psychologists cannot give either of the two, people seek some higher power. In other words, they seek support from “above” and ask for a miracle. Both components are integral parts of religion. In fact, people are ready to gain faith in any god that can offer help, comfort or salvation. Another reason for becoming religious is an attempt to grow up mentally and/or spiritually. Sometimes ordinary people turn to religion for a similar reason as those in distress, pain or illness, i.e. they cannot find answers for their questions in books or everyday life. Thinking that only the poor and uneducated are active religious followers is a widespread bias. In fact, the recent data shows that the truth is contrary to prejudged beliefs: the more educated a person, the more likely he/she is to become religious. Here is a good phrasing for the newly-found truth: “With more years of education, you aren’t relatively more likely to say, ‘I don’t believe in God,’ but you are relatively more likely to say, ‘I believe in a higher power’” (Schwadel, cited in “The More Education”, 2011). In general, people do not have to be religious to have faith. One may have faith in oneself, in luck, in an idea that everything is orderly in the Universe and happens as it should. Above all, one may have faith in other people. In conclusion, any world religion is an artifact – man-made and man-oriented – that emerges from an ideological, political, revolutionary, or enlightenment need. In spite of a high purpose, religion has negative side-effects that a person should take into account in case if he/she wants to convert. A new religion may be a relatively “original” formation though most religions rest on the postulates of older teachings or are other religions’ successors. Lastly, religion may originate from one person, as it was with Jesus Christ, and transform from an illegal local cult into a worldwide religion.

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Why do people pay an "extra" amount when paying back a loan? They do it to reduce the loan's interest charges, and to pay off the debt earlier. If I make extra payments, how much will I save? When will the loan be paid off? The answer to both questions depends on the current balance, the loan's interest rate, when you start making extra payments, and the additional payment amount. In some cases, usually for longer-term loans such as mortgages, the savings in interest charges can be quite substantial. If the borrower starts making the extra payments early enough, and for an amount that's not exceptionally large, it is possible to save tens of thousands of dollars on a $200,000 mortgage (the average size new mortgage balance as of 2017, according to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau was $260,386). Specifically, with an average mortgage, by making $200 a month extra payments, the borrower will save over $50,000 assuming a 30-year loan and a 4.25% interest rate. How is this possible? What sleight of hand is taking place? There's no sleight of hand. The future savings are a mathematical certainty. It all has to do with the way loans, and mortgages work. The periodic interest amount is calculated using the loan's current balance and multiplying it by the periodic interest rate - the lower the balance, the lower the interest amount due. Thus when you prepay principal (make extra payments), you are lowering the loan balance used for calculating the interest due. As I said, this is a mathematical certainty, and this calculator will show you just how much interest you'll save on any loan, and when the loan will be paid off. Copy and paste this URL to save your inputs to share them with others. Click "Calc", "Clear", "Preview." or "Schedule" to update the URL. Paste it into any browser to reload. Sounds pretty good, right? Of course it does! But, what if I told you, "How much will I save if I make extra principal payments?", isn't the question you should be asking? "What If I Invested the Money Rather than Make Extra Payments?" Ahh, that's the more important question! Rather than reducing interest costs via prepaying principal, what if you saved and invested the money? Would you be further ahead? That's that critical question to be asking. If you have $200 and you use it to make a prepayment toward a loan, you can't also use the same $200 for investing. Economists say, not being able to invest is a foregone opportunity. The opportunity to do something else with that same $200 won't come back. The chance is gone. How then do you know which is the better decision? Use this calculator! The calculator uses "Your Investment Rate-of-Return," and calculates the future value of all the projected extra payments. It then calculates the investment gain and subtracts it from the "Total Interest Saved" to arrive at the net gain from the extra payments (the "Interest Saved Less Investment Gain" shown). Let's look at an example. When you come to this page, you'll find the calculator preloaded with a $260,386 loan/mortgage, and $200 a month is the default prepayment amount. For the investment rate-of-return, the calculator uses as a default 7.2%, which is the approximate average rate-of-return for the S&P 500 according to this (somewhat dated) analysis. (Dated, yes. But considering what the stock market has done since this study, my 7% assumption for deciding whether or not to make extra payments on a loan is conservative.) You, of course, are free to use whatever rate-of-return you like. Using these defaults, here are the results: $52,829 in interest savings and the mortgage that would have usually taken 360 payments to pay off, will be paid off after 276 payments. But, here's the real story. If the borrower takes the $200 a month and invests it, after the 276 months, their investment GAIN will be $81,238! (Total value of the investment account will be $55,000 in extra payments invested plus the $81,238 gain equals $136,238.) Now it should be apparent that while a $52,000 savings is terrific, an $81,000 gain is better. Just how much better? $28,409 better, as the final result "Interest Saved less Investment Gain" ($52,929 - $81,239) shows you. If, after plugging in your numbers, you get a negative result too, then YOU SHOULD CONSIDER NOT MAKING EXTRA PAYMENTS!. You'll, at least hypothetically make more money from your investments than you save in interest charges. Want to confirm the results? Then make sure you click on the "Supporting Schedules" button. There you'll find all the supporting number that went into the above analysis. There's a detailed amortization schedule showing the periodic payment and interest charges as well as the extra payments coming off the principal balance. After the loan payment schedule, you'll find a future value or investment schedule. This schedule documents the capital gain from the invested extra payments. When might you want to continue to make extra principal payments even when the calculator indicates investing might be the more prudent course to follow? There are at least two reasons I can think of when you might not want to invest the prepayment funds. I can express one reason with a single word - Risk! Remember when I was discussing why making prepaid principal payments saves the borrower money, I used the phrase "mathematical certainty?" If the borrower makes the extra payments as anticipated, then the interest savings is a sure thing. The lender can only charge the periodic interest on the outstanding balance of the loan. But, if you invest, and even if you invest per the anticipated schedule, for the full amount and on the scheduled day, the return on the investment is likely not to be guaranteed (though true, some investment instruments might offer a guaranteed profit). In that case, at the end of the term, when the loan would have been paid off, you might not have the capital gains that you had anticipated. Of course, you might also have a more significant gain than what you had anticipated. That's the risk. The second reason why you might not want to invest is that you want to live debt free. I understand how when someone takes out a 30-year mortgage, they might dream of living without any mortgage debt in say 20 years. I get that. The fact is, that's how I felt, and that's what I did - but I did it before I created this calculator! But consider this - it is possible to be both free of debt early and implement an investment strategy for your funds rather than a principal prepayment strategy. They are not mutually exclusive! Let me walk you through this, step-by-step: - Look at our example again - the one the calculator preloads when you first come to this page (click on your browser's refresh button if you want it back). At the time of this writing, the analysis shows the final payment scheduled for March 1, 2042. Make a note - that's the debt-free date with extra payments. - Now set the extra payments to 0 and look at the schedule. This is the schedule without any additional payments. Find the balance as of the debt-free date. Again, as of this writing (these illustrations are time sensitive), the balance will be $92,929. - Now, one more time, reenter the extra $200 payment amount and recheck the investment schedule located after the loan schedule. (The calculator prepares an investment schedule only if you have entered an extra payment amount AND if the option "Include the Investment Schedule?:" is set to "Yes.") - As shown, when making prepaid principal payments, the loan is paid off in 276 payments - or 23 years. - On March 1, 2042, the balance in the investment account will be $136,238. - You can easily pay off the mortgage using the funds in the investment account, live debt free as of the date planned, and still have nearly $40,000 remaining! Of course, there is a rub. This analysis overlooks the impact of taxes. If you live in the US, all or part of the interest may be deductible from your income taxes (though after the 2017 tax law changes, this is not as much of a certainty as it had been in the past). One the investment side, income taxes will frequently have to be paid on any investment gain, thus reducing the illustrated gain. But even taxes on the gain are not a foregone conclusion. If you were to invest in tax-free bonds, then there is no tax on the income (but the illustration probably won't be as favorable). Or if you invest and don't sell along the way, the gain will compound tax-free. You'll only pay income taxes on the gain when you sell. And generally, income taxes on long term capital gains are very favorable to investors. No doubt these points about taxes are something you need to consider. If I were to program the various tax considerations as options for this calculator, I think it would leave users very frustrated - not to mention me! The Calculator's Features Of course, your situation is likely different than this hypothetical example. So you'll want to use this Extra Payment Calculator to see just what you can save and when your loans will be paid off. Let me take a few moments to go over some the other features this calculator supports. If you don't plan to make extra payments monthly, that's okay. The calculator will let you make additional payments using any one of 11 payment frequencies set independently from when the scheduled payments are due. For example, do you get an annual bonus? Do you want to use that bonus to prepay principal? This calculator will still calculate your saving under such a scenario. You can easily set it to make one or two extra payments a year. Or do you want to make a one-time extra payment? That's no problem either. The calculator supports making a single extra payment on any date during the term of the loan. Perhaps you've received a one-time inheritance, and you are considering using it to reduce your loan's principal balance. The Extra Payment Calculator will tell you the amount of interest you'll save and when the pay off will be. Don't forget to check out the amortization schedule for all the details. (Perhaps I should also point out that the loan itself does not need to follow a monthly payment schedule. The last option on the Extra Payment tab allows the user to select any payment frequency.) This Calculator is Not Just for New Loans. Up until now, I've been implying that the calculator is only for analyzing new loans. That's not the case. Perhaps you've been making loan payments for a few years, and you've recently received a raise. If you want to see the impact of making extra payments on an existing loan then there are no unknowns for the calculator to calculate (other than the effect of making the prepaid principal payments of course), so enter the following for the first four inputs: - The loan's balance as of the last payment due date. - The number of payments remaining. - The loan's interest rate. - The regular payment amount. The calculator will use the terms of your loan for the analysis. There is also one other setting to be aware of. On the "Extra Payments/Investment Rate" tab, please see "Is a Regular Payment Due Today?:" This setting impacts the analysis. It is set to "No" by default. However, if for the loan balance, you enter the balance as of the date a payment is due, then you should set this to "Yes." This prevents the calculator from adding the accrued interest since the last payment due date. If you don't follow the above, please don't stress out. It won't make that big of a difference! Don't Forget the Charts No doubt if you spend time going over the schedules, you may find your eyes glazing over. (For sure, there are a lot of numbers!) If you find that happening to you, or if you aren't a detailed "numbers person," make sure you check out the nine charts that the calculator automatically creates. - Annual Totals without Extra Payments - Annual Totals with Extra Payments - Annual Investment Plus the Annual Gain - Accumulated Totals without Extra Payments - running totals since the loan's origination - Accumulated Totals with Extra Payments - Accumulated Investments Plus the Total Gain - show year-over-year growth and final value - Pie Chart Loan Payment Total Allocated to Principal and Interest - Pie Chart Loan Payment Total Allocated to Principal and Interest with Extra Payments - Pie Chart Showing Breakout of Investments and the Gain on the Investments When you were searching for an extra payment calculator, you probably just wanted to see how much interest you could save. You didn't expect there to be so many things to consider. Don't feel as if you need to digest all of this in one sitting. Come back and try different scenarios. Make different assumptions. But remember, the point is, no matter what decision you make, the calculator will help you to make an informed one. You can let me know in the comments below. Extra Principal Payment Help The accelerated payment calculator will calculate the effect of making extra principal payments. A minimal extra principal payment made along with a regular payment can save the borrower a large amount of interest over the life of a loan, particularly, if those payments start when the debt is relatively new. For example, assume that you have taken out a loan for $130,000, for 360 monthly periods with an annual interest rate of 7 3/4%. If with the 49th payment, you start to pay an extra $225, you will save $75,901.42 in interest payments, and the loan will be paid off in 234 payments instead of the original 360 payments. It is straightforward to calculate many different scenarios quickly. Note that the higher the interest rate, the greater the savings for any extra payment amount. Also, for a standard amortizing loan, the interest savings will be more significant the sooner the additional payments start. That is, you will save a lot more in interest if you pay an extra $50 a month for the last 20 years than if you pay an extra $100 a month for the previous ten years. As with many of our other calculators, this calculator will also solve for an unknown input. For example, if you want the calculator to calculate the regular monthly payment, enter '0' (zero) for the "Periodic Payment" and a non-zero value for "Amount of Loan," "Total Months," and "Annual Interest Rate." If you do not enter a '0' value, the calculator will use your inputs. This allows you to use any payment amount that you need.

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World Diabetes Day 2020 Marked every November 14th since 2007, WDD was originally envisioned and championed by the International Diabetes Foundation (IDF) as part of a successful campaign to get the United Nations (UN) to adopt a resolution recognizing diabetes as a global health threat. Historically, on WDD people with diabetes (PWDs) have gathered in large numbers at public places to “make noise” and draw TV news coverage to help raise awareness. The whole month of November, in fact, is marked by the U.S. as National Diabetes Awareness Month (NDAM) that’s normally peppered with large in-person gatherings. But this year, with COVID-19 on the rise in nearly every country on the planet, and with PWDs disproportionately at risk from serious illness and death from the virus, what is to become of WDD and the many community events normally honoring NDAM? Is it safer to skip all of it? Or, with healthcare resources being stretched to the limit worldwide, is it perhaps more important than ever to make some noise? With the World Health Organization (WHO) reporting treatment services for non-communicable diseases are “severely disrupted since the COVID-19 pandemic began,” and with diabetes health services partially or completely disrupted in 49 percent of the world, WDD 2020 is still a “go,” although it — like all else — will look a little different this year, according to the IDF. Banting and the Blue Circle For a quick background, you should know that November 14 was chosen as WDD because it is the birthdate of Dr. Frederick Banting, co-discoverer of insulin, who is generally hailed as a diabetes hero. Following the 2006 UN resolution establishing WDD, the Blue Circle was chosen by the IDF as an international symbol for diabetes. The color choice was in part because blue is the official color of the UN flags and logos, and partly because it’s the color of the sky that vaults all national borders: A way of saying diabetes affects us all. NDAM, on the other hand, was established 45 years ago in 1975, although Congress and the U.S. presidents didn’t start passing proclamations recognizing November as “Diabetes Month” until the early 1980s. IDF playing the blues Given the Blue Circle symbol, blue is the theme color for WDD across the globe. Last year, there were 27 events in 17 countries to mark WDD, many of them convening crowds. This year, one of the main events will be a TV news-style program commissioned by the IDF called Diabetes Matters, which will air throughout Europe and beyond starting on November 14, 2020. Historically, another big part of WDD is the lighting of many of the world’s iconic monuments with blue light. On the surface of it, this seems like an ideal socially distanced activity, but these lightings were usually celebrated with large public gatherings. Will Brazil’s Christ the Redeemer, Paris’ Eiffel Tower, New York’s Empire State Building, Kuwait Towers, Lanzhou’s Three Leaves Pavilion, Rome’s Coliseum, Egypt’s Sphinx and Pyramids, the Sydney Opera House, and the Tower of London be illuminated in blue light this year? As of this writing, the WWD 2020 map shows only a single monument on deck: A Novo Nordisk-sponsored lighting of a landmark in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. It looks like November 14 will be a dark night this year. Meanwhile, the IDF creates a new focused theme to go hand in hand with WDD each year. For 2020, you might have expected a specific COVID-19 reference, and it is. This year’s theme is Nurses Make the Difference and will focus on the vital need for education and funding for these frontline healthcare professionals. COVID-appropriate Diabetes Awareness Month? Here in the U.S., NDAM runs all November and is traditionally observed by the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the JDRF with a wide range of group events. But this year, with 40 percent of American COVID-19 deaths being people with diabetes, how does that affect plans? The ADA is responding by flat-out skipping in-person events for the remainder of the year, deploying 2020’s ubiquitous “abundance of caution” language, which given the risks shown by current statistics, may be the understatement of the century. This is not to say that the ADA has abandoned plans to observe the month entirely. Like much of the rest of the country, the ADA is going online in a whole new way. Daisy Diaz, of the ADA media relations team, says, “We have many exciting virtual events taking place throughout the month.” She says these will include virtual workouts, a cooking demo to “perfect your chef skills and try a new dish,” a “conversation about the realities” that people of color with diabetes (POCLWD) face, and a conversation with the National Eye Institute. But that’s not all, as they say on late-night TV. According to Diaz, the organization will spend the month taking “a deep dive into the existing systemic inequities in American healthcare, existing barriers to access care and medications, and the resources to maintain overall wellness with the disease.” This means research and a host of conversations with American healthcare leaders. At the JDRF, the organization has launched a “Power of Us” campaign that re-imagines one of its signature events for the realities of the COVID world. One Walk, which historically brought together more than 900,000 people annually in group walking events in communities across the nation, will be replaced this year with solo walking and a virtual finish line “festival” followed by a virtual ceremony, both on the JDRF’s declared T1D Day, November 1. Both events will be broadcast online and can be watched throughout the month. “The structure of the event may look different,” says Alyson Levine, the organization’s assistant vice president of fundraising programs, “but at its core, the event is still the same, and we look forward to celebrating with our community.” The JDRF has set the goal of a collective total of 1,600,000 miles walked by socially distanced lone wolves and small family groups this year. JDRF has also introduced a brand-new COVID-friendly way to participate in their fundraising bicycle rides, called JDRF My Ride. This extends through the end of 2020, and allows anyone to take part either indoors on a trainer, outdoors on a bike, with friends or on their own. Making diabetes visible Meanwhile, the nonprofits Beyond Type 1 and Beyond Type 2 have launched a COVID-friendly awareness program called TheDropSpotted for Diabetes Month. It’s billed as a campaign for people with all kinds of diabetes “to fight stigma, combat misunderstanding, and ultimately change how the general public views diabetes.” Danna Howe, the organization’s director of brand communications, tells us that “members of the community — or anyone in support of the cause — are asked to post photos wearing a Beyond Type 1 Drop Hat, or simply using #TheDropSpotted hashtag in posts, while sharing something about their personal diabetes experience or something they wish the world understood about diabetes. The organizations are also supplying shareable social graphics on their combined website. The theme of this campaign is making An Invisible Disease Visible. The now-defunct Diabetes Hands Foundation’s Big Blue Test, a WDD event from years gone by, would seem to be the perfect socially distanced way to mark the day. That campaign encouraged people with diabetes to test their blood sugar, do some exercise, and test again a little while later to illustrate the positive effects of physical activity on health. Thousands of people participated and posted their results in years past. The Diabetes Hands Foundation was shuttered in 2018, but much of its DNA lives on in the twin Beyond organizations. Todd Boudreaux, Beyond Type 1’s director of content told DiabetesMine that reviving the Big Blue Test was “not something that we’ve been discussing at BT1 for this year.” But he added, “It seems like it was a cool project, though!” A musical benefit Musical fans will rejoice at the planned From Broadway With Love concert being organized by New Orleans-based nonprofit Kyler Cares. That foundation provides grants for continuous glucose monitors (CGM) and insulin pumps for children and young adults “to assist individuals and families in need with the staggering cost associated with acquiring these sophisticated life-saving devices.” Kyler Cares was founded in 2018 by actor, singer, and Broadway veteran, Kyle Banks, who was diagnosed with T1D in 2015 while performing with Disney Theatrical’s production of The Lion King. In honor of WDD 2020, the foundation is excited to be hosting a concert that will feature Broadway cast members from Hamilton, The Lion King, The Tina Turner Musical, and The Book of Mormon. The show will be streamed via the Kyler Cares Youtube channel on WDD, November 14, 2020, at 8 p.m. Eastern. Also featured will be panel discussions with the endocrinology care team at Children’s Hospital of New Orleans and the COO of Insulet Corporation (makers of the Omnipod tubeless pump), Bret Christensen. Online admission is free with RSVP and donations will be accepted for the Kyler Cares Fund throughout the performance. It should be a fun evening of song and dance! At the federal level The National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), while primarily a research organization and provider of recommendations to clinicians, does feature an annual NDAM web page that’s scheduled to be refreshed for 2020 on November 1. According to their spokesperson Alyssa Voss, the site will “feature updates throughout the month.” Still on, just different So, WDD and NDAM still matter, perhaps more than ever given that people are so physically disconnected these days. Both are still being marked in a variety of ways, just with a new face this year. Smaller. More distant. Virtual. Be sure to tune in from a computer near you.

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It’s no secret that music has a profound impact on our lives. It’s always there for us, from soothing us when we’re upset to helping us get pumped up for a workout. And as parents, we want to make sure our children have the opportunity to experience all the amazing benefits music can offer. So how do we help them develop a love of music? Here are a few tips. Be a Role Model Your child loves you and wants to be just like you. So when you listen to music, it’s important to sit next to them so they can see you enjoying it too. This way they can learn that music is something special and help them relax. If you sing your favorite songs with them, they will want to join in. And that’s perfect because it helps them feel the music and express themselves through actions, gestures, or vocals. Your child is much more likely to enjoy music when you do, so be sure to listen to and sing songs around your little one. You don’t have to be a musician to teach your child about music. The earlier you expose them to various types of music, the more they’ll enjoy it. Make a point of playing different genres of music each night at bedtime, from rock to classical and everything in between. Music is a big part of children’s lives, and it’s important to make sure they experience all the positive effects it has to offer. Start introducing them to music early and be a role model yourself. Before long, they’ll have a love for all kinds of music! Teach Them the ABCs (and 123s, too) Kids who learn music have a much easier time learning more academic subjects, such as math and science. Start by teaching them the alphabet and numbers through music. This helps them learn the language basics, numbers, and concepts such as left to right. You can also teach them about time by singing steady beat songs. This helps them understand the concept of timing and rhythm, an important part of playing instruments and dancing. Kids love repetition, which is an excellent way to introduce them to music. Learning the alphabet can be as easy as listening to a song from beginning to end, and your child can follow along with the lyrics. Make a point of singing songs to introduce numbers as well. Then you can spell out letters and numbers together. Introduce Them to Musical Instruments Young children are fascinated by the world around them, and one of the best ways to introduce them to music is by introducing them to different musical instruments. You can start with simple percussion instruments like maracas or tambourines or get more complex and introduce your child to different types of drums. A xylophone is another great option for kids just getting exposed to musical instruments. It works like a piano, with plastic bars that make distinct sounds when hit with a stick. And some even come in colorful shapes, making them perfect for toddlers and younger children. The world is full of music waiting to be discovered by your young child. Just be sure not to force it on them; if they’re old enough to handle an instrument, let them explore independently. It’s important to enjoy musical instruments with your child because children are most likely to want to learn an instrument if they’re having fun doing it! Don’t be surprised if your child struggles with their musical endeavors initially. They’re still young, and it takes time for them to develop coordination and a refined sense of timing. Reassure them that the more they play – or even just listen to music – the better they’ll get. Help them along if they’re having trouble. A little guidance can turn a struggling beginner into a budding musician! Learning an instrument takes time and practice, regardless of your child’s age. Make a point to start them off with small lessons, so they don’t feel overwhelmed. You can also purchase an instrument specially made for kids, like a simple drum set with extra-large keys on the drums, which are easier for little fingers to play. Keep in mind that learning takes time and practice, but your child will get there if you’re patient. And who knows? They may be the next Mozart! Make time for music each day. As long as you’re setting aside time for your child to listen and play, they’ll be on their way to becoming life-long music lovers. A little time each day can make a big difference in your child’s musical abilities. As you introduce them to different genres and instruments, they’ll be more likely to find something that suits them. You can sing along, dance and move to the beat and even turn the television to a music channel so your child can get used to listening to songs all day long. Music is an essential part of life and your child’s life. Start them off early and enjoy the beautiful melodies together! Use Music as a Learning Tool Did you know music can be used as a learning tool? Studies show that kids who play an instrument can focus better in school and have higher grades than their peers 1. That’s because music activates both sides of the brain, which stimulates logical thinking and reasoning, as well as patterns and images. Studies show that children who study music for at least three years have demonstrated a 20 percent increase in spatial-reasoning skills 2. When you sing a song, you’re appealing directly to your child’s sense of hearing – and when children sing and make music, they learn to use both sides of their brains. Music is also a language in and of itself; kids can express themselves by reading and writing music, which they can carry over into other subjects like language arts. And because music is universal no matter your child’s age, they can always find others who share their love of music no matter where they travel. Music is a great way to bond with your child – especially if you get them involved in making music, too! Encourage them to take music lessons at a young age. What are some ways to encourage your child to explore music? If your child is at least four years old, they’re probably ready for some type of formal training. Studies show that formal training has far-reaching effects, even with preschoolers 3. Your child will learn songs and how to read music, play with others and explore different genres. And the earlier your child starts learning music, no matter how formal or informal their training is, the more successful they’ll be in mastering their chosen instrument. If you can, it’s best to enroll them in lessons as soon as possible, so they learn the basics early on. If you can’t afford lessons, there are plenty of places where your child can take music classes for free or at a low cost, like in your city’s parks and recreation department. When it comes to finding the right instrument for your child, that all depends on their age and abilities. An eleven-year-old, for example, would probably be better off with a more advanced instrument like the guitar, while a three-year-old would be fine with something a little simpler, like a xylophone or drums. The most important thing is to find an instrument your child enjoys so they’ll want to keep learning. Play classical music for them There are a few benefits to playing classical music for your child. Classical music is more structured and has a greater depth compared to other genres – it can help teach your child patience and discipline. It’s also good for kids because classical music has no lyrics to distract them – children are forced to listen and can’t zone out. And because it’s slow and melodic, classical music can help your child focus and create a see-saw effect where they become more relaxed the tenser they are. It’s best to play classical music for your child when you can spend some quality time together. It’s a great way to bond, and your child will appreciate it. If you’re not sure where to start, try playing classical music radio stations for your child. Take them to a concert! Kids love concerts – not only are they an exciting experience, but it can be a great way to introduce them to classical music. If you’re taking your child to a concert for the first time, remember that they’re probably going to be loud and emotional. It might take them a while to adjust to the environment, so give them time. If you’re in an auditorium, make sure they know not to wander off or talk loud. If you’re at a stadium concert, try to drag them away from the speakers if they sit too close – that can hurt their ears. When your child is a little older, and they’re interested in music, take them to a free concert by local musicians or watch an opera at your local theater – whatever type of music you prefer. They’ll get to learn more about the genre and discover new artists they might like. Taking them to a concert is also a great way to spend some quality time together and bond over your shared love of music. Allow children in school to participate in a band. If your child goes to school, chances are there’s an orchestra or band they can participate in. When you notice these types of events coming up, make sure to tell your child about them. They’ll probably be excited and want to participate in them so they can show off their musical skills to their friends. It’s a great way for them to connect with others through music, and it shows that you’re passionate about what they do. And as a parent, you can feel good knowing your child is learning valuable skills from their school activities. When they’re in school, they need to get involved and interact with other children that are into music. There are lots of benefits of being musically inclined. Not least of which is simply enjoying music. So be sure to introduce your child early on to many different kinds of music so he or she can discover the type that suits him best. And don’t forget to be a role model yourself by listening and singing along whenever possible! Thanks for reading this article. I hope you enjoyed it!

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« AnteriorContinuar » mately set at rest by the Award of the Arbitral Tribunal created by a Treaty between Great Britain and the United States, signed at Washington on the 29th February, 1892, to settle the differences which had arisen between these two Powers respecting the seal fishery in Behring Sea. As regards the territorial boundary on land, the negotiations for a settlement originated in a suggestion made by Count Lieven to the Duke of Wellington in September, 1822, and recorded by the Duke in a Memorandum of the 16th of that month. On this occasion Count Lieven suggested that if Great Britain had any claim to territory on the north-west coast of America, such claim should now be brought forward. These negotiations, which will be summarized below, resulted in the Treaty of 1825, the construction of which is now in question. It will be convenient, before going into detail, to indicate broadly the points now in difference between the parties before this Tribunal. In the accompanying Atlas will be found a map showing the different lines which have been suggested as giving effect to the Treaty applied to the topography as now understood. From this it will be observed that at the southern end of the line there is a dispute as to the channel along which the boundary ought to be drawn, in obedience to the provision which requires that it should follow "la passe dite Portland Channel." On the side of Great Britain it is contended that Portland Channel means the channel which Vancouver can be shown to have so named, that is to say, the narrow channel north of Wales Island and Pearse Island, and extending into the interior for 82 miles. The United States, on the other hand, maintain that the wider channel to the south of these islands must be taken to be denoted as the commencement of the channel referred to by the expression "la passe dite Portland Channel," the identity of which, so far as its upper part is concerned, is not in dispute. Great Britain, however, further contends that if there is to be any departure from the clear nomenclature of Vancouver, there are, as will be hereafter explained, other channnels up which the line should be drawn in preference to that suggested by the United States. With regard to the rest of the line, the dispute is of a somewhat different character. According to Article III of the Treaty, the line is to follow the crest of the mountains situated "parallèlement à la côte" to the point of its intersection with the 141st degree of west longitude. By Article IV it is provided that wherever the crest of these mountains is at a distance of more than 10 marine leagues from the ocean, the limit between British possessions and the lisière of coast which is to belong to Russia shall be formed by a line parallel to the coast, and which shall never be more distant therefrom than 10 marine leagues. It is to be observed that the provision in Article IV, just mentioned, operates only in a given event, and then only as a corrective of the line primarily laid down, namely, that of the mountains. The event in which it is to operate is if the crest of the mountains, which extend in a direction parallel to the coast, is at a distance of more than 10 leagues from the ocean. It will be seen from the map already referred to, and more in detail from the large maps inclosed in the portfolio which accompanies this Case, that, in point of fact, the whole coast region is extremely mountainous, and that the mountains supply, speaking generally, the boundary stipulated for by the Treaty. It is contended on behalf of Great Britain that the coast ("côte") with regard to which the mountains are contemplated as running in a parallel direction is the general line of coast of the Ocean (referred to in Article IV), and not the shore line of narrow inlets. breaking that line; and, further, that the expression "montagnes situées parallèlement à la côte" and "montagnes qui s'étendent dans une direction parallèle à la côte" do not necessarily denote mountain chains, but include the case of separate mountains in the vicinity of the coast, a line drawn through the summits of which would, roughly speaking, be parallel to the general line of the coast. The contention of the United States, on the other hand, is that there is no defined range of mountains running parallel to the coast in this region, but that the whole region is a "sea of mountains," and that, therefore, the provisions of Article IV become applicable, and that the boundary is to follow, at a distance 17 of 10 marine leagues, and, even through this sea of mountains, the sinuosities of the coast. The latter phrase is, moreover, interpreted as requiring the line to be deflected inland on the occurrence of every inlet, so that it shall in no place be less than 10 marine leagues from salt water. The above, in broad outline, are the matters in difference, though a subordinate point may arise as to the manner in which the termination of the water boundary at the head of the Portland Channel is to be connected with the point at which the boundary commences to run by reference to the mountains, or the 10-marineleague limit, as the case may be. A statement of the British territorial claims having been invited as already mentioned, written instructions were, on the 27th September, 1822, given by Mr. Canning to the Duke of Wellington for his guidance in connection with this question in any discussion which he might have upon the subject with Count Lieven at VeThese instructions were of a general character, and merely stated that the information with which the Duke had been furnished would enable him sufficiently to prove to the Russian Ministers that Great Britain, through the Hudson Bay's Company, had an equal, if not a superior, claim to that of Russia, and that the British claim extended to many degrees of higher latitude than the 51st parallel. The Duke of Wellington had several discussions with Count Lieven upon the point, in which the extent to which occupation had gone on either side was discussed in general terms; but it was afterwards agreed, as recorded in a despatch of the Duke of Wellington to Mr. Canning of the 29th November, 1822, that the Memoranda recording these discussions should be considered as "non avenus," and that the Russian Ambassador in London should address to Mr. Canning a note in answer to that which Lord Londonderry had addressed to Count Lieven on the Ukase of 1821 being communicated to him. Accordingly, on the 31st January, 1823, Count Lieven wrote to Mr. Canning proposing that on both sides the question of strict right should be provisionally put aside, and that all the differences to which the Ukase had given rise should be adjusted by a friendly arrangement, founded only on the principle of mutual convenience, and that such arrangement should be negotiated at St. Petersburg. In pursuance of this proposal, Mr. Canning, by a despatch of the 5th February, 1823, desired Sir Charles Bagot, the British Ambas sador at St. Petersburg, to proceed to open the discussion with the Russian Minister upon the basis of the instructions given to the Duke of Wellington. Owing, however, to a doubt as to the position taken by the United States with regard to this territory, negotiations were not actually commenced till the following year. Sir Charles Bagot stated verbally to Count Nesselrode in August 1823, that he believed the British pretensions had always extended to the 59th parallel, but that a line of demarcation drawn at the 57th would be quite satisfactory. In two conversations which he had later with M. Poletica, who, in the absence of Count Nesselrode, was empowered to represent the Russian Government, Sir Charles Bagot gave him to understand that the British Government would be satisfied to take Cross Sound, lying about latitude 5740, as the boundary between the two Powers on the coast, and a meridian drawn from the head of Lynn Canal as the boundary in the interior of the continent. In reply, Sir Charles Bagot understood M. Poletica to suggest the 55th degree as that which Russia would desire to obtain as her boundary, and to intimate that it would be with extreme reluctance that Russia would consent to any demarcation which would deprive her of her establishment at Novo-Archangelsk (Sitka). In January 1824, Sir Charles Bagot received new instructions to proceed with the negotiations, and on the 16th February had his first conference upon this question with the Russian Plenipotentiaries, Count Nesselrode and M. Poletica. He then proposed as the boundary a line drawn through Chatham Straits to the head of Lynn Canal, thence north-west to the 140th degree of longitude, and thence along that degree of longitude to the Polar Sea. In reply, the Russian Plenipotentiaries at the next meeting offered a counter-proposal, which was afterwards, at Sir Charles Bagot's request, reduced into writing. By this counter-proposal, the Russian Plenipotentiaries proposed the 55th degree of north latitude as the line of demarcation on the north-west coast of America, being the limit which the Emperor Paul had assigned to the Russian possessions by his Charter to the Russian-American Company. Further, as that parallel cut Prince of Wales Island in its southern extremity leaving out of the Russian dominions two points of land, it was proposed that these two points should be comprised within the Russian limit, in order to avoid an inconven To complete the line and make it as distinct as possible, the Russian Plenipotentiaries expressed a desire to make it follow the Portland Channel as far as the mountains which skirt the coast ("jusqu'aux montagnes qui bordent la côte"). From that point they suggested that the boundary should run along those mountains in a direction parallel (parallèlement") to the sinuosities of the coast as far as the 139th degree of longitude. It was explained that the principal motive which forced Russia to insist on the sovereignty of this fringe (lisère) on the continent from the Portland Channel northwards was that without that territory the Russian-American Company would have no means of maintaining their establishments, which would be thenceforth without a "point d'appui," and which would have no solidity. In return Russia offered the free navigation of all rivers which emptied themselves into the ocean within that fringe. There are certain observations which have to be made upon the terms of this proposal. In the first place, it is clear that the limit in point of latitude which Russia was claiming in principle was the 55th parallel, and that it was only put further south so far as necessary to include two promontories on Prince of Wales Island, and to reach on the mainland a boundary marked by a channel. In the second place, it is clear that the island which they understood as Prince of Wales Island was the large island so marked on the map, the two southern extremities of which would be cut off by the 55th parallel of latitude. In the third place, the extent and the function assigned to the lisère which Russia desired to possess, are worthy of note. It was to be a mere fringe, as a protection and a "point d'appui." It will be found that this conception of the lisère was not departed from. In reply to this counter-proposal, Sir Charles Bagot delivered an amended proposal in which he expanded the description which the Russian Plenipotentiaries had given of their proposed line. He described this line as being traced from the southern extremity of Prince of Wales Island to the embouchure of the Portland Canal, thence by the middle of that canal until it (the line) touched "la terre ferme," thence to the mountains which skirt the coast, and so on. Sir Charles Bagot continued his despatch by pointing out that the adoption of this line would deprive His Britannic Majesty of

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It’s late March and the summer heat is already palpable. A bulldozer is tearing down a brick-walled building exposing brightly coloured inner walls of tenements that are nearly a century old. Mountains of rubble lie everywhere studded with little temples and rows of buildings surround the debris. Amidst the rubble, a group of boys is playing a game of cricket in a little clearing and one young boy is trying to fly a kite on what seems like a windless day. A few locals have gathered to watch as a street game is rare in the area. A year ago, a maze of buildings stood on the clearing with narrow streets barely enough for two or three people to walk alongside. When the demolition is complete, state authorities would have reclaimed 525,000 sq. ft., or 12 acres, of prime land on the banks of the Ganga, India’s most venerated river, and adjoining the Kashi Vishwanath temple, a popular Hindu temple that gets over 10 million visitors a year. The Kashi Vishwanath corridor project, which is being personally supervised by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and funded by the local Uttar Pradesh government, is monumental. Varanasi, considered one of the oldest living cities in the world, is also Modi’s political constituency from where he has won his last two elections.In a country where real estate and land redevelopment in public spaces is fraught with litigation, the project has successfully evacuated 250 families andover a 100 small businesses that had been in the area for at least 80 years and even longer in some cases. A year after the first deal was signed to buy out B.C. Agarwal, who owned a 2,000 sq. ft. house adjacent to the famed Kashi Vishwanath temple in March 2018 for ₹6 crore, the land acquisition stands nearly completed a good year ahead of schedule. As a part of the dramatic transformation of the ancient city, the first in nearly 200 years, the land will be used to construct a 20-metre wide pathway for the about 320-metre distance from the river to the temple. The new construction is expected to cost the state government about ₹250 crore, in addition to the ₹298 crore already spent on land acquisition. Though no concrete plans are yet available, a walk-through created by Gujarat-based architecture firm HCP Design outlines a pilgrim centre, public utilities such as toilets, a library, cafes, and a museum. It will help ease congestion and make access easier for pilgrims to the temple, which has a golden spire and domes. HCP Design, which also designed and executed the Sabarmati waterfront in Ahmedabad when Modi was state chief minister, is said to have won the Varanasi contract without a contest, which is unusual for such projects of national importance. “The project looked like an impossible task when it was proposed and so we decided to work in a time-bound fashion to move bureaucracy. We had to rethink a lot of procedures to expedite execution,” says Vishal Singh, CEO of the Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust and secretary of the Varanasi Development Authority (VDA). HCP Design did not respond to an email asking for details on the project. My colleagues were sceptical and warned me of legal issues...but this was not an incremental change... I decided to take the plunge.Vishal Singh, secretary, Varanasi Development Authority The project is now more than halfway through with the tough task of land acquisition mostly behind it. After this, the architects will take over but it is unclear what happens next.“The idea for the project is good but the execution is questionable. Everything was done so fast without putting enough information in the public, raising a lot of unanswered questions,”says retired professor Rana Singh, who has written half a dozen books on Varanasi. Despite the political and religious ramifications, the project has got little attention. Adjoining the Kashi Temple is the Gyanvapi mosque, which some say was built on the foundations of the original temple by Mughal emperor Aurangzeb. A section of Hindus want to reclaim the temple while local Muslims are concerned the mosque might meet the same fate as Babri Masjid in Ayodhya. The Supreme Court has ensured that the mosque won’t be brought down though it is hearing a case on the ownership of the land on which the mosque stands. These issues are not going to be solved in a hurry. But architects and conservationists see a more immediate problem. They feel that as India develops economically, more and more heritage areas will be the focus for development. They fear that the way the Varanasi project was hastened could set a precedent for local governments to develop such historical sites. “People come to old neighbourhoods and historic sites to feel their roots and a city like Varanasi would have layers of history in it. To bulldoze a part of it will disturb the fabric of the locality if the development has not been well thought out,” says Brinda Somaya, co-founder of Mumbai-based architecture firm SNK associates. In a way, the process of redevelopment of historic areas has already begun. In Punjab, the local government has started beautifying the areas around the Golden Temple in Amritsar and the appointment of a Jaipur-based architect has brought in styles and colours from the Pink City. The clean-up of the streets has provided relief to pilgrims though opinion is divided on the installation of statues of patriotic leaders on the roads leading up to the temple. Similarly, inPuri, the spaces around the Jagannath Temple have been widened and there are plans to clean up further. “Restoration should be as close to the original as possible and any extra elements introduced should be carefully designed to keep up with the originality,” says Gurmeet Rai, a Delhi-based conservation architect. The Ministry of Tourism has launched an ambitious project for the development of India’s iconic tourist locations. For starters, the government has identified 17 Unesco World Heritage Sites and selected U.S.-based architecture firm HKS as the lead development planner for four of them: the Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Qutub Minar, and Red Fort. Experts point to several such projects globally. In the historic city of Jerusalem, more complex forces are at play than in Varanasi.In little over a square kilometre, there are important holy sites of Christians, Muslims, and Jews, while a quarter of the area is occupied by Armenians. The heart of the Muslim shrine is disputed by the Jews and the city sees a constant influx of faithful during each of their holy days. With thousands of historic sites sprinkled around, the city focussed on improving facilities for its pilgrims and working to preserve what it inherited rather than changing it. On the other hand, though China has been making an effort to preserve historic monuments recently, in the early phase of development several traditional areas were razed to the ground to make way for modern development. “It almost seemed that China want-ed to forget its past,” says Rai. The genesis for change in Varanasi was almost accidental.Singh was working with the VDA when a meeting with Modi brought up the broad idea to increase the convenience of devotees who come to the temple by at least providing them with basic amenities. Pilgrims have to line up in narrow, claustrophobic lanes choc-a-bloc with shops and vendors to get to the temple. Though this has been the practice since time immemorial, the lines are serpentine and it can take a few hours on special festive days. Women and children too stand in those queues for hours with no accessible toilet facilities or shelters in case of emergencies. Modi, in his drive for basic amenities, wanted to change that. Several plans had already been suggested and Singh’s agency VDA was already working on a previous plan when Modi suggested a more drastic plan that involved clearing out the area in front of the temple all the way to the ghat. Nobody had ever thought of such a plan, given the high density of buildings and businesses in the area.“A lot of my colleagues were sceptical and even warned me of legal issues later in my career but this was not an incremental change. I decided to take the plunge in that very meeting,” says Singh. A special post was created in the temple trust and Singh was given additional charge of helming it. It helped that the local government also belonged to the Bharatiya Janata Party and that chief minister Yogi Adityanath bought into the project and was willing to underwrite it completely. There were some real issues. This was not an essential infrastructure project and, therefore, citizens couldn’t be forced to give up their real estate. Then, according to rules, a government body cannot buy off properties for development reasons by paying more than the notified value. Singh, with his temple trust portfolio, had no such compulsions. In the proximity of the temples, none of the homeowners and businessmen wanted to sell at those rates as they could earn a perpetual income from pilgrims. There were also local rules that allowed for permanent tenancy andat historic rates. Old tenants wouldn’t vacate without compensation. Says B.C. Agarwal, the first person to sell his house for the project:“My tenants were paying me peanuts and it made no economic sense to be in my house.The project officials paid me and also took on the headache of my tenants. It was a great deal for me.” Singh and his team surveyed each and every home, business, and tenant and went through the documents pertaining to ownership and legal issues involved. After buying out Agarwal, Singh had more success as there were others too who thought the money was good. Soon after the houses were bought, the demolitions convinced people that the government was serious about the changes. ToSingh’s advantage, several properties did not have proper documents as generations had failed to maintain them or a tenth of them were illegal. Some tenants were not willing to move out without alternative accommodation. Some 70% of the properties were easy to acquire as the project office was offering two to three times the market rate and was willing to solve legal issues. A few held out but eventually sold out. “The last few who held out only wanted to bargain more butas they saw the grounds clearing up they too sold out,” says an officer in the project office, who did not wish to be identified. Singh adds: “It was a tricky deal. We had to exert only that much pressure that it didn’t become a legal problem.” Singh expects to wind up his part of the jobin the project soon. In another 18 months,visitors to the temple will have a brand new pathway even as earlier residents settle down to a new life. Agarwal, who sold his property in Varanasi, has moved to Navi Mumbai and bought an apartment close to his son. He spends his days watching television. As his life moves on, a lot is also changing in the templetown of Varanasi. (This story was originally published in the August 2019 issue of the magazine. )

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There is an abundance of research, for example here, here and here, that point to the idea that reading comprehension and academic achievement can be vastly improved, and socio-economic gaps closed, by consistently increasing the amount of academic knowledge students learn starting from primary school. These theorists also suggest that knowledge builds on knowledge, cumulatively. So the more you read and learn about the world, the more you will be able to grasp. A good summary about the idea of core knowledge and the link to literacy comes from ED Hirsch, who states that: Nearly all of our most cherished ideals for education – from reading comprehension and problem solving to critical thinking and creativity – rest on a foundation of knowledge. As a parenthesis, in case you’re interested in a second perspective, see this critique of Hirsch. Some of his ideas can be interpreted as a tad elitist e.g. his books ‘What your child needs to know…’ series can testify to that notion. However, I still agree with his basic premise above. A Knowledge Curriculum I am interested in what we can do with a research guided approach to ‘knowledge’ in the classroom, beyond testing. Many may be familiar with Daniel T Willingham’s thinking around knowledge and intelligence. Willingham states: ..knowledge does much more than just help students hone their thinking skills: It actually makes learning easier. Knowledge is not only cumulative, it grows exponentially. Those with a rich base of factual knowledge find it easier to learn more—the rich get richer. In addition, factual knowledge enhances cognitive processes like problem solving and reasoning. The richer the knowledge base, the more smoothly and effectively these cognitive processes—the very ones that teachers target—operate. So, the more knowledge students accumulate, the smarter they become. Let’s look at a concrete example of how this would work in practice. A weak reader with some background knowledge of the read topic will score higher than a stronger reader with little or no background knowledge of the topic. Why? Because, as Willingham has found, factual knowledge matter improves literacy and critical thinking skills. So with your own background knowledge, consider the word ‘Apple’. What comes to mind, a piece of fruit, Apple Watch or perhaps apple pie? But, your background knowledge goes deeper than that, of course. Let’s take a look at how language is further made complex by the absence or presence of background knowledge by examining the example below: The hunter said “There’s a grouse across that field maybe 100 yards away.” His friend said, “well, shoot.” The sentence does not mean “fire your gun.” Background knowledge = shotguns aren’t accurate at 100 yards. A grouse that has flown from cover is gone. “Well, shoot” means “too bad we missed it”. – D.T. Willingham This is why “in-jokes” are only funny to those with the background knowledge to understand the underlying meanings. So if we believe that factual knowledge is the medium of understanding, then what’s the problem? The problem for students lie in retaining this knowledge. Unfortunately for us humans, our working memory – the one we use remember and use relevant information while in the middle of an activity e.g. following instruction or remembering a phone number – is very limited. This is an area I have devoted some time to explore, particularly in terms of testing and spacing, but I’ll share my experience on that at a later date. For now, I’d like to share a pedagogical framework I have developed which looks to maximise retention of long-term memory for students; a ‘wrapper’ for a consistent approach to the way we teach – whilst encouraging teacher autonomy and teacher creativity. I have accessed recent research on core knowledge and instruction, all of the sources are listed at the end of this post. There are five subjects in my faculty: History, Geography, Sociology, Law and Government and Politics. As a result, there’s a real opportunity to align our curricula according to the framework below. Here’s how it works. Our lessons are framed around a ‘hinge’ or key question which students investigate throughout the lesson. These questions provide a sense of meaning to the learned content and, if planned with conflict in mind, may make our lessons more memorable. Hinge questions work for any subject and are ideal for challenging students to think throughout the lesson. The ‘why, why, why, why?’ helps to provide tension in the learned content. However, in order for students to retain the new knowledge in their long-term memory, further tension is needed. If we treat each lesson like a good story with its predictable structure (see previous post on the power of stories in lessons), which focuses on the 4Cs of causality, conflict, character and complications, then this will help to refocus students’ attention on the core meaning of the lesson and therefore more likely for new knowledge to be added to their long-term memory. Good modelling would ensure that the central meaning of the lesson is maintained by using concrete but subject relevant information. Activating Prior Knowledge This is of course a key component in any good lesson plan so that the teacher knows where to pitch the learning. However, activating is more than checking if they remember. When I use the phrase ‘to activate prior knowledge’, I am referring to a moment in the lesson when students use techniques to retrieve knowledge. This means that teachers need to train students ways to remember facts. In order to teach them memory retrieval skills I recommend you read any of the sources from this list: - How to develop a perfect memory (superb online book) by D. O’Brien - Moonwalking with Einstein J. Foer - Feats of Memory Anyone Can Do J Foer’s TED talk - What will improve a student’s memory? (see practical strategies towards the end of the article) D.T Willingham, American Educator. One simple way to encourage students to practise memory retrieval is to engage them in gamification via tools such as Memrise or Quizlet. The latter is particularly good as tests are quick to set up and students really enjoy taking them due to their competitive structure. The real strength of these types of tools is the opportunity for self-testing, again and again. We are also exploring using Knowledge Vaults with students, particularly with exam groups. This is a document which provides an overview of required knowledge we want students to remember. The Knowledge Vaults differ depending on the subject and Unit but would for example include terminology, quotes (from historians, sociologists or research), key studies and a timelines. Our Knowledge Vaults accompany the testing framework well, as you can imagine, and is an active component in the way we assess mastery. Cognitive Support through Modelling To make sure we offload as much of the cognitive load as possible, good teachers provide good quality modelling of tasks or activities e.g. working through examples on the board with the support from students. Some use examples that are relevant to students’ lives and to make the subject matter more enjoyable e.g. when teaching about the October revolution the teacher gets students to create an animation using stop-motion, which the teacher demonstrates how to do. Daniel T. Willingham reasons that “…your memory is not a product of what you want to remember or what you try to remember; it’s a product of what you think about“. According to this argument, student would therefore remember how cool it was to create a stop-motion animation rather than, say, the causes of the revolution. Good modelling would ensure that the central meaning of the lesson is maintained by using concrete but subject relevant information. Effective scaffolding teases out understanding rather than limiting it; creates opportunity rather than slowing thinking down; challenges students to struggle through their thinking. Chunking and Supervised Practice This is an essential part of the lesson. Our working memory is too limited to be able to deal with the vast amount of facts that teachers want students to learn. By splitting the new knowledge into manageable chunks, students are capable of working through each chunk by step without memory overload. After each new part has been looked at, students should practise with guidance from the teacher or peers. This is a crucial part of the lesson so that the new knowledge is not forgotten, or that misconceptions are not remembered. Techniques for supervised practice could include using graphic organisers to do various activities like 100 word summaries, venn diagrams, or by asking pairs to reason through a problem, with another pairs listening in, to gauge how far they have understood. Supervised practice is key and links directly to the next step: Deep Questioning, Deep Answers In ‘Teach like a Champion (chapter 1)‘, a teacher favourite across the globe nowadays, Doug Lemov shows how exceptional questioning can encourage the most stubborn student (or shy) to think hard; think deep. I think this strategy can be further improved by challenging students to support each other to build a deep answer. This is where the whole class actively listens and then provides examples of how to improve the verbal answer e.g. using subject specific terminology, connectives, examples and so on. Whilst this is a worthwhile cognitive activity in its own right, it also allows teachers to check understanding across the class, sort misconceptions and drive learning forward by showing students how to connect their knowledge together – both factual and skill(s). Scaffold – allow thinking We had an educational advisor come into our school to review teaching and learning (we are a Free School). One thing she picked up on was how different teachers provide support. The advisor commented that good scaffolding occurred throughout most of the school but there were instances when ‘students [had] no chance to think for themselves’. I’ve worked in several schools over the years and this way of scaffolding is not isolated to only some of our teachers. Because we want to makes sure all students progress, we differentiate and provide challenge where we require. Effective scaffolding teases out understanding rather than limiting it; creates opportunity rather than slowing thinking down; challenges students to struggle through their thinking. Independent Monitored Practice At this point in the lesson students know what they are doing and will spend time on their own focusing on completing a set task. Unlike supervised practice, independent practice involves more time for students to think and work without the support from peers. It does not really mean allowing students to ‘get on with it’ for three lessons without supervision. Regular reviews will take place to check understanding. Supervision of independent practice often takes shape as questioning and quick pitstop checks. By reviewing what students have learned during regular intervals e.g. weekly and monthly, we help them to strengthen their memories further. In fact, retrieval practice goes even further and: - Improves students’ complex thinking and application skills - Improves students’ organization of knowledge - Improves students’ transfer of knowledge to new concepts So, retrieval doesn’t only help to improve long-term memory, it also increases our understanding. As Barak Rosenshine explains: Students need extensive and broad reading, and extensive practice in order to develop well-connected networks of ideas (schemas) in their long-term memory. When one’s knowledge on a particular topic is large and well connected, it is easier to learn new information and prior knowledge is more readily available for use. he more one rehearses and reviews information, the stronger these interconnections become. It is also easier to solve new problems when one has a rich, well-connected body of knowledge and strong ties among the connections. One of the goals of education is to help students develop extensive and available background knowledge. There are numerous ways of encouraging retrieval practice some of which have been mention above in ‘Activating Prior Knowledge’. This way of connecting knowledge, exponentially growing one’s understanding, is particularly effective if built into the curriculum for example via tests or an exam strategy that spaces learning across time with several opportunities to practice. Next post I will explore how we will use the framework for maximum impact. References and Further Reading What makes great teaching? Review of the underpinning research by Robert Coe, Cesare Aloisi, Steve Higgins and Lee Elliot Major, Durham University and the Sutton trust, October 2014 Ask the Cognitive Scientist: What Will Improve a Student’s Memory? in AMERICAN EDUCATOR | WINTER 2008-2009 by Daniel T. Willingham Why Don’t Students Like School? by Daniel T Willingham How Knowledge Helps: It Speeds and Strengthens Reading Comprehension, Learning—and Thinking. By Daniel T Willingham, American Educator, Spring 2006 You Can Always Look it Up’… Or Can You? by E.D. Hirsch., American Educator (Spring 2009)

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In a historic speech this past August commemorating the 70th anniversary of Japan’s surrender in World War II, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe vowed that his country would “never again resort to any form of threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes.” A month later, his administration passed a bill that could now put Japan’s armed forces on the fighting grounds of distant lands—including Iraq and Syria. For the first time since World War II, the Japanese parliament abandoned its longstanding pacifism in favor of a new security bill that authorizes offensive military operations overseas under the premise of “collective self-defense.” Although more than half the population opposes the measure, Abe has continued to push for changes in security policy, invoking the threat of Japan’s regional enemies and the need to offer military assistance to its number-one ally, the United States. The new legislation—passed by the upper house in September—allows him to “reinterpret” Japan’s pacifist constitution without going through an amendment process and neuter, in effect, its key provision, which outlaws the deployment of military forces abroad. Article 9, dubbed the “peace clause,” is part of the constitution that was adopted during the US occupation of Japan in the wake of the war. The American drafters, as though conducting a social experiment, engineered a constitution that emulates and even surpasses the ideals of popular sovereignty and individual rights enshrined in the United States Constitution. Abe’s defiance of the 68-year-old document stems in part from his desire to rid the country of its past under occupation, starting with dismantling the constitution that he says was “drawn up under significant compulsion.” As a top US ally, Japan has also faced pressure from the United States to become a “normal nation” with full military capabilities. Abe’s militarism seeks to recast Japan as an “equal partner” with the United States in the international arena. Yet many Japanese want to steer the country in a different direction. On the eve of the vote, brawls broke out in the parliament as a mob of opposition leaders surrounded the committee chairman, grabbing at the microphone in his hand. With several lawmakers escorted off, the scuffle delayed the bill’s passage until well after midnight. But the spectacle on the Diet floor was no match for the one outside. Beyond the parliament gates, tens of thousands of protesters carrying antiwar placards flooded the streets in one of the largest demonstrations in recent memory; the streetlights illuminated the faces of young students and activists shouting into megaphones, their voices undampened amid the pouring rain. Hemmed in by police vans on all sides, men and women, young and old, chanted in unwavering unison: “Protect the Constitution!” “Abe Must Go!” “No War!” In Japan, civic demonstrations of this scale have been dormant since the days of the 1960s student uprisings, when more than 300,000 students, fearing they would be dragged into the US-led war in Vietnam, stormed the legislature to oppose the expansion of Japan’s bilateral security treaty with the United States—a plan advanced, ironically enough, by Abe’s grandfather Nobusuke Kishi. More than half a century later, at least 100,000 people (as in the Vietnam War–era protests, organizers’ and newspapers’ estimates far exceeded official police figures) took to the streets to reject militarism once again, marking the revival of civil disobedience in a country that has grown far too accustomed to business-as-usual. Yet unlike the ideologically inflected protesters of the 1960s, the front-runners of today’s protests come from a sphere of society that has long been considered “apolitical” by the rigid political establishment of graying men—and the new anti-war movement is a demand of a different sort. The organizers of the mass protests, which began in early summer, were not the usual bevy of old-school leftists and trade unionists, but a group of tech-savvy university students who see Abe’s new security measure as a harbinger of authoritarian rule. The Students Emergency Action for Liberal Democracy, known as SEALDs, has amassed widespread support across the country—with more than 60,000 Twitter followers and 34,000 likes on Facebook, the group has organized protests in more than 60 cities nationwide. The group’s success has even compelled new sections of Japanese society to engage in grassroots activism—in the latest of antiwar demonstrations, a group of SEALDs-inspired high-school students organized a mass rally that saw as many as 1,000 protesters occupy the streets of Harajuku and Shibuya. The student group first began as an assembly of cosmopolitan youngsters opposed to Abe’s state secrecy law back in 2014—previously called Students Against Secret Protection Law (SASPL), the group led a series of protests against the Orwellian bill, which threatened prison time for journalists and whistleblowers who disclose “state-designated secrets.” While SASPL failed to stop the secrecy law from taking effect, the movement solidified the group’s role as a leading grassroots voice against Abe’s regime. In a public hearing before the Diet, 23-year-old founding member Aki Okuda, now a household name in Japan, criticized the government’s unwillingness to consult the people on the new security bill and even called out parliament members who dozed off as he was speaking. Alongside the new generation of student protesters, the emergence of another grassroots organization is garnering considerable attention in Japan. Starting in July, the group Mothers Against War has staged antiwar demonstrations all across the country—in one of the group’s largest rallies, over a thousand mothers, many of them carrying children, marched in Tokyo’s city center demanding that lawmakers scrap the controversial bill. Founded by Minako Saigo, a 28-year-old graduate student and a mother of three young children, the group has collected over 20,000 signatures from people against the legislation and recently held a press conference in which several members of opposition parties showed their support. Under the slogan “save all children from war,” the group embraces a global approach to the issue of Japan’s remilitarization. In a TV interview, Saigo warned that as an ally of the United States, Japan’s authorization of military force could endanger the lives of children in Gaza and Syria, as well as other parts of the world where the US military is involved. The group has also voiced concerns over the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and support for protesters in Okinawa, who have been fighting against the construction of a US military base in Nago. Mothers Against War began as a Facebook group where women, busy caring for their children, could easily share information and discuss the security bill with other concerned mothers. As the group quickly gained support online, the page soon became a platform for organizing—from informational picnics to costumed protests on Halloween, mothers used Facebook to band together, forming a new coalition of parents, some of whom previously had little or no interest in politics. Since July, regional chapters of Mothers Against War have popped up in at least thirteen prefectures around the country, with mothers organizing locally in their communities. While it’s easy to conflate the two, SEALDs and Mothers Against War each take a distinctive approach to Japan’s creeping militarization. For one, SEALDs defines its fight against the new security bill as a freedom issue—from its conception as a group calling for press freedom in the wake of Abe’s secrecy law, the group’s main focus has always been to protect the rights of people from an increasingly oppressive government. Mothers Against War, on the other hand, operates on the sole premise of a mother’s responsibility to protect her child, taking a more humanitarian approach. Nevertheless, at the heart of both groups lies a refusal to accept the status quo of a political establishment that has long labeled them as “apolitical,” boxing them out of the political process. And it is this very exclusion that has fueled a grassroots movement unyielding to pressure from the elite. Despite pleas from opposition parties to partner with them, both groups have maintained their non-partisanship, refusing to adhere to any of the five major political parties. “It’s past time to talk about politics in terms of political parties or individual politicians,” Saigo said in an interview alongside SEALDs member Takeshi Suwahara, “We unite on the basic premise that our children should not kill or be killed in war.” Their unwillingness to cave in to party politics stands in sharp contrast to the “new left” student organizations that led the charge half a century ago. Zengakuren—the umbrella student organization largely responsible for orchestrating the mass protests of the 1960s—was led by radical Marxists, many of whom broke away from the “old left,” including the Japanese Communist Party (JCP), for being too moderate. Unlike its 1960s counterpart, SEALDs avoids party lines or affiliation. “We are ordinary students,” said Suwahara. “We are simply members of the community who are sick and tired of politics as they stand.” In the background of their efforts to remain outside the established political stratum hovers the failure of the 1960s, when the student movement ended with Zengakuren devolving into warring factions just as the idea of revolution was becoming less and less attractive amid the allure of a newfound consumerism. Some observers on the left have criticized SEALDs and Mothers Against War for their refusal to join forces with existing political players and their lack of concrete alternatives. They claim that these groups, without a viable political platform, cannot make meaningful policy changes in the long run. And that may be true. But to dismiss the movement for its unwillingness to align with the left is to miss the whole point of the growing antiwar movement. SEALDs and Mothers Against War are as much a reaction to Abe’s security bill as they are a call for democracy. Their fight against Abe’s militarism is also a fight against a government whose dismissal of the popular will has become the norm. Today’s antiwar movement is a democratic society in the making—with groups like SEALDs and Mothers Against War leading the way. Ordinary people are redefining the very idea of democracy enshrined in the constitution, reaffirming their right to decide their country’s role in a world where war is rampant and relentless. Like the Argentine Mothers of Plaza de Mayo, the Landless Workers’ Movement of Brazil, and the women warriors of India’s Gulabi gang, SEALDs and Mothers Against War have given a voice to people whose grievances and objections have consistently been ignored by a ruling political class. “We’re not going to see democracy in this country unless the ‘silent majority’ speaks up,” said Saigo firmly, “That’s why we need the voices of everyday people.” The fight for democracy will not be an easy one. Following the Paris attacks in November, Abe has bolstered his rhetoric on expanding Japan’s foreign military presence. On December 4, his administration announced that Japan will launch an anti-terrorism intelligence unit, sending officials to areas with “high terrorist activity” in Southeast Asia, the Middle East, and northwestern Africa. Mounting fear over terrorist attacks has also shifted public opinion on Abe’s militarism—his approval ratings went up 3.5 points, to 48.3 percent, with close to 80 percent of respondents expressing concerns over terrorist attacks happening in Japan. In response to the West’s escalation of airstrikes against Daesh, SEALDs posted on its Facebook page (in English): “We are confident that this kind of military intervention is not an ideal way to solve the problem. No more vicious cycle of interventionism and terrorism.” As Japan faces increasing pressure to join the West’s fight against Daesh, the strength of today’s antiwar movement will undoubtedly be put to the test.

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Saskia Kaltenbrunner, Cross-Faculty Studies, University of Warwick An examination of the science stories that make the news and that are discussed in the media reveals that the amount of attention they receive is significantly less than would be proportional to scientific advances. Academic literature from the field of linguistics and from the sciences is analysed to establish that, on the one hand, it is inherent to the language of science to not be easily adaptable to the language of the media and, on the other hand, it is the discourse around science that has created this idea. Furthermore, it is discussed whether this dichotomy has to be seen as a problem. Keywords: Science news, media, use of language, scientific illiteracy, target audience If the science news that made the headlines in the past few years is examined, it may be seen that the list is short: health crises, like the outbreak of bird flu and Ebola; certain new technologies such as the Tesla-autopilot; and some science stories which are focused more from a political than from a scientific angle, for instance studies about climate change. In his book Bad Science, Ben Goldacre classifies the only three categories of science stories that get high exposure in the media as 'the wacky stories, the "breakthrough" stories, and the "scare" stories' (Goldacre, 2009: 225). But if we look further than the headlines of national newspapers, the representation that natural science gets in the media is not nearly proportional to the daily advancements and discoveries (and also failures), or to the attention received by politics or economics. The aim of this article is to establish whether this is because the language of the media and the language of science are fundamentally incompatible, or whether it is due to human failure in connecting science and the media. In order to answer these questions, it is necessary to analyse both the language of science and the language of the media and to understand who creates each of them and for which purpose. The language of the media varies greatly, yet there are some general points that can be made. Television, radio and newspapers in general, by definition, have the goal of informing, educating, entertaining and attracting an audience. However, in the process of creating news stories there are many different stakeholders, and their interests differ. To be successful, these media need to be persuasive and to achieve this, they need to appeal to the public and in particular to the group of readers at whom they are aimed. Depending on the target audience a story in the media can be written or spoken in a very colloquial register or it can be very formal; it can be shorter or longer, using more technical vocabulary or less, and so on. The aim of appealing to a group of people is achieved both through content and through vocabulary and style of writing. The need to attract readers has always been there, but it is now more important than ever, as the digital revolution means that different forms of media compete for survival. Traditional print media are disappearing; most of the major newspapers like The Times or The Guardian make part of their content available in a digital format. The ones that survive are those that either adapt to new times and find a digital format that works for them, or those that find a way to have stories that cannot be found anywhere else (Singer, 2011). Thus it becomes more important than ever for journalists to find out what the public is interested in and to provide them with it. On the other hand, as to the language of science, there seems to be a long tradition of believing that there is no need for it to be understood by a large audience. The origin of this idea is that science is supposed to be objective and does not need the approval of the public in order to be true. However, the idea is also enhanced by the fact that the public is increasingly not expected to know about science. As C. P. Snow famously explains in his lecture and text about 'The Two Cultures', there is a widening gap between humanities and natural sciences and an implication of this seems to be that 'scientific illiteracy' increases and that it becomes generally accepted that the public is not interested in and not informed about science (Snow, 1961). While the general public is expected to know about literature and history, it seems to be acceptable to not know about physics, chemistry or biology. Snow gives as an example how it is fully accepted in society that a person might not be able to explain or enunciate the first principle of thermodynamics, which would be equivalent to knowing about the most famous authors and philosophers in humanities and literature. The language of science is often considered 'too complicated' for an audience without a scientific education. In his book The Language of Science, M. A. K. Halliday identifies several reasons for which readers without a scientific education can feel excluded from scientific discourse. He lists 'interlocking definitions, technical taxonomies, special expressions, lexical density, syntactic ambiguity, grammatical metaphor, semantic discontinuity' (Halliday, 2004: 138). As a linguist, Halliday focuses heavily on the grammar and vocabulary used in the world of science, and this is essential to explaining, maybe not on a conceptual level, how natural sciences are different from social sciences or humanities but, on a linguistic level, what maybe makes science less present in the media. Science demands accuracy and this is often only possible through very specific vocabulary. What Halliday refers to as 'interlocking definitions' means that explaining some terms demands other scientific terminology. Scientific vocabulary is very different from everyday language and essentially what Halliday is saying is that to understand a scientific text, there is always background knowledge needed. He is, however, only presenting scientific language as it is; he is not saying that this is the only possibility. Just as there is a long tradition of not educating the public in scientific matters, there is also a long tradition of making 'scientific' synonymous with 'inaccessible'. This has created the myth that scientific texts need to be complicated, and if the public can understand a text, it is not scientific. Yet, making an effort to simplify the language of science in the mass media would make it possible for a greater number of people to understand the basics of the world of science. Scientific language is nothing definite, it is what society has turned science into, and it can always be changed. So why does this not happen? Because scientists do not need to rely on the public for approval of their work, and both journalists and the public have believed the myth that science is 'too complicated'. None of the involved groups has an obvious interest in making science accessible. As in Snow´s argumentation, there is a tendency to identify immediately the lack of science news as a problem, and the incompatibility of the language of science and the language of the media as the cause of the problem. However a question that it is worth considering is: maybe it is reasonable that many science stories do not make the news? Maybe a short news story is not the right format for science stories: news stories are meant to be short, factual accounts of something that affects us in our day-to-day life. Many of the most important scientific discoveries happen in very specialised fields, which means that even if scientific illiteracy is reduced, a majority of the public would need a long explanation to understand the discovery. While the problem of scientific illiteracy is still existent, it would take a long explanation to transmit the most basic scientific concept to non-scientists, and new discoveries usually cannot be explained with only basic concepts. Additionally, they are often not applicable to day-to-day life. And furthermore, based on Karl Popper´s principle of falsifiability, science is, in its foundations, something which constantly proves itself wrong. Popper has been criticised for this assumption by many contemporary and subsequent philosophers, most famously by Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend; however, whether it is intentional or not, history proves that scientists constantly prove previous theories wrong and replace previous paradigms. One very obvious example is the theory of evolution and of the origin of life, which developed over the centuries until Charles Darwin's theory finally replaced Lamarck´s. This makes it risky to publish something as a fact, as only a short time later it could already be outdated. And when journalists – often scientifically illiterate themselves – publish facts which turn out to be wrong, and sometimes even exaggerate them in order to sell more copies, this can have a much bigger impact on the public than a misconducted experiment in a lab. An example of this phenomenon is the scandal around the measles, mumps and rubella (MMR) vaccination in Britain in the late 1990s and early 2000s. In a study that received significant news coverage, scientist Andrew Wakefield claimed that there was a link between the MMR vaccination and autism. MMR coverage in Britain consequently dropped to its lowest point since the programme was introduced (Burgess et al., 2006). For years, stories about children with autism dominated the headlines, until eventually Wakefield´s claims were proven wrong. The public's perception of risk is shaped in great part by the media, which is why it is important that science stories are in the news, but also that they are supported by sufficient evidence. The way to prevent this from happening in the future is a better communication between scientists and journalists and a higher interest in science stories in general on behalf of the audience, so that there is no need to exaggerate a story in order to attract attention. Therefore, in a way, it is true that the language of science is not the easiest to adapt to media directed at a large public. This does not necessarily mean that it is an impossible task, and assuming that it is impossible only makes none of the involved parties – scientists, the media and the audience – take responsibility for increasing general knowledge about science. Short news stories are not the only format that could give science stories exposure in the public. Documentaries, for instance, have exactly the right format to appeal to a wide public, while still educating and informing about science. And if an audience receives a basic scientific education through other forms of media, it is then also better prepared to understand new scientific discoveries or experiments. The underrepresentation of science in the media is a fact, and it is both a cause and a consequence of scientific illiteracy. A possible explanation for the lack of science stories is the above statement, claiming that science stories simply cannot be adapted to the media because the language of science is simply not made for the media. This is supported by an analysis of the language of media and science. However, the analysis only shows how the language of science is right now, it does not mean that it is impossible to simplify it to make it accessible to a wider public. Thus, a much more likely explanation seems to be a lack of interest in science stories either on the side of the readers or of the writers, maybe on both. In a study conducted in Vienna in 2013, Jan Karlseder, a molecular biologist at the Salk Institute in California, explained: Many scientists find it difficult to explain their work in a way that laypersons will understand. Often they are lacking not only the ability, but also the will, which is a problem, considering that most funding for science comes from the public. Journalism can fill this gap. On the other hand, it is often difficult to communicate with journalists, because they don´t always have the aim of explaining science, but are looking for sensationalist stories, which makes many scientists careful when interacting with them. This problem can be solved through professional journalists. The word 'fundamentally' suggests that, by definition, there is no way of adapting the language of science to the language of the media, as if they were polar opposites. However, as a look at media and scientific language shows, this is more than questionable. Long scientific investigations might not have the format for short news stories, but this does not justify how they are not present in other channels of communication. The problem is not that the language of science is fundamentally incompatible with the language of the media; the problem is finding someone who has an interest in adapting it. Saskia Kaltenbrunner is in the second year of her BA in Liberal Arts specialising on Social Justice at the University of Warwick. Bichler, K. and A. Kaltenbrunner (2013), Magnetnadeln im Heuhaufen Zur Arbeits-, Bildungs- und Ausbildungssituation von Bildungs- und WissenschaftsjournalistInnen in Österreich, Vienna: Klub der Bildungs- und Wissenschaftsjournalisten Burgess, David C., M. A. Burgess and J. Leask (2006), 'The MMR vaccination and autism controversy in United Kingdom 1998–2005: Inevitable community outrage or a failure of risk communication?' Vaccine, 24 (18), 3921–28, available at http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X06002076, accessed 21 December 2016 Goldacre, B. (2009), Bad Science, London: Fourth Estate Halliday, M.A.K., J. J. Webster and M. A. K. Halliday, 'Collected Works of M.A.K. Halliday: The Language of Science, Volume 5', available at Ebrary, http://site.ebrary.com/lib/warwick/reader.action?docID=10224907, accessed 3 January 2017 Singer, J., D. Domingo, A. Heinonen, A. Hermida, S. Paulussen, T. Quandt, Z. Reich and M. Vujnovic (2011), Participatory Journalism, Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell Snow, C. P. (1961), The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution, New York: Cambridge University Press, New York, available at http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/students/envs_5110/snow_1959.pdf, accessed 3 January 2017 To cite this paper please use the following details: Kaltenbrunner, S. (2017), 'Are the Language of the Media and the Language of Science Fundamentally Incompatible?', Reinvention: an International Journal of Undergraduate Research, Volume 10 Issue 2: Featuring the Eramus+ BLASTER Project, https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/iatl/reinvention/archive/volume10issue2/blaster/kaltenbrunner. Date accessed [insert date]. If you cite this article or use it in any teaching or other related activities please let us know by e-mailing us at Reinventionjournal at warwick dot ac dot uk.

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The ball went into the basket and player gets one free throw, foul is called, shot was made from field of play and opponent can block shot at this point if they wish. Players have to be able to make shots while in close proximity to their opponents which makes it difficult when fouled or blocked from behind as well as in other ways on the court due to limited space. Rules for making a free throw are different depending on how far away from the hoop you are; whether you’re inside or outside of it determines your chances for success with each type of attempt. If an opposing player tries to block your shot by jumping up high, sometimes all that’s needed is good timing – just aim low and shoot through the defender’s legs. And finally remember: don’t take too many free throws; try not to get bogged down in goal-scoring territory. Don’t forget about playing defense either – keep those players off balance so they can’t score easily. What Does And 1 Mean In Basketball? If a player’s shot goes in the basket, they are given one free throw; if that free throw is successful, their opponent cannot block the next shot attempt from them. If a foul is called on either team at any point during play (including after balls have been bouncing), both teams can now shoot for goal as normal–regardless of who was originally fouled or how far away from the hoop they were when it happened. Shots taken from within the field of play are generally easier to make since defenders don’t get in your way and you won’t be facing an opposing player directly while shooting. Blocking shots at this point isn’t really worth it unless you think your teammate has a good chance of making the shot anyway; otherwise, let them try their luck. The Ball Went In In basketball, an “and 1” is a free throw that allows the player to take one more shot instead of going back out to defend. The and 1 can be very important in deciding whether or not your team will score, as it gives you another chance to make a play. If the ball goes into the net after an and 1, then it’s called a “bounce pass.” And 1s are usually made by taller players who have better range on their shots, so they can get away from defenders easier. Sometimes when teams are behind in the game and need one last basket to win, they’ll go for an and 1 instead of trying for a regular shot—it can pay off big time. Player Gets One Free Throw When a player gets one free throw, it’s an opportunity to score points for their team. The player must make the shot from where they are standing on the court no running or jumping allowed. The ball can be passed to another teammate before shooting, but once it is in the shooter’s hand, they cannot pass it again. Fouls will result in loss of possession and subsequent disqualification from play; this includes grabbing at opponents’ bodies as well as intentional kicking off of teammates during free throws with no chance for recovery by that team (unless goaltending occurs). Knowing when and how to take advantage of free throws is key to winning any game. Foul Is Called In basketball, and 1 is called when a player commits a personal foul a violation of the rules that results in giving their opponent an advantage on the court. A player who commits a personal foul can be penalized with a technical foul, which also gives their opponent an edge. The more severe penalties for committing personal fouls include ejection from the game and suspension from play. To avoid getting caught up in fouling , players must mind their own playing space, stay aware of where their opponents are at all times, and not make contact with them unnecessarily . When it comes to making key plays or stopping opposing offenses, physicality isn’t always necessary and sometimes it’s even counterproductive . Shot Was Made From the Field of Play A shot made from the field of play is called a field goal. Field goals are worth three points, and they’re one of the main ways that teams score during basketball games. The player who makes the shot is usually awarded possession of the ball at midcourt, which allows them to start their next offensive move. Shots taken from close range (within six feet) are especially difficult for defenders to stop, making them very valuable in game situations. If you’re able to make an accurate field goal, it can help your team win by increasing its chances of scoring more points overall Opponent Can Block Shot at This Point If They Wish When an opponent blocks a shot at this point in the game, they can choose to let it go through or take the ball away from their teammate. This decision is important as it can determine who will end up with the ball and have more opportunities for scoring. Why is it called AND1? AND1 is a term used in Basketball that originates from when a player is fouled while scoring a shot – the player is awarded one free throw. If they player makes the free throw this earns them an ‘and 1’. The name for this situation comes from when players would say “and one” after making their free throws to signify that it was only their second attempt at the goal, or even just as confirmation of what had just happened on-court. Although its namesake may be rooted in basketball, AND1 clothing and accessories can be found across all genres of fashion today. What does AND1 mean slang? AND1 stands for “and one.” It’s an abbreviation for “and one.” AND1 stands for the fact that one player has fouled another player, effectively giving them an ‘and 1’ advantage in the game. It refers to the fact that one player has fouled another player, effectively giving them an ‘and 1’ advantage in the game. When someone fouls another person while they’re taking a shot, ORD typically abbreviates it as AND1 What does and 1 mean in NBA? In the NBA, and One is used to signify a timeout in the last two minutes of the fourth quarter or overtime. The play is executed when one team has possession of the ball with less than ten seconds remaining on the clock in either half or in overtime. When to use it depends on how close down time is; if there are under six minutes left in regulation or OT then using and One is advantageous, but if there are more than six minutes left then it’s not as necessary because teams will utilize other time-saving plays (e.g., runs). Opposition to and One comes from opponents who feel that their opponent should be given all possible opportunities during this critical part of the game; some may also view it as an unfair advantage for whichever team happens to have and One available at any given moment due to its strategic value (i.e., “trying too hard”/”cheating”). Although potential positives of using And 1 include preserving leads/overtime victories, maintaining momentum late in games, etc., some argue that it can also lead to sloppy play/losing contests because both teams become ultra-focused on trying not to let their opponent score rather than playing offense themselves (due perhaps more emphasis being put on defending instead). IS and 1 a foul call? Officiating crews have a difficult job, but they do it well most of the time. There are times when an officiating crew makes a mistake though- like calling And-1 on goal in game one of the Stanley Cup Final between Boston and Nashville. The call didn’t go over well with either team, as shot attempts still went in due to own superiority because of it. However, typically the call is confident and referees don’t hesitate to make them often enough for players’ safety. So although And-1 calls can be controversial, they’re usually just part of the game and won’t affect your chances too much come playoff time What does 2 mean in basketball? In basketball, the number 2 typically refers to the player who is playing as the point guard. This position generally requires good passing skills and ball handling ability. - As a shooting guard or point guard, having the number 2 on your jersey means you are responsible for guarding players at either the two or three spot (depending on whether you are a small forward or power forward). - When playing as a shooting guard, it’s important to have good court vision and passing skills; being able to find open teammates quickly is also essential. - Finally, don’t forget about your defensive responsibilities when playing as a 2 player: be aware of where your opponent is at all times and stay ready to contest shots attempt-wise. Where does AND1 come from? AND1 is an acronym for “Animal Derived Nucleic Acids”. They are a type of protein that play a role in the body’s cells. AND1 is found in meat, dairy products, eggs and other animal-derived foods. AND1 was founded in 1993 by Jay Coen Gilbert, Seth Berger, and Tom Austin while they were graduate students at the University of Pennsylvania’s Wharton School. AND1 sells athletic footwear and clothing. And 1 also manufactures skateboards, bicycles, backpacks, and other sporting goods. And 1 has a cult following among college-aged males. AND1 is headquartered in Philadelphia. Who started AND1? AND1 is a rap group founded by André 3000 and record producer DJ Premier in 1992. The group has released several successful albums, including 1996’s “Wildflower,” 1998’s “The Chronic” and 2002’s “The Lords of the Underground.” In addition, Andre 3000 has had a prolific career as a solo artist with hits like 1999’s “Hey Ya.” and 2005’s “Crushin’.” DJ Premier is also an accomplished producer who has worked with acts like A Tribe Called Quest, De La Soul and Black Star Linq among others. Are there 1 and 1s in NBA? In basketball, a one-one score is when a player scores one point by shooting the ball through the hoop. This is also known as a field goal. In other words, it’s an individual achievement or success that doesn’t involve team play. There are 1 and 1s in NBA too – each game has exactly ninety minutes played and no more than twelve seconds per possession. So there are actually 1011 opportunities for players to achieve something on the court. In International Basketball, the 1-and-1 Rule Is in Effect After a Player’s Fifth Foul. If a Team is in the Bonus Situation, a Fouled Player Will Always Receive 2 Free Throw. The One-and-One Rule does not Exist in the NBA. A fouled player will always receive 2 free throws regardless of whether or not they are in the bonus situation. This rule comes from basketball terminology that uses numbers to describe different situations. The one and one rule applies after a player has committed their fifth foul. If this occurs, then the other team will be given two chances to score on that possession by either taking an extra free throw or making a shot at the charity stripe. However, this rule does not apply when teams are playing within regular time limits – for example if it is halftime or later in regulation play. In these cases, any fouls committed would result in just one free throw being awarded to whichever team was fouled (regardless of whether it was their fifth). In basketball, “and 1” is a play in which a player gets the ball and then shoots one free throw. If he makes the free throw, he then has the opportunity to get the ball again and shoot another free throw. This can be very effective when used in combination with other plays on the court. A dime in basketball is a small amount of money that is given to players at the beginning of each game. It is usually given to the player who makes the first basket, or the player who has the most assists. Pepper games in baseball refer to any game where two teams play against each other, with the objective of preventing the other team from winning. It is a type of game that can be used as a tie-breaker or when one team has already won. When you play basketball, it’s important to keep your hands close to the ball at all times. If you catch an airball, that is when the ball goes off the side of the court and into your hand before it reaches the ground. There is a curve in football which affects the trajectory of the ball. This curve, or “s-curve” as it is commonly referred to, makes the ball travel further than if it were round. In baseball, a P.O. is short for “pitcher’s out.” When a pitcher completes his turn at the plate, he is said to be out if any of the following are true: he strikes out, bunts over the head of the first baseman or catcher, fields a batted ball cleanly, and throws to first base. Hitting a two-handed forehand is an important part of tennis. It’s a great weapon to use against your opponents when you’re in control of the point and need to take the ball away from them.

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Learn how upskilling yourself in key in-demand digital skills can level-up your CV, and reboot your prospects in a competitive jobs market. Professional services firm Accenture has teamed up with FutureLearn to provide a suite of free digital skills courses. Covering topics such as web analytics, social media, and artificial intelligence, these courses are designed to equip learners with essential digital skills for the modern century workplace. But what are digital skills, why are they so important, and how can you learn them? Read on to find out more. What are basic digital skills? Digital skills are broadly defined as those needed to “use digital devices, communication applications, and networks to access and manage information,” in UNESCO’s terms. This covers a huge range and variety of skills, of course. There are different tiers of digital skills. At the bottom, we have what the UK Department for Education (DfE) calls “digital foundation skills”. These are the basic digital skills that will be second nature to Millennials and Generation Z digital natives, though which may have to be learned by older generations. A framework written up by the DfE alongside Accenture and other organisations outlines these basic digital skills under six areas. These are then subdivided into skills for life and additional skills for work. - Digital foundation skills – the fundamentals of being able to use digital technologies, such as using a browser, connecting to the internet, and keeping passwords secure. - Communicating – sending emails securely, using attachments, and participating on social media. - Handling information and content – using search engines, being aware that not all online content is reliable, accessing content across devices. - Transacting – setting up accounts to use or purchase goods/services online, using different secure payment methods, filling in online forms. - Problem-solving – finding solutions to problems using FAQs/tutorials/chat, presenting solutions through software, and improving productivity. - Being safe and legal online – understanding best practice in data storage/sharing, updating and keeping passwords secure, and taking precautions against viruses. These are defined as the basic digital skills needed in a day-to-day professional or personal context. They will be enough for many working in traditional workplaces which have adopted digital systems to improve efficiency, security, and connectivity. What are advanced digital skills? On the other hand, those looking to work in the growing digital sector itself will need to possess more advanced skills pertaining to specific areas of digital business. These include, but are no means limited to, areas covered in the digital skills courses: The internet has completely changed the marketing game, bringing a level of precision and scale unknown in the pre-digital age. Specialised digital skills are required in order to navigate this new terrain, with expert practitioners often focusing on one specific discipline. These include things like pay-per-click advertising, search engine optimisation, email marketing, as well as the strategy to bring them together. Social media digital skills are crucial to the digital marketing mix, but are worth pulling out as social media has come to play such a significant role in our day-to-day as well as professional lives. Social media management tools, performance measurement, new channel research, brand presence/voice, influencer marketing, and paid vs organic all play a part in connecting with prospective and current users. Just as the actual experience of shopping in brick-and-mortar stores plays an essential role in driving sales, the experience of using a website or mobile app is key to leading users to do what the website or app owner wants them to do. Indeed, it is even more central, as users can only use a website in predetermined ways. Thus, we have the area of digital skills known as user experience, or UX. This is the art of making sure that apps, websites, and other digital channels are intuitive and enjoyable to use. Part of what makes the digital age distinct from before is precision. We can clearly understand the behaviour patterns of those using digital platforms. For businesses, this also means being able to quantifiably track the successes and failures of their digital initiatives. The digital skillset involved in collating and making sense of this data is web analytics. Things like benchmarking, audience segmentation, and measurement all fall under the remit of web analytics. Artificial intelligence may still have something of a science fiction ring to it, even compared with the aforementioned digital skills. Nonetheless, artificial intelligence is playing an increasing role in modern businesses. Rather than the sentient robots of cinematic lore, AI is about teaching machines to do jobs, predict, and make decisions based on detailed computation of past examples. Think of the automation of tasks to improve efficiency, by no means limited only to manual work, with business process automation playing an increasing role in modern workplaces (not even medicine or law are exempt). Machine learning from big data in order to make better strategic decisions or to predict how people will act in a given context is also set to be key. These represent only a handful of advanced digital skills. Other examples include data visualization, web and app development, CRM software, video production, and search engine marketing (SEM). Why are digital skills important? Digital skills are important because they underpin so much of how modern work is conducted. For many modern professions, digital skills are simply essential skills. A 2017 study from the European Commission found that 93% of European workplaces use computers, with 94% utilising broadband internet. These are across all industries; even farmers, the report points out, require digital skills in the 21st century. The requirement for digital skills is higher in professional careers, finds the report. 90% of professionals are required to possess at least basic digital skills, increasing to 98% of managers. In many workplaces, basic skills will not suffice: 50% of professionals and technicians, and 30% of managers are required to have specialist digital skills. This is particularly the case in larger organisations. This is by no means limited to the UK and Europe. A US-study from Burning Glass for Capital One found that 82% of middle-skill jobs required digital skills. Clearly, then, digital competency is at the core of the modern professional skillset. This need is only likely to increase further as business shifts increasingly to the digital realm. According to stats from Retail Economics, we will see over 50% of retail sales in the UK taking place online before the end of the decade. ONS statistics show that internet sales already account for as much as 20% of total sales. This percentage has been climbing rapidly since the ONS began to measure these figures, tripling over the last 10 years. On a wider scale, the UN reports that estimates for the value of the digital economy vary, from 4.5% to 15.5% of world GDP. Either way, that’s a significant sum. This is a truly international phenomenon. Digitally deliverable service exports accounted for 50% of service exports, with a total value of $3 trillion. The need for digital skills will only continue to increase. This will be exacerbated by Industry 4.0 – or the fourth industrial revolution. This will see a greater drive towards automation and cross-system data exchange, with two consequences: the loss of roles as they are automated, and a greater demand for those with advanced digital skills. The World Economic Forum estimated in 2019 that 133 million new roles will be created by 2022 as a result of the new division of labour between humans, machines, and algorithms. The most in-demand skills, according to WEF estimates, will be big data analytics, app and web-enabled markets, and the internet of things. Finally, we might note that the coronavirus pandemic has put a further spin on matters. Workers who previously relied on in-person interaction now are compelled to use digital technologies to carry out their day-to-day functions. The pandemic will not last forever, but it is likely that remote working will become a more deeply-ingrained part of everyday working life. How big is the digital skills gap? Despite the importance of digital skills, there is a skills gap. In the UK, according to the Department for Education, the problems run deep, with 10% of working adults not in possession of basic digital skills. We can safely assume, then, that digital skills at a higher level will be sorely lacking. Indeed, only 12% of executives believed that UK graduates had satisfactory digital skills in 2018, according to Deloitte, down from 20% in 2017. Three quarters reported experiencing challenges in digital recruitment. This digital skills gap has consequences not only for job seekers, but industry itself. The European Commission found that 38% of workplaces suffered negative results as a consequence of a lack of digital skills. This digital skills gap is more pronounced in highly-skilled professions. An EY report from 2018 echoes this. Almost half of European companies, according to their data, lacked skills in the areas of AI, cybersecurity, and robotics. For those sufficiently well-equipped and willing to develop such digital skills, there are opportunities, with 89% of companies intending to invest in training in order to rectify these digital skills gaps. In the US, a Deloitte report from the same year found that Industry 4.0 was spurring rapid growth in job opportunities, though at the same time highlighting the scale of the digital skills gap. The professional services firm predicted that some 2.4 million jobs would be left unfilled from 2018 to 2028, with a potential economic impact of $2.5 trillion. While the coronavirus pandemic will slow down hiring, these highly-relevant positions are likely to be among the first to recover as businesses adjust to new ways of doing things. Those with digital skills will be well placed to prosper. How do I learn digital skills? The European Commission reports that while businesses report the negative impact of lacking digital skills, they have not been proactive in rectifying this. No fewer than 88% of workplaces have not engaged in any digital skills training for employees. The high cost of training is the most common impediment. The onus remains on companies to upskill their employees. Some employees, however, may wish to take digital skills training into their own hands to improve processes and results, as well as their own employability. Having a grounding in digital skills can also help make the case to employers of their value – hopefully encouraging investment and further training. For such employees wondering how to improve digital skills, as well as companies interested in upskilling their workforce, the suite of Accenture digital skills courses available on FutureLearn may prove a valuable introduction. These courses are available for free, removing cost as a barrier to entry for either constituency. For those who wish and are able to embark on more in-depth studies, a range of different options are available, including professional certifications courses, diplomas, and master’s degrees. Online options sit alongside local provision in colleges and universities. For companies in which digital skills are present, one of the key channels through which digital skills are imparted is on-the-job training, with junior staff learning and honing their digital skills with their managers. For companies going through digital transformations in particular, the passing of digital skills between employees will be a key learning channel. The barrier for entry will be higher, however, where companies have completed their digital transformation, or in other cases are startups that have only existed in digital form. For such organisations, prospective employees at all but the most junior levels are required to be in possession of such skills before even being considered for roles. Those looking to gain such skills can benefit from the Accenture digital skills course available through FutureLearn, and similar courses. These can benefit those looking to upskill and retrain, and can also serve as an introduction to further study. Digital skills you can acquire on these courses include: - PPC marketing - Email marketing - Mobile design principles - Mobile optimisation - Omni-channel marketing - Improving customer experience with digital technologies - Social media marketing - Performance measurement - Web analytics - Audience segmentation - Social listening - Learning how AI can change your business For those looking to hone their basic digital skills, various tutorials, courses, and how-to guides are available online. Local community provision might also be another way for those who prefer learning in-person. For those unable to make the first few steps, friends and family play an invaluable role, as well as local community courses. Various charities and other organisations also provide basic digital skills training to older users. Those who know fundamental skills but are unsure of the next steps to take might benefit from Digital Skills: Grow Your Career. How can digital skills help my career? Acquiring digital skills will undoubtedly improve your career prospects. In the above section where we discuss why digital skills are important, we highlighted how more and more roles require digital skills. In addition to this, new roles have come into being based around new digital skills. 15 years ago, web analysts, social media consultants, and PPC managers did not exist. Acquiring digital skills will therefore allow you to compete in this context. Quite simply, there is a point in the not-too-distant future at which all non-manual roles will hinge on digital skills. UK Government stats from 2019 show that 82% of job openings required digital skills. These skills will also give your career staying power once you get a foot in the door; possessing specific digital skills such as SEO reduces a worker’s risk of automation by 59%. The need for digital skills become more pronounced as we climb the career ladder – and will therefore be necessary for those seeking promotions. Another study conducted by Burning Glass, this time in the UK at the behest of the UK Government, found that listings for 83% of high-skill jobs and 85% of mid-skill jobs specifically called for digital skills. This compares to 77% of low-skill jobs; in itself an extremely high concentration. Those with digital skills enjoy earnings premiums. The Burning Glass/Capital One US study cited above found that middle skills jobs that required basic digital skills paid $20/hour on average, compared to $15/hour for non-digital jobs. If we narrow the focus to advanced digital skills, the hourly rate becomes $28, putting earners in the top quartile. Those at all levels were found to enjoy earnings premiums, according to the Burning Glass study. This becomes more pronounced at the top, with high-skill workers with digital skills earning 33% more than those in non-digital occupations. For middle-skill jobs the figure is 19%, and even in low-skill jobs, the differential is a still notable 14%. Again, the premium becomes even greater with advanced digital skills. The average salary for those with specific digital skills across skill levels stands at £40,000, compared to £29,500 for those with basic digital skills. Finally, digital skills can also stand to boost the career of those who want to embrace the flexibility of freelance work. The digitisation of existing skillsets, and the creation of new digital professions means that remote and flexible working are more possible than ever. With the right skills, software and a good internet connection, anyone can be a digital freelancer. Even the modes of pitching have become digital, with 2.8 million UK freelancers (out of a total of 4.8 million) reportedly offering their services through apps. There are apps, notes Forbes for every profession. Find free digital skills training

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Server Virtualization: Potential Benefits To A Business Essays Example In today’s world, a lot of computers are only using about 15% of their capacity, which means that about 85% of a computer system’s resources are not being used to its maximum potential. This can be corrected through virtualization, which would help companies increase computer utilization in an efficient and effective manner. This would also result to cost effectiveness as companies will not have to spend too much money on servers. While the concept of virtualization has been around for more than 10 years already, still, a huge number of companies have not adopted the technology and still designed their computer infrastructure using separate physical servers. Virtualization is a technology concept that can increase utilization of computer systems and lead to performance gains. What is Virtualization? Virtualization is a technology concept that has gained popularity among those who want to efficiently run their computer systems and are looking for performance gains without having to spend too much on the infrastructure. The concept of virtualization involves the use of several virtual machines or VMs running on a single computer or machines. This means a single computer, which is considered as the host computer, can run multiple guest operating systems or OS, at a given time. The partitioning of one physical server into several virtual servers is what makes the concept efficient. Each of the virtual servers created can run on its own using the operating system and applications assigned to it, and thus, run as an individual server. This is made possible by the several operating systems installed on the physical server (“What is Server Virtualization?”). In the past, multiple physical servers are used to run similar applications, which add to the IT hardware costs of a company. Doing so does not guarantee performance gains, but instead only contribute to expenses and the need for more physical space. However, by segmenting a computer system into multiple operating systems, applications can be run independently or in small groups. As a result, hardware resources can be efficiently sectioned for various applications that are resource-intensive. Another great concept about virtualization is that the different operating systems and the host operating system do not need to be the same. Thus, combinations of various operating systems such as Linux, UNIX, or BSD, among others, can run alongside a host Windows OS (“What is Server Virtualization?”). Potential Benefits of Virtualization Virtualization is the answer if net gain in computing power is necessary although it would require additional resources other than a single OS installation. For instance, increasing server usage from 15% to 80% would result to elimination of extra physical servers, which would equate to huge savings in terms of maintenance. Under these circumstances, a company thinking moving towards server virtualization is merely consolidating what would have been multiple physical servers into one machine acting as the virtual server (Vincenti, 2010). As in the case of the midsized business, which has a data center consisting of 47 physical servers in five cabinets, the company can benefit a lot if it opts to use virtual servers in place of its current set up. Additionally, considering that a single server is good only for three years, replacing the servers at regular intervals is rampant because servers are purchased at different times, adding to the difficulty in maintaining the units and the costs associated with it. Because of these, moving from single-server approach to server virtualization will be advantageous for the company. Consolidation of servers. By breaking up physical servers into virtual servers, the number of physical servers are reduced, which could help in the company saving on power and cooling costs. Other sources of cost reduction include decrease in data center footprint such as UPS costs, generator costs, network switch costs, and rack and floor space (Marshall, 2011). Cost savings. Apart from savings the company will get from decreasing the number of physical servers, the company also saves time in maintaining and administering the physical servers. As a result, all employees become even more productive (Vincenti, 2010). Increase uptime. Server virtualization platforms present various advanced features that facilitate continuity of business and increased uptime. These include “live migration, storage migration, fault tolerance, high availability, and distributed resource scheduling” (Marshall, 2011). These features give companies the flexibility of planning their computer system infrastructure that will aid in issues related to unplanned outages. As the technology reaches maturation, long-distance data migration becomes easier as virtual machines are moved from one data center to another. Image-based backup and restore features. Using virtual machines, back up and restoration of the whole virtual machine can be completed quickly and accurately because of computer and data imaging. Considering that snapshots can be done with just a few clicks, redeploying is faster and downtime is cut (Wallen, 2013). Do more with less. With server virtualization, IT administrators and departments are able to efficiently and effectively manage server or application problems because computer problems can be compartmentalized, thus, localizing a computer issue to where the problem is instead of touching the whole server. By isolating application issues, other users of the same server are not affected by computer problems experienced by other users (Marshall, 2011). No vendor lock-in. Because virtual servers can accommodate different applications and operating systems, the company does not have to stick with one vendor alone for all the server requirements. Instead, it can avail of services of various vendor companies in ensuring the effectiveness and efficiency of the computer system. Therefore, companies get a free hand in choosing the server equipment that will give them greater flexibility (Wallen, 2013). Evaluating Vendor Proposals When choosing the vendor for server virtualization, the company must consider the following prior to coming up with a final decision. Vendor’s industry expertise and experience – pertains to the vendor’s market and industry experience in handling migration from traditional server set up to server virtualization set up, includes vendor’s company profile and background. Assigned weight: 2 Architecture – best presentation of plans for server virtualization project. Assigned weight: 3 Requirement satisfaction – understanding of requirements and technical concepts as defined in the project scope and compliance of products and services to project requirements. Assigned weight: 3 System administration – IT personnel and Support group to work with company. Assigned weight: 3 Capability – competence in completing scope of work, including timeline of deliverables and milestones. Assigned weight: 3 Expressed interest – pertains to the overall soundness of the whole proposal in terms of requirements satisfaction, delivery, additional IT services, and cost. Assigned weight: 2 Vendor strength and capability – vendor’s overall performance record, including responsiveness and feedback from previous customers. Assigned weight: 3 Reporting capabilities – assigned project managers who will act as liaison between company and vendor. Assigned weight: 3 Financial considerations – presentation of overall best pricing for products and services. Assigned weight: 2 Among the three vendors that presented a proposal for the migration from traditional server set up to server virtualization, namely, Virtually Complete (Vendor A), Computing Solutions (Vendor B), and Altura Consulting (Vendor C), the logical choice to select is Altura Consulting (Vendor C), which garnered a total of 20.5 points out of a possible score of 24 points. Virtually Complete and Computing Solutions received 15 and 2.9 points, respectively. This is because in terms of experience, Altura Consulting has a combined 32 years of experience in the IT industry and has a strong reputation and knowledge of the application of technological solutions. It was able to establish itself as a reputable and trustworthy company. Altura’s project proposal seems to be the most desirable considering that the company was able to establish a clear understanding of the project, including a competent project team who will implement the project. The project team’s expertise in the IT industry, especially the solid background and credentials (such as certifications) in relevant virtualization platforms, makes them even more an ideal group to work with. The good thing about Altura’s project plan is that it presented alternative ways on how to implement the project which detailed the amount of time required completing the migration and the costs associated with the project. By presenting two options, it helps the company make an informed and wise decision in terms of identifying the best route to take in virtualization. Although the costs are relatively higher than vendors A and B, financial considerations are not much of an issue because the company would go for the vendor that satisfies their requirements. The Vendor Assessment Matrix is not meant to be an absolute determinant of a vendor’s proposal. It is expected to be used as a guide that would emphasize the differences among vendors and initiate a productive discussion among the team members. Using the matrix, the members involved in coming up with the decision can easily eliminate the proposal that falls below their expectations. Davis, D. (2011). Top 10 benefits of server virtualization. Virtualization Review. Retrieved from http://virtualizationreview.com/articles/2011/06/20/top-10-benefits-of-server-virtualization.aspx Marshall, D. (2011). Top 10 benefits of server virtualization. InfoWorld. Retrieved from http://www.infoworld.com/article/2621446/server-virtualization/top-10-benefits-of-server-virtualization.html Vincenti, B. (2010). 5 Benefits of switching to virtualization technology. GFI Blog. Retrieved from http://www.gfi.com/blog/5-benefits-switching-virtualization-technology/ Wallen, J. (2013). 10 Benefits of virtualization in the data center. TechRepublic. Retrieved from http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/10-things/10-benefits-of-virtualization-in-the-data-center/ “What is server virtualization.” (n.d.). NEC. Retrieved from http://www.nec.com/en/global/solutions/servervirtualization/merit.html Please remember that this paper is open-access and other students can use it too. If you need an original paper created exclusively for you, hire one of our brilliant writers! - Paper Writer - Write My Paper For Me - Paper Writing Help - Buy A Research Paper - Cheap Research Papers For Sale - Pay For A Research Paper - College Essay Writing Services - College Essays For Sale - Write My College Essay - Pay For An Essay - Research Paper Editor - Do My Homework For Me - Buy College Essays - Do My Essay For Me - Write My Essay For Me - Cheap Essay Writer - Argumentative Essay Writer - Buy An Essay - Essay Writing Help - College Essay Writing Help - Custom Essay Writing - Case Study Writing Services - Case Study Writing Help - Essay Writing Service - Virtualization Essays - Server Essays - Company Essays - Computers Essays - Vendor Essays - Project Essays - Software Essays - Technology Essays - Weight Essays - Business Essays - Information Essays - System Essays - Concept Essays - Vehicles Essays - Migration Essays - Center Essays - Cost Essays - Services Essays - Experience Essays - Performance Essays - Industry Essays

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Kuchi women in Parwan share their stories. In the hidden world of Kuchi nomads, women are denied education, raped, and exchanged for water. Every woman in this country has a hundred owners. It’s always been like that. Fathers, brothers, uncles, neighbors. They all believe they have the right to speak on our behalf and make decisions for us. That’s why our stories are never heard but buried with us underground. – Sahra Mani Mosawi, Filmmaker Who Are the Kuchis? April 9, 2019 – Kuchis, traditionally nomadic communities, are considered to be one of the poorest and most marginalized groups in Afghanistan. Over the centuries, Kuchis, whose numbers are estimated from 300,000 to 3 million, have pursued a migratory life, herding caravans of sheep, goats, and camels around the country. However, decades of conflict and drought have increasingly forced Afghanistan’s Kuchis to abandon their traditional lifestyle and relocate to settled areas. Some of the destitute Kuchi pastoralists have lost their livestock and sought to settle permanently and semi-permanently in unregulated areas, resulting in conflict with local residents and commanders due to the issues around land ownership and water access. With many living in refugee camps and temporary accommodations, the majority of Kuchis suffer stigma, exclusion, and discrimination at the institutional, political, and social level wherein their identity is questioned and misunderstood. The National Vulnerability Analysis Report of Afghanistan states that Kuchi communities (both nomadic and semi-sedentary) have limited access to health, education, and livelihood standards since the government doesn’t collect disaggregated data on Kuchis. The indicators are far worse for Kuchi girls and women as compared to other poor women in the country. The enervating poverty faced by Kuchis has a direct impact on girls in achieving social and well-being indicators. Women Kuchis: The Ones Left Behind Standing behind a roughly painted turquoise door, an 8-year-old girl, Lida, peeks out when she notices a group of Afghan officials and expats speaking to her father and brother. She exchanges glances and smiles, inviting herself out of a roughly structured home that can only belong to a nomadic family. Unable to conceal her excitement, Lida eagerly and carelessly takes a swift step outside the door. But then her 14-year-old brother, Tariq, standing outside with his brothers and uncles, gives her a sharp, stern look with bloodshot eyes and clenches his teeth, muttering sullenly, “How dare you – get back in.” Lida quietly lowers her eyes and hides behind the door. Her mother, Karima, appears and drags her inside a large rundown, ramshackle house. She receives two slaps on her left cheek while her 10-month-old sister, Gzifa, who is crawling, gets kicked in the face for being in the way. Gzifa cries out but no support or help is provided. Karima shuts the door behind her, kicking Gzifa almost absentmindedly again and leaving her in the dusty courtyard to cry. Ethnically, the vast majority of Kuchis are Pashtun, who have stricter gender rules. Girls as young as 8 are not allowed to leave their house without the permission of a male member of the family, which includes brothers as young as 10. In most cases a male member of the family would need to accompany her. In general, girls are not allowed to go and seek education. They get married and bear children early. Lida moved with her father and two uncles, their 9 wives, and 43 children to Parwan as sedentary Kuchis as they lost the majority of their livestock due to drought and conflict. Her brothers go to school provided by the local government. However, they don’t attend classes regularly due to corporal punishment and the quality of education. The brothers spend most of their time hanging out with other boys in the neighborhood. Access to Education and Early Marriage When asked if Lida goes to school, Hamid, her long-bearded father, breathes heavily and grunts, “No, she has to help her mother fetch water and assists in cooking.” The National Vulnerability Analysis Report also highlights a significant gender disparity in net primary school enrollment, especially among Kuchis. “While education indicators for girls in Afghanistan are improving, for Kuchi girls they have remained stagnant due to stricter traditional gender roles, insecurity and child marriage,” the Kuchi representative says. “Many girls are cast-off to resolve dispute with landowners and conflict between families. Girls as young as 7 can be married to men 30-40 years older.” Hamid announces that “Lida will be married of before she is 11,” proudly pointing toward her brothers. “They will take care of everything,” he says, at which her brothers’ chests expand and shoulders broaden. The Kuchi representative, who has asked to remain anonymous, asks Lida what she wanted: she coyly and shyly responds, “Yes, I want to get married.” The representative shaking his head, tells me that “she doesn’t even know the meaning of marriage. They are doing it just for money.” Lida has 21 other sisters, six of whom are married. Two of them, aged 13 and 14, were exchanged to resolve conflict with a landowner as Hamid’s family tried accessing clean water. Girls and boys queue up to collect water from a local hand pump recently installed by a government ministry. Photo by Ritu Mahendru. Access to Safe Water and Sexual Harassment The Danish Committee for Aid to Afghanistan in 2018 reported that only 45.5 percent of Afghans have access to safe drinking water. A large percentage of the population spends 4-7 hours to collect their drinking water from ditches, canals, and rivers, which often are polluted, and carry water-borne diseases. In many Kuchi groups, women are responsible for fetching water for household consumption. Because of the need to keep herds and encampments away from villages and cultivated land, women often have to walk considerable distances to collect water and may encounter men from outside their communities when doing so. The Kuchi representative suggests, “the important contribution of women to the pastoral economic system is often forgotten and overlooked.” Access to water is a controversial issue for nomadic and semi-sedentary Kuchis, especially if they do not have access to land. They end up relying on common property sources, such as rivers, streams, and canals, or, alternatively negotiate to buy water from private or community-owned water sources. When water is accessed without the permission of a landowner it could potentially spark life-threatening situations: blood feuds, disputes, and serious conflicts that could result in murders with impunity. This could lead to exchange of girls and women to resolve conflicts, as happened to Lida’s sisters. In addition, many young girls and women on their way to fetch water become subjects of sexual and gender-based violence. Karima recounts that her sister was raped when she went to fetch water: “She had gone with other girls to get water but she is a bit slow and is ill. She talks to herself. One of my neighbors suggested that he would drop her back home when he took her to a secluded area and raped her.” When asked if they reported the case, Karima says no. “We didn’t [report] because she brought shame to our family.” Karima didn’t know where her sister was anymore. She gravelly whispered in Pashto, “Bale me mar pase,” meaning “good riddance.” Sexual and Reproductive Health There is no disaggregated data to show the sexual and reproductive health (SRH) vulnerabilities faced by Kuchi women, who are constantly on the move and lack SRH rights support. There is a lack of data and information that clearly describes the challenges Kuchi women face. One of Hamid’s wives, Jamila, explained: “I have been pregnant 16 times and only 5 of them survived. It’s all up to God. I am tired but he doesn’t understand. I lie there like a dry cow.” Jamila, who suffers from debilitating stress, looks weak, frail, and ill. Hamid doesn’t understand why is she always ill and keeps crying. “I need to take her to the Shrine again. She is always ill and sad. I don’t know what’s wrong with her,” he says. Kuchi Afghan women face a number of challenges and deprivations. They are denied access to education, married off as children, raped, and exchanged to settle disputes. Yet policymakers and international donor agencies in Afghanistan have inadequately addressed vulnerabilities faced by Kuchi girls and women. They remain an almost invisible group in policy practices and dialogues. There is no ready information available on the lived realities of Kuchi women who have experienced or faced gender- and sexual-based violence, lack health services and education, and are married earlier. The only information on Kuchi girls and women is currently anecdotal. While the Kuchis are becoming more politically aware and are exercising their voting rights, there is a need for the government to go beyond political process and be engaged in their social realities. While evolving policies have increasingly aimed to include nomadic groups, an overemphasis on mobility has distracted policymakers from going beyond infrastructure when Kuchi needs are also social and gendered. Read original post in The Diplomat HERE

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This article is from the book Bhaja Govindam. Introduction: Bhagavad-pad-acharya, Jagad-guru Adi Shankaracharya, one of the greatest philosophers the world has ever produced, unparalleled in his Realisation, as well as in his exposition of the nature of the ultimate Reality, has commented upon all the three great scriptures that form the source of our religion Sanatana Vaidika Dharma. Vedas are the mother scriptures of those who follow the Sanatana Dharma or Hinduism. Therefore, we call it Veda-Mata (Veda, the mother) and our Dharma the Vaidika Dharma. Upanishads are that portion of the Vedas, which expounds the nature of the ultimate Reality, and thus, is one of the most important parts of these scriptures. The quintessence of the Upanishads is propounded in Srimad Bhagavad Gita in a brief, concise, aphoristic yet complete form by Bhagavan Veda-Vyasa, Bhagavan Badarayana, an amsha avatar (a partial incarnation) of Lord Vishnu. They say of him: व्यासाय विष्णुरूपाय व्यासरूपाय विष्णवे। नमो वै ब्रह्मनिधये वासिष्ठाय नमो नमः॥ [Prostrations to Vyasa, the whole universe is whose manifestation, who is a form of Lord Vishnu; again and again prostrations to him who is established in Brahman and who is the descendent of the sage Vasishtha.] He is no other than Lord Vishnu Himself, and he has given the quintessence of the vedantic philosophy, the wisdom portion of the Vedas. Just as Patanjali Maharshi gave the Yoga-sutras and Devarshi Narada and Shandilya Rishi gave to us the Bhakti-sutras, even so Bhagavan Badarayana, Maharshi Veda-Vyasa gave us the Vedanta-sutras, which are popularly known as the Brahma-sutra. It is the second great scripture upon which the entire Sanatana Dharma rests. Srimad Bhagavad Gita, which is the most lucid, concise, as well as comprehensive marvellous teachings, expounds quintessential Truth and Anubhuti, the supernal Experience of all the Brahmasutras as well as the Upanishads — the Vedanta or the end portion of the Vedas. In the Bhagavad Gita we have got the whole of Vedanta, the whole of the upanishadic wisdom. All this has been given to us in a compact form within the range of seven hundred verses in eighteen chapters in an easy question and answer form, giving normal analogies familiar to our own experience in the world. These three — the Upanishads, the Brahma-sutra and Srimad Bhagavad Gita — are known as Prasthana-trayee (the three authoritative landmarks in spiritual literature). They form the ultimate authority to decide all questions pertaining to religion, metaphysics, philosophy, sacrament, rituals, dharma and the ultimate Reality, the transcendental Reality in Hinduism. They are the three authoritative scriptures that decide in case of all disputes, and their conclusion has to be accepted as final. Great scholars and pundits say, “One’s learning or education is incomplete until one has mastered the Prasthana-trayee.” Jagad-guru Adi Shankaracharya is one of the luminous commentators of the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutra and the Bhagavad Gita. His commentary known as Shaankara-bhashya is forever of the ultimate highest standard. He has set a standard. The truths of the Bhagavad Gita, and the truths which Shankaracharya expounds in his beautiful lyric Dvadasha Manjanka — popularly known as Bhaja Govindam — are not different from each other. But the style in which it is given and the way in which it is expounded to the layman are different. Bhagavad Gita, Brahma-Sutra and the Upanishads are for a Sanskrit scholar, who has already got some background of philosophy; but for Bhaja Govindam no such background is necessary, because it tells you what you already know. It tells you home truths within the range of your own bitter and sweet experiences of this world of human nature and of the state of things that prevail in human society. The great compassionate Jagad-guru Adi Shankaracharya might have thought, ‘If these people, who are the children of Bharatavarsha, who are the descendants of those great illumined sages, who are the heirs to this wonderful cultural treasure of knowledge, are to be deprived of it, it would be a great pity. Something should be done to bring quintessence of the teachings of all the great Upanishads and the Vedanta, within easy reach of the common man. I shall, for the common man, bring to their very homes, at their very doorstep, the Upanishadic message, the loftiest truths of the Upanishads in an easy, interesting, concise style, but at the same time in a complete, compact and comprehensive way.’ And this great gift Bhaja Govindam was the outcome. Spontaneous Poetry: The origin of all the wisdom teachings was spontaneous, unrehearsed; there was no pre-meditation. Sri Shankaracharya had composed this great scripture, Bhaja Govindam, on the spur of the moment without any intention of composing something, not being aware that such a thing will come out of him. The sage Valmiki, before whom Sanskrit poetry did not exist, is known as the adi-kavi, the first poet. By a chance incident, when he was going to take a bath in the river, he saw a hunter aiming at two lovemaking birds. He was so struck, ‘Oh, this man is going to kill this loving pair!’ And spontaneously the words came out: “Ma nishad … Don’t, O hunter! . . .” So out of that heinous incident, out of the urgency to do something to prevent that dire occurrence, poetry came out spontaneously from the heart of sage Valmiki. Even so, poetry flowed spontaneously from Shankaracharya when he saw one student very diligently trying to learn by heart some grammar rule: “Dukrin karane, Dukrin karane, Dukrin karane.” In those days, schools, which were called pathshalas, were held in open. Shankaracharya was coming back after a bath in the holy Ganga in Varanasi. He heard this, and turned around. There was a scholar completely absorbed in getting by heart this grammar rule. Something struck Shankaracharya. He thought: “What is the sense if this man will stretch his brain for the whole life to remember the grammar rules? Will this help him? One day death will come and say, Come on!”: Jatasya hi dhruvo mrityuh [Certain is death for the born. Gita 2.27] One day all of us have to go, we are only passers by here, we are merely travellers; this is not our ultimate abode. Just as from the Adi-Kavi (the first poet) Valmiki spontaneous poetry had come out suddenly, unexpectedly, due to sudden self-expression, and it became the first poetic work in Sanskrit literature; even so, passing by the streets of Kashi, seeing a student intently trying to get by heart some grammar sutras, this wonderful poem Bhaja Govindam came out from the mouth of Shankaracharya spontaneously. Shankaracharya must have been moving about the streets of Varanasi, going to the gnat and taking bath, and going to Sri Vishvanath Mandir, Annapurna Mandir and all that so many times. Varanasi is full of little Sanskrit schools, pathshalas and toles. So, he might have noticed futile exercise in grammatical things so many times. But on this particular day, to our good fortune and to the good fortune of the world, somehow his attention was directed to this absurdity. Spontaneously, on the spur of the moment, the Bhaja Govindam Stotram flowed from his mouth. Perhaps he might have thought, ‘What this man is going to get after all? May be, he will become a pundit or a scholar. May be, he will set up a little school like this and it may become his source of income and profession. He may become akarmakandi and a purohit and may perform marriage ceremonies,yajnopavit samskaras, after death samskaras and all such religious rites. He may teach other students. What all these will bring to him? He will miss the purpose for which God has sent him as a human being.’ And Shankaracharya burst forth: “What is this? The whole life will be wasted in this. Instead of making use of God-given intellect for vichara, viveka and Self-realisation, here is one who is intent upon mere intellectual acrobatic exercise. This is not good. What will help him at the time of death? Adore the Lord, remember Him, take His name, Bhaja Govindam, Bhaja Govindam, Bhaja Govindam. “ The beauty of this Bhaja Govindam is that it can be sung sweetly. One of the greatest singers of our present contemporary age Padmashri M.S. Subalakshmi Mataji, who has sung before the United Nations Organization, and who has also been honoured with the great Magsaysay award, has sung this Bhaja Govindam Stotram very beautifully. The Refrain: The recurring refrain is: “Bhaja Govindam, Bhaja Govindam, Bhaja Govindam. ” Inspired at that moment by this foolish man’s giving away his God-given life, time and intellect to this little thing like getting by heart a grammar rule, Shankaracharya says: भज गोविन्दं भज गोविन्दं गोविन्दं भज मूढमते। संप्राप्ते सन्निहिते मरणे नहि नहि रक्षति ‘डुकृञ् करणे’॥ भज गोविन्दं भज गोविन्दं। Bhaja Govindam Bhaja Govindam Govindam Bhaja moodhamate; Samprapte sannihite marane Na hi na hi rakshati dukrin karane. Bhaja Govindam Bhaja Govindam. [Dhruva padam] [O deluded man! Surrender yourself to the Lord, sing the name of the Lord, take shelter in the Lord! Seek Govinda. When the inevitable death overtakes you, never, never will the grammar rule ‘dukrin karane’ take care of you. (Refrain)]. This introductory admonition explains: “When death comes, this knowledge is not going to save you. Therefore, adore the Lord who will liberate you from the cycle of birth and death once and for all, and take you to the realm of His (which is) beyond darkness. [Having gone thither they return not; that is My supreme Abode. — Gita, 15.6]. Try to attain That, O man! [These three, so difficult of attainment, are acquired only by the kindness of the gods: humanity, desire for emancipation, and the guidance of (spiritually) great man. – Viveka-chudamani, 3]. “What a wonderful chance this man is missing just for the sake of earning his livelihood and maintenance! Instead of using discrimination between the Eternal and perishable, he is using his God-given intellect and putting his heart and mind in this mere repetition for remembering by heart a grammar rule! What a great pity!” Shankaracharya is moved; and he says: “Look here! This is all right. But worship the Lord. Direct your mind to God. In that alone is your highest welfare.” This particular teaching has an appealing naturalness and spontaneity. It has got a universal appeal, because evidently this student whose repetition attracted Shankaracharya’s ears must have been a young man preparing to enter life, not yet having entered into life. And it is at this particular stage of an individual that he should be given the right direction. That is the crucial importance of the Bhaja Govindam composition. It was given to a young man at the entry point of his life. Shankaracharya thought: “This is the right time that one should be made aware of the higher purpose of human life, the deeper significance, the great objective and Goal for which one has been sent here.” If he enters into life with a proper understanding about life: “Why have I come here? What is the objective for which God has sent me here?” — then all will be well. He will take care of his secular side without neglecting his spiritual side. He would have died in ignorance, if that right understanding is not given at this entry point of life when one is young, when one needs to be awakened and made aware that life is more than mere eating-drinking-sleeping, earning, putting aside little bit of money, having a family, and getting caught and entangled in the cobweb of samsara, in the net of maya‘. Being born in ignorance, having lived all his life in ignorance, non-discrimination, avichara, aviveka, he would have died too in ignorance.

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Note: This article is featured in this booklet, which shows the surprising connection between Christmas and the creation of the world. In December, many Christians celebrate a holiday called Christmas.1 What is Christmas? During this season, there is particular emphasis on an event that occurred around 2,000 years ago in the town of Bethlehem in Judea (today called Israel). Christmas commemorates the birth of a baby—an event recorded in the Bible in such New Testament passages as Luke 2:1–20 and prophesied about in Old Testament passages such as Isaiah 7:14. The name given to this baby was Jesus. During Christmas time, many churches display nativity scenes. These exhibits show the newborn Jesus in a stable surrounded by various animals, shepherds, and Mary and Joseph. Such nativity scenes traditionally have also been displayed in public places (shopping centers, public schools, parks, etc.) in much of our Western world. Also at Christmas, people sing special songs known as “carols.” The words of many of these carols outline the events surrounding the birth of Jesus. Because of the influence of Christianity and the birth of baby Jesus, history is divided into two basic divisions—AD (Anno Domini, Latin for “in the year of the Lord,” Jesus) and BC (“before Christ”). As evidenced by the fact that Western calendars and historians count the number of years from this time, this was a very significant event even apart from religious aspects. In much of the Western world today, nativity scenes are no longer displayed in public places. Such displays are now banned from many public parks and schools. Whereas Christmas carols used to be sung in public (i.e., government) schools, many times such songs have been replaced by ones that do not mention anything about Jesus and his birth. Furthermore, more and more people are now calibrating their calendars with BCE (Before the Common Era) and CE (Common Era), rather than “before Christ” and “in the year of our Lord (Jesus).” The year-counts are the same, but the name of Christ has been removed. Many people now ask "What is Christmas?" No wonder people don't know about Christmas any longer. In public schools in America, teachers and students are being urged or required by administrators and lawyers fearful of lawsuits to use phrases like “Happy Holidays” or “Season’s Greetings” instead of “Merry Christmas” or “Happy Christmas.” Many advertising pieces during the Christmas season now delete the “Christ” part of the word “Christmas.” Why was the birth of the baby Jesus considered so significant in the first place? And why is Christmas being viewed differently today? What has happened to cause an event which has so influenced the modern world to be slowly erased from people’s thinking? To understand the significance of the birth of this baby, we need to understand the history that led up to this event. The only compilation of books in the world that gives a detailed history that enables us to fully comprehend the significance is the Bible. Over three thousand times the Bible claims to be the revealed Word of the God who created the universe and all life, and who has made himself known to man. If this book really is God’s Word, then it should explain the meaning of the universe and life—and it does. Not only that, but observational science continues to confirm the Bible’s history as true. (See our booklets on the accuracy and authority of the Bible: available as a free PDF or on our online store.) Genesis (which basically means “origins”), the first book of the Bible, gives an account of the origin of life and the universe. It tells of the origin of matter, light, earth, plants, sun, moon, stars, animals, humans, marriage, clothing, death, languages, nations, and so on. In Genesis 1:27 and 2:7, we read of the creation of the first man called “ Adam.” Interestingly, in 1 Corinthians 15:45, the one born in Bethlehem is called “ the last Adam.” To understand the reason for the “ last Adam,” you have to understand what happened to the “first Adam.” So God created man in his own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. (Genesis 1:27) We read more of the details concerning the creation of the first man in Genesis 2:7: And the Lord God formed man [Adam] of the dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and man became a living being. We are later told in Genesis 2:21–23 that God created the first woman from the first Adam’s side. From elsewhere in the Bible, we learn that all humans who have ever lived descended from these two people (Genesis 3:20; Acts 17:26; and so on). Therefore, all humans today are related because we have the same first ancestors. When God created Adam, he didn’t make him to be a puppet; Adam had the ability to choose and make decisions. God gave Adam an instruction to obey in Genesis 2. Then the Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to tend and keep it. And the Lord God commanded the man, saying, “Of every tree of the garden you may freely eat; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die.” (Genesis 2:15–17) Not long after this command to Adam, Satan, through a serpent, deceived Eve into eating the fruit. And Eve gave some to Adam, and he ate as well. Adam chose to disobey God by eating the fruit of the one tree God had told him not to eat from (Genesis 3:6). Because Adam was the first or “head” of the human race and all humans ultimately have come from this first man, what Adam did affected all of humanity. When Adam disobeyed his Creator’s instruction (resulting in his “fall” from his state of perfection), that was the first sin. And just as God had warned, the punishment for Adam’s sin was death—not only for Adam, but for all his descendants (including you and me) as well: Therefore, just as through one man sin entered the world, and death through sin, and thus death spread to all men, because all sinned. (Romans 5:12) Why are we punished for what Adam did? As the head of the human race, Adam represented each of us, and because we all come from Adam, we have his nature, inherited from him. He sinned (disobeyed God), so we sin (disobey God). If it had been any of us faced with the decision to eat or not eat from the forbidden tree instead of Adam, the result would have been the same. After Adam and Eve sinned, Genesis 3:7 states that “ they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig leaves together and made themselves coverings.” In sewing fig coverings, it wasn’t just that they recognized that they had no outer clothing—they also saw that they were destitute of righteousness. Their innocence was lost. Adam and Eve were no longer perfect but were now polluted creatures in their hearts and their flesh. They were naked before the justice of God’s law, and the fig leaves were attempts to cover what they had done. However, no man or woman can hide their sinfulness from the sight of a holy God by their own doings. God sees us in all our nakedness and knows our impure, sinful, rebellious hearts. The Bible says our attempts at covering ourselves (our “righteousness”) are but “ filthy rags” to the Creator (Isaiah 64:6). No ceremonies, rites, or attempts at keeping the law can change this. Our works cannot take away our sin because our hearts are impure (Jeremiah 17:9). We cannot make ourselves acceptable before a holy, pure God because of the gross imperfection of our very nature—just as Adam and Eve’s fig leaf coverings could not help them. How can we ever be reconciled with a holy God? This is an important question since we are made in the image of God (Genesis 1:27), and as such, even though our bodies die because of sin, our soul (the “real us” that inhabits our bodies) lives forever. As sinners, we cannot live with a holy and righteous God, nor can we make it to heaven by our own works—we would be separated from God forever and live in our evil, sinful states for eternity. What a horrible existence that would be. As the Apostle Paul says in Romans 7:24, “ O wretched man that I am! Who will deliver me from this body of death?” In Genesis 3:15, God made a statement to the deceiving serpent that provided hope to Adam and Eve and their descendants (us!) and actually sums up the message of the entire Bible: there is a way to be saved from the effects of sin. So, what is Christmas? Well this declaration summarizes what the Babe of Bethlehem is all about; in fact, it is the whole meaning of “Christmas”: I will put enmity between you and the woman, and between your offspring and her offspring; he shall bruise your head, and you shall bruise his heel. What does this mean? Genesis 22:18 gives us further clues about the identity of the promised “ offspring” of the woman who will bruise the head of the serpent: In your offspring shall all the nations of the earth be blessed, because you have obeyed my voice. (emphasis added) And Paul clarifies things in Galatians 3:16: Now the promises were made to Abraham and to his offspring. It does not say, “And to offsprings,” referring to many, but referring to one, “And to your offspring,” who is Christ. (emphasis added) Paul builds upon the use of the singular “ offspring” in Genesis 22:18. Here we see the extent of the infallibility of Scripture, down to the use of singular and plural words. The words “ her offspring” are actually a prophecy concerning the One who, conceived by God himself, would be born of a woman (actually a “virgin”): the baby who was born in Bethlehem—the last Adam. It is a great mystery to fallible, created human beings like us that the Creator God (Colossians 1:16) became flesh (John 1:14) so that as a perfect Man, he could become “ sin for us” (2 Corinthians 5:21) by dying on a cross to suffer the penalty for sin (the meaning of “ bruise his heel”). But, because he is the infinite Creator, he has ultimate power, and thus he rose from the dead, overcoming the Curse. Bruising the serpent’s head” speaks the mortal wound Satan received through Christ’s victory over him at Calvary. He is a defeated foe. His operation now is like the pockets of Japanese soldiers of World War II fighting after the surrender in August 1945—they could still instill casualties and do much harm, but they could not win the war. Jesus came to take away sin and conquer the power of the grave—death. God illustrated what needed to be done to Adam and Eve by a particular act. In Genesis 3:21 we read: Also for Adam and his wife the Lord God made tunics of skin, and clothed them. God killed at least one animal—the first blood sacrifice—to provide the garments as a covering for their sin. It was a picture of what was to come in Jesus, who is the “ Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world” (John 1:29). It is only the covering provided by God that can cover man’s “ filthy rags.” The righteousness that enables a sinner to stand “ just” in the sight of God is from God. No human being can put on the righteousness of Christ, for this can only be done by God (1 Corinthians 1:30). We can’t rely on our good works (our “coverings of fig leaves”) or on sacraments (e.g., communion, baptism) to stand just before God. It is only what God does for us that enables us to be clean before our Creator. Now, if it is only God who is able to clothe us in righteousness, how can we obtain that clothing? The Bible makes it very clear in Romans 10:9: That if you confess with your mouth the Lord Jesus and believe in your heart that God has raised him from the dead, you will be saved. When we acknowledge that we are sinners before God, repent of our sin, and confess the Lord Jesus, acknowledging that he died and rose from the dead, we receive the free gift of salvation from our Creator and will spend eternity with him. The first Adam was the father of humanity and endowed all his descendants with sin and death (Romans 5:12). The last Adam, Jesus Christ, communicates life and light to all men (John 1:4). He gives eternal life to those who receive him—who believe in his name—giving them the “ right to become children of God” (John 1:12). The first Adam experienced the judgment of God. He eventually died and his body turned to dust. Because of his sin, death came upon all men, “ For all have sinned, and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23). The last Adam, Jesus Christ, also experienced the judgment of God—not for his own sins (He lived a perfect life), but for the sins of mankind. He died on the Cross to atone for sin (Isaiah 53:5; 1 Peter 3:18; Hebrews 2:9). But he did not stay dead, nor did his body “ see corruption” (Acts 2:27; 13:35–37). On the third day, he rose again, thereby overcoming the devil and the power of death for all people who believe in him (Hebrews 2:14), and bringing resurrection from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:22–23). This is the message of the Babe born in Bethlehem. It starts with the creation of a perfect world, and then, because of our sin in Adam, leads to our need of a Savior—which is why Jesus stepped into history to become flesh 2,000 years ago. Throughout the world, generations of young people are being educated in schools, colleges, and by the media with evolutionary ideas about our origins. Sadly, they are being brainwashed into believing that the history in Genesis concerning the first Adam and the entrance of sin is not true. Logically then, they begin rejecting the truth of the last Adam, Jesus Christ. If the history in Genesis concerning our origins is not true and therefore the birth of Jesus is insignificant, then why should nativity scenes be allowed in schools and public places? Why should students sing carols about a meaningless event? The erosion of Christianity in society is directly linked to the attack on the history of Genesis and the increasing indoctrination in a false history that has permeated the culture: that man is a result of millions of years of evolutionary processes. Whatever the month of the year, the event that Christians celebrate in a very special way at Christmas is a message of hope for all people. The message of the two Adams is what life is all about. But if we want people to understand this message, we need to clearly show them clearly that the history in Genesis is true, for otherwise, they will not understand or listen to what is said about the babe of Bethlehem. Answers in Genesis seeks to give glory and honor to God as Creator, and to affirm the truth of the biblical record of the real origin and history of the world and mankind. Part of this real history is the bad news that the rebellion of the first man, Adam, against God’s command brought death, suffering and separation from God into this world. We see the results all around us. All of Adam’s descendants are sinful from conception (Psalm 51:5) and have themselves entered into this rebellion (sin). They therefore cannot live with a holy God, but are condemned to separation from God. The Bible says that “ all have sinned, and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23) and that all are therefore subject to “ everlasting destruction from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his power” (2 Thessalonians 1:9). But the good news is that God has done something about it. “ For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whoever believes in him should not perish but have everlasting life” (John 3:16). Jesus Christ the Creator, though totally sinless, suffered, on behalf of mankind, the penalty of mankind’s sin, which is death and separation from God. He did this to satisfy the righteous demands of the holiness and justice of God, his Father. Jesus was the perfect sacrifice; he died on a cross, but on the third day, he rose again, conquering death, so that all who truly believe in him, repent of their sin, and trust in him (rather than their own merit), are able to come back to God and live for eternity with their Creator. He who believes in him is not condemned; but he who does not believe is condemned already, because he has not believed in the name of the only begotten Son of God” (John 3:18). The Babe of Bethlehem . . . what a wonderful Savior . . . and what a wonderful salvation in Christ our Creator! Please see our contact us page, or contact a Bible-believing church in your area, where the pastor accepts the accuracy and authority of the Bible from its very first verse in Genesis (including the Genesis accounts of a recent creation and a global Noah’s Flood).

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Abd Allah ibn Ja'far Abd Allah ibn Ja'far عبد الله بن جعفر |Title||Companion of Muhammad| |Born||c. 622 or 626| |Died||c. 699 or 702/704| |Spouse||Zaynab bint Ali| ʿAbd Allāh ibn Jaʿfar (Arabic: عبد الله بن جعفر; c. 624 – 699 or 702/704), was a companion and relative of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, a nephew of Ali and a half-brother of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. He was loyal to Ahl al-Bayt in spite of his absence at the Battle of Karbala. He is reported to have said: ”Thanks to God Almighty, I could not support al-Husayn ibn Ali at Karbala, but my two sons (Awn and Muhammad) did." According to Richard Francis Burton he is widely recognized as the most sympathetic amongst Arabs. His grave is situated near Aqil ibn Abi Talib and Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith (the grandson of Abd al-Muttalib) in Jannat al-Baqi He was the son of Ja'far ibn Abi Talib and Asma bint Umais. They had emigrated to Abyssinia in 616, and Abd Allah and his two brothers were born there.: 196 Abd Allah was the first of Muslims to be born in the land of Abyssinia After the birth of Abd Allah in Abyssinia (Habesha Presently Ethiopia), the king of the Kingdom of Aksum (Najashi) was blessed with a son too. He immediately asked the parents of Abd Allah ibn Ja'far about the name of their child. Upon knowing the name of Ja'far's family, King of Abyssinia also chose the name “Abd Allah” for his first son. It is also stated that Asma bint Umays was the nursing mother of son of Abyssinian King. The younger brother of Abd Allah appears to be the first child in the Muslim history who was named Muhammad after the Prophet of Islam. The family returned to Arabia in 628 and settled in Medina.: 196 Muhammad's Supplication & instruction In addition to Ibn Hajar's reference, it is said that after 3 days of Ja'far's death Muhammad went to the house of Asma and called for the children of Ja'far. He then said about each of them “As for Muhammad, he resembles our uncle Abi Talib. As for Abd Allah, he resembles me in terms of both my appearance and character. Afterward, Muhammad took the right hand of Abd Allah and said “O Allah, provide a successor for Ja'far in his family, and bless Abd Allah in his business, and repeated this appeal to Almighty thrice. Muhammad instructed the sons of Abi Talib, namely Ja'far, Aqil and Ali that they should arrange marriages of their children with their cousins. Marriage and Family Life According to Shaykh Muhammad Abbas Qummi, he had 20 sons from different wives, including five children from Zaynab bint Ali. Daira-e-Maarif Islamia (Circle of Islamic Knowledge) of University of the Punjab (pages 568-70, Vol.X) describes that Zaynabi is a progeny of Abd Allah’s son Ali through Zaynab bint Ali: 31 His wife’s journey with Husayn ibn Ali It is related that Zaynab already forecast the journey (journey to Karbala) before her marriage and permission for accompanying with her brother was obtained during marriage negotiations. With regard to Absent of Abd Allah in Battle of Karbala, it is said it was due to his poor eye sighting consequently he was unable to bear the rigidities of journey and war.: 37 Knowing Husayn's journey to Kufa, Zaynab, the wife of Abd Allah ibn Ja'far begged her husband's permission to accompany her brother. Realizing anxiousness of her husband she stated that: You know that for 55 years my brother and I have never been separated. Now is the time of our old age and the closing period of our lives. If I leave him now, how shall I be able to face my mother, who at the time of her death had willed, “Zaynab” after me you are both mother and sister for Husayn? It is obligatory for me to stay with you, but if I do not go with him at this time, I shall not be able to bear the separation. Abd Allah then granted his permission and sent their two sons for the destined journey. Abd Allah was concurrently married to Layla bint Mas'ud.: 300 With reference to books ‘Nasab e Quraish Page-83’ and ‘Jameerath ul Nasab by Ibn Hazm page 62’ it is described that Layla bint Mas'ud ibn Khalid was “al-Zawja al-Thaniya (second wife)” through this marriage he had two daughters (Umm Muhammad and Umm Abiha) and four sons (Yahya, Harun, Salih and Musa). With regard to his presence in the Battle of the Camel, it is indicated that at the end of Battle, while entrusting the return of Aisha to Medina under security of her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, Ali ordered for payment of 12,000 Dirhams to Aisha. Abd Allah thinking that the amount was too little, brought out a larger sum for Aisha.: 127 According to Ibn A'tham al-Kufi in Battle of Siffin he was commanding the infantry in the army of Ali ibn Abi Talib together with his cousins Muslim ibn Aqil, Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyya and step brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr. He was a staunch supporter of his uncle Ali in the civil war. He maintained a reputation for liberality and patronage in Medina, earning him the nickname “the Ocean of Generosity”. After the demise of Ali ibn Abi Talib, Abd Allah ibn Ja'far together with his cousins Hasan and Husayn participated in washing the body and dressed him for burial in three robes without a Kurta (a long shirt). In addition to some spy reporting to Ali ibn Abi Talib that Qays ibn Sa'd, his governor at Egypt had given allegiance to Mu'awiya I, he received his letter which was written in perspective of affairs emerged on account of a conspiracy caused by opponent of Ali. Ali called his sons and Abd Allah ibn Ja'far and consulted the matter. Upon advice of Abd Allah, Ali wrote a letter ordering Qays ibn Sa'd to seek the people to give their allegiance as the Muslims have done (after the 3rd Caliph). But, if they do not, then fight them. The governor of Egypt against this communication wrote a letter to Ali ibn Abi Talib. Then Abd Allah ibn Ja'far requested his father in law to replace Qays ibn Sa'd with Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr as governor of Egypt and pleaded that if he really has gone over to Mu'awiya, he will refuse to give up Egypt. However, according to Tabari it was a poor advice consequent to meeting of Qays ibn Sa'd with Ali during the period of killing of Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.: 185–189 (VOL.XVI) Once a Chief of Iraqi village asked Abd Allah ibn Ja'far to recommend his case before Caliph Ali for accomplishment. He did so and matter of that chief was satisfied by Ali ibn Abi Talib. As a gratification the chief sent 40,000 Dirhams through some people to Abd Allah, who refused the money saying that we do not sell our good deeds His vision for Husayn Knowing the death of his two sons in the Battle of Karbala, people were offering condolences to Abd Allah, one of his Mawili (Abu al-Lislas [a companion]) said that “this is what we have met and what has come upon us through Husayn ibn Ali” on this statement he struck him with his sandal and told that I am pleased that my two sons killed with my brother and cousin. By God! If I had been present with him, I would have preferred not to leave him in order that I would be killed with him. He then seeking attention of people consoling him, said that “Praise be to God, Who has made life hard, console Husayn ibn Ali with my own hands, my two sons consoled him. : 177 Letter to Husayn Ibn Khaldun in chapter 2 volume II title “Yazid-I” from 60 to 64 AH, it is described that Abd Allah sent a letter through his sons Awn and Muhammad, to Husayn, requesting that “for God sake come back. It is my advice to you in anxiety that you would be killed and Ahl al-Bayt destroyed. As a result, earth’s light will come to an end, there would be no leader for Muslims. Please do not hurry in journey, I would be reaching there after this letter." Later he went to Amr ibn Sa'id who was Yazid's governor of Mecca and asked him to write a letter to Husayn offering him a guarantee of harmless behavior assuring him kindness and open-handedness. "Show trust to him in your letter and request him to return." This letter was replied by Husayn too. - Yahya ibn Umar- Descendant of Abd Allah ibn Ja'far who led a rebellion - Sallabi, Ali, al-Hasan ibn Ali, His Life and Times, p. 269 - Shahin, Badr (2002). Lady Zaynab. Qum, Iran: Ansariyan Publications. p. 82. ISBN 964-438-399-0. - Francis Burton, Sir Richard (1893). Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah & Meccah, Volume 2. UK: The Meccan Press, 3 Soho Square, London, W. p. 44. - Muhammad ibn Saad. Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir vol. 8. Translated by Bewley, A. (1995). The Women of Madina. London: Ta-Ha Publishers. - Dr. Ayman Odaibat, Dr. Mona Borhan Ghazal (Al Refai) (3 March 2013). Virtuous Women In Mythology and Holy Books (English translation from Arabic). Bloomington, Indiana: Author House. p. 189. - Khan, Ashfaq Ahmed. Sakhawat Ka Darya the 5th series of books "Daur-e-Nabuwat kay bacchay (Children during Prophethood) (in Urdu). Pakistan, UK, USA & Saudi Arab: Darus Salam (International publisher). p. 12. - A. Hamid (June 1995). "Jafar Ibn Abi Talib". The Fountain Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 December 2017. Retrieved 11 December 2017. - Faisal Shafeeq, Dr.Ali Muhammad As-Sallaabee (2001). The Noble Life of the Prophet. UK: Kalamullah.com. pp. 1661–1662. - Shaikh Abbas Borhany, Qazi Dr. (30 June – 6 July 1994), "Syedah Zainab, Protector of the Renaissance of Karbala" (PDF), The Weekly Mag, Pakistan, pp. 5–6, archived from the original (PDF) on 25 February 2017, retrieved 18 December 2017 - Akbar Rizvi, Syed Ali (2007). Bibi Zainab (s.a) - Granddaughter of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Karachi, Pakistan: Idara Tarveej-e-Uloom-e-Islamia. p. 30. - Aalulbayt Global Information Center (2003–2007). "Al-Sayeda Zainab (p.b.u.h.), the Greatest Women Messenger of Imam al-Hussain (p.b.u.h.) Revolution". Holy Karbala Net. Retrieved 1 December 2017. - Nisar Ahmed Zainpuri, Akbar Asadi, Mehdi Raza’í (1951). Namoona-e-Sabr (Zainab) translation from Persian to Urdu (in Persian). Qum, Iran: Ansarian Publications. p. 60. - Fatima Naqvi, Dr. Umme (December 2011). The Ultimate Sacrifice for Allah: Karbala. Nashriyat-e-Walayat-e-Elahia. p. 13. - Shaikh Musa Muhammad (8 August 2009). "Lady Zaynab (Peace be Upon Her) - Ubaydullah Ibn Ziyad in Kufa". Al-Hassanain Com. Retrieved 27 November 2017. - Bilgrami, M.H (1986). The Victory of Truth – The Life of Zaynab Binte Ali. Karachi, Pakistan: Zahra Publications. p. 82. ISBN 088059-151-X. - Abbasi, Mehmood Ahmed (1962). Khilafat-e-Muawiya O Yazid (in Urdu). Liaquatabad, Karachi, Pakistan: Maktab-e-Mehmoodia. pp. 276–77. - I.K.A. Howard, Al-Tabari. The Caliphate of Yazid b. Mu'awiyah. New York: State University of New York Press. pp. 73–74 (Volume XIX). - Asam Kufi, Ahmed bin Abu Muhammad bin Ali (2002). Tareekh-e-Asam Kufi (in Urdu). Janazga, Mazang, Lahore, Pakistan: Ali publication. p. 278. - Ibn Rashid, Mamar (May 2014). The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muhammad. NY, USA: New York University Press. p. 316. online ref: - Ibn Sad, Allama Abdullah al-Imadi. Tabqat Ibn Sad Vol-2 (Parts-3 & 4) (in Urdu) (2003 ed.). Karachi Pakistan: Darul Ishaat. p. 192. - Mufti Afzal Hoosen Elias, Shaykh Muhammad Yusuf Kandhelvi (March 2006). Hayat Us Sahaba - (English translation from Urdu) Volume 2. Karachi, Pakistan: Zem Zem, Publisher, Urdu Bazar. p. 282.. - Illabadi, Hakeem Ahmed Hussain. Tareekh-e-Ibn Khaldun by Nafees Academy (in Urdu) (2003 ed.). Karachi Pakistan. p. 522. - https://web.archive.org/web/20070319112108/http://www.jafariyanews.com/articles/2k5/13june_syedaZaynab.htm biography - https://web.archive.org/web/20091230032022/http://home.earthlink.net/~downloadquran/Maqtal_al-Husain.pdf (See Maqtal al-Husayn page 213).

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What is Bipolar Disorder? Bipolar disorder is a mental health disorder characterized by extreme highs and lows in mood and energy. While everyone experiences ups and downs, the severe shifts that happen in bipolar disorder can have a serious impact on a person’s life. More than 3.3 million American adults (1.7%) suffer from bipolar disorder in a given year. An estimated 4.4% of U.S. adults experience bipolar disorder at some time in their lives. Contrary to how it is sometimes used in conversation, a diagnosis of bipolar disorder does not mean a person is highly emotional but rather refers to someone who experiences extended periods of mood and energy that are excessively high and or/irritable to sad and hopeless, with periods of normal mood in between. It typically begins in adolescence or early adulthood and continues throughout life. It is often not recognized as an illness and people who have it may suffer needlessly for years. Bipolar disorder can be extremely distressing and disruptive for those who have this disease, their spouses, family members, friends, and employers. Although there is no known cure, bipolar disorder is treatable, and recovery is possible. Individuals with bipolar disorder can and do have successful relationships and meaningful jobs. The combination of medication, therapy, healthy lifestyle, and support helps the vast majority of people return to productive, fulfilling lives. What Causes Bipolar Disorder? Although a specific genetic link to bipolar disorder has not been pin pointed, research shows that bipolar disorder tends to run in families. People may inherit a tendency to develop the illness, which can then be triggered by environmental factors such as distressing life events. Brain development, structure and chemicals called neurotransmitters, which act as messengers between nerve cells, are also thought to play a role in the development of bipolar disorder. What are the Symptoms of Bipolar Disorder? Bipolar disorder is often difficult to recognize and diagnose. It causes a person to have a high level of energy, unrealistically expansive thoughts or ideas, and impulsive or reckless behavior. These symptoms may feel good to a person, which may lead to denial that there is a problem. Another reason bipolar disorder is difficult to diagnose is that its symptoms may appear to be part of another illness or attributed to other problems such as substance abuse, poor school performance, or trouble in the workplace. Symptoms of bipolar disorder fall into two categories: mania and depression. The symptoms of mania, which can last up to three months if untreated include: Excessive energy, activity, restlessness, racing thoughts and rapid talking (also called "pressured speech"). Extreme “high” or euphoric feelings—a person may feel “on top of the world” and even bad news or tragic events, can't change this. Being easily irritated or distracted. Decreased need for sleep—an individual may go days with little or no sleep without feeling tired. Unrealistic beliefs in one’s ability and powers—a person may experience feelings of exaggerated self-confidence or unwarranted optimism. This can lead to over ambitious work plans and the belief that nothing can stop him or her from accomplishing any task. Uncharacteristically poor judgment—a person may make poor decisions which may lead to unrealistic involvement in activities, meetings and deadlines, reckless driving, spending sprees, and/or foolish business ventures. Unusual sex drive or abuse of drugs (particularly cocaine, alcohol or sleeping medications). Provocative, intrusive, or aggressive behavior—a person may become enraged or paranoid if his or her grand ideas are stopped, or extreme social plans are refused. Signs of psychosis (learn more about psychosis here) An episode of depression can come before or after a manic, hypomanic, or normal period of mood. Symptoms include: Persistent sad, anxious or empty mood. Changes in sleep such as, getting too much or too little, or waking in the middle-of-the-night or unusually early in the morning Reduced appetite and weight loss, or increased appetite accompanied by weight gain. Irritability or restlessness Difficulty concentrating, remembering or making decisions. These may often impact a person's ability to fulfill work, school or other life obligations. Fatigue or loss of energy. Persistent physical symptoms that don't respond to treatment, such as chronic pain or digestive issues (like upset stomach or diarrhea). Feeling guilty, hopeless or worthless. Thoughts of death or suicide, including suicide attempts. If you or someone you know is in crisis, call 1-800-273-TALK (8255), visit your local emergency room or call 911. What is the Difference Between Mania and Hypomania? Mania is when a person has: at least 3 of the symptoms listed above for mania that last for at least one week, and serious impairment in work or school functioning or in usual social activities or relationships with others, or symptoms severe enough to require hospitalization to prevent a person from hurting their self or others, or Hypomania is when a person has: at least 3 of the symptoms listed above for mania that last at least 4 days, and a change in their ability to function that is not typical of that person when they aren't showing symptoms, changes in mood and ability to function that are noticeable by others, symptoms that are not severe enough to cause serious impairment in social or work/school functioning, or to necessitate hospitalization, and no psychotic features. In summary, hypomania is a less severe and more brief form of mania. Diagnoses and Other Terms Associated with Bipolar Disorder Bipolar I Disorder: Bipolar I Disorder is given when a person has at least one episode of mania. While a person with Bipolar I might only experience manic episodes, it often includes episodes of depression and hypomania. Hypomania includes the same symptoms of mania but can be shorter in duration and less severe. They do not include symptoms of psychosis or require hospitalization. Bipolar II Disorder: Bipolar II Disorder includes at least one major depressive episode and at least one hypomanic episode. Individuals with bipolar II also tend to have longer periods of depression than people with bipolar I. Cyclothymic Disorder: Sometimes called cyclothymia, this disorder includes episodes of hypomania and depressive symptoms that occur on a fairly regular basis. While changes in mood are not as extreme as those associated with Bipolar I and Bipolar II Disorders, it can still cause serious problems in a person’s life and may later progress to symptoms of mania, hypomania, and depression. Rapid Cycling: Rapid cycling is a term used when an individual experiences four or more episodes of hypomania, mania, or depression within a 12-month time period. Mixed Episode: A mixed episode occurs when a person is experiencing symptoms of both depression and mania or hypomania at the same time. Individuals with bipolar disorders are at an increased risk for suicide, and this risk is thought to be especially high during mixed episodes. What are the Treatments for Bipolar Disorders? A combination of medication, therapy, lifestyle changes, and support from family, friends and peers help individuals with bipolar disorder to stabilize their mood and to live the lives they want. Finding the treatment plan that works best for a person is critical for recovery. Medication: Common medications used in treating bipolar disorder are lithium, anticonvulsants, and mood stabilizers. Other medications used include antipsychotics, benzodiazepines, and beta-blockers. As with all medications, medications used to treat bipolar disorder can have mild to serious side effects so it is important to talk with your doctors about how you are feeling. Learn more about medications. Therapy: Both group and individual therapy can be helpful in bipolar disorder. Common types of therapy used are Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT), and family-focused therapies. Learn more about therapy. Lifestyle changes: Healthy lifestyles changes can be an important part of overall recovery. This includes: sticking to a regular sleep schedule; reducing consumption of alcohol, caffeine, and similar substances; and exercising regularly. Some may use meditation, mind-body practices, and spirituality as resources as well. Learn more about living a healthy lifestyle. Support: Support and self-help groups are invaluable resources for learning coping skills, feeling accepted, and avoiding social isolation. In addition to in-person support groups and drop-in centers, there are many online communities where individuals can also find support. Additional support can be provided through employment, housing, and psychosocial rehabilitation programs. Learn more about recovery and support. Friends and family can also join support groups to better understand how to offer encouragement and support their loved ones. Learn more about what you can do to support someone close to you. From our Partners: Read stories from people living with Bipolar Disorder on The Mighty. Get additional information about Bipolar Disorder at Psych Central. National Suicide Prevention Lifeline Ryan Licht Sang Bipolar Foundation Juvenile Bipolar Research Foundation Depression and Bipolar Support Alliance (DBSA) Kessler, R. C., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Wittchen, H.U. (2012). Twelve-month and lifetime prevalence and lifetime morbid risk of anxiety and mood disorders in the United States. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21(3), 169–184. http://doi.org/10.1002/mpr.1359 Harvard Medical School, 2007. National Comorbidity Survey (NSC). (2017, August 21). Retrieved from https://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/ncs/index.php. Data Table 1: Lifetime prevalence DSM-IV/WMH-CIDI disorders by sex and cohort. http://www.bipolarworld.net/Bipolar%20Disorder/Diagnosis/dsmv.htm (Adapted from DSM V) © Copyright Mental Health America - August 2019

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With a Supreme Court nomination expected later today, one can expect renewed discussion of last year’s nomination of Merrick Garland, much of it repeating the claim that the Senate’s refusal to act on an election-year nominee was unprecedented. To evaluate that claim, this article will review historical precedents for nominations of Supreme Court justices in the periods leading up to Presidential elections. As background, Antonin Scalia, an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, died on February 13, 2016. On March 16, 2016, Barack Obama nominated Garland to succeed him. Republican leaders in the Senate subsequently refused to act on Garland’s nomination, stating their view that an incumbent President should not make a nomination for a Supreme Court vacancy so close to an upcoming Presidential election; instead, they argued that the next President should make the nomination. Senate Republican leaders hoped that Obama’s successor might be a Republican, and this later turned out to be the case. All precedents will necessarily be old because an election-year nomination1 has not occurred in a long time: partly due to convention, and partly due to luck. For the former, it has become a convention that justices try to avoid retiring in election years, precisely to avoid political wrangling. For the latter, it is sheer luck that no sitting justice has died in an election year in recent decades. Regardless of election years, deaths of sitting justices have become less common overall: before Scalia in 2016 and William Rehnquist in 2005, the last justice to die on the bench was Robert H. Jackson in 1954. For our review, we first obtained the complete list of Supreme Court nominations from the Senate website. This list includes not only those who were confirmed or rejected but also those whose nominations were withdrawn, those who declined, and those for whom the Senate refused to take action. The list was placed into a spreadsheet, along with the date of the next Presidential election after each person was nominated, and the differences between these dates were calculated. For example, Garland was nominated on March 16, 2016, and the next Presidential election was scheduled for November 8, 2016, which was 237 days later. All nominees were then sorted by the difference between the two dates. Of the 161 Supreme Court nominees, only 11 were nominated closer to an upcoming Presidential election than Garland was. It is therefore accurate to say that, by historical standards, this nomination fell unusually close to an upcoming election. In Merrick’s case, this was due to Scalia’s death; 8 of the other 11 nominations were likewise made to replace sitting justices who had died.2 What were the outcomes for the previous 11 nominees? The answer was not promising for Garland because only four were confirmed. (Note that one person, Reuben Walworth, appears twice: his nomination was made, withdrawn after no action from the Senate, then resubmitted, again receiving no action from the Senate. For Edward King, “postponed” was functionally equivalent to rejecting the nomination without hearings or a confirmation vote, albeit with the courtesy of a procedural vote; the Senate voted to postpone consideration indefinitely.)As the table shows, Edward Bradford and Reuben Walworth are strict matches for Garland’s scenario: they were nominated in election years, and the Senate refused to take any action on their nominations. In terms of Senate inaction, John Spencer’s situation was identical as well, the only difference being that Tyler later formally withdrew his nomination. Bradford’s case was identical to Garland’s in every way. Millard Fillmore was a Whig, but the Democrats outnumbered the Whigs in the Senate. Fillmore submitted a single nominee, on whom the Senate refused to act because Senate Democrats hoped Fillmore’s replacement would be a Democrat. Fillmore, like Obama, saw the writing on the wall and did not waste his time submitting a replacement nominee. Fillmore’s successor indeed turned out to be a Democrat, Franklin Pierce, who filled the vacancy with his own nominee, John A. Campbell. It is hard to imagine a more exact parallel to the Garland situation. The oft-repeated claim that the Senate’s inaction on Garland was unprecedented is therefore already shown to be false, so we could end our discussion here. However, Walworth’s case is interesting enough to deserve a full backstory. The Whigs who controlled the Senate despised John Tyler, a President who succeeded into office as a Whig but was ostracized by his party for twice vetoing bills to create a new Bank of the United States, a core Whig plank. Tyler’s Cabinet had resigned in protest, with the sole exception of Daniel Webster, so Tyler was stuck trying to fill Cabinet positions in addition to two Supreme Court vacancies: those of Smith Thompson (who died in December 1843) and Henry Baldwin (who died in April 1844). Even aside from Walworth, Tyler’s other attempts to fill the Supreme Court vacancies likewise met with no Senate action, though Tyler formally withdrew the nominations of Edward King and John Spencer. The Senate’s obstructionism was led by Henry Clay, who had been nominated at the Whig convention in May 1844 to run as the party’s candidate in November; he and his fellow Senate Whigs naturally preferred to keep the Court seats vacant so Clay could fill them, rather than Tyler. This was, once again, the same as the Senate Republican leadership’s motivation in 2016. After the election, the story had a twist ending: Clay lost3 the 1844 election to James K. Polk, a Democrat who, among other things, opposed creating a new Bank of the United States. With Polk’s inauguration approaching in March 1845, Tyler and the Senate were locked in a game of chicken. In December 1844, Tyler again nominated King (for the second time) and Walworth (for the third time), but he withdrew them when the Senate continued its refusal to act. On February 4, 1845, just 28 days before Polk’s inauguration, the Senate finally confirmed a different Tyler nominee, Samuel Nelson, to fill Thompson’s vacancy from 1843. Three days later, Tyler nominated John Read to fill Baldwin’s seat, but again the Senate refused to take action. The second vacancy therefore remained unfilled until the Polk Administration. George Woodward, Polk’s first nominee to replace Baldwin, was rejected by a Senate vote in December 1845; only in August 1846, 28 months after Baldwin’s death, did the Senate approve Polk’s second nominee for the seat, Robert Grier. So far, we have discussed nominations made in the lead-up to elections because this is the scenario that exactly matches Garland’s. However, the Tyler-Clay-Polk saga prompts us to wonder about other nominations made by outgoing Presidents, during the lame duck periods when their successors have been elected but not yet inaugurated. There have been 15 such nominations, excluding one (John Jay, not shown) who declined after being nominated but before the Senate could consider his nomination:As one would expect, most of these nominees were not confirmed either. The Senate took no action on three of them, indefinitely postponed consideration of one, and rejected one, while three others were withdrawn by the President. If anything, it is surprising that seven were confirmed, if we count one (William Smith) who declined the position after the confirmation vote occurred. It is especially notable that Smith and John Catron were nominated on Andrew Jackson’s last full day in office. Jackson’s successor, Martin Van Buren, was presumably content with Catron’s nomination, not only because Jackson and Van Buren were both Democrats, but also because Catron had been Van Buren’s campaign chairman in Tennessee. However, viewed through the lens of party politics, even the confirmations predictably served the interests of the Senate. Peter Daniel was confirmed by the Democratic-controlled Senate six days before Martin Van Buren, a Democrat, was to be succeeded by William Henry Harrison, a Whig. Likewise, Howell Jackson was confirmed by the Republican-controlled Senate 30 days before Benjamin Harrison, a Republican, was to be replaced by Grover Cleveland, a Democrat. John Marshall was confirmed by the Federalist-controlled Senate 43 days before John Adams, a Federalist, was to be succeeded by Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican. The only instance not entailing a party change involved William Woods, who was confirmed in the lame duck period between two Republicans, Rutherford Hayes and James Garfield; although the Senate was controlled by Democrats, it made no partisan difference which of the two Republicans filled the vacancy, so the Senate had no incentive for delay. If we switch gears to consider all4 election-year nominees, regardless of how close to Election Day they were nominated, we once again see that party control is quite a reliable indicator. For example, the last time an election-year nominee was confirmed was 1940: Frank Murphy was nominated on January 4, 1940, to replace Pierce Butler, who had died on November 16, 1939. His confirmation was all but assured because he was nominated by Franklin Roosevelt, a Democrat, at a time when 69 of the 96 Senate seats were held by Democrats. In the era of the two present-day parties, there have been ten election-year nominees, including Garland:Before Garland, in eight of the nine cases, the President’s party controlled the Senate. As one would predict from strictly partisan considerations, all of these resulted in confirmation, except for Abe Fortas and Homer Thornberry, whose nominations were withdrawn: Fortas faced Senate opposition due to an ethics scandal, and Thornberry’s nomination to fill Fortas’s seat as associate justice became moot when Fortas was not promoted to chief justice. Of these ten cases, the sole exception was the earliest, when Melville Fuller was nominated as chief justice in 1888 by Grover Cleveland, a Democrat. However, this is a squeaker of an exception because the Republicans lacked a majority in the Senate, and their plurality was razor-thin: 38 Republicans, 37 Democrats, and one third-party Senator.5 If all Democrats supported their President’s nominee and even a single Republican joined them, Cleveland’s Vice President would have broken the tie, and Fuller would have been confirmed. Barring literally unanimous opposition by the Republicans and the third-party Senator, Fuller’s confirmation was assured, and he was ultimately confirmed by a 41-20 vote. From this historical survey, it is clear that there are precedents for the Senate’s inaction on the Garland nomination, likewise motivated by the desire to have a subsequent President of a different party fill the vacancy instead. More broadly, there is nothing new about partisan considerations dictating the Senate’s response to election-year Supreme Court nominations; indeed, this has been the rule rather than the exception. 1. There are multiple precedents for the Senate refusing to take action on a Supreme Court nominee during an election year in hopes of having the next President, who has not yet been elected, fill the vacancy instead. Edward Bradford and Reuben Walworth are the most direct parallels to Merrick Garland because their nominations were never withdrawn, but nominees withdrawn following Senate inaction are, in terms of Senate behavior and motivation, precedents as well. 2. There are also multiple precedents for the Senate refusing to take action on a Supreme Court nominee during the lame duck period following an election. 3. Partisanship in the consideration of an election-year Supreme Court nomination is nothing new. On the contrary, party considerations reliably appear to be the decisive factor. 4. There were no recent precedents for Supreme Court nominations in election years—regardless of outcome—because the situation had not arisen in the past few decades. 1. Some people mistakenly assume Anthony Kennedy was an election-year nominee because he was confirmed on February 3, 1988, but he was actually nominated the previous year, on November 30, 1987. Likewise, Lucius Lamar (nominated December 6, 1887; confirmed January 16, 1888) and Philip Barbour and Roger Taney (both nominated December 28, 1835; both confirmed March 15, 1836) were not election-year nominees, though Barbour and Taney cut it much closer than Kennedy or Lamar. 2. The first two exceptions were Alfred Moore, who resigned in January 1804 due to ill health, and Charles Evans Hughes, who resigned in June 1916 to run for President himself. The third was Earl Warren, who announced his resignation in June 1968 so Lyndon Johnson could nominate his successor; Warren sought to avoid the possibility of his successor being named by Warren’s longtime nemesis, Richard Nixon, if Nixon later won the Presidency. 3. This gives rise to an interesting thought experiment: what would the Senate have done if Hillary Clinton had won the 2016 election? Garland was more centrist than the other judges Obama had considered, largely due to Obama’s recognition that the Republican-controlled Senate was unlikely to approve a more liberal justice; Garland was also more centrist than Clinton’s nominee in 2017 probably would have been, if she had been elected. It is easy to imagine a repeat of the Tyler post-election scenario, with the Senate agreeing to confirm Garland after the election. In that case, Garland would have been the modern-day Samuel Nelson. 5. Senator Harrison Riddleberger of Virginia was a member of the Readjuster Party; he caucused with the Republicans. However, the mathematics of a 39-37 split is the same as that of a 38-37 split because a single Republican vote for Fuller would still have allowed the Vice President to break the tie, assuming all Democrats voted for Fuller. All information on Supreme Court nominations and their outcomes was taken from the Senate’s official list at https://www.senate.gov/pagelayout/reference/nominations/Nominations.shtml. The information on Supreme Court justices was taken from https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/members_text.aspx. Historical background was taken from several sources, most notably William A. DeGregorio’s “The Complete Book of U.S. Presidents” (1991). The only well-researched article we have seen on precedents for Garland was Jonathan Adler’s piece for the Washington Post; it is not historically exhaustive, but it mentions Bradford and several other pertinent nominees. Adler’s article begins by discussing Anthony Kennedy’s confirmation in February 1988, which we do not include because he was not an election-year nominee, though Adler’s focus on recent history makes Kennedy’s inclusion understandable. A participation trophy goes to a paper by Robin Bradley Kar and Jason Mazzon, who claimed that Garland’s situation was unprecedented, in a discussion that necessarily ducked any mention of Edward Bradford and briefly hand-waved Reuben Walworth in a footnote. If not for their partisan tone, a reader might conclude that their approach, attempting to use legal reasoning to answer a question of historical fact, was meant as satire; in a similar vein, one could imagine them arguing that no U.S. President has ever been assassinated because this would, inter alia, violate 18 U.S.C. §1114. Their paper was rebutted, from a similarly legal perspective, in a series of posts by Edward Whelan; Whelan is on the opposite side of the political spectrum from Kar and Mazzon. © 2017 by Quiznox.com

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B or b (pronounced //, bee) is the second letter in the ISO basic Latin alphabet. It represents the voiced bilabial stop in many languages, including English. In some other languages, it is used to represent other bilabial consonants. | Modern Roman | Old English was originally written in runes, whose equivalent letter was beorc ⟨ᛒ⟩, meaning "birch". Beorc dates to at least the 2nd-century Elder Futhark, which is now thought to have derived from the Old Italic alphabets' ⟨ 𐌁 ⟩ either directly or via Latin ⟨⟩. The uncial ⟨⟩ and half-uncial ⟨⟩ introduced by the Gregorian and Irish missions gradually developed into the Insular scripts' ⟨⟩. These Old English Latin alphabets supplanted the earlier runes, whose use was fully banned under King Canute in the early 11th century. The Norman Conquest popularized the Carolingian half-uncial forms which latter developed into blackletter ⟨ ⟩. Around 1300, letter case was increasingly distinguished, with upper- and lower-case B taking separate meanings. Following the advent of printing in the 15th century, Germany and Scandinavia continued to use forms of blackletter (particularly Fraktur), while England eventually adopted the humanist and antiqua scripts developed in Renaissance Italy from a combination of Roman inscriptions and Carolingian texts. The present forms of the English cursive B were developed by the 17th century. The Roman ⟨B⟩ derived from the Greek capital beta ⟨Β⟩ via its Etruscan and Cumaean variants. The Greek letter was an adaptation of the Phoenician letter bēt ⟨𐤁⟩. The Egyptian hieroglyph for the consonant /b/ had been an image of a foot and calf ⟨ ⟩, but bēt (Phoenician for "house") was a modified form of a Proto-Sinaitic glyph ⟨ ⟩ probably adapted from the separate hieroglyph Pr ⟨ ⟩ meaning "house". The Hebrew letter beth ⟨ב⟩ is a separate development of the Phoenician letter. By Byzantine times, the Greek letter ⟨Β⟩ came to be pronounced /v/, so that it is known in modern Greek as víta (still written βήτα). The Cyrillic letter ve ⟨В⟩ represents the same sound, so a modified form known as be ⟨Б⟩ was developed to represent the Slavic languages' /b/. (Modern Greek continues to lack a letter for the voiced bilabial plosive and transliterates such sounds from other languages using the digraph/consonant cluster ⟨μπ⟩, mp.) Use in writing systems In English, ⟨b⟩ denotes the voiced bilabial stop /b/, as in bib. In English, it is sometimes silent. This occurs particularly in words ending in ⟨mb⟩, such as lamb and bomb, some of which originally had a /b/ sound, while some had the letter ⟨b⟩ added by analogy (see Phonological history of English consonant clusters). The ⟨b⟩ in debt, doubt, subtle and related words was added in the 16th century as an etymological spelling, intended to make the words more like their Latin originals (debitum, dubito, subtilis). As /b/ is one of the sounds subject to Grimm's Law, words which have ⟨b⟩ in English and other Germanic languages may find their cognates in other Indo-European languages appearing with ⟨bh⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨f⟩ or ⟨φ⟩ instead. For example, compare the various cognates of the word brother. Many other languages besides English use ⟨b⟩ to represent a voiced bilabial stop. In Estonian, Icelandic, and Chinese Pinyin, ⟨b⟩ does not denote a voiced consonant. Instead, it represents a voiceless /p/ that contrasts with either a geminated /p:/ (in Estonian) or an aspirated /pʰ/ (in Pinyin, Danish and Icelandic) represented by ⟨p⟩. In Fijian ⟨b⟩ represents a prenasalized /mb/, whereas in Zulu and Xhosa it represents an implosive /ɓ/, in contrast to the digraph ⟨bh⟩ which represents /b/. Finnish uses ⟨b⟩ only in loanwords. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, [b] is used to represent the voiced bilabial stop phone. In phonological transcription systems for specific languages, /b/ may be used to represent a lenis phoneme, not necessarily voiced, that contrasts with fortis /p/ (which may have greater aspiration, tenseness or duration). B is also a musical note. In English-speaking countries, it represents Si, the 12th note of a chromatic scale built on C. In Central Europe and Scandinavia, "B" is used to denote B-flat and the 12th note of the chromatic scale is denoted "H". Archaic forms of 'b', the b quadratum (square b, ♮) and b rotundum (round b, ♭) are used in musical notation as the symbols for natural and flat, respectively. In Contracted (grade 2) English braille, 'b' stands for "but" when in isolation. Ancestors, descendants and siblings - 𐤁 : Semitic letter Bet, from which the following symbols originally derive - Β β : Greek letter Beta, from which B derives - Ⲃ ⲃ Coptic letter Bēta, which derives from Greek Beta - В в : Cyrillic letter Ve, which also derives from Beta - Б б : Cyrillic letter Be, which also derives from Beta - 𐌁 : Old Italic B, which derives from Greek Beta - ᛒ : Runic letter Berkanan, which probably derives from Old Italic B - 𐌱 : Gothic letter bercna, which derives from Greek Beta - IPA-specific symbols related to B: ɓ ʙ β - B with diacritics: Ƀ ƀ Ḃ ḃ Ḅ ḅ Ḇ ḇ Ɓ ɓ Derived ligatures, abbreviations, signs and symbols - ␢ : U+2422 ␢ BLANK SYMBOL - ฿ : Thai baht - ♭: The flat in music, mentioned above, still closely resembles lowercase b. |Unicode name||LATIN CAPITAL LETTER B||LATIN SMALL LETTER B| |Numeric character reference||B||B||b||b| - 1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings. - It also resembles the hieroglyph for /h/ ⟨ ⟩ meaning "manor" or "reed shelter". - "B", Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. - "B", Merriam-Webster's 3rd New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged, 1993. - EB (1878). - Schumann-Antelme, Ruth; et al. (1998), Illustrated Hieroglyphics Handbook, English translation by Sterling Publishing (2002), pp. 22–23, ISBN 1-4027-0025-3. - Goldwasser, Orly (Mar–Apr 2010), "How the Alphabet Was Born from Hieroglyphs", Biblical Archaeology Review, Vol. 36 (No. 1), Washington: Biblical Archaeology Society, ISSN 0098-9444. - "B", Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th ed., Vol. III, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1878, p. 173. - "B", Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed., Vol. III, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1911, p. 87. - Media related to B at Wikimedia Commons - The dictionary definition of B at Wiktionary - The dictionary definition of b at Wiktionary

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A Marine Loading Arm is used to load or unload the ship or vessel carrying the Petroleum products, chemicals, etc. Marine loading arms are made up of several sections of pipe (quick-connect fittings), connected by swivel joints. The section on the shore side of the ‘apex’ of the loading arm is known as the inboard arm and the section on the tanker side of the ‘apex’ is known as the outboard section. Marine loading arms are flexible enough to accommodate any movement of the vessel during loading/discharging. These hydraulically operated marine loading arms are fitted with emergency release couplings and emergency release system and support faster and safety loading/unloading requirement. A marine loading arm is an alternative to direct hose hook-ups. A loading arm must be drained before breaking off the connection. This is done in any one of the two ways mentioned below: - For fuels like gas oil and diesel, high pressure air can be used to blow out the oil traces. - In the case of fuels such as kerosene or petrol, the lines can be stripped using pumps. Loading arms have the capability to handle both liquids and gases, in a wide range of viscosities and temperatures. Cargoes from liquid sulphur to liquefied natural gas can be moved through marine loading arms. Features of Marine Loading Arm Marine loading arms (Fig. 1) must be specified/designed to allow for movement of the tanker during loading/unloading, due to tides/waves/wind and due to the tanker’s cargo increasing/decreasing. Each loading arm is designed with a certain operating ‘envelope’. If a connected loading arm is forced outside this envelope, it should be disconnected immediately (manually or, for some systems, automatically). The main factors that affect the required operating envelope are tanker DWT, tidal range, maximum wave height, the elevation of the jetty structure, and the size/number of loading arms at the berth. In general, marine loading arms are hydraulically powered. A hydraulic system, which often serves all the loading arms at a berth, is used to move the arms into position at the tanker’s rail, and to retract the arms back into the stowed position after use. It is common for loading arms to be one (or even two) sizes smaller than the associated pipelines. When loading a small coastal tanker (up to say 5,000 DWT), it is normal to use only one marine loading arm (subject to loading arm diameter), whereas when unloading a large vessel (eg a crude oil VLCC in excess of 160,000 DWT), it is common to use up to four loading arms in parallel, in order to achieve the required flowrate. There are a number of systems for connecting marine loading arms to tankers. The simplest connection is made using a flanged coupling. It is common practice for loading arms to be fitted with powered universal couplers. Marine Loading arms handling LPG (or any other pressurized/refrigerated material) should have a powered emergency release coupling (PERC), connected to the ESD system. If the occupancy of a berth is very low by design, it may make sense economically to use hoses rather than loading arms. But there are factors that may outweigh the cost-benefit of hoses relative to loading arms, as follows: - In order to handle hoses with a diameter of 4” and above, a crane is required - In order to prevent snagging, hoses often need support that has to be adjusted during loading/unloading, for which a crane is required the environmental performance (in terms of emissions to air and to water) of a berth with hoses is generally not as good as that of a berth with loading arms There are a number of standards relating to loading arm design and hose manufacture. Loading arms can be divided into two categories; - those designed to handle liquefied gas (pressurized, refrigerated or semi-refrigerated) and - those designed to handle Refinery products which are stored at ambient conditions. Marine Loading Arms for Refinery Products For a berth handling Refinery products which are stored at ambient conditions, it is common to have two pairs of loading arms to handle all non-refrigerated/pressurized products. Each pair of arms has a manifold such that one pair is dedicated to ‘white oils’ and one pair is dedicated to ‘black oils’. Product contamination is avoided by stripping and draining as part of the loading process, as follows: - After pumping to the tanker is complete, the MOV upstream of the manifold is closed. These MOVs are generally the double seal design, to ensure product segregation. - The liquid remaining in the manifold and the inboard section of the loading arm is then pumped out by the stripping pump. The stripping pump discharges either into the outboard section of the selected loading arm (i.e. onto the tanker) via a small ‘piggyback’ line, or back into the supply pipeline upstream of the MOV, or to the on-shore slops system. - Any un-pumpable material in the manifold is drained into an on-shore slops drum at the berth, leaving the manifold and loading arms empty. For hydrocarbons stored at ambient conditions, the stripping pump should discharge into the outboard section of the loading arm because generally speaking the material has already been metered and therefore belongs to the customer. Loading Arms for LPG at Ambient Temperature For a berth handling LPG or any other material stored under pressure, it is common to have a vapour return system to take the vapours displaced from a tanker during loading. The flow of returned vapour should be metered. The vapour return can be a separate loading arm, but it is common for an LPG loading arm to be designed with a ‘piggy-back’ vapour return line i.e. two loading arms in one. The returned vapour can be routed to the storage vessel from which product is exported. This enables high loading rates to be achieved but can be impractical/uneconomic over large distances, particularly if fans/blowers are required to boost the pressure in the vapour return pipeline. Returning vapours to the storage vessel give rise to the risk of a storage vessel being sent off-spec by contaminated returned vapours. An alternative is to route the returned vapor to a local flare/vent system, with a pressure controller in the vapor return line to back-pressure the tanker. When pumping LPG onto a tanker is complete, stripping of the loading arm(s) is usually achieved as follows: - The loading arm/manifold is de-pressured into a dedicated closed sump, from which the drainings vaporize (with heating as required) into the vapor return system. - The loading arm/manifold is purged with nitrogen to remove hydrocarbon vapors. Nitrogen purging is often carried out before connecting the loading arm, in order to remove air. Loading Arms for Refrigerated LPG Many of the considerations applicable to loading arms for products stored under pressure also apply to the design of loading arms for refrigerated (or semi-refrigerated) LPG, and for other products stored at below ambient temperature. Additional design consideration for loading arms handling (semi) refrigerated products is the provision of a liquid return line to permit the chill down of the supply system prior to loading. Design Code for Marine Loading Arm Marine Loading Arms are Designed as per OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum) guidelines. Main Components of a Marine Loading Arm The main components of a typical marine loading arm is shown in Fig. 2 below. - Riser Pipe - Inboard Arm - Outboard Arm - Counter balance - Connection Flange / QCDC - Apex Swivel Joints - Emergency Release Coupling - Hydraulic System Working of Marine Loading Arm The working philosophy of a marine loading arm is shown in Fig. 3: - Marine loading arm is designed based on its Operating envelop - Marine Loading Arms are operated by using the hydraulic system. - Heart of the marine loading arm is swivel Joint. Which plays an important role in operating the Marine loading arms. Swivel Joints used in Marine Loading Arm The main functions of the swivel joints (Fig. 4) in a marine loading arm are mentioned below - Enabling the loading arm once connected, to follow the movements of the vessel within the working envelope. - Allow the rotation between two items of a product line whilst ensuring no product leakage, even under external pressure. - In a standard marine arm, there are six swivel joints with the direction of rotation in three planes giving the arm six degrees of freedom. This allows the arm to be maneuvered to and from the vessel and, once connected, allows the arm to follow all the motions of the vessel. - Each swivel joint is made up of a male and female part joined by two or three bail bearing raceways allowing the free rotation of the joint. A compression type packing seal is used to seal the two parts of the swivel joint. - Swivel Joints are available in various materials including carbon steel, LTCS, Hastelloy, Titanium, etc. End Connection of Marine Loading Arm - The End connection ((Fig. 5)) of the Marine Loading Arm is a standard ASME B16.5 flange. - It is available in various sizes and ratings. - It is also called a Quick connect / disconnect coupling (QCDC) - End connections are of two types: - Manually operated. - Hydraulically Operated. Emergency Release Coupling Emergency Safety Systems are used to ensure the best possible safety in fluid loading/unloading operations with Marine Loading Arms. The system allows a fully automatic and safe disconnection of the loading arm from the ship without product spillage when the arm exceeds the operating envelope’s limit line. Hydraulic/Control System in Marine Loading Arm Erection of Marine Loading Arms Marine loading arms are normally shipped out fully pre-assembled with all their electronics and hydraulics systems already installed. When assembling the marine loading arms this saves considerable time and money providing economy to the end-user. Materials of Marine Loading Arms All Marine Loading arms can be made of various materials like - Carbon Steel - Stainless Steel 316L - Stainless Steel 304L - LTCS or Low-temperature Carbon steel

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One of the most exciting advancements in stem cell research of the past decade has been the development of organoid systems. Explore below for a basic overview of organoids and resources to support your organoid culture. What Are Organoids? Organoids are three-dimensional (3D) cell cultures that incorporate some of the key features of the represented organ. These in vitro culture systems are characterized by the self-organization of multiple, organ-specific cell types into a spatial organization similar to what is observed in vivo, and are capable of recapitulating some functions of the represented organ.1-4 How Are Organoids Made? Organoids may be generated from adult stem cell-containing tissue samples, single adult stem cells, or via the directed differentiation of pluripotent stem cells.3,4 Due to the active stem cell population that are present in some organoid model systems, the organoids can be greatly expanded. For example, up to 1 x 106 liver organoids can be produced from a single progenitor within 5 to 6 weeks, giving researchers a highly robust and scalable platform for studying a wide range of subjects.4,5 To date, organoid culture systems have been developed to model tissue structures from all three primary cell lineages.3,4,6 Although tissue-specific culture methods vary, in general, appropriate pluripotent stem cells or tissue-specific progenitor cells are embedded in Matrigel® or another appropriate extracellular matrix. The cells are grown in the presence of cell culture media containing specific growth factors that mimic the in vivo signals required to maintain the stem cell population. Under these conditions, the embedded cells proliferate and self-organize into 3D organoid structures that, with many systems, can be passaged and maintained indefinitely.1,7 Additionally, these cultures have shown remarkable genetic stability during passaging; whole genome sequencing of liver organoids clonally expanded from a single liver progenitor cell revealed only one synonymous base substitution after three months in culture.8 To date, organoid cultures have been described for a variety of tissues, including intestinal,5,9,10 liver,11,12 pancreas,13 kidney,14 prostate,15,16 lung,17,18 optic cup,19 and brain.20 Tools and Technologies for Organoid Culture Organoids are revolutionizing in vitro cell culture by providing accessible, physiologically relevant models that faithfully recapitulate key elements of the modeled tissue. Use these optimized media to efficiently generate organoids for your research. Organoid Media Kits Spend less time troubleshooting and more on experimenting with optimized organoid media kits for the growth and maintenance of organoids from primary tissue and human pluripotent stem cells. Future Directions and References Organoid technology holds great potential as a tool to study a wide range of subjects, including developmental biology, disease pathology, cell biology, regenerative mechanisms, precision medicine, and drug toxicity and efficacy testing. For these and other applications, organoid cultures provide highly informative, complementary approaches to the well-established 2D-culture methods and animal model systems.4,7,21,22 This technology also holds tremendous potential for regenerative medicine, as organoids present the possibility for autologous and allogeneic cell therapy through the replacement of damaged or diseased tissue with organoid-propagated tissue or stem cell populations.23,24 Such an application would allow correction of genetic abnormalities in vitro using CRISPR-Cas9 and re-introduction of the engineered healthy cells into the patient, with subsequent integration into the tissue.25,26 Patient-derived organoid cultures have also proven valuable as diagnostic tools in precision medicine applications. Organoids derived from patient samples have been used to screen patient drug responses in vitro before administering treatment to direct the care and predict therapeutic outcomes of cancer and cystic fibrosis patients.10,27,28 As the list of organoid culture systems and the techniques for their experimental exploitation grows, the utility and broad applicability of organoids continues to gain recognition across a wide range of research disciplines. The development of these culture systems represents an exciting advancement in the tools available to researchers working in basic research, and in translational and clinical contexts. - Sato T & Clevers H. (2013) Growing self-organizing mini-guts from a single intestinal stem cell: Mechanism and applications. Science 340(6137): 1190–4. - Wells JM & Spence JR. (2014) How to make an intestine. Development 141(4): 752–60. - Lancaster MA & Knoblich JA. (2014) Organogenesis in a dish: Modeling development and disease using organoid technologies. Science 345(6194): 1247125. - Huch M & Koo B-K. (2015) Modeling mouse and human development using organoid cultures. Development 142(18): 3113–25. - Spence JR et al. (2011) Directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells into intestinal tissue in vitro. Nature 470(7332): 105–9. - Kretzschmar K & Clevers H. (2016) Organoids: Modeling development and the stem cell niche in a dish. Dev Cell 38(6): 590–600. - Clevers H. (2016) Modeling development and disease with organoids. Cell 165(7): 1586–97. - Huch M et al. (2015) Long-term culture of genome-stable bipotent stem cells from adult human liver. Cell 160(1–2): 299–312. - Sato T et al. (2009) Single Lgr5 stem cells build crypt-villus structures in vitro without a mesenchymal niche. Nature 459(7244): 262–5. - Sato T et al. (2011) Long-term expansion of epithelial organoids from human colon, adenoma, adenocarcinoma, and Barrett’s epithelium. Gastroenterology 141(5): 1762–72. - Huch M et al. (2013) In vitro expansion of single Lgr5+ liver stem cells induced by Wnt-driven regeneration. Nature 494(7436): 247–50. - Takebe T et al. (2013) Vascularized and functional human liver from an iPSC-derived organ bud transplant. Nature 499(7459): 481–4. - Huch M et al. (2013) Unlimited in vitro expansion of adult bi-potent pancreas progenitors through the Lgr5/R-spondin axis. EMBO J 32(20): 2708–21. - Takasato M et al. (2014) Directing human embryonic stem cell differentiation towards a renal lineage generates a self-organizing kidney. Nat Cell Biol 16(1): 118–26. - Karthaus WR et al. (2014) Identification of multipotent luminal progenitor cells in human prostate organoid cultures. Cell 159(1): 163–75. - Gao D et al. (2014) Organoid cultures derived from patients with advanced prostate cancer. Cell 159(1): 176–87. - Lee J-H et al. (2014) Lung stem cell differentiation in mice directed by endothelial cells via a BMP4-NFATc1-thrombospondin-1 axis. Cell 156(3): 440–55. - Dye BR et al. (2015) In vitro generation of human pluripotent stem cell derived lung organoids. Elife 4 4: e05098. - Eiraku M et al. (2011) Self-organizing optic-cup morphogenesis in three-dimensional culture. Nature 472(7341): 51–6. - Lancaster MA et al. (2013) Cerebral organoids model human brain development and microcephaly. Nature 501(7467): 373–9. - McCracken KW et al. (2014) Modelling human development and disease in pluripotent stem-cell-derived gastric organoids. Nature 516(7531): 400–4. - Bigorgne AE et al. (2014) TTC7A mutations disrupt intestinal epithelial apicobasal polarity. J Clin Invest 124(1): 328–37. - Yui S et al. (2012) Functional engraftment of colon epithelium expanded in vitro from a single adult Lgr5+ stem cell. Nat Med 18(4): 618–23. - Fordham RP et al. (2013) Transplantation of expanded fetal intestinal progenitors contributes to colon regeneration after injury. Cell Stem Cell 13(6): 734–44. - Dekkers JF et al. (2013) A functional CFTR assay using primary cystic fibrosis intestinal organoids. Nat Med 19(7): 939–45. - Schwank G et al. (2013) Functional repair of CFTR by CRISPR/Cas9 in intestinal stem cell organoids of cystic fibrosis patients. Cell Stem Cell 13(6): 653–8. - van de Wetering M et al. (2015) Prospective derivation of a living organoid biobank of colorectal cancer patients. Cell 161(4): 933–45. - Dekkers JF et al. (2016) Characterizing responses to CFTR-modulating drugs using rectal organoids derived from subjects with cystic fibrosis. Sci Transl Med 8(344): 344ra84. Scientific Resources for Organoid Research Select the organoids you’re interested in to access technical and scientific resources to support your research, including webinars, videos, protocols, technical tips, and more.

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The Republic of Angola is located in Western Africa, bordered by the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north and northeast, by Zambia in the southeast, by Namibia on the south, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the west. Angola covers over 1.2 million square kilometres and is home to more than 13 million people. The majority of Angolans live in urban centres, and the capital of Luanda contains 4.5 million people alone. The population is fairly diverse. While the largest ethnic group is the Ovimbundu, there are also groups of Kimbundu, Mbundu, Lunda-Tchokwe, Nganguela, Bakongo, Europeans, and mestico (those of mixed native African and European heritage). Most Angolans practice indigenous belief systems, though there is also a strong Christian community. While it is rich in resources and is one of Africa’s largest oil exporters, Angola is one of the world’s poorest countries and is still recovering from a 27 year civil war dating back to its independence from Portugal that ended in 2002. The area known today as Angola was once divided between many regional kingdoms and indigenous tribes of hunter-gathers, but when the Portuguese arrived in 1483, they began exploiting the area and its people to support its other colonies in Asia and the Americas. Many Angolans were shipped to other countries to be used as slaves. The Portuguese were not very interested in establishing an actual colony in the area, but missionaries were active throughout the region. As a result, over 20 new kingdoms emerged during the 18th century, seeking to profit from the slave trade. Portuguese interests began to shift, however, when it banned slave trafficking in 1836. Hoping to use the area as a trading link between Europe and its colonies in the Indian Ocean, Portugal began to establish a more permanent presence. Its jurisdiction over Angola was established at the Berlin conference between the European colonial nations in 1884. Portugal’s presence was never very dominating, however, as most settlers were criminals sent there to serve their sentences, and they confined themselves mainly to the coasts. Under Antonio Salazar’s New State military government in Portugal from 1932 to 1968, Angola was subjected to harsher rule, leading to the rise of nationalist sentiment. The three main nationalist groups were formed during this period, the MPLA in 1956, the FNLA in 1958, and UNITA in 1966. These groups participated in an armed resistance which eventually forced the Portuguese to hold a four-party conference between themselves and the nationalists in order to form an independent Angolan government. This conference resulted in the Alvor Accord of January 1975 which provided for a transitional government tasked with writing a new constitution and elections to be held the day after the country declared independence. While independence was declared on 11 November 1975, the elections never took place as the three nationalist groups struggled for power. On the actual day of independence, it was the Marxist MPLA which held the capital. To solidify their hold on power, they imposed a new constitution based on Marxist-Leninist principles and founded a one-party state. The other parties retreated into the countryside and began a 27 year civil war that would decimate Angola’s economy and population. While the FNLA gave up its armed struggle, UNITA and the MPLA continued to fight until 2002, with the former controlling the countryside and the latter controlling the cities. During this period, the constitution was revised several times to give the MPLA a more firm grip on power and reaffirm socialist goals. However, the most significant amendment occurred in 1992, enabling a more democratic government and opening the door to multi-party elections held that same year. While the fighting resumed shortly after these elections were held, a peace accord was finally signed in 2002 and the re-unified country set about drafting a new constitution, approved on 21 January 2010 by the National Assembly of Angola. The 2010 Constitution established a multi-party presidential regime. The new constitution was drafted by a group of parliamentarians, advised by experts and a public consultation period, but UNITA claimed the process was flawed because the vast majority of the drafters were from the MPLA, in keeping with their parliamentary majority won in 2008. Many of these opponents also claim that the constitution is merely a way to extend the power of the current President, Jose Eduardo dos Santos, who has been ruling Angola since 1979, after the death of Agostinho Neto, the country’s first President. In addition to the office of the President, the Constitution also established a unicameral Parliament and a judicial branch headed by a Supreme Court and Constitutional Court. The President, under the 1992 constitutional amendments, was directly elected by the people, but the 2010 constitution allows the majority party in the Parliament to select the President who is normally the head of their party. While the Dos Santos’ MPLA won a landslide victory in the 2008 parliamentary elections and presidential elections were anticipated for 2009, Dos Santos cannot be removed under the new constitution until the 2012 parliamentary elections, despite the fact that his previous 30 years in office far exceed the 10 year limit imposed by the constitution. There is now the possibility that Dos Santos will be able to remain President for an additional 10 years, assuming his party maintains control of the Parliament. The Parliament also has the ability to remove the President, but this must be approved by the Supreme or Constitutional Courts. The presidential powers under the new constitution are quite extensive. As the Head of State, it is the President’s duty to appoint a Vice-President and the Council of Ministers to aid him in his duties. The President has vast appointment powers, extending to the judges of the Constitutional Court, Supreme Court, and other courts as established under the Constitution, as well as the members of the Supreme Judicial Council. He also has the power to appoint the Attorney General, the Governors of the National Bank of Angola, and the Provincial Governors. The President may also call referendums, declare war and peace in consultation with the Parliament, grant pardons, award decorations and honours, and preside over the Council of the Republic. As the Chief Executive, the President has the power to define and direct national policy, executed by the Council of Ministers, and to enact the laws passed by the Parliament. He may also initiate legislation and request the power to legislate from the Parliament. As the international representative and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed forces of Angola, the President also has the power to define and direct foreign policy, ratify treaties, appoint and accredit ambassadors, and control the appointment, discharge, and promotion of military officers as the head of the National Security Council. The President is assisted by three additional bodies: the Council of Ministers, the Council of the Republic, and the National Security Council. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the President to aid him in the formulation and execution of national policy. It may address matters concerning government policies and their execution, legislative proposals, presidential legislation, national planning instruments, presidential regulations, international agreements which require the approval of the President of the Republic, the adoption of general measures required to execute the governance programme of the President of the Republic, and any other matters submitted for the consideration of the President of the Republic. The Council of the Republic, presided over by the President, is an advisory body. It is comprised of the Vice-President, the President of the Parliament, the President of the Constitutional Court, the Attorney General, former Presidents who have not been removed from office, the leaders of the political parties and coalitions of political parties represented in the Parliament, and ten citizens appointed by the President. The National Security Council advises the President on matters concerning national security policy, strategy, and administration. Also presided over by the President, the National Security Council consists of the Vice-President, the President of the Parliament, the President of the Constitutional Court, the President of the Supreme Court, the Attorney General, the Ministers of State and Ministers nominated by the President, and any others nominated by the President. The Parliament, also called the National Assembly, is unicameral and its members are elected by a direct vote: 130 at the national level and 5 from each province. The National Assembly is responsible for approving constitutional amendments, passing legislation, granting the President the authority to legislate , approving the state budget, granting amnesties and pardons, and pronouncing on the possibility of the President declaring war, peace, a state of emergency, or a referendum. The National Assembly also approves any ratification of, signing of, or withdrawal from treaties and international agreements. It may also initiate impeachment proceedings against the President. In the realm of national security, the Parliament has very limited powers. It has the ability to analyze and debate a declaration of war or state of emergency, the granting of state funds, and the passage of legislative decrees by the President, but does not have the power to address policy or strategy. The National Assembly also has some institutional checks on the judiciary in that it elects judges to the Constitutional Court, Supreme Judicial Council, and the Ombudsman. While the President is given some powers to legislate, only the National Assembly may legislate on matters regarding fundamental rights, elections, definitions of crimes and nationality, and the organization of the judiciary. The Assembly has relative competence to legislate regarding public companies and institutions, public finances and the banking system, property, and the basic elements of national education, health, and social security. The two highest courts of Angola are the Supreme and Constitutional Courts. The Supreme Court is a court of common jurisdiction, making it the highest appeals court in all cases unrelated to the constitution. Its members are appointed by the President on the recommendation of the Supreme Judicial Council. The President and Vice-President of the Court are also appointed by the President from three candidates chosen by two-thirds of the other judges. The Constitutional Court is comprised of 11 members serving 7 year terms: 4 judges nominated by the President, including the President of the Court, 4 judges elected by the National Assembly by a two-thirds majority, including the Vice-President of the Court, 2 judges elected by the Supreme Judicial Council, and 1 judge elected by the other judges. This Court is responsible for assessing the constitutionality of any rules and other acts of the state, providing a prior review of the constitutionality of the laws of parliament, exercising jurisdiction in other legal and constitutional, electoral and political matters, and assessing constitutional appeals from the lower courts. The High Council of the Judicial Bench, or the Supreme Judicial Council, is tasked with maintaining judicial independence and integrity. The High Council manages and disciplines judges. In pursuance of this duty, the High Council may assess the professional ability of judges and take disciplinary action against them, propose the appointment of judges to the Constitutional Court, order investigations, inspections and enquiries into the legal services, and propose the necessary measures required to ensure their efficiency and improvement. In addition, the High Council may propose the appointment of members of the Bench to the Supreme Court, and appoint, place, transfer and promote judges. The President of the Supreme Court presides over the High Council and is joined by 3 jurists appointed by the President, at least one of which must be a judge, 5 jurists appointed by the National Assembly, and 10 judges elected by judges by their peers. System of government under 2010 Constitution |1483||Portuguese arrive and begin exporting slaves from Angola to its other colonial possessions| |1836||Portuguese ban slave trafficking and refocus efforts in Angola on trade| |1884||Berlin conference between the European colonial powers establish Portuguese jurisdiction over Angola| |1932||Antonio Salazar forms New State military government in Portugal| |1956||MPLA nationalist group formed| |1958||FNLA nationalist group formed| |1961||Armed resistance by guerrilla nationalist groups begins| |1966||UNITA nationalist group formed and joins armed resistance movement| |January 1975||Alvor Accord provides for a transitional government tasked with writing a new constitution and elections to be held on 12 November 1975| |11 November 1975||The MPLA declares Angola independence under their leadership and imposes a socialist constitution, the other nationalist groups retreat the country side and begin a civil war| |1992||Constitutional amendment creates multi-party democratic system, resulting in new elections, but fighting resumes due to conflict over the results| |2002||Peace declared between the MPLA and UNITA, ending the 27 year civil war| |21 January 2010||National Assembly approves new constitution| - United States. CIA World Factbook: Angola. , 2011. Web. 8 Jul 2011. - "Angola Country Profile." 07/06/2011. BBC News. Web. 8 Jul 2011. - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Studies: Angola. 2010. Web. 8 Jul 2011. - Foreign & Commonwealth Office. Angola. 2010.; Web. 8 Jul 2011. - Republic of Angola National Assembly. Constitution of the Republic of Angola. 2010. Web. 8 Jul 2011.

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|Part of a series on the| |History of Japan| Since the 1980s, scholars have argued that a period previously classified as a transition from the Jōmon period should be reclassified as Early Yayoi. The date of the beginning of this transition is controversial, with estimates ranging from the 10th to the 3rd centuries BC. The period is named after the neighborhood of Tokyo where archaeologists first uncovered artifacts and features from that era in the late 1800s. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new Yayoi pottery styles and the start of an intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. A hierarchical social class structure dates from this period and has its origin in China. Techniques in metallurgy based on the use of bronze and iron were also introduced from China via Korea to Japan in this period. The Yayoi followed the Jōmon period and Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. Archaeological evidence supports the idea that during this time, an influx of farmers (Yayoi People) from the Korean Peninsula to Japan overwhelmed, and mixed with the native hunter-gatherer population (Jomon People). The Yayoi period is generally accepted to date from 300 BC to 300 AD. However, although highly controversial, radiocarbon evidence from organic samples attached to pottery sherds may suggest a date up to 500 years earlier, between 1,000 BC and 800 BC. During this period Japan transitioned to a settled agricultural society using agricultural methods that were introduced to the country, initially in the Kyushu region, from Korea. The earliest archaeological evidence of the Yayoi is found on northern Kyūshū, but that is still debated. Yayoi culture quickly spread to the main island of Honshū, mixing with native Jōmon culture. The name Yayoi is borrowed from a location in Tokyo where pottery of the Yayoi period was first found. Yayoi pottery was simply decorated and produced using the same coiling technique previously used in Jōmon pottery. Yayoi craft specialists made bronze ceremonial bells (dōtaku), mirrors, and weapons. By the 1st century AD, Yayoi people began using iron agricultural tools and weapons. As the Yayoi population increased, the society became more stratified and complex. They wove textiles, lived in permanent farming villages, and constructed buildings with wood and stone. They also accumulated wealth through land ownership and the storage of grain. Such factors promoted the development of distinct social classes. Contemporary Chinese sources described the people as having tattoos and other bodily markings which indicated differences in social status. Yayoi chiefs, in some parts of Kyūshū, appear to have sponsored, and politically manipulated, trade in bronze and other prestige objects. That was made possible by the introduction of an irrigated, wet-rice agriculture from the Yangtze estuary in southern China via the Ryukyu Islands or Korean Peninsula. Wet-rice agriculture led to the development and growth of a sedentary, agrarian society in Japan. Local political and social developments in Japan were more important than the activities of the central authority within a stratified society. Direct comparisons between Jōmon and Yayoi skeletons show that the two peoples are noticeably distinguishable. The Jōmon tended to be shorter, with relatively longer forearms and lower legs, more deep-set eyes, shorter and wider faces, and much more pronounced facial topography. They also have strikingly raised brow ridges, noses, and nose bridges. Yayoi people, on the other hand, averaged 2.5 cm - 5 cm taller, with shallow-set eyes, high and narrow faces, and flat brow ridges and noses. By the Kofun period, almost all skeletons excavated in Japan except those of the Ainu are of the Yayoi type with some having small Jomon admixture, resembling those of modern-day Japanese. Origin of the Yayoi people The origin of Yayoi culture and the Yayoi people has long been debated. The earliest archaeological sites are Itazuke or Nabata in the northern part of Kyūshū. Contacts between fishing communities on this coast and the southern coast of Korea date from the Jōmon period, as witnessed by the exchange of trade items such as fishhooks and obsidian. During the Yayoi period, cultural features from Korea and China arrived in this area at various times over several centuries, and later spread to the south and east. This was a period of mixture between immigrants and the indigenous population, and between new cultural influences and existing practices. Chinese influence was obvious in the bronze and copper weapons, dōkyō, dōtaku, as well as irrigated paddy rice cultivation. Three major symbols of Yayoi culture are the bronze mirror, the bronze sword, and the royal seal stone. Between 1996 and 1999, a team led by Satoshi Yamaguchi, a researcher at Japan's National Museum of Nature and Science, compared Yayoi remains found in Japan's Yamaguchi and Fukuoka prefectures with those from China's coastal Jiangsu province and found many similarities between the Yayoi and the Jiangsu remains. Some scholars claimed that Korean influence existed. Mark J. Hudson has cited archaeological evidence that included "bounded paddy fields, new types of polished stone tools, wooden farming implements, iron tools, weaving technology, ceramic storage jars, exterior bonding of clay coils in pottery fabrication, ditched settlements, domesticated pigs, and jawbone rituals". The migrant transfusion from the Korean peninsula gains strength because Yayoi culture began on the north coast of Kyūshū, where Japan is closest to Korea. Yayoi pottery, burial mounds, and food preservation were discovered to be very similar to the pottery of southern Korea. However, some scholars argue that the rapid increase of roughly four million people in Japan between the Jōmon and Yayoi periods cannot be explained by migration alone. They attribute the increase primarily to a shift from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural diet on the islands, with the introduction of rice. It is quite likely that rice cultivation and its subsequent deification allowed for a slow and gradual population increase. Regardless, there is archaeological evidence that supports the idea that there was an influx of farmers from the continent to Japan that absorbed or overwhelmed the native hunter-gatherer population. Some pieces of Yayoi pottery clearly show the influence of Jōmon ceramics. In addition, the Yayoi lived in the same type of pit or circular dwelling as that of the Jōmon. Other examples of commonality are chipped stone tools for hunting, bone tools for fishing, shells in bracelet construction, and lacquer decoration for vessels and accessories. According to several linguists, Japonic was present on large parts of the southern Korean peninsula. These "Peninsular Japonic languages" were replaced by Koreanic-speakers (possibly belonging to the Han-branch) likely causing the Yayoi migration. Similarly Whitman (2012) suggests that the Yayoi are not related to the proto-Koreans but that they were present on the Korean peninsula during the Mumun pottery period. According to him, Japonic arrived in the Korean peninsula around 1500 BC and was brought to the Japanese archipelago by the Yayoi at around 950 BC. The language family associated with both Mumun and Yayoi culture is Japonic. Koreanic arrived later from Manchuria to the Korean peninsula at around 300 BC and coexist with the descendants of the Japonic Mumun cultivators (or assimilated them). Both had influence on each other and a later founder effect diminished the internal variety of both language families. Most linguists and archaeologists agree that the Japonic language family was introduced to and spread through the archipelago during the Yayoi period. Emergence of Wo in Chinese history texts The earliest written records about people in Japan are from Chinese sources from this period. Wo, the pronunciation of an early Chinese name for Japan, was mentioned in 57 AD; the Na state of Wo received a golden seal from the Emperor Guangwu of the Later Han dynasty. This event was recorded in the Book of the Later Han compiled by Fan Ye in the 5th century. The seal itself was discovered in northern Kyūshū in the 18th century. Wo was also mentioned in 257 in the Wei zhi, a section of the Records of the Three Kingdoms compiled by the 3rd-century scholar Chen Shou. Early Chinese historians described Wo as a land of hundreds of scattered tribal communities rather than the unified land with a 700-year tradition as laid out in the 8th-century work Nihon Shoki, a partly mythical, partly historical account of Japan which dates the foundation of the country at 660 BC. Archaeological evidence also suggests that frequent conflicts between settlements or statelets broke out in the period. Many excavated settlements were moated or built at the tops of hills. Headless human skeletons discovered in Yoshinogari site are regarded as typical examples of finds from the period. In the coastal area of the Inland Sea, stone arrowheads are often found among funerary objects. Third-century Chinese sources reported that the Wa people lived on raw fish, vegetables, and rice served on bamboo and wooden trays, clapped their hands in worship (something still done in Shinto shrines today), and built earthen-grave mounds. They also maintained vassal-master relations, collected taxes, had provincial granaries and markets, and observed mourning. Society was characterised by violent struggles. The Wei Zhi (Chinese: 魏志), which is part of the Records of the three Kingdoms, first mentions Yamataikoku and Queen Himiko in the 3rd century. According to the record, Himiko assumed the throne of Wa, as a spiritual leader, after a major civil war. Her younger brother was in charge of the affairs of state, including diplomatic relations with the Chinese court of the Kingdom of Wei. When asked about their origins by the Wei embassy, the people of Wa claimed to be descendants of the Taibo of Wu, a historic figure of the Wu Kingdom around the Yangtze Delta of China. For many years, the location of Yamataikoku and the identity of Queen Himiko have been subject of research. Two possible sites, Yoshinogari in Saga Prefecture and Makimuku in Nara Prefecture have been suggested. Recent archaeological research in Makimuku suggests that Yamataikoku was located in the area. Some scholars assume that the Hashihaka kofun in Makimuku was the tomb of Himiko. Its relation to the origin of the Yamato polity in the following Kofun period is also under debate. - Shōda, Shinya (2007). "A Comment on the Yayoi Period Dating Controversy". Bulletin of the Society for East Asian Archaeology. 1. - Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge University Press. p. 258. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7. - Mizoguchi, Koji (2013). The Archaeology of Japan: From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-521-88490-7. - Farris, William Wayne (1996). "Ancient Japan's Korean Connection". Korean Studies. 20: 1–22. doi:10.1353/ks.1996.0015. JSTOR 23719600. S2CID 162644598. - "Yayoi Period (300 BCE – 250 CE) | Japan Module". - "Timelines: JAPAN | Asia for Educators | Columbia University". - "Pitt Rivers Museum Body Arts | Bronze mirror". - Keally, Charles T. (2006-06-03). "Yayoi Culture". Japanese Archaeology. Charles T. Keally. Retrieved 2010-03-19. - ""The Yayoi Period: Analyzing its Culture Through Agricultural Tools"". 16 August 2012. - Picken, Stuart D. B. Historical Dictionary of Japanese Business. Scarecrow Press. p. 13. - Imamura, Keiji. Prehistoric Japan: New Perspectives on Insular East Asia. University of Hawaii Press. p. 13. - "Annual Report on Research Activity 2004". www.rekihaku.ac.jp. - Seiji Kobayashi. "Eastern Japanese Pottery During the Jomon-Yayoi Transition: A Study in Forager-Farmer Interaction". Kokugakuin Tochigi Junior College. Archived from the original on 2009-09-23. - http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/yayo/hd_yayo.htm[bare URL] - Lock, Margaret (1998). "Japanese". The Encyclopedia of World Cultures CD-ROM. Macmillan. Retrieved July 10, 2015. - Pearson, Richard J. Chiefly Exchange Between Kyushu and Okinawa, Japan, in the Yayoi Period. Antiquity 64(245)912–922, 1990. - Earlier Start for Japanese Rice Cultivation, Dennis Normile, Science, 2003 (archive) - 縄文人の顔と骨格-骨格の比較 Archived 2007-12-23 at the Wayback Machine, Information-technology Promotion Agency - "University of the Ryukyus Repository" (PDF). ir.lib.u-ryukyu.ac.jp. - Jared Diamond (June 1, 1998). "Japanese Roots". Discover Magazine. 19 (6 June 1998). Retrieved 14 December 2013. - Mizoguchi (2013), p. 54. - Kidder, J. Edward Jr. (1993). "The earliest societies in Japan". In Brown, Delmer (ed.). Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–107. ISBN 978-0-521-22352-2. p. 81. - Mizoguchi (2013), p. 53. - "Long Journey to Prehistorical Japan" (in Japanese). National Science Museum of Japan. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. - "Yayoi linked to Yangtze area: DNA tests reveal similarities to early wet-rice farmers". The Japan Times. March 19, 1999. - Mark J. Hudson (1999). Ruins of Identity Ethnogenesis in the Japanese Islands. University Hawai'i Press. ISBN 0-8248-2156-4. - Jared Diamond (June 1, 1998). "Japanese Roots". Discover Magazine. 19 (6, June 1998). Retrieved 2008-05-12. Unlike Jomon pottery, Yayoi pottery was very similar to contemporary South Korean pottery in shape. Many other elements of the new Yayoi culture were unmistakably Korean and previously foreign to Japan, including bronze objects, weaving, glass beads, and styles of tools and houses. - Mizoguchi (2013), p. 119. - Janhunen, Juha (2010). "Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia". Studia Orientalia (108). ... there are strong indications that the neighbouring Baekje state (in the southwest) was predominantly Japonic-speaking until it was linguistically Koreanized. - Vovin, Alexander (2013). "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240. - Whitman, John (2011-12-01). "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan". Rice. 4 (3): 149–158. doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0. ISSN 1939-8433. - "Gold Seal (Kin-in)". Fukuoka City Museum. Retrieved 2007-11-10. - 魏志倭人伝 Archived 2010-10-16 at the Wayback Machine, Chinese texts and its Japanese translation - Huffman, James L. (2010-02-04). Japan in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-970974-8. - 魏志倭人伝, Chinese texts of the Wei Zhi, Wikisource - Karako-kagi Archaeological Museum (2007). "ヤマト王権はいかにして始まったか". Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan. Retrieved 2016-09-01. - 古墳２タイプ、同時に出現か・奈良の古墳群で判明[permanent dead link], Nikkei Net, March 6, 2008 - 最古級の奈良・桜井“３兄弟古墳”、形状ほぼ判明 卑弥呼の時代に相次いで築造 Archived 2008-03-08 at the Wayback Machine, Sankei Shimbun, March 6, 2008 - Habu, Junko (2004). Ancient Jomon of Japan. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77670-7. - Schirokauer, Conrad (2013). A Brief History of Chinese and Japanese Civilizations. Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. - Silberman, Neil Asher (2012). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. New York: Oxford University Press. - Yayoi Culture, Department of Asian Art, The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Yayoi period at Japanese History Online (under construction) - An article by Richard Hooker on the Yayoi and the Jōmon. - Comprehensive Database of Archaeological Site Reports in Japan, Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties - Article "Japanese Roots Surprisingly Shallow" from Japan Times

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What to cut corrugated sheeting Profiled sheeting, a material without which no construction can do. Only before we make it to size, we should deal scrupulously how and what to cut the profiled sheeting. Although the process itself is not complicated, and with certain tools fast, but there are nuances in this operation, not visible to the eye. And the error can manifest itself in a couple of months after the start of operation. Steel rolled zinc-coated thickness of 0.3 to 1.5 mm, with a protruding in it trapezoidal or rounded ribs called corrugated sheeting. Overall sheet size and color of corrugated board for disclosure theme does not matter. Is it possible to cut a profiled sheeting with an “angle grinder”?? Proflists Categorically prohibited to cut the tool for three reasons: - Spectacular sparks that fly out from under the disk in the course of work, harmful to the decorative and protective layer. They fall on the polymer coating, burn it and the zinc. In places where sparks have fallen, there may be corrosion. - The abrasive disk saws trapezoidal sheet due to friction. As a result, the metal is heated, under the influence of high temperatures, the polymer and zinc coating along the edges are burned out, which leads to edge corrosion. - Abrasive disk leaves “torn” edges. So: “angle grinder” can quickly cut profiled sheeting, but it will become unusable. Therefore, the answer to the question “how to cut profiled sheeting “angle grinder” is simple: no way. Is it possible to cut profiled sheeting with a circular saw?? Cutting profiled sheeting with a circular saw, even if you use a diamond disc with fine teeth. not the best option. This tool cuts the metal due to the heat; the disk melts the edges, and with them. the zinc and polymer coating. So once again, the edges of the sheet are not protected from corrosion. In the process of cutting there are no sparks, which burn through the polymer and zinc coating. But because of the aggressive effect on the edges of the sheet we do not recommend this tool. Tips and tricks for cutting aluminum When cutting aluminum, keep these tips in mind. They will make your job a lot easier. Woodworking tools will do the trick Aluminum. is one of the softest metals. If you use high-quality woodworking tools, such as table saws and circular saws, they are probably also suitable for cutting aluminum. Rework some of your wood cutting tools, equip them with blades for cutting metal. Metal cutting lubricants help reduce vibration and roughness during cutting, and can help remove chips and filings. The most common grease for aluminum. WD-40, others include metal cutting wax and even jets of water applied to the blade. Smaller diameter blades are better Smaller blades provide a cleaner, more accurate cut. Of course, there’s a fine line here. a blade that is too thin risks breaking. Too small and you will not be able to cut large workpieces. But don’t assume that big, thick and aggressive saw blades will necessarily provide a better cut. Secure the workpiece for better results. Stability. is the key to success: the more secure the workpiece is, the more accurate the cut and the better the end result. Clamping the workpiece also increases safety; there is less chance that something will fly out of the saw and hurt the operator. Wear protective equipment Always wear appropriate protective equipment when cutting aluminum or any other material. This means safety glasses as well as hearing protection. It is also advisable to use protective shields. DIABLO TOOLS New Circular And Reciprocating Saw Blades That Cut STEEL! Use proper hand tools Scissors and wire cutters, angle grinders, chisels, carbide blades. These are all tools of the craftsman. Or even an ordinary handyman doing a bunch of projects with his hands. In both cases, make sure you have the right set of hand tools in addition to your saws or machines. What tools to use at work? To improve the quality of cuts and increase productivity when working with a manual circular saw, it is recommended to use various devices. They can be bought, complementing the manual circular saw, or make their own. Here is a helpful and interesting article on straight sawing techniques with and without a circular saw. How to use the guide bar? The guide rail is a flat bar. Some bars have a built-in bubble level that enables you to measure the straightness of the direction of cut. The guide bar is applied to the workpiece and becomes a guide for the circular saw blade. Clamped or clamped to the workpiece. It should be noted that the disk itself is in the middle of the guide bracket, and it is to the edge of the bracket that the guide bar is applied. Therefore, when marking, the distance from the disc to the edge of the bracket must be taken into account. How to cut sheet metal with a circular saw We recommend to read an interesting article. a step by step guide on how to make a guide bar with your own hands. How to use the parallel stop? There are two versions of the parallel stop: a factory-made and a homemade one. The first type comes complete with a saw and is a bar, which is fixed to the saw at the required distance and allows you to perform precise sawing workpiece. Homemade parallel stop is a construction from a stretched rectangular strip, at the end of which the stop perpendicular to the strip is fixed. It serves to fix the slat to the flat surface of the workbench or table with the perpendicular stop, and to use the slat itself as a guide. Driving the circular saw along the bar allows making a straight cut, and moving the perpendicular stop relative to the edge of the table allows making a second cut with the same straightness. How to use the carriage? The carriage is a separate movable construction which is mounted over the workpiece. It is used for acceleration and some automation of the process of cutting long boards and sheets of material. The carriage consists of two rails, the carriage itself on ball bearing supports that allow it to run on the rails, and the fasteners that hold the circular saw in place. The circular saw is turned on and moved by the carriage relative to the workpiece. It also enables safe work process, the main thing is to make sure the circular sawmill is securely fastened in the carriage. How to work without a workbench and is it possible to? Working without a workbench with a circular saw is categorically forbidden and simply impossible. Even if the circular saw is itself fastened with the disc upwards, it is fastened to the workbench. It is allowed to work without a table when it is necessary to saw a passage in a wooden wall or saw a fixed aluminum profile and nothing else. This variant of work assumes stationary positioning of the workpiece. Workpieces must not be suspended. The article presented ways of working with a manual circular saw, as well as methods and rules that ensure safe and correct use. it is a reminder that reading the instruction manual before starting work is the best way to ensure personal safety when working with hand-held power tools. Features of the disc The metal facing disc can have a diameter of 15 cm to 35.5 cm, always with a 3 mm inside diameter. You can change the blade as needed. Considering the diameter of the disc, you can take into account the recommendations of experts, who say that it is necessary to buy several elements of different diameters at once. The set allows you to choose the most suitable option for a particular metal with the highest quality of cut. However, when making your choice, remember that not every blade can be mounted on every particular machine. It is necessary to pay attention to the recommendations of the manufacturer of the saw, because ignoring this fact is fraught with burnout of the electric motor. The type of sharpening of the disk should be negative. Also it is necessary to carefully inspect the product for visible damage. A quality disc has no nicks or other defects. Its surface is smooth and the teeth are sharp. On this basis, it is worth looking at models with a disc with fine teeth and a smooth wave. Such units cut metal qualitatively and do not overheat working blade of the disc. It is important to pay attention to the fact that the discs for crosscut and circular saws are different, which should indicate the marking. Speaking about the seating place, equal to the diameter of the axis on the gearbox, it should be noted: it should be chosen particularly carefully, correlated with the parameter of the axis. It is of course possible to use crossovers, but only the right crossover will contribute to a good and efficient performance of the mitre saw. It is important to have soldered inserts on the blade itself as well as the number of teeth. Such product is more expensive than monolithic varieties, but will last many times longer than other analogs. The larger will be the diameter, the more expensive will be the disk. Unit of longitudinal cutting Such equipment has a narrower specialization and is used exclusively for longitudinal cutting. Metal slitting machine allows you to separate sheet metal into individual parts, called strips, bands, and strips. Processing is carried out according to appropriate requirements and standards. The machine works in automatic mode. the operator only controls the process by means of a special panel. on this topic on our website: - Metal cutting by laser. the price of the laser installation and what better to buy With the manufacture of all kinds of metal structures and products there is a need to use functional and accurate equipment. The technique is needed in order to ensure quality processing of sheet materials. - Diamond wire for metal cutting. metal wire cutting In the production of metal products and structures a very wide range of all kinds of equipment is used. The basis of this technological set are machines for metal cutting, which allow. - Consider metal-cutting equipment. disk metal cutting machine The quality of finished metal constructions and products is determined primarily by the quality of the production process itself. To get a decent result, you need to use professional metal-cutting equipment. Whether the machine. - Cutting metal with propane and oxygen. equipment, torch, consumption and pressure of propane when cutting Specialists, not without reason, believe that the gas cutting of metal with propane and oxygen is now the most efficient and popular type of cutting. Let’s try to find out together why Share this material with your friends in social networks (click on icons): How to pick a quarter in a board with a circular saw? This is done by setting the right depth of cut. For the selection of a quarter of the size 20×20 disk should go out of the platform at 20-22 mm (the surcharge on the uneven surface of the board). For choice of a versatile quarter, for example, 15x 20, adjust the depth of setting two times for each size, 15-16 mm and 20-22 mm. Subsequently, the operation is carried out in the same way as sawing edged boards: a guide bar is set at the required distance on two rods, the saw is made on a wide plane. Then the board is placed on the edge and make a second kerf. Since the edge is narrow, difficulties may arise. on some models, the guide bar may not be pulled close to the platform. In this case, to the board (or plank) with screws or self-tapping fasten the bar, which increases the width to the right size. If you can’t make the edge cut with a guide, you can make it with a pencil marking. It is difficult to hold a circular saw on the edge of a narrow board (20-30 mm). In such cases it is sometimes more convenient to either screw a support bar, or place the workpiece between two bars (boards) on which the saw platform will move. Metal circular saw Attention Bearing Buyers Dear customers, send your questions and requests for bearings and components to e-mail or call now: 7 (499) 403 39 91 firstname.lastname@example.org of bearings in domestic and foreign countries. Bearing catalog on the site Attention Bearing Buyers Dear buyers, send your questions and demands about purchase of bearings and accessories on mail or call now: 7 (499) 403 39 91 email@example.com Delivery of bearings in domestic and foreign countries. The catalog of bearings on a site Edge protection against corrosion Regardless of which tool is chosen, the cut will be damaged. Additional corrosion protection of the edges of the profiled sheets will extend their service life. In general, the places of drilling and cutting are resistant to corrosion, even if the protective coating is completely absent. Zinc molecules next to the cut create a barrier that prevents oxidation of the sheet. But this does not apply to the cut of metal with an angle grinder or hand grinder. Metal is the most exposed to harmful external and chemical factors, so it quickly succumbs to destruction (rusts). To extend the life of the cut manually apply anti-corrosion and moisture-resistant preparations on the edges, and then covered with factory paint, which should come with, or a spray can with a color-matched paint. Given the information provided, everyone will be able to decide for themselves what is the best way to cut the profile planking. It is important to remember that the choice of the right tool determines the speed of work, the durability of the material and its aesthetic appearance.

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AssessmentsCerebral vascular disease: Pathology review USMLE® Step 1 style questions USMLE A 78-year-old right-handed man is brought to the emergency department following sudden-onset weakness in his right arm and inability to speak for twenty four hours. The patient’s daughter states she initially became concerned when he dropped his cup of coffee while walking to the kitchen table last night. The daughter states he has had a similar episode in the past that resolved spontaneously. He has a history of hypertension, for which he takes lisinopril. His temperature is 37°C (98.6°F), pulse is 92/min, and blood pressure is 158/104 mmHg. The patient is alert and visibly frustrated by not being able to speak. Physical examination reveals 2/5 strength in the right upper extremity and 4/5 strength in the right lower extremity. He follows written and verbal commands but is unable to speak or write. MRI of the head demonstrates ischemic changes in the cerebral territory supplied by the left middle cerebral artery. Which of the following histopathological findings are most likely to be observed in this patient’s brain at the present time? At the emergency department, 30-year-old Lydia presents with severe headache and confusion. Clinical examination reveals low grade fever and nuchal rigidity. Past medical history reveals she has polycystic kidney disease. Non-contrast CT reveals blood between the arachnoid and the pia mater. Lydia is treated supportively and sent home. Three days later she suddenly develops a severe headache, vomiting, and confusion. Later that day, 70-year-old Amanda presents with left-sided weakness and numbness, with her foot and leg more affected than her arm. She can speak fluently and understands everything being said to her. Past medical history includes hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and a myocardial infarction last year. Based on their presentation, the diagnosis is that both Lydia and Amanda had a cerebral vascular disease, most often referred to as a stroke. A stroke is when there’s a sudden focal neurological deficit due to a part of the brain losing its blood supply. Now, to safeguard the brain from hypoxia, the brain has a dual circulation called the circle of Willis, divided into an anterior and posterior circulation. The anterior circulation starts in the neck, where the common carotid artery splits into the external and internal branches. The internal carotid passes through the carotid canal of the temporal bone of the skull and into the cranial cavity. Once inside, the internal carotid artery gives off branches. First are the middle cerebral arteries that supply the lateral portions of the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes. It’s also important to remember that the middle cerebral arteries supply the two language areas, Broca’s and Wernicke’s. From the initial segment of the middle cerebral arteries, small perforating arteries called lenticulostriate arteries arise to supply a part of the basal ganglia called the striatum, which includes the caudate and putamen, as well as the internal capsule. And that’s something you absolutely must remember for the exams! The internal carotid artery also gives rise to the anterior cerebral artery, which supplies the medial portion of the frontal and parietal lobes. The two anterior arteries connect with one another via a short blood vessel called the anterior communicating artery, forming the anterior portion of the circle of Willis. An important area supplied by the anterior circulation is the cortical homunculus, which is kind of a neurological map of the areas and proportions of the brain that are in charge of the motor and sensory functions for different parts of the body. The motor homunculus belongs to the frontal lobe, while the sensory homunculus is right behind it in the parietal lobe. Knowing the distribution of the cortical homunculus is important because the stroke will manifest as symptoms involving the body area that is controlled by the affected brain area, and this gives us a clue to where the stroke occurred. The cortical homunculus can be represented as a body lying on top of the brain like this, where each body part lies on top of its corresponding brain area. The toes are represented first, and then as one moves down, progressively higher parts of the body are represented, until the last part is the face. These representations on each side of the brain control the corresponding opposite side of the body. Now, the medial area of the homunculus, representing the lower body, is supplied by the anterior cerebral artery, while the lateral area representing the upper body and face is supplied by the middle cerebral artery. Moving on, the posterior circulation starts with the vertebral arteries, which head up through the transverse foramina of the cervical vertebrae and then through the foramen magnum into the cranial cavity. The vertebral arteries send branches that form the anterior spinal artery, which supplies the medial medulla and the anterior portion of the spinal cord above the level of T8. Below that level, the spinal cord is supplied by the artery of Adamkiewicz, which is a branch of the aorta. In addition, the vertebral arteries give off the posterior inferior cerebellar artery, or PICA, which supplies the lateral medulla and part of the cerebellum. Then, at the base of the medulla, both vertebral arteries join into a single artery called the basilar artery. As the basilar artery ascends, it first gives off the anterior inferior cerebellar artery, or AICA, which supplies the lateral pons and part of the cerebellum. Then, the basilar artery sends small branches called pontine arteries to supply the mid-pons. Now, going up towards the midbrain, the basilar artery also gives off a few pontine branches, which supply much of the pons medially; as well as the right and left superior cerebellar arteries, which supply a part of the pons laterally and the superior part of the cerebellum. The basilar artery also gives off the right and left posterior cerebral arteries, which supply the occipital lobe. Both of these arteries give the left and right posterior communicating arteries, which merge with the internal carotid arteries, thereby closing the posterior portion of the Circle of Willis. In general, the brain can get by on diminished blood flow when it happens gradually, because that allows enough time for collateral circulation to develop. But when blood supply is reduced suddenly, it causes tissue damage, which we call a stroke. After 5 minutes of hypoxia, neurons start to die and the damage becomes irreversible. The cells that are most vulnerable to hypoxia and get damaged first are the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus; the cells of the neocortex; and the Purkinje cells of the cerebellum. And that’s something you have to know for the exams! All right, now let’s dive deeper into strokes. There are two main types of stroke, ischemic and hemorrhagic. Most strokes are ischemic, where a blocked artery reduces blood flow to the brain. Ischemic strokes can be classified into thrombotic, embolic, and hypoxic. Thrombotic strokes usually occur when a clot forms over an atherosclerotic plaque, but they can also develop in non-inflammatory diseases like fibromuscular dysplasia. They’re more common in large vessels like the middle cerebral artery. But there’s a type of stroke that affects small vessels, called lacunar strokes and these are very high yield! Lacunar refers to “lake.” It receives its name because, after a lacunar stroke, the damaged brain tissue develops fluid-filled cysts, which look like little lakes under a microscope. Lacunar strokes typically involve the lenticulostriate arteries that supply the striatum and internal capsule. Now, lacunar strokes can be associated with conditions like hypertension and diabetes that can lead to a type of arteriosclerosis called hyaline arteriolosclerosis where the arteriole wall gets filled with protein. This can make the arteriole wall thicker, reducing the size of the lumen and leading to lacunar strokes. Next, embolic strokes occur when a blood vessel is blocked by an embolus. If it arises from the heart, it’s called cardioembolic, and that usually occurs in the setting of an atrial fibrillation, where blood pools in the atria and can become clotted. That clot can then travel up to the blood vessels supplying the brain. Now, another cause of embolic stroke that gets frequently tested is infective endocarditis! Vegetations can detach from the infected valve to float through the bloodstream, and these are called septic emboli. Mind that septic emboli from the left side of the heart can lodge in the arterial circulation of the brain, causing a stroke, while right-sided ones usually lodge in the pulmonary circulation. More rarely, there might be a paradoxical embolus that dislodges from the right side, and then slips through an atrial septal defect or patent foramen ovale. It enters the left atrium, and from there it can head off to the brain, causing a stroke. Now, an embolus can also dislodge from a thrombus or atherosclerotic plaque in the carotid arteries, and that results in a thromboembolic or atheroembolic stroke. Rarely, there might be a paradoxical embolus, which dislodges from a thrombus in the veins, like a deep vein thrombosis, and then slips through an atrial septal defect or patent foramen ovale, enters the left atrium, and from there, to the brain. Finally, there’s hypoxic stroke, aka hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, or global cerebral ischemia, which develops when there’s systemic hypoperfusion or hypoxemia. This can occur in cardiovascular surgeries, during cardiac arrest, due to ischemia during birth, and things like septic shock, or drowning. In these cases, the pattern of injury is called a watershed infarct or watershed stroke, where healthy tissue continues to extract what it needs from the blood flowing by, leaving little or no oxygen and nutrients for the tissue furthest away and as a result, the tissues that are the furthest downstream are affected the most. The “furthest downstream” tissues are the watershed areas, which are at the border of blood supply from two separate groups of cerebral arteries, making them more vulnerable to ischemia. There are three main watershed areas where watershed infarcts typically occur; between the anterior cerebral and the middle cerebral arteries, as well as between the posterior cerebral and the middle cerebral arteries, and between the external and internal branches of the middle cerebral arteries. All right, now let’s switch gears and talk about hemorrhagic strokes, in which a blood vessel bursts and bleeds out, creating a pool of blood that increases pressure in the skull and on nearby tissue and blood vessels. In addition, less oxygen-rich blood is flowing downstream to the cells that need it. Healthy tissue can die from both the direct pressure and the lack of oxygen within a few hours. Increased pressure within the skull can lead to brain herniation, which is when the brain moves across structures in the skull. These structures include the falx cerebri, which divides the two halves of the brain; the tentorium cerebelli, which divides the occipital lobes from the cerebellum; and the foramen magnum, which is the hole in the base of the skull where the spinal cord connects with the brain. A hemorrhagic stroke can be caused by either an intracerebral hemorrhage or a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Intracerebral hemorrhage is when the bleeding occurs within the brain, and is usually caused by hypertension, which can cause microaneurysms, or Charcot–Bouchard aneurysms. These are so small that they are not visible with an angiography. Charcot-Bouchard aneurysms are most likely found on small arteries that supply deep grey matter structures. So, intracerebral hemorrhage due to hypertension usually occurs in the basal ganglia, which is supplied by the lenticulostriate arteries, especially in the putamen; but it can also occur in other deep grey matter structures like the thalamus, pons, or cerebellum. Another cause of intracerebral hemorrhage is degenerative disease like cerebral amyloid angiopathy, in which abnormal amyloid proteins deposit in the walls of small to medium sized blood vessels in the brain. This weakens the structure of the vessel walls and makes them prone to recurrent hemorrhage. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy usually manifests in the elderly with multiple asymptomatic microbleeds restricted to the cerebral cortex or superficial cerebellar regions. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy can also be associated with larger spontaneous lobar hemorrhage, but in this case, unlike hypertension, it spares the white matter, deep gray matter, and the brainstem. Some additional causes of intracerebral hemorrhage include arteriovenous malformations, which are abnormal vessels that can easily rupture; as well as conditions like vasculitis and vascular tumors, like hemangiomas. Intracerebral hemorrhage can also arise after an ischemic stroke. Arteries within the ischemic tissue are themselves made up of endothelial cells that die off. If there’s reperfusion or a return to blood flow, there’s an increased chance that the damaged blood vessel might rupture and cause a hemorrhage. This is called a hemorrhagic conversion. Next, there’s subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is extremely high yield! Here, bleeding occurs between the middle and inner layers of the meninges, so between the arachnoid and pia mater respectively. The most common cause of subarachnoid hemorrhage in general is head trauma, which is the most common cause of a spontaneous or primary subarachnoid hemorrhage is the rupture of an aneurysm. Now, sometimes, subarachnoid hemorrhage can be caused by both, since even minimal trauma could lead to rupture of an occult aneurysm. Most cerebral aneurysms arise in the anterior half of the circle of Willis, typically in bifurcations, most often between the anterior communicating artery and the anterior cerebral artery. For the test, you have to know that the most common aneurysms in the brain are saccular cerebral aneurysms, aka berry aneurysms, which have a characteristic rounded shape on one side of the artery. Some genetic disorders can predispose individuals to having saccular aneurysms, such as autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease or ADPKD, Marfan syndrome, and Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, and that’s a fact that gets frequently tested on the exams! Other risk factors include advanced age, smoking, and being of African descent. For the test also remember that a less frequent cause of spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage is an arteriovenous malformation. Normally, arteries and veins are connected by small leaky blood vessels called capillaries. But in arteriovenous malformations, they are replaced with abnormally formed tangled blood vessels characterized by at least one direct connection between the artery and vein. Over time, these abnormal vessels can dilate and since veins aren’t used to dealing with high arterial pressures, they can rupture causing a subarachnoid hemorrhage. Subarachnoid hemorrhage has specific symptoms that you must absolutely know for the exams! Most cases present an excruciating headache of acute onset known as thunderclap headaches that are described as "the worst headache of my life". There can also be nuchal rigidity caused by blood irritating the meninges. Occasionally people can develop seizures, fever and symptoms of increased intracranial pressure like vomiting, vision changes, and confusion. Now regardless of the type of stroke, the region of the brain that’s affected typically corresponds to a specific focal neurological deficit. For the exams, it’s important to know some very high yield presentations. Let’s start with strokes of the anterior circulation. An anterior cerebral artery stroke affects the cortical homunculus for the feet and legs, causing contralateral paralysis and sensory loss. Urinary incontinence is also common. - "Robbins Basic Pathology" Elsevier (2017) - "Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, Twentieth Edition (Vol.1 & Vol.2)" McGraw-Hill Education / Medical (2018) - "Clinical pathology of the shock syndromes" Journal of Emergencies, Trauma, and Shock (2011) - "Untreated brain arteriovenous malformation: Patient-level meta-analysis of hemorrhage predictors" Neurology (2014) - "Intracranial Aneurysm and Hemorrhagic Stroke in Glucocorticoid-remediable Aldosteronism" Hypertension (1998) - "ACR Appropriateness Criteria ® Cerebrovascular Disease" Journal of the American College of Radiology (2017) - "Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Unruptured Intracranial Aneurysms" Stroke (2015)

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Clean and efficient loop fusion for all your iterating needs! # #require "iter";; # let p x = x mod 5 = 0 in Iter.(1 -- 5_000 |> filter p |> map (fun x -> x * x) |> fold (+) 0);; - : int = 8345837500 Iter is a simple abstraction over intended to iterate efficiently on collections while performing some transformations. Common operations supported by Iter is not designed to be as general-purpose or flexible as Rather, it aims at providing a very simple and efficient way of iterating on a finite number of values, only allocating (most of the time) one intermediate closure to do so. For instance, iterating on keys, or values, Hashtbl.t, without creating a list. Similarly, the code above is turned into a single optimized for loop with There is only one important type, 'a Iter.t, and lots of functions built around this type. See the online API for more details on the set of available functions. Some examples can be found below. The library used to be called Some historical perspective is provided in this talk given by @c-cube at some OCaml meeting. Conversion between n container types would take n² functions. In practice, for a given collection we can at best hope for With iter, if the source structure provides a iter function (or a to_iter wrapper), it becomes: # let q : int Queue.t = Queue.create();; val q : int Queue.t = <abstr> # Iter.( 1 -- 10 |> to_queue q);; - : unit = () # Iter.of_queue q |> Iter.to_list ;; - : int list = [1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8; 9; 10] # let s : int Stack.t = Stack.create();; val s : int Stack.t = <abstr> # Iter.(of_queue q |> to_stack s);; - : unit = () # Iter.of_stack s |> Iter.to_list ;; - : int list = [10; 9; 8; 7; 6; 5; 4; 3; 2; 1] Note how the list of elements is reversed when we transfer them from the queue to the stack. Another example is extracting the list of values of a hashtable (in an undefined order that depends on the underlying hash function): # let h: (int, string) Hashtbl.t = Hashtbl.create 16;; val h : (int, string) Hashtbl.t = <abstr> # for i = 0 to 10 do Hashtbl.add h i (string_of_int i) done;; - : unit = () # Hashtbl.length h;; - : int = 11 # (* now to get the values *) Iter.of_hashtbl h |> Iter.map snd |> Iter.to_list;; - : string list = ["6"; "2"; "8"; "7"; "3"; "5"; "4"; "9"; "0"; "10"; "1"] for loop is a bit limited, and lacks compositionality. Instead, it can be more convenient and readable to Iter.(--) : int -> int -> int Iter.t. # Iter.(1 -- 10_000_000 |> fold (+) 0);; - : int = 50000005000000 # let p x = x mod 5 = 0 in Iter.(1 -- 5_000 |> filter p |> map (fun x -> x * x) |> fold (+) 0 );; - : int = 8345837500 NOTE: with flambda under sufficiently strong optimization flags, such compositions of operators should be compiled to an actual loop with no overhead! Iterating on sub-trees A small λ-calculus AST, and some operations on it. # type term = | Var of string | App of term * term | Lambda of term ;; type term = Var of string | App of term * term | Lambda of term # let rec subterms : term -> term Iter.t = fun t -> let open Iter.Infix in Iter.cons t (match t with | Var _ -> Iter.empty | Lambda u -> subterms u | App (a,b) -> Iter.append (subterms a) (subterms b)) ;; val subterms : term -> term Iter.t = <fun> # (* Now we can define many other functions easily! *) let vars t = Iter.filter_map (function Var s -> Some s | _ -> None) (subterms t) ;; val vars : term -> string Iter.t = <fun> # let size t = Iter.length (subterms t) ;; val size : term -> int = <fun> # let vars_list l = Iter.(of_list l |> flat_map vars);; val vars_list : term list -> string Iter.t = <fun> Makes it easy to write backtracking code (a non-deterministic function returning several will just return a Here, we generate all permutations of a list by enumerating the ways we can insert an element in a list. # open Iter.Infix;; # let rec insert x l = match l with | -> Iter.return [x] | y :: tl -> Iter.append (insert x tl >|= fun tl' -> y :: tl') (Iter.return (x :: l)) ;; val insert : 'a -> 'a list -> 'a list Iter.t = <fun> # let rec permute l = match l with | -> Iter.return | x :: tl -> permute tl >>= insert x ;; val permute : 'a list -> 'a list Iter.t = <fun> # permute [1;2;3;4] |> Iter.take 2 |> Iter.to_list ;; - : int list list = [[4; 3; 2; 1]; [4; 3; 1; 2]] examples/sexpr.mli exposes the interface of the S-expression example library. It requires OCaml>=4.0 to compile, because of the GADT structure used in the monadic parser combinators part of Be careful that this is quite obscure. Seq from the standard library, and with Seqis an external iterator. It means that the code which consumes some iterator of type 'a Seq.tis the one which decides when to go to the next element. This gives a lot of flexibility, for example when iterating on several iterators at the same time: let rec zip a b () = match a(), b() with | Nil, _ | _, Nil -> Nil | Cons (x, a'), Cons (y, b') -> Cons ((x,y), zip a' b') Iteris an internal iterator. When one wishes to iterate over 'a Iter.t, one has to give a callback f : 'a -> unit that is called in succession over every element of the iterator. Control is not handed back to the caller before the whole iteration is over. zipimpossible to implement. However, the type is general enough that it can be extracted from any classic including from data structures such as one cannot obtain a 'a Seq.tfrom these without having access to the internal Gen(from the gen library) is an external iterator, like Seq, but it is imperative, mutable, and consumable (you can't iterate twice on the same It looks a lot like iterators in rust/java/… and can be pretty efficient in some cases. Since you control iteration you can also write for_all2, etc but only with linear use of input generators (since you can traverse them only once). That requires some trickery for cartesian_product (like storing already produced elements internally). 'a Seq.t is more expressive than 'a Iter.t, but it also requires more knowledge of the underlying source of items. For some operations such as flat_map, Iter is also extremely efficient and will, if flambda permits, be totally removed at compile time (e.g. Iter.(--) becomes a for loop, and becomes a if test). For more details, you can read http://gallium.inria.fr/blog/generators-iterators-control-and-continuations/ or see the slides about Iter by me (c-cube) when Iter was still called opam install iter manually (need OCaml >= 4.02.0): make all install If you have qtest installed, you can build and run tests with $ make test If you have benchmarks installed, you can build and run benchmarks with $ make benchs To see how to use the library, check the following tutorial. examples directories also have some examples, but they're a bit arcane. Iter is available under the BSD license. with-test & >= "1.3" >= "4.03.0" & < "5.0"

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Nothing in his life became him like the leaving of it. Percy Bysshe Shelley, clothed in black, lies on the branches of the funeral pyre; his pale face might be sleeping, his hair is swept back, his hand has fallen to his side. He still has on his leather shoes. Like the “blithe spirit” in “To a Skylark”, he is ready to transcend his physical form. Smoke billows across the barren wastes of Viareggio, Italy, the sky is autumnal and overcast and the sea in which he drowned is a blade of silver on the horizon. To the left we see a watch tower, a waiting carriage, a bare and solitary tree and, in the foreground, three Heathcliffian figures: Lord Byron, his necktie blowing raffishly in the wind, Byron’s “bulldog” Edward John Trelawny, and the poet and journalist Leigh Hunt, clutching a white handkerchief. Behind them the poet’s widow, Mary Shelley, kneels in prayer. The scene might be a mockery of the central tableau in her novel Frankenstein, where the creature the scientist has pieced together is stretched along the bench, waiting to be jolted into life. Shelley did a great deal to mythologise himself, but the public’s myth of Shelley, which began with his funeral, and Louis Édouard Fournier’s 1889 painting – copies of which, said WB Yeats, hung on the wall of every art class – bears little relation to the reality of the event. When Byron died fighting for Greek independence in 1824, England collapsed into the kind of mourning we would not see again until the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, but Shelley’s death aged 29 in July 1822, like that of Keats in 1821, was not at first regarded as a national tragedy. Before he was sanctified Shelley was dismissed – if he was spoken of at all – as an atheistic, anti-establishment, vegetarian anarchist who believed that a poem was a radical instrument. “Shelley, the writer of some infidel poetry, has been drowned,” reported The Courier when the news reached England. “Now he knows whether there is a God or not.” Setting sail from Livorno on 8 July, Shelley’s sailing boat got caught in a squall off the Bay of Spezia. When he washed ashore on 18 July his hands and face had been eaten by dogfish; he was identified by the edition of Keats in his pocket. The decomposing body was buried in the sand before being dug up for the cremation, which took place on 16 August. Rather than being a blustery day, the combined heat of the sun and the fire, wrote Trelawny in his Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron, “was so intense that the atmosphere was tremulous and wavy”. [See also: The purpose of sex] Trelawny, who was prone to exaggerate, described how the corpse, doused in more wine than Shelley had consumed in his lifetime, “fell open and the heart was laid bare. The frontal bone of the skull… fell off; and as the back of the head rested on the red-hot bottom bars of the furnace, the brains literally seethed, bubbled and boiled as if in a cauldron, for a very long time.” “Is this a human body?” Byron apparently declaimed. “Why, it’s more like the carcass of a sheep.” Women were excluded from funerals and so Mary Shelley stayed at home while Hunt, the last person to see his friend alive, was too distraught to leave the carriage. So it was only Byron and Trelawny who watched Shelley burn. When it was over, Byron went for a swim and Trelawny grabbed the heart from the flames and passed it on to Hunt, who reluctantly gave it to Mary. She kept it on her writing desk for the rest of her life. It suits Shelley’s self-image to see him as a lonely sailor in a storm, but he was not alone when his boat went down; he was accompanied by his friend Edward Williams, whose own body was cremated the day before. The two men had been to visit Hunt who had just arrived in Italy with the aim of starting a journal called The Liberal. Williams and his common-law wife Jane had been living with the Shelleys in a former boathouse called Casa Magni in Lerici, where the sea came up to the front door. The previous month Mary, having already buried three of her four children, nearly bled to death during a miscarriage. “No words can tell you how I hated our house & the country about it,” she recalled of that time. Casa Magni had become a personality to be feared and Shelley, addicted to laudanum and infatuated with Jane Williams, had started to hallucinate. In one vision he saw a naked child rising from the water, his hands clasped in joy. “There it is again!” he told Edward Williams, pointing to the sea. “There!” In another vision he saw Jane and Edward covered in blood, and in another a man with his own face was strangling Mary. He would be happiest, Shelley told a friend, if the past and future could be obliterated and he, Jane and her guitar could simply float away in a boat. During Shelley’s lifetime, it was Byron – flash, cynical, and satirical – who was in the ascendance. The Corsair – dashed off, Byron bragged, between dinners – sold 10,000 copies on the day it was published, while Shelley’s print-runs never exceeded 250. The transformation from infidel poet to “ineffectual angel” (the term is Matthew Arnold’s) began with the publication of Leigh Hunt’s Lord Byron and Some of his Contemporaries (1828) and Trelawny’s Recollections of the Last Days of Shelley and Byron (1858). Hunt, the first critic to recognise the genius of Shelley and Keats, reminded the reader that not only was Shelley “a baronet’s son” with the taste and manners of his rank, he was also too fine for this world. By the 1860s Walter Bagehot would describe Byron’s verse as “a metrical species of the sensation novel” and Shelley’s “as a serious and deep thing”. If Byron was a melancholy dandy, Shelley was an instrument of spontaneity. “Make me thy lyre, even as the forest is,” Shelley wrote in “Ode to the West Wind”. A self-playing instrument, the lyre (whence “lyric”) is the quintessential metaphor for Romantic inspiration, and “for the poet to yield himself to and be borrowed by the wind”, as Merle Rubin puts it, “is almost the Shelleyan stance”. So when Will Ladislaw (the idealist modelled on Shelley) explained in George Eliot’s Middlemarch (1871) that a poet was a recipient of external and internal impressions, he was singing from Shelley’s songbook: To be a poet is to have a soul so quick to discern, that no shade of quality escapes it, and so quick to feel, that discernment is but a hand playing with a finely ordered variety on the chords of emotion – a soul in which knowledge passes instantly into feeling, and feeling flashes back as a new organ of knowledge. In 1891 Shelley was fictionalised again as Angel Clare in Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles, and in 1893 Edward Onslow Ford’s lavish marble reclining sculpture The Drowned Man was put on display in University College, Oxford, the alma mater from which the poet had been expelled 80 years earlier for publishing a pamphlet called The Necessity of Atheism. What would have happened to Shelley’s reputation had he died an old man in Surrey rather than a young man in the Tyrrhenian sea? If dying young was proof of sensibility, doing so in the Mediterranean was a guarantee of deification. Was Shelley’s best work behind him in 1822? Now recognised as the heir to Dante and Milton, Shelley gave us some of the loveliest lyrical poems in the language (“To a Skylark”, “Ode to the West Wind”, “Ozymandias”); “Adonais”, the elegy to Keats read by Mick Jagger in the concert at Hyde Park after the death of Brian Jones; the dramas, “The Cenci” and “Prometheus Unbound”; the conversational poem “Julian and Maddalo” and the sublime “Epipsychidion”. But it is “The Masque of Anarchy”, written in the aftermath of the Peterloo Massacre in August 1819 when cavalry charged at campaigners for parliamentary reform in Manchester’s St Peter’s Field, for which he is best remembered. Paul Foot, whose book Red Shelley (1981) turned the poet from a representative of the Romantic imagination to a mascot of the left, could recite the whole of “The Masque of Anarchy”, as could his uncle, Michael Foot, and his three sons. Jeremy Corbyn did recite it – or at least its final stanza – in front of a crowd of 120,000 at Glastonbury Festival in 2017: Rise like lions after slumber In unvanquishable number – Shake your chains to earth like dew Which in sleep had fallen on you – Ye are many – they are few. The same lines were chanted in Tiananmen Square in 1989, in Tahrir Square during the Egyptian revolution in 2011, and at the Poll Tax marches; “The Masque of Anarchy” is not only the greatest protest poem in English but in any language. What would have happened to Mary Shelley had her husband been around for the next 50 years? She had more peace as a widow than as a wife. “We have now lived five years together,” she wrote in 1819, “and if all the events of the five years were blotted out, I might be happy.” Before Shelley fell in love with Jane Williams there had been Sophia Stacy, and before that there was Emilia Viviani, and Mary’s step-sister Claire Clairmont. Shelley’s first wife, Harriet, was 15 when she met him, 16 when she married him, 18, and pregnant with her second child, when he abandoned her for Mary, and 21 when, pregnant with her third child, she drowned herself in the Serpentine in December 1816. Two months earlier, Mary’s half-sister, Fanny Imlay, also in love with Shelley, had swallowed a fatal dose of laudanum. Loving Shelley was lethal because Shelley idealised love. The notes to “Queen Mab” outlined his philosophy: “Love withers under constraint… Love is free: to promise for ever to love the same woman, is not less absurd than to promise to believe the same creed.” Shelley learned his doctrine of free-love from the radical philosophy of Mary’s parents, William Godwin and Mary Wollstonecraft. Godwin’s anti-marriage, anti-ownership treatise, the Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, paved the way for the Romantic experiment in communal living, and Mary Wollstonecraft, who had died giving birth to Mary Godwin, took on for her daughter and her generation a legendary status. When Shelley and the 16-year-old scion of these two extraordinary figures ran away together in 1814, they assumed they would win Godwin’s approval; he had, after all, raised his daughter to be “a philosopher” and “a cynic”. But in the time-worn fashion of fathers, Godwin was appalled by what he saw as the poet’s seduction of his daughter. It was not Shelley, however, who had seduced Mary, but Godwin who had seduced Shelley. Poor Harriet Shelley realised this straight away: “The very great evil that book has done is not to be told,” she said of Political Justice. Meanwhile, Harriet saw that Mary had “heated [Shelley’s] imagination by talking of her mother [and] going to the grave with him every day”. Despite being disowned by Godwin, Mary and Shelley scoured the pages of his writing for guidance on how to lead their future lives, which were to be spent in voluntary exile in Italy with no home, no income, no certainty. Two hundred years after his death, Shelley is no longer stigmatised, mythologised, or even, beyond being chanted at protests, much read or understood. He was a revolutionary poet, but his sense of revolution involved an expansion of the concept of love which came from deep inward reflection. “We want,” he explained, “the creative faculty to imagine that which we know; we want the generous impulse to act that which we imagine; we want the poetry of life.” Perhaps he will be cancelled and disappear from the university curriculum, and future generations will not hear what Shelley had to tell us about tyranny and freedom and how best to live. Or perhaps he will be read again, closely and carefully, in his full complexity. Shelley was “emphatically”, as William Rossetti put it, “the poet of the future” and it is to Shelley’s sonnet, “England in 1819”, that we might turn when we consider the “old, mad, blind, despised and dying” Vladimir Putin: Rulers who neither see nor feel nor know, But leechlike to their fainting country cling Till they drop, blind in blood, without a blow. Frances Wilson’s books include “The Ballad of Dorothy Wordsworth” (Faber & Faber) and “Burning Man: The Ascent of DH Lawrence” (Bloomsbury Circus) [See also: How TS Eliot found happiness] This article appears in the 06 Jul 2022 issue of the New Statesman, The Last Days of Boris Johnson

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What Are Fibroids? Everything You Need to Know At first, Millie Peartree assumed her chronic fatigue and heavy periods were a routine part of getting older. “I thought it was just the circle of life,” the 39-year-old chef tells WW. A sonogram recommended by her doctor in 2006 revealed a more surprising reality. “I was told I had fibroids and needed a follow-up,” she says. “Honestly, at the time, I wasn't well versed on fibroids.” Talk about relatable: Many people are unfamiliar with fibroids until they receive a diagnosis—in part because these benign tumours aren’t exactly a hot topic of conversation at brunch (“Wanna split the French toast sticks and discuss uterine health?”). That doesn’t mean fibroids are an obscure occurrence. In fact, one study involving more than 1,300 women found that 70–80% of subjects developed fibroids by age 50. Read on for a science-backed guide to managing fibroids, plus more from Peartree, a WW Partner, on the everyday strategies she uses to support her health. What are fibroids? Found in and around the muscular wall of the uterus, fibroids are generally described as noncancerous tumours that range in size from that of an apple seed to a grapefruit. “Fibroids happen when muscle fibres bunch up and form into solid clumps,” says Adeeti Gupta, MD, a board-certified OB-GYN and the founder of Walk In GYN Care. Also known as leiomyoma or just myoma, fibroids can appear alone or in clusters. While the word “tumour” can be unsettling, keep this in mind: Fibroids are almost always benign, and there’s no evidence that benign fibroids can morph into cancer. In rare cases, cancerous fibroids can occur with a form of cancer known as leiomyosarcoma. Even so, benign fibroids outnumber cancerous fibroids 1,000 to 1. Fibroids are most likely to develop in a person’s 40s and/or early 50s, but that’s definitely not a hard-and-fast rule. Mirroring the experiences of many other Black women, Peartree notes that she was diagnosed in her mid-20s. We’ll explore risk factors more in a moment. Types of uterine fibroids Not all fibroids are created equal. Health experts classify the growths into five main types according to their position and makeup. - Intramural fibroids: found in the muscle wall of the uterus - Subserosal fibroids: found on the outer muscular layer of the uterus - Submucosal fibroids: located in the inner lining of the uterine wall - Pedunculated fibroids: attached to the uterus by a stalk (imagine a fibroid flower) - Calcified fibroids: the end stage of any of the previous four types, once the cells have died and hardened “The two that tend to be the most common are intramural and subserosal, but submucosal can cause the most complications,” Dr. Sekhon says. “That’s because submucosal fibroids can lead to fertility or pregnancy issues.” What causes fibroids? While scientists haven’t quite pinpointed the exact causes of fibroids, research suggests that certain hormones likely play a role. “Fibroids can grow in response to stimulation from ovarian hormones—estrogen and progesterone—and therefore can increase in size over one's reproductive lifespan,” says Lucky Sekhon, MD, a board-certified OB-GYN and reproductive endocrinologist at Reproductive Medical Associates of New York. That means a fibroid can slowly get bigger over multiple decades. People in certain groups may be at a higher risk for developing fibroids. Here are some factors that may up your odds: - Heredity: Some inherited genetic factors are linked to fibroid growth. “People are more likely to have fibroids if other family members have them,” Dr. Sekhon says. - Race: While people of any race or ethnicity can develop fibroids, research suggests the Black population is hit hardest. People in this group experience a higher likelihood of developing fibroids, period—and typically at earlier ages, with more severe symptoms. - Pregnancy history: People who have not been pregnant and carried a fetus for 24 weeks or longer may be more likely to develop fibroids than those who have. A first pregnancy after age 30 may be less protective than a pregnancy earlier in life. - Weight: Research has uncovered an association between fibroid incidence and higher body weight. “Having a high body fat content increases the amount of circulating estrogen in the body, which could serve to stimulate fibroid growth,” Dr. Sekhon says. - Vitamin D deficiency: Falling short on this widely under-consumed nutrient may increase the risk for fibroid formation. This may also partly explain the higher incidence of fibroids among Black adults, who tend to have lower levels of vitamin D3 than lighter-skinned people. What are the symptoms of fibroids? While many fibroids are asymptomatic (meaning you’d never know you had them), roughly 30–40% make their presence known. With her diagnosis, Peartree was able to connect the dots on other symptoms she had been experiencing, like dizziness from low iron. “I found out that anemia is another symptom of fibroids,” she says. Symptoms generally depend on the location, number and size of fibroids, Dr. Sekhon says, and may include the following: - Heavy menstrual bleeding - Intense menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea) - Bowel and bladder dysfunction resulting from pressure - Abdominal distortion - Pelvic pain - Recurrent miscarriage On the link with infertility, Dr. Sekhon explains that fibroids can block sperm entry into the fallopian tubes, alter blood flow to the uterine lining, distort the uterine cavity, and reduce the surface area for an embryo to implant. As for pregnancy loss, “If fibroids are in the inner lining or large enough to distort the cavity, they can also increase the risk of miscarriage,” she says. Can fibroids cause weight gain? For the most part, fibroids do not result in significant changes on the scale—at least not directly. “If fibroids are large enough, they can increase the size and weight of the uterus,” Dr. Sekhon says, but quickly adds that fibroids would have to be unusually large or numerous to add even 1 extra pound. One possible connection between fibroids and weight gain is that they can throw a wrench in a workout routine—you may not exactly be eager to hop on a treadmill when you’re feeling super crampy or experiencing pelvic pain. On top of that, the heavy periods caused by some fibroids can sap strength. “The anemia associated with heavy flow can lead to weakness, and therefore less physical activity,” Dr. Sekhon says. How fibroids are diagnosed If you’re experiencing symptoms of a fibroid, your doctor may perform a pelvic exam or refer you for an ultrasound to assess the size, location, and number of fibroids in your uterus. Your doctor may also order an ultrasound to look for fibroids if you’re having trouble conceiving. In those cases, “We evaluate the uterine cavity to make sure it is nice and smooth, and if any submucosal fibroids are identified, we would recommend removal,” says Sekhon. Since they are so often asymptomatic, though, many fibroids go undetected or are only discovered when an ultrasound is performed during pregnancy. How to treat fibroids Unless they’re interfering with your life, fibroids probably don’t require you to do anything. “They only need to be removed or treated if they are big enough to cause symptoms, such as inability to urinate or constipation,” Dr. Gupta says. But if you do have symptoms, or if you have a submucosal fibroid that could potentially complicate a future pregnancy, you’ve got options. Peartree says an ongoing conversation with her doctor has been key to determining the best approaches at different points in her fibroid journey. “My OB/GYN is the nicest person and the first doctor who took time to explain what fibroids are and the importance of wellness,” she says. “At the time of my diagnosis, an option presented to me was to leave the fibroids alone and have surgery if they got bigger, which was the route I decided to take.” For patients in that group, symptom management is the main goal. This might involve measures like popping a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) for painful periods. Some also find hormonal approaches like oral contraceptives (a.k.a. birth control pills) or progestin IUDs helpful. “These can slow or prevent growth of fibroids by reducing the number of hormones stimulated by the ovaries,” Dr. Sekhon says. For more severe or recurring cases—as well as submucosal fibroids of any magnitude—your doctor may advise one of several procedures. - Uterine artery embolization: This procedure, generally performed under local anesthesia by a radiologist, uses microparticles to block the blood vessels that feed fibroids. This “can help to shrink fibroids over time and reduce their symptoms,” Dr. Sekhon says. Note that uterine artery embolization may increase the risk of future pregnancy complications, as it does limit blood flow to the uterus. - Myomectomy: This is a more invasive surgical procedure that spares the uterus and removes just the tumorous tissue. “A fibroid can be specifically cut out of the uterus,” Dr. Sekhon says. Fibroids can sometimes regrow following myomectomy. - Hysterectomy: This surgical procedure removes the uterus and is generally reserved for patients with severe fibroids who are not concerned about fertility. Roughly 600,000 hysterectomies are performed each year in the U.S., with fibroids being the top reason. While hysterectomies are largely considered safe, they come with the usual risks that can accompany major surgery, such as infection and blood loss. Peartree’s fibroids ended up growing over time, and she has since elected to undergo a pair of surgeries to remove them. Speaking with WW while recovering from the latest procedure, in June 2021, Peartree says, “All things considered, I'm feeling well. At times I’m very winded and achy, but I understand this is part of the process. There have been times when my body had to tell me to stop and slow down, as I was trying to do a bit too much too soon. I’m OK with taking a much-needed break.” Can diet and lifestyle affect fibroids? A diagnosis of fibroids generally isn’t reason to eat or avoid specific foods. At this point, there’s scant research to support the idea that any particular food item can alleviate or worsen these uterine growths. Just one study has linked high intake of a certain food—red meat, in this case—with a heightened likelihood of developing fibroids. Nevertheless, Dr. Gupta says an overall healthy pattern of eating can reduce chronic-disease risk in general, as well as help you maintain a healthy weight. That means enjoying plenty of nutrient-dense fruits, veggies, and other whole foods, and going easy on added sugars, sodium, saturated fat, and boozy cocktails. In light of research suggesting a link between physical activity and lower fibroid incidence in premenopausal women, Peartree worked to figure out a doable exercise approach. The aqua aerobics and Bikram yoga sessions she tried were fun but didn’t quite meet her needs. “Walking is what I’ve learned to be best for me,” Peartree now says. “As my fibroids came back [between surgeries], the pain increased, and walking is a form of exercise that is less strenuous on my body and has a positive effect on my mental health. It allows me to decompress mentally and exercise for longer periods of time.” On that note, Peartree also reports that managing stress in all areas of her life has been helpful for mitigating fibroid-related pain flare-ups. “I needed to make a change and prioritize my health: Keep distance from people and things that stressed me out, decrease the amount of projects I took on, and learn to walk away from projects that were not conducive to my wellbeing,” she says. “Your heart, your gut, and your soul all have ways of communicating with you.” The upshot: Fibroids are common, and experiences vary In many cases, fibroids cause zero symptoms and do not require medical treatment. If that describes your situation, you may even forget you have fibroids! But definitely reach out to a doctor if you develop symptoms such as unusually heavy periods, intense monthly cramps, pelvic pain, or trouble conceiving. Peartree is glad she spoke up about her own symptoms, sought treatment, and prioritized her wellbeing. “When it comes to health, being ‘selfish’ is the most important thing you can do,” she says. “Part of this journey is taking time for yourself, knowing when to take a pause, and not being embarrassed to communicate what is going on within your own body.” Deanna Pai is a freelance health and lifestyle journalist whose work has appeared in Vogue, Cosmopolitan, Women’s Health, Self, Glamour, and more. This article was reviewed for accuracy in July 2021 by Christi Smith, MS, CSCS, associate manager for science translation at WW. The WW Science Team is a dedicated group of experts who ensure all our solutions are rooted in the best possible research.

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TELESCOPE HOUSE AUGUST SKY GUIDE PART 2 DEEP SKY DELIGHTS IN THE SUMMER TRIANGLE The Summer Triangle. Image created with SkySafari 5 for Mac OS X, ©2010-2016 Simulation Curriculum Corp., skysafariastronomy.com. The Summer Triangle is an asterism that consists of the stars Vega, Deneb and Altair and was a term first associated with these stars by the Austrian astronomer Oswald Thomas in the early-to-mid 20th century, when he referred to it as Grosses Dreieck (Great Triangle) in the late 1920s and Sommerliches Dreieck (Summerly Triangle) in 1934. This area of sky takes in the constellations of Cygnus, Lyra, Aquila, Vulpecula and Sagitta and contains some of the best deep sky objects in the whole sky. Starting from the most southerly tip of the Summer Triangle, we come to the major constellation of Aquila, The Eagle. Despite its size and prominent position along the plane of there Milky Way, this constellation is curiously lacking in major Deep Sky objects. The only one of great note is the interesting NGC 6741, otherwise known as The Phantom Streak. This object is a planetary nebula of +11.69 mag and diminutive in size (as many planetaries are), at just 0.1 arc minutes across. Looking like a ghostly parallelogram, the Phantom Streak is not an easy object, but its cocoon-like structure can be discerned by those with access to larger telescopes. It is a rewarding find for those with the ability to find it. The distance of NGC 6741 is not certain. Some sources list it as lying 7000 light years distant, though others think it a closer object at around 5000 light years from us. The Phantom Streak is notable for the possibility that its central star, a white dwarf remnant of a star much like the Sun, may be running out of hydrogen fuel and its dropping in luminosity. This means the Phantom Streak may not be visible in its present form for much longer - a sign we live in a dynamic Universe. Catch it while you can! NGC 6741, The Phantom Streak. Image Credit - NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope, Creative Commons Moving up past Altair, we take a brief dog leg East into the tiny constellation of Delphinus, The Dolphin. This lovely little collection of stars, though not especially bright, can easily be made out under dark conditions. Delphinus' kite-shaped arrangement of four stars and the Dolphin's tail marked by the prominently blue Epsilon Delphini is unmistakable. Delphinus contains two globular clusters - nether particularly bright, but worth seeking out nonetheless. NGC 6934 is the more Southerly and is found just under 11 degrees almost due east of Altair. At +8.8 mag and 1.4 arc minutes in diameter it is hardly prominent, but is location in the rich star fields of the Milky Way go someway to explaining this. Small telescopes show the cluster as a soft, rather indistinct ball of light, but larger instruments will be needed to show the scant detail it offers up to observers. Lying over 50000 light years away, NGC 6934 was one of William Herschel's many discoveries - he first catalogued it in 1785. NGC 6934. Image Credit: Hubble Image NASA/ESA, Public Domain. Herschel also Discovered NGC 7006 which is located some 11 degrees to the NE of NGC 6934. At +10.56, it is one of the fainter of our galaxy's globular clusters. This faintness is understandable when one considers NGC 7006's distance - an amazing 135,000 light years hence. This cluster is described by various observers as quite comet like in appearance - a condensed central region and a halo of stars are not as distinct as they are in its neighbour. A very large telescope of 16+ inches aperture will be needed to resolve individual stars in this challenging target. NGC 7006. Image Credit: Hubble Image NASA/ESA, Public Domain. Delphinus also contains a good planetary nebula: the Blue Flash, or NGC 6905. This is more easily seen in small telescopes than either of the globular clusters previously mentioned. Indeed, it is often overlooked, due to its proximity to the nearby M27 (more of which later), but the Blue Flash deserves more observation. A blue-white ball of light, with extending lobes either side, NGC 6905 is +10.89 mag and 0.8 x 0.6 arcminutes in dimension and lies 2200 light years away. Larger telescopes will start to pick up more of the object's uneven shape and central star. It seems decidedly egg-shaped to some. NGC 6905, The Blue Flash Nebula. Image Credit - European Southern Observatory - Creative Commons Just under 7 degrees to the west of The Blue Flash, over the border into Sagitta, The Arrow, sits another globular cluster - M71. Discovered in 1746 by Philippe Loys de Cheseaux, M71 is a very loose globular, which was perhaps understandably classed as an open cluster for a considerable amount of time. Binoculars show it well, but smaller telescopes will start to resolve it into stars. At 3.3 arcminutes diameter and +8.18 mag, M71 is a curious beast: its spectral makeup and spread of differing star types is much more suggestive of an open cluster, though observations of the radial velocities of its constituent stars have pointed to its globular nature. It is thought to be particularly young for a globular cluster, being "only" 9 billion years of age. M71. Image Credit: Hubble Image NASA/ESA, Public Domain. Moving further Westward, over the border into Vulpecula, The Fox, we come to one of the most celebrated clusters in the whole sky - Collinder 399, otherwise known as The Coathanger, for obvious reasons! The asterism of The Coathanger contains ten bright stars, one of which is an orange-yellow colour, which contrasts nicely with the blue-white of the other nine. A perennial binocular favourite, The Coathanger is a large object at 89 arc minutes diameter is best seen in widefield instruments at low powers. Its unlikely appearance always raises a wry smile, as it is one of the sky's greatest practical jokes. Chart showing the location of The Coathanger Asterism. Image created with SkySafari for Mac OS X, ©2010-2012 by Southern Stars, www.southernstars.com. From the ridiculous to the sublime, the next object is one of the best examples of its type in the entire firmament - M27, The Dumbell Nebula. This planetary nebula is to be found 8 1/3 degrees to the east of The Coathanger and is a richly rewarding object to observe in any telescope. Small telescopes show it as an elongated glowing box. Larger apertures show more and more of the distinctive "apple core" shape. Long duration exposure images show the whole object, including its ghostly outer layers, beautiful colours and complex internal structure. The Dumbell is a true Messier object, as it was discovered by Charles Messier in 1764 and at about half the diameter of the Moon and +7.09 is easily one of the most prominent examples of its kind in the sky. M27, The Dumbell Nubula. Image Credit - Mark Blundell We see M27 from the side on - hence its less-than-planetary shape. Were we observing it from a polar viewpoint, it would appear ring-like. But we are fortunate that the inner structure of the nebula is so well-defined from our perspective. M27's distance is heavily debated, but now appears to be around 1200-1700 light years away. Its age is thought to be relatively young - 3-4000 years-or-so. It is an easy object to locate and should not be missed by any observer. NGC 6885 is another inhabitant of Vulpecula and lies 4 2/3 degrees NE of the Dumbell. It is a +8.10 open cluster, around 20 arc minutes in size. Although not exceptionally bright, NGC 6885 is easily located in binoculars and is probably best-seen in a large pair. This cluster contains over fifty member stars and has distance of around 1900 light years. Eight and a half degrees NE of NGC 6885, across the border into Cygnus is the enchanting target of the Veil Nebula. The Veil Complex – NGCs 6960, 6974, 6979, 6992 and 6995 in Cygnus is a famous Supernova remnant, spread out over six times the diameter of the Full Moon. At combined brightness of +5 mag, The Veil can supposedly be glimpsed with the naked eye under truly exceptional conditions, but is much more likely to be seen (and better observed) in large binoculars and telescopes. The veil lies underneath the wing of Cygnus, close to Gienah (Epsilon Cygni). The brightest section this nebula is NGC6960, otherwise known as The Witches’ Broom, due to its obvious broom-like shape, which reveals itself best in long duration exposures. NGC6960 has the star 52 Cygni apparently buried within it (it is in fact at least 10 times nearer to us), making this part of the nebula an easier target to find with non-Goto scopes. The Veil responds terrifically well to the OIII filter – indeed, it is almost the best-responding nebula to this particular narrowband wavelength. This beautiful structure can be seen in all manner of telescopes, but large instruments with low power, widefield eyepieces present it spectacularly well. NGC 6960 - Western Veil Nebula, or Witches Broom. Image Credit - Mark Blundell. Drifting Westwards, past one of the finest double stars in the entire sky, the Creamy Yellow and Electric Blue of Albireo (Beta Cygnii), just across the border into Lyra, The Lyre, sit two notable objects, the first of whichis M56, which lies roughly equidistant between Albireo and Sulafat (Gamma Lyrae). At +8.27, it is of similar brightness to the aforementioned M71, though at 2.2 Arcminutes diameter – when compared to the larger M71 at 3.3 Arcminutes in size – is slightly more condensed and appears brighter. Indeed, both objects would possibly appear more prominent were they not lying so close to the axis of our Galaxy and therefore obscured by parts of the Milky Way. Roughly halfway between Sulafat and the neighbouring naked eye variable star, Sheliak (Beta Lyrae) sits one of the showpieces of the sky, the wonderful M57, the Ring Nebula. M57's enduring popularity as a Deep Sky target may be partially down to the ease with which its location is to be found. Looking like an elongated smoke ring drifting through space, the Ring Nebula is perhaps the archetype of all planetary nebulae. Discovered in 1779 by the astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix, Messier was hot on his heels and independently discovered it a matter of days afterwards. Rather disappointing in binoculars, yet easily spotted in most telescopes due to its comparatively high surface brightness, M57 takes magnification and filtration (especially the OIII filter) extremely well. Naturally, the larger the telescope you point at it, the more the keen observer is likely to see, but those with smaller telescopes will not be disappointed as long as you keep magnification up. M57, The Ring Nebula, in detail. Image Credit: Hubble Image NASA/ESA, Public Domain. The Ring Nebula in an amateur telescope. Image Credit, Mark Blundell. M57's distance is still up for debate, modern estimates of the central star put it at about 1400-4000+ light years away - quite a variation! It is thought is the former figure is the more correct, M57 is about a light year across from widest point to widest point and is a cylinder shape which we see from the end - quite the opposite, in fact, to M27's aspect. It is thought that The Ring Nebula is around 5-8000 years old. Back into Cygnus, climbing higher North up the spine of the Milky Way, we come to a reasonably diminutive, but nonetheless fascinating object: NGC 6888, The Crescent Nebula. a bright, compact nebula, which is the expanding shell of a Wolf-Rayet Star (HD 192163), which is steadily shedding its outer layers. The nebula glows due to the fact that it is gas is superheated by the collision of the boundary layer of a faster-moving inner solar wind, meeting a less energetic layer of solar wind formed when the gaseous layer of HD192163’s former outer atmosphere was ejected in its previous red giant phase. This bow shock is about 25 light years across and appears to us as a crescent shape, glowing at +7.40 mag. The "surface" of this crescent is incredibly detailed and its complicated texture can be noted in larger telescopes using OIII and UHC filtration. Much beloved of Astrophotographers, the Crescent Nebula is a rewarding target for imagers. NGC 6888, The Crescent Nebula. Image Credit - Mark Blundell. Right next door to the Crescent, clustered around the star Sadr (Gamma Cygni) is the vast expanse of the Gamma Cygni Nebula. Glimpsed in large binoculars and telescopes from an appropriately dark locale, IC 1318, or the Butterfly Nebula, as it is otherwise known, is a huge patch of red nebulosity, slightly larger in dimensions than the Veil. However, this nebula is very spread out, so its surface brightness is inherently low. It is best visually isolated with H-Alpha Filters, but is more easily captured in long duration astrophotography. The Gamma Cygni Nebula reaches out behind the Crescent and the star that is takes its name from. Sadr is around 750 light years away, whereas estimates for the distance of the nebula vary wildly from 2000-5000 light years distance. The Butterfly or Sadr Nebula in detail. Image Credit: Mark Blundell. Further up the spine of Cygnus, just beyond its principal star, Deneb, is another vast nebula system: the North America Nebula (NGC7000) and tucked underneath it, the Pelican Nebula (IC5070). Of the two, the North America is undoubtedly brighter (at +4 mag, compared to the Pelican’s +8 mag) and can be seen very well in large binoculars from a dark site. An OIII or H-Beta filter can be used successfully to enhance NGC7000 in widefield telescopes, but the complex does not respond well to magnification. Both nebulae are part of the same gas cloud, which may be ionised by emissions from nearby Deneb. If this is the case, their distance would be in the region of 1800+ light years away from our Solar System. NGC 7000, The North America Nebula. Image Credit - Mark Blundell. Last, but not least, is a much smaller object, the Blinking Planetary or NGC 6826. This nebula is 2.1 arc minutes in diameter and located towards Iota Cygni. Dimensionally, NGC6826 is fractionally larger than the Ring Nebula and about the same brightness. The "blinking" nature of this planetary is caused when an observer stares at the nebula’s central star, at medium to high power, this overwhelms the eye and the nebula fades from view. When you look away to the nearby +8.5 magnitude star in the same field, the nebula reappears. This is not a unique phenomenon and is noted in other compact planetary nebulae with prominent central stars, but is best seen in the Blinking Planetary. Visually, the NGC6826 present two brighter regions on either side of its disc. These regions are Fast Low-Ionization Emission Regions or FLIERs for short. These FLIERs are parts of the planetary formation which are expanding at extreme speeds in comparison to the surrounding nebula. It is postulated that these areas are so dense that the ionising effect of the ultraviolet radiation emitted from the parent star cannot penetrate them. The Blinking Planetary and the Saturn Nebula are two of the best known examples of planetaries that exhibit these FLIERs. NGC 6826, The Blinking Planetary. Image Credit: Hubble Image NASA/ESA, Public Domain. Text - Kerin Smith

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During the reign of King Solomon, it is said Israel for the first time was at peace with most of its neighbors, according to the Bible. Moreover, peace allowed the United Kingdom of Israel to flourish in commercial activity as well as exploration. This was attributed to Solomon’s nature. Unlike his father King David, who was a man of war, Solomon was believed to be the exact opposite; Solomon was a man of rest or peace, at least when it came to foreign policy. (I Chr 22:7-9) He was all about building and enterprise, as well as building trustworthy relationships with those around him, such as with his father’s friend King Hiram of Tyre. (I Kings 5.1) King Hiram of Tyre was a Phoenician; the name ‘Phoenician’ was a term the Greeks would use to indicate the people dwelling in what is today the country of Lebanon. During the reigns of David and Solomon, the Phoenicians were known for their trade and the establishment of colonies throughout the Mediterranean Sea and possibly beyond. Phoenician ship Carved on the face of a sarcophagus. 2nd century AD. (Elie plus/CC BY SA 3.0) The United Kingdom of Israel and the city-states of Phoenicia were not only allies but also joint allies in the realm of economics, from here on out and in greater magnitude than before. Wealthy Lands Unknown This relationship between the two peoples began after David captured Jerusalem, Hiram “sent envoys to David, along with cedar logs and carpenters and stonemasons, and they built a palace for David.”(2 Sam 5:11) This indicates that before David captured Jerusalem, he was already in a political and economic alliance with Hiram. From this moment, Israel and Phoenicia very much invested into each other. Painting illustrating David, King of Israel. (Public Domain) The Israelites, along with the Phoenicians had already established trade routes in the Mediterranean Sea; Solomon wanted to expand the routes by building a naval port on the Red Sea at a place called Ezion-geber in the land of Edom. It was here at Ezion-geber that Hiram sent his shipbuilders to construct a merchant fleet for King Solomon, which would be manned by Phoenician sailors and most likely Hebrew ones as well. The Via Maris (purple), King's Highway (red), and other ancient Levantine trade routes, c. 1300 BCE. (CC BY SA 3.0) Once established, they set off from Ezion-geber towards faraway lands looking to establish new trade routes and to procure new items of commercial interest from the locals. Among such faraway lands mentioned is a place called Ophir (the true location of which has never been determined). Once the ships returned from Ophir, items like gold, valuable almug trees, and precious stones were unloaded off the ships. (I Kings 9:26-28; 10:11) Another land mentioned in the Bible is a place called Tarshish. Tarshish is of great interest, for it is said to have taken three years to go to and to come back from in total. The ships that went to Tarshish, were made at Ezion-geber, and most likely were launched from there, and made their way back to Ezion-geber or even to one of the cities along the coast of Israel or Phoenicia. Once they came from Tarshish, such stock and items as gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks were delivered. As to where Tarshish is truly located, it is unknown, but the name is of interest, for the name, ‘Tarshish’ is also the name of a patriarch in the tribe of Benjamin. It could be possible that Tarshish is named after that clan, and it could be possible that portions of the clan were in charge of Tarshish hence the name. (I Kings 10:22; I Ch 7:10) Trade with Arabia was said to be another moneymaker for Solomon. This trade route focused primarily to the south of Israel. However, it seems that the route may have been established before, but may have not been of great importance until the arrival of Queen Sheba. The Bible makes it clear in the book of I Kings that Sheba wanted to meet this wise man named Solomon. So she sweetened the deal and arrived with a camel trade full of spices, gold, precious stones, and all that was in her heart. Because of this connection, many stories about the two have been speculated upon for generations, but have ultimately remained a mystery. But the meeting, according to the Bible, indicates another economical connection for Solomon’s kingdom. Not only did Sheba bring in a new trade route to Solomon’s coffers, the word of the event most likely went out beyond the borders of Israel, for then the merchants of Arabia brought spices and even the kings of Arabia all beckoned for trade and wisdom. (I Kings 10:1-10, 13, 15) Moreover, it may well be possible that a connection with the Indian subcontinent was established. The Copper King The copper mines were another commodity that were used for building and trade as well. During the time of Solomon, copper was in great abundance, but no evidence of copper mines in use during the 10th century BCE have ever been found through archeological research. However, there may be an answer to this question as to why Solomon is sometimes referred to as the “copper king.” Solomon was possessed of wealth and wisdom, according to the Bible. (Public Domain) Solomon’s father, King David was said by biblical records to have hoarded vast amounts of copper through his conquest and possible trade with the Phoenicians. (I Ch 18:8; 22: 3, 14) The Phoenicians during the time of the reigns of David and Solomon mined vast amounts of various metals from their colonies during this period, particularly from the British Isles. So, to say Solomon had no mines is true to a certain extent, but the Bible and historical chronicles suggest that Solomon got his copper from the vast amount collected by David and from the trade with the Phoenicians and their various colonies throughout. Thus, it is partially correct in referring to Solomon as a “copper king”, but must be understood from what you have just read that such a title was due to the vast amounts that were used, especially and presumably for the building of a temple in Jerusalem among other things. Horses and Chariots Solomon is also said to have had a fancy for buying horses and chariots with all the wealth he had gained. Solomon bought an abundance of horses from a place called Cilicia as well as chariots from Egypt. (I King 10:28-29) The description from the verse suggests that Israel was not in the manufacturing business of chariots, and thus depended on others to build them for them at a hefty price. In addition, the reason why Solomon spent money on horses from Cilicia is that they are considered the finest of the region. The same goes for Egypt when it came to the chariot. Why not have the best of both worlds, when you have the money to afford it—especially Solomon who had a vast amount of money, due to trade and commerce. With such a massive amount of wealth built up, Solomon needed a fighting force that was well equipped, with only the best money could afford in order to protect all that he had gained, whether it was threatened by a foreign or domestic threat. Because of the lucrative deals and military practicality of the chariot, Solomon continued to buy, and in doing so fortified Israel, for “He built up Lower Beth Horon, Baalath, and Tadmor in the desert, within his land, as well as all his store cities and the towns for his chariots and for his horses—whatever he desired to build in Jerusalem, in Lebanon and throughout all the territory he ruled.” (1 Kings 9:17-19). Egyptian horses and chariots: Ramses II fighting in a chariot at the Battle of Kadesh with two archers, one with the reins tied around his waist to free both hands. Relief from Abu Simbel. (Public Domain) Solomon, who established Israel’s first charioteer corps, according to I Kings 9:22, greatly expanded it to include 1,400 chariots along with 12,000 horses, which were housed in 4,000 stalls stationed in chariot cities. (1 Kings 10:26). While the Bible provides historians and scholars with information about how many chariots were under Solomon, it says little of the manufacturer. Many point to I Kings 10:29, which mentions Egypt as the manufacturer of Solomon’s war chariots. While this is true, it might also be considered somewhat false. Yes, Solomon did purchase chariots from Egypt for 600 shekels of silver, but they were not war chariots. When reading the verse, the Hebrew term used for chariot is merkaba. The merkaba was a luxury display chariot equipped with costly steeds, built for kings, princes, and nobility. The Bible also mentions Absalom and Adonijah as possessing this fine vehicle. (2 Sam 8:11; 1 Kings 1:5). So why was Solomon buying these luxury chariots? The answer is he was making money. What Solomon was probably doing was buying fabulous chariots from Egypt and selling them to the Hittite and Aramean elites. With wealth acquired from foreign trade and good relations with their neighbors, so was created a standing fighting force that could protect the peace of Israel and its majesty. Not only was it believed that Solomon prospered, but also so did the people of Israel. According to biblical accounts, Solomon had set up a large system of administration in order to execute his plan of action for the nation of Israel. Many heads were selected to look over trade and commerce as well as the spiritual side of things. One would need a large business body to make sure every shekel was accounted for, and to be given to those who labor, and a fraction taken from those who trade. (I Kings 4: 1-19) In addition, many military men were selected to look over the military operations in order to secure the borders of Israel, and with the advancement in prosperity, the army only got bigger. (I Kings 9:22-23) It is said even the common person felt good about the situation, and once again, in the book of I Kings, we notice that the Israelites as a whole were eating and drinking and being merry as one, with no problems or concerns. (I Kings 4:20, 25) As time goes on, one notices later on the book of I Kings that Israel seemed to become even richer, with a greater magnitude on material goods and feasting. (I Kings 10:21, 27). Along with this prosperity, to the people of Israel came a population boom as well. Some suggest that maybe Israel doubled in size to about 800,000 people from the time of Saul due to the economic wealth showered unto them. With such wealth came more births due to increased income. Even foreigners may have contributed to the overall population boom of Israel during the time of Solomon. With so much money in hand and with a growing population one would think that security was needed during these times of economic expansion throughout the Holy Land. Due to the expansion and trade with foreign relations that Solomon and his father beforehand had set up, the money that was accrued is believed to have led to the creation of the first Temple in Jerusalem. According to biblical accounts, this is the greatest creation Solomon had built during his reign. The Hebrew Bible says that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon, but destroyed by Babylonians in 586 BCE. The above is Herod's Temple (or the second temple said to be built atop the first) as imagined in the Holyland Model of Jerusalem. (Public Domain) In an artistic representation, King Solomon dedicates the Temple at Jerusalem (painting by James Tissot or follower, c. 1896–1902) (Public Domain) However, there was other public works created as well. The cities of Hazor, Jerusalem, Megiddo, and Gezer, were said to be all revised and updated. In addition, there were a number of new cities built throughout Israel, which functioned as military posts for both horse and chariot. Overall, Solomon had bought and built Israel up into an economic powerhouse. Heavy Taxes, Slavery and the fall of Solomon and Israel However, even Solomon with all his wealth and power was reputed to be burdened by money problems. The income gained could not keep up with the cost, and Solomon had to do something; that something was called heavy taxation. Twelve districts were set up for taxation by oversight including the Canaanite city-states. (I Kings 4:7-19) Nevertheless, things got even worse, for now forced labor was upon the people—but not the Israelites, it was focused on non-Israelites (Amorites, Hittites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites), and these became corvée workers, conscripts and slaves. Now due to amount of money owed to others by Solomon, he had to do something that would cut the costs, and forced labor was a sure way to get your men to work for only food. (I Kings 9:2-22) The next biggest blow to Solomon was the need for money so badly that he was forced to sell some of his own territory to make ends meet. Solomon sold a number of towns along the coast to the King of Tyre. It must have been the lowest point for Solomon. Old and meditative king Solomon. (Public Domain) In conclusion, it is believed that Solomon was born in a debt free family and society that his father created beforehand. Moreover, if there was any debt it seemingly did not burden the people. Solomon’s reputed wisdom brought traffic of great wealth and great adventure for his nation and those around him. His vast networks of trade, whether by sea-lanes that crisscross the Mediterranean or along the Via Maris and King’s Highway trade routes leading to Mesopotamia, allowed many building projects to commence and expansion of the military due to the influx of wealth. However, due to the massive building projects and unpopular policies he is said to have undertaken came the burdening of debt and despair. Solomon, with all his wisdom, was not wise enough to stop his own self, once he started. Solomon’s early reign may have been as described in 1 Kings 4:20-21: The people of Judah and Israel were as numerous as the sand on the seashore; they ate, they drank and they were happy. And Solomon ruled over all the kingdoms from the Euphrates River to the land of the Philistines, as far as the border of Egypt. These countries brought tribute and were Solomon’s subjects all his life. Once centralization began to kick in so did the needs of the state, such as taxes in monetary form or in the form of corvée labor or slavery to pay for the military and public works. This burden is indicated in 1 Kings 12:11 by Solomon’s son King Rehoboam when he stated, “My father laid on you a heavy yoke; I will make it even heavier. My father scourged you with whips; I will scourge you with scorpions.” These continued unpopular policies caused Israel to go from prosperity to debt. If the civilian population suffered greatly and was placed in debt, it is without a doubt that corruption and abuse from the bureaucratic officials also added to the fire and weakness of the Solomonic state, which naturally would filter down to the military ranks. Because of this, internal conflicts led to the fracturing of Israel’s sphere of influence and Israel itself, for when Solomon died, tribes revolted and the Kingdom of Israel split into two, with the Kingdom of Israel to the north and the Kingdom of Judah to the south. While this split seems beneficial in curtailing the powers that be, it did not. Instead, both Israelite kingdoms would continue the same old sins that caused the once united kingdom to fracture. While it would be easy to blame the rise and fall of Israel wealth and power on Solomon, it would not be completely fair. If anyone might be also responsible for the fall of Israel, it was the Israelite chieftains seeking an authority to prosper from as Samuel had warned against, and as mentioned in 1 Samuel 8:10-18. Featured image: The Visit of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon (Public Domain) Albright, William. The Biblical period from Abraham to Ezra. New York: Harper & Row , 1963. Beitzel, Barry J. Biblica: The Bible Atlas - A Social and Historical Journey Through the Lands of the Bible. London: New Holland Publishers Ltd , 2007. Collins, Steven M. Israel's Lost Empires. Royal Oaks, MI: Bible Blessings, 2002. —. The Origins and Empire of Ancient Israel. Royal Oaks, MI: Bible Blessings, 2002. Keller, Werner. The Bible As History. New York: Bantam Books, 1982. Version, King James. Holy Bible. Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1997.

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Laws and Statutes for Students of Harvard College College Lawes of 1642 [from New England's First Fruits; emp. mine] 1. When any Schollar is able to Read Tully or such like classicall Latine Author ex tempore, and make and speake true Latin in verse and prose suo (ut aiunt) Marte, and decline perfectly the paradigmes of Nounes and verbes in the Greeke tongue, then may hee bee admitted into the College, nor shall any claime admission before such qualifications. [like modern SAT scores, such a requirement indicated the level of education one had received, and achieved. This served practical purposes of course, as copies of Scripture and other classics were also still mostly in Greek.] 2. Every one shall consider the mayne End of his life and studyes, to know God and Jesus Christ which is Eternall life. Joh. 17.3. [Today, personal as well as intellectual ignorance of the Biblical Christ abounds among Harvard students.] 3. Seeing the Lord giveth wisdome, every one shall seriously by prayer in secret, seeke wisdome of him. prov. 2.2,3 etc. [Instead, Harvard today militates against such Biblical wisdom , and peity. Today, if any activity is done "in secret," it is fornication (1 out 4 women have an STD). 4. Every one shall so exercise himselfe in reading the Scriptures twice a day that they bee ready to give an account of their proficiency therein, both in theoreticall observations of Language and Logicke, and in practicall and spirituall truthes as their tutor shall require according to their severall abilities respectively, seeing the Entrance of the word giveth light etc. psal. 119, 130. [The goal here was to produce "able ministers of the New Testament" (2Cor. 3:6), "rightly dividing the word of truth" (2Tim. 2:15). Today, the Bible is almost wholly abandoned as the literal and authoritative Word of God, and the very deceptions Harvard was founded to prevent abound therein!] 5. In the publicke Church assembly they shall carefully shunne all gestures that shew any contempt or neglect of Gods ordinances and bee ready to give an account to their tutors of their profiting and to use the helpes of Storing themselves with knowledge, as their tutours shall direct them, and all Sophisters and Bachellors (until themselves make common place) shall publiquely repeate Sermons in the Hall whenver they are called forth. [Rather than this being the goal of Harvard, the inculcation of unBibical worldviews is fostered, and rare is the professor who would dare declare the Biblical gospel and morality, or the student who could or would do likewise.] 6. they shall eschew all prophanation of Gods holy name, attributes, word, ordinances, and times of worship, and study with Reverence and love carefully to reteine God and his truth in their minds. [This is of little to no concern in Harvard today, rather the "faith once delivered" (Jude v.3) is little esteemed, and if one comes into Harvard with such faith, he will be sorely challanged to keep it! Sports, college parties, etc., not Bible studies, are what students mostly flock to.] 7. they shall honour as their parents, Magistrates, Elders, tutours and aged persons, by beeing silent in their presence (except they bee called on to answer) not gainesaying shewing all those laudable expressions of honour and Reverence in their presence, that are in uses as bowing before them standing uncovered or the like. [Rather than promoting reverence toward authority, Harvard has joined the bulk of other "Intititutions of Higher Learning" in fostering rebellion toward those who represent just authority, under the guise of protesting injustice, and in such protests reveal their own dearth of wisdom which usually comes with age. 8. they shall be slow to speake, and eschew not onely oathes, Lies, and uncertaine Rumours, but likewise all idle, foolish, bitter scoffing, frothy wanton words and offensive gestures. [Today, if one would dare uphold Bible truth and morality at Harvard, such as reproves the like of irreverent (past) Peter Gomes, he/she will see quickly how the above law has been abandoned, and the righteous punished]. College Laws of 1700 (Source: Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana,Volume II) STATUTES, LAWS AND PRIVILEGES, APPROVED AND SANCTIONED BY THE PRESIDENT AND FELLOWS OF HARVARD COLLEGE AT CAMBRIDGE IN NEW ENGLAND: TO WHICH BOTH SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS, CANDIDATES FOR ADMISSION AS WELL AS THOSE ADMITTED, ARE REQUIRED TO CONFORM, FOR THE PROMOTION OF LEARNING AND GOOD MORALS. 1. Everyone competent to read Cicero or any other classic author of that kind extemporaneously, and also to speak and write Latin prose and verse with tolerable skill and without assistance, and of declining the Greek nouns and verbs, may expect to be admitted to the College: if deficient in any of these qualifications, he cannot under any circumstances be admitted. 2. All persons admitted to the College must board at the Commons, and must each pay three pounds to the steward on their entrance, and must discharge all arrears at the end of every three months; nor shall any under-graduate of the institution be allowed to board out of the College, unless by special permission of the President, or his tutor. If leave to do so shall be granted by either of these officers, the student shall faithfully observe the usual rules of the Common; but if any evey shall leave College for private quarters, without permission of the President or Tutor, he shall not enjoy any privilege of the institution. 3. While the youth is here, he will be required to be diligent, and to observe study-hours with the same strictness as he does those of public recitation. 4. Every student must regard it as his duty to attend all College exercises, secular and religious, public and private. While in the Freshman class, he must speak in public on the stage eight times a year. Sophisters [sophomores] must be present at a public debate twice a week. Both bachelors and sophisters must write out an analysis in some branch of sacred literature: bachelors will discuss in public philosophical questions once a fortnight, under the superintendence of the President: in the President's absence, the two senior tutors will act as a moderator by turns. 5. No one must, under any pretext, be found in the society of any depraved or dissolute person. 6. No one in the lower class shall leave town without express permission from the President or tutors: nor shall any student, to whatever class he may belong, visit any shop or tavern, to eat and drink, unless invited by a parent, guardian, step-parent, or some such relative. 7. No student shall buy, sell or exchange any thing without the approval of his parents, guardians or tutors. Whoever shall violate this rule, shall be fined by the President or tutor, according to the magnitude of the offense. 8. All students must refrain from wearing rich and showy clothing, nor must anyone go out of the college yard, unless in his gown, coat, or cloak. 9. Every under-graduate shall be called by his surname only, unless he is a commoner, or the oldest son of a gentleman, or the child of a noble house. 10. Every commoner shall pay five pounds for the perpetual use of the college, before admission. 11. Every scholar in the lower class shall pay his tutor two pounds a year; unless he be a commoner, when he shall pay three pounds a year. 12. No person in a higher class, Tutors and Fellows of the college excepted, shall be allowed to force a freshman or junior to go on errands or do other services, by blows, threats or language of any kind. And any undergraduate who violates this rule, shall be punished by bodily chastisement, expulsion, or such other mode as shall seem adviseable to the President and Fellows. 13. Students of all grades are to abstain from dice, cards and every species of gaming for money, under penalty, in the case of a graduate, of twenty shillings for each offense; and, if the offender is an undergraduate, he shall be liable to punishment, at the discretion of the President or tutor shall assign. 14. If any student is absent from prayers, or recitation, unless necessarily detained, or by permission of the President or tutor, he shall be liable to an admonition; and if he commit the offence more than once in a week, to such other punishment as the President or tutor shall assign. 15. No student shall be absent from his studies or stated exercises for any reason, (unless it is first made known to the President or tutor, and by them approved) with the exception of the half-hour allowed for lunch, and half-hour for dinner and also for supper, until nine o'clock. 16. If any student shall, either through wilfulness or negligence, violate any law of God or of this college, after being twice admonished, he shall suffer severe punishment, at the discretion of the President or his tutor. But in high-handed offences, no such modified forms of punishment need be expected. 17. Every student who, on trial, shall be able to translate from the original Latin text, and logically to explain the Holy Scriptures, both of the Old and New Testament, and shall also be thoroughly acquainted with the principles of natural and moral philosophy, and shall be blameless in life and character, and approved at public examination by the President and the Fellows of the College, may receive the first degree. Otherwise, no one shall be admitted to the first degree in Arts, unless at the end of three years and ten months from the time of his admission. 18. Every scholar who has maintained a good standing, and exhibited a written synopsis of logic, natural and moral philosophy, arithmetic and astronomy, and shall be prepared to defend a proposition or thesis; shall also be versed in the original languages, as aforesaid: and who carries with him a reputation for upright character and diligence in study, and shall pass successfully a public examination, shall be admitted to the second, or Master's degree. Read these carefully, and ask thyself, O student, if thou couldest graduate today based these noble standards (in bold)? But even far more critically and surely, know that thou hast also sinned and fallen short of the kingdom of God, and that no soul may escape Hell nor gain Heaven based upon their own merits. THEREFORE humble thyself under the Mighty Hand of God as an unworthy and lost sinner, and beseech the Lord for mercy, that upon the shed sinless blood and righteousness of His dearly Beloved Son, Jesus the Christ (who did die for thee and rose again), thou mayest be pardoned and accepted of Him. And that having received His Spirit thereby thou mayest live for Him from this day forward, and not for thyself nor after that which the world lusteth, but after that which thy Lord esteemeth. Be therefore baptized under water in identification with thy Lord and so walk in newness of life, that thy life may be one that giveth unto Him glory, and declareth that thou belongeth unto Him, and that thou shalt sing His praises in the hereafter (as unworthy as thou be without Christ). And that thou seek the lost (as ye once were), that those of thy influence might also escape their just and eternal damnation, and be turned from their sins to obedience to our Lord, the gracious Redeemer and mighty Judge of all mankind. Sola Dei Gloria

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For the study, at first the header (title) words have been chosen successively from the first two volumes of Slawski's dictionary (from ablo up to davnostь) and further the same was done from the dictionary edited by Trubachiov. In such way more than 3200 words have been got but only one thousand of them could be selected as the basis of the table-dictionary. The remained words consisted from common Slavic words (about 1900 words), the Church-Slavonic ones, own names, words presented only in one language, auxiliary words, interjections, etc. and also so-called "Old Russian" words without matches in modern tongues. As the common Slavic words were considered having matches in nine of the ten Slavic languages taken for the study. Together with the common words were withdrawn their derivatives as well. In principle it was correctly to take for the study all non-common words but there were two good reasons for excepting words of above-named kind. At first, derivatives of some words could be produced in particular languages independently at different times due to the same rules of word building, and this effect could hinder the establishment of the relationship of languages at the time when the parent unitary language had been split to particular languages. Second, there is large disproportion in the representation of the vocabulary material of different tongues in the etymologic dictionaries of Proto-Slavonic due to the absence of the full dictionaries of many languages of today. While working out the table-dictionary, matches to title words were taken mainly from the above mentioned etymological dictionaries but, because of insufficient representation of the vocabulary of same languages, the table has been partly complemented also by items from other dictionaries (see. Bibliography, section "Lexicography"). Nevertheless, the amount of words, collected for Macedonian and Sorbian (incorporated the High- and the Low-Sorbian) languages, was not sufficient for the inclusion of these languages in the joint system of the Slavic relationship. The lack of Belorussian words was also marked, , obviously, this was the consequence of the insufficient studying of dialect vocabulary. The first conclusion of the analysis confirmed the thesis about of the dual origin of the Russian language already noted by some scholars long before. For example, A.A.Shakhmatov spoke not only about the big difference between the northern and southern Russian dialects but even assumed probable close connections of the northern dialect with to Polish language (SHAKHMATOV A.A., 1916-1). In the same way, V.V.Mavrodin supposed the possibility of the western origin of East-Slavic tribe of the Kriviches (MAVRODIN V.V., 1978: 82). At length, L.Niderle expressed even more confidently writing: Also till now the traces of its dual origin are looked through in the Great Russian language as the dialect north of Moscow differs highly from the South-Russian dialects (NIDERLE LUBORЪ., 1956: 165). The division of the East-Slavic people into four different group (South Russians, North Russians, Ukrainians, Belorussians) proves to be true not only by the difference in tongues, but also by some ethnographic difference (ZELENIN D.K., 1991: 29). The thesis about such four-part division was supported also by R.Trautman. He also divided the Russians on two separate folks and, referring on Zelenin's authoritative evidences, stated that the ethnographic and the dialectic difference between these peoples is more distinct than between the Belorussians and the South Russians (TRAUTMAN REINHOLD., 1948: 135). It has been noticed during the study that Russian words were represented disproportional in comparison with other languages by the plenty of items and consequently the area of the Russian language overlapped the areas of the Ukrainian and Belarus ones on the graphic model. Theoretically, this conclusion could confirm the thesis about existence of the common Old-Russian language but in that case we should add to the great amount of Russian words also Ukrainian and Belorussian words, absent in the Russian. Under such circumstances it was impossible to outline the model at all as the connections between particular languages contradicted themselves. The connections between all languages have been ordered just as the all set of Russian words was separated to two equivalent dialects. This separation can be made rather easily as the spread of Russian words on areas is given in the etymological dictionaries. The words, expanded through the Smolensk, Kaluga, Tula, Ryazan, Penza, Tambov, Saratov, and more southern regions (oblasts), have been delivered to the southern dialect (tongue) of the Russian language. Accordingly, the words, used in the more north regions, were referred to be of the northern dialect. The words, found only in Siberia and the Far Eastern, were not accepted to the study but they were of few amount. However, the mutual borrowings of these two Russian dialects, connected with common historical development, indistinct borders between them, and this has been affected while constructing the graphical model. Finally such Slavic languages were taken to the study: Polish, Czech, Slovak, Ukrainian, Belorussian, North Russian, South Russian, Slovenian, Serbo-Croatian, and Slavic-Bulgarian. The traditional name of the latter language was changed for not to be confused with the tongue of the ancient Turkic people of the similar name: Bulgars. The calculations of the quantity of the common words between particular languages gave the results shown in the table below. The total of words from the several languages is submitted in the cells of the main diagonal of the table. However in spite of partial incorrect vocabulary material, the model of mutual relations of the Slavic languages (see right) does is almost such as the published anterior (STETSYUK V.M., 1987), except two areas of the Russian dialects instead the one Russian language. Yet, predictably, it was difficult to locate these two areas. Due to close historical development of the Russian dialects, the amounts of the common words in everyone of both with other languages are not very different. Thus, two areas of the Russian dialects got by graphic construction are so near to each other that their places on the model can be exchanged. Therefore other reasons were taken into account for arranging them on the general model of relations. In particular, phonetic features of Northern Russian give the warrant to place it closer than Southern Russian to the Polish language. Besides, the attribution of more western Slavic words to Southern Russian mentioned above also has been taken in attention. However, as the anew got graphical model does not differ especially from the anterior constructed, it was quite well located on the same place on the geographical map (see Map.6).The areas of the primary formation of dialects developed into modern-day languages later, are shown on the resulted map. Left: The areas of the formation of the considered Slavic languages. (The map of whole Slavic space is given apart in the section Slavs: Territory, Dialectal Split). Bel. – Belorus, Bulg – Slavic-Bulagarian, S. R. – southern dialect of Russian, N. R. – northern dialect of Russian, S.-H. – Serbian-Croatian, Ukr. – Ukrainian language. Such placing of the areas does not object the sights of the majority of present-day Slavists which agree to that, first, the primary Slavic dialect were arisen inside unitary Proto-Slavic language and that, secondly, the Slavs had the settlements to the east of the Vistula river up to the Dnepr river or even further. Moreover, the territory of the settlements of Slavs has been similarly defined by A. Machinskiy some years before first results of researches by a geographical method were obtained: Comparison of the data of written sources and archaeology convinces us that from the beginning of the 2nd cen. BC to the middle of the 4th cen. AD great bulk of ancestors of historical Slavdom (named by Germans Venethi) populated the territory limited by the Middle Neman river and the Middle and Upper W. Bug river on the west, southerly did by the line connected the Upper W. Bug and Low Psel rivers, on the east limited by the line which connects the Upper Psel and the Upper Oka river, the north boundary was run concerning the linguistic data along the Middle W. Dvina river to the sources of the Dnepr till the Oka (MACHINSKIY D.A., 1981: 32). Ukrainian scholar Yu. Kukharenko, having investigated "the fields of burial places" describes the south-east boundary of Early-Slavic tribes as the such, which "passed from the Upper Southern Bug eastward along the river Ros’ and further lay along the Dnepr roughly up to the mouth of the Psel, turned to north-east, running along the Psel, and further passed to the Upper Sula"(KUKHARENKO Yu.V., 1951: 15-16). It is seen on the map that such definition almost precisely corresponds to the southern boundary of the ethno-generating areas of the Middle Dnepr if some Slavic tribe occupied the area north of the Ros’. The term “ethno-making area” has the reason for its existence as the primary formation of several ethnoi could take place a few times on the same territories, limited by geographical boundaries. The study of the reason of this phenomenon can be carried out by scholars of different specialties – ethnologists, ethno-sociologists, geographers etc. The correctness of the defined areas of the formation of the Slavic languages is confirmed by place names. Yet for the present conclusive data are available only for the areas of the Czech and Slovak languages. The Czech area was placed on the territory of the Ukrainian historical region Volyn. The town of Volyně is known in Czechia near by Strakonice, the Southern-Czech Region. And some settlements Duliby originated from the tribal name Dulebs which once occupied Volyn can be found in Czechia too. One can also see that a lot of settlements of the Czech’s Urheimat and modern Czechia have similar names: Dubne – Dubna, Ostrov – Ostriv, Rudná – Rudn’a, Hradec – Horodets. Yet similar names from the widespread appellatives of type an oak, a birch, an alder, apple-tree, black, white, city, field, stone, sand, island, etc. can be formed under the common laws of word building independently on different places of Slavic settlements. Only original names, at least having no several doubles have to be taken into accout. Thus it is appeared, that there are very many parallels in names of settlements of Ukrainian Volyn and Czechia: Duchcov (the Northern – Czech Region) - Dukhče (to the North from Rozhishcha, Rozhishchiv district in Volyn Region), Jaroměř (on the north from Hradec-Kralove, the East-Czech Region) - Yaromel on the Northeast from Kivertsi, Kivertsi district in Volyn Region), Jičin (the East-Czech Region) - Yučin (near Tuchyn, Hoshcha district in Rivne Region), Krupa (the Middle-Czech Region) - Krupa (near to Lutsk), Lipno (the Southern-Czech Region) - Lipno (in extreme East of Kivertsi district in Volyn Region), Letovice (Southern-Moravian Region) - Letovišče (in extreme North of Shumsky district in Ternopil Region), Ostroh (on the East from Brno, Southern-Moravian Region) – the Ostroh (Rivne Region), Radomyšl (near Strakonice, Southern-Czech region) - Radomyšl (on the South from Lutsk), though another Radomyšl is already on territory of Slovak Urheimat), Telč (in the West of Southern-Moravian region) – Telči (in extreme east of Manevychi district in Volyn Region). However it is interesting, that there are names of settlements confirming by their form, that the Czeches came on places of the present settlements just from Volyn. It is known, that resettlement people give sometimes diminutive names of old settlements to new ones. We have such three examples for our case: Horažd'ovice (in the South of the Western-Czech Region) is the diminutive name of Harazdža (on the south from Lutsk), Pardubice (the East-Czech region) – the diminutive name of Pariduby (on the West from Kovel in Starovyzhevsk district of Volyn Region), Semčice (near Mlada Boleslav, the Middle-Czech Region) -the diminutive name of Semki (on the Styr, Manevychi district in Volyn Region). Many parallels can be found also between Slovak toponymics and place names on the territory of Slovak Urheimat, though they have sometimes doublets in other places what can reflect a route of their migration. The examples of diminutive names on new places of settlements are such: Malinec (Middle-Slovak region, to the East of Zvolen) - Malin (the center of district in Zhitomir region and the village in Mlyniv district of Rivne region),

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ISSA Nutrition Study Guide Post 6 of 22 - ISSA Nutrition (SP) Study Home - ISSA SN Chapter 1 - ISSA SN Chapter 2 - ISSA SN Chapter 3 - ISSA SN Chapter 4 - ISSA SN Chapter 5 - ISSA SN Chapter 6 - ISSA SN Chapter 7 - ISSA SN Chapter 8 - ISSA SN Chapter 9 - ISSA SN Chapter 10 - ISSA SN Chapter 11 - ISSA SN Chapter 12 - ISSA SN Chapter 13 - ISSA SN Chapter 14 - ISSA SN Chapter 15 - ISSA SN Chapter 16 - ISSA SN Chapter 17 - ISSA SN Chapter 18 - ISSA SN Chapter 19 - ISSA SN Chapter 20 - ISSA SN Chapter 21 Yet to sign up for the ISSA nutrition cert? My site visitors get a special discount here. You can even get this nutrition cert for free with the purchase of their personal trained cert (an excellent combo). Post 6 of 22 in the ISSA Nutrition Study Guide - Describe and define the main terms that relate to fats and oils. - Now the types of lipids and their main functions. - Find the nonessential and the essential lipids like the fatty acids. - Know how the lipids will affect the health and athletic performance. Lipids make up the third major part of the macronutrients. Like the carbs, these lipids are going to be made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. These are going to be needed for the fat soluble vitamins of A, D, E, and K. essential fatty acids play a lot of roles in keeping the integrity and the function of cell membranes. They are also a major source of energy for the body to use, they add palatability to meals, and play critical roles in other biophysical and biochemical functions like synthesis of steroid hormones. Lipids are most prevalent for energy in the body as triglycerides. Significance of lipids: - Essential fatty acids are contained in parts of every cell, even the muscle cells. - The essential fatty acids are needed for our growth and recovery, and just the overall well-being. - Fatty acids are important for energy, and especially so for endurance athletes. - Saturated fat intake and cholesterol intake is needed to be kept at a healthy level of intake in order to avoid the development of coronary artery disease and consuming too much is associated with other diseases. - Intake of lipids daily is needed for vitamins and minerals. - Omega 3 fatty acids cause good effects on the cardiovascular system and they act as moderators for inflammation. They may potentially have roles in improving strength and performance aerobically. Lipids – The Most Misunderstood Macronutrient These fats have the worst reputation of all the macronutrients due to the name fat. There are many links relating saturated fats and cholesterol levels to obesity, cancer, and heart diseases. The main problem regarding lipids is that many people just receive way too many in the diet, or way too many of the unhealthy forms of fats. When we look at athletes, we see that getting enough lipids in the diet is not usually going to be a problem. We really just look at the types of fats going into the body and can manage the health that way. About the Different Lipids Lipids are found in plants and animals, but those two sources differ chemically. These are the major lipids that we find in the diet and the body: - Fatty acids - Essential fatty acids - Omega 3 fatty acids - Gamma Linolenic Acid - Medium Chain triglycerides Triglycerides and Fatty Acids These are the fats and oils in our diet and the fat that we store in the body. they make up about 98 percent of the fats within our diet. Fats are going to be solid when at room temperature, and then the oils are going to be liquid at room temperature. Triglycerides means three, so there will be three fatty acid chains attached to some 3 carbon glycerol molecule. Saturated fatty acids will have the max amount of hydrogen atoms possible and no carbon atoms with double bonds. Monounsaturated fatty acids have just one double bond. Polyunsaturated fatty acids will have more than the one double bond. The Essential Fatty acids The composition of the fatty acids will depend on whether or not the origin is from an animal or from a plant. The special functions of the essential fatty acids are going to be: Their presence in the phospholipids, which make them vital for the membranes of the cells. Their function with eicosanoids and as precursors of them. They are there for many physiological processes. They are involved in some ways throughout the transfer of oxygen in the lungs and the alveolar membrane. They are used for forming structures in all cells. They maintain the nervous system and the brain functions. They are used for producing prostaglandin for metabolism functions. They are used to make healthy hair and skin. The healing of our wounds relies on these. The enhancement of growth can be found with these. Eicosatetraenoic Acid and Docosahexaenoic Acid These are both made in the body from essential fatty acid and found in the primary human tissues as regular parts. Dietary sources have major benefits when taken in, even though we can manufacture it in the body. Gamma Linolenic Acid This is another part of vital fatty acids an may be made in the body from linoleic acids. These are the second big class of lipids and are next to triglycerides. These are the prime lipids for structure in all animals and parts of all cells. The main function is going to be the integrity of the structure of the cell membranes. The membranes are made up of a phospholipid bilayer. This is one of the most important parts of the cell. Lecithin is a phospholipid that has choline attached to phosphate molecules and two fatty acids. it has a lot of linolenic acid in it. This is related to another phospholipid by the name of phosphatidylserine. This is a member of fats known as steroids. They are made by the body and only are found naturally in foods that originate from animal sources. There are highest in our liver and egg yolks. Also found a lot in meats, poultry, whole milks, and cheeses. Cholesterol has some important functions like being a precursor for many bile acids, also a precursor for sex hormones and other hormones of the adrenal glands, a precursor for vitamin D, and a vital aid in the nervous system and the brain. We need a constant supply of cholesterol for our health, but it has been linked with many cardiovascular diseases, and we should keep our intake to under 300 mg every day. Exclusive PTP Offers |Gold Standard Cert||Most Popular Cert||A Good Option |Best Study Materials||Best online PT course||The Top PT Software These have saturated fatty acids with chains that have 6 – 12 atoms of carbon. They are high in caprylic acid and capric acid. These are both saturated fatty acids. Trans Fatty Acids These are also simply called trans fats. They are made during the hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Hydrogenation is what we do when we add hydrogen atoms to the unsaturated fats, removing their double bonds. Trans fats have been found to increase the levels of bad cholesterol in the body. this is from the LDL, or the low density lipoproteins. These are the bad cholesterols, as they are often called. Lipids takes the longest time of all the macronutrients to digest. This is because of their inability to dissolve in water and their structures are more complex and harder to break down. When they pass through our mouth and stomach, we retreat them for the main processes of digestion to occur in the intestines. So, most of this whole process is going to take place in the small intestines, where the liver bile assists in getting the fat to come in contact with the enzymes to split them. Along the walls of the intestines, they will be coated with protein and the put into the lymph system to circulate. 60 – 70 percent of the total fat taken in will go through the lymph system and then the medium and short fatty acid chains will enter the blood stream. The cholesterol and fats will transport with the use of special proteins known as lipoproteins. Fats are always being constantly broken down and resynthesized and used for energy. You Are What You Eat The type of fat you take in will affect your body and its composition of fatty acids. vegetarians have been seen to have more unsaturated fatty acids than the meat eating counterparts. A body that has more unsaturated fats may have more resistance to some cell damage that may happen. How Much Lipid Does an Athlete Need? The total fat intake should stay lower than 30 percent of the total calories you take in each day. And the amount of saturated fat should represent less than 10 percent of total calories. Essential fatty acids should be 1 – 2 percent of total calories. The total calories from fat are going to vary on the sport of choice, the size of the athlete’s body, and their own personal needs that vary person to person. Fats and Athletic Performance Excess body fat needs to be avoided; it is simply dead weight that will slow you down. Fat intake needs to be lower than 30 percent of your whole intake in one day but may change with some sport goal. Minimize the intake of saturated fatty acid and forms of cholesterol. Eat meals low in fat prior to training or competing as this allows the stomach to empty out much quicker and the nutrients get to the body faster. Include sources that are good for essential fatty acids, DHA, EPA, and gamma linolenic acid.

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[International Women's Day] Honoring Extraordinary Women Who Changed Education [International Women's Day] Honoring Extraordinary Women Who Changed Education March is Women’s History Month where we celebrate the contributions of women to in our culture, society, economy, and political policies, as well as the women in our lives and our own histories who helped make us who we are today. March 8, specifically, is International Women’s Day – a day to celebrate the achievements of women all over the world. Today reminds us of the power that women have in making meaningful change for generations to come. The world of education is just one place brimming with impactful, inspiring, and driven women who have challenged the status quo and gone above and beyond for not only their students, but students everywhere. Take a look at some of their amazing stories: “Special children must have special schools with well-trained teachers who use materials adapted to those children’s capabilities.” Margaret Bancroft was a pioneer in special education. At the age of 29, she opened the first private boarding school in New Jersey for children with disabilities. She believed that children with special needs should have specialized programs that could be adapted to their unique physical and mental needs. At her school, lessons were designed for their individual mental ages, teachers were trained how to individually tailor instruction, and students were able to enjoy recreational activities and trips. A female leader in education, Bancroft’s ideas laid the foundation for what would become the field of special education. “The whole world opened to me when I learned to read.” Mary McLeod Bethune was an American educator, stateswoman, philanthropist, humanitarian, womanist, and civil rights activist. As the daughter of parents who were formerly enslaved, she had limited access to formal education as a child, until around the age of 10 when she was able to enroll at a one-room school house. There she learned to read, and because she was the only child in her family able to attend school, would return home each day and share what she had learned with her siblings. Bethune became a teacher, eventually opening her own school in 1904. She served as an important advisor to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and went on to become a champion of Black women’s education, founding what is known today as the Bethune-Cookman University to help women of color receive access to quality education. She believed that education was the key to equality, and we couldn’t agree more. “Don’t follow the path. Go where there is not path and begin the trail. When you start a new trail equipped with courage strength and conviction the only thing that can stop you is you!” At six years old, Ruby Bridges single-handedly initiated the desegregation of public schools in New Orleans, Louisiana, in November 1960 when she became one of the first black children to attend an all white school there. Her first year at her new school wasn’t easy, and many people were angry and threatened Ruby, but Ruby just wanted to learn. Thankfully there were people in Ruby’s life who were encouraging and supportive, like her teacher Barbra Henry, who taught Ruby as though she were in a full classroom, even though it was just the two of them. Ruby ate lunch alone and sometimes played with her teacher at recess, but she never missed a day of school. By the next school year, Ruby was in classes with both white and black students, and ultimately Ruby grew up to be an author, an activist, and a speaker. “The seeds of dreams are often found in books and the seeds you help plant in your community can grow across the world.” Widely known country music singer/songwriter Dolly Parton is also a certified book worm. Dolly grew up in a small town in rural Tennessee, where many people in her community, including her father, never had the opportunity to learn to read or write. Even as child, Dolly was an avid reader, and often credits her love of reading as part of what inspired her to follow her dreams of being a star. Driven to share the joy of reading with children all over the world, Dolly created The Imagination Library, which delivers age-appropriate books to children that foster a "love of reading and learning; regard for diversity of people, their roles, culture and environment; promotion of self-esteem and confidence, appreciation of art and aesthetics." Dolly hopes that by making reading more accessible to children, she can inspire them to learn and to achieve their dreams. As she once said, "If you can read, even if you can't afford education, you can go on and learn about anything you want to know. There's a book on everything." “If children are apparently unable to learn, we should assume that we have not as yet found the right way to teach them.” Mary Clay was a highly acclaimed educator from New Zealand, known for her revolutionary work in literacy acquisition for children. More than three decades ago, she introduced a method of reading acquisition, known as Reading Recovery, for first graders. The program offers students on-on-one tutoring sessions for a focused short-term period to raise students from low achieving readers to average readers. During that time, the child is surrounded by a language-rich environment, and encouraged to choose books that appeal to the child’s own interests. The program continues around the world through the Reading Recovery Council of North America. “It was in me to get an education and to teach my people. This idea was deep in my soul.” Once Fanny Jackson Coppin was freed from slavery, she became one of the first black women to earn a college degree, and dedicated her life to lifting up her fellow black Americans through education. Fanny Jackson Coppin worked for 40 years as principal of the Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, starting in the 1860s. After the Civil War, Coppin made it her mission to educate many of the formerly enslaved people migrating to the North. She then made it a life mission to ensure all Americans had equal access to education, and through that education, a better life. “We have to build things that we want to see accomplished, in life and in our country, based on our own personal experiences ... to make sure that others ... do not have to suffer the same discrimination.” In 1959 when Hawaii became a U.S. State, Patsy Mink knew she wanted to run for a position in government. Little did she know, she would become the first woman of color elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and the first Asian-American woman to serve in Congress. As a congresswoman, Mink fought for gender and racial equality, affordable childcare, bilingual education, and became a supporter of Title IX. She was one of the authors and sponsors of the Title IX law that stated that “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.” In addition to this enormous feat, she additionally wrote the Early Childhood Education Act, and the Women's Educational Equity Act, and Mink was the first Asian-American to run for the office of U.S. President. “The greatest sign of success for a teacher… is to be able to say, ‘The children are now working as if I did not exist’” Maria Montessori was an Italian educator and the originator of the educational system that bears her name. She pioneered the concept of child-centered education with the Montessori system which is based on belief in the creative potential of children, their drive to learn, and the right of each child to be treated as an individual. Using hands-on learning methods and encouraging self-directed activities, Montessori was able to form a unique instructional approach that provided successful results even in students that were considered, “unteachable.” To this day, the Montessori Method is implemented in schools all over the world. “The ability to read, write, and analyze; the confidence to stand up and demand justice and equality; the qualifications and connections to get your foot in that door and take your seat at that table – all of that starts with education.” Today, there are more than 62 million girls around the world who are not in school. This can be due to customs of their community or country, but research shows that countries with more girls in secondary school tend to have advantages such as better child nutrition. Michelle Obama is dedicated to creating programs and resources for girls living in disadvantaged countries that do not have education access. Her Let Girls Learn initiative has made huge advancements in providing schools and education to adolescent girls in Africa. “One child, one teacher, one book, one pen can change the world.” Malala Yousafzai’s story of resilience and fighting for what is right is nothing short of incredible. Growing up in Pakistan, Yousafzai became an advocate for women’s rights and education at a young age. However, due to the Taliban rule of Pakistan, freedoms for women were severely limited, with access to education virtually nonexistent. She has become one of the most prominent advocates of human’s rights and educational access for women. In 2014, at the age of seventeen, Malala Yousafzai became the youngest person to ever receive the Nobel Peace Prize for her amazing work in bringing attention to these issues. Interested in exploring more content to celebrate Women’s History Month? Check out our FREE classroom resources from Edmentum for fun, interactive toolkits, downloadables, and more in our Women’s History Month Resource Pack. This post was originally published March 8, 2021, by Haley Peterson and has been updated.

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ETHNONYMS: Baatpétamãe, Maatpétamãe Identification. "Cinta Larga" is a name coined by non-Indian local people; it refers to the long bast ribbons members of this group wear around their waists. Location. The traditional territory of the Cinta Larga is in Brazil, probably extending from an area on the left bank of the Rio Juruena, near the Rio Vermelho, to the headwaters of the Mirim Juina; from the headwaters of the Rio Aripuanã to the Dardanelos Falls; they live at the headwaters of the Tenente Marques and Capitão Cardoso rivers and in the vicinity of the Eugênia, Amarelo, Amarelinho, Guariba, Branco do Aripuanã , and Roosevelt rivers. The area includes parts of the states of Rondônia and Mato Grosso, approximately between 59° and 61° W and 10° and 12° S. Nowadays the lands of the Cinta Larga are part of the Aripuanã Indigenous Park, which has an area of 3.6 million hectares. Demography. In 1969 the Cinta Larga population was estimated at around 2,000 people. In 1981 their number did not surpass 500 (a generous estimate). The main causes of population loss are epidemic diseases (e.g., measles, tuberculosis, hepatitis, malaria), conflicts with non-Indian invaders, and unreliable health assistance from the federal government. Linguistic Affiliation. The Cinta Larga language belongs to the Tupí Mondé Family of the Tupí Language Stock. History and Cultural Relations Until 1969 the Cinta Larga lived isolated in the forest, engaging in occasional hostilities with prospectors, rubber tappers, and others who invaded their territory. During this time, the Brazilian National Indian Foundation (Fundação Nacional do Índio, FUNAI), a governmental agency responsible for Indian policy, conducted several expeditions to attract the Indians, who, as of 1973, began to have regular contact with government agents and sporadic contact with the local population. Prior to contact with non-Indian elements, the Cinta Larga lived in a state of war with their neighbors to the east, the Rikbaktsa, and to the south, the Nambicuara. Since 1973 Cinta Larga territory has been invaded by prospectors, settlement projects, roads, hydroelectric plants, and lumber mills. Yet in the late 1980s there were still reports of Cinta Larga who lived in isolation. A Cinta Larga village traditionally consisted of a single communal house occupied by an agnatic lineage. As a consequence of intensified contact with representatives of the national (i.e., nonindigenous) society, the Cinta Larga founded, near FUNAI posts, villages composed of nuclear families belonging to different lineages. Both kinds of settlements are found—nucleated villages near FUNAI landing strips and individual houses scattered in the forest according to the traditional pattern. These patterns of concentration and dispersal are partially regulated by internal relations between families and by contact between Indians and FUNAI. Friction and disagreement encourage dispersal. Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Cinta Larga are hunters. Hunting is not their main source of food, but it is central to their ceremonial life and a strong focal point of tribal reference and identification. Peccaries are the most highly prized game; however, a large variety of other animals is also hunted, including spotted cavies, monkeys, tapir, alligators, and larger birds like curassows. The Cinta Larga also fish and collect honey, grubs, Brazil nuts, and fruit. In family plots that vary from 1 to 2 hectares, they cultivate maize, manioc, potatoes, yams, and peanuts. After contact some villagers began to plant beans and rice. They practice slash-and-burn cultivation; the same tract of land is used for two or three years and then abandoned. In 1980 the Cinta Larga began to extract rubber and gather Brazil nuts with a view toward their commercialization. Monetary returns are limited owing to the isolation of the area, the difficulty of transportation, and the small-scale production. Industrial Arts. Native handicrafts include basketry and the fashioning of bows and arrows, necklaces of tucum- palm nuts, bracelets of palm nuts and monkey teeth, feather ornaments for head and arms, hammocks, straw or jaguar-skin ornaments, flutes, mortars, spindles, perforators, resin lip ornaments, and other less important items. Division of Labor. Male activities are hunting, fishing, felling trees and preparing the land for cultivation, constructing houses, clearing the forest in the vicinity of the village, extracting latex, and making bows, arrows, flutes, and feather ornaments. Women gather, spin cotton and tucum-palm fiber, make nets and ceramic artifacts, harvest field products, prepare meals, and make necklaces and bracelets. Men and women jointly collect honey and nuts and plant the fields. Land Tenure. The land belongs to the residents of the village, and each family keeps one area for its own fields. Members of the same subgroup who live in other villages have free access to the land, as do affinal relations. Almost all social activity is regulated by kinship. There is evidence that the so-called subgroups (Kabã, Kak , and M) are clans. The filiation of each is patrilineal. Marriage. The Cinta Larga are polygynous. The preferred form of marriage is between a man and his sister's daughter, who is generally given in marriage before reaching puberty (between 8 and 9 years of age). It is then up to her husband to continue her socialization and to initiate her sexually. This marriage is different from others because it involves a ceremony that is rich in ritual. It is still common for a boy to begin his adult life by receiving one of his father's wives, one who is not his own mother and generally rather older than he. The young man is then initiated sexually by that woman and will have his first children with her. The circle of marriage exchange tends to be limited to two subgroups. Each subgroup's exogamic rules are respected, although there are some marriages with the Suruí (Paiter) from Rondônia. According to the traditional pattern, women have a large number of children (around 6 to 7 per woman), and infant mortality is high (40 percent). Domestic Unit. The smallest domestic unit, evident especially in times of food scarcity, is composed of a man, his wives, and their children. In normal daily life, however, the domestic unit is larger and encompasses a group of brothers, with their wives and children, who collaborate in activities of collective production like tree felling, planting, hunting peccaries, and fishing. Inheritance. When someone dies, all of his or her belongings are burned inside the house or on the grave. When the owner of a house dies, it, too, is destroyed by fire. Socialization. The main goal in the formation of an individual is the creation of an independent, self-sufficient person. Until 3 or 4 years of age, a child is its mother's inseparable companion. When it can move about easily and talk intelligibly, it will join small bands of children who imitate adults in their harvesting activities and in the capture of small animals and fish. Daily it becomes clearer that the challenge is knowing how to defend oneself in order to be on one's own. The result is the development of a bold and somewhat turbulent attitude, which makes the children ready to react to anything that displeases them. It is in young men of around 16 that this attitude is most evident. Fearless, aggressive, sometimes uncivil and gruff, the young Cinta Larga seems to accept no limitations, impositions, or orders from anyone. He demands what he wants directly, without beating around the bush, and at no time is he obsequious or servile. Gradually, young girls and boys prepare for adult life, becoming skillful in the kind of work that is proper to their sex. After the age of 7 they submit to the perforation of the lower lip, where a small resin plug is inserted as an ornament. Young girls go into seclusion in their own homes during the first menses. As a young man begins to be successful in hunting in the company of adults, and, a bit later, in participating successfully in war raids, he begins to compose his own songs, which relate his successes. Finally, when a man marries his sister's daughter, taking the final step into adult life, the passage is marked by a ceremony in which he gives ritual presents (richly adorned arrows) to his father-in-law and promises to care for and treat his wife well, the latter in a discursive dialogue with the bride's father and her classificatory parents. Social Organization. The three subgroups—Kabã, Kak , and Mã—spatially located, form a linguistic and cultural community, with relations between the various villages taking the form of marriage exchange and cooperation in warlike expeditions. The members of each subgroup feel united by strong bonds of solidarity and consider themselves a cohesive group in opposition to the rest of the Cinta Larga. Another very strong bond is that between affines, especially between brothers-in-law and their father-in-law. Political Organization. The leadership in a village is held by the oldest member of the lineage, generally the father. When he dies, his oldest son will succeed him. Meanwhile, however, as brothers marry, leadership is in danger of weakening, either because they must give service to their respective fathers-in-law, leaving the village when their coooperation is most needed, or because they wish to build their own homes. In such cases, it is up to the chief either not to let them escape his orbit or to attract affinal relations to live in the village. The success of this political game depends on his skill. Contact with agents of FUNAI has made for even less stability in this institution because of the agglutination of nuclear-family houses around FUNAI assistance stations and the prestige enjoyed by federal agents who provide the community with health services and distribute manufactured goods such as salt, sugar, fishing lines, hooks, and metal machetes. Men of the lineage compete for such favors, which can generate internal conflict within the group and a consequent weakening of traditional leadership. Increasing contact between the Indians and the outside world, especially with cities within the area, together with the lack of government assistance and the invasion of tribal territory by lumber mills, prospectors, and others intruders, has led the men in the lineage to try to obtain financial resources at any cost in order to satisfy needs that were created after contact. In the 1980s many found the solution in making contracts with lumber mills and prospectors, opening the area to wood and gold extraction. When a group is unable to reach an internal consensus regarding commercial agreements, new conflicts occur. Even if consensus is reached and the entire group agrees regarding such enterprises, however, dispersal continues. With the money they receive from such transactions, some young men are beginning to keep houses in surrounding areas, where they live with a non-Indian wife and only occasionally visit the village. In all such situations, the system of values that upheld leadership prestige tends to be weakened. Social Control. The most common forms of social control are malicious gossip and ostracism. The threat of poisoning is, however, the strongest factor still operating in the Community. Conflict. Conflicts between Indians and non-Indians are the result of the invasion of indigenous territory. Mutual accusations of witchcraft are responsible for aggression between Indians, and, in cases of death, a series of retaliatory war expeditions is undertaken. Such armed activity still occurs among Cinta Larga subgroups and, in the past, involved other tribes as well. Religion and Expressive Culture Religious Beliefs. The Cinta Larga creation myth is a richly detailed story of how Gora created human beings (that is, members of the various tribes that people the area) and conferred on them specific identities and characteristics. On the other hand, animals, birds, and other living beings were created through the transformation of human beings, some of whom were turned into jaguars, others into tapir and other animals. This, too, was Gorá's accomplishment. Along with the minor culture heroes who people Cinta Larga mythology, Gorá is responsible for everything positive that exists in the sociocultural universe. The counterpart to those beneficial beings and deeds of creation is a spirit that lives in the forest and incorporates the dark aspect of existence. His name is Pavu. He roams the forest looking for victims. As soon as he finds a solitary hunter or anyone who wanders through his domain, he throws himself on them in a deadly attack. No one can resist his power, and an encounter with Pavu results in fever, followed by death. Ceremonies. The Cinta Larga are one of the rare groups affiliated with the Tupí Language Stock that do not include tobacco in their culture. Ritual curing involves the recitation of efficacious words, the laying on of hands, and shamanistic blowing. This ritual finds minor expression within the framework of indigenous ceremonies, similar to the ritual of female seclusion and the perforation of childrens' lower lips. They are of minor importance when compared with the festival of bebé-aká (bebé/caitutu, peccary + aká, kill), which is the main expression of male and warrior values. On hunting expeditions men keep a sharp lookout, hoping to capture a young peccary alive. Later, in the village, it will be fed and treated with care similar to that given small children: it will suckle at a woman's breast, receive previously chewed solid food, be taken for walks, and receive many other marks of attention so it will grow up healthy. In the ceremony of bebéaká, the adult peccary is taken to be sacrificed and its flesh is distributed among the participants, according to rank. The most prized pieces will be given the brothers, brothers-in-law, and father-in-law; the rest is distributed according to rank, in descending order down to domestic animals, which will scarcely receive some viscera and bones. During the ceremony flutes are played, personal warrior songs (berewá ) and dances are performed, and decorated arrows are presented to the owner of the peccary. The songs and praise express the bravery of a warrior and, consequently, male prominence. Festivals similar to that of bebé-aká are held on other occasions, but without peccary sacrifice. They are held during important social events—for example, as recompense for collective work in the fields, to commemorate a raid on other Cinta Larga subgroups, to avenge grave offenses (kidnapping of women, for example), and earlier (approximately mid-twentieth century), according to the oldest Indians, for the performance of cannibalistic rituals after intertribal warfare. Ranches and cities have since been built on indigenous territories, isolating tribes from one another. Medicine. Because they prize individual self-sufficiency, the Cinta Larga are ever attentive to their bodily health. At the first sign of illness they lie down in their hammocks and try to identify the causes of their discomfort. They can count on a wide array of knowledge and practices to help them cure illness. Of the many hundreds of plant species in the forest, some are noted for ensuring protection, preventing illness, and even for furthering the development of skills that directly or indirectly guarantee well-being. This knowledge is shared by all and increases with age. For example, some plants are regularly used to increase female fertility, to guarantee male vigor, to ensure a good delivery, to keep a woman from aborting, to diminish uterine contractions, to purify the parents of a newborn child and to ensure its well-being, to keep it from crying continuously, and to relieve pain in practically all parts of the body. Special leaves or roots are used for all these purposes. Plants are also used to make a child sleep soundly, to make adults sleep lightly, to keep a baby from biting its mother's breast when suckling, and so on. Once health is assured, another group of plants meets needs of another type: success in hunting and the correct use of weapons. There are even plants that the hunter uses to attract animals by rubbing their leaves on his body. Finally, there are plants that serve the totally different purpose of wreaking vengeance. Some poisons are used against women—to cause mortal hemmorhages, abortion, or death. A plant that can be used against anyone is the po sut which, when mixed with food, causes a person to get progressively thinner until he or she dies. Death and Afterlife. With the exception of deaths that occur as a result of conflicts with non-Indian invaders or of intergroup conflicts, almost no death is considered natural. Illness, accidents, and old age are not considered to be factors that can cause death. Instead, death can only be caused by Pavu or poison, both of which act in an irreversible way, leaving the victim no possibility of recovery. Junqueira, Carmen (1984)"Sociedade e cultura: Os cinta larga e o exercício do poder do estado." Ciência e Cultura 36:1284-1287. Junqueira, Carmen (1985). "Os cinta larga." Revista de Antropologia (São Paulo) 27-28:213-232. Junqueira, Carmen, and Betty Mindlin (1987). The Aripuanã Park and Polonoroeste Programme. Document 6. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. CARMEN JUNQUEIRA (Translated by Ruth Gubler)

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First Arrival -- "Aurora" and "Walrus" Full DESCRIPTION: "The first arrival from the ice Has just come in today; The good old ship Aurora And her colors waving gay." The ship arrives full of seals on Saint Patrick's Day. Captain Kean is celebrated. The Walrus is the next to arrive EARLIEST DATE: 1904 (Old Home Week Songster) KEYWORDS: hunting ship REFERENCES (1 citation): Ryan/Small-HaulinRopeAndGaff, p. 72, "First Arrival -- 'Aurora' and 'Walrus" Full" (1 text) cf. "Arrival of the 'Grand Banks' and 'Virginia Lake' With Bumper Trips" (theme, ships) cf. "Arrival of 'Aurora,' Diana,' 'Virginia Lake' and 'Vanguard,' Loaded" (theme, ships) cf. "The Sealer's Song (II)" (ships) NOTES [1886 words]: The Walrus was a very old steamer, going back to the 1860s, which had begun her service running between St. John's and the outports (O'Neill, p. 508). She belonged to the small firm of Stewart's, which closed down in 1893 (Feltham, p. 77 n. 47. It appears she was rebuild in that year -- Evans, p. 45 -- presumably because of the transfer of ownership). She went to the ice a total of 38 times (Chafe, p. 105); the only year she missed between 1870 and her loss in 1908 was 1892 (Ryan/Drake, p. 14). Badly damaged in 1880, she had to sail home early in that season, but strange weather brought the ice so close to Newfoundland that, barely patched up, she was able to go out and secure a big crop (Greene, p. 12). She came even closer to destruction in 1897, and the crew wanted to abandon her, but Captain Alpheus Barbour refused; she took no seals, but was saved and repaired. There is a photo of her on p. 14 of Ryan/Drake. For the family of her "Captain Winsor" see "First Arrival from the Sea Fishery S. S. Fogota, 1912." It's not immediately evident which "Captain Winsor" is meant here; William Winsor Sr. commanded the Walrus in 1898, and S. R. Winsor 1904-1906; Jacob Winsor took charge in 1907, and lost her the next year (Chafe, p. 96). The sealer Aurora had a long and complex history. She was built in Dundee in 1874, and was a sealer (and whaler) from the start (Ryan/Drake, p. 27) -- but, until 1894, she was based in Britain (Feltham, p. 22). According to Lubbock, p. 406, "In 1876, Messrs. Alexander Stephen & Sons [of Dundee] launched another fine auxiliary, the Aurora, of 580 tons gross, 376 tons net, with 98 h.p. engines, for their own use. Her dimensions were: Length 165 feet 2 inches, breadth 30 feet 6 inches, depth 18 feet 9 inches. She had a raised quarter-deck of 32 inches." Lubbock notes that this made her much shorter than her near-contemporary the Arctic. Rycroft, p. 53, quotes a Dundee newspaper from December 30, 1876: "On Saturday an addition was made to the Dundee seal and whale fishing fleet by the launch of a fine vessel from the shipbuilding yard of Messrs Alexander Stephen & Son. The builders are the owners, and the new whaler has been built as a sister ship to the Arctic, which was launched by the same firm on 8th March 1875.... The ship which was named the Aurora, is barque-rigged, and is 530 tons gross register. Her dimensions are:- Length 195 feet; breadth of beam, 30 feet; and depth of hold 18 feet 9 inches.... Her propeller, brackets, &c., have been made of malleable cast iron, and can be taken on deck when there is the slightest danger to be apprehended from coming in contact with the ice. The engines are to be surface condensing, on the compound principle, and can be wrought at a high rate of speed with small consumption of coal. They are 98-horse power nominal, or 500 indicated. The Aurora is to be commanded by Captain Bannerman." Watson, pp. 7-8, gives an amazing catalog of her adventures: her "action-packed calling saw her icebound in 1882, rescue American explorers in 1884, be twice given up for lost in 1886, feature in a 'scurvy' court case, lose seven whaleboats in a storm and search for lost Swedish explorers, all in 1893, spend a month in pack ice in 1895, collide with another Dundee whaler in 1908 and be reported sunk with the loss of 187 men after hitting an iceberg in 1910. Yet the Aurora turned up again and again. In 1911 she steamed 30,000 miles in southern oceans on Douglas Mawson's expedition and was then battered in a long imprisonment by ice during Shackleton's heroic Antarctic adventure in 1914-1916. She was last seen in 1917 somewhere between Australia and Chile...." She would briefly gain fame in the 1880s when she was one of the ships involved in rescuing the Greely expedition to Ellesmere Island (Guttridge, p. 270), for which see the notes to "Hurrah for Baffin's Bay." Rycroft, p. 75, summarizes the events of 1886 (while adding that Captain Fairweather recalled them as happening in 1885): "They left Dundee in February in the face of a south-east wind.... [T]he helmsman got thrown over the wheel and was laid up for the rest of the passage with a broken rib. Shortly after, three men were hurt when a heavy sea was shipped, one sustaining a broken leg. Water got down below resulting in the stoke-hole plates being washed up and the loose coal choked the pumps.... "They had to fight ever mile of the passage to St. John's against westerly winds.... They had to work hard to be ready to sail with the sealing fleet the following day [March 10]; that same night the engine broke down and the ship was helpless amongst the pack ice.... In a crippled state they managed to secure just over 3000 seals [a pitiful number] but were then beset. They then struck an iceberg and all hands were ordered on the ice. When the Captain realised that the berg was aground... and therefore stationary, the ship was safe for the moment but the pack ice had broken most of the starboard bulwark. he crew was ordered on board again." Many, however, could not get back to the ship, which was floating away fasted than they could move on the ice. Sixty men were missing when the roll was called, although all but one apparently survived. The ship's propeller was also bent; she had to give up for the year (Rycroft, p. 76). She had rather mixed results during her years sailing from Britain. She had a few good years, but wasn't noteworthy for her successes when sailing from the British Isles (Feltham, p. 24). In 1894, she was taken over by Bowring's, the Newfoundland shipping company, and started using local crews -- which much improved her results. Her first commander after that was Arthur Jackman (not to be confused with another famous captain, William Jackman; for Arthur Jackman, see also "Sealer's Song (I)," and for his work in the Aurora, see also "The Old Polina"). After she was hit by a severe illness in 1897 (four killed and more than a hundred sick; Winsor, p. 31), the famous Abram Kean (for whom see "Captain Abram Kean") commanded from 1898 to 1904 (Feltham, p. 24), and averaged about twice as many seals per year as during her Dundee period. In 1904, he brought in an amazing 34,000 seals. Which is not to say that she always had good luck sailing from Newfoundland. In 1886, a run-in with an iceberg caused her crew to abandon her for a few hours, and some never came back (they reported her missing, and a rescue mission was being mounted when she showed up, leaking and barely seaworthy; Archibald, p. 126). In 1893, Captain Harry McKay was fined for not issuing the proper lemon juice ration, resulting in one of his sailors suffering from scurvy (Archibald, p. 127). On November 15, 1895, when she was carrying a load of gunpowder and ammunition, she caught fire, and only prompt action by the firemen of St. John's prevented an explosion (O'Neill, p. 637). She also suffered ice damage in 1905 and 1908 (Archibald, p. 127). From 1906 to 1911, Aurora was commanded by Captain D. Green, and although she didn't succeed as well as under Kean, she did average about 11,000 seals per year (Feltham, p. 28). 1908 (after this piece was written) was a bad year for the Aurora, which was damaged during the seal hunt, but (as we saw above) a worse one for the Walrus, which was sunk when her bow was stove in (Ryan, p. 191), although with light casualties (O'Neill, p. 972). Most of her crew was taken off by the Neptune, although many later transferred to other ships (Winsor, p. 69). After 1911, the Aurora was converted to an Antarctic exploring vessel (apparently because she was considered one of the inferior ships in the fleet; Ryan, p. 195; according to Watson, p. 178, they looked at the Terra Nova, for which see "The Terra Nova," but she was too expensive), at first under Sir Douglas Mawson (Keir, p. 204); Mawson took her because she was available for a mere £6000 (Fitzsimons, p. 295). He had her re-rigged as a barkentine (FitzSimons, p. 203), which probably improved her sailing but perhaps lessened her speed. She spent almost a year stuck in the ice starting in 1915 (Feltham, p. 29), suffering much damage but surviving the weather that doomed Shackleton's Endurance (Watson, pp. 177-178). This trip is reportedly described in Richard McElrea and David Harrowfield's book Polar Castaways, which I have not seen. After that, Shackleton bought her from Mawson for just £3200 (Rycroft, p. 89); after working with Mawson, she was sold to an American company. On June 26, 1917, she left Newcastle, Australia, for a commercial voyage carrying coal -- and vanished (Tarver, p. 15; Archibald, p. 127, says the only trace of her was a buoy with her name on it that washed ashore in Australia; Feltham, p. 29, says it was another trip to Antarctica; Rycroft, p. 89, says she was bound for Chile and had about 22 sailors aboard). At least some thought the Germans responsible (Tarver, p. 16), but she wasn't big enough to be a noteworthy target and she was in the South Pacific anyway; there weren't any Germans there after 1914! Douglas Mawson named a rise in Antarctica "Aurora Peak" after the ship (FitzSimons, p. 532), although it's small enough that my National Geographic Atlas doesn't show it, and while you can look it up on Google Maps, the actual map display shows a blank there. In addition to this piece, the Aurora is mentioned in "Arrival of 'Aurora,' 'Diana,' 'Virginia Lake,' and 'Vanguard,' Loaded," "The Old Polina," and "The Sealer's Song (II)." The Walrus is also mentioned in the latter. The Aurora is also the subject of "The Spring of '97" although she is not named in the song. Another book about her is David Moore Lindsay's A Voyage to the Arctic in the Whaler 'Aurora' (1911); I haven't seen that, but it is now available in cheap reprints. It's about her whaling work, though, not her sealing work, so it's only marginally relevant to this song. There is a picture of the Aurora unloading in St. John's on p. 172 of Feltham and a different photo on p. 27 of Ryan/Drake; there is also one facing p. 1 of Kean. WInsor, p. 31, has a very poor photo which appears to show her in the ice. Fitzsimons has one of her in Antarctica in his photos section. Rycroft, p. 54, has a painting of her from 1884 and a photo on p. 55. To date this song, we must seek a year in which Abram Kean commanded Aurora and a Captain Winsor commanded Walrus. That gives only two possibilities: 1898 and 1904, with William Winsor Sr. commanding Walrus in 1898 and S. R. Winsor in 1904. Both years were good; Aurora took 25633 seals in 1898, and 34849 in 1904 (Chafe, p. 92); Walrus had 14702 in 1898 and 16720 in 1904. But the Aurora's 1904 total matches the "four and thirty thousand seals" mentioned in the song, and the Walrus's matches the "sixteen thousand prime young harps." Checking first returns, Aurora and Walrus were first in 1904 (Chafe, p. 71); they were relatively late in 1898. Thus 1904 appears to be the year. There is one minor complication: In 1904, the Aurora sailed from Wesleyville, but the Walrus from St. John's (Chafe, p. 71), reversing what is implied in the song, but this is likely just a minor reversal. Every other indication fits the year 1904, which was also the year the song was published. - RBW Last updated in version 5.2 - Archibald: Malcolm Archibald, The Dundee Whaling Fleet: Ships, Masters and Men, Dundee University Press, 2013 - Chafe: Levi George Chafe, Chafe's Sealing Book: A History of the Newfoundland Sealfishery from the Earliest Available Records Down To and Including the Voyage of 1923, third edition, Trade Printers and Publishers, Ltd., 1923 (PDF scan available from Memorial University of Newfoundland) - Evans: Calvin D. Evans, Master Shipbuilders of Newfoundland and Labrador, Volume One: Cape Spear to Boyd's Cove, Breakwater Books, 2013 - Feltham: John Feltham, Sealing Steamers, Harry Cuff Publications, 1995 - FitzSimons: Peter FitzSimons, Mawson and the Ice Men of the Heroic Age: Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen, William Heinemann, 2011 - Greene: William Howe Greene, The Wooden Walls among the Ice Floes: Telling the Romance of the Newfoundland Seal Fishery, Hutchinson & Co, London (PDF available on the Memorial University of Newfoundland web site) - Guttridge: Leonard F. Guttridge, Ghosts of Cape Sabine: The Harrowing True Story of the Greely Expedition, Berkley, 2000 - Kean: Abram Kean, with a foreword by Sir Wilfred Grenfell, Old and Young Ahead, 1935; I use the 2000 Flanker Press edition edited and with a new Introduction (and new photographs) by Shannon Ryan - Keir: David Keir, The Bowring Story, The Bodley Head, 1962 - Lubbock: Basil Lubbock, The Arctic Whalers, Brown, Son, & Ferguson, 1937 (I use the 1955 reprint) - O'Neill: Paul O'Neill, A Seaport Legacy: The Story of St. John's, Newfoundland, Press Procepic, 1976 - Ryan: Shannon Ryan, The Ice Hunters: A History of Newfoundland Sealing to 1914, Breakwater Books, 1994 - Ryan/Drake: Shannon Ryan, assisted by Martha Drake, Seals and Sealers: A Pictorial History of the Newfoundland Seal Fishery, Breakwater Books, 1987 - Rycroft: Nancy Rycroft (granddaughter of James Fairweather), Captain James Fairweather: Whaler and Shipmaster: His Life and Carer 1853-1933, Fairweather Books, 2005 - Tarver: Michael C. Tarver, The S. S. Terra Nova (1884-1943), Pendragon Maritime Publications, 2006 - Watson: Norman Watson, The Dundee Whalers, Tuckwell Press, 2003 - Winsor: Naboth Winsor, Stalwart Men and Sturdy Ships: A History of the Prosecution of the Seal Fishery by the Sealers of Bonavista Bay North, Newfoundland, Economy Printing Limited, 1985 Go to the Ballad Search form Go to the Ballad Index Song List Go to the Ballad Index Instructions Go to the Ballad Index Bibliography or Discography The Ballad Index Copyright 2022 by Robert B. Waltz and David G. Engle.

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CS 184: COMPUTER GRAPHICS 184 HOME < - - - - > CURRENT The Course Project CS 184 is now officially a DESIGN-Course! ABET requirements specify, that such courses: -- have a DESIGN-Project and -- teach and test Technical Communication Skills. A DESIGN-Project must have -- some clear task or goal, -- some constraints or specifications, -- some trade-offs between different possible solutions. ==> Try to think of something that you would like to do, and then make up a plausible task specification that has your project as the answer. ( This is like Jeopardy where you need to find the Question! :-) Here are some basic example ideas, to get your own thinking going: ARTICULATED, KINEMATIC ASSEMBLIES: Design an articualted robot or creature (pogo-stick, humanoid, ant, centiped ...) that moves (walks, crawls, hops, rides on a bicycle or unicycle ...) across some surface (plane, B-spline, subdivision surface, fractal landscape ...), and where the locomotion follows a point on that surface controlled by the Design some articulated creature that climbs some 3D "graph" structure (simple telephone pole, binary tree, 3D lattice, complex 3D graph ...) Design a wheel-chair that can move up and down some typical stairs. Design a transformer that converts from some shape A into some shape B that have quite different capabilities. PRECISE USER INTERACTIONS: Design some interactive game that forces the user to adjust the 6 DoF of a polyhedral object in R3 to move through a cut-out template in a Design some interactive game where the user is trying to doc two space ships in a precisely defined orientation against each other. GEOMETRICAL OPTICS + RENDERING: Model the reflections and refractions in a polyhedral glass container filled (partially) with water -- in particular the RCO in the Pacioli painting (geometry data is available). Place it inside a cub-shaped "Cornell-box" with a window to study realistic reflections of that window. Model a more complicated "framed" object like Leonardo's pseudo-rhombicuboctahedron in a smoke-filled room, with a single strong light source casting dramatic shadows and dispersive light beams in the smoke. Model some anamorphism, where a "weird" painting, when seen as a reflection in a highly polished cylinder or sphere, reveals itself as a "normal" portraint or object. Construct a suitably distorted "weird" painting. Model some implausible 3D geometry (e.g. infinite staircase) -- and try to design and render a 3D scene so it looks the same from a specific view center. what you need to do to achieve the same visual effects (shadow, global illumination, reflection/refraction?) and aesthetic complex lens assembly of a real camera; use refractions and reflections to trace eye rays; create images with lens-flare etc... see: "A Realistic Camera Model for Computer Graphics” by Craig Kolb, Don Mitchell, and Pat Hanrahan. Merge your GPU shader knowledge with your raytracer knowledge, and implement a custom shader for raytracing a specific scene of your own Identify procedural elements well suited to raytracing on the GPU, such as CSG of simple primitives and fractal geometry. user explore and edit the scene in real time. Design a smooth, highly symmetrical (subdivision) surface of higher genus with some Escher-like tiling pattern on it. Build an interactive modeling system for smooth surfaces of resolution (vases, columns, lamps...) with different materials and surface PROCEDURAL SCENE GENERATION: Implement a renderer for a "powers of ten" style scene, with details ranging in scale by a hundred orders of magnitude. Use procedural modeling techniques to ensure the lower levels have interesting, relatively-dense interesting details, so the user can zoom in most places and see something. Use aggressive culling and optimization to keep rendering time down. some two- or multi-legged creature that can do some tricks, such as doing a backwards somersault (need to put some physics into this!). Make an interactive simulation of some simple spring-mass system (e.g., some truss or bridge, or a block of Jello). Show the responses to forces interactively applied by the user (load on bridge; a spoon hitting jello). For the jello example, the simulation can be enhanced with some fancy rendering of light passing through the jello. We will try to fulfill the Technical Communication Skills requirement by having you give a short (2-4-minute), formal, oral presentation before you demonstrate your projects. This oral part will count for 20% of your project demo grade. It is an important skill to be able to present your ideas and accomplishments to your peers and future bosses. ==> We will talk more about this in future lectures. As#10 = PHASE_1: Form your teams: 1, 2, or 3 persons; select a tentative design task; write a short proposal (100-300 words) Due Friday April 15, 11pm (worth the first 5% of project grade). ==> Quick feedback before 11pm, April 20, to let you know whether your project has the right scope. As#11 = PHASE_2: Every participant must have a link to a (shared) proposal on their web page. Revise your project proposal; clarify technical challenges. Show some evidence (a picture) that serious programming has started. Here is a possible template for your refined proposal: -- Descriptive Project Title -- 1 to 3 sentences what this projects is all about. -- List the technical challenges (1 to 4) that you will address -- For each challenge give a 1-2 sentence statement (with a possible reference) how you will approech this challenge. -- Show a raw, undecorated picture of your main character; or your race track; or your game-scene; or the test scene for your fancy renderer; or a control polygon for your high-genus subdivision ==> Only propose things that you already have an idea how you will approach them! Due Saturday April 23, 11pm (worth another 10% of project grade). ==> Quick feedback before 11pm, April 27, -- only if we find that you are on a bad trajectory; More detailed grading of your As#12, will take about a week. As#12 = PHASE_3: Intermediate Progress report: Show evidence of the basic core of your project working. (more details will be forthcoming). Due Monday May 2, 11pm (worth another 15% of project grade). Every team must prepare a brief (1 page) progress report [plus some pictures] and post it on their web page. This report should convincingly demonstrate that you are about half-way done with your programming effort. Grading guidelines for As#12: 15 points is absolute maximum for this assignment ( = A+). 10 points are given if the following points have been answered completely and competently: For each of the technical challenges listed in As#11, tell us: -- to what % you think you have solved the problem, -- one sentence what you have accomplished (and how), -- one sentence what remains to be done. 3 more points are given for reasonable visual documentation of the following: For as many challenges (p) as there are persons (p) on your team you should be about 66% done by 5/2/2011; for those p challenges you should add one image or short animation each that demonstrate the claimed achievement. -- i.e. a vibrating grid for a ??-simulation; -- or a box sliding around a track for a racing game; -- or some rays going through some glass body for a fancy ray-tracer; -- or some GUI to manipulate a paddle for some interactive ball game, etc ... 1 or 2 more points are given for exceptionally good documentation of either kind. As#13 = (final) PHASE_4: Project Demonstrations: Tuesday and Wednesday, May 10/11, 2011 in 330 Soda Hall Each group MUST demonstrate their final project. Sign up for a Project Demo time slot The sign-up schedule needs to be interpreted with some flexibility: Please be in the room and have your demo ready to run 10 minutes before the start of your assigned demo slot. Print out and bring along your partially filled-in "p-Person Project Score Sheet": 1-Person Project Score Sheet -- 2-Person Project Score Sheet -- 3-Person Project Score Sheet as well as a paper copy of your Final Project Report (see below). First you will give your prepared (and hopefully rehearsed) "Elevator Story" about your project. Then you will start the actual demo, showing that the various achievements claimed actually work. This part of the demo will be partially driven by the instructors, who may ask for things like: "turn off the fancy texture, so we can see better the underlying geometry" or "show the simplest case of a refracted ray." Of course, you can give a more detailed (prepared) story, but it might be interrupted or redirected by Q&A. Oral Presentation at the beginning of the Project Demo: This is a high-level, formal presentation (with no interruptions) in which you tell us briefly what the project is all about and what your contributions were; assume we have no prior knowledge of your work! Time limit: 1-person team: 2 minutes; 2-person team: 3 minutes; 3-person team: 4 minutes; Every team member must speak for at least one minute, telling us about her/his specific contributions. Final Project Report: Every team must bring a paper version of their final project report to the session when they demonstrate their project and hand it in (together with their filled out Project Score Sheets). These reports are strictly limited in length. Including all images, they are limited to 2 pages for 1- and 2-person teams, and to 3-pages for 3-person They must contain: == The names, cs184-account numbers, and the e-mails of all the team members. == The project title. == A brief description of the scope and goals of the == A discussion of the technical challenges tackled: Each report should focus on P to P+2 challenges, where P is the number of persons in your team. For each challenge, describe the technical problem that needed to be solved and the way in which you solved it (or what the key stumbling block was that did not allow you to solve it properly). Include a convincing medium size figure that serves as a reminder of your demonstration during your demo time slot in which you show us your solution. -- A good mix would be to use about 50% of the available page space for text and the other 50% for images. For multi-person projects, please explain who were the team members primarily focusing on each particular challenge. Also -- before you come to give your project demo -- place the same Final Project Report electronically as As#13 onto your website and submit your code on unix at the same time. 184 HOME < - - - - > CURRENT Page Editor: Carlo

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When bird lovers buy a new bird feeder, it is only natural to wonder how long it will take for birds to find it and start visiting it regularly. When backyard birders buy birdseed, they want to know when they can expect birds to be visiting their backyard to eat the seed and entertain them. And people who feed birds want to know how long the bird food they buy will last. Sometimes birds find new feeders in as little as a single day. Sometimes birds won’t find a new feeder for several months. But in this article, we will tell you all you need to know about what you can do to help birds find your feeder faster. What Determines How Soon Birds Start Coming to a New Feeder? How fast birds discover the food you are putting out for them depends on several factors. Time of the Year One factor is the time of year you install the new feeder. If you put out a new bird feeder in winter, when stress is really high on the birds still visiting your backyard, birds are more likely to start coming to a new feeder fast. The birds are stressed out, and your new feeder brings them relief. On the other hand, if you put up a new feeder in the middle of the summer (when food for backyard birds is relatively abundant in most places) they may eat their fill at their usual locations and not notice the new feeder for several weeks or even until the seasons change. “Shyness” of the Bird Another consideration is how “shy” your backyard birds may be. Being wary of new things is a natural defense mechanism in wild animals of all kinds, including birds. If you put out a new bird feeder next to old bird feeders where birds have been coming for a long time, a bird’s instinct is “I don’t know what this new thing is, and I don’t know whether it is going to try to eat me.” Some feeders are scarier than others. Cage feeders keep squirrels, raptors, and unwanted large birds out, but smaller birds may be wary of getting trapped inside. It can take up to two weeks for birds to observe that the new bird feeder has not been associated with any kind of harm so it is safe for them to feed there. Brave birds, like black-capped chickadees, will eat at the feeder first, and then more cautious birds will join in. What You Put in the Feeder (the Seed Matters) Yet another consideration is seed choice. Many backyard birders buy safflower seed or Nyjer to discourage large birds and squirrels from raiding a feeder intended for small songbirds. Small seeds like safflower and Nyjer definitely keep the squirrels away, but they are not as widely liked by smaller birds, either. If you give most birds a choice between a Nyjer seed and a sunflower chip, they will choose the sunflower chip. Safflower works the same way. A lot of birds prefer sunflower seeds to safflower seeds, so they will spend their time at the sunflower seed feeders first. Many people put up new bird feeders stocked with smaller seeds in the middle of the summer to keep the blackbirds away. Birders have to be more patient in the summer when desirable birds have more options for feeding. Where You Live Geography makes a difference, too. Birds Canada and the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in the United States ran a study called Project FeederWatch. This study collected data from members in almost all 50 states of the USA, all 10 provinces of Canada, and the Yukon and Northwest Territories. They recorded how long it takes some birds to find a newly established feeder in each of these locations. Experienced backyard birders found that the more abundant the food sources for local birds, the longer it took them to find a new feeder. Here are some of the average times birds take to find a new bird feeder in different states in the US and Canada: - Arizona: 6.2 days - Arkansas: 10.8 days - California: 16 days - Colorado: 9.7 days - Connecticut: 13.7 days - Delaware: 14 days - Florida: 12.6 days - Georgia: 13.7 days - Idaho: 9.9 days - Indiana: 11.5 days - Kansas: 10.6 days - Kentucky: 13.1 days - Louisiana: 8.2 days - Maine: 9.4 days - Maryland: 14.1 days - Massachusetts: 11.9 days - Michigan: 10.4 days - Minnesota: 10.7 days - Mississippi: 16.5 days - Missouri: 14.8 days - Montana: 11 days - New Mexico: 16.2 days - New York: 12.5 days - North Carolina: 15.2 days - North Dakota: 10.3 days - Ohio: 11.3 days - Oklahoma: 16.8 days - Oregon: 12.4 days - Rhode Island: 8.4 days - South Carolina: 15.4 days - South Dakota: 9.2 days - Tennessee: 14.1 days - Texas: 14.4 days - Vermont: 11.3 days - Virginia: 13.4 days - Washington: 12.1 days - West Virginia: 13.1 days - Alberta: 11.2 days - British Columbia: 11.6 days - Manitoba: 11.7 days - New Brunswick: 10.6 days - Newfoundland and Labrador: 11.1 days - Northwest Territories: 8 days - Nova Scotia: 11.3 days - Ontario: 11.5 days - Prince Edward Island: 13.5 days - Quebec: 10.7 days - Saskatchewan: 13.7 days - Yukon: 9.3 days These figures are averages. Some bird feeders attract birds a lot sooner than others, and other bird feeders are ignored for weeks at a time. But the backyard birders in the bird feeder study have some tips to share about how to get birds to get to your feeders faster. Birds Prefer Camouflage Colors They are not as quick to visit feeders painted red, yellow, or orange. There is an easy explanation for this observation. Birds don’t want to be the food for predators while they are visiting your feeder. Camouflage colors help birds blend in with their surroundings so they feel safer at your feeder. Birds Prefer Feeders Next to Moving Water Chances are that you will place your bird feeder where raptors can’t swoop down and dine on songbirds that are feeding at it. Making the feeder a safer place for small birds, however, also makes it harder to find. You can solve this problem by placing your bird feeder next to a water feature that makes bubbling or falling water sounds. Birds are attracted to the sound of moving water. They need to drink. When they find the water source, they will also find the food source. Possible Reasons Birds Don’t Visit Your Feeder If you put out a feeder during the time of year birds are most interesting in finding supplemental food, and you are putting out a kind of food birds like, the feeder is made of wood or painted in earth tones, and you placed your feeder next to moving water, and birds still don’t visit it, there is probably a correctable problem. Here are some of the fixable reasons that birds don’t take to new feeders. You Put Out Just One Kind Of Feeder Different birds like different kinds of feeders. Some birds prefer tube feeders, hopper feeders, Nyjer feeders, log feeders, platform feeders, suet feeders, or sugar water feeders, to name just a few of the possibilities! Putting out multiple feeders, not all of the same design, not all with the same food, attracts a great variety of birds. The more species of birds you can satisfy, the sooner you will see them in your backyard. You and Your Neighbors Have Never Put Out a Bird Feeder Before Birds that can’t find food fly away to another feeding ground. If there has never been a bird feeder in your neighborhood before, the birds around your house are accustomed to finding food on their own. It may take them a while to realize that your feeder is a food source. Your Birds are Skittish about Predators The sight of an owl, a cat, a dog, or raptors will send most songbirds flying on to safer areas. You need to place bird feeders at an elevation where birds feel safe around backyard pets, and under enough cover that predatory birds cannot see them from above. Use baffles to protect bird feeders from squirrels and snakes. You Didn’t Put Out Your Feeder Early Enough By the time birds reach the middle of their nesting season, they are too busy to scout out new food sources, at least if they have already found reliable ones. If you put up your feeder a few days before birds are expected to arrive in the spring, they will have all season to discover it and make feeding in your backyard a habit. Your Bird Feeder Is Dirty Birds can be messy, but they still prefer clean feeders. Bird feeders with moldy, smelly contents, swarmed by ants and bees, or caked with pee and poop won’t attract the birds you want in your yard. Clean and sterilize bird feeders and bird baths weekly to keep birds coming back. You Need To Put Up Birdhouses The more amenities birds find in your backyard, the more likely they are to stay. A combination of bird feeders, bird baths, and birdhouses is best for ensuring your enjoyment of the birds in your backyard. Other articles you may also like:

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Music therapy is an effective intervention for working with traumatized children and adults. It helps reduce anxiety, offers emotional relief, and facilitates life-affirming social interactions, to name just a few of its benefits. The purpose of this article is to shed light on how music therapy addresses trauma for anyone interested in a music career that truly changes lives. by Barbra Weidlein Music therapists have been called upon to support the recovery of individuals and communities following horrific events as well as natural disasters. Settings have included New York City metropolitan area after the 9/11 terrorist attacks; New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina; Umpqua Community College after a mass shooting on campus; various war- and post-war zones; and other disaster recovery situations. According to the American Music Therapy Association, music therapy addresses trauma by providing: • Non-verbal outlets for emotions associated with traumatic experiences • Anxiety and stress reduction • Positive changes in mood and emotional states • Active and positive participant involvement in treatment • Enhanced feelings of control, confidence, and empowerment • Positive physiological changes, such as lower blood pressure, reduced heart rate, and relaxed muscle tension “With individuals who have experienced trauma,” says Jim Borling, director of Radford University’s Music Therapy program, “music becomes an outlet for expressing emotion. Music therapy has a way of letting people know that it is ok to feel what you are feeling. It is ok to acknowledge what has happened.” Borling brought his skills as a music therapist to Newtown, Connecticut where a 2012 shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School took the lives of 20 children and six staff members, and to Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University) after a campus shooting in 2007 killed 32 and injured many others. Other uses of music therapy Music therapy also serves those who’ve experienced trauma as a result of chronic pain, chemical addiction, child abuse, asylum-seeking, domestic violence, incarceration, and other sources of emotional distress. • Janice Lindstrom, a visiting lecturer in Music Therapy at SMU Meadows School of the Arts, has utilized music therapy with abused children and with patients at Veterans Administration hospitals. She has also applied music therapy to her work with the International Rescue Committee (IRC) to support individuals around the world who are affected by war and natural disasters. • Kimberly Sena Moore, clinical training director of Music Therapy at the Frost School of Music at University of Miami, is researching the impact of music therapy on the emotional self-regulation of children with a history of trauma. Emotional regulation refers to the ability to effectively manage and respond to emotional experiences. • Ron Borczon, director of Music Therapy at California State University, Northridge, worked with the therapists of family members and survivors of the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing as well as with school-age children who experienced the 1994 earthquake in Northridge, California. He also helped in planning music therapy interventions after shootings at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado and Santee High School near San Diego, California. • Yasmine Iliya, adjunct faculty at Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College, New York University and Molloy College, is working on a pilot program using music therapy with Syrian refugee children in Jordan. • Maggie Connors, a music therapist in private practice in Vermont, has worked with children and adolescents with a history of domestic violence in the home and/or sexual abuse. She’s also worked at a children’s hospital, where she relates that “trauma was more often related to medical procedures or events that precipitated hospitalization.” • Jessica Cole-Robinette uses music therapy with patients at Akron Children’s Hospital’s Palliative Care Program. She has also used music therapy with victims rescued from human trafficking; homeless veterans; and those dealing with medical trauma within the family. Music therapy in the NICU Joanne Loewy, director of New York City’s Mount Sinai Beth Israel’s Louis Armstrong Center for Music & Medicine, has found music therapy to be a vital intervention for premature infants in neonatal intensive care units (NICU). She says that music therapy for premature infants “addresses the trauma of missing out on the ‘warmth and soundscape’ of the womb environment. Preemies are deprived of the ‘whoosh’ and warmth of the womb. Studies show this affects the development of premature newborns especially in the areas of sleep, feeding behavior, weight gain, and because of the trauma from any procedures they have to undergo.” Loewy’s research shows that singing to infants in the NICU increases their alertness. She developed a rhythm technique in conjunction with the Remo drum company, using a small two-toned wooden “gato” box to mimic the heartbeat of the infants’ mothers. She also worked with Remo to develop the Lullaby Ocean Disc to imitate the missing whooshing sounds of the womb. The Disc has been shown to slow and regulate the breathing of premature infants whose lungs are not yet fully developed. It has also been effective at reducing stress and facilitating sleep. Parents are taught how to use these techniques in order to feel more engaged with their premature infants and to be able to continue working with these interventions when their babies are ready to go home. Loewy has also shown that music therapy is an effective intervention with children suffering from a number of problems including cancer, diabetes, asthma, eating disorders, suicidal tendencies, and emotional distress. Songwriting and improvisation are two of the most common ways music therapy addresses trauma. • Alejandra Ferrer, coordinator of Music Therapy at Belmont University School of Music, has worked in mental health facilities with victims of trauma and abuse. She says, “Music therapists who work with these populations may implement techniques such as songwriting and lyric analysis, music-based relaxation activities, and combined music and art interventions.” • Andrew Knight, assistant professor of Music Therapy at Colorado State University, says that music therapists incorporate “song lyrics, musical elements, and metaphors/analogies” that can help clients gain new insights to help them move through difficult problems. “Composition includes songwriting as a way to express oneself in a musical medium,” he says. • Jim Borling finds that “Music therapy serves to help people connect with each other and experience support…When working with groups, sometimes large groups, music (often times drumming) provides a safe space for people to come together and be in close proximity with each other, but not need to verbally discuss or process traumatic events or experiences. Music, and rhythm in particular, can communicate safety, connectedness, community, and support all at the same time.” • Cathy H. McKinney, coordinator of Music Therapy at the Hayes School of Music at Appalachian State University utilizes the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music (see sidebar) to help clients recover from trauma. Through the Bonny Method, images are brought to mind to assist clients in working through trauma and related unresolved issues. Undergraduate music therapy programs do not focus on working with traumatized populations. Those drawn to this area of concentration gain some of the necessary training through their required supervised internship. Many enter graduate programs in music therapy for additional clinical skills and further training. Others seek a degree in a relevant area of counseling. Jessica Cole-Robinette sees trauma as a fairly universal phenomenon. As a result, she says, “All music therapists working with any population need trauma-informed education, whether it be at the undergraduate level or for continuing education.” Continuing education is an important part of the professional life of a music therapist. Training and support are available through workshops, seminars, and publications offered by the American Music Therapy Association. The World Federation of Music Therapy is another resource for continuing education. Most music therapists who have worked in the area of trauma agree that training beyond the entry level is essential. According to Kimberly Senna More, “A professional board-certified music therapist with a bachelor’s degree should provide supportive, activity-oriented music therapy services, whereas a professional board-certified music therapist with a master’s degree has the advanced training to provide more insight-oriented music therapy services.” She adds, “Trauma-informed training does not look like a one-time continuing education course. It should be integrated into every course in some way. It’s becoming more and more apparent as to how early trauma with or without attachment wounds impacts the psychological well-being of the populations that we serve. This ranges from geriatric to pediatric, from physical rehabilitation to hospice.” Alejandra Ferrer at Belmont stresses the importance of gaining “significant clinical knowledge about the population itself. This will help in guiding the therapist as to what goals, techniques, and interventions may be most important/effective/beneficial. It is important to have a high level of sensitivity towards (traumatized) populations.” By the same token, Maggie Connors reminds, “Your job is to support and guide clients or patients through their journey…Some music therapy settings focus on crisis stabilization where you may only see a person once or twice and other settings (may better) allow for long-term processing and learning.” Katurah Christenbury teaches at Appalachian State University and works as a music therapist at the school’s Institute for Health and Human Services. She asserts that those who want to work as music therapists to address traumatized populations need to “have a strong sense of self, and the ability to be able to empathize with another.” Christenbury adds, “We must learn more about the cultures of our clients to better understand, serve, and sympathize/empathize with them before pursuing our own therapeutic agendas.” Music therapists need to be aware that trauma manifests for different people in different ways, she says, including anger, withdrawal, sexual acting out, and addictive behaviors. “Being open and accepting of each person’s journey, religious beliefs, views of humanity –– especially if they are different from one’s own” is essential. “Being patient; trusting the process of healing; and going at the client’s pace” – these are all important when working with traumatized clients. Maggie Connors describes “compassion fatigue” as a legitimate concern for music therapists who work with people who have experienced trauma. “The idea that you can’t take care of someone unless you take care of yourself first is true,” she says. “Selflessness and empathy are characteristics that probably have contributed to your wanting to be a music therapist. It is not selfish to take a moment for yourself. It is not insensitive to not being thinking about your clients at every moment. Acknowledging when you need a break or need to talk with a co-worker or supervisor will make you a stronger and more effective music therapist.” Music Therapy in the NICU: The Columbian, Ariane Kunz Check out the Music Therapy Programs at these Sponsoring Schools on MajoringInMusic.com - Arizona State University School of Music - Berklee College of Music - Colorado State University Department of Music, Theatre and Dance - East Carolina University School of Music - Florida State University College of Music - Mary Pappert School of Music, Duquesne University - SMU Meadows School of the Arts - Temple University Boyer College of Music & Dance - Valparaiso University - West Chester University Wells School of Music

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Welcome to the Chocolate Labrador World. Here you will get detailed information about the Chocolate Lab. Now there is an increasing trend of chocolate labs in the United States. We know that there are only three registered Labrador colors, Black, Yellow and Chocolate. There are also other colors like Fox-Red, dark brown and silver. These colors are however registered under yellow and chocolate by AKC. In earlier times, only black labs were kept and other colors were culled. Because people think the only black color is pure in labradors and others are the result of cross-breeding. Later, Labrador lovers started to kept other colors too, and breeder started to produce them due to their high demand and then these other colors were registered. Black is the most famous Labrador color according to our survey and now we have seen many chocolate and yellow colors too. If you want something different, then definitely go for chocolate Labrador. QUICKLY JUMP TO IMPORTANT CONTENTS - What are Chocolate Labs? - History of Chocolate Labs - How did the Chocolate color develop in Labradors? - Why Chocolate Labs were Culled? - How did the Chocolate Labradors become famous? - Chocolate Labrador Characteristics - Different Shades of Chocolate Labrador - Are Chocolate Labs Stupid? - English Chocolate Labs Vs American Chocolate Labs - Famous Chocolate Labradors - Chocolate Labrador Puppies - Buying a Chocolate Labrador Puppy - Training of Chocolate Labrador Retrievers - Do you Own or Want a Labrador? Here you can find all the information from the origin of Chocolate labs to finding a chocolate labrador puppy. So, let’s move forward. What are Chocolate Labs? These Labrador Retrievers are in chocolate color. They are also known as “Liver color Labradors”. Their color can vary in shades, for example, dark brown labs. Chocolate labs are among the AKC registered labradors. They have all the qualities similar to other labs. As we know that Labrador Retrievers were registered in 19s by both AKC and UK kennel club. But at that time only black Labradors were registered. The trend of this color comes later and bred further to increase their number. Chocolate color may be pure or have some white markings. History of Chocolate Labs The Labrador Retrievers were first found in England in 1903 and recognized as kennel club breed. Later in 1917, these dogs were first registered by AKC under black color. Their forefathers are st. John’s Dogs which were found in Newfoundland. Later they were imported to England in 1800s. The interesting fact is that all the Labrador Retrievers have almost died in England. But the efforts of “Earl of Malmesbury” and “twelfth Duke of Home” saved Labradors from extinction. First Chocolate Labrador was born at Buccleuch’s kennel in 1892 according to “Richard Wolters” in his book “The Labrador Retriever”. The chocolate and yellow colors were noted in St. John’s Dogs (The ancestors of Today’s Labrador Retrievers). But these colors are the result of recessive genes, therefore they were few in number. Borris de Main was first yellow Labrador bitch which contain the recessive chocolate gene. Buccleuch Avon was the first dog to have liver or chocolate color puppies. He is the ancestor of America’s today chocolate Labrador population. In 1940, Kennoway’s Fudge was first chocolate Labrador registered by AKC. How did the Chocolate color develop in Labradors? Now we know that chocolate had been a color in St. John’s Dogs. Due to the recessive genes, this color appeared less in litters throughout the time. Only black color was considered pure and allowed to breed further. All other colors were culled including chocolate. Yellow and Chocolate colors later finally accepted by Amercian and British kennel clubs due to people’s interest. Chocolate color exists in labrador ancestors, so it is not a result of cross-breeding. But due to a recessive gene, they were low in numbers. The black color is dominant over all other colors. The gene responsible for black color is “B” and for chocolate color is “b”. A lab will be chocolate in color if there is “bb” combination, all other combinations like “Bb” and “BB” result in black color. Yellow female Labrador named “Borris” was the first to contain “Bb” gene combination. So her cross with a male dog of the same combination results in chocolate labrador origin. Why Chocolate Labs were Culled? All other colors except black were culled. The Labrador Retrievers ancestors were also black in color, so people think that the only black is a pure color of Labradors. Now a day, Labradors come in a variety of colors. You may have seen fox-red and even silver labs. Yellow and chocolate colors are the result of recessive genes, so they were less in number. People’s personal preference was black color. They think that black labs are best dogs with great qualities. So, breeder kept culling all other colors. Now there is an increasing trend of other colors. People want something different, chocolate and yellow labs demand increases and breeders started to breed them too. Chocolate Labs number is increasing day by day. We hope one day their number will be equal to the black labs. How did the Chocolate Labradors become famous? In 1940, Kennoway’s Fudge was the first American Chocolate Labrador registered by AKC. Their demand increased after that, most people that want Chocolate Labrador were homeowners. They wanted to show something different to their neighbors. Some people prefer to call them by their old name that is “Liver Labradors”. But that is personal preference if you own a Chocolate Labrador you can call him by any name you want. As their number increases after 1940, people’s interest also increases. They come toward chocolate and yellow Labradors. Today we can also see Fox-Red and Silver Labradors. These are registered under the shades of yellow and chocolate. Chocolate Labrador Characteristics Every dog born with its own genetics like the human beings. Just like us, we are not equal in intelligence, temperament and look, dogs are also not equal. Chocolate Labradors have different characteristics depends upon their parent’s genetics and gene mutation. They are divided into two categories, English Labradors and Amercian Labradors, both are different and kept for different purposes. Chocolate Lab pups will be different if one is from English Labrador and other is from Amercian Labrador parents. If we talk about their size, that varies a lot. Some Labradors stay smaller and some grow into heavy size. Again, that all depends on their genetics. They can reach up to 30-35 kg in weight normally and some may be below 20 kg. Their weight varies according to their diet, exercise, and genetics. Different Shades of Chocolate Labrador Just like yellow, Chocolate Labs also have different shades. They can vary from medium brown to dark brown in coat color. You may also see variations during the different period their age. Puppies may be duller in color than adults. During shedding, coat shades may also differ. Chocolate Labradors may have skin pigmentation, that is due to their genetics. Silver Labs are also the color variation of Chocolate Labradors. These all shades are registered under chocolate color by AKC. Are Chocolate Labs Stupid? Every dog with a different color is an individual. Means his genetics will be different from other individuals. If we talk about Chocolate Labrador’s cleverness and stupidity, that depends on his genetics. Chocolate Labradors are from two origins, Show lines, and Working lines. Dogs from working lines are easy to train and best for hunting purposes. Show lines dogs are for ornamental purposes and require professional trainers to train them. So, our conclusion is that “Chocolate Labradors are smart just like Other Labradors”. They all have the same characteristics and learning abilities. The only thing that differentiates them from is genetics. Most of the chocolate Labs are from show lines. if your dog is from show lines, then he will be hard to train and easily distracted than from working lines Labs. You will see many rumors on different websites and forums about their stupidity and stubbornness. You don’t need to pay attention to them. Just focus on your buying. Choose a reliable breeder, we have more details under the “buying a Chocolate Labrador puppy” section. English Chocolate Labradors VS Amercian Chocolate Labradors English Labradors are more heavy, short-legged and easy to train dogs. As indicated by their name, they are kept for show purposes. They may be lazy due to their heavy size. These dogs are best for the family. In comparison, if we talk about the Amercian Labs, they are hard to train. They need professional skills to train them. These dogs have best-hunting capabilities. Famous Chocolate Labradors We have information related to some famous Chocolate Labradors from history: - Storm’s Riptide Star was born in 1991. He was the first Chocolate Lab to win American National Field Championship title in 1996. - A Chocolate Labrador named ZUMA is present in Candian animated series “PAW Petrol”. - Chocolate Labradors were also selected by the military because they have more sensing power. - Labradors were also popular throughout the world war II. Chocolate Labrador Puppies Your Chocolate Labradors story always begins with a puppy. So, before buying a puppy, make a decision for what purpose you want it. There are two lines of Labradors, Working Line Labs and Show Line Labs. Working Line dogs are best for hunting purposes and easy to train, while Show Line dogs are hard to train and for ornamental purposes. Buying a Chocolate Labrador Puppy That is the most important part because a Labrador will be with you for his life. If he has a bad temperament, that will be difficult for you to manage. Choose a reliable breeder while buying a Chocolate Labrador. Chocolate Lab may have temperament problems or maybe not pure-bred. Select a puppy with less or no skin pigmentation. If you want a dog for hunting and working purposes, then choose a breeder which specializes at that. If you want a Lab for showing purposes, then you may have to face high competitions, so a dog with the pedigree of show ring dogs will be best for you. Training of Chocolate Labrador Retrievers Start the training of your Labrador puppy at the 6-8 weeks of his age. You should know from which lines your dog belong and train his accordingly. Dogs from show lines need a plenty of training and exercise because they are hard to train. Please move to our “Training” page for detailed guide and information. Do you Own or Want a Chocolate Labrador? If you want to buy a chocolate lab, then let us know in comments, we will help you to find a puppy. If you own a chocolate lab, then also let us know, all the information written above is true or something is missing.

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Like the Jim Crow South, NCLB has relegated social studies to non-important assessments in odd times of the year—assessments that have no bearing at all on promotion, at least below high school. It is given the least amount of time in the day, and the worst of materials compared to reading, mathematics and science. When the crunch to comply with NCLB standards begins in the spring, social studies is the first block of time sacrificed to the gods of standardized assessment. Most horrific of all, when the other subjects feel the crunch of financial pressure, it is social studies that gets lynched. A lynching is what it got on June 22, when the New York State Board of Regents, an UN-ELECTED, appointed body that oversees education in New York State, approved a cost-saving measure to cut testing in social studies for grades 5 and 8. Social studies testing was eating up assessment dollars that the “more important” subjects need. According to the Regents, this is a crime tantamount to touching a white woman in Mississippi in the 1950s. In justifying their position, Education Commissioner David Steiner stated that “the Regents today approved responsible and appropriate measures – measures that will permit the core of elements of our testing program to continue, while we increase the rigor of those remaining exams.” Let’s examine the effects of these “responsible and appropriate” measures. High school students are not off the hook when it comes to social studies. Global Studies and US History & Government are no cakewalk exams: they involve a massive basket of content knowledge coupled with complex thinking and analysis skills. How are students in 10th and 11th grade to be anywhere near prepared if there is no assessments in lower grades to enforce basic content and concepts? Furthermore, Steiner claims that the Regents are committed to “giving tests that…measure the skills and knowledge necessary for success in school, college and the workplace.” So we can survive in everyday lives with no knowledge of our own government, our own economy, our own geography or our history? Let’s be frank. In the NCLB world, if it isn’t tested, it isn’t important. Cancelling exams in 5th and 8th grade just sent a signal to elementary and middle school teachers across the state that social studies is expendable. Social studies teachers will have to shift resources and emphasis, all without the impetus of standardized testing to motivate faculty and administration. Even worse, social studies as a subject could be wiped out altogether in many schools in New York. Steiner and his gang did not adopt “responsible” nor “appropriate” measures. They sent a clear signal to this state—social studies is worthless. To paraphrase that odious Supreme Court Justice Roger Taney: social studies, according to the Board of Regents, has no rights any teacher, administrator or superintendent are bound to respect. It’s sicking, and I’ve just about had it. I’m sick and tired of crying out in the wilderness, screaming at the top of my lungs the importance of knowing our past in helping to determine our future. I’m sick and tired of stressing the interdisciplinary nature of social studies, a subject that permeates every discipline in our educational core, from reading to science to mathematics and beyond. I’m sick and tired of creating, writing, searching, sharing, delivering, and showing resources, assessments, books, printouts, and lessons that help teacher enhance a subject that matters little to student promotion. I’m sick and tired of going to conferences, lectures, workshops, seminars and book signings with my fellow social studies teachers and experts who are as frustrated as I am at our sorry predicament. In fact, I’m sick and tired of being sick and tired. It is time that we as the guardians of this great subject stand up and tell the Albany Regency that they are shortchanging our children and our democracy. I’m calling on all of my fellow teachers, of all disciplines, of all states. If this can happen here, it can happen, and probably has happened, in any other state in the Union. Below is the contact information for the New York State Board of Regents, as well as those of the Education Committees in the New York State Legislature. Let them know that the Jim Crow-attitude towards social studies must end if we are to produce well-educated, productive students that can make those great contributions to our country. We’re always saying how our kids can change the world: it’s damn near impossible to do if they don’t know anything about it. Let’s make sure social studies gets the respect it deserves…by any means necessary! NYS BOARD OF REGENTS MEMBERS: To contact the Regents as a whole, use the following: The following are the individual Regents and the areas they represent: 2011* Tisch, Merryl H.; B.A., M.A., Ed.D. Chancellor; At Large 9 East 79th Street, N.Y., N.Y. 10075 Phone: (212) 879-9414 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2012* Cofield, Milton L.; B.S., M.B.A., Ph.D. Vice Chancellor; Judicial District VII – Cayuga, Livingston, Monroe, Ontario, Seneca, Steuben, Wayne, Yates 98 Hickory Ridge Road, Rochester, N.Y. 14625 Phone (585) 200-6284 Email: email@example.com 2015* Bennett, Robert M.; B.A., M.S. Chancellor Emeritus; Judicial District VIII — Allegany, Cattaraugus, Chautauqua, Erie, Genesee, Niagara, Orleans and Wyoming 201 Millwood Lane, Tonawanda, NY 14150 Phone: (716) 645-1344 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2014* Cohen, Saul B.; B.A., M.A., Ph.D. 14 North Chatsworth Avenue, Apt. 3E, Larchmont, NY 10538 Phone: (914) 834-0615 Email: email@example.com 2015* Dawson, James C.; A.A, B.A., M.S., Ph.D. Judicial District IV — Clinton, Essex, Franklin, Fulton, Hamilton, Montgomery, St. Lawrence, Saratoga, Schenectady, Warren and Washington 166 U.S. Oval, Plattsburgh, NY 12903 Phone: (518) 324-2401 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2011* Bottar, Anthony S.; B.A., J.D. Judicial District V — Herkimer, Jefferson, Lewis, Oneida, Onondaga, and Oswego 120 Madison Street, Suite 1600, AXA Tower II, Syracuse, NY 13202 Phone: (315) 422-3466 Email: email@example.com 2013* Chapey, Geraldine, D.; B.A., M.A., Ed.D. Judicial District XI — Queens 107-10 Shore Front Parkway, Apt. 9C, Belle Harbor, NY 11694 Phone: (718) 634-8471 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2015* Phillips 3rd, Harry; B.A., M.S.F.S. Judicial District IX — Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland and Westchester 71 Hawthorne Way, Hartsdale, NY 10530 Phone: (914) 948-2228 Email: email@example.com 2012* Tallon, Jr., James R. ; B.A., M.A. Judicial District VI – Broome, Chemung, Chenango, Cortland, Delaware, Madison, Otsego, Schuyler, Tioga, Tompkins United Hospital Fund, Empire State Building, 350 Fifth Avenue, 23rd Floor, New York, N.Y. 10118-0110 Phone (212) 494-0777 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2015* Tilles, Roger; B.A., J.D. Judicial District X – Nassau, Suffolk 100 Crossways Park West, Suite 107, Woodbury, N.Y. 11797 Phone (516) 364-2533 Email: email@example.com 2015* Brooks Hopkins, Karen; B.A., M.F.A. Judicial District II – Kings 30 Lafayette Avenue, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11217 Phone (718) 636-4135 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2012* Bendit, Charles R.; B.A. Judicial District I – New York 111 Eighth Avenue, Suite 1500, New York, N.Y. 10011 Phone (212) 220-9945 Email: email@example.com 2013* Rosa, Betty A., B.A., M.S. in Ed., M.S. in Ed., M.Ed., Ed.D. Judicial District XII – Bronx Chambreleng Hall, Fordham University, 441 East Fordham Road, Bronx, N.Y. 10458 Phone (718) 817-5053 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2015* Young, Jr., Lester W., B.S., M.S., Ed.D. 55 Hanson Place, Suite 400, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11217 Phone (718) 722-2796 Email: email@example.com 2014* Cea, Christine D., B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Judicial District XIII – Richmond NYS Institute for Basic Research in Developmental Disabilities 1050 Forest Hill Road, Staten Island, NY 10314 Phone (718) 494-5306 Email: firstname.lastname@example.org 2014* Norwood, Wade S., B.A. 74 Appleton Street, Rochester, NY 14611 Phone (585) 461-3520 Email: email@example.com LINK TO EDUCATION COMMITTEE OF THE NEW YORK STATE ASSEMBLY: LINK TO EDUCATION COMMITTEE OF THE NEW YORK STATE SENATE:

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Get the official Lechuza t-shirt here: https://teespring.com/get-lechuza?tsmac=store&tsmic=mexico-unexplained&pid=340&cid=6412 What’s that huge creature in the skies of Chihuahua? In this episode we will investigate the gigantic bird sightings happening all over northern Mexico and the Rio Grande Valley of Texas for centuries. The massive bird has been called La Lechuza for its resemblance to an owl. Is this creature real, or is it part of folklore and myth or maybe something else? There are many descriptions and stories about the Lechuza and we will first describe the creature and relate the stories. Depending on which telling you hear, the massive bird can range in stature from the size of a small human to 7 feet tall and can have a wingspan of 15 feet. It is sometimes described as black in color and sometimes as white as snow. In most cases it has been said to resemble an owl. In other cases it is more like a huge raven. Some accounts say that the Lechuza’s face is that of an old woman, or of something more otherworldly with large, dark, almond-shaped eyes. In all cases the Lechuza flies and is seen at night. It has been reported only in the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Durango, Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas and on the American side of the Rio Grande in Texas. There are many different legends surrounding the sighting of this creature. What could the large variety of explanations mean? The fact that there are so many different legends may indicate that sightings have occurred over a large geographical area over the years among people who were isolated from one another. One town may have made sense of their sighting one way, while another town a thousand miles away may have made sense in another, without ever communicating with each other about it. I will explore a few of the main legends here. One of the main themes running through stories regarding the Lechuza is that the creature was once a woman who was wronged and who is seeking revenge. Some say the Lechuza is a woman by day and turns into a huge owl by night. Some say that the Lechuza snatches kids because her own child was killed by angry villagers for a crime he did not commit. In a variation of this, the child was killed by a drunk and so now the Lechuza exacts revenge by hanging around bars, waiting until closing time to attack bar patrons who stumble out into the street after hours not knowing the danger from the sky about to rain down on them. In some of the legends, La Lechuza is not a shape-shifting person at all, but a witch’s familiar, much like a black cat, and does the bidding of the witch, attacking people and destroying property on her command. Other stories say the bird is a minion of Satan himself. Not only is the Lechuza said to take humans as prey, it also preys upon the negative emotions of humans, acting as a psychic vampire, drawing power from emotions surrounding human conflict and distress. The Lechuza has been known to appear outside of houses during domestic quarrels, waiting for one of the people involved to storm out of the house to then be snatched and carried to the Lechuza’s lair. The Lechuza has a special fondness for children, especially for those who wander away from home after dark. If you feel secure in your home, the creature will make crying sounds like a baby to lure you out of your house. It’s also been known to make a whistling sound, like a human whistling. If you answer it back with a whistle of your own, the Lechuza will swoop down and carry you away. If you wake up in the morning and see large scratches on your doors or windowsills it means that the Luchuza was there and is coming for you, so you must prepare yourself accordingly. Can the Lechuza be killed? How can you protect yourself? Because the creature is magical, according to legend the Lechuza possesses supernatural powers and care must be taken to kill it or to ward it off. If you shoot at it and it doesn’t die, you die instead. If any part of the Lechuza touches you – even a feather from its wingtip – you will die. If you dream about the creature, that means someone in your family will die. In many stories, the Lechuza has been killed, but when the sun comes up the body of the bird transforms back into the body of a haggard witch. There are several things one can do to ward off an attack by the creature. Hanging a rope with 7 knots in it outside your front door or on your porch shows the creature that you acknowledge and respect it and it will leave you alone. If you see the creature flying at you, an attack can be repelled with a combination of salt and chile powder thrown into the Lechuza’s face. If salt and chile powder are not handy, you can always recite The Magnificat – in Spanish, La Magnifica – a Catholic prayer taken from the Gospel of Saint Luke where the Virgin Mary is praising the power of God. It is also called the Canticle of Mary and celebrates the Visitation, the second Joyful Mystery of the Holy Rosary. The prayer must be recited in the normal manner AND backwards. I am not sure if this would work; how much time would there be to say this payer forwards and backwards if a massive bird came out of the sky and was swooping down on you? In any event, it made the list of possible Lechuza repellants. Some stories of Lechuza encounters have happened well into the 21st Century and continue to this day. In one recent story, near the town of El Tigre, Chihuahua, a man was driving on a dirt road outside of town when the creature began swooping down on his truck. At one point, it hit the truck’s windshield and bounced on to the road in front of the vehicle. The driver gunned the engine, ran over the Lechuza, backed up over it and ran over it again to be satisfied that he killed the creature. Unfortunately, from the rear-view mirror of the truck the man saw the Lechuza rise again and instantly had a heart attack and died at the wheel. This according to the passenger in the truck. In another story, the Lechuza was hanging around a small town near Nuevo Laredo sometime in the 1950s. The townsfolk gathered together to come up with a plan to kill it. One person lured it out of the trees using his young child as bait. When the Lechuza swooped down to take the child, several men shot at the bird, but only hit it in the claw before it flew off. The next morning, members of the town went to the house of a supposed witch and she answered the door with a crutch and a bandaged leg. The story ends there and we don’t know what happened. In the United States, in the town of Santa Rosa, Texas, near the border with Mexico there was a mass sighting of La Lechuza in 1977. The bird was spotted on a tree and then flew to the front door of a woman, scratching the door as if it wanted to get in. By then the neighborhood dogs arrived, barking, and the Lechuza flew away. The dogs ran after the bird as far as they could, but gave up when the Lechuza flew too high. The next morning, all of the neighborhood dogs were dead. Several people saw the massive bird and all were mystified by the nighttime death of the dogs. Could the legends of the Lechuza exist because they are describing an actual animal? If so, is there physical evidence of the animal’s existence? Among the many reports on the internet about this creature – most of which is written in Spanish – there exists only one photo of a supposed Lechuza killed in northern Mexico. I have a copy of that photo on the podcast website Mexico Unexplained dot com. The bird appears to be a huge white barn owl with a 15-foot wingspan. Some dismiss this as a hoax or a fake, something cropped and photoshopped. This, however, is the only piece of photographic proof of the creature’s existence. No gigantic feathers, bones or massive nests have been discovered or uncovered thus far. On the American side of the border there are many native groups who have similar legends of gigantic birds collectively classified as “Thunderbirds.” These huge nocturnal birds are in the oral histories of the peoples of the Southwest and the Pacific Northwest and can be found among the Algonquin, the Ojibwe and Winnebago of the northern US and Canada. The Thunderbird has garnered serious interest from cryptozoologists – those who study fabled or yet-unknown animals – as sightings of these massive birds have also continued through to the 21st Century. The Lechuza might turn out not be the stuff of legend or a mysterious animal yet undiscovered. It could have a more otherworldly origin. Many people connected with the alien abduction phenomenon have reported the sighting of owls before and during their supposed abduction experiences. Many alleged abductees, or “experiencers,” claim that the owl is used as a “screen memory” to take the place of the aliens themselves so as to cause the human less trauma in dealing with the abduction experience. Owls are often associated with arrival of The Greys, the short, menacing, spindly, hairless creatures with big black eyes who carry off humans for experimentation and tests in UFO lore. The topic of screen memories and the alien use of owls is discussed at length in a nearly 400-page book by Mike Clelland titled The Messengers: Owls, Synchronicity and the UFO Abductee. Whitley Strieber, the author of the famous book about the alien abduction phenomenon, Communion, also links owls to the arrival of The Greys. Could the Lechuza be used to manipulate people during an alien abduction? The possibility that the Lechuza is being used by The Greys in their nefarious doings is not off the table here. So, is this massive bird a figure of the collective imagination? Is it a genuine cryptid? Is it part of something not of this earth? There has been very little serious investigation into the Lechuza and for now the creature remains mostly the stuff of legend and a way to keep children inside and safe. It’s an interesting phenomenon, but it is waiting for some serious examination. REFERENCES: Internet research only.

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Also, many books are referenced in case the reader wants to expand his/her knowledge in a particular subject. Massive in its scope, and yet totally accessible, A HISTORY OF KNOWLEDGE covers not only all the great theories and discoveries of the human race, but also. This is a classic example of the west's arrogance and ignorance. In this course I will provide the basic knowledge of history in simplest way. None that I know of. It is the ultimate âfat-freeâ writing. Upload them to earn free Course Hero access! The majority of people in the world call these changes "progress". Readers can get a brief overview of world history. In 412 short pages, the author succinctly traces the story of human progress from the earliest recorded civilizations to the world we inhabit today. I wish he would have been able to rise above the current zeitgeist, but I guess that is easier said than done. The name of Charles Van Doren showed up recently as the main character of the movie "Quiz Show". Descartes seeks to combat that by establishing a solid foundation for the sciences. The Repressive Hypothesis holds that we struggle to liberate ourselves from the imposition of silence and tight sexual morals that we have inherited from our Victorian forebears. Perhaps Mr. Van Doren would have benefited himself and his work by examining the works of such scholars as L.S. He considers the history of knowledge of the West as equivalent to 'everything mankind has ever thought'. An article or paper may be summarized in a few sentences or a couple of paragraphs. I have only read one other sweeping survey of human history before this one. The restoration of Judah and Israel under one head. Chapter# 8 â Ezra: The Law is read and explained to the people.The people held the Feast of Booths. ... prompting students who are reading a history text to think about the authorâs intent and/or to explain specific information and arguments as they readâeither silently to themselves or to others. I think that the clue is in the name. If you love history, cultures, and man's progress, and seeing the "bigger picture", you will enjoy this book! ost of the topics I shall be concerned with in this book concern kinds of knowledge: a priori knowledge, observational knowledge, and the possibility of having knowledge about objects and processes that, like the feelings of others or the micro-objects of current physics, cannot possibly be perceived. Save. Though I genuinely enjoyed the book, I feel obliged to highlight couple of glaring factual mistakes I detected. A wonderful supplement to History akin to Durant's Lessons of History. What other book begins with a discussion of ancient civilizations inventing writing and numbers and religion, and ends with a discussion of computer enslavement? The Repressive Hypothesis holds that we struggle to liberate ourselves from the imposition of silence and tight sexual morals that we have inherited from our Victorian forebears. It's important to note that Van Doren isn't a historian. A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality study guides that feature detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, quotes, and essay topics. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1 begins with an account of the Repressive Hypothesis, Foucault's term for the widespread idea that modern society continues to struggle with the legacy of 19th-century sexual repression. Overall it's an incredible read that takes you through almost every significant moment and idea we as humans can be proud of (and ashamed of), over thousands of years of civilization. eNotes plot summaries cover all the significant action of Discipline and Punish. But think again: it is a book about the history of knowledge, which means it is a book about the field of academics who would say, when asked, that they work on the history of knowledge. Immediately download the Knowledge summary, chapter-by-chapter analysis, book notes, essays, quotes, character descriptions, lesson plans, and more - everything you need for studying or teaching Knowledge. Find summaries for every chapter, including a A Short History of Nearly Everything Chapter Summary Chart to help you understand the book. The History Of Sexuality Summary. Indeed, how anyone with the intellect of Van Doren could write such a flawed and careless piece is almost incomprehensible. Character Descriptions. Excellent read. Charles Van Doren allows too much of his own personal beliefs to be evident throughout this book. There are no discussion topics on this book yet. Foucault on Power and Knowledge - Summary Foucault notions about Power/Knowledge appear throughout his writings and the summary here relies on his discussion of it in The History of Sexuality ) Power according to Foucault is a multiplicity of force relations immanent in the sphere in which they operate and which constitute their own organization. Chapter Summaries. The title may seem naive, but Charles Van Doren does a brilliant job narrating the history of our species. Zinn also acknowledges that a history of the U.S., told from the perspective of persecuted peoples, can be very pessimistic. Emanuel Wallerstein, Peter Stearns, and other world systems historians. Given the upheaval in traditional ideas and attitudes, and established religious doctrines, skepticism began to take hold in the early modern period. My boredom in later chapters is not the authors fault. The chapter begins and ends with a discussion of axes, the first advanced tool, to examine human movement. Thinking philosophically is largely a matter of providing reasons to believe or disbelieve some fundamental claim. Complete summary of Michel Foucault's Discipline and Punish. All in all this was a good book with a lot. Actually it was the Japanese who attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur. The technique reminds me of one that is sometimes suggested: "Write ten pages a day for thirty days, and voila, you have written a book! Hosea, to show Godâs judgment for spiritual whoredom, takes Gomer, and has by her Jezreel; Loruhamah; and Lo-ammi. Then he gives a futuristic look to the year 2100. Charles Van Doren allows too much of his own personal beliefs to be evident throughout this book. Have study documents to share about A Short History of Nearly Everything? Download PDF . Charles Van Doren does not explain the reason for his worldview and the book is lacking for that reason. A Short History of Nearly Everything Study Guide. It is the ultimate âfat-freeâ writing. Chapter summaries. To begin, his work is Western biased, leaving very little space devoted to the remarkable achievements of non-Western civilizations and cultures. In his spare ... Bryson explains how scientists came to understand, almost as an accident, the shape, dimensions, distance from the sun, ... Bryson next discusses how scientists determined the age of Earth. See 1 question about A History of Knowledgeâ¦, Goodreads Members Suggest: 32 âVacationâ Reads. Indeed, how anyone with the intellect of Van Doren could write such a flawed and careless piece is almost incomprehensible. If you read between the lines, this book offers "the biggest picture", that is, world peace. Godâs judgments against them. Thanks for exploring this SuperSummary Plot Summary of âThe History Of Sexualityâ by Michel Foucault. This book is not directly a history, but a commentary. Israelâs Vow Of Faithfulness. 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« PreviousContinue » which is requisite must be put into motion and action, and the surplus removed by drainage, and, if circumstances will admit, conducted to other places where it may be useful. The distribution of living water over the surface of the ground is what is termed irrigation, and in Britain it is applied and applicable only to grass lands, either for hay or for pasture, though iu warmer countries rice and some other plants which are grown for food, require to be even more copiously supplied with surface water than our irrigated grass. The removal of surplus and stagnant water is drainage; and it may be surface drainage by open furrows or channels, under-ploughing or loosening the subsoil, or drainage, properly so called, by watercourses formed below ground, and covered up so that the surface of them may be cultivated and cropped the same as the rest of the fields in which they are situated. The usual estimate is, that 10,000,000 of the 12,000,000 acres of arable land in England and Wales require drainage; and in order to carry the system of irrigation as far up the hills as possible, 10,000,000 more out of the residue, and which require draining, would be added to that amount. All this could not be done in a year, or probably in a century; but it is a result which could be aimed at, and therefore it may be kept in view. Water sufficient to irrigate about 20 acres would, on a wheel 20 feet in diameter, give one horse power: and if we divide by this, the 2,000,000 acres, irrigated by the drain water of 20,000,000 acres, it would give us a power of 100,000 horse power, upon a single fall of 2 feet. But when tanks and reservoirs are used, the last, if there are more than one, should be made to answer as mill-ponds. During heavy rain, this would retain the flood water, and the substances with which it was charged, and thus conserving both the fertilizing and the mechanical power in those places where they might be most advantageously applied. These are but approximations to accuracy; but the principles are nevertheless perfectly sound. The next point considered, is the nature of the substances by which water should be impregnated for irrigation; and also the increase of manures for cultivated land that might be obtained by preserving the sewerage and refuse of towns. A moment's reflection will convince any person that water to produce the proper effect, must hold in solution fertilizing ingredients. These consist of the fine alluvial particles brought down from the higher grounds by natural streams or artificial watercourses, and manures from any source whence they can be obtained. Now, until a good deal of thought is bestowed upon the subject of manures, as derived from animals merely, no one would readily credit how extensive and suggestive it becomes. We quote a paragraph which contains the results, of course, of careful examination :— In the case of stall-feeding, and farm-yard keep, it is estimated that each head of cattle so kept all the year round, will afford manure for an acre; and a horse which is much in the stable will not furnish a great deal less. There are no data from which to obtain the amount of cattle stall-fed, or kept in the farm-yard, or for the number and time at pasture in the fields; and the same want applies to the in-door and out-door keep of horses; but if we take them altogether, adding such composts and caustic manures as are often used, together with crushed bones, bone dust, and various kinds of refuse obtained from those who use animal substances in their manufactures, there is, exclusive of the quantity that might be obtained from towns, abundance for manuring and top-dressing the whole of the arable land once in three years, which is sufficient to keep it in perfeat good heart, under the most scourging rotation: and thus, allowing the farm-yard manure to be sufficient to keep the present arable land in good heart, the refuse of the towns would be adequate to the bringing one million of acres under the plough, and treating it as liberally as the present tillage land is treated. That all the effect of every kind of manure may be turned to the production of the best crops, we should always remember that it is necessary that the land should, in the first instance, be well prepared by drainage, for, if this is not done, the benefit of all manures will be lessened, while in some cases there will be no benefit at all. Mr. Denton having stated, on the best authorities he could find, the amount of disposible water and available power that can be obtained by a systematic conservation of the surface water, and of the amount of manure which is now lost to the country, he goes on to explain more minutely the measure he proposes for carrying a general plan for the improvement of land. We shall let him be heard at some length : As to the first point, viz., the survey of the outfalls with a view to their being rendered sufficiently capacious and clear for carrying off all the surplus waters of this country, it would be presumptuous in me to offer any observations, further than that the magnitude and importance of the object demand that an engineer, or three engineers, of the highest eminence, should be the parties by whom this matter should be performed, who should act as a central and presiding board of commissioners for the whole kingdom, to direc or superintend the working of the measure by subordinate engineers, or other competent persons appointed by the several counties as county commissioners. On the second point, viz., the organization of the main drains and reservoirs, &c., which would be carried out by the county commissioners, subject to the approval of tho central board, my observations will be few. In tropical countries, the heat is a maximum, and drainage is not wanted, because there is not generally a sufficiency of moisture for the heat to work; and the extreme contrast to this is in countries near the Poles, where the moisture far exceeds the action of heat; while the showery climate of Britain gives it more of the latter character than it would have from its temperature only, and in very many cases this is augmented by the retentiveness of the surface sail and subsoils, which keep the water upon or near the surface. The total remedy of this evil, or any very great improvement of the atmosphere, by any system of drainage, however scientific, however systematic and vigorously carried on, is a work of such gigantic magnitude, that no one would recommend it under any circumstance, and its accomplishment would require centuries. The drainage which I would in the mean time recommend, is on a more limited scale, and has a more immediate object, the repaying of its expense, and yielding a profit as speedily as possible, from the greater quantity and value of produce which could be brought to market. The effect of making main drains or receivers along the principal valleys of a district, and of widening and cleansing existing watercourses, would be to influence the subordinate and private drainage of all the lands in that district, while the more immediate object of the commissioners, in setting out and appointing such receivers, would be to secure the surface water, and so prevent stagnation on the land, a national evil, the continuance of which should not depend upon individual influences. This object would be gained without interfering with, or encroaching upon, the prejudices of agriculturists, who would not be compelled to use the main receivers unless they pleased, nor would they be dictated to as to the manner in which they would perform their own works of draining, otherwise than by obliging them to follow certain directions as to the manner in which their collateral drains should enter the main receivers, so that those receivers might not be choked up, or otherwise injured. Now this point, that of intuitively leading the whole country into a general system and order of drainage, is a desideratum of such consequence, that an effort to effect it is well merited. Mr. Handley's Bill of last session, from being an optional measure (by which the smallest fraction above one-third of the proprietors could put a veto upon the desires of the greater portion of the district proposed to be drained,) was very far from tending to improve the country in a national point of view; on the contrary, the effect of that measure, and indeed of any which does not include the whole country, would be to throw it into a confusion similar to that experienced at the present time in the metropolis, where the different districts, after preserving an independence of one another, have at last found the inconvenience of general disorganization. In the arrangement of the mains and receivers of the country, great attention should be directed to a judicious concentration of the waters, for the most advantageous securing of which works of considerable magnitude would be required. The main feature and design of the system followed, should be the subsequent application of the waters. The instances to which I am about to allude in conclusion, bear forcibly on the remaining objects of the measure I am now advocating, and for the promotion of which I am desirous of securing your parliamentary influence, viz., the conservation of surface and drainage waters, and the refuse of towns, and their applications. There are many works in the United Kingdom affording us instances of the conservation of waters derivable from mountain and hill streams, and being analogous to the subject, clearly prove the practicability of saving and collecting the surface waters. There are the Bann reservoirs in the County Down, Ireland, which receive the streams from the Mourne mountains. Previous to their construction, the lower lands in the neighbourhood were devastated by floods at one season, while at another they had not a sufficiency of water for agricultural purposes. The mill-owners, too, were deficient for months together before these works were completed, and now they have not only a constant supply, but a superabundance, all the year round. It is so, likewise, in many places in Wales, and in considerable mill-works, the proprietors of which would otherwise be at a loss for motive power. At Greenock, there is a striking instance of the economy of this means of collecting water when there is abundance, to provide for the time when the dryness of the season would cause a failure of the springs; in this case, the whole town is supplied with a sufficiency all the year round for the wants of its inhabitants. But, as I have taken upon myself to answer the question, "What is to be done for British agriculture?" I refrain from adducing further and more numerous instances of the application of water for uses such as these, which are only collaterally connected with the subject. Irrigation must take precedence of all other applications as being the most general and profitable and least expensive means of using surface The process similar to that which was adopted by the Indians is what I would recommend for the higher grounds of this country where there are Hitherto irrigation has been adopted only on the low and flat meadows, where water could be obtained from rivers or streams, but if tanks and drainage were properly introduced, sloping pastures might be irrigated to great advantage. There is no doubt that these low and humid meadows grow by far the weightiest crops; and it is not unusual to put ewes and lambs upon them in the spring, and afterwards obtain two or three crops of hay, whereas, if the same grounds had not been drained or irrigated, they would not have yielded one tolerable crop, but only have produced a coarse vegetation, introducing the rot among sheep. In the reports of the commissioners on the nature and extent of the bogs in Ireland, frequent mention is made of irrigation, and a plan was recommended by Mr. Nimmo for bringing the waters of one bog, which was situated higher than another, to the lower bog, as a power of compression as well as a means of fertilization; and other scientific men, among whom were Sir H. Davy and Mr. Longfield, strongly urged upon the commission a system of this sort. But what has been done by the Duke of Portland in Clipstone Park clearly shows, that it does not necessarily follow that a meadow to be irrigated must be formed in a valley, with just sufficient fall to let the water off into the river which is to receive it. The dyke supplying the Clipstone meadows is 49 feet above the river Mauna considerable fall for a distance of only 381 yards. Then, as to the application of the refuse of towns, the commissioners, having discretionary power, would not take advantage of the measure by ordering the conservation of the refuse, should it appear to them that it would be detrimental to the public health; in fact, their duty would be as much to prevent prejudicial effects as to propose and carry out improvements. The sewerage and the irrigation of the environs of Edinburgh is a case in point, as the prosecution of the plan has been objected to, though it proves most efficiently the value of such a course of irrigation. "Edinburgh has many advantages over most of her sister cities; the large supply of excellent spring water is one of the greatest blessings to her numerous inhabitants, both in respect to household purposes and of keeping the streets clean, as well as irrigating the extensive meadows situated below the town, by the rich stuff which it carries along in a state of semisolution, where the art of man, with the common sewer water, has made sand hillocks produce riches far superior to anything of the kind in the kingdom. "The grass is let every year by public sale in small patches of a quarter of an acre and upwards, and generally brings from £24 to £30 per acrè per annum. In 1826, part of the Earl of Moray's meadow fetched £57 per acre per annum. "One hundred and ten acres of Mr. Miller's meadows, in 1827, gave a clear profit of £2300." An instance analogous to that of Edinburgh is afforded at Crieffe. In the parliamentary reports on the health of towns, these two cases were pointed out as the most flagrant in which public health had been sacrificed to private advantage and profit, and no doubt the objections were strong and of importance; but it does not appear that efforts have been made to qualify the evil by chemical means, by planting round the meadows, or in fact by any of those means which a board of commissioners, composed of scientific men, would propose. We know the power of lime; but perhaps the most easy way of meeting the objection would be to direct that the refuse should be carried to a sufficient distance from the town by covered drains, into reservoirs, which might also be covered or arched over with shafts or chimneys, to expedite fermentation. This is only one of many plans which would be suggested, the moment a public body were instituted to determine the best manner of executing this truly national measure. We do not hear so much objection to the pits of Montfauçon, near Paris, where a regular commerce is maintained for the sale of manure and the manufacture of ammonia, as was raised during the inquiry into the health of towns, to the irrigation of Edinburgh. I have one other point I would wish to state, in which the Commission would be preeminently useful, and that is, in the straightening of watercourses and rivers, and effecting of exchanges between properties, the division of which is now a tortuous boundary of the character alluded to. How many cases may be found which are incurable because the property is entailed, or under trustees, or because the land on one side belongs to a corporate body? In these cases the Commission should have summary power of executing such exchanges. Many other advantages of vast importance might be stated as the certain result of systematic drainage, and would certainly be elicited by a parliamentary committee of inquiry into the subject. For the present, it may suffice, in conclusion, to glance at a few particulars ;-in the first place, independently of other crops, the increase in the produce of wheat VOL. II. (1842.) NO. I.

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“Do. Not. Fuck. With. Our. Whiskey.” ~18th Century Americans/19th Century Americans/20th Century Americans/You Get The Gist America was founded under a few core principles. Now, it’s been a while since we’ve skimmed through the Declaration of Independence, and if you put a gun to our head we’d still not be able to tell you what the Third Amendment of the Constitution does, but we’re pretty sure America is all about life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness through the imbibement of alcohol. Nope, that’s right, we nailed it on the first try, don’t even try to ask Google if that’s right they’ll just steal your cookies and put them on boat servers and sell them to Nigerian Princes (besides being keen historians, we’re also internet experts). We bring this up because we’d like to tell you about a very important history tale, from America’s distant past. Imagine, if you will, a time when America’s very existence could be threatened by even the smallest of threats. Picture a government trying to tax our booze to pay for war debts. And imagine people rising up and saying, “Get your hands off our fucking booze” with enough anger and violence that it marks the only time that an acting President led troops to battle. Yes, that’s right, we’re here to talk about the Whiskey Rebellion, the relatively minor yet strangely important hiccup in American history that, naturally, was centered around our nation’s love of alcohol. Get Your Hands Off My Bottle: A Short History of the Whiskey Rebellion For a rebellion that lasted for about three years and required a militia force of 12,950 men (or, similar to the size of Washington’s armies during the American Revolution), not a lot happened during the Whiskey Rebellion, but it still proved to be an important chapter in our nation’s formative years. It’s probably our second favorite revolution because it has the word “whiskey” in it, but also because like, only sixteen people died in the whole thing and it didn’t result in large swaths of the population using their rebellion’s flag and insisting it’s some sort of “Western Pennsylvania pride” thing. Looking at you, Mississippi. Events were first set into motion in 1791 when Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, who you know best as that guy who is on the $10 bill but who was never president because he got shot by Aaron Burr, decided that the best way for America to pay the national debt left from the Revolutionary War was to consolidate national and state debt into one single, federally funded debt, which would be largely funded by placing an excise tax on American distilled spirits. Basically, it meant that everyone making booze had to pay the government a little bit of what they sold, which is pretty much how everything works now, but at the time taxation was a pretty hot button topic (see also—that whole war we fought over taxation without representation). This didn’t sit well with a lot of distillers in Western Pennsylvania and Appalachia, many of whom were Revolutionary War veterans who had just, you know, finished fighting a war that largely started over the idea of unjust taxation. This largely pissed off people in Western Pennsylvania, many of whom used their excess grains produce small to moderate amounts of whiskey to sell. The way the Distilled Spirits Tax of 1791, referred to as the whiskey tax since this is America and if we’re making booze we’re going to be making whiskey first and foremost goddamn it, worked was to give distillers the option of paying a set price per gallon sold (about nine cents a gallon), or larger distilleries could afford to pay a flat rate that typically would lower the cost to about six cents a gallon when it was all said and done. Western Pennsylvania felt this favored the East, which had more large distillers, and generally fought back on the opinion that it was an unfair taxation. For reference sake, this is how much 9 cents in 1791 would be worth now, which means that the tax was equivalent to $2.50 a gallon…shit, about the same as the liquor taxes in most major cities right now! ANARCHY! ANARCHY! Initially, the residents of the western frontier that felt most strongly against this excise unsuccessfully petitioned against its passage, at which point they sent a convention of delegates to Pittsburgh to advocate for the repeal of the law. This group felt that “violence wasn’t necessary” and took a “moderate stance” that for some reason makes us want to “use excessive word quotes” and were actually able to help modify the Whiskey law, lowering the tax by one cent per gallon. Now, since this is America, and Americans are known to be rational, especially when matters of alcohol are involved, those who opposed the tax were completely placated by this concession. Ha ha, no, just kidding, they got violent as shit, tarred and feathered Robert Johnson, a newly appointed tax collector, and then whipped, tarred, and feathered the man sent to serve court warrants to arrest Johnson’s attackers, because wow, that escalated really quickly. Ha ha, that doesn’t look so bad! Oh what’s that? It actually fuses the feathers to your skin, causing mutilation and horrible pain? Um, never mind then! Understandably, the tax went uncollected for the next two years, because once you establish that your response to, “Hey, can you pay us that money you owe us?” is to be stripped topless and doused with boiling hot tar and dirty feathers, you’ll find that a lot of people are going to stop asking you, “Hey, can you pay us that money you owe us?” At this point, Alexander Hamilton poetically expressed his consternation with the situation, saying, “…those mother fuckers.” Probably. Maybe. Probably not. Either way, he wanted the government to send some armies to help Western Pennsylvania and the rest of Appalachia get their mess right, which at the time was viewed as a bit too radical of a step. A second delegation was then sent to Pittsburgh to address the tax in 1792, only this time the moderates where nowhere to be found, and instead the Mingo Creek Association took control of things, and by “took control of things” we mean “oh shit, they’re like, taking control of the local militias and created their own court to deter people trying to collect on debts or foreclosures.” Since Hamilton wasn’t allowed to send soldiers at Western Pennsylvania to get them to shut the hell up about their whiskey tax (we can’t overstate this enough, he had a huge hard on for sending some troops to crush this thing at the core) he had to settle to writing a harshly worded proclamation for Washington to send out which, again, we have to assume said, “Dude, just, get off our dicks already.” This is where General John Neville came into play, who arguably got to do the most shooting and killing in the whole affair. John Neville was, at the time, a 61 year old federal tax inspector who gave just enough of a shit to actively try to collect whiskey taxes. A veteran of the French and Indian War, Dunmore’s War, and the American Revolution, he received a brevet promotion to brigadier general at the end of war when he decided to become an inspector of revenue, since his soldiering days were clearly behind them, and it wasn’t like he was going to ever have to shoot anyone dead over something as silly as a 9 cent tax. He rented a room in Pittsburgh to serve as his tax office in August of 1792, until the good folks at the Mingo Creek Association threatened the landlord to make him kick Neville the fuck out. This wasn’t particularly uncommon—while members of the Whiskey Rebellion had long been focusing their ire towards tax collectors, that soon spread to anyone who was viewed as not being “on their side.” Matters only began to worsen throughout 1793. While Hamilton tried to paint the whiskey tax as a “sin tax” which, as a website that extols the virtue of whiskey, we personally take offense to, it was largely viewed as an “us versus them” fight between the more financially secure Eastern segment of Pennsylvania, and the poorer Western Pennsylvanians. Soon, the distillers were joined by lower income residents who simply wanted to rebel against the status quo. Effigies of Neville were being burned (please refer back to this sentence when we talk about Neville straight up killing dudes), and articles by “Tom the Tinker” appeared in newspapers, threatening to burn the barns or destroy the stills of anyone who complied with the whiskey tax. This was the first result we got from our Google image search of “Tom the Tinker.” It’s from a gallery of unicorn drawings so we’re going to go out on a limb here and say that this is a different guy. By 1794, the resistance, which at this point was not quite a full on rebellion, began to heat up when subpoenas for about 60 Pennsylvania distillers who had not paid the excise tax were served. The subpoenas, issued by district attorney William Rawle, called for the accused to appear in federal court in Philadelphia. Now, if you’ve ever driven through Pennsylvania, you’d know that the state actual never ends, and goes on indefinitely until you crash into a mountain side in a fit of blind rage, but back then, without the modern luxury of “cars” or “a maintained road system” it was considered a slap in the face to demand that these small-time distillers travel all the way across the state (which again, does not exist in a single dimension, and can only be successfully traversed by accidentally finding a wormhole). A trip all the way to Philadelphia was something many of these distillers could hardly afford, and likely require a round trip that would take roughly a full month. Many of those served rightfully responded with a hearty, “Fuck that noise.” Later that month, Congress changed the law in question, thus allowing trial to be held in local state courts, but the damage had been done, and a U.S. Marshal had already been dispatched to serve the summons demanding that the distillers go to Philadelphia. While David Lenox, the Marshal sent with this unenviable task, managed to hand most of the writs without incident, when he made his rounds on July 15th with General Neville, the residents of Miller Farm, ten miles south of Pittsburgh, fired warning shots at the two. While Lenox retreated to Pittsburgh, Neville went to his fortified home at Bower Hill, because if you were having people take pot shots at you and burn imagines of yourself in effigy, you’d fortify your fucking estate too. The next day, Neville found himself surrounded by roughly 30 militiamen from Mingo Creek, who demanded that Lenox surrender. Now, Neville probably thought to himself, “Shit, I’m surrounded, and they want me to turn over a man who has long since hightailed it the fuck out of here. If I tell them that he’s not here, there’s no way they’ll believe me.” He also probably thought, “These fuckers have been giving me shit for two years, now it’s time to get mine.” So doing his best impression of the not-yet-filmed Gran Torino, he responded to this request by shooting at the surrounding mob, killing Mingo Creek member named Oliver Miller. After the rebels returned fire, probably saying, “Holy shit, that 62-year-old dude just fucking shot at us” they left and returned with reinforcements, eventually surrounding the house with over 600 men, because “overkill” is not in your vocabulary when you’re busting heads with someone doing their best future-Clint-Eastwood impression. We couldn’t find any paintings or pictures of General Neville, but this seems pretty accurate. Now, 600 men surrounding a house with one person in there seems like pretty tall odds, so we’ll set the record straight. Neville did eventually get some reinforcements, in the form of 10 Army soldiers under the command of the brother-in-law of Neville’s wife, Major Abraham Kirkpatrick. After a failed negotiation, which probably consisted largely of, “Hey, just surrender okay, stop shooting at us” followed by, “Hey, go fuck yourself, I’m John Neville, pew pew pew” they agreed to let the women and children leave the house before shooting the ever-loving shit out of each other. Major James McFarlane, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, had stepped in at this time to command the Whiskey Rebellion militia, which at this point you might as well call a fucking army, and after an hour of shooting, he called for a cease fire. Assuming that the killing was done (it was not—see previously, effigy, Gran Torino) he stepped into the open, and was shot dead by a shot ringing from the house. No one knows who took the shot, but we’re just saying that Neville’s the only one so far who’s established himself as a marksman in this scenario. Either way, having your leader shot to death while calling a cease fire would piss off just about anyone. They set fire to the house, and Neville and his reinforcements surrendered. The Battle of Bower Hill (named after Neville’s estate which was, gasp, called Bower Hill) was the one actual battle of the Whiskey Rebellion, but it also was what lit the fuse to the whole thing. At the end of the day, about four militiamen had died, with one U.S. soldier possibly having succumbed to wounds received in the battle, but the protests against McFarlane’s slaying pushed the Whiskey Rebellion forward at a breakneck pace. Weirdly enough, the rebels kept Kirkpatrick, Lenox, and Neville’s son prisoner for a short time after the battle, but not Neville himself, probably because they were fucking terrified of the man. By August 1st, the largest gathering of protesters during the crisis was assembled in Braddock’s Field, about eight miles east of Pittsburgh, with some wanting to march on Pittsburgh, steal all the valuables they could find, and burn the city to the ground, a phenomenon now referred to as “A Bad Steelers Loss.” Others still wanted to break off from America, possibly joining with Spain or England. Again, this is all because of people not wanting to pay the equivalent of an extra $2.50 for a gallon of whiskey which, while we can’t say we condone it, we at least begrudgingly respect it. Now Washington had to figure out how to deal with what was, essentially, an armed insurrection happening under his watch. Hamilton was probably standing behind him going, “Army army army shoot ‘em up shoot em up!” while Washington weighed his options. He had to show that the new United States government was strong, without looking like he was bullying disenfranchised veterans who were only protesting what they felt to be an unjust law. He decided he’d send commissioners to meet with the rebels, who by now had begun meeting at Whiskey Point to discuss what further steps their revolt should take, in an attempt to brochure a peace. At the same time, he raised a motherfucking army because you do not mess with papa America unless you want to get slapped. Keep in mind, this was the person they were fucking with. Washington likely never expected the army of nearly 13,000 men to be used in actual battle settings, but he wanted to procure a force big enough to make any potential rebellion shit their pants and apologize profusely. A draft had to be implemented to fill the ranks, which met resistance in Virginia and Maryland that resulted in the deaths of two civilians (on September 29th, 1794, an officer accidentally fired his pistol and killed an unarmed boy, and on October 1st of that year a soldier stabbed a man to death while he resisted arrest which, like, we just didn’t want to bring up ‘cause it’s kind of a mood killer). Eventually, the army was raised, and Washington traveled with them to review the progress of the expedition. It remains the only time a standing President has led an Army on the field, and it feels oddly fitting and badass that the one time it happened was for something called “The Whiskey Rebellion.” As soon as the army marched into Western Pennsylvania in October, 1794, the whole rebellion collapses on itself. The aftermath was relatively painless—only ten men stood trial for treason, with two convictions passed down. They were sentenced to death by hanging, only to be pardoned by Washington who figured, eh fuck it, let’s let bygone be bygones. He probably felt a little bad for letting Hamilton bully them into having to pay a tax on whiskey, which is one of the best things out there, so letting them live seemed like a fair trade. Overall, Washington handled one of his first internal crises with aplomb—his handling of the situation met widespread approval of the rest of the nation, and it proved that the young nation could be just, while also not tolerating any violent resistance to our laws. We upheld peace and order, and managed to avoid looking weak to other nations. Not that we’d ever look weak. We’re America, goddamn it. Pictured above- America So whenever you next pour yourself a big old glass of whiskey (it’s now isn’t it? You’re drinking a glass of whiskey now? Jesus, at work?) take a moment to thank America for the passion that goes into it, the passion it instills, and the fact that if we can survive a resurrection over whiskey prices, we can survive anything.

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Most versions of The Sailor's Alphabet (Roud 159) follow a pretty standard format, namely that each line of the four-line stanza begins with a letter of the alphabet, and that the letters are all in alphabetical order, starting with the letter A and ending with the letter Z. The late Johnny Doughty, a fisherman from Rye, had this version of the song: The Sailor's Alphabet (1)| A's for the anchor that swings at our bow| B for the bowsprits through the wild seas do plough C for the capstan we merrily around D are the davits we lower our boats down. Chorus: Sing high, sing low, wherever you go Give a sailor his tot and there's nothing goes wrong. Now E for the ensign that flies at our peak F is the fo'c'sle where the good sailors sleep G for the galley where the cooks hop around H are the halyards we haul up and down. Now I is the iron the ship is made of J for the jib which moves her along K is the keel at the bottom of the ship L is the lanyards that never do slip. Now M is the mainmast so neat and so strong| N for the needles which never go wrong O for the oars we row our boats out P for the pumps that we keep her afloat. Q for the quarter-deck where officers do stand R is the rudder that steers us to land S for the sailors which move her along T for the topsails we pull up and down. U for the union which flies from our peak V for the vitals which the sailors do eat W for wheel where we all take our turn X,Y,Z is the name on our stern.1 Alphabet songs similar to this one exist among many communities. Soldiers, bargemen, lumberjacks, and sheepherders, among others, have their own versions of this mnemonic device which may originally have been influenced by such nursery rhymes as: A was an apple-pie / B bit it / C cut it / D dealt it / E eat it etc. which was well-known during the reign of Charles II (1660 - 1685). One interesting version, known as Tom Thumb's Alphabet dates from at least the beginning of the 18th century and could have well provided the basic idea behind Johnny's song: A was an archer, who shot at a frog,In 2001 I was living in north Northumberland and, having given a talk on folk music to an audience in Berwick-upon-Tweed, I was told of an elderly man in neighbouring Wooler who knew some 'old songs'. A couple of days later I found myself knocking on Bart Stanton's door and, much to my delight, I found that he did indeed known some songs, including two versions of The Sailor's Alphabet. The first version, which he had learnt as a boy from his father, was similar to that sung by Johnny Doughty and many other singers. Sadly, though, he could only remember two or three verses and not the complete song. But his second version was something altogether different. B was a butcher, and had a great dog, C was a captain, all covered with lace, D was a drunkard, and had a red face, (etc.) Unlike other versions of the song, this one had a separate stanza for each letter of the alphabet. In other words, the song contained twenty-six stanzas and was certainly the longest version of the song that I had ever come across. In fact, I could think of no other version that was in this format. Bart had the song from George Livingston Shell (1911 - 1994), a fisherman (and, to all accounts, a “character”) who lived on Holy Island, just off the Northumberland coast. According to Bart, Mr Shell would stamp his foot hard on the ground before singing each verse. The tune was more or less identical to that used by Johnny Doughty for his version of the song. The Sailor's Alphabet (2)| A stands for anchor, it's the fisherman's hope.| It's a very good thing with a chain or a rope, To ride out the storm and keep time with the tide, In his beautiful craft, which he watches with pride. B stands for binnacle, which is close to hand, When steering his craft far, far from the land. To the grounds which he knows are oft covered with fish, That get him a living and make some people rich. C stands for the capstan, the crew at it work, And woe to the lad who his duty do shirk. For the captain is blunt and he thinks it no sin, To give him the sack without any tin (money). D stands for darkness, through which he must go On cold winter nights, in rain, frost or snow, When dangers are rife and fill landsmen with dread, Even when they are snug in a warm cosy bed. E stands for eke out the bread, beef and tea, 'Waste not' is the motto when sailing at sea. For when you are hundreds of miles from the shore It is hard to replenish an impoverished store. F stands for fish, a most cheery sight. Let them be caught in the day or the night, And those who do catch them with net or with line, God bless their toil, and send them plenty of prime. G stands for gaff which is attached to the sail, To hold it smart in calm or in gale. So up with the peak and hold her a-luff, To steer a smack well, you must not be a muff. H stands for hatchway which leads to the hold, Where they carry tackle, water and coal. And ballast to make her stand up to the breeze, Top carry her over gigantic seas. I stand for ice, a most useful thing, It enables fishermen his catches to bring For many a league from his own native home Where fickle fortune compels him to roam. J stands for Jack, oft a fisherman's name, But they christened him John, though that was too tame. He spends his good money quite free on the shore, Then to sea he will go for to earn him some more. K stands for keel, of timber so strong, Which stretches from stem to sternpost along, And never, no never, your smack to keep sound, She never should touch on any hard ground. L stands for lamps both red and green glass, To prevent sad collisions when vessels do pass. So keep them well trimmed to make them burn bright, Then you shipmates below will sleep more safe at night. M stands for moon; it's the fisherman's joy. He is as pleased with its rays as a child with a toy. For it lightens his path and makes the fish sport And gladdens his heart as to market they are brought. N stands for north, the compass card round| If you raise it up beneath will be found - A small bar of steel and a lodestone as well, Always points to the pole and acts like a spell. O stands for oyster, a most expensive treat, And if you buy natives you will vouch they are sweet. They are a dish for the king and will nourish the brain, So once you have tasted them you will try them again. P stands for port when sailing at sea, Whether close hauled or with the wind free. It's the rule of the road and an excellent plan, To use the port helm whenever you can. Q stands for quick sands, a most dangerous place, That gets lots of skippers in a shocking disgrace. Do look out for the lightship and cast over the lead, This hint then may save you from sorrow and dread. R stands for rigging, which holds up the mast When carrying sails before the rude blast. So give her the sheet, it's a lowering sky And to see bonny Kate tonight we will try. S stands for stars, those heavenly flames, Though only a few fishermen boast of astronomer's fame. But they can point to Orion and Saturn and Day, Yonder is the Pole Star, cross the Milky Way. T stands for tacking, get ready about. “Hard down with the helm”, the skipper will shout. “Ease off the jib sheet, your bowline stand by. There goes the Bold Admiral to catch him we'll try.” U stands for Union Jack, if you please. A flag that we love to see float on the breeze. It's a fisherman's hope, where e'er he may roam, It reminds him of kindred and loved ones at home. V stands for vane, so trim and so smart, 'Tis a guide to the eye and a pride to the heart. To hoist up gay colours of every hue, With a smart, active, willing, wide awake crew. W stands for windlass, the crew as they shy To heave in the cable, the bobstay and guy. Ship your handspikes together, sing a merry song, With hands that are light and arms that are strong. X is a letter hard to bring in, That every seaman should learn to swim. Then if by misfortune you fall in the sea, What an excellent thing this letter might be! Y stands for yarn that an old tar can spin To his shipmates below before they turn in, Of adventures at sea, or freaks on the shore That would cause you to wonder or laugh till you roar. Z stands for zero in winter so cold, This letter reminds you my tale is now told. So clear up fishermen friends on the main, God guide us to sea, bring us safe home again. So where did this incredible version come from? Was it composed on Holy Island itself, possibly by George Livingston Shell, or by some other local fisherman? We do know that there were other singers on the island, such as “Old Shadle”, who “was the happiest man alive, 'cos he was singing while he (worked)”. Whoever wrote the song certainly knew about the sea and nautical terminology, and had the ear of a poet. I especially like the way that the letter “X” is brought into play. But, the song's origins remain a mystery. When I asked Bart Stanton about the song, he said that he had been so busy learning the words that he had never thought to ask Mr Shell about where he had picked it up! Whatever its origin, at least we still have the song. But do we have any singers today who are prepared to tackle such a lengthy piece? Time alone will tell. Mike Yates - 9.2.10 1. Johnny Doughty The Sailor's Alphabet. Musical Traditions CD Up in the North and down in the South (MTCD 311-2) |Top||Home Page||MT Records||Articles||Reviews||News||Editorial||Map|

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Wild guinea pigs anyone? When we first picked up our little guinea mates Milo & Oreo, one of the first things I thought was “I wonder what these little guys eat in the wild”. And so began my gradual (and somewhat maddening) descent into the realm of the wild guinea pig! Turns out, there’s a fair amount of research – if you know where to look. For the last few weeks, I’ve been dusting off old research papers and contacting expert guinea pig professors from all over the world. I wanted to write this article because I felt that understanding guinea pigs in the wild would help us all understand our domesticated friends a little bit more – and that can only be a good thing! Please note all these facts refer to Cavia Apera (Brazilan Guinea Pigs), the widely accepted ancestor of the domestic guinea pig. So, without further ado, let’s begin with our list of surprising facts. 1. Their homes are huge, between 0.63 – 1.1 km I guess a kilometer is a lot bigger than your guinea pig cage, right? In the wild, cavies cover a lot of distance every day and tend to establish themselves within home ranges once they’ve found a good one. These ‘homes’ were measured to be 880 ± 217 m2. Pretty impressive for a small rodent. Within these ranges, they live in small family groups and keep well away from their neighbours. And while cavies don’t defend strict territorial boundaries, if an intruding male comes too near… he’ll be chased off! 2. They spend most of their time hiding Well… except when they’re sunbathing. Wild guinea pigs seem to spend most of their time in hiding and only come out from the protective cover of dense, tall vegetation to forage in more open grassland (and occasional sunning). Foraging occurs mainly in the morning and evening (sound familiar, guinea parents?). This reflects the ‘crepuscular’ activity pattern of wild guinea pigs, with main activity phases being from 0700 – 1100 and 1730 to 2000. 3. They have mortality rates upto 50% It’s not easy being a wild guinea pig. As (soft, furry) prey animals, they are hunted by a wide variety of predators. Raptors, caracara, grisons, opossums and domestic cats all hunt guinea pigs in the wild – with grisons and cats being the most successful. Even Boa constrictor have been observed swallowing wild cavy. In fact, life is so hard, one study that observed a group of 60 wild cavies for 6 months found that only half (50%) of the animals they tagged survived the study period. 4. They can run as fast as 6 meters per second Last time I tried to pick Milo up – I blinked – and he was gone. To the other side of the room! Domestic guinea pigs are fast… but wild guinea pigs are even faster. One study found maximal escape speeds of adults averaged 4.12 m/sec, with peak velocity of 6.0 m/sec. Interestingly, newborn young were able to run at speeds up to 2.55 m/sec and reached adult levels when only 20 days old. This works out to be around 16 times body length per second, with very young animals reaching even higher relative speeds – up to 20 times their body length per second. To put this into perspective, this is the same ‘body length per second‘ ratio as a cheetah! In other words, if you made a wild guinea pig the same size as Usain Bolt – it would run at a startling 99 mph, 4x faster than the Olympian himself! Although bare in mind they are only able to sustain these super fast speeds for short periods of time (which makes perfect sense when you’re running from the claws of hawk into a bush). Such remarkable rodent running skills are otherwise only observed in hares. 5. They can jump as high as 60cm Everybody knows it’s hard work being a scientist. Well… sometimes. For a period 5 months in 1997, a team of researchers were employed to the task of randomly jumping out to surprise wild guinea pigs – and measuring how high they jumped (yes really). OK, there was a little bit more to it than that. The guinea pigs were first trapped inside a cardboard box with the top cut off – with an open bottom on exposed natural soil. They were then left to their own devices for a number of hours, to see when they would decide to jump out. The scientists repeated this experiment multiple times, with increasingly higher cardboard box sides. Heights tested were 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70 cm. Only once this voluntary jumping test was completed, did the team take turns to jump out (I heard a rumor they were wearing masks disguised as grissons) and surprising the cavies – Boo! This confirmed that, yes, wild guinea pigs in fact jump significantly higher when scared. On average cavies jumped 60 cm in a free jump from a standing start – which was 1.5x more than the voluntary jump. Note: No wild guinea pigs were harmed in the production of this study. 6. They go where the grass grows greenest Guinea pigs love grass, everyone knows that. But wild cavies really need it – they are largely graminivorous (grass eating) In fact, if there’s none around, they’ll vacate the area and find a new home that does have plenty of the green stuff. One study found that as soon as the delicious open grasses they were feeding on grew to over 40cm (enough to cover the cavies and protect them from predators) the wild guinea pigs ‘moved in’ to this area, completely abandoning the thorny shrubs they were living in before. Until, of course, the grass was cut short again – at which point they moved back! (See: Can Guinea Pigs Eat Grass?) 7. They use cryptic defense techniques No, this doesn’t mean your guinea pig is a secret code breaking expert. In zoology terms, ‘cryptic’ means ‘serving to camouflage an animal in its natural environment’. Wild guinea pigs achieve this by freezing in their tracks as soon as they hear a predator approaching. They employ this strategy when hiding in dense vegetation, which effectively means they become invisible – due to the density of the shrubs around them. Guinea parents will recognize this trait in their pets, which lives on in domestic guinea pigs. 8. Many wild guinea pigs are monogamous Wild cavies live in stable social groups consisting of 1 adult male, between 1–3 adult females and their unweaned offspring. Although male cavies can build these small ‘harems’ of upto 3 females, this occurs in only 33% of observed groups. The other two thirds are good old fashioned male-female pairs! Sadly, in C. Aperea this doesn’t appear to be true monogamy, but rather a mating system known technically as ‘female-defense polygyny’. In other words, these wild guinea pigs are faithful not through choice – but from lack of it. That said, a new species of wild guinea pig discovered in 2002, C. Galea was found to be truly monogamous! Who said romance was dead? 9. Their houses have toilets Wild cavies don’t dig into the ground, but instead burrow complex mazes of surface tunnels within the dense vegetation. These tunnels are 3 to 5 in wide and have latrine areas beside the trackways – where piles of bean-shaped droppings can be seen, as can piles of cut grass stems. If you ever needed proof that your guinea pig likes it when you clean out his cage – here it is. 10. They make 10 distinct noises Just like their domestic cousins, wild guinea pigs use sound to communicate socially and to avoid predators. One study investigated these acoustics in depth and found ten distinct call types: teeth-chattering, structurally variable contact calls, whines and squeals, a scream, an alarm whistle, an almost exclusive pup-isolation whistle and tweet calls. The similarity of this repertoire to that of our domesticated friends shows just how similar these two closely related species still are – and that the richness of this communication system is not a product of domestication. More likely, it is thought to be associated with a relatively complex social life and other ecological factors. Well, I hope that was interesting! Guinea pigs – be they wild or domesticated – are intelligent creatures and much still remains a mystery about the intricacies of their social systems and tunnel networks. Since they remain hidden in foliage so much, these aspects have to date been extremely difficult to study. Let us hope that future research will uncover more about these things… so that we may learn new ways to enrich the lives of our little friends and become better guinea parents! - Effects of domestication on bio-behavioural profiles: a comparison of domestic guinea pigs and wild cavies from early to late adolescence - The Rich Acoustic Repertoire of a Precocious Rodent, the Wild Cavy Cavia aperea - Ontogeny of running performance in the wild guinea pig (Cavia aperea) - Social System and Spatial Organization of Wild Guinea Pigs ( Cavia aperea ) in a Natural Population - Role of diet selection in the use of habitat by pampas cavies Cavia aperea pamparum (Mammalia, Rodentia) - Diversity of social and mating systems in cavies: a review - Monogamy in a new species of wild guinea pigs (Galea sp.) Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 3: Ecuador, Bolivia, Brazil By John F. Eisenberg, Kent H. Redford, Fiona Reid, 1989 Zoo Jihlava image: (C) Milan Korinek, Feature Image by Bernard Dupont (creative commons); Costanera image by Donald Hoburn (creative commons); Munich image by Diego Delso, delso.photo, License CC-BY-SA - Guinea Pig Weight Guide: How To Weigh Your Little Mate - January 29, 2021 - How To Make A Wooden Guinea Pig Hidey House (DIY) - January 24, 2021 - Guinea Pig Pellets 101: Exposing The Truth Behind The Ingredients - January 20, 2021

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In today’s world, everything is done online. Having an online presence allows you to reach others in ways that were previously impossible, making the benefits of having one obvious. However, starting a website can be a confusing and daunting task. The basics of web hosting include understanding what web hosting and domains are; learning how data storage, bandwidth, and uptime impact your website, and what type of hosting is appropriate for your business. Whether you build your own site or hire someone else to build it, a web host is needed in order to publish a website online. We have provided a myriad of facts about web hosting that can help you in your decision-making process. Why Websites Need Hosting Web hosting is a “physical” space granted to you to store your website and the connection needed for others to access and use your website. This space is located on a server (sometimes multiple servers) which provides the storage as well as the access to your site through the internet. Servers are frequently actual, physical machines, but they can be created virtually. Web hosting is purchased from a web host (sometimes called a web hosting provider). You can effectively think of a web host as your website landlord where you lease out space for you site on a monthly or yearly basis. Your website contains text, files, images, videos, and more, and a web host can contain and manage all of that information. There are several options that most web hosting companies provide, and each has their own set of pros and cons that should be heavily considered before you choose one for your website. Domains And IP Addresses: Why They Both Matter A domain is simply the name for your website. You can provide this name in various ways to people, and they’ll be able to visit your website. While the domain anatomy can be taken further, you can think of a domain as a name for a business. Domains provide an easy-to-remember way for people to find your website online If domains are what you call a business, IP addresses are where that business is located, like a physical mailing address. Each server generally has a single IP address, but there are ways to set up more addresses. Sites can come and go, and domain names can change, but an IP address usually doesn’t change. Without IP addresses, online traffic cannot be given “directions” to your site. While IP addresses are tied to servers, domains will require you to add your name to a domain registrar. Domain registrars are universal ledgers that track what names are already taken. While there are stand-alone registrars, most web hosts also allow you to register a name with them – in fact, many will give you a free domain name for an entire year! Dissecting A Web Hosting Plan: Storage, Bandwidth, And Uptime Each apartment that you lease has different amenities, living spaces, dimensions, and so on – web hosting is no different. The more you spend on web hosting, the more you get out of it generally. Here are the basic metrics you should pay attention to when considering hosting plans. Data Storage (AKA Disc Space) Data storage, or disc space, is fairly straightforward: it’s the amount of room you have to store files, images, videos, pages, etc. The space you’re given is usually in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB). Many hosting plans include unmetered or unlimited data storage. In this case, the limitations of space are shifted from your website or account and are placed on the universal resources of the server your website is on. Also worth noting is that data storage can be located on a hard-disc drive (HHD) or a solid-state drive (SSD). An oversimplification of the two drive types is that SSD is better than HHD because it allows faster access to your site’s data. Bandwidth (AKA Data Transfer) Bandwidth, or data transfer, is the amount of data that can pass from your website to your visitors in a given month (sometimes daily). Remember the “old times” when you had to constantly worry about using too much data on a cell phone plan? This is almost the same issue: more people visiting your site means more data passing between the two. Bandwidth overages can result in additional fees or suspension of your site. Many hosts offer plans that include unmetered or unlimited bandwidth. Like storage, the limitations of bandwidth are passed from your website to the universal resources of the server housing your website. One last note: bandwidth is less frequently used to indicate the amount of data that can be transferred per a second instead of a monthly sum. This is usually only mentioned on higher tier hosting, like dedicated hosting (more on that in a bit). Like storage space, uptime is an easy metric to understand: it’s the amount of time your website is accessible to the rest of the world. Technology isn’t perfect, and even the best and most secure servers will experience a bit of down-time. Most web hosts will provide a 99.9% uptime guarantee which translates to your site being down for only 43 minutes per month. Domains/Websites And Email Addresses We already covered what a domain is (and you likely know what an email address is), but hosting plans frequently have a limit on how many websites and email addresses you can put on an account. Smaller plans may be limited to just a handful of sites and emails or less. Plans with unlimited storage and bandwidth usually allow for unlimited websites and email addresses to be added to an account – the same goes for higher tier plans like dedicated and VPS hosting. 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You’ll often find some of the slowest load times, highest down-times, and least secure setups with shared hosting, especially as traffic to your website increases. You can think of shared hosting like cramming balloons into a bag. It’s not hard to fit more balloons in, but each additional balloon puts a strain on the other balloons, squeezing them just a bit – and smaller balloons are easier to squeeze. Virtual Private Server (VPS) Hosting A virtual private server, or VPS, hosting reserves resources that only your account or website has access to. Basically, partitions are set up on physical servers, and several virtual servers can be set up inside of a server. While there may still be a strain on universal server resources, your website won’t feel the same strain as it would with shared hosting. If shared hosting is a collection of balloons, VPS hosting would be similar to boxes you can place inside a bag. VPS hosting presents a more secure and more reliable alternative to shared hosting with only a modest increase to price – a good choice for medium-sized businesses or sites where speed is more important to users. While VPS hosting sets aside server resources for your website, dedicated hosting reserves (or dedicates) entire machines for your site. Dedicated hosting is among the most expensive types of hosting, but it guarantees that all server resources go to your site. With dedicated hosting, you are able to configure the server exactly to your specific needs. This results in potentially some of the most secure, most reliable, and fastest performance with hosting. Dedicated hosting is a good choice for larger businesses that don’t handle vital or financial/personal information with customers. Cloud hosting connects multiple machines together that share the resources powering your website. Cloud hosting works in almost the opposite way of VPS hosting: VPS hosting takes one machine and creates several virtual servers while cloud hosting takes several machines and uses them to create one or more virtual servers shared across them. By having your website on a cloud of servers, you will experience less downtime – even resulting in 100% uptime in many cases. If one server should crash, your website can still function because of the other servers that it is connected with. Cloud hosting is historically very expensive and was generally used exclusively by major websites like Facebook, Google, or Amazon. However, cheaper options are starting to appear, providing access to smaller companies. Colocation (Or Co-location) Hosting Colocation hosting leases the physical space (or rack) that a server resides on rather than the server itself. You rent the space from a data center and provide your own server(s). Unless managed (more on that later), you will be responsible for maintaining all aspects of your website, which includes everything from the hardware to any applications that you install. Colocation provides many of the same benefits as dedicated hosting but costs a fraction of the price since you own the server. Going Advanced: SSL Certs, Backups, And Operating Systems The next few items are a bit more advanced and harder to understand, but they’re still important to know and things you should consider when shopping for web hosting. Secure Socket Layer (SSL) Certificates SSL certificates, or secure socket layer, add a layer of security, called encryption, to data that gets passed to and from your website. In the event that the data is intercepted, SSL certs prevent hackers from unscrambling the information. This is vital for eCommerce sites as well as any time you’re collecting personal data from visitors. There are different levels of SSL, including TLS, or transport layer security, and certificates that are granted to specific organizations. Lower tier SSL certs are frequently (if not, the norm) offered by web hosts for free. It is also possible to install SSL certs yourself, but this process can be challenging for beginners. Server And Site Backups Backups create a snapshot, or image, of your websites or account. If something goes wrong and you lose or break your website, you can use a backup to restore it to its former glory. Most web hosting allows you to back up your account. However, many web hosts offer daily backups, taking the responsibility off your hands and minimizing any loss if you need to ever restore your website. Unfortunately, there’s no easy way to figure out what type of backups a web host offers at a glance: you’ll need to contact them to find out. Operating Systems (OS): Linux Or Windows An operating system, or OS, allows you to set up, configure, run tasks on a server. Just as a computer needs Windows or iOS in order for you to do things with it, a server needs either Linux or Windows in order to carry out tasks. Unlike the world of PCs, Windows is not the dominant force, and instead, Linux powers most servers across the globe. Linux is popular because its license is cheaper and less restrictive – for most hosting plans, this is the OS of choice. However, Windows servers provide better integration with other tools from Microsoft, making it the better choice for many businesses. What Is The Perfect Web Hosting For You? Now that you have a better understanding of the basics of web hosting, you should be more prepared to start the hunt for the perfect web hosting for your needs! A perfect hosting plan will meet your needs at a great pricing without suffering from bloat from features that you won’t use. However, understanding what your needs are is half the battle – and an important battle you don’t want to lose! How to find the perfect hosting for your needs is something I go into depth on this site. I want you to walk away empowered and ready to make smart choices!

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Is this really possible? Reading an article in the journal “Science News” and seeing the movie “Wired to Win” got me wondering just that. The article was about Chess Grandmasters and how they achieved mastery. The research concluded the following: - Chess Grand Masters do not plan ahead with their moves. They simply look at the board and the next move appears or jumps out at them within 3 seconds. - That any normal human being can achieve grandmaster skills through time and dedicated practice. - It takes about 10 years of focused effort to reach the grandmaster level for just about anything we humans under-take. - With enough practice and repetition, the chess grandmaster can process all the information and input of a game as complex as chess, and produce the best response in less than 3 seconds. This is impressive! The movie (focused on the Tour de France, an annual men’s multiple-stage bicycle race primarily held in France, while also occasionally passing through nearby countries. It consists of 21 stages, each a day long, over the course of 23 days.), showed how the brain cell firings work in sequence and relatively slowly at first until the skill we are attempting to learn works well and we repeat it a number of times. Then the firings happen in quicker succession until, through practice, they happen all at once, without trying to figure it out (thinking without effort). This is the beginning of mastery of any skill be it child care, chess, thermalling, dishonesty, archery, etc. Conclusion; whatever we choose to practice, we get better at and with a lot of persistent practice we can master a complicated skill in about 10 years. When new pilots are learning how to master thermalling skills, at first it is difficult and time consuming because their timing is off, their ability to process all the information is slow and cumbersome, and their practice-time in the air is short and infrequent. Through repetition, however, their brain begins to process the sequence more and more quickly until the brain firings happen all at once and they begin to react quickly enough to keep up with the wing and the parcel of air they are in. The brain cell firings become instantaneous and automatic. We usually refer to this as muscle memory, but I believe, and these resources seem to confirm, that we are simply creating a mental “rut” that makes it easier and easier to process the input and therefore takes less time to execute an efficient response; so much so that it seems to take “no time”. In paragliding, if you have to think about it, usually it’s too late. Once we get our hips to respond automatically to certain communications from the glider it frees our mind up to work on another skill set. For example, moving our hands appropriately or noticing the recent changes in the sky. When we master one skill, it frees our brain up so that we can work on mastering another. When 10 or 15 skilled responses become automatic, a pilot begins to master thermalling. Thermalling is particularly tricky to master for 3 reasons: - We cannot see the thermal, and most people (with few exceptions) are heavily visually oriented. - Weather. We can’t practice thermalling every day because the weather and life get in the way. Remember, mastering something takes consistent, frequent repetition with disciplined effort. (This is why the ground bound exercises for practicing the separated component parts of thermalling are so helpful) - It is a 3-dimensional experience. (Forward/back, side/side, up/down,). Most human beings are accustomed to thinking of and relating to forward/back and side/to side but not so much with the up/down dimension. Birds and fish are much more 3-dimensional than the dirt bound species, it is relatively new for us to process and to use the up/down to our advantage. We are not hard wired for it. My personal deepest 3-dimensional experiences that have helped me with this learning have been: - Figuring out the 3-dimensional connections of a construction project. (thus my admiration for carpenters) - Scuba Diving - Thermalling (particularly with eyes closed, not safe to do in flight traffic or near terrain, it is a process of learning to let go of the planet surface) - A deep state of meditation. (More than 4-dimensional) Sixteen of the most important skills to develop in order to master thermalling are: - Expanding into 3-dimensional thinking. - Sensing (noticing the details…we can’t respond appropriately if we don’t notice). - Responding efficiently, effectively and immediately (active piloting). Thinking of this as something that we do for our safety is fear producing. Thinking that we do it for efficiency is more realistic and relaxing. I don’t know how many surges I have had in paragliding, probably hundreds of thousands or millions (my calculated guess is 3-3.5 million surges: 15,000 flights, over 2,000 hours of airtime. Of these only 2 have been unfriendly. I like to think of the surges as our glider jump-starting itself again. Stop thinking about controlling the energy in the glider and start thinking about managing it. Don’t fight it, instead use it to produce the desired result. The parcel of air we are in is constantly feeding varied amounts of energy to different parts of our wing. When thermalling, we are constantly using that energy reserve to our advantage in order to efficiently produce altitude and glide, on scales that range from minute to large. - Altitude management (energy conservation; balancing patience with pushing, when to use speed or wait, or top out the lift or leave early). - Mapping (noticing the nuances of shape, size, strength and fractal pattern of the thermal). - Elongating (into the increasing lift or downwind). - Shaping turns (to be most efficient with your map, i.e. # 6). - Remembering (your 3 last turns influence your next turn, thermals and clouds are fractals, we will talk about fractals later). - Anticipating (this, and # 8, add a 4th dimension: time). - Coring (don’t waste time in the thermal, work the core, if there is one.) - Reading the sky (knowing how, what has been, and what is, creates what will be, and where in the sky it will be). - Reading the ground, thermal triggers, and generators and ground tracking to maximize time and distance (thanks Peter Grey and Dennis Pagan for the great debate on this in the magazine a few years ago). - Conservation of flying days, (very few pilots can afford to spend 8 hrs. every day on flying) predicting the weather is another never ending mastering process & economizes your time. - Flexing with what nature delivers (change your flight plan or thermalling strategy when necessary and stick with it when appropriate). - Repetition (patience and persistence, with thermalling you will either teach yourself patience or impatience. You get to choose which.). - Be at peace with your abilities. Once you have mastered the above, be at peace with your abilities no matter how they compare with someone else’s. Brain cell firings happen more reliably, freely and instantaneously when we are relaxed and at peace. When separated into these component parts some of these can be practiced on the ground in your yard, living room, or simulator. If you haven’t figured out thermalling yet, you can get 3 years worth of mapping practice done in 15 minutes in your living room. Remember, when you master one skill it frees your mind up to work on another, it is impossible for a human brain to work on all of them at once. None of us will ever get perfect at all of this, but we can get better, and the difference between 50% and 51% accuracy can be measured in miles. My 2006 was so highly successful for XC that I was perplexed to come up with a reason as to why this was, until I researched this article. The year was not any better for XC weather, in fact other pilots in Utah had complained about what a terrible year it was. I didn’t have any more time to spend on it, and I had been flying the same kind of performing glider I had for the 2 previous years. I was doing a better job of prioritizing and selecting the better XC days and therefore wasn’t having as many short XC flights (under 20 mi). I actually had fewer days than normal where I was attempting to fly cross country in ‘06 and yet had seven times greater success. Why? I have come up with 3 possible reasons and almost certainly my success was a combination of all 3. - Luck: (Bill Belcourt says “Luck is always a factor. The magic is in how you use it when you get it”) - Repetition: I had been practicing since my first thermalling experience in 1989. - Meditation, which I have been practicing and teaching since 1969. This particular year I had been chanting and meditating more than usual during my XC flights. I have found that meditation has accomplished 3 things that have helped my thermalling and decision making. - I am more relaxed (CBS news had a piece on 1-18-07 on how stress reduces the size of and # of connections of neurons in the brain). - I think less (less clutter equals more ability to be fully present). - I am more lucid (Lynn Cyrier once shared with me, “Fly from the inside out, not from the outside in”.) Flying in a more relaxed state, means I overreact less. Thinking less, means I do less over-analyzing or second guessing of myself, and both of those give me more clarity so that I “do” rather than think, debate and then “do”. I am therefore able to minimize the actions I perform in the thermal and stay current with glider input and response time. My ground track, cloud tracking and sky reading was also more automatic and accurate. The result has been that I was more consistently in the right place in the thermal and in the sky. Marcel Vogel and other brain researchers have said that at any given moment there are about 10,000 brain cell firings going on related to stimuli from our senses, and of those 10,000 only 9 can come to consciousness (if you are a genius). Our job in mastering thermalling is to find a way to bring the most productive 9 (for a successful outcome) to consciousness and to have the rest become so automatic and non-conscious that we can reserve those precious 9 bits for the most important, satisfying and immediate parts of our thermalling moment. And yes, of course it must be pleasurable or satisfying or we would not endeavor to repeat it. We have all seen friends get out of the sport because it ceases to be satisfying for them. They either get too scared or frustrated or choose some other emotional state that they find less than satisfying. Often this happens because they attempt parts of the sport that they are not yet ready for, or they don’t stretch themselves enough to stay interested and instead focus on their fears or limitations. There are many skills that must be developed and then cohesively merged together to create a consistently successful outcome. For a chess grandmaster, the skills are about looking at, and studying many different boards and potential moves for many years. For thermalling, it is, at a minimum, the 16 previously listed skill sets practiced on the ground, in your head, in the air, and, (through repetition), applying them lucidly when necessary and non-consciously as much as possible. For those of you who already know thermalling, this may seem overly complicated because all or most of this is already automatic for you. I hope you still find it useful for clarifying what you are doing. For those of you starting to learn, working on one skill set at a time will increase the speed and safety of your thermalling process. The highly simplified version of this class is, in the words of Todd Bibler, “When you’re going up, turn.” When flying there are only 2 things we need to do to create safety: manage the proximity to hitting any hard surface or object, and keep your glider away from stall. The “Science News” magazine article on chess grandmasters, the movie “Wired to Win”, and a good XC year have all motivated me to explore, through this article, how to achieve better thermalling skills and experiences. I have realized for many years that working on slowing down and separating the step-by-step process of what actually contributes to more successful thermalling flights greatly assists one to progress more quickly. I now understand why. Writing this has been useful for me, thanks for the opportunity. MASTERING THERMALS part 2 by Ken Hudonjorgensen Fractal patterns in thermalling References “Fractals Everywhere” by Benoit Mandelbrot and www.fractalfoundation.org “A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across different scales. They are created by repeating a simple process over and over in an ongoing feedback loop.” Reference taken from www.fractalfoundation.org Fractal patterns are a kind of “dance” in nature that moves in and out, through big and small, and through anarchy and order, that start out as seeming to be anarchy and as they are studied, reveal more and more order. If we can map a small thermal down low it will tend to repeat itself as it grows. We use our memory to follow the pattern of the thermal and the day to create efficiency. Each time-period has a fractal pattern to the thermal, sky and spacing of thermals and clouds. This pattern is why we get increased lift at a certain compass heading every time we complete a circle in a particular thermal and position and bank angle. So, unless we change our track within the thermal by elongating or tightening our radius, we will continue to be inefficient by working only one section of the strongest part of the thermal. When we make adjustments as we rotate in a thermal, we are following the fractal pattern of the strength of the thermal. If we can stick with that strength as it moves, grows, merges and changes we will effectively maximize our rise in the parcel of air we are in. There is also a vertical fractal pattern to the strengthening, organizing and weakening of thermals for a particular day and time period whether it is a particular hour in the day or time of the year. Do they tend to weaken at 16,000 ft. or organize at 4,000 ft. or have the most mixing at 10,000 ft.? Many things, (known and unknown), can affect our thermal. Some of the known effects are - Thermals joining together - A particular terrain, - Cloud feature concentrating lift - A reservoir of potential - Wind shear - Top of the lift, etc. etc… If we learn to flow with the fractal patterns and predict their progression into the present and future based on their past, we become more efficient. Chess grandmasters can see the fractal patterns of each board they look at in less than 3 seconds. That is why they can play 20 masters at once and beat all 20 of them. For thermalling, this is a combination of being in the present moment, remembering the recent past – 5, 10, 15 seconds ago; the not so recent past – one minute, one hour, when the day started, last year at this time; and anticipating the future – - where the strength of the lift is going to be the next time I come around in this circle 2 or 3 turns from now - where I want to be in the sky or over the terrain in 10 min. 1 hr. or 5 hrs. from now - how long the thermals will stay strong - when sunset will be today - based on the prediction for the day - what yesterday or last year were like, and - when the lift will likely be usable today. We attempt to align ourselves with the fractal pattern of the thermal or the sky, the time of year, the site we are at, etc… Remember, from the first article I wrote entitled Mastering Thermals – Part 1, that most of these skills need to become automatic if we are to have much of a chance for success and that they become automatic through repetition over time. There are fractal patterns to the wind through a particular weather system. For example, we have had a high-pressure system dominating in Utah for the last 5 days and every day at about noon the wind at the south side of the Point of the Mountain in Draper, UT has increased by 8 to 12 mph for 3 to 5 hours. This is a fractal pattern that is part of the fractal pattern of this particular high-pressure system. We attempt to match our brain cell firings with perceptions and responses that produce a successful outcome in relationship to the parts of nature that we are playing with. The more often they match, the more successful we are. Glider useful thermals There are three generally shaped thermal categories that are useful to me as a foot-launched, non-motorized, pilot: amoeba, cone, and snake. Each of these models, of course, is variable and they meld and mix into one another such as amoeba cones and snake cones but I don’t think we get amoeba snakes – the energies are too dissimilar. Each category creation has to do with energy reserve and inertia. How much and how quickly has the heating been happening. Is it happening now and how long and strong will it continue to happen? The energy of a thermal, of course, has to do with more than just heating, otherwise, we would only have to check the temperature differential between degrees and amount of time to figure out if it is going to be a good thermal day. But it is not just the lapse rate that we check. We also check the jet stream, the pressure and moisture content of the ground and air, top of the lift and lifted index and k-index. We look at the sky, feel the cycles etc… There are also many things we don’t understand enough about yet to even understand that we should be checking it, or how to check it or what “it” is. If this were not true, we would be 100% accurate on our thermal predictions every day. I have not yet met the pilot who can do that. These 3 models mix and bleed into each other and are never ideal. I have seen, felt and experienced them being useful to me while flying. This article has been an attempt to expand our understanding of thermalling. There are certainly additional and alternate ways of thinking about, teaching and doing this complicated yet simple task.

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We Salute Our Independence Tazmia Islam Nion If you ever visit the Dhaka University campus, some magnificent sculptures will draw your attention and make you nostalgic even if only for a while. Among all the sculptures built in Bangladesh on the theme of Independence, perhaps the most famous is 'Oporajeyo Bangla', which translated means 'Invincible Bengal'. It is located in front of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities. In 1973, Dhaka University Central Students Union (DUCSU) took the first initiative to establish this sculpture as a tribute to our independence. Mr. M. Hamid, the then cultural secretary, took the initiative and contacted with Syed Abdullah Khalid, an artist. After initial discussion and measurements, they decided to make a 3 feet Model. After 3 months of daily hard work, the model was finally completed. Three people were selected as models for the sculpture: Badrul Alam Benu, Syed Hamid Moksud Fozle and Hasina Ahmed. A three member committee with Mr. A.K.M Sad Uddin, Associate Professor of Sociology, Dr. Belayet Hossain of the Physics Department and Mr. M. Hamid was formed to manage and conduct the process. The final construction plan came from poet Robiul Hossain. A firm headed by Engineer Shahidullah provided all necessary technical support free of charge. The monument, made from iron and pole, is strong enough that it can resist even a 1400 miles per hour storm. The height of the figure is 12 feet and its width is eight feet. The sculpture was given its final touch after 36 construction attempts of each 4-inch layer. Although work on the sculpture started in 1973, it took a long time to wrap it all up. Work was disrupted several times due to financial, political and other problems. Syed Abdullah Khalid went to London for his higher studies. However, he could not stay there for long. His commitment towards his unfinished brought him back in 1978. Most of the credit for completing this wonderful creation goes to Syed Abdullah Khalid and M. Hamid, who were actively involved with the work. They had to face several challenges, even in their personal and social life, during the work. On 28 August, 1977, some people tried to damage the sculpture. Naturally, the general students protected it. Thirty students were injured and four arrested. They demanded completion of the work. The teachers supported their students and finally the work reached its destination. The sculpture stands on a triangular base. Two of the figures are freedom fighters with arms, and the third one is standing with a first aid box. This sculpture represents the glorious history of Bangladesh to the young generation, but unfortunately it is not given the honor that it deserves. Students and general people treat it as a place of entertainment. They have their addas, take food and drinks and spoil the sanctity of this great sculpture. In this month of independence, let us take an oath- "We will try to uphold the true spirit of our independence and pay tribute to these sculptures as best as we can." Sajeda Tamanna Hussain 26th March- the day when we were blessed with a gift, an honor! It was bestowed on us through the sacrifices of millions. The twenty-sixth day of the month of March gave us the immense pride of being able to call our land Bangladesh! Rummaging through the pages of history, we see how the sinister face of war had engulfed our nation for nine whole months. Mothers lost their sons, wives lost their husbands; sisters lost their brothers and this land lost millions of its children for one cause, independence! All those who made these sacrifices just so we can call ourselves Bangladeshis, only so that generations of Bangladeshis to come after them can taste freedom, can hold their heads high and stand united under one flag! But the questions that are crowding my mind right now are- what messages do the Independence Day convey to the generation of today? Does the sacrifice of so many lives make a difference towards what they feel about their responsibilities towards this nation? The very thought of getting negative answers to those questions make my skin crawl! But for the sake of knowing exactly where my contemporaries stand, I decided to talk to a few of my peers from various academic institutions. When asked about what feeling the words '26th March, 1971' create in them, a common reply was, 'I have never really thought about it!' Surprising as it may sound, most youngsters today are indifferent about the fact that the land they live in, belongs to them and would one day need their hands to build it into a better place for their children. Isn't that why Beer Sreshtho Matiur Rahman left the warmth of his home and the company of his family to set out on a journey towards the unknown; towards a fate that he knew might rip him away from his family forever? What youngsters today do not realize is that one does not necessarily need to go to war to do something for his motherland. However I did run into a certain number of rare people in our generation who think, 'Independence is my pride. The colors of my flag make me feel proud of the land where greenery stretches beyond horizons and for the blood my forefathers shed to give me “The People's Republic of Bangladesh”'. An even more surprising reply that I was faced with, when asked about the significance of the 26th of March, was 'Since it's a public holiday, and a weekday this year, I will definitely be happy to oversleep. ' As awkward as it may have looked, the answer left me awestruck, standing with my mouth wide open. I can guarantee that's the way a lot of readers are going to react- people who have either been first hand victims of the hideous war in 1971 or those who genuinely understand the meaning of the word 'independence'. The most revolting reaction that my question brought me was, 'I will definitely go shopping before the 26th! All the big fashion houses in the city are bound to come up with their own new clothing range in accordance to the event.' Ladies and gentlemen, doesn't this really call for some introspection? Is that what independence means today- an occasion to make a fashion statement? Is independence really all about decorating the country in green, red and all other vibrant colors, like a pretty little Christmas tree? Is it about making a fatua out of my flag? My very own flag? Amongst all this, patriotism still lives on in the hearts of a few who made my questions worth asking. They feel like first class citizens for being able to dwell in a liberated nation. They are aware of their responsibilities towards this nation and are willing to lend a hand- in fact, both hands! Somebody even refreshed me with a reference from Kazi Nazrul's composition, ' O amar Bangladesher mati, tumi amar dhular shorgo, shyam boroner lokhhi mati'. Ever since my 'survey' came to an end, I have not been able to spend a day when my mind has been at rest. The ignorant and often negative answers that the majority of my respondents flooded me with give me a hollow feeling. What will happen to Bangladesh twenty years from now? Will this generation be able to look after the land that has provided them with every grain that they consume? Before all these thoughts could eat me away from the inside, I had the good fortune of watching the movie 'Rang De Basanti'. It opened a door to fresh thoughts and new questions, although a lot less disturbing! We probably do have the patriotism and charisma to enrich our nation with our efforts. It is probably the matter of necessity or a booster that may one day create freedom fighters inside us- like it did 36 years ago in 1971, when motherland cried for freedom, when East Pakistan fought to become Bangladesh! (Student of NSU) Syeda Sabita Amin Independence Day is right ahead of us and when the day finally arrives, flags and patriotism of many kinds can be seen all around Bangladesh, a nation filled with freedom and pride in its atmosphere. However, before the glorious day that we celebrate today, genocide was observed during the fight for Independence. The number of dead in Bangladesh in 1971 was almost certainly well into seven figures. It was one of the worst genocides of the World War II era, outstripping Rwanda (800,000 killed in 1994) and probably surpassing even Indonesia (1 million to 1.5 million killed in 1965-66). Genocide has been defined as the deliberate killing of people based on their ethnicity, nationality, race or religion. The dead bodies which were seen everywhere are still carved into the memories of the people who witnessed it all. The main targets during the genocide in Bangladesh were: 1) The Bengali military men of the East Bengal Regiment, the East Pakistan Rifles, police and Para-military Ansars and Mujahids; 2) The Hindus; 3) The Awami Leaguers - all office bearers and volunteers down to the lowest link in the chain of command; 4) The students - college and university boys and some of the more militant girls; 5) Bengali intellectuals such as professors and teachers whenever damned by the army as "militant." Thirty-six years have passed as we celebrate Independence Day. But the death anniversaries of the departed ones are tied to the day. So many lives were lost, some homes were destroyed by the West Pakistan Army. My own Grandfather was taken away and killed, and my mother always reminded me about the hardships, fear and feeling of loss. There are so many families who share the same experience. We should thank God that it has been so long and something that horrible hasn't happened since then and that our lives aren't filled with the horrors that took place in 1971. Although Bangladesh hasn't witnessed Genocide since Independence doesn't mean that it doesn't exist anymore. We are so concerned and engulfed in our own lives and daily problems that we fail to see how lucky we truly are sometimes. Yes we watch on the news as many car bombs explode in the streets of Baghdad because of the Sunni and Shia division (while other factors also contribute towards the War in Iraq) or the genocide going on in Darfur. But after watching it we just get back on the tracks of our lives and continue moving only to stop for a few seconds after watching the news again. All we offer to those who continue suffering is a moment of grief, a small prayer sometimes and the thought of actions which should be taken only not to perform them. We also forget about the horrors of the other genocides that took place in other parts of the world in the past. History will bound to repeat itself if we forget the past or simply don't take actions against the current tragedies. It might not directly affect your life now but you never know one day it just might. An action doesn't always have to be something big right from the start, but can be something small. Many small actions eventually turn out to be big when put altogether.

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The History of The Internet A brief history of the internet from WW2 to Blockchain I’m 100% sure that 100% of you are addicted to the internet, and yet very few of us know where it came from, who made it, or how it works. This piece is part one of my series on the history of the internet. My hope is to show you not only where the internet came from, but in doing so, show you where it wants to go. The US Government developed the early internet as a technology that could survive a nuclear attack.¹ If any one computer went down, the hope was that information on the network would persist — there would be no central point of failure, everything would be decentralized.² 50 years later, and decentralization is still the lifeblood of the internet. And so, I think it’s fitting we start there. Napster was the way I found decentralization. I was 19, and music was my symbol of freedom. But music wasn’t free. Albums were very expensive and controlled by a middle-man: the record labels. Each week, I’d go to my local record store, pay $14.99, and return home with a physical album. A CD. Napster changed all that. In the summer of 1999, my college roommate installed the music file sharing app on my computer. Instantly, I could connect with strangers and share music freely. Napster’s decentralization killed the middlemen, or at least significantly shrank their power. As a result, album sales cut in half over the next decade. The world memorialized the industry’s precipitous downfall, “The Year the Music Dies” (Wired 2003), “The Rise And Fall Of The Music Industry” (NPR 2009), and “Music’s lost decade: Sales cut in half” (CNN 2010). During the Napster era, I was enrolled in college as a Music Industry major. My life path changed the day I saw Napster. For me, coding, and hacking had become the new rock & roll. That fall I left my music studies, and began to study computers. Today, there’s a new rockstar turning heads: blockchain. Like Napster, blockchain has its own set of challenges — speculation, funding, regulation, censorship, etc. But these challenges aren’t necessarily new. Blockchain and Napster are both just chapters in a much longer story: the story of decentralization. Decentralization continues to disrupt global institutions, and gives life to new ones. If you understand the causes of why it’s happening you will be positioned to make wiser decisions in the future. Wisdom, as defined by Aristotle, is an understanding of the principles and causes of our knowledge. He wanted us to ask why things are a certain way. My goal here is to show you why things are a certain way. The story of decentralization isn’t new. It begins all the way back in the Cold War. Let’s start there… Act I: The Early Settlers of Cyberspace: 1945–1969 The first version of the internet begins with a rivalry between two superpowers from The Old World: The United States and the Soviet Union. To summarize the disagreement: They each wanted to spread their belief system to other countries around the world. Each side was 100% certain that they were right. And they both had huge missiles pointing at each other! This rivalry is known as The Cold War. “Cold” because it wasn’t fought on a battlefield (It was fought by scientists in the lab!). And although it was called a “war” it was more of a race — a race between the U.S. and the Soviets to see who could invent the most revolutionary technology. They were neck and neck in the race until 1957 when the Soviets pulled into first place. That’s the year the Soviets launched the first-ever satellite into space: Sputnik. Sputnik showed the world that the Soviets had missiles capable of reaching any part of the world. Americans were terrified, as is seen in this ad for practical low-cost nuclear fallout shelters. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in direct response to Sputnik, requested the funds from Congress to start two new agencies: The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Whereas NASA would send the first man to space. ARPA would bring the first taste of cyberspace to man. The Beginning of ARPA: Washington, DC In 1963, a man named J. C. R. Licklider (known by his peers as “Lick”) working for ARPA suggested that we create an Intergalactic Computer Network. The main gist of Lick’s argument was that for the United States to compete in the technology race we needed to double-down on computer research.³ The problem with computers, as Lick saw it, was that they were too expensive! One computer could take up an entire room. Lick proposed a solution called time-sharing. With time-sharing, you could have one central “brain” computer which could communicate with lower-cost computers. Essentially, what we today refer to as networking. Lick’s suggestion was implemented, and the future intergalactic computer networking was off to a fabulous start! Except for One Problem: Enter Paul Baran In 1964, a guy named Paul Baran, at the U.S. government funded RAND Corporation, pointed out a deadly design flaw with Lick’s time-sharing. Baran wrote a report to the U.S. Air Force where he made the argument: the U.S. government must upgrade communications from the centralized model to a newly-designed decentralized model.⁴ If the Soviets bombed the main computer, the entire network goes down!.⁵ Let me explain his thesis using friendly photos of The Muppets. This (below) is an example of a centralized network. As you can see all communications need to pass through Kermit. So if Kermit were to be attacked, then Fozzie Bear could no longer connect with Ms. Piggy. But with Baran’s new proposal, if Kermit were to be attacked, Fozzie and Miss Piggy could still communicate! Baran’s idea for decentralization was revolutionary. Baran’s influence would soon find its way to Lick where, together (along with a team of engineers), they would build the first version of the internet, which was known as the ARPANET. Decentralization! It’s Alive! The big innovation with the ARPANET wasn’t just that you could send messages. Before the ARPANET people were already sending written messages via Morse code, telegraph, and windmills (yes, windmills). With the ARPANET two computers could now send messages to each other. What was amazing was how they did it. To explain, I think it will do us some good to dive deeper into how decentralization works. Let’s start with cats. If Kermit sends Fozzie a cute cat pic, that image is broken up into smaller pieces called packets. The packets travel along a variety of different routes: through wires, over land and sea, and eventually reassemble when they reach their destination. The cat image above is broken into only four packets, but in real practice it would be thousands of packets. Each of the letters represents a server (aka. like a computer) between Kermit and Fozzie. In geek speak, we call them “nodes.” If node “D” and “G” were to fail, then the packets can just reroute through other available nodes. Declaring War on Decentralization — 1969 to 1999 By the winter of 1999, there were many speculative claims about the future of Napster. Everything from, “Napster is going to kill the record industry!” to “The government is going to regulate file sharing, it’ll never last.” Ultimately, both happened. Over that next decade, the RIAA (The Record Industry Association of America) made it its mission to destroy Napster! They used their strongest weapon, money, to fund a litany of lawsuits against Napster founders Shawn Fanning and Sean Parker. Two years later, Napster officially shut down to comply. What the RIAA didn’t know is that decentralization flows like a parade of ants. Step in their way, and they naturally find a path around your feet. With Napster shut down, hundreds of Napster-copycats popped up: BitTorrent, Gnutella, Kazaa, Limewire, the list goes on. The RIAA tried to hit down each of these like a game of whack-a-mole. But they hit one down, and two more popped up! In the decade between 2000 and 2009, the RIAA would spend $58 million dollars serving lawsuits to both founders of file sharing companies, and the individual users downloading music in their homes. Eventually, in 2009 the RIAA ended their war against decentralization. They couldn’t fight the power of the network. Somewhat ironically, the war against file sharing ended the same way the Cold War ended: Not with a climactic battle, but from exhaustion. How Control Exists After Decentralization The what-a-mole seems random if you’re just swinging the mallet from above. But peer down below the surface, and you’ll find there is an order. It’s not random. If you take some time to study the machine you may start to see the pattern. Next up — Part Two: The Secret Hacker Code. In the next chapter we attempt to understand the pattern by looking more closely at the the people who created it. What do Licklider (the ARPANET), Shawn Fanning (Napster), Steve Jobs (Apple), and Satoshi Nakamoto (Bitcoin) all have something in common? They are all hackers. Hackers are guided by a shared code of ethics. Crack the code, and guess their next move. Sign up for early access to the next chapter in The History of the Internet. Citations and Notes - Why The Arpanet Was Built, by Stephen J. Lukasik, September 2011. Lukasik was DARPA Deputy Director in 1967 and “the person who signed most of the checks for Arpanet’s development” In this essay he explains, “The goal was to exploit new computer technologies to meet the needs of military command and control against nuclear threats, achieve survivable control of US nuclear forces, and improve military tactical and management decision making.” - Decentralization (as a process) existed before 1969. Throughout this piece when I refer to “decentralization,” I’m referring specifically to digitally decentralized communication networks. - Memorandum for: Members and Affiliates of the Intergalactic Computer Network, J. C. R. Licklider, Washington 25, D.C. April 23, 1963. In this paper Licklider makes a case for time-sharing technology as it relates to military solutions for ARPA. “As I see it, that the military greatly needs solutions to many or most of the problems that will arise if we tried to make good use of the facilities that are coming into existence.” - On Distributed Communications, Paul Baran, August 1964. In this paper Baran talks about three types of networks: centralized, decentralized and distributed. For simplicity’s sake, I chose to focus on decentralization, and intentionally omitted mentioning distributed networks. Baran writes, “This memorandum briefly reviews the distributed communication network concepts and compares it to the hierarchical or more centralized systems. The payoff in terms of survivability for a distributed configuration in the cases of enemy attacks directed against nodes, links, or combinations or nodes and links is demonstrated.” Very special thanks to Pippa Biddle, and Alexis Rondeau for reading early drafts and providing countless insights. Shout out to the students at One Month — Learn to code in 30 Days for your support and inspiration.

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If you spot a giant web in trees, it is not a spider web. To start with, spiders don’t make webs in trees but rather around plants. The huge webs that you see in trees are made by certain moth species, including fall webworms. Before taking any action, you should understand these insects and their behavior first. Why are there giant spider webs in my trees? Trees have giant spider webs because they are among the types of trees that fall webworms love to construct their nests at. Contrary to what some people might think, these huge webs are constructed by caterpillars of this moth species and not by garden spiders. Fall webworms are very interesting insects since they can construct such big webs. Some gardeners consider these caterpillars as destructive pests, while others treat them only as nuisances and simply ignore them. In case your trees have giant spider webs, this complete guide will help you decide what to do. What Are the Large Web-Like Nests in Trees? The large web-like nests in trees are not spider webs but rather are webs caused by fall webworms. These moths usually spin their fine silk webs over the end of branches of a wide variety of trees. Because of their huge sizes, these nests look messy and are very eye-catching. These webs can be 3 feet wide or even bigger. While fall webworms are feeding on the leaves, these huge web-like nests are white. The feeding may last for about 4-6 weeks. Once their feeding season is over, these caterpillars will leave the tree to become pupae. At this point, their webs will turn brown or tan. Once these nests are empty, they will soon break. Why Is My Tree Covered in Webs? Your tree is covered in webs because of the fall webworms. Young stages of these larvae feed on the leaves while spinning their webs around them to protect themselves from predators. As these caterpillars continue to grow and eat fresh leaves, they will cover them with webs until the entire set of leaves is covered. What Do Fall Webworms Look Like? Fall webworms are adults and larvae of Hyphantria cunea, a moth species that belong to the family Erebidae. Adult fall webworm moths have bright white, hairy bodies, while some have black spots. They have a wingspan of about 35-42 mm. (1.37-1.65 inches). The bases of their front legs can be bright yellow or orange. Young fall webworm larvae are usually pale yellow with two rows of black spots on their bodies. As they become mature, these caterpillars are about 1 inch long. Their bodies are yellow or lime green with small black marks, as well black and white hair. These larvae undergo 5-7 instar stages before turning into pupae. Interestingly, fall webworm larvae are often mistaken for Eastern tent caterpillars. Although these two insects look similar, Eastern tent caterpillars spin their webs near a tree trunk and not on the leaves. Unlike fall webworms, they also appear only in the spring and are mostly found on crabapples and wild cherry trees. Where Do Fall Webworms Come From? Fall webworms originate in North America and are widely distributed around the globe, including Europe, Canada, and Asia, particularly China and Japan. They were able to spread across different continents through human transport and trade. Today, these caterpillars continue to spread on various deciduous trees. Are Fall Webworm Webs Dangerous for My Trees? Fall webworm webs are not highly dangerous for your trees. These larvae may eat some leaves, but they cannot destroy the whole tree. Fall webworms rarely cause serious damage to trees. They will leave them eventually once they are about to enter the pupal stage, which usually happens during winter. Are Fall Webworms Bad? Fall webworms are not necessarily bad but are somehow destructive. They feed on leaves, but they don’t kill the tree branches. In worst cases, their nest will cover all the branches or the entire tree. Nevertheless, the only damage these caterpillars do is cosmetic, which means that the tree may look unappealing. Do Fall Webworms Sting? Fall webworms don’t sting humans. These caterpillars have no stinger, and they don’t bite, too. Both larvae and adult webworms also don’t carry infectious diseases, so it is safe to touch them. But because they are very soft and they have tiny hairs on their bodies, you might want to wear protective gloves first. Do Birds Eat Fall Webworms? Most bird species eat fall webworms regularly just as they feed on other caterpillars. This includes chickadees, robins, sparrows, and vireos. But birds are not the only predators of webworms. Among the other natural enemies of webworms are spiders, wasps, assassin bugs, and other small insect predators. How Long Do Fall Webworms Last? Female fall webworms start to appear between May and August to deposit their eggs, which are hatched within a week. Newly-hatch larvae will then start to skeletonize the leaves right away and will spin their webs. Females lay eggs only once in their lifetime and die shortly, but fall webworms last for about six weeks. Under normal conditions, the life cycle of fall webworms is completed in about 50 days. These caterpillars usually pupate during winter, but in most Northern states, there could be 2 to 3 generations per year. But in general, fall webworms start to be active in late summer and are most active in the fall, hence the name. What Trees Are the Most Vulnerable to Webworms? Fall webworms have more than 90 tree species as potential sources of their food. Nevertheless, the trees that are most vulnerable to webworms are fruit and nut trees. These moths prefer younger trees over the old ones or trees that are more than 5 years. Below are the trees that are the most vulnerable to webworms: What Are the Signs of a Fall Webworm Infestation? Fall webworms don’t last long, which means that heavy infestations are very unlikely to happen. But if you are selling ornamental plants, these webworms will surely affect your productivity and income. To avoid this scenario, you should know the different signs of a fall webworm infestation. Here are some of them: 1. Presence of Giant Spider Webs Again, the nests of fall webworms look like giant spider webs. Each web may contain several hundreds of webworms. However, you may not see them clearly since they are inside the web. Note that these nests are on the leaves. If the nests are near or on the trunk of the tree, they belong to Eastern tent caterpillars. 2. Presence of Fall Webworms Eggs Females can lay between 400 and 1000 eggs in one sitting. These tiny, light-yellow to iridescent green eggs are laid in masses on the undersides of leaves. Since they usually appear from late spring to summer, check thoroughly the bottom sides of the leaves of your trees, especially during these seasons. 3. Presence of Mature Fall Webworm Larvae Mature fall webworm larvae can be seen leaving their nest as they prepare to become pupae. Some of them can be spotted in branches, far away from the nest. Their movements are highly synchronized over a very wide area. They are mostly seen spinning a brown cocoon during the colder months in tree barks. 4. Presence of Adult Fall Webworms Adult fall webworms are short-lived, but you can still see them flying around the trees. These moths are mostly white with some colored spots on their body and legs. Although adults don’t cause direct harm to trees, they are responsible for the production of tons of eggs, which will shortly hatch into invasive larvae. How Do You Get Rid of Giant Spider Webs in a Tree? As mentioned earlier, giant spider webs in trees are only temporary and will not cause serious damage to healthy plants. In fact, the affected trees will continue to grow healthy despite some of their leaves being infested. But if you cannot take the ugly sight, here is how you can get rid of fall webworm webs: - For small trees, poke the giant spider web with a stick. This will force the fall webworms to leave their nest. Once they are exposed, their natural predators, such as birds and wasps will eat them. - Instead of poking, you may pull the web using your hands. Although these caterpillars don’t bite or sting, you should still wear protective gloves. - Dump the web in soapy water for a few hours until the webworms are dead. - Alternatively, you may prune or cut the affected branch. Just make sure it will cause the tree to die. - You can also aim your garden hose at these webs and give them a blast. - If fall webworms are still young but in huge populations, you can use insecticides with pyrethrin, such as Bonide Pyrethrin Garden Insect Spray Mix . - INSECT KILLER - This pest control is a fast and effective way to... - PROTECTS VEGETABLES, TREES, FLOWERS & ORNAMENTALS - Designed for... - CONTAINS PYRETHRIN - One of the active ingredients is Pyrethrins.... - NO OBJECTIONABLE RESIDUE - Garden Insect Spray can be used on... - EASY TO APPLY - Product quickly mixes with water and should be... - For larger trees, you can simply ignore those webs. After all, the damage will be minimal and will not have a negative impact on them. Note: Don’t burn the affected branches. This will cause more damage to your trees. How Do You Get Rid of Moth Webs in Trees? Aside from fall webworms, other moth species build nests on trees. This includes the Eastern and Western tent caterpillars, the Sonoran tent caterpillar, and the forest tent caterpillar. Tent caterpillars also defoliate trees, but they only appear in the spring, and their nests are usually on large branches. Therefore, the methods of getting rid of these moth webs are similar to that of fall webworm nests. Tent caterpillars also don’t bite or sting. Therefore, you may poke their webs or remove them manually and soak their webs in soapy water. In severe cases, you can cut the affected branch or use a pyrethroid insecticide. But just like fall webworms, tent caterpillars don’t live long and will be gone soon. They also rarely cause serious damage to trees and produce only one generation a year. This means that they are easier to remove as compared to webworms. In most cases, the best thing to do is to simply let them enjoy life. Fall webworms may cause damage to trees, but they are also food for birds and beneficial insects. It is very uncommon to use pesticides against them or to call professional pest control. Instead of killing them, let nature decide their fate. Better yet, check your trees regularly to prevent webworms from infesting them. List of Sources Davenport, M. (2019). Fall Webworm Management. Clemson Cooperative Extension – Home & Garden Information Center. Sourakov, A., Paris, T. (2021). Fall webworm. University of Florida. Voyle, G. (2014). The rise and fall of the fall webworm. Michigan State University. Fall Webworm on Trees. (2021). University of Maryland Extension.

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Morocco claims the Western Sahara territory, with a population of approximately 267 thousand, and administers Moroccan law and regulation in the approximately 85 percent of the territory it controls; however, Morocco and the Polisario Front (Popular Front for the Liberation of the Saguia el Hamra and Rio de Oro), an organization seeking independence for the region, dispute its sovereignty. Since 1973 the Polisario has challenged the claims of Spain, Mauritania, and Morocco to the territory. The Moroccan government sent troops and settlers into the northern two‑thirds of the territory after Spain withdrew in 1975, and extended its administration over the southern province of Oued Ed‑Dahab after Mauritania renounced its claim in 1979. Moroccan and Polisario forces fought intermittently from 1975 until the 1991 ceasefire and deployment to the area of a UN peacekeeping contingent, known by its French initials, MINURSO. In 1975 the International Court of Justice advised that during the period of Spanish colonization legal ties of allegiance existed between Morocco and some of the Western Sahara tribes, but the court also found that there were no ties indicating "territorial sovereignty" by Morocco. The court added that it had not found "legal ties" that might affect UN General Assembly Resolution 1514 regarding the de-colonization of the territory and in particular the principle of self-determination for its persons. Sahrawis (as the persons native to the territory are called) live in the area controlled by Morocco, as refugees in Algeria near the border with Morocco, and, to a lesser extent, in Mauritania. A Moroccan‑constructed sand wall, known as the "berm," separates most Moroccan-controlled territory from Polisario‑controlled sections. In 1988 Morocco and the Polisario accepted the joint Organization of African Unity/UN settlement proposals for a referendum allowing the Sahrawis to decide between integration with Morocco or independence for the territory. However, disagreements over voter eligibility were not resolved and a referendum has not taken place. In 1997 UN Secretary General Kofi Annan appointed James Baker as his personal envoy to explore options for a peaceful settlement. Baker visited the territory, consulted with the parties, offered proposals to resolve the problem, and in 2001 presented a "framework agreement," which Morocco accepted but the Polisario and Algeria rejected. In 2003 Baker proposed a peace plan, which the UN Security Council endorsed. The plan proposed that a referendum consider integration with Morocco or independence, and addressed other questions agreed to by the parties, such as self-government or autonomy. Morocco ultimately rejected the plan, while the Polisario accepted it. On August 1, the UN Secretary General appointed Peter Van Walsum to oversee the political process as his personal envoy replacing Baker, who resigned in June 2004. On October 28, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1634, extending MINURSO and its 227 military staff until April 30, 2006, and calling on member states to consider making contributions to fund confidence-building measures to allow for increased contact between family members separated by the dispute, which UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called "deadlocked" in a report to the Security Council. A substantial Moroccan subsidy aided migration and development, designed to strengthen the Moroccan hold on the 80 percent of the territory it controls. The Moroccan government also subsidized incomes, fuel, power, water, and basic food commodities for its citizens living in the Western Sahara. In October 2004 the Moroccan government unveiled a five‑year approximately $800 million (7.2 billion dirham) development program for all of what it called its "southern provinces," most of which are the territory. Moroccan law applied to the civilian population living in the territory under Moroccan administration. Political rights for the residents remained circumscribed, and citizens did not have the right to change their government. UN observers and foreign human rights groups maintained that the Moroccan government monitored the political views of Sahrawis closely, particularly those suspected of supporting independence and the Polisario. Since 1977 the Saharan provinces of Laayoune, Smara, Awsard, and Boujdour (and Oued Ed‑Dahab since 1983) have participated in Moroccan elections organized and controlled by the Moroccan government. In the 2002 Moroccan parliamentary elections, Sahrawis with political views aligned with the Moroccan government filled all the seats allotted to the territory. In 2003 the Moroccan government conducted municipal elections in Morocco and the Western Sahara. No Sahrawis opposed to Moroccan sovereignty were candidates in the elections. According to Moroccan government statistics, the national turnout was 54 percent, including 68 percent in the territory. From May 21 through May 25 and sporadically thereafter, 300 to 13 hundred individuals demonstrated in Laayoune, ostensibly protesting the transfer of a Sahrawi prisoner to Agadir. The Moroccan government arrested 37 demonstrators during and after the May demonstrations. Of those arrested, 12 received jail terms up to five years for damaging public property and using weapons against officials. Amnesty International (AI) claimed that demonstrators received prison terms up to 20 years. On May 30, further demonstrations occurred in Dakhla. The press reported the number of participants to be as high as 15 hundred. Demonstrations broke out again in Laayoune in late October, initially in support of the independence of the Western Sahara, and later to draw attention to the thirtieth anniversary of the Green March. One Sahrawi, Hamdi Lembarki, died October 30 of wounds from the previous day's demonstration. Two policemen were arrested in connection with Lembarki's death, and the Moroccan government began an investigation, which remained pending at year's end. The Moroccan Association of Human Rights (AMDH) reported that the trials of the demonstrators in the May disturbances were unfair because charges were never clearly articulated, lawyers were denied access to their clients, and allegations of torture by Moroccan authorities were not investigated. On December 9, Human Rights Watch (HRW) sent an open letter to Moroccan King Mohammed VI concerning the detention of seven human rights activists. The activists were Ali Salem Tamek, Mohamed El Moutaouakil, Houssein Lidri, Brahim Noumria, Larbi Messaoud, Aminatou Haidar, and H'mad Hammad. The letter also raised concerns about seven other young detainees. While the 14 had been arrested following the May through June demonstrations, on October 30, during a subsequent demonstration, police arrested Brahim Dahane, the fifteenth person mentioned in the HRW letter. HRW visited Laayoune, examined case files of the defendants, and concluded that "little if any of the evidence implicating them in inciting, directing or participating in the violence (that is, the earlier demonstrations) appears to be credible." On December 14, the Laayoune Court of Appeal sentenced the seven human rights activists to jail terms ranging from seven months to two years. AI reported that the proceedings lasted only a few hours and that the defendants were not given the opportunity to challenge alleged verbal confessions that police provided to the court. The defendants said that any alleged confessions were extracted only after torture or ill-treatment while they were in detention. Those sentenced were Ali Salem Tamek, Mohamed El Moutaouakil, Houssein Lidri, Brahim Noumria, Larbi Messaoud, Aminatou Haidar, and H'mad Hammad. Seven others also were sentenced in the same trial. After being held for 48 hours following his arrest on October 30, police reportedly charged Brahim Dahane with belonging to an unauthorized organization, the Sahrawi Association for the Victims of Human Rights Abuses, of which he is the president. Dahane has not yet been brought to trial. AI considered Dahane and the other seven defendants to be prisoners of conscience. Some prisoners arrested after the May demonstrations launched sporadic hunger strikes; the Polisario claimed the figure was 37. While initially the Moroccan government said that only seven prisoners were on a hunger strike, it later stated that all of the prisoners participated. The hunger strike ceased in September, but it resumed sporadically in ensuring months. AMDH wanted the government to negotiate with those who had launched the hunger strike. Following the May demonstrations, Spanish delegations composed of journalists and regional politicians attempted to visit the Western Sahara. Moroccan authorities, who charged that the visits were politically motivated, prevented several delegations from disembarking from their aircraft. Morocco embarked on negotiations with the Spain to try to agree on guidelines for visits to the territory. Spanish journalists based in Morocco had regular access to the territory, although they complained of surveillance and harassment by the Moroccan authorities. In April Moroccan authorities detained three Norwegian journalists in Laayoune. The authorities interrogated and deported two of the journalists, who were covering a demonstration. Prior to the trial of 16 teenagers who participated in the May demonstrations in Laayoune, five Norwegians traveled overland to Laayoune from Morocco to show support for the teenagers, but Moroccan authorities stopped them and escorted them back to Morocco. In recent years, there were no reports of politically motivated disappearances in the territory under Moroccan administration. Forced disappearance of individuals who opposed the Moroccan government and its policies occurred over several decades. In 1997 the government pledged that such activities would not recur and agreed to disclose as much information as possible on past cases. Authorities stated that they had released information on all 112 confirmed cases of disappearance. However, human rights groups and families claimed hundreds more cases, many from the territory. International human rights organizations estimated that there were between one thousand and fifteen hundred disappearances of Sahrawis in the territory, although conditions in the territory prevented confirmation of this figure. The disappeared were both Sahrawis and Moroccans who challenged the government's claim to the territory or other government policies. Many reportedly were held in secret detention camps. At year's end Moroccan families did not have any information regarding their missing relatives, many of whom disappeared over 20 years ago. In 2000 through the Arbitration Commission of the Royal Advisory Council on Human Rights (CCDH), the government began distributing preliminary compensation payments to Sahrawis or the family members of those Sahrawis who had disappeared or been detained. The compensation was for urgent medical or financial needs. The government also announced that more compensation could be distributed pending the results of a review of petitions by Sahrawi claimants. In January 2004 the Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER) continued the work started by the CCDH to settle serious violations of human rights. The IER's mandate was to provide reparations to families of disappeared persons and other victims, to restore the dignity of victims, to provide for their rehabilitation and medical care, and to give a thorough accounting of the events that led to human rights abuses and of the circumstances of the crimes themselves. The appointed members of the IER included human rights activists, and the government designated Driss Benzekri, a former political prisoner, as commission president. On November 30, at the conclusion of its work, the IER had received 22 thousand applications, a number of them having to do with the territory. Investigative teams from the IER visited the territory on several occasions. Under agreement with the IER, participants in the hearings in Morocco did not disclose the names of persons they considered responsible for violations. The IER heard from 16,861 victims, families of victims, and witnesses of human rights violations. The IER held public commission hearings in Morocco and planned for hearings in the territory, but the IER did not hold the latter hearings due to internal IER time constraints compounded by demonstrations in the territory. The IER identified over 693 graves through the testimony and the documentation phase of its work. The Moroccan government identified approximately 63 of the graves as Sahrawis; however, AMDH said that many more Sahrawis died during detention. On December 1, the IER submitted to the king the final report, which assessed whether victims should be given compensation, calculated how much compensation they should receive, and outlined recommendations on how to prevent similar abuses in the future. The report delineated the reasons for the violence, as well as institutional responsibilities for the violations committed between 1956 and 1999. The king decreed that the entire report would be made public. Both the 1991 settlement plan and the 1997 Houston Accords called for the Polisario to release all remaining Moroccan prisoners of war (POWs) after the parties completed the voter identification process. In 1999 MINURSO completed the provisional list of eligible voters. The Moroccan government continued to contest the identification process. The Western Sahara, a traditionally nomadic tribal area, continued to experience migration and emigration following 1975. Tribal members who left the region are eligible to vote, but their direct heirs are not. The Moroccan government disagreed with this determination. On August 18, the Polisario released 404 Moroccan POWs, which accounted for the remaining Moroccan POWs. The Polisario had released two POWs in poor health on January 22; one subsequently died. On February 2, two POWs escaped, while on July 14, another four POWs escaped. There were credible reports from international organizations, Moroccan nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and from the released POWs themselves, that Moroccan POWs suffered serious physical and psychological health problems due to their prolonged detention, abuse, and forced labor. According to the Polisario, the government continued to withhold information on approximately 150 Polisario missing combatants and supporters whom the Polisario listed by name. Morocco formally denied that any Sahrawi former combatants remained in detention. The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) continued to investigate such Polisario claims in addition to Moroccan claims that the Polisario had not fully divulged information on the whereabouts of 213 Moroccan citizens. In a few cases, the ICRC found that individuals on the Polisario list were living peacefully in Moroccan territory or in Mauritania. Morocco and the Polisario disputed the number of persons in the refugee camps. The Moroccan government continued to claim that the Polisario detained 45 to 50 thousand Sahrawi refugees against their will in camps near Tindouf, Algeria. The Polisario claimed that refugee numbers at Tindouf were much higher, but it denied that any refugees were held against their will. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Food Program appealed regularly to donors for food aid, and distributed it to a population of approximately 155 thousand in the refugee camps, although the UN reduced the planning figure to 90 thousand, partially in response to concerns about inflated refugee numbers. In August 2004 the UNHCR completed a six‑month program of confidence building measures, highlighted by family visits that brought 12 hundred persons to meet for five days with long‑separated relatives. Most participants were Sahrawi refugees from the refugee camps in Algeria visiting relatives in the Moroccan‑controlled territory. Approximately 19 thousand Sahrawis registered to participate in the program, and the UNHCR transported 1,476 persons for visits. The confidence-building measures also included telephone exchanges between relatives in the territory and refugee camps in Algeria. The program was interrupted in August for lack of funding but resumed briefly in November and December. The Moroccan government generally restricted freedoms of expression, assembly, and association. In late November the government blocked several Sahrawi-based Internet websites. Sahrawi activists claimed that they were unable to form political associations or politically oriented NGOs. The Moroccan authorities claimed that they did not intervene in the demonstrations in Laayoune and Dakhla until the demonstrators became violent and destroyed personal property. In 2003 according to France-Libertie, a French human rights organization, the Polisario restricted freedoms of expression, assembly, association, and movement in its camps near Tindouf. Due to continuing Moroccan control of the territory, the laws and restrictions regarding religious organizations and religious freedom were the same as those in Morocco. The Moroccan government and the Polisario restricted movement in areas regarded as militarily sensitive. Sahrawis continued to have difficulty obtaining Moroccan passports. The government issued activist Ali Salem Tamek a passport and allowed him to travel abroad, but he was later arrested for his role in the demonstrations. The government prevented Sahrawi nationalists who had been released from prison in Morocco from living in the disputed territory. The law imposes stiff fines and prison terms on those, including government officials, involved in or failing to prevent trafficking in persons. The territory was a transit region for traffickers of persons. There was little organized labor activity. The same labor laws that apply in Morocco apply in the Moroccan‑controlled areas of the territory. Moroccan unions were present in the areas controlled by Morocco, but they were not active. The Polisario‑sponsored labor union, Sario Federation of Labor, also was not active because the Polisario‑controlled territory did not contain major population centers or economic activity, apart from nomadic herding. There were no strikes, other job actions, or collective bargaining agreements during the year. Most union members were employees of the Moroccan government or state‑owned organizations. They were paid 85 percent more than their counterparts in Morocco as an inducement to relocate to the territory. The Moroccan government exempted workers from income and value‑added taxes. Moroccan law prohibited forced or bonded labor, including by children, and there were no reports that such practices occurred. Regulations on the minimum age of employment were the same as in Morocco. Child labor did not appear to be a problem. The minimum wage and maximum hours of work were identical to those in Morocco. However, in practice, during peak periods, workers in some fish processing plants worked as many as 12 hours per day, 6 days per week, which was well beyond the 10-hour day, 44-hour week maximum stipulated in the Moroccan code of labor. Occupational health and safety standards were the same as those enforced in Morocco and were rudimentary, except for a prohibition on the employment of women in dangerous occupations.

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The next big thing in medical care could be really, really small. We’re talking nanomedicine. And that nano prefix means these therapies involve things measured on the scale of mere billionths of a meter. Engineers already use nanotechnology to design better batteries, invisible “inks” and even rewritable paper. In medicine, nano materials could save lives and change the way doctors treat disease. The teeny tiny particles could travel deep within the body. Some might carry medicines to find and help kill disease. Nanoscale objects might even be part of medical devices placed inside the body. Nanomedicine is a broad field. “It really covers anything that can be used for care or treatment that’s on the nanoscale,” says physicist James McLaughlan. He works at the School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom. New studies show some of the ways smaller can be better in battling disease. Their super-small structures, for instance, can affect how nanoparticles work. Researchers are now trying out tiny tubes, wads, wafers, spheres and other forms. See what’s shaping up in the world of nanomedicine. Medicines work best when they get to the part of the body where they’re needed. Because they’re tiny, nanomedicines can go where bigger particles can’t. Even medicines as small as one millionth of a meter across may not be able to squeeze through the walls of blood vessels. But much smaller nanomedicines can burrow deep into tissues. Some might even go “straight inside the cells,” McLaughlan notes. What’s more, size can affect a medicine’s behavior. At the nano scale, the laws of physics get weird. Something called quantum physics starts taking over. Here, at the atomic and molecular level, matter and energy behave as both particles and waves. “That physics is just as related to our lives, and what goes on in the molecules in our body, as chemistry is,” says Beverly Rzigalinski. She studies the biological actions and effects of medicines at Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine in Blacksburg, Va. Importantly, she adds, tiny nanoparticles sometimes act in ways that larger ones can’t. Rzigalinski works with cerium (SEER-ee-um) oxide crystals. Each particle measures about 10 nanometers across. “One hundred thousand of them would fit in a period at the end of a sentence,” she says. Cerium oxide has been used in the pollution-control equipment on cars. When added to paints, cerium oxide helps fight rust. In medicine, these nanoparticles might prevent “rust” of a different kind, Rzigalinski says. Namely, harm to brain cells from molecules known as free radicals. A free radical is like the kid in a kindergarten class who can’t keep his hands to himself. Because of its structure, a free radical is anxious to react with other chemicals. Put simply, it will steal an electron from one of its neighbors. In the body, that theft can unleash a type of cell damage known as oxidative stress. Researchers have linked various diseases to oxidative stress. In Parkinson’s disease, for example, free radicals may contribute to the loss of certain brain cells known as neurons. The affected cells make dopamine (DOE-puh-meen). This chemical has many important jobs. One of its jobs is to help animals to move normally. People with Parkinson’s disease, for instance, often can’t get up from a chair or walk without trouble. Writing and eating also can be hard because of tremors and weak muscles. Cerium-oxide nanoparticles can find free radicals and neutralize them. In effect, excess free radicals steal electrons from the particles. Now they are no longer radicals. And that means they no longer pose a threat to healthy cells. Natural antioxidants, like vitamin C or vitamin E, work in a similar way. They give up an electron to the free radicals. But each of those vitamin molecules can defuse only one free radical. In contrast, cerium-oxide nanoparticles can defuse them over and over. Rzigalinski’s group thinks the particles use nearby water molecules to recharge — somehow get back any electrons they’ve lost. Once recharged, they’re ready to go back to work. The nanoparticles can defuse “thousands — or hundreds of thousands — of free radicals,” Rzigalinski says. To see if such particles might work as a medicine, her team gave them to mice. These animals had a form of Parkinson’s disease. One group of mice acted as a control group — meaning they got no treatment. Other groups got a single dose of the particles. Each group got a different dose. The dose that worked best was 0.5 microgram per gram of a mouse’s body weight. It boosted dopamine levels in the brains of mice by almost 50 percent. “These are extremely low doses,” Rzigalinski stressed. She presented the results in November 2014 at the annual meeting of the Society for Neuroscience in Washington, D.C. More tests are needed before the treatment is available for people. However, the work might one day help people with Parkinson’s. Rzigalinski is also looking at how the nanoparticles might help treat other conditions, too. Some of her research deals with Alzheimer’s disease, which affects memory. Another project is exploring whether the particles might help with brains injured by a car crash, a sports collision or some other trauma. A nanomedicine’s shape also can make a difference. The particles Rzigalinski works with look like tiny, crumpled wads of paper. That shape maximizes their surface area. That way, her group’s particles can interact better with free radicals, she says. Some other researchers fashion their medicines as tiny spheres. Jae Hyung Park is a chemical engineer at Sungkyunkwan University in Suwon, the Republic of Korea. His group coated nanoparticle spheres of a cancer drug with an artificial material called a polymer. After a while, the polymer will biodegrade, or break down inside the body. In mice, that coating kept the drug from acting until it had a chance to reach the animals’ cancer cells. The team reported its findings last year in Biomacromolecules. In a similar study, another team of scientists worked with a very toxic cancer medicine. By itself, that medicine would destroy healthy blood-making marrow tissue in mice. But to spare the marrow, these researchers worked with nanoparticles shaped a bit like porous nano-size balls. This design slowed down the drug’s release. Now one dose could kill cancer cells for a longer period of time. At least as importantly, tucking the medicine inside the balls cut down its harm to the marrow. Scientists at the drug company AstraZeneca in Cheshire, England, described these findings on February 10 in Science Translational Medicine. Back at the University of Leeds, McLaughlan and his colleagues have used gold nanotubes that look like tiny straws. Their shape might help doctors both find and better treat a cancer, he says. First those straws have to find the cancer cells. To do this, the researchers coat the tubes with a special chemical. The coating makes them stick to a particular type of cancer cell. Once injected into the blood, the straws will hunt down those cancer cells — and largely ignore all others. Afterward, the researchers will shine near-infrared light onto the outside of the body. The nanotubes’ shape — the ratio of their length to diameter — makes them absorb energy from that light. Afterward, the nano straws will release that energy again, this time as sound. Ultrasound imaging can listen for that sound and use it to pinpoint where a cancer is hiding. The method worked well to find cancer not only in tissues that were growing in a dish but also in mice. These same nanotubes might later help with treatment too, McLaughlan says. Gold is a metal that easily conducts heat. Once doctors find where cancer cells are hiding, they can train a laser beam at that site. This would heat up the nanotubes, essentially frying any cancer cells they had glommed onto. Or doctors might direct heat at the nanotubes as a way to release any medicine that might have been packed inside the nanotubes. Early last year, McLaughlan and his colleagues described tests of this in Advanced Functional Materials. Another type of nanoparticles also would do double duty, but in a very different way. They look like crumpled wads of paper or wrinkled spheres (think of raisins). Inside them is a drop of medicine containing a special dye. Once they get inside a cancer cell, the particles release their medicine. This kills the cell. Now the dye undergoes a chemical reaction with an enzyme in the cell. When a doctor shines near-infrared light on this tissue, the dye in these dead cells will fluoresce, or glow. That tell-tale glow confirms the drug had been successful, explains Ashish Kulkarni. He’s a bioengineer on the research team at Harvard University and Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Cambridge, Mass. If the glow doesn’t show up, a doctor would know to try something else, such as a different medicine. There are more than 100 types of cancer. Each is a different disease with different types of cells. These nanoparticles have worked in lab tests with cancers that initially form in breasts, prostate, lungs, skin and ovaries. Kulkarni and his team described their work this spring in the April 12 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Proceeding with caution Don’t expect your doctor to write a prescription for the nanomedicines described here. At least, not just yet. Some early nanomeds are already helping some patients. But before governments in North America, Europe and elsewhere approve a new medicine’s use, they usually demand rigorous tests to show the treatments are both safe and work well. It takes many steps before a treatment that works in the lab or in animals may be tried in people. Treatments designed by Rzigalinski, McLaughlan and many other teams must still go through such testing. Along the way, researchers may need to tinker with the design of a drug to limit the risk of side effects. “Gold itself is not that toxic,” McLaughlan says, talking about his team’s nanotubes. Gold also doesn’t linger long in the body. Still, he says, “It’s going to take a lot more studies” before anyone will try gold nanotubes in people. And what if they aren’t completely safe? In some cases, doctors will still use medicines, even when they pose some risk. Cadmium is very toxic to the kidneys, for instance. Like some other metals, this one can form toxic free radicals in the body. But nanoparticles with cadmium might boost the potency of radiation therapy for cancer. Patients undergoing radiation treatments often face a high risk of death from their disease. Those patients might be willing to accept some additional risk if there seemed a reasonable chance the cadmium would clobber their killer disease. So far, Rzigalinski hasn’t found any toxic effects in mice she has treated with cerium oxide. “It doesn’t generate free radicals” in the body, she says. The same physics that lets the nanoparticles work over and over seems to prevent that. Side effects remain a worry Yet even with lots of lab tests, scientists might not identify all possible side effects. Some nanomeds may trigger effects “we might not have thought about before,” notes Alan Gaffney. He’s a doctor at New York-Presbyterian/Columbia University Medical Center in New York City. His work there deals with life support for patients during surgery. Gaffney recently worked on a project using carbon nanotubes. Carbon usually doesn’t cause inflammation or other health problems, Gaffney notes. For this project, he worked with Marek Radomski and other scientists at Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland. Radomski’s work deals with the health effects of drugs and medical devices. The challenge is “to engineer the surface of medical devices for them to be safe,” Radomski explains. Ideally, these surfaces should mimic the way the body’s own cells work in the lining of blood vessels, he says. Yet the devices doctors use for heart patients may be made of very unnatural materials. Take stents. Surgeons insert these net-like devices — often made from metal — into blood vessels to keep them propped open. But blood sometimes sticks to the stents. This could lead to deadly blood clots. Or consider patients put on a heart-bypass machine during surgery. This machine takes over for the heart to pump blood around the body. But its surfaces, too, can also pose a clot threat. The researchers wondered whether covering the inside of such devices with nanotubes might cut that risk of clots. To test that, they ran human blood through a bypass machine sized for a rabbit. The end result: The nanotube coating upped the risk of clots. This was hardly the result they had hoped for. Radomski’s team reported its findings last year in Nanomedicine. If that could happen in a machine, perhaps other medical uses for nanoparticles need a closer look too, Gaffney now warns. Perhaps there’s a way to make those surfaces more like that of a non-stick pan. Another idea: Perhaps designers could cover the surface with teeny tiny dimples, like those on a golf ball. “We are pretty sure that if you want to change the properties of the surface, you’ve got to do something different,” Radomski says. As in any field of science, knowing what doesn’t work is often helpful. To make nanomedicines work just right may take a lot of trial and error. But one day, such teensy particles might improve medicine in a huge way.

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The traditions of indigenous Mesoamerican literature extend back to the oldest-attested forms of early writing in the Mesoamerican region, which date from around the mid-1st millennium BCE. Many of the pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica are known to have been literate societies, who produced a number of Mesoamerican writing systems of varying degrees of complexity and completeness. Mesoamerican writing systems arose independently from other writing systems in the world, and their development represents one of the very few such origins in the history of writing. The conquistadors burned most Mesoamerican texts that they encountered. The conquistadors also brought their distinctive cultural creations, in the form of books, from Europe to the New World which further influenced native literature. The literature and texts created by indigenous Mesoamericans are the earliest-known from the Americas for primarily two reasons: Firstly the fact that the native populations of Mesoamerica were the first to enter into intensive contact with Europeans, assuring that many samples of Mesoamerican literature have been documented in surviving and intelligible forms. Secondly, the long tradition of Mesoamerican writing which undoubtedly contributed to the native Mesoamericans readily embracing the Latin alphabet of the Spaniards and creating many literary works written in it during the first centuries after the Spanish conquest of Mexico. This article summarizes current knowledge about indigenous Mesoamerican literatures in its broadest sense and describe it categorized by its literary contents and social functions. When defining literature in its broadest possible sense, so to include all products of "literacy", its function in a literate community ought to be the focus of analysis. The following are known genres and functions of indigenous Mesoamerican literatures. Three major subjects of Mesoamerican literatures can be identified: Geoffrey Sampson distinguishes between two kinds of writing. One kind of writing he calls 'semasiographical', this covers kinds of pictorial or ideographic writing that is not necessarily connected to phonetic language but can be read in different languages, this kind of writing is for example used in roadsigns which can be read in any language. The other kind of writing is phonetic writing called by Sampson 'glottographic' writing and which represents the sounds and words of languages and allows accurate linguistic readings of a text that is the same at every reading. In Mesoamerica the two types were not distinguished, and so writing, drawing, and making pictures were seen as closely related if not identical concepts. In both the Mayan and Aztec languages there is one word for writing and drawing (tlàcuiloa in Nahuatl and tz'iib' in Classic Maya) Pictures are sometimes read phonetically and texts meant to be read are sometimes very pictorial in nature. This makes it difficult for modern day scholars to distinguish between whether an inscription in a Mesoamerican script represents spoken language or is to be interpreted as a descriptive drawing. The only Mesoamerican people known without doubt to have developed a completely glottographic or phonetic script is the Maya, and even the Mayan script is largely pictorial and often shows fuzzy boundaries between images and text. Scholars disagree on the phonetics of other Mesoamerican scripts and iconographic styles, but many show use of the Rebus principle and a highly conventionalised set of symbols. The monumental inscriptions were often historical records of the citystates: Famous examples include: The function of these kinds of historical inscriptions also served to consoliate the power of the rulers who used them also as a kind of propaganda testimonies to their power. Most commonly monumental hieroglyphical texts describe: The epigrapher David Stuart writes about the differences in content between the monumental hieroglyphical texts of Yaxchilan and those of Copan: Most codices date from the colonial era, with only a few surviving from the prehispanic era (the Conquistador invaders burned many original texts). A number of Precolumbian codices written on amate paper with gesso coating remain today. Some common household objects of ceramics or bone and adornments of jade have been found with inscriptions. For example, drinking vessels with the inscription saying "The Cacao drinking cup of X" or similar. The largest part of the Mesoamerican literature today known has been fixed in writing after the Spanish conquest. Both Europeans and Mayans began writing down local oral tradition using the Latin alphabet to write in indigenous languages shortly after the conquest. Many of those Europeans were friars and priests who were interested in trying to convert the natives to Christianity. They translated Catholic catechisms and confessional manuals and acquired a good grasp of the indigenous languages and often even composed grammars and dictionaries of the indigenous languages. These early grammars of native languages systematized the reading and writing of indigenous languages in their own time and help us understand them today. The most widely known early grammars and dictionaries are of the Aztec language, Nahuatl. Famous examples are the works written by Alonso de Molina and Andrés de Olmos. But also Mayan and other Mesoamerican languages have early grammars and dictionaries, some of very high quality. The introduction of the Latin alphabet and the elaboration of conventions for writing indigenous languages allowed for the subsequent creation of a wide range of texts. And indigenous writers took advantage of the new techniques to document their own history and tradition in the new writing, while monks kept on extending literacy in the indigenous population. This tradition lasted only a few centuries however and due to royal decrees about Spanish being the only language of the Spanish empire by the mid-1700s most indigenous languages were left without a living tradition for writing. Oral literature, however, kept being transmitted to this day in many indigenous languages and began to be collected by ethnologists in the beginnings of the 20th century, however without promoting native language literacy in the communities in which they worked. It is an important and extremely difficult job in the Mesoamerica of today, and what that is only beginning to be undertaken, to return native language literacy to the indigenous peoples. But during the first post-conquest centuries a large number of texts in indigenous Mesoamerican languages were generated. Many of the post-conquest texts are historical accounts, either in the form of annals recounting year by year the events of a people or city-state often based on pictorial documents or oral accounts of aged community members. But also sometimes personalized literary accounts of the life of a people or state and almost always incorporating both mythical material and actual history. There was no formal distinction between the two in Mesoamerica. Sometimes as in the case of the Mayan Chilam Balam books historical accounts also incorporated prophetical material, a kind of "history in advance". Main article: New Philology The post-conquest situation of the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica also required them to learn to navigate in a complex new administrative system. In order to obtain any kinds of favorable positions pleas and petitions had to be made to the new authorities and land possessions and heritages had to be proven. This resulted in a large corpus of administrative literature in indigenous languages, because documents were often written in the native language first and later translated into Spanish. Historians of central Mexican peoples draw heavily on native-language documentation, most notably Charles Gibson in The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule (1964) and James Lockhart in The Nahuas After the Conquest (1992). The emphasis on native-language documentation for indigenous history has been emphasized in the New Philology. These administrative documents include a large number of: Main article: Relaciones geográficas In the late sixteenth-century the Spanish crown sought systematic information about indigenous settlements now part of the Spanish Empire. A questionnaire was drawn up and local Spanish officials gathered information from the indigenous towns under their administration, using local elites as their informants. Some reports were a few pages, such as that from Culhuacan, while some major indigenous polities, such as Tlaxcala, took the opportunity to give a detailed description of their prehispanic history and participation in the Spanish conquest of central Mexico. Most geographical accounts include a native map of the settlement. The Relaciones geográficas were produced because colonial officials complied with royal instructions, but their content was generated by indigenous informants or authors. The most extensively researched Mesoamerican indigenous literature is the literature containing mythological and legendary narratives. The styles of these books is often very poetic and appealing to modern aesthetic senses both because of the poetic language and its "mystical", exotic contents. It is also of interest to establish intertextuality between cultures. While many do include actual historic events the mythological texts can often be distinguished by focusing on claiming a mythical source to power by tracing the lineage of a people to some ancient source of power. Some famous collections of Aztec poetry have been conserved. Although written in the late 16th century they are believed to be fairly representative of the actual style of poetry used in precolumbian times. Many of the poems are attributed to named Aztec rulers such as Nezahualcoyotl. Because the poems were transcribed at a later date, scholars dispute whether these are the actual authors. Many of the mythical and historical texts also have poetic qualities. Not all specimens of native literature can be readily classified. A prime example of this are the Yucatec Mayan Books of Chilam Balam, mentioned above for their historical content, but also containing treatises on medical lore, astrology, etc. Although clearly belonging to Maya literature, they are profoundly syncretic in nature.

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Gigantic shock waves observable in the Universe Shock wave Kappa Cassiopeia | || Automatic translation|| ||Category: galaxies| Updated February 22, 2014 This shock wave (red bow on the image opposite) is in our Galaxy, the Milky Way. The shock wave caused by the displacement of a star can compress the gas into the space. When observing in the infrared, the environment of the star Kappa Cassiopeia that file at an impressive rate, we see this pressure in front of the star. Meet very high speed powered by the movement of the stars and gas into the galaxy gas creates the arc photographed by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Kappa Cassiopeia (κ Cas, κ Cassiopeia) or HD 2905 for astronomers , is a hot blue supergiant massive and that moves about 4 million km/h compared to its neighbors, or 1110 km/s. This bow shock around a star unveils high relative velocity. The passage of the star colors surrounding matter with a red glow. These structures are sometimes present in front of the fastest and most massive stars in the Milky Way. These shocks form where the magnetic field and wind particles collide with gas and fugitive dust that fills interstellar space. The moving speed of our Sun is 217 m/s but the shock wave is substantially invisible to all light wave lengths. For cons, the rapid movement of Kappa Cassiopeia creates shocks that can be seen by Spitzer's infrared detectors. This shock wave that precedes the star has a radius of 4 light-years (1 al = 9 460 895 288 762 850 meters). Image: Image of Shockwave Kappa Cassiopeia. The red arc of this infrared image taken by the Spitzer Space Telescope NASA is a giant shock wave created by the difference in speed of movement of the Kappa Cassiopeia star (the star at the center of the arc) relative to its neighbors. Shock wave of the Tarantula | || || || | About 2400 massive stars are hidden in the center of the Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus). These stars produce radiation so intense that the powerful winds blowing off the field. The gas of the nebula is heated to millions of degrees by stellar shock wave radiation. These shock waves are shown in blue on the X-ray image taken by the telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory. These shock waves are generated by winds and ultraviolet radiation from the young stars in the cluster. These explosions carve in the dust, huge blue bubbles of superheated gas from the cold material of the nebula. This cold material of orange color, is seen here in infrared emission with the Spitzer Space Telescope. RMC 136, is the supercluster stars, located near the center of the Tarantula Nebula. It is known as 30 Doradus. The Tarantula Nebula is outside of our galaxy, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 170 000 light-years from the solar system. At the heart of this star-forming region, 30 Doradus lies a huge cluster containing the largest stars, the most massive and hottest known to date. Image: Image of the Tarantula nebula seen in X-ray telescope Chandra X-ray and infrared by the Spitzer Space Telescope. Image Credit: NASA | || || || || | Shock wave of the Cartweel galaxy | || || || | The Cartwheel Galaxy (also known as the ESO 350-40) is a lenticular galaxy or annular located about 500 million light years away in the constellation Sculptor in the southern hemisphere. The cartwheel shape of this galaxy is the result of a violent galactic collision that occurred there are about 200 million years. A small galaxy passed through the heart of a large disk galaxy, and produced this gigantic shock wave, which propagated the surrounding gas and dust in the galaxy, much like the ripples of water produced when a stone is thrown into a lake. The Cartwheel galaxy is now surrounded by a bluish ring of 150 000 light years in diameter, composed of bright young stars. Moving at high speed of the shock wave, a compressed gas and dust, which has fostered the birth of stars that light up now, the edge of the wave. In the image, regions of star formation are shown in blue. The outer ring of the galaxy, is 1.5 times the size of our Milky Way. It can be seen in this picture, the galaxy is now back as a normal spiral galaxy, with galactic arms that form again from the central core. This galaxy was a galaxy similar to the Milky Way, before it undergoes the collision. This is a celestial object of the most remarkable class of ring galaxies. Star formation in the rings, like the Cartwheel Galaxy, promotes the formation of stars of large size and very bright. When these massive stars explode as a supernova, it remains in their hearts, a neutron star or black hole. Some of these neutron stars and black holes attract matter from nearby stars and become powerful sources of X-rays Cartwheel contains an unusually high number of these black holes X-ray sources, because many massive stars have formed in the ring of the galaxy. This image was produced with data from Hubble and adjusted using the open source software FITS Liberator 3, which was developed at ST-ECF. Judicious use of this tool has allowed the original Hubble observations, to obtain details of the Cartwheel galaxy. nota: Hubble images of high resolution (ESA). | || | Image: The image retired of this cosmic event, shows the Cartwheel galaxy also known as the ESO 350-40. Image Hubble telescope NASA / ESA Space. Shock wave of the Bullet cluster | || || || | Clusters of galaxies are not formed, than to galaxies, they bathe in cold low density gas (1000 particles/m3) and in the extremely hot gas (10 to 100 million degrees). At these temperatures, the gas is fully ionized, it is a visible plasma in the field of x-rays. The gas is distributed in a way, much more diffuse, it fills the space between the galaxies and extends well beyond. The mass of gas belonging to the galaxy is much larger than the mass of the galaxy itself. If we measure the gravitational dynamics of the universe at large scale, the mass of ordinary matter in the observable universe is only 4% of the total mass. 23% of the mass is dark matter and 73% of dark energy. This is described in a predominantly accepted model, the SCDM model (Standard Cold Dark Matter). What we see when we look at the light of stars, galaxies and clusters is ordinary matter. But how can we see dark matter? Clusters of galaxies are the largest observable structures of matter. They consist of hundreds of galaxies bound together by their own gravitational attraction. Ordinary matter of galaxies is mainly gas, because the mass of the gas is much larger than the total mass of stars. All matter, ordinary matter and dark matter undergoes gravitational forces. It is in the Bullet cluster, that the cosmologists could "see" dark matter. The Bullet cluster or 1E 0657-56 (Bullet cluster) observable in the constellation Carina, is the result of the collision of two clusters of galaxies that happened there 150 million years. The study of this collision began in August 2006 and showed one of the strongest proofs of the existence of dark matter. When clusters or galaxies collide, the matter (stars, gas and dust) is perturbed by the gravitational forces. In reality, heavy objects like stars do not collide, they pass, one next to the other without ever meeting, because the space between the stars is immense. The stars are therefore not affected by the collision, they can be accelerated or slowed slightly gravitationally but not destroyed. By cons during the collision, the cold and hot gases that constitute the bulk of the baryonic mass of galaxies, will interact with each other, they will even be strongly and quickly slowed. They will mix more easily because of their atomic freedom and their very weak bond. This is what we see on the composite image below cons. This gigantic collision between two clusters generated considerable energy, perhaps the most powerful of the universe since Big Bang. It is in the domain of X-rays, the observation of the collision sheds new light on dark matter, because the stars, gas and dark matter behave differently during the collision. Galaxies of two clusters of galaxies are observed in visible light, it is the white spots, the hot gases of the two clusters are observed in X-rays, which are the red clouds, dark matter is shown in blue. But what do we see exactly? We see the result of a collision between two clusters. In this picture there are hundreds of galaxies grouped together in clusters but mostly we see a small cluster of galaxies in the blue right spot and a large cluster of galaxies in the blue spot on the left. Both gaseous envelopes of the two clusters are in red color, small red spot follows the little blue spot and the great red spot follows the big blue spot. In fact the small cluster of galaxies right, just cross the great cluster left. The huge collision "disheveled" two clusters of their halo gas causing a shock wave visible in the tip of the little red spot. This shock wave strongly compressed and therefore heated the gas in the cluster to the point to reach 100 million degrees. The cluster of the bullet is one of the hottest clusters known. In places the telescope Chandra X-ray Observatory has measured a speed of gas 4500 km / s. The two clusters are now separated by 3.4 light years and the total mass calculated according to their speed and distance, represent much more than the mass of the visible ordinary matter (galaxies seen in the optical and gas seen in the X-rays). These are deliberately colored blue areas that show the distribution of the invisible dark matter in the cluster. In the frontal impact colossal, dark matter behaved like ordinary matter, it did not interact, it crossed another dark matter smoothly while the interstellar gas was snatched of the clusters. This caused the shock wave that can be seen in the red bullet-shaped cloud of gas right. The clear separation of dark matter and gas clouds is considered as direct evidence of the existence of dark matter. Image: What do we see in this false-color composite image? We see all the matter in the cluster of the bullet "bullet cluster." Located 3.4 light years away from each other, the two clusters of individual galaxies Bullet are in the blue area and the two galactic gas clouds are seen in X-rays, in red). The blue colored areas represent the bulk of the mass of clusters, i.e. dark matter, six times more massive than ordinary matter. The cluster of the bullet is the smaller of the two cluster that crossing through the other side to the other. The huge collision "disheveled" two cluster of their halo gas causing a shock wave visible in the tip of the little red spot. This shock wave strongly compressed and therefore heated the gas in the cluster to the point to reach 100 million degrees. It stands out as a bullet followed by his trail of gas. Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/ M.Markevitch et al.; Lensing Map: NASA/STScI; ESO WFI; Magellan/U.Arizona/ D.Clowe et al. Optical: NASA/STScI; Magellan/U.Arizona/D.Clowe et al.;

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The Birth of Indic Architecture In this article, rising University of Toronto scholar Randip Baskhi looks at the relationship between colonizer and colony as seen in architecture. In many cases, we can see a clear link between architecture and the cycles of empire. There can be little question that the great 17th century Ottoman architect Sinan is an imperial architect, a rising-empire artist whose work seems to exist to glorify the Ottoman caliphates and their conquests; or that an equally gifted but entirely different architect, the 20th century’s Sam Mockbee of the Rural Studio, is a folk architect, a figure of the fourth (or mature-empire) quadrant. Mockbee is an architect whose work celebrates the common man, an architect who uses the castoff materials of empire to create work which cuts against the “imperial” grain. Indic architecture today is vibrant and eclectic. Architects like Charles Correa, Sheila Sri Prakash and Eugene Pandala are creating dramatic, distinctive structures on the international stage. What was the first Indic building? When did the Indian culture break free of the heavy influence of Great Britain and classic western aesthetics to initiate its own style? Bakshi points to a single structure: the 1911 Viceregal Lodge, now known as Rashtrapati Bhavan. The Birth of Indic Architecture by Randip Bakshi copyright @ 2011 Randip Bakshi The English first came to what we now call the Indian subcontinent in 1615, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. They subsequently ruled India for over three hundred years, first under the guise of the East India Company and later as a direct crown colony. In their time as administrators, the British built up a vast, transcontinental brick-and-mortar system of infrastructure – schools, railways, railway stations, ports, banks, post-offices, libraries, universities, administrative and bureaucratic offices, even palatial residences. The collective architecture of these myriad English structures built over centuries came to represent the British rule in India. Yet it is difficult to pinpoint when an “Indic” style of architecture – architecture of the subcontinent – emerged. What is Indic architecture? Colonial architecture in India oscillated between foreign design idioms (such as the Gothic Revival style of Bombay and the Classical Revival style of Calcutta) or the overtly stylized amalgamation of English and Indian architectural motifs, termed the “Indo-Sarcenic.” This trend of a split personality between two Indian aesthetics continued until the creation of New Delhi as the imperial capital in 1911. At New Delhi, colonial architecture can be seen to finally achieve an authentic synthesis between British thought and Indian aesthetics. It is this unity of disparate architectural elements that I will call Indic. To this end, I will argue that Britain’s search for an architectural style for its most valuable possession – the jewel in the crown – India, ends with the construction of the new capital at Delhi. I will use the example of the Viceregal Lodge (now Rastrapati Bhavan, or the Presidential Palace) – designed by Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker – and its architectural ornament to propel my argument. How does the Viceregal Lodge function as an example of the Indic style? To answer this question, a number of factors must be highlighted. First, we must briefly survey British architecture in India up until the shift in the capital from Calcutta to New Delhi. What was the prevalent style in the colony before the shift? Was there a uniform style across India, or did every region have a different vernacular, a different regional accent or means of architectural expression? What influenced the design choices in these regions? Then, a brief biography of the architects of New Delhi – Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker – will be a starting point for the analysis of the Viceregal Lodge. What influenced the choices of the architects? How did they manage to create the “perfect” combination of Indian and English aesthetics? Did they embark on this project as a testament to British presence in India? Finally, the Viceregal Lodge itself will be analyzed to prove that the architecture at New Delhi superseded both the foreign design styles (Gothic Revival, etc.) and the exotic Indo-Sarcenic to create a true colonial architecture in India. What is different about the Viceregal Lodge – its ornamentation, its location, its structure, the floor plan, the construction material or the ideology behind its construction? What Defines the Empire: Bombay Gothic, Calcutta Classical, or the Indo-Sarcenic? Indian colonial architecture evolved in three distinct phases. To better understand the third phase, the drastic shift in the architecture at New Delhi, we must analyze the architecture prevalent in the colony before the transfer of capitals. Many factors influenced the buildings designed and constructed by the British; chief among them was the projection of power and control. It is with this mindset that British architects began dominating the visual landscape of India. In 1873, T. Roger Smith concluded: “As our administration exhibits European justice, order, law, energy, and honour – and that in no hesitating or feeble way – so our buildings ought to hold up a high standard of European art. They ought to be European both as a rallying point for ourselves, and as raising a distinctive symbol of our presence to be beheld with respect and even with admiration by the natives of the country.” It is evident from Smith’s conclusion that architecture must be European to inspire respect and admiration and also, to be “distinctive.” This idea of using a European style was preferred by both administrators and architects, most notably in Bombay and Calcutta. Yet, this was not the only argument in relation to defining the architecture of India. William Emerson – an architect in the Indo-Sarcenic style – suggested, “It was impossible for the architecture of the west to be suitable to the natives of the east.” What could define national identity, purpose, mission, and image together in a unified manner? This was a recurring question until the construction of New Delhi at the turn of the century. Take for instance, Calcutta and its abundant examples of Neo-classical architecture. It has some of the earliest monuments to British rule. Government House (Raj Bhavan) at Calcutta (Fig. 2) was built in 1803 by Captain Charles Wyatt (of the Bengal Engineers). Built in the Palladian Classical style, this residence of the Viceroy of India and later, the Governor of Bengal, is a testament to English control over the province of Bengal. At the time, it would be the only “European” style building towering over the landscape of Calcutta. The Corinthian columns, portico-ed façade, the Classical pediment, and the Pantheonic Dome, all of these architectural elements reek of a foreign design style, transplanted onto the colony, much like British rule after the Battle of Plassey. Thomas Metcalf suggests that the design for the Calcutta Government House is modeled on the country residence of Lord Scrasdale, Kedleston Hall in Derbyshire (1760) (Fig. 3). Metcalf also proposes that the Calcutta design was not: “simply reproduced intact.” The design was enhanced to project an image of grandeur and growing English power on the sub-continent. Clearly, the argument furthered by T. Roger Smith in 1873 was the same ideology followed by the directors of the East India Company. This building perfectly represents the early phase of the Raj, when the English had little or no information of the country they were expanding their rule over. This lack of colonial knowledge would lead to the Mutiny and thereafter, would begin the most ambitious building program any British colony had ever seen. This building perfectly represents the early phase of the Raj, when the English had little … information of the country they were expanding their rule over. The Classical style, which until the Mutiny, was the de facto British colonial style of architecture, was soon to be replaced by the Gothic Revival and the Indo-Sarcenic. Nowhere is the Gothic Revival more prevalent than in Bombay. British expansion past the Presidencies of Calcutta and Madras, with the development of Bombay, along with the inclusion of provincial capitals, was a means to secure British presence in India. Colonial architecture announced to the natives the presence of their English masters, perhaps, like the all-seeing eye. It was a matter of surveillance and governance, which is why post-Mutiny the great information gathering exercise was instituted by the British. The first colonial census of 1872, followed by the emergence of photography, which allowed the administrators to record the people, culture, and landscape of India, was a means to understand the land and the people. This is the reason that Indo-Sarcenic became a prominent style in the period after the mutiny. Is it any coincidence that the Indo-Sarcenic came to be the style of choice for the colonial public school, such as Aitchison College (1886), Lahore, Punjab (Fig. 4), Daly College (1882), Indore, Central States Agency (Fig. 5), and Mayo College (1875), Ajmer, Rajputana (Fig. 6)? To answer this question let me progress logically from the Gothic Revival style at Bombay. Bombay began expanding under the governorship of Sir Bartlet Frere (r. 1862 – 1867), who tore down the walls of the old Fort St. George. Christopher London argues, “A convinced Gothic enthusiast, he [Frere] devised a master plan for the city, and implemented his vision during his five year tenure.” Prior to the Mutiny and the emergence of the Gothic Revival style, Bombay was molded in the same Neo-Classical framework as Calcutta. Take for instance, Bombay Town Hall (1833) (Fig. 7) and the Mint (1829) (Fig. 8), both display the columns, pediment, and porticoes, so essential to the Classical style, but this would change shortly. Two events ushered in “modernity” at Bombay. First, the construction of railway lines connecting it to the hinterland of India; and second, the opening of the Suez Canal, which made the entrance to India closer at Bombay, rather than traveling to Calcutta or Madras. With Frere’s Gothic vision, Bombay was on its way to becoming an international city. The Gothic style that came to define Bombay was unlike the Calcutta Classical, reminiscent of “traditional Indian palace architecture.” Yet it was still, at its core, a foreign architectural style constructed with local materials and sensitive to local weather conditions. The most prominent Gothic buildings in Bombay include the Victoria Terminus Railway Station (1887) (Fig. 9), Senate Hall, University of Bombay (1878) (Fig. 10), Rajabai Clock Tower, University of Bombay (1878) (Fig. 11), and Bombay High Court (1878) (Fig. 12). The Rajabai Clock Tower at the University of Bombay (Fig. 11) designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott is evocative of the shift in colonial architecture from Classical to Gothic. Reminiscent of Big Ben at the Palace of Westminster, London (1859), the Gothic clock tower at Bombay combined the British obsession with control. In its “foreign” style it included sculptures of the twenty-four castes of India, combing the English need for information that led to colonial control, which ultimately led to order in the colony. The architecture aimed at reinforcing the colonial hierarchy, and this was the message the “foreign” architectural style sent to the natives. Similarly, John Augustus Fuller’s Bombay High Court Building and Frederick William Stevens Victoria Terminus were masterpieces of Neo-Gothic architecture. The High Court building incorporated allegorical statues of justice and mercy, among many others, to symbolize English governance and law. Victoria Terminus, with its massive Gothic dome and protruding gargoyles was testament to the mercantile prowess of the British. These institutions of public governance and administration were shaped in a European style indicating the role of the English in ushering a colonized India into the modern age. It is no coincidence then that educational institutions like schools, libraries, and universities, were designed in the Neo-Gothic or Neo-Classical idiom, neither is it surprising that courts of law and railway stations were given the same design aesthetic. It would seem that Smith’s argument was indeed true in regards to the progression of Indian architecture, but such was not the case. Architects elsewhere in India were perfecting a style which would be known as the “Indo-Sarcenic.” With the urgent need to understand the people of the colony, the British wanted to incorporate Indian design elements into their architecture. The “Sarcenic” arch and dome came to be the standard-bearers for this synthesis. The British were not concerned with India’s Hindu and Buddhist past – although they were aware of it – they consciously chose to revive the Muslim architectural heritage. Thomas Metcalf notes, “Central to the appeal of this [Sarcenic] style too, of course, were its political implications, for the Sarcenic style was the style associated above all with the Mughal Empire, whose power and majesty the British now wished to claim as their own.” The Indo-Sarcenic style began with the work of Robert Fellowes Chisholm in Madras. The impact of this monument on the psyche of the Indian viewer as it juts out from the flat desert would reinforce the colonial objective of control. To better illustrate the central argument posed in this paper, I will use the example of Mayo College, Ajmer and its architect, Major Charles Mant. Mant came to India in 1859 and was part of the Royal Engineers. He trained in Bombay and worked on the University buildings as superintending architect under George Gilbert Scott. Why did Mant move away from the Gothic, which he trained in and was accustomed to, to the Indo-Sarcenic? Metcalf suggests, “From 1872, Mant devoted himself wholly to elaborating an Indic style.” Mayo College (Fig.6) was one in a series of Chief’s colleges, set up to educate the nobility of India’s countless princely states. Its mission was to educate Indians in the manners, customs, and ways of the English. This mission came to be reflected in the architecture, which was simultaneously Indian – drawing upon India’s Mughal past – and British. This systematic categorization – be it religion or architecture – is essential to understanding colonial ideology. Furthermore, the impact of this monument on the psyche of the Indian viewer as it juts out from the flat desert would reinforce the colonial objective of control. From this analysis, it can be concluded without doubt that the English lacked an architectural style for India, as contemporary monuments varied from the Gothic to the Indo-Sarcenic to the Classical. Anthony Welch, Martin Segger, and Nicholas De Caro, “Building for the Raj: Richard Roskell Bayne” in Reveu d’art canadienne/Canadian Art Revue, 34 (2009): 75. Robert Grant Irving, Indian Summer: Lutyens, Baker and Imperial Delhi (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1981), 5. T. Roger Smith, “Architectural Art in India” in Journal of the Society of Arts XXI (1873): 286. See also Thomas Metcalf, Forging the Raj: Essays on British India in the Heyday of Empire (New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press, 2005), 105. Thomas Metcalf, An Imperial Vision, 12. Ibid., 12. Ibid., 13. In some cases it is difficult to distinguish between the Gothic and Indo-Sarcenic, such the Bombay Municipal Corporation Headquarters, which combine both styles, and in some it is clear which style is being employed. This is because there is no uniform architectural style for the colony. An excellent analysis of the colonial knowledge gathering exercise is presented by Nicholas Dirks in Castes of Mind. Two excellent resources on photography in India are The Coming of Photography to India by Christopher Pinney and India: Pioneering Photographers, 1850 – 1900 by John Falconer. Also, Vidya Dehejia’s India Through the Lens: Photography 1840 – 1911, includes some relevant essays. Christopher London, Bombay Gothic (Mumbai, India: India Book House, Ltd., 2006), 18. Ibid., 22. The same reasoning would used to shift the capital from Calcutta to New Delhi, as Delhi would become the centre of six railway lines by 1910. Christopher London, Bombay Gothic, 25. Ibid., 44. Ibid., 52. Thomas Metcalf, An Imperial Vision, 58. Ibid., 59. Ibid., 66. Christopher London, Bombay Gothic, 43. Thomas Metcalf, An Imperial Vision, 67. Metcalf uses the term Indic to define architectural elements that are Indian in nature, such as chajjas, chattris, etc. I use the term Indic not to define Indian elements of architecture but instead, to define the third and final phase of colonial architecture in India (at New Delhi). Ironically, the term Indo-Sarcenic does not indicate a synthesis between English and Indian, if that were the case it would be Anglo-Sarcenic.

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Protecting your vertical garden has many different aspects. From pests to draught to adverse weather there are different things you need to consider to keep your garden healthy. Protect your vertical garden by adding mulch to retain moisture and reduce weeds; water them correctly close to their roots. Prune, fertilize or harvest them regularly. Before frost or winter sets in, acclimatize seedlings, cover your plants to retain heat, or overwinter portable containers. Vertical gardens need basic essential care and preventative measures just like a traditional garden to keep frost damage and nasty bugs at bay. Here I will discuss how I keep my vertical garden well cared for and free from pests and disease. Protect Your Vertical Garden From Pests & Diseases Pesky bugs and plant diseases are two of the biggest foes a gardener faces. They can wreak havoc if you don’t take preventive measures. Using natural products to prevent disease and deter pests is the best way to keep your plants healthy and any fruit or vegetables they produce. How to Protect your Vertical Garden from Pests - The hands-on approach: it’s often far easier to remove visible bugs by hand before they damage your plants or use a garden hose to remove them from a plant’s foliage. - Attract advantages bugs: let nature take care of hazardous bugs by planting additional flowers surrounding your vertical garden to attract predatory insects like spiders and wasps that consume harmful bugs. - Avoid using toxic synthetic pesticides: it’s normal to want to stop harmful bugs from destroying your beautiful plants. However, avoid applying toxic synthetic or broad-spectrum pesticides as they kill beneficial insects that safeguard your garden. - Natural insect repellants: while organic insecticides that contain the likes of neem oil are far less toxic than synthetic ones, they should only be used as a last resort. How to Protect your Vertical Garden from Disease Plant disease is a common problem for many gardeners. While vertical gardens are less prone to plant diseases, they are sometimes vulnerable to destructive plant fungus. When you are tending to your garden, look for spots or discolored foliage that could be tell-tale signs that a disease might be present. The best way to prevent disease is to improve airflow, reduce unnecessary moisture and keep your garden tools clean. Follow these tried and tested suggestions to protect your plants against diseases: - Prune plants regularly to create airflow. Good airflow between plants and leaves prevents molds and funguses from taking hold. - Water in the early mornings. This allows the water plenty of time to absorb into the soil before the heat of the day. It also allows the foliage to dry out during the day. If you need to water at night, focus on watering the roots and not the foliage. - Wash your pruning scissors in soapy water afterward to stop diseases from spreading to other plants. Dirty garden tools like pruning shears are one of the main ways disease spreads from plant to plant. - Don’t compost diseased plant cut-offs; rather, throw them in a sealed bag and place them in the garbage. - Use new, sterile soil to repot hanging baskets or container plants. Protect Your Outdoor Vertical Garden From Frost Damage Late spring and early fall frosts are a seasonal fear of northern gardeners. It is heartbreaking to have new seedlings or mature plants damaged by frost. Fortunately, there are several ways to protect your plants from frosts. The direction your vertical garden faces can also affect how prone it is to frost damage. Learn more in my article, What Direction Should a Vertical Garden Face? Acclimatize Your Seedlings If you are in the process of growing new plants from seeds for your vertical garden, they need to be prepared for the great outdoors. Fragile seedlings that have been grown in an indoor, sheltered environment are incredibly vulnerable. Dramatic temperature changes during the onset of frost could damage them if they are not properly acclimatized. Seedlings need gradual, limited exposure to the outdoors over a period of a week. They need to be able to withstand the potentially damaging effects of excessive rain, wind, sunlight, and frosts before they are planted. By introducing them slowly they will get used to their new harsher outdoor environment. When growing your seedling it helps to have a small fan on them to strengthen the stalks. This way a small breeze outside won’t knock your little plants flat. Keep An Eye On The Weather Pay close attention to weather forecasts during the spring and fall. While keeping an annual frost calendar for your region might be helpful, they are not always accurate. Having a plan for frost is all well and good but if it sneaks up on you then all your careful planning will be useless. Knowing when frosts are expected will dictate when you can transplant, how much you need to water, and when you would need to protect your vertical garden plants from frosts. If there is an unforeseen onset of frost in spring, your sun-loving basil and pepper crops could get damaged, so it would be wise to prepare for the onset of frost. Watering In Preparation For The Onset Of Frost Watering your plants well can help prevent frost from taking hold. Damp soil acts as a heat insulator as it will not freeze as quickly compared to dry soil. Well-hydrated plants will also be better prepared to withstand the shock of a dramatic temperature change. Most importantly, water your vertical garden in the morning to allow for the water to be absorbed before frost is expected the following day. However, ensure that your plants are not overwatered and that their foliage remains dry. Cover Your Outdoor Vertical Garden If it is not possible to shelter your outdoor vertical garden from impending frost, simply cover your vulnerable plants to retain heat and shield them from icy air. The best part is that you don’t have to spend a small fortune on plant covers as you can use anything that you might have on hand, like blankets, old sleeping bags, or bed sheets. Other cheap DIY options include storage containers and buckets that have been turned upside down to cover bigger plants for smaller plants cut openings in old milk jugs or soda bottle containers. You can also purchase a roll of fleece horticultural frost covers that are easy to cut to size and provide various protection levels in frosty conditions. Alternatively, consider using domed plastic Cloches to protect individual plants. Another great option for raised garden beds is using small cold frames that resemble little greenhouses made from see-through glass or plastic structures. - 【10FT X 30FT Rectangular Plant Cover】 The size of our plant cover is 10x30ft, this size can... - 【All-Purpose Floating Row Cover】Sunpro Floating Row Cover material is 0.75 oz/sq non-woven... - 【Best Protections Blankets for Plants & Trees】 Extra Stable Plant Blanket creates and... Alternatively, you can simply use a plastic sheet or bubble wrap to protect your vertical garden if it is adjacent to an interior wall that is not insulated to retain heat. However, if you require additional protection, install good old-fashioned Christmas lights along your vertical garden wall as they will provide additional heat. For living walls, install incandescent lights that face upwards before frost sets in, like Christmas lights; it will add additional heat and add to the wall’s aesthetic appeal. For both these options, you need incandescent or halogen lights not LEDs. LEDs do not produce any heat. Living walls are a great addition to any space but how long plants last is a common question. Find the answer to this question and more in my article, How Long Do Living Walls Last? When we were expecting frost in the fall with our Tower Garden, we draped a tarp over the top of the Tower to protect the cold air from touching the plants. This worked well for protection from a mild frost. Preparing Your Vertical Garden For Winter Fortunately, most vertical garden structures for living walls or tiered planters don’t require a lot of maintenance before winter sets in. Especially if you choose indigenous plants that can withstand cold winter periods. However, should your vertical garden grow in free-standing mobile planters, it would be wise to consider the following winter season risk-mitigating measures: - Move all your vertical portable structures like Tower Gardens, Garden Towers, picture frames, or hanging baskets indoors where they will be protected from the elements. - Overwinter perennials in their containers in an unheated, enclosed area like a shed, garage, or barn to extend their lifespan in preparation for summer. - If you are planning on repotting your vertical garden in spring and would like to leave the containers outside in winter, remove all their potting soil. Any remaining potting soil will otherwise freeze and damage your planters. Most plants enter a dormant phase during the winter in outdoor and indoor environments. It is a crucial phase in their development as it gives them time to rest, which in turn stimulates their growth. The dormant winter period is also highly beneficial for neglected plants that are not in great condition. Vertical Garden Protection & Care: Tips & Tricks Protecting a vertical garden is all about proper maintenace and care. Keeping your plants properly hydrated, fertilized and maintined is important to proper garden health. Keep Your Vertical Garden Well Hydrated Any avid gardener who has lost a few precious plants will tell you that figuring out how much water a plant needs is not always that straightforward, as they all have their unique requirements. Here are five watering hacks to protect your vertical garden: - Use the correct watering technique: if you are watering your vertical garden by hand, water them at their roots and not from the top. Watering plants at the bottom of their stems will prevent mildew and pesky funguses from damaging your plant’s foliage and keep weeds at bay. - Watering frequency: a great rule of thumb is to water your vertical garden properly and to saturate the soil as it will prompt vigorous root growth and require less frequent watering. Therefore, avoid lightly watering it every second day. - Optimal drainage: ensure that all your hanging planters or baskets have adequate drainage to protect your plants from overwatering and root rot. - Add mulch to your containers: if you want to retain moisture, especially in hot climates where the sun takes its toll. - Hassle-free watering: the addition of irrigation equipment like drip irrigation systems or soaker hoses, coupled with a digital timer, will save you a lot of time in the long run. So, you can finally sit back and enjoy the fruits of your labor. One reason I love using a Tower Garden is that it takes the hassle out of watering. It is an aeroponic system that uses a timer to automatically drip water over the roots of the plants at regular intervals. Learn more about my favorite vertical garden in my article, What is a Tower Garden and How does it work? Fertilize Your Vertical Garden Regularly Vertical gardens are solely reliant on us to meet their nutritional needs, so it’s of vital importance that you use a good quality organic kelp or slow-releasing fertilizer on a regular basis to build up the soil, especially during their growing phases. If you like using a soil based vertical garden, consider the Garden Tower. It is a tower-style planter that incorporates compost and vermiculture (worms) to provide nutrients to your plants. You can easily dispose of your food wastes and feed your plants at the same time. Weed Your Vertical Garden Weeds are an on going battle for all soil based gardens. It’s important to keep the weeds at bay so they don’t steal vital nutrients and space from your plants. Weed fabric is not always effective, so rather, add a thick layer of sopping wet newspaper or cardboard at the base of your plant before adding a 3–4-inch layer of good quality mulch to stop weeds in their tracks. Prune, Pinch & Deadhead Flowers in Your Vertical Garden It’s imperative to remove wilted flowers and prune woody branches or superfluous vines regularly if you want to promote healthy growth. Alternatively, you can pinch unruly pieces to retain a plant’s desired shape. By pruning and removing dead parts of the plant, your plant will have more energy to put into new growth and produce fruits. Damaged and dying parts of a plant provide a weak point to allow disease to take hold. Pruning away these unhealthy parts of the plant, with clean garden shears, will help prevent disease. Regularly Harvest Your Vertical Garden Growing veggies or herbs in a vertical garden is amazing. The more you harvest to more your plant will produce. By taking the ripe fruit and trimming the leaves of herbs your plants will keep producing more and create an even larger harvest. Vertical gardening is a game-changer for those with small spaces. While many of the ways you protect your vertical garden are similar to those of a traditional garden many feel, including myself, that vertical gardening is easier. Container planting in general is easier to protect plants from nasty bugs, typical plant diseases, and during freezing winters. But they are wholly reliant on your loving care to thrive.

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The fishing cat is one of India’s most enigmatic predators, hunting the waterways of its remaining wetlands and swamps. The efforts to save it may also help save a vital buffer against climate change.T The encounter took place on a cool winter morning in 2012, in the coastal Indian city of Visakhapatnam. A gentle breeze nipped at the air as Murthy Kantimahanti stood transfixed, staring at a metal trap set up on a dirt trail leading to dense bushes and towering neem trees. Inside the trap was a cat – but no ordinary cat. It was bigger than a house cat, but not as big as a leopard or a tiger. It had a squarish face, relatively small ears for the size of its head, a short tail and curiously webbed feet, like an aquatic animal. Kantimahanti had just arrived at the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park in the heart of the Seethakonda Reserve Forest, where he worked as a biologist. He was used to seeing native wildlife like Sambar deer, the Asiatic wild dog, the Indian leopard and gaur (also known as Indian bison) ranging within the park’s natural enclosures, bordered with hedges and trenches. But this cat was something else entirely. Kantimahanti’s area of research was cataloguing the behaviour of captive wild dogs in the zoo, located as it was in such proximity to the Eastern Ghats, a biodiverse range of mountains along India’s south-eastern coast. It is an area where cashew and mango plantations abound. The zoo often baited traps to catch feral dogs and he would monitor their behaviour. On that winter morning, he had received a frantic call from a colleague at the zoo, summoning him to a particular cage by the dirt trail. “I was fascinated, ” he says. “The zoo had laid a trap with beef in it to catch a feral dog. Quite astonishingly, a cat had grabbed at the beef instead, and was ensnared. “ The zoo authorities were puzzled by the animal’s webbed feet and strange appearance. This seemed to be no ordinary cat. If you ask researchers who study the behaviour of fishing cats in the wild, they will tell you that it never backs off – Murthy Kantimahanti Kantimahanti recognised the animal at once. To the trained eye, a fishing cat ‘s appearance is distinctive, but if ever there was any doubt, there was one trait that helped Kantimahanti identify it instantly – sheer aggression. Having eaten its piece of beef, this cat, a male, lunged fiercely and repeatedly at the bars of the trap. “If you ask researchers who study the behaviour of fishing cats in the wild, they will tell you that it never backs off, ” Kantimahanti says. “Even when they see a human being, they stand their ground. “ The cat was tranquilised, treated for bruises, and released back into the wild. It was the first documented sighting of a fishing cat in coastal Visakhapatnam. India’s remaining wetlands are rapidly being encroached by more intensive human activity (Credit: Jonas Gratzer/Lightrockets/Getty Images) Until then, fishing cats had only ever been sighted in the state’s Coringa Wildlife sanctuary, known for its extensive mangrove forests, four hours away. Very little was known about the fishing cat ‘s behaviour, despite it being found in 11 countries across Asia. The encounter helped state authorities realise that fishing cats were a natural part of Andhra Pradesh’s wetland landscape and far more widespread than they’d previously assumed. It sparked one of India’s first fishing cat surveys, carried out between 2014 and 2018. Kantimahanti, who went on to found the conservation organisation the Eastern Ghats Wildlife Society, has been working to understand the fishing cat’s behaviour ever since. Inextricable from the story of fishing cats is that of the wetland habitat itself The first challenge was to find out how widespread the cat was. Researchers from the Wildlife Institute of India and the Eastern Ghats Wildlife Society began an arduous scanning of the Coringa wildlife sanctuary as part of the United Nations Development Programme project to document the biodiversity in the region. In 2015, the Krishna Wildlife sanctury, 150 kms (93 miles) south of Coringa was surveyed by the Eastern Ghats Wildlife Society and the Andhra Pradesh Forest Department. Camera traps from the survey revealed the presence of 10 individual fishing cats amidst the vast tracts of tidal mangrove forests, though a population estimate for these elusive cats – which relies on clearly identifying an individual cat’s distinctive markings – evaded them. The fishing cat stalks its prey in swamps, wetlands and mangrove forests (Credit: Alamy) Besides numbers, the census revealed some of the idiosyncrasies of this elusive cat. The survey identified the first known inland fishing cat, found in freshwater habitats along Srikakulam district in northern Andhra Pradesh. Then in December 2020, Kantimahanti was startled to see camera-trap footage of a cat hunting a freshwater non-venomous snake. Fish had been considered the cats’ mainstay, and the cats were only thought to prey on other animals when there was a dearth of fish – though on this occasion there was plenty of fish available. In another incident, villagers had assumed a large cat attacking their livestock was a leopard, but it turned out to be a fishing cat. Another camera feed showed a fishing cat being run over by a train while chasing goats. “The name fishing cat is a misnomer,” says Kantimahanti. The cat is a markedly versatile predator. “It can hunt animals bigger than itself, survive anywhere, feed on anything.” Today, growing awareness of the fishing cat in India has sparked a monumental journey towards conservation. Researchers on the trail of this elusive jungle feline are mapping its habits and habitats across the country and studying pollution, human and environmental threats that harm it. They’re documenting its effects on climate change and through litigation, using wildlife laws to protect its terrain. All this, because woven into the story of fishing cats, is that of the wetland habitat itself. India is home to a rich wetland territory, occupying nearly 5% of its terrain. The Sundarbans in the north-eastern state of West Bengal is the country’s most well-known wetland habitat, stretching over 4,230 square kilometres (1,633 sq miles). A total of 42 sites across the country are considered wetlands of international importance due to their biodiversity, according to the Ramsar Convention, an international agreement on wetland conservation. The fishing cat is usually found in two types of habitat within a wetland: mangroves and marshes. They take refuge in the reed fields – the long-bladed wetland grasses that grow in swamps. “They prefer shallow wetlands and are nest-making cats,” says Tiasa Adhya, a Kolkata-based conservationist and co-founder of The Fishing Cat Project. Their nests, made with marshy reeds and secluded in the tree holes of mangroves, are why the habitat is so inseparable from the species. “It’s here, where you can find a rich haul of snake-head and cat-fish, on which the fishing cat thrives,” says Adhya. Predators like wolves are known to shape the landscape in which they live through their predation, but the extent to which the fishing cat influences the nature of the wetlands remains unknown. What is clear, is that a healthy population of fishing cats means a healthy environment to sustain them. Though the cats range across 11 countries, very little is known about them (Credit: Ulat Ifanstasi/Getty Images) In one these wetlands, at Chilika Lake in the north-eastern state of Odisha, India’s first census for fishing cats outside of its protected reserve forest areas is now underway, in collaboration with the Chilika Development Authority, a government agency. “Fishing cats inhabit the extensive deltas and flood plains of river systems, the shallow wetlands connected to rivers in South and South East Asia,” she says. Being a nocturnal animal, they are more likely to be caught on camera traps than by eye during the day. Over a hundred camera traps are to be left in Chilika lake for 30 days. They’re focusing more on the freshwater dominant areas of the lake, says Adhya, setting up the cameras in areas where they’ve spotted pawprints, or pugmarks. Setting up one camera trap can take up to two hours, and Adhya’s team has recruited local people to help and put out word among the 200,000 strong fishing community in the area so that the camera traps remain undisturbed. This census is up against the same challenges as the first surveys of fishing cat numbers. Estimating the population of fishing cats is tricky as it relies on getting a clear picture of the cat to analyse its subtle but distinctive body marks, made up of spots, stripes and patches. Adhya has been observing fishing cats since 2010, ever since she chanced upon its pugmark in the wild as a researcher in the Sunderbans. The footprint intrigued her; it was roughly the size of a dog ‘s paw, but smaller than that of a tiger’s. She learnt that fishing cats were integral to wetlands, but there was little awareness about them, even amidst local communities. And in recent years, researchers have noted several threats. The first comes from humans: wetlands directly and indirectly support hundreds of thousands of people, providing livelihoods to fisherfolk, indigenous communities and farmers. There are inevitably moments of conflict. Retaliatory killings of fishing cats spurred by human conflict were well known in West Bengal. Adhya launched awareness campaigns and enlisted the help of locals to prevent poachers from hunting fishing cats for meat, which was being sold in local markets. Over the years, she says these efforts have helped mitigate conflict. “While there are still road kills, the retaliatory killing of fishing cats has significantly reduced,” she says. The Sundarbans, in the east of India, is one of the largest remaining wetlands in India (Credit: Jonas Gratzer/Getty Images) Another threat facing the cat is aquaculture. In recent years, in wetlands across the country, this has become a menace, Kantimahanti says. “People dig ponds, add chemical feed so that naturally occurring fish and prawns grow bigger and fetch better rates in the market. This alters the natural salinity of the soil.” Aquaculture often leads to increased conflict between humans and fishing cats. Lured by the giant fish, the cats that come to hunt often end up in aggressive face-offs with humans. After a few years, the ponds are abandoned when the water table is too polluted, and the aquaculture farmers move on to a different patch, leaving coastal Andhra Pradesh studded with the abandoned farms. Other threats involve illegal sand mining and cropping along riverbeds. “Villagers growing crops along the riverine buffer [100-500 m alongside the river] affects the inland fishing cat, because this slip of vegetation is an important habitat,” says Kantimahanti. “Protection of this riverine buffer is quite a challenge for us.” Another escalating issue is urbanisation. “Wetlands are mostly disregarded as wastelands in development policies,” says Adhya. The Asian Waterbird Census, held in January every year is a part of a global initiative that surveys wetlands, has established that India’s wetlands are rapidly shrinking because of urbanisation. Mangrove forests depend on a delicate balance to survive Wetland terrain can often be deceptive, Adhya explains. The fluctuating water level is seasonal – for six months every year, the marshes are flooded with water, but the rest of time they may appear dry but the water table lurks close beneath the soil. Most of the development happens in the dry season, when it is mistaken for barren land, to the detriment of both the cats and the developers, who end up with flooded land. “Habitat destruction is one of the biggest threats to the fishing cat,” says Adhya. India does have laws to protect its wetlands. Under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972, wetlands are categorised as protected areas, especially within national parks. But researchers say that there’s a significant portion of wetland ecosystem that falls outside of these protected zones. From 2012, activists have been lodging legal petitions against urban development in these areas, citing the destruction of habitat of the fishing cat as one of the primary reasons for the need for protection. Researchers hope that the fishing cat census across India could prevent the further destruction of these ecosystems. Kantimahanti, meanwhile, would also like to see a comprehensive national law protecting all wetlands. Healthy mangroves, healthy cats Mangrove forests depend on a delicate balance to survive, says Giridhar Malla, a PhD researcher from the Wildlife Institute of India, who has been studying the fishing cat along the Godavari River delta in Andhra Pradesh, and its links to climate change since 2013. He has documented 15 different fishing cats in the area, monitoring their behaviour, especially during lunar phases. Everything in a mangrove ecosystem depends on the ebb and flow of water, which is linked to the tides governed by the lunar phases. “The fishing cat hunts during low tide,” says Malla. The cats wait tirelessly for the conditions to hunt to be exactly right. During high tide, the surge of water brings in the fish, but the water must ebb for the fishing cat to hunt. Malla says he observed a fishing cat that had waited eight hours until low tide to catch its fish. “This is one stubborn, unique cat,” he says. The health of the mangroves is inextricably linked to the health of the fishing cat, he says. While the mangrove habitat supports the cat, it also acts as a carbon sink, sequestering four times as much carbon as other tree species. He’s currently studying its role in mitigating climate change. “Blindly planting mangroves isn’t the answer,” says Kantimahanti, who often works closely with Malla. The trees won’t survive without freshwater, and have to be planted in the right habitat. Fishing communities have targeted the cats in the past, seeing it as a pest which steals precious fish (Credit: Jonas Gratzer/Getty Images) The absence of buffer land either side of the river is affecting the growth of mangroves too, because cropping prevents freshwater that they need from reaching the mangrove forests. Indiscriminate building of dams, which has become so much a part of India’s industrial growth, can cause this fragile ecosystem considerable stress as well, says Malla. He’s currently petitioning authorities to allow a small amount of water downstream, to prevent the loss of mangrove cover. “When mangrove seedlings drop into the mud, they need freshwater to germinate and thrive,” he says. The Godavari River, where Malla does his field work, is the second largest river in India, after the Ganges. In the past decades, the river has been dammed in several places, reducing freshwater flow in the area. The impacts of the dams include coastal erosion, as they reduce the flow of sediment to river deltas . “Less water to the mangroves could mean declining fish stock, because it affects the spawning areas for the fish,” says Malla. “It has a direct impact on livelihoods of fishers.” Since greater awareness was needed of the intertwined fate of mangroves and fishing cats, in 2016, Malla started an initiative called Children for Fishing Cats. Children tend to be easier to educate than adults, he says, and they have helped mitigate conflict situations by identifying the cat and advising their parents against harming it. Malla has since published a children‘s book about a fishing cat’s journey in the wild and designed a board game called The Fishing Cat and the Creek. If a player lands in a mangrove patch after a high tide during a full moon, their fishing cat will have access to the richest haul of fish. The fishing cat that feeds the most wins. Feedback on the board game from the fishing communities in area who have played and enjoyed it has largely been positive, says Malla, and has helped deepen understanding. The fishing cat has proved that it can co-exist with humans, even in this urban wetland habitat – Anya Ratnayaka Like Malla, researchers across India working on conserving fishing cat habitat and protecting its species have found it beneficial to embrace local communities. “Every wetland patch supports marginalised communities,” says Adhya. A preprint paper she has co-authored on local communities’ dependency on the wetland ecosystem reveals that 72% of the respondents in Jhakari, a village in West Bengal, depend on the wetlands for their primary livelihood. The fishing cat, on the other hand, may prove to be a hardier species than first thought. Though the IUCN has categorised the fishing cat as vulnerable, researchers studying these cats across Asia now marvel at how adaptable it really is. Anya Ratnayaka is a Sri Lankan researcher who has been studying the fishing cat ‘s behaviour and adaptation in a completely urban environment. “Twenty square kilometres of Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka, has covered over wetlands,” she says. “The fishing cat has proved that it can co-exist with humans, even in this urban wetland habitat.” Her work began in 2015, after escalating conflict incidents involving the fishing cat. “People would pick up abandoned kittens from the city, thinking they were domestic cats, but quickly return them to authorities, startled by how aggressive they were,” she says. In the same year, a fishing cat was caught on camera, stealing expensive Japanese koi fish from a pond. Ratnayaka set up 10 camera traps in different locations, and for months, attempted to follow this cat across the cityscape after tagging it with a GPS device. “I was stunned. It went everywhere,” she says. “It visited people’s gardens, sunned itself on rooftops, fed from private ponds. It even visited the premises of a movie theatre in the heart of the city, quite fittingly, during the premiere of the Monkey Kingdom.” If fishing cats are to have a home alongside humans in a rapidly developing world, this ingenuity could prove essential to its survival.

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Pollution as I will discuss in these pollution facts for kids is the introduction of substances or energy into the environment either by human or natural activities. Substances introduced in the environment are called pollutants and they cause harm to living organisms, human health and the ecological systems when they are in excessive amounts in the environment. Because pollution is on the increase, we shall explore the effects it has caused to us and the steps our governments and other responsible agencies are doing to control the amount of pollutants in the environment. In order to see the progress of regulations in place and how it does it function, we shall discuss success stories and shall pick an example in the United States of America. Pollution is a killer made by people. Imagine you are a pollution scout. You have got to find out some of the things that people do which cause pollution and some of the pollutants themselves. Pollution Facts For Kids I am sure in your list of the causes of pollution, you will not miss aircraft, bomb, carbon dioxide, car, carcinogen, cigarette, coal, cow, dioxin exhaust, factory fumes, garbage, jet, landfill, methane, mercury, mining, noise, oil, ozone, pesticides, plastic, radiation, sewage, smog, smoke, toxin, traffic, travel, truck, and war. All these are man-made things which have turned against mankind himself and threatening to extinguish him. Extinguish means to clear completely. So what this pollution is likely to do to our human race and other things including animals and plants is that it is going to extinguish us completely unless we take care of ourselves. The wonder web of life and how pollution came about Animals began to appear on earth about 5300 million years ago. These animals were crawling, barrowing or swimming creatures all in the sea. A little after this, plants emerged and began to grow on land and were quickly followed by animals who wanted to eat them. Then came the dinosaurs and I am sure you know all about dinosaurs. Later came the penguins, polar bears and at the very last minute, human beings. And from the word go, human beings came with a bang to destroy other lives on the planet by using fire carelessly, cutting trees, inventing new gadgets for making life easy for himself (coming up with airplanes, cars, chemicals – which produce toxics for the environment) and over hunting. Modern people are now just starting to understand the vital importance of biodiversity. They are beginning to realize that they have damaged it badly and most importantly, they depend upon it too. People are animals too, just like the dinosaurs, porcupines and penguins. But people are the main cause of pollution on planet earth. How people are destroying the web of life with pollution By cutting trees, people are affecting the natural habitat of other animals that depend on forests as their homes. By directing wastes from factories to the rivers and lakes, people are polluting the waters and extinguishing life in those waters which are habitat to fish, frogs, crocodiles and other sea animals. This pollution is causing some of the rivers to dry and be extinguished. And once a creature is extinguished, that is it; it goes forever, never to come back. There are no second chances! It’s gone forever never to resurface again. There is nothing new about mass extinctions but what is new is, the mass extinctions being witnessed in the present world are being cause by people because of their wasteful and polluting ways. Let us help protect our environment by saying no to any form of pollution. Life on our planet – our only home is in big trouble due to pollution. Many creatures are dying out completely and it is almost because of what people are doing. So far, as the rest of life is concerned, humans are the worst disaster to hit this planet since a massive fireball 65 million years ago. Let us unite in the fight to protect our planet earth by being responsible young people and avoid pollution at all cost. Now that you know everything there is to know about pollution, show off your new found knowledge with friends and family by sharing these pollution facts for kids. Causes of Pollution Well, first before discussing what the causes of pollution are it is important to know what exactly pollution is. There are many definitions in place but the common one state that pollution is the introduction of substances or energy into the environment either by human or natural activities. These foreign substances causes harm to living organisms, causes sicknesses and apart from that they change ecological systems (ecological systems is that important relationship between living organism and environment). 1. Man-made sources Therefore, what are some of the man-made sources of pollution? There are countless sources of human activities that cause pollution and they account more than 60% of the total pollution. We shall classify them into two: Physical pollutants and Chemical pollutants. Physical pollutants are all those forms where energy and sounds are discharged into the environment. These pollutants include all the heat, nuclear, radiations and sounds which cause discomfort to human and other living organism. Just to bring you to context, consider a nuclear power plant, in it simple state someone would think that it is harmless but in real sense it emits low level radiations which is polluting the environment and living organisms around it. Let’s consider another example, a factory. As far as it important to us they produce a lot of noise which if appropriate measures are not undertaken it can cause stress and lack of concentration. Then there are chemical pollutants. These forms of pollutants are widespread and in one or more occasions you must have seen them in the cause of your activities. They are widespread in agricultural and industrial sectors. When farmers apply synthesized additives to their soils, such as fertilizers or pesticides over a long period of time it causes pollution to the soil and in one way or another pollute underground water reservoirs. Also when industries dumps their untreated wastes into water bodies such as rivers, oceans or lakes, that constitutes water pollution, the same applies if they fill them in landfills without first treating them. 2. Natural sources As earlier noted, natural sources of pollution constitute less than 30% of the total pollutants discharged. They are infrequent and when they occur they are localized. The main sources of natural pollution include volcano eruptions and tsunamis, as witnessed when they occur, they emit tomnes and tonnes of Carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide into the environment. Apart from the gaseous elements released, volcano eruptions are accompanied by discharge of light, fine and acidic volcanic ash. Locals around areas of volcanic eruptions are therefore bound to suffer from respiratory ailments as a result. When hurricanes occur they can lead to sedimentation of soil particles in water bodies and when it occur, living organisms in water are exposed and they die or they are suffocated by the fine soil particles introduced. Other small sources of natural pollutions are droppings from animals living in flocks, when they enter water bodies such as rivers they can easily spread water borne diseases and in recent cases the frequent of forest fires. Did you know that the increasing cases of forest fires in the USA and Australia is partly blamed to global warming and Climate change which are all caused by air pollution? When forest fires occurs, depending on location, it releases Carbon dioxide and Sulphur dioxide which are both dangerous to human health and living organisms because they contribute to acidic rainfall. How do we save the world from pollution? With more and more people globally aware of pollution and its effects, a lot of control measures are in place to reduce and eliminate pollution in the simplest and cost effective way possible. The first way to do it is to control the global population in a sustainable manner. This is an obvious and simple strategy ,envision this if there are more people on the globe, more and more pressure will be exerted on the available limited resources and to ensure availability of these resources, processes will be set up to reuse or recycle them and therefore causing pollution. Secondly, we can save the world through utilizing new technologies, modernization and innovation. A clear example of how we can do this is to shun the use of gasoline as a source of power, gasoline causes air and water pollution and when employed in machinery, the resulting processes is noise pollution. Though widespread because of its use in engines, we can adopt Light electricity Vehicles because they don’t pollute the environment at all. Lastly, regulations are in place to ensure that all wastes from factories are treated to the correct standards before being discharged to the environment. This could be done either by treating wastes within the factory (source) or at the dumping sites through incineration before disposal. Effects of pollution – Pollution Facts for Kids So what happens when the environment contains a lot of pollutants? Well, the effects are very many. From air, land and water bodies the consequences will be visible. Air pollution causes health problems such as eye, nose and ear irritations, allergic reactions, headaches and even cancer of the lungs when long term exposure to pollutants occur. This is evident in shanghai, China were residents have to wear masks as they are walking about because the air is so polluted. Moreover, the greenhouse gases are discharged in the atmosphere and thus depleting the ozone layer. The ozone layer serves as a resistance against the harmful rays from the sun. When this layer is depleted, harmful rays reaches the earth surface and can cause skin cancer and affect Carbon dioxide intake in plants which reduces yields and therefore food shortage. Furthermore, air pollution especially through emissions of Sulphur and Carbon dioxide cause acidic rain in the areas it was discharged from and if it occurs over long periods it changes the climate of the globe and causes temperatures to rise through global warming which is evident now, the Arctic ice is melting gradually. When untreated chemicals are discharged to water bodies either from agricultural practices or from factories, it kills aquatic life. They are either poisoned or suffocated causing a distress to ecological systems. A case study of a landfill in USA where disposed chemicals leached and contaminated an aquifer which was used as water source for residents in Love Canal in 1978, over a period of time, a high number of patients from that area were diagnosed with cancer and the number of babies born with serious birth defects were on the increase. With this trend, research was conducted and it was found to be the polluted aquifer which was causing ailments. Who are the world leaders in pollution? The leading top five countries in the world when it comes to pollution are China, United States of America, Russia, India and Japan. It was a known but unpublished fact that China from 2009 had overtaken the USA as the leading polluter. In that year it emitted 6.07 metric tons of greenhouse gases. This was attributed to the fast rising economy with numerous industries emitting pollutants to the environment. India has been noted to be notorious for dumping untreated wastes to river Ganges but its waters is safer than China whose 40% of river water is unsafe for consumption. Success stories about pollution Because of global awareness of the effects of pollution, many rules, regulation and measures were put in place with the aim of reducing pollution or rehabilitating places which was polluted before. In the USA for example, the Clean Air act of 1976 has seen the reduction of Sulphur dioxide, Carbon dioxide and other pollutants to an all time low according to statistics collected in 2005 and as a superpower, it has to lead as an example. The Martin Luther Care centre in Minnesota was a previously polluted area full of heavy metal depositions, currently it has been rehabilitated and a nursing home constructed. This shows the government intentions when it comes to pollution control. Which areas should we focus our efforts in pollution control? With the meaning, types and effects of pollution discussed, the main area where efforts should be placed to control pollution is in the urban and industrial sectors. These areas shows increasing activities and regulations should be placed to ensure their activities, within urban areas and industrialization, don’t pollute the environment and a balance is struck for the service of people and environment. Conclusions and suggestions The technological development is most likely to cause pollution which indeed becomes the reason of direct conflict between environment and the humans. It so happens that the environment in one way or another is the direct source of raw material for processes which enables a better life for human beings but nevertheless measures should be placed to ensure we utilize the environment in a sustainable way whilst at the same time carrying for a well-being. I will suggest that we should change from the norm and adopt new technologies and innovations which don’t pollute the environment and if the adoption is slow, new stricter regulations should be introduced to minimize pollution from the increasing industrial sector. Holdgate, M. W. (1980). A perspective of environmental pollution. Cambridge [England: Cambridge University Press. Hill, M. K. (2006). Understanding environmental pollution: a primer (2. Ed.). Cambridge [u.a.: Cambridge Univ. Press.

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History of manufacturing in America History of manufacturing in America The world’s population can be broadly categorized into two groups: those who live in industrialized nations and those who do not. The manufacturing revolution that evolved over more than two centuries is the force that created that divide. Manufacturing—the process of converting raw materials into usable goods—launched the United States as a superpower at the turn of the 20th century just as it launched China’s economy into the 21st. There is a direct correlation between a country’s ability to produce quality goods quickly and cheaply and its ability to wield power on the world stage. There was a time where virtually everything was individually custom made. Hand-made, one-of-a-kind products are slow to build and expensive to buy. The era of manufacturing, however, gave people and companies the power to churn out an unprecedented number of those shoes, clothing, guns, and furniture—and most anything else, for that matter—at speeds never before possible. The history of manufacturing involves radical innovations like factories, assembly lines, sewing machines, cotton gins, steam-powered diggers, trains, coal, iron, and steel—but it’s also a story of people. Some of the key players in the history of manufacturing were brilliant and dynamic individuals—inventors, engineers, builders, and titans of industry who are still household names today. Millions of others, however, labored in the mills, factories, sweatshops, and mines, living and dying anonymously. The manufacturing movement created countless jobs and cost countless lives. Amazing developments like steam-powered trains and boats saw early use as tools of industry, but went on to change the human experience far beyond the necessity of moving heavy raw materials from ports to factories. Using a variety of sources, Stacker compiled a timeline that highlights key moments in the history of manufacturing in America. Keep reading to learn about the innovations and inventions that transformed the United States into the greatest manufacturing powerhouse the world has ever seen. You may also like: 50 biggest retailers in America 1782-1789: Oliver Evans invents bulk material handling The birth of modern manufacturing can be traced to the early 1780s, when American inventor Oliver Evans began experimenting with the first automated flour mill. He developed the concept of continuous process milling, which relied on five so-called bulk material handling devices. His machines and processes soon caught on across the country because they reduced manpower by 25% while increasing output—the era of automation had begun. 1790: Samuel Hopkins receives the first patent On April 10, 1790, President George Washington signed a bill that created the U.S. patent system. Later that year, Philadelphian Samuel Hopkins received the country’s first patent, which he earned for his new method of making a fertilizer ingredient. For the first time, inventors could safeguard the legal rights to their ideas, creations, and intellectual property. 1790: Samuel Slater builds America’s first factory Also in 1790, a British-born former industrial spy named Samuel Slater revolutionized not only the textile industry, but the future of manufacturing. While living in Rhode Island, Slater built a water-powered cotton-spinning mill that workers first powered by walking on a treadmill. Human workers were now using a machine to dramatically increase their productivity and consistency in spinning cotton into thread. 1794: Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin In the late 18th century, Southern planters were facing soaring demand for cotton, which would soon motivate the textile revolution in the North and in Europe—and all of it was picked and cleaned by hand. In 1794, Eli Whitney patented his invention of the cotton gin, which separated cotton fiber from its seeds automatically. A monumental shift took place, as the huge labor force dedicated to cleaning cotton—virtually all enslaved—could now be tasked with planting and picking much, much more of the global cash crop. 1798: Eli Whitney begins working with interchangeable parts As the 19th century approached, Eli Whitney landed a massive contract to produce guns for the U.S. government. After much experimentation, Whitney developed—or at least dramatically improved upon—the concept of making identical machines that could swap identical, interchangeable parts. For the first time, each gun—or any mechanical product, for that matter—no longer had to be custom made. 1804: Oliver Evans invents the amphibious digger Nearly 20 years after he developed bulk material handling, Oliver Evans invented a 17-ton, high-pressure dredge that was powered by steam. Called the “amphibious digger,” it was used to deepen key portions of the Delaware River. It displayed the awesome practical possibilities of steam-generated power, which would fuel the coming Industrial Revolution. 1807: The Clermont sets sail Steam wasn’t only good for digging a single scoop of dirt with the power of thousands of handheld shovels, a fact that American engineer and inventor Robert Fulton made clear in 1807. That year, Fulton invented and built a boat designed to be fitted with a British steam engine. Called the Clermont, his boat made the 150-mile trip from New York to Albany on the Hudson River in a record 32 hours. The invention turned rivers into highways for ferrying raw materials, supplies, products, and, eventually, people. 1830s-1840s: The Industrial Revolution changes how things are made The monumental developments that came in the preceding decades would reach a critical mass in America in the mid-1800s as the Industrial Revolution took shape. The era of making, sorting, processing, and refining individual products by hand was over. Now, coal, water, and steam were used to power machines, tools, and factories that turned massive amounts of raw materials into products at record speeds. 1830: The steam locomotive is born Decades before trains revolutionized how people traveled, they changed the way materials and products were moved from port to factory, factory to warehouse, warehouse to distributor facility, and beyond. It all started in 1830 with the creation of Tom Thumb, America’s first steam locomotive. Tom Thumb was built specifically to convince the owners of the newly formed Baltimore and Ohio (B&O) Railroad to use steam-powered engines instead of horses to pull cars on their rails. 1846: Elias Howe patents the sewing machine In 1911, the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire seared into the American consciousness images of endless rows of seamstresses working long hours for low pay in bleak, dangerous, death-trap factories. The massive clothing and shoe industries that would lead to that tragedy were officially born in 1846, when American inventor Elias Howe patented the world’s first cheap, practical lockstitch sewing machine. 1860s: Vanderbilt moves from steamboats to railroads Cornelius Vanderbilt—a self-made man who dominated American industry and died one of the richest men in the world—epitomized the American dream for many in the mid-19th century. He made his first fortune as a steamship entrepreneur before turning his attention to the next revolution of overland transportation technology: railroads. He was the first of a new breed of industrialist titans and his legacy would spawn generations of giants with names like Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller. 1879: Edison turns day to night By 1879, Thomas Edison had produced and patented a working lightbulb with a carbonized filament that could burn for more than 14 hours straight. The impact it had on society—from street lamps to department stores—is well documented, but what might just be the most significant change brought about by the arrival of electric light is often overlooked. Now that workers could see in the dark, factories could run 24 hours a day: the night shift was born. 1886: American Federation of Labor is formed Fledgling labor unions had come and gone in the past, but the founding of the AFL in 1886 proved to be a benchmark for the American working class. Throughout much of the Industrial Revolution, human workers were as expendable, disposable, and replaceable as the tools they wielded. The AFL was the start of the modern organized labor movement, a bloody and consequential era that pitted powerful corporations and their political backers against average workers demanding fair pay, decent conditions, and job security. 1890: The Sherman Antitrust Act becomes law By the end of the 19th century, monopolies dominated the industries that served as the lifeblood of American manufacturing: oil, coal, railroads, and steel. The 1890 Sherman Antitrust Act was the nation’s first significant antitrust legislation, which banned companies from conspiring to fix prices, eliminate competition, and otherwise corner the market. The greatest trust-buster in American history, President Theodore Roosevelt, would wield the Sherman Act as a powerful weapon against these corporations during his presidency. 1901: U.S. Steel is formed Banking magnate J.P. Morgan co-founded U.S. Steel in 1901 by merging the steel empire built by Andrew Carnegie’s Carnegie Steel with the Federal Steel Company and National Steel Company. The result was a corporate juggernaut––worth tens of billions of dollars in today’s money––that shaped the nation and transformed the nature of manufacturing. It produced nearly two-thirds of all steel at its peak, and its finished product was used to build everything from skyscrapers to cars to trains. 1913: Ford invents the assembly line Henry Ford produced 15 million identical Model Ts between 1908-1927. The way they were made, however, is arguably the most important innovation in the history of manufacturing. By 1913, Ford had broken down the production of the Model T into 84 distinct steps, and each worker was trained on just one of these steps along a moving line which brought the work to the workers. Using Eli Whitney’s concept of interchangeable parts and the conveyor belt systems he had seen used in grain mills, Henry Ford invented the modern assembly line. 1938: The Fair Labor Standards Act becomes law Throughout the history of manufacturing and up to the end of the Great Depression, corporations generally sought to extract as much labor for as little money as humanly possible from the workers who toiled in the factories, mills, mines, and sweatshops that fueled the Industrial Revolution. People, including small children, worked for 10-16 hours a day in terrible and dangerous conditions, six or even seven days a week, for starvation wages with virtually no recourse. In 1938, Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which mandated standards like the 40-hour workweek, the minimum wage, and child labor restrictions. It remains the bedrock of American labor law today. 1941: America goes to war When the Japanese military attacked Pearl Harbor, America mobilized for war—and the charge was led by the country’s massive manufacturing industry. From Maytag to Rolls-Royce, American companies stopped producing consumer goods and retrofitted their factories and assembly lines to produce tanks, planes, fighter engines, and other military necessities. It was big business: the American military-industrial complex was born. 1950s-1960s: CAD merges computers and manufacturing The emergence of computer-aided design (CAD) in the 1950s and 1960s allowed machine tools to make precise and consistent cuts not through the skill of talented tradespeople, but by direction received from computer software programs. The emergence of CAD, which is still widely in use today, signaled the start of manufacturing in the digital age. 1970: OSHA is enacted For American workers, 1970 represented the greatest leap forward in labor protections since the FLSA in 1938. The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to create and maintain workplaces that are safe from known hazards like extreme temperatures, untethered work at heights, toxic chemicals, excessive noise, and unsanitary conditions. Those and other conditions had plagued, and often killed, generations of manufacturing workers. 1979: American manufacturing peaks The year 1979 represented the pinnacle of U.S. manufacturing, with 19.4 million Americans working in the sector. By early 2010, fewer than 11.5 million manufacturing jobs existed, despite steep population gains over the previous three decades. Thanks to automation, robotics, and the arrival of computer technology, however, output has actually increased. 1981: IBM unveils the first PC IBM began marketing the first practical personal computer in 1981. The moment signaled the greatest transformation in front-office management in the history of manufacturing. From employee records and sales slips to invoices and order manifests, the personal computer instantly relegated the paper ledger to the dustbin of history. 1992: 3D printing comes of age For generations, traditional processes of casting, forging, tooling, and machining—the heart of manufacturing—were achieved by removing layers of raw materials, like steel, until the desired cut or shape was achieved. 3D-printing, which can now produce everything from firearm receivers to boat hulls, dramatically increases speed and reduces waste by instead adding materials layer by layer, with the help of CAD software, to create three-dimensional products. The concept can be traced to the 1970s, but 3D printing came of age in 1992, when 3D Systems developed the stereolithographic apparatus (SLA). 2002: Enterprise Integration Act At the dawn of the new millennium, the Enterprise Integration Act laid the groundwork for the era of smart manufacturing that drives the sector today. It authorized the sprawling National Institute of Standards and Technology to collaborate with major manufacturing industries in developing and implementing standards for enterprise integration in the 21st century. Present-day: Rise of robotics, automation, and smart manufacturing The first robots appeared on American assembly lines in the 1980s, but they were a far cry from the artificial intelligence and automation that is steadily overtaking modern manufacturing in the digital age. One of the most exciting, yet controversial, innovations in generations, automated (or “smart”) manufacturing uses advanced robotics, big data, and sophisticated computer software to complete tasks much faster and more precisely than their human counterparts ever could. You may also like: How minimum wage has changed in your state

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Around 21:00 UTC today (30-June-2015) a strong earthquake swarm started on the Reykjanes ridge. So far the largest earthquake had the magnitude of 4,2, this has not been reviewed so it might be larger or smaller once reviewed. The earthquake swarm on the Reykjanes ridge, this earthquake activity has not been reviewed yet by Iceland Meteorological Office. Copyright of this image belongs to Iceland Meteorological Office. The earthquake swarm is dense as can be seen on this image. Copyright of this image belongs to Iceland Meteorological Office. It is possible to monitor the progress of the earthquake on my geophone in Heklubyggð here. Donations: Please remember to support my work with donations or by using Amazon. Thanks. 🙂 Even if the eruption in Holuhraun and Bárðarbunga volcano is over, there is no shortage of activity in Bárðarbunga volcano. With deepest earthquake in past 48 hours having the depth of 28,6 km and earthquakes don’t get a lot deeper than this in Bárðarbunga volcano. At this depth earthquake activity happens due to magma movements rather than tectonic stresses. Earthquake activity in Bárðarbunga volcano (red dots). Copyright of this image belongs to Iceland Meteorological Office. Earthquake activity in Tungnafellsjökull volcano Since the end of the eruption and any major activity in Bárðarbunga volcano. Earthquake activity in Tungafellsjökull volcano has not stopped as expected. The earthquake activity continues at low levels and at great depth. With deepest earthquake in last 48 hours at 26,2 km. Earthquake activity in Tungnafellsjökull volcano (yellow / orange dots). Copyright of this image belongs to Iceland Meteorological Office. It is unclear what is going on in Tungnafellsjökull volcano, it is clear that dyke intrusion is taking place at depth, if and when that might result in a eruption is not clear at this moment. This might lead to an eruption or it might not. It is impossible to know at this moment since Tungnafellsjökull volcano has no recorded or documented history of volcano eruptions in historical times. Donations: Please remember to support my work with donations or by using Amazon. Thanks for the support. 🙂 Icelandic Meteorological Office and Almannavarnir have issued a warning about possible large earthquake on the Reykjanes peninsula. This warning is triggered by the earthquake swarm in Krísuvík on 30-May-2015 and a second earthquake swarm on the Reykjanes ridge on 11-June-2015. Largest earthquakes in this earthquake sequence once it starts might reach magnitude of 6,5. There remains a hope that the stress on the Reykjanes peninsula and Reykjanes ridge is going to be released out slowly without large earthquake taking place. The warning only covers the populated part of the Reykjanes, from Kleifarvatn and east to Ölfus. It is my view that chance is small at best, it might work out that, I do think that is unlikely outcome of this. It is impossible to know when this earthquake activity might happen, but since the warning has been issued it might only be few weeks to month until something happens. Last large earthquake in Bláfjöll mountains (Breinnisteinsfjöll volcano) took place in 1929 and 1968. Due to the area in question being less populated than it is today there was no or little damage. Current warning says the people should prepare to limit damage, since in past few years the populated areas have moved closer earthquake risk areas of the Reykjanes peninsula. The warning (in Icelandic) Skjálftavirkni á Reykjanesskaga (vedur.is, Icelandic Meteorological Office, Icelandic) Fréttatilkynning vegna jarðskjálftavirkni að undanförnu á svæðinu frá Krísuvík austur í Ölfus (vedur.is, pdf, Icelandic) Vara við skjálfta til að draga úr slysahættu (Vísir.is, Icelandic, pictures) Hætta á stórum skjálfta á Reykjavíkursvæðinu (Vísir.is, Icelandic) Donations: Please remember to support my work with donations or by using Amazon. Thanks for the support. 🙂 Article updated at 23:52 UTC. Yesterday (16-June-2015) a small glacier flood started in Skaftárkatlar cauldrons in Vatnajökull glacier. The glacier flood can go up to 900m³/sec at its largest. The main risk from this glacier flood are the gases released into the air once the glacier water gets into the river, it is the advised that people stay away from the glacier rivers called Skaftá, it is also advised that people stay away from the edges of the glaciers named Skaftárjökull glacier, Tungárjökuls and Síðujökuls. It is unclear how big this glacier flood is going to be and from what cauldron is emptying, there is a good chance the cauldron that is emptying is the western one, since the eastern one empted last year and does not hold a lot of water at the moment. Following this type of glacier flood a peak of harmonic tremor is detected from the cauldron that is emptying, it is thought that this is due to the hydrothermal vents (hot springs) that power those cauldrons start to boil when the pressure is released. There is a small chance eruption taking place in this area due to glacier flood when the pressure of the water is released, this is a chance, but it remains a small one. Skaftárhlaup líklega hafið (Rúv.is, Icelandic, Map) Lítið Skaftárhlaup líklega hafið (Mbl.is, Icelandic) Skaftárhlaup mjög líklega hafið (Vísir.is, Icelandic, image) Please remember to support my work with donations or by using Amazon. Thanks for the support. Article updated at 21:52 UTC. During the night of 12-June-2015 a minor earthquake swarm took place on the edge of SISZ (South Iceland Seismic Zone). Around 9 earthquakes were detected, largest earthquake had the magnitude of 2,9. Earthquake swarm on the SISZ, it appears as a group of few dots in northern part of SISZ. Copyright of this image belongs to Icelandic Meteorological Office. This earthquake swarm did appear clearly on my geophone in Heklubyggð. The spike in this image is the magnitude 2,9 earthquake. This image is released under Creative Commons Licence. Please see CC Licence for more details. The reason why this magnitude 2,9 earthquake appears so strong on my geophone has normal reasons. The reason is distance, the earthquake was close to geophone and smaller earthquakes appear clearly on my geophone, even if they are small in magnitude. Donations: Please remember to donate to support my work and prevent me from suffer from a hunger. Thanks for the support. 🙂 During the night of 11-June-2015 an earthquake swarm took place on the Reykjanes ridge. This was a medium sized earthquake swarm, so far 151 earthquake have taken place. The earthquake swarm on the Reykjanes ridge, green stars are earthquakes larger than magnitude 3,0. Copyright of this image belongs to Icelandic Meteorological Office. The largest earthquake in this swarm had the magnitude of 3,9, second largest earthquake in this swarm had the magnitude of 3,6. Other earthquakes in this swarm where smaller in magnitude. This earthquake swarm appears to be over at the moment, it might resume without warning. Since often large earthquake swarms in this part of the Reykjanes ridge start slowly and last over few days to weeks. Earthquake swarm appeared clearly on my only geophone in Iceland, in Heklubyggð in south Iceland. This image is released under Creative Commons Licence. Please see CC Licence page for more details. Any earthquake larger than magnitude 2,5 should appear clearly on my geophone in Heklubyggð, Iceland. Smaller earthquakes won’t appear clearly or not at all. Donations: Please remember to support my work with donations or by using Amazon. Currently I am having money problem due the fact that everything is extremely expensive in Iceland when it comes to food. Thanks for the support. 🙂 More information can be found here (total living), here (food) and more information can be found here (article). I don’t have any lower price grocery (like Bonus) stores where I am living in Iceland due to small population (around 1400 people live in the multiplicity of Húnaþing Vestra). Denmark is considerable cheaper when it comes to buy food then Iceland, since it is possible to buy cheap food and there are always offers in stores. That is not the case in Iceland. Today (10-June-2015) an magnitude 3,3 earthquake took place in Bárðarbunga volcano. This earthquake had the depth of 6,3 km. Magnitude 3,3 earthquake in Bárðarbunga volcano is shown with the green star. Copyright of this image belongs to Icelandic Meteorological Office. No other earthquake activity has followed the magnitude 3,3 earthquake so far. This earthquake was a long period earthquake, that means it was magnetic in nature and was created by magma at 6,3 km depth. At the moment it is impossible to know for sure what is going to happen in Bárðarbunga volcano, far as I know there hasn’t been any inflation of Bárðarbunga volcano since the eruption in Holuhraun ended, that might have happened, just not detected due to the size of the area. Donations: Please remember to support my work with donations. I also run the risk of getting really hungry this month due the fact that Iceland is really expensive and that problem is going to get worse until I move back to Denmark (where prices are slightly higher than in Germany, but a lot lower then in Iceland). Thanks for the support. 🙂 During Week 23 there hasn’t been a lot of activity taking place. Normal minor-earthquake activity has been taking place all over Iceland, some glacier earthquakes have been seen in Vatnajökull glacier. This spread out earthquake activity is normal for Iceland, it is also easily detected in Iceland due to the dense seismometer network in Iceland. Earthquake activity continues in Bárðarbunga volcano. Normal earthquake activity in Iceland at the moment. Copyright of this image belongs to Icelandic Meteorologist Office. At the moment the earthquake activity in Iceland is within normal background levels. Minor earthquake activity is almost always taking place in Iceland, there are few days when no earthquakes happen, but those days are rare and it is long between them. At the moment there is nothing to report in terms of the activity in Iceland. This summer I am working Monday to Friday from 08:00 to 16:00. This means if anything happens I won’t me aware of it until I get back from work. Please remember to support my work with donations. They help me work on this website and keep my alive. I have found out that food is expensive in Iceland and over the past two years that price has only gone up and it continues to do so. This means the budget I used in Denmark for food is not enough in Iceland (I have adjusted the plans, that type of living is going to be a challenge for the next 9 – 11 months when I am going to be living in Hvammstangi, Iceland). I am now close to getting completely broke. Most of my working income is going to pay up my debt (what I get of it, since I pay full tax [37,30%] of it in Iceland). I hope to be finished paying up all my debt in October. Thanks for the support. Article updated at 20:48 UTC. Article updated at 23:04 UTC. Today (1-June-2015) the alert level around Bárðarbunga volcano was lowered to uncertainty level from danger level. This means there are no longer any travel restrictions in the area. Besides normal spring closure in the highlands due to the snow melting (and creating mud areas). There is a risk of snap floods in the area due to hydrothermal activity in Bárðarbunga volcano. It remains high according to the latest news. The risk area for that melt water is in Jökulsá á fjöllum glacier river, since melt water can collect under the glacier and then flood the river days to weeks later. It is also not known what is going to happen when the summer melt period starts in Jökulsá á fjöllum glacier river. A new lake might from in the area next to the glacier where the lava blocked the glacier river path, the glacier water comes from Dyngjökuli glacier. Icelandic News about this Frá hættustigi á óvissustig (mbl.is, Icelandic) Ekki lengur hættustig vegna Bárðabungu (Rúv.is, Icelandic) Viðbúnaður vegna jarðhræringa við Bárðarbungu færður niður á óvissustig (Vísir.is, Icelandic)

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Liturgy and Worship Liturgy and Worship It could well be said that the years since 1965 have been, in America as well as in much of the rest of the religious world, a time of unprecedented liturgical change—indeed, upheaval. One could probably go farther to suggest that for Christian churches at least, there has not been such a time since the Reformation of the sixteenth century in Europe and successive "aftershocks" in other places in the centuries that followed. The roots of this thirty-five year period of liturgical change can be found in two seemingly disparate movements. The more obvious is a series of scholarly and highly "traditional" efforts in many Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant churches dating back almost exactly one hundred years before 1965. In England, Scotland, and Continental Europe, during the late nineteenth century, attempts began to return to earlier worship patterns. There was a renewed interest by Protestants and Anglicans in practices advocated by such sixteenth-century Protestant reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Knox. There was also a revived interest in seventeenth-century Puritans, eighteenth-century Methodists, and in elements of sixteenth and seventeenth-century English worship. In the Roman Catholic Church, the impact of the sixteenth-century Counter-Reformation was challenged in the late nineteenth century with a revived interest in the high Middle Ages and later an appeal to the Patristic era. In the twentieth century, supportive developments in biblical studies (the so-called "Higher Criticism"), ecumenism (as in the World Student Christian Federation and the World Council of Churches), and neo-orthodoxy in the Reformed and Lutheran Churches combined to encourage this liturgical movement, which rapidly crossed the Atlantic to North America. The transatlantic move significantly changed certain of these traditions, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, where there was added an urban, societal dimension very much under the influence of the Benedictine community's publication of a new journal, Orate Fratres, founded by Virgil Michael in 1926 and later to become Worship. This is an important connection in relation to the second set of influences on liturgical renewal in America. This other set of influences may be described as social and cultural. The assassinations of the Kennedy brothers and of Martin Luther King, Jr., in the United States signaled a new form of countercultural consciousness, the civil rights movement, which produced its own very powerful liturgies: processionals ("marches"), hymns (freedom songs and African-American spirituals), symbols (handclasps), martyrs (such as those just named and others), sacred sites (the bridge at Selma, Alabama; and the Lincoln Memorial, where King gave his stirring "I have a dream" speech), and the emergence of black churches (Methodist, Baptist, and Pentecostal) as seminal social forces. Next there arose another paraliturgical form of social and ritual consciousness, the anti–Vietnam War thrust and the related "flower children" youth movement symbolized by Woodstock. This, too, developed its own cultic patterns. Inevitably all of these cultic/cultural developments influenced the churches' culture and cult as embodied centrally in their liturgies. What has come to characterize liturgical life worldwide in the Protestant, Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches in the several decades since 1965 may be even more pronounced in these churches in the United States. To a lesser extent one might also describe in the same way developments in Judaism, even though significant differences in cultural contexts would have to be addressed. For many, the word "liturgy" brings to mind elaborate rituals and complex, fixed ecclesiastical texts and traditions. The Greek antecedents of the word, however, would seem to suggest a broader meaning. The two Greek stem words laos ("people") and ergon ("energy") combine to provide its usual translation, "the work of the people," or "that which the people do." This demonstrates the difference between the more narrow but common concept—ritual activity largely in the hands of the clergy—and the broader concept of the recurring activity of the whole people of God. In 1965, the Roman Catholic Church's Vatican Council II completed its work. Its initial deliverance, Sacrosanctam Concilium, was approved overwhelmingly by the council on November 23, 1963 (movingly and perhaps significantly, the day after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy). That document set off a virtual chain reaction of reformed liturgies, not only in the Roman Catholic Church but also throughout the Protestant world, since many of those churches recognized in its provisions much of their own earlier reformations from the sixteenth century forward. All aspects of liturgical action—textual, architectural, ritual, aesthetic, musical, and catechetical (having to do with baptism)—illustrate this astonishing, almost tectonic set of shifts. How then can the shape of these liturgical changes be described? The description will refer to three basic traditions: Protestant–Anglican–Roman Catholic, Orthodox-Oriental, and Jewish. In each case the crucial areas of liturgical change will be analyzed as the Sunday/Sabbath service, language and participation, and music and ritual. Whereas for centuries the Protestant/Catholic "standoff" has been evidenced by an emphasis on reading and preaching the scriptures on the Protestant side as opposed to an emphasis on the celebration of the Mass on the Catholic side, with the Anglicans (Episcopalians) not surprisingly moving to one side or the other and sometimes both, it is now increasingly agreed by both sides that the normative Sunday service should include both Word and Sacrament on a weekly basis, and in that order. This idea is not yet shared by the Baptists, other free churches, or the socalled megachurches. As a result of the Catholic Church's Vatican Council II, the worldwide body of Catholic English-speaking churches rapidly shifted from Latin to a modern form of English (prepared and proposed by a consultative body of bishops known as the International Commission on English in the Liturgy, founded in 1963), effectively "leapfrogging" the classic Elizabethan English of many, if not most, Protestant churches. The effect of this was to impel U.S. Protestant churches to revise their texts from that older English into more modern forms, which was done under the guidance of ecumenical bodies that have always included Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant representatives, namely the Consultation on Common Texts (founded in 1964) and more recently an international group, the English Language Liturgical Consultation (founded in 1985). The Worshipbook (1970) of the Presbyterian churches was the first officially sponsored attempt to make such a linguistic shift, although George MacLeod's Iona Community had pioneered in this respect ever since its founding in 1938. This move immediately provided for a much more vocal and understandable level of participation by the laity. This goal is nicely expressed in a phrase from the Roman Catholic Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy as "full, conscious, and active participation in liturgical celebrations" (para. 14). And behind this goal there lies an even deeper aspect of liturgical change in these late decades of the twentieth century, a sense that worship is basically a communal event rather than an occasion for individuals to meditate or simply express their personal, individual piety and receive personal support and encouragement. Inevitably this shift in language and participation, as well as revisions of structure, required new musical forms, from folk to pop to hymns and chants. This became particularly evident due to the equally surprising ecumenical adaptation of the new Roman Catholic Order for Scripture Reading at Sunday Mass (Ordo Lectionum Missae, 1969 and 1981), a three-year cycle. Throughout Protestant and Episcopal churches in the United States (and now internationally), by virtue of the work and influence of the consultation just named, this impulse has resulted in a large corpus of hymnody to complement and encourage the ecumenical adaptation of the Roman Catholic system and now known as Revised Common Lectionary (1992). At the ritual and aesthetic levels it can only be briefly suggested that just as the Catholic side has simplified and declericalized its ceremonial aspects, so the Protestant side has taken on the use of symbols, symbolic gestures, and ceremonial behavior such as vestments, color, and movement. Orthodox-Oriental churches have been more reluctant to move in any of the ways just described—perhaps for reasons of ethnic identity, overlapping jurisdictions not always being in close touch with each other, and a high degree of conservative consciousness regarding the divine liturgy (Sunday). The lower level of participation in the above-mentioned ecumenical-liturgical movements can also be attributed to ancient disputes with Roman Catholicism and Orthodox nonacceptance of Protestant bodies. However, in the 1990s there was considerable effort to translate the liturgy into various forms of English, and especially to encourage the vocal and sacramental participation of the laity. Music and architecture were also involved. This is largely true in the Orthodox Church of America (in which the Russian church is the principal party in that it is self-governing in the United States), followed by the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of North America, which also participates in the Orthodox Church in America and its related Standing Committee of Orthodox Bishops. Differing pictures emerge from the three major associations of synagogues: Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. Orthodox Judaism is fairly fixed in the Hebrew language and liturgical forms inherited from various European communities. On the other hand, Reform Judaism, which largely abandoned most of that in favor of a kind of American inculturation (much of which understandably resembled American mainline Protestantism), seems now to be actively recovering more traditional liturgical practices, for both synagogue and domestic use. The centrist Conservative synagogues seem also to be moving in the same direction, though this is not as drastic, since this community has always maintained the use of some Hebrew and traditional ceremonies and calendrical observances. Here, too, there is a growing interest in providing catechetical and liturgical materials for interfaith marriage, known as teschuvah. Many of the Jewish and Christian communities in the late twentieth century in the United States have taken massive and remarkably similar strides to recover much that is authentic in their own traditions from earlier centuries, and not because "old" is necessarily "best," but rather because tradition itself is a living and changing experience of adaptation. Many of these communities' adaptations are in fact conscious responses to changing cultural structures, but also in the context of their own historic cultic context. Just as life is always the context of liturgy at its best, so also it is the deepest conviction of these religious traditions that liturgy must always be the primary context for the life and practice of believers. See alsoBelonging, Religious; Chanting; Civil Rights Movement; Communion; Ministry; Music; Practice; Prayer; Preaching; Religious Communities; Ritual; Rock Masses; Sociology of Religion; Spirituals; Vatican II. Austin, Gerard, ed. Eucharist Toward the Third Millennium. 1998. Davies, Horton, Bread of Life and Cup of Joy. 1993. Hoffman, Lawrence, and Bradshaw, Paul F., eds. The Making of Jewish and Christian Worship. 1991. Pecklers, Keith, S.J. The Unread Vision: The Liturgical Movement in the United States of America. 1998. Saliers, Don E. Worship as Theology: Foretaste of Glory Divine. 1994. Spinks, Bryan D., and Iain R. Torrance, eds. To Glorify God: Essays on Modern Reformed Liturgy. 1999. West, Fritz. Scripture and Memory: The Ecumenical Hermeneutic of the Three-Year Lectionaries. 1997. White, James F. A Brief History of Christian Worship. 1993. Horace T. Allen, Jr. "Liturgy and Worship." Contemporary American Religion. . Encyclopedia.com. (May 20, 2019). https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/liturgy-and-worship "Liturgy and Worship." Contemporary American Religion. . Retrieved May 20, 2019 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/legal-and-political-magazines/liturgy-and-worship Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). Within the “Cite this article” tool, pick a style to see how all available information looks when formatted according to that style. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. Therefore, it’s best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publication’s requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: Modern Language Association The Chicago Manual of Style American Psychological Association - Most online reference entries and articles do not have page numbers. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. However, the date of retrieval is often important. Refer to each style’s convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. - In addition to the MLA, Chicago, and APA styles, your school, university, publication, or institution may have its own requirements for citations. 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Heidelberg Catechism (extended) The Catechism Method of Instruction in the Christian Religion As the Same is Taught in the Reformed Churches and Schools (with the Scripture references written out) Note. This Catechism is fully based on the Scriptures. The references to Scripture are indicated in parentheses with a letter. For example, the letter (a) points to the texts (a) placed after the answer. 1. Lord's Day Question 1. What is your only comfort in life and death? That I with body and soul, both in life and death, a am not my own, b but belong unto my faithful Saviour Jesus Christ; c who, with his precious blood, has fully satisfied for all my sins, d and delivered me from all the power of the devil; e and so preserves me f that without the will of my heavenly Father, not a hair can fall Rom.14:7,8 For not one of us lives for himself, and not one dies for himself; for if we live, we live for the Lord, or if we die, we die for the Lord; therefore whether we live or die, we are the Lord’s. b 1 Cor.6:19 Or do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit who is in you, whom you have from God, and that you are not your own? c 1 Cor.3:23 and you belong to Christ; and Christ belongs to God. Tit.2:14 who gave Himself for us to redeem us from every lawless deed, and to purify for Himself a people for His own possession, zealous for good deeds. d 1 Pet.1:18,19 knowing that you were not redeemed with perishable things like silver or gold from your futile way of life inherited from your forefathers, 19 but with precious blood, as of a lamb unblemished and spotless, the blood of Christ. 1 John 1:7 but if we walk in the Light as He Himself is in the Light, we have fellowship with one another, and the blood of Jesus His Son cleanses us from all sin. 1 John 2:2 and He Himself is the propitiation for our sins; and not for ours only, but also for those of the whole world. 1 John 2:12 I am writing to you, little children, because your sins have been forgiven you for His name’s sake. e Heb.2:14 Therefore, since the children share in flesh and blood, He Himself likewise also partook of the same, that through death He might render powerless him who had the power of death, that is, the devil, 1 John 3:8 The one who practices sin is of the devil; for the devil has sinned from the beginning. The Son of God appeared for this purpose, to destroy the works of the devil. John 8:34-36 Jesus answered them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, everyone who commits sin is the slave of sin. 35 “The slave does not remain in the house forever; the son does remain forever. 36 “So if the Son makes you free, you will be free indeed. f from my head; g yea, that all things must be subservient to my salvation, h and therefore, by his Holy Spirit, He also assures me of eternal life, i and makes me sincerely willing and ready, henceforth, to live unto him. j Q. 2. How many things are necessary for you to know, that you, enjoying this comfort, may live and die happily? Three; a the first, how great my sins and miseries are; b the second, how I may be delivered from all my sins and miseries; c the third, how I shall express my gratitude to God for such deliverance. d John 6:39 “This is the will of Him who sent Me, that of all that He has given Me I lose nothing, but raise it up on the last day. John 10:28 and I give eternal life to them, and they will never perish; and no one will snatch them out of My hand. 2 Thess.3:3 But the Lord is faithful, and He will strengthen and protect you from the evil one. 1 Pet.1:5 5 who are protected by the power of God through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time. g Matt.10:29-31 “Are not two sparrows sold for a cent? And yet not one of them will fall to the ground apart from your Father. 30 “But the very hairs of your head are all numbered. 31 “So do not fear; you are more valuable than many sparrows. Luke 21:18 “Yet not a hair of your head will perish. h Rom.8:28 And we know that God causes all things to work together for good to those who love God, to those who are called according to His purpose. i 2 Cor.1:20-22 For as many as are the promises of God, in Him they are yes; therefore also through Him is our Amen to the glory of God through us. 21 Now He who establishes us with you in Christ and anointed us is God, 22 who also sealed us and gave us the Spirit in our hearts as a pledge. 2 Cor.5:5 Now He who prepared us for this very purpose is God, who gave to us the Spirit as a Eph.1:13,14 In Him, you also, after listening to the message of truth, the gospel of your salvation— having also believed, you were sealed in Him with the Holy Spirit of promise, 14 who is given as a pledge of our inheritance, with a view to the redemption of God’s own possession, to the praise of His glory. Rom.8:16 16 The Spirit Himself testifies with our spirit that we are children of God, j Rom.8:14 For all who are being led by the Spirit of God, these are sons of God. 1 John 3:3 3 And everyone who has this hope fixed on Him purifies himself, just as He is pure. a Matt.11:28-30 “Come to Me, all who are weary and heavy-laden, and I will give you rest. 29 “Take My yoke upon you and learn from Me, for I am gentle and humble in heart, and YOU WILL FIND REST FOR YOUR SOULS. 30 “For My yoke is easy and My burden is light.” Luke 24:46-48 and He said to them, “Thus it is written, that the Christ would suffer and rise again from the dead the third day, 47 and that repentance for forgiveness of sins would be proclaimed in His name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. 48 “You are witnesses of these things. The First Part - Of The Misery Of Man 2. Lord's Day Q. 3. Whence knowest thou thy misery? 1 Cor.6:11 Such were some of you; but you were washed, but you were sanctified, but you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and in the Spirit of our God. Tit 3:3-For we also once were foolish ourselves, disobedient, deceived, enslaved to various lusts and pleasures, spending our life in malice and envy, hateful, hating one another. 4 But when the kindness of God our Savior and His love for mankind appeared, 5 He saved us, not on the basis of deeds which we have done in righteousness, but according to His mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewing by the Holy Spirit, 6 whom He poured out upon us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, 7 so that being justified by His grace we would be made heirs according to the hope of eternal life. John 9:41 Jesus said to them, “If you were blind, you would have no sin; but since you say, ‘We see,’ your sin remains. John 15:22 “If I had not come and spoken to them, they would not have sin, but now they have no excuse for their sin. c John 17:3 “This is eternal life, that they may know You, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom You have sent. Acts 4:12 “And there is salvation in no one else; for there is no other name under heaven that has been given among men by which we must be saved.” Acts 10:43 “Of Him all the prophets bear witness that through His name everyone who believes in Him receives forgiveness of sins.” d Eph.5:8-11 8 for you were formerly darkness, but now you are Light in the Lord; walk as children of Light 9 (for the fruit of the Light consists in all goodness and righteousness and truth), 10 trying to learn what is pleasing to the Lord. 11 Do not participate in the unfruitful deeds of darkness, but instead even expose them; 1 Pet.2:9,10 But you are A CHOSEN RACE, A royal PRIESTHOOD, A HOLY NATION, A PEOPLE FOR God’s OWN POSSESSION, so that you may proclaim the excellencies of Him who has called you out of darkness into His marvelous light; 10 for you once were NOT A PEOPLE, but now you are THE PEOPLE OF GOD; you had NOT RECEIVED MERCY, but now you have RECEIVED MERCY. Rom.6:1-2 What shall we say then? Are we to continue in sin so that grace may increase? 2 May it never be! How shall we who died to sin still live in it? Rom.6:12,13 Therefore do not let sin reign in your mortal body so that you obey its lusts, 13 and do not go on presenting the members of your body to sin as instruments of unrighteousness; but present yourselves to God as those alive from the dead, and your members as instruments of righteousness to Out of the law of God. (a) Rom.3:20 Therefore by the deeds of the law there shall no flesh be justified in his sight: for by the law is the knowledge of sin. Q. 4. What does the law of God require of us? Christ teaches us that briefly, Matt. 22:

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Over the past 20 years, Indonesia — the world’s fourth most-populous country and the largest Muslim-majority nation — has evolved into a democracy based on tolerance and a moderate interpretation of Islam, and has emerged as one of Asia's fastest-growing economies. This essay is part of a series on “Indonesia and the Middle East: Exploring Connections,” which examines the nature, scope, and implications of Indonesia's ties with the MENA region. See more ... In recent decades, Indonesia has become an important transit point for asylum-seekers. Afghans account for half of the number of refugees and asylum-seekers in Indonesia. Over the years, they, like others fleeing their homes due to conflict — from Iraq, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan — have found themselves stuck in Indonesia due to the restrictive policies in Australia, where they had hoped to obtain asylum. This article discusses the status of Afghan refugees and asylum-seekers in Indonesia, with a focus on the Hazaras and the challenges they face. Indonesia: A “Transit” State Refugees and asylum seekers, including Afghans, currently residing in Indonesia, have few choices and face many uncertainties and difficulties. Theoretically, there are three options available to them, the so-called “durable solutions”: resettlement to third countries, return to their own countries (repatriation) or integration in transit countries. However, in practice, none of these options can be exercised easily. There is no guarantee that a third country will resettle Hazaras. As Puong has noted, one of the difficulties encountered by refugees lies in the obvious gap between the existence of a right to asylum and the lack of a corresponding state duty to grant asylum.International law clearly does not provide for a duty to grant asylum. Whereas states are under no obligation under international law to grant asylum to refugees, they are still bound by the principle of non-refoulement as defined in article 33 of the 1951 Refugee Convention and now considered to be part of customary international law, which provides that no refugee shall be returned to any country “where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion.” Although Indonesia has not ratified the 1951 Convention, the country has generally honored the principle of non-refoulement. With only rare exceptions, Indonesia — the central government, as well as many municipal authorities, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and local communities — have traditionally provided temporary shelter to refugees and asylum seekers. This was the case, for example, from the 1970s to the 1990s, when Galang and Rempang islands in Riau Island Province served as temporary homes for Vietnamese and Cambodian refugees. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that Indonesia lacks a legal mechanism and comprehensive policy for the protection of refugees. Indonesia is a party to the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (since 1998) and to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (since 2005) and is, therefore, bound by the obligations, including non-refoulement, imposed by those treaties. However, Law No. 6/2011 on Immigration, which governs the legal status of immigrants, does not refer to asylum seekers or refugees. Instead, the law describes any person not in possession of a visa as an “illegal immigrant” and requires that individuals without documentation be held in detention, unless they are children, sick, women about to give birth, or victims of human trafficking or smuggling. Presidential Decree (Peraturan Presiden) No. 125 Concerning the Handling of Foreign Refugees, issued in 2016, provides a much-needed definition of refugees under Indonesian law, in line with the Refugee Convention, but does not offer a pathway to protection. Instead, it provides that all protection claims must be referred to the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The decree does not establish a domestic legal mechanism. Given the absence of a coherent policy for refugee protection, Decree No. 125 falls short of offering the legal certainty that refugee advocates had hoped for. Many points remain vague, including responsibility for funding activities after initial reception. As in the past, most costs are likely to be borne by the International Organization for Migration (IOM), whose largest donor is Australia. Meanwhile, as Fiske has shown, refugees in Indonesia, who are not housed in UNHCR camps, lead precarious lives: they are not entitled to move freely around the country, are not permitted to work or engage in business activity, and lack access to welfare, health, and other social services. Missbach has shed light on the daily hardships faced by Afghan and other refugees and asylum seekers living in “limbo” in Indonesia. The Plight of Afghan Hazaras According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), there were 14,405 refugees and asylum-seekers in Indonesia at year’s end in 2016 — an increase of more than 3,000 from the previous year. However, as of July 1, 2017, just 322 refugees had departed for resettlement in a third country. The rest were still stranded in Indonesia. Roughly half of the refugees and asylum seekers living in Indonesia are from Afghanistan, and most of those are members of the Hazara ethnic minority. Hazaras have been the victims of systematic discrimination and often repeated targeted violence and resulting displacement from Afghanistan. The largest concentration of Hazaras in Indonesia lives in the town at the foot of Mount Gede — an active volcano that last erupted in 1957 — in Bogor Regency. For purposes of this analysis and borrowing from Fiske, the Hazara transit migrant community can be roughly divided into three groups. The first group can be found in the small town of Cipayung. Most of these individuals are classified by the UNHCR as “single males,” though many of these men in fact have wives and children who are not with them in Indonesia. Most refugees in Cipayung largely survive on some form of private financial support from their families in Pakistan, Afghanistan, and among their respective diaspora. This meager support is barely enough to cover the cost of food and shelter. A second group can be found in Cisarua, further up Mount Gede, past Cipayung. Like the Cipayung refugees, these individuals have little or no access to financial aid and must rely on family and diaspora support. However, members of this group have adjusted to their changed circumstances with remarkable success. The community was formed around a refugee-run school that opened in August 2014 and now has 200 students and 17 volunteer staff. The school has provided the community a focal point and shared project in which all are heavily involved. Many other activities have grown from this, including men’s, women’s and mixed soccer teams, art exhibitions, a karate club, and at least two more independent schools. The community has a strong social media presence and manages its own public representation, focusing on a narrative of refugee capacity rather than need. The community development approach in Cisarua is yielding significant benefits in this respect. Pioneering community-building and self-help efforts have been a source of pride within the transit migrant community, as well as a practical vehicle for developing skills and knowledge, such as English-language abilities, organizational management, teamwork, and public communications. A third group of refugees can be found in the laneways behind the UNHCR offices in Jakarta, sleeping on the street and imploring security guards for an audience with officials. In addition, an indeterminate, though presumably much smaller number can be found scattered in urban areas elsewhere around the country, as for example, a Hazara family of six without any clear path to the future that this author encountered in Jakarta City Center in July 2018. Since arriving in Indonesia from Quetta, Pakistan three years ago, the family has lived in temporary shelter in West Jakarta without any clear indication as to whether they might be resettled in a third country. Members of the family are barred from working. The children have been provided no access to education. Fortunately, some NGOs and refugees-initiated organization have arranged for informal education (mainly English- and Indonesian-language acquisition) for them and other transit migrants in the Jakarta area. Some accounts of the plight of Hazaras in Indonesia have reported instances where young boys have been accosted by male predators, subjected to intimidation or threats of violence. Others have documented cases of homelessness. The struggles of Afghan refugees of ethnic Hazara “stranded” in Indonesia are compounded by the bias and ostracism they sometimes face due to their religious affiliation. Whereas most Hazaras are Shia, Indonesia is a predominantly Sunni Muslim country that has experienced sporadic waves of sectarian tension and violence. Some Muslim news portals have published distorted, if not inflammatory accounts of Hazara refugees, labeling them as “Shia immigrants,” casting doubt on the legitimacy of their claims to refugee status, portraying them as freeloaders, or as being irreligious, deceitful, and disruptive. Hazaras cannot freely practice their religious ceremonies; and fundamentalist groups such as National Anti-Shia Alliance (ANNAS) have stirred up anti-Shia sentiment. The Outlook for Afghan Refugees in Indonesia As the country of last embarkation for most unauthorized maritime arrivals in Australia, Indonesia is a transit country. However, Indonesia has few formal policies in place to deal with the increasing inflow of “transit migrants.” Afghan Hazaras, who represent a significant number of arrivals to Indonesia, hoping to arrange onward passage to Australia, face many of the same difficulties that other asylum seekers and refugees do. However, they are a particularly vulnerable population given their religious minority status. The outlook for Hazaras and other refugees and asylum seekers languishing in Indonesia has further darkened, as the UNHCR staff have begun to inform them that, given the remote prospects for resettlement, they ought to prepare the best they can to assimilate into Indonesian society or return home. Yet, to date, most Hazaras living in Indonesia remain “a community apart.” Denise Phillips, “Wounded Memory of Hazara Refugees from Afghanistan Remembering and Forgetting Persecution,” History Australia 8, 2 (2011): 177-198. Catherine Puong, “Identifying States’ Responsibilities towards Refugees and Asylum Seekers,” Working Paper, European Society of International Law (ESIL) Research Forum, Geneva (2005), http://esil-sedi.eu/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/Phuong.pdf. These responses are generally held up as examples of Indonesian humanitarianism, though some accounts have shed light on violence, corruption, and other problems associated with the processing and treatment of Indochinese refugees. See, for example, Sindhunata Hargyono, “Ugly Sanctuary,” Inside Indonesia, April-June 2016, http://www.insideindonesia.org/ugly-sanctuary. Robyn C. Sampson, Sandra M. Gifford, and Savitri Taylor, “The myth of transit: the making of a life by asylum seekers and refugees in Indonesia,” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 42, 7 (2016): 1135-1152. See Asher Lazarus Hirsch and Cameron Doig, “Outsourcing control: the International Organization for Migration in Indonesia,” The International Journal of Human Rights 22, 5 (2018): 681-708. Nikolas Feith Tan, “The Status of Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Indonesia,” International Journal of Refugee Law, 28, 3 (2016): 365-383. The decree requires that refugees and asylum seekers intercepted by officials in Indonesia be taken to the nearest detention center or immigration office. Upon entering detention, they must undergo various identity checks, and must declare an intention to seek asylum to be referred to the UNHCR. See Hirsch and Doig, “Outsourcing control.” Lucy Fiske, “Refugee Transit in Indonesia: The Critical Importance of Community,” International Peace Institute (IPI) Global Observatory, March 8, 2017, https://theglobalobservatory.org/2017/03/indonesia-refugee-crisis-unhcr/. Antje Missbach, Troubled Transit: Asylum Seekers Stuck in Indonesia (Singapore: Yusof Ishak Institute, 2015). UNHCR, Indonesia Fact Sheet, December 2016, http://www.unhcr.org/id/wp-content/uploads/sites/42/2017/05/Indonesia-Fa... Jewel Topsfield, “Most Indonesian refugees will never be resettled: UN refugee agency,” The Sydney Morning Herald, October 31, 2017, https://www.smh.com.au/world/most-refugees-in-indonesia-will-never-be-resettled-un-refugee-agency-20171031-gzbzhn.html. According to Minority Rights International, relatively recent estimates have suggested that Hazaras make up around nine percent of the population of Afghanistan. See profile of Hazaras, http://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras/. See, for example, Jack Hewson, “Afghan Hazaras’ New Life in Indonesia,” Al Jazeera, March 21, 2014, https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/03/afghan-hazaras-new-life-indonesia-201436121639956520.html. Fiske, “Refugee Transit in Indonesia.” Muzafar Ali, Linda Briskman, and Lucy Fiske, “Asylum Seekers and Refugees in Indonesia: Problems and Potentials,” Cosmopolitan Civil Societies Journal 8, 2 (2016), http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/mcs/article/view/4883; Missbach, Troubled Transit: Asylum Seekers Stuck in Indonesia; and “Refugees in Indonesia tackle life in limbo through school ,” AFP, June 19, 2016, https://www.nst.com.my/news/2016/06/153015/refugees-indonesia-tackle-lif.... Claire Molloy, “’We’re not living. We’re just alive …,’” Vice, August 2, 2017, https://www.vice.com/en_id/article/pabegy/were-not-living-were-just-aliv.... Kate Lamb and Ben Doherty, “On the streets with the desperate refugees who dream of being detailned,” The Guardian, April 14, 20918, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/15/on-the-streets-with-the-de.... See, for example, “Inilah Kenjanggalan-Kejanggalan Imigram Syiah Di Balikpapan,” (These are the peculiarities of Shiite immigrants in Balikpapan), Arrahmah.com, December 21, 2014, https://www.arrahmah.com/2014/12/21/inilah-kejanggalan-kejanggalan-imigran-syiah-di-balikpapan/; and A.Z. Mataqin, “Merihat Perilaku Imigran Syiah Di Bogor,” (See the Behavior of Shiite Immigrants in Bogor), Arrahmah.com, January 27, 2015, https://www.arrahmah.com/2015/01/27/perilaku-imigran-syiah-di-bogor/. Amy Pitonak, “Pressure to return? Afghan refugees protest at Indonesian detention centre,” Afghanistan Analysts Network, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/pressure-to-return-afghan-refugees-.... See, for example, Joe Cochrane, “Refugees in Indonesia Hoped for Brief Stay. Now Many May Be Stuck for Life,” New York Times, January 26, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/26/world/asia/indonesia-refugees-united-.... See Thomas Brown, “After the Boats Stopped: Refugees Managing a Life of Protracted Limbo in Indonesia,” Antropologi Indonesia 1 (2017): 34-50.

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The expert how to construct a poem analysis essay essay tutors at nascent minds will elaborate every single detail to you. they will teach you how to write precisely. we are offering quick essay tutoring services round the clock. only premium essay tutoring can help you in attaining desired results. instead of wasting time on amateur tutors. make your own book online w/ designs & templates or documents simple and easy. best book creator w best print price. affordable for hard and softback. write your book your way. use pdf, word files or photos into printable book in seconds. publish with isbn. though [ poem 1] uses [ poetic element 1] and [ poem 2] employs [ poetic element 2], both works contribute to [ common theme]. using this template, let’ s add the songs i chose as examples and spruce up the wording. a good thesis statement for comparing these songs might look like this:. when she construct arrives, she does provide the inspiration for me to construct a poem that i feel satisfied with, but i’ ve always just accepted that the poems that i create will be few and far between. show an older child how to write a “ found” poem, using the found poem instructions. found poems take existing text ( e. , from a passage in a book, a magazine article, a sign, a letter) and condense and reorder the words to form a new poem. help the child select a paragraph or two from a favorite book and turn it into a found poem. at first, analyzing a poem may seem like an intimidating task, especially considering the myriad poetic forms out there. it’ s important to note, however, that a poem can have different meanings. first, write the basic story in one sitting. it may seem silly to begin a list of steps on how to write a short story with a tip to “ write the story, ” but let me explain. ask questions on justlearn to speak a language. join our community of language learners to get started. read answers to learn more. in this worksheet, children read an example of a bio poem for jazz musician thelonious monk, then use the prompt to create a bio poem for a person of their choosing. reading & writing. What s a persuasive essay. like a poem, a long sentence takes readers on a tiny journey, describing one thought, one feeling, one evocative scene. you’ ll appreciate a long sentence more when you read it aloud, construct savoring its rhythm. here’ s another example from there there— i’ ve written it as a verse: the train emerges, rises out of the underground tube. each poem consists of multiple verses and a consistent rhyming structure. there is a random element, so until you save your poem, refreshing the page usually results in a new variation. love poem generator. quickly write a rhyming love poem. romantic poem creator / random love poem maker / write a love poem. this reflection focuses on the use of language in each piece. for print stimuli, focus on how the writer/ author uses words to communicate or evoke a specific response in the selected stimuli. someone should construct a poem with this picture - romance - nairaland. nairaland forum / nairaland / general / romance / someone should construct a poem with this picture ( 454 views) i walked inside the room and saw my friend doing this. a novice writer can construct a limerick based on hearing and understanding limericks that we may come across as children. the humour may develop the poem or the poem may develop the limerick. the desire is not to study and contemplate or fret. in the code language of criticism when a poem is said construct to be about poetry the word " poetry" is often used to mean: how people construct an intelligibility out of the randomness they experience; how people choose what they love; how people integrate loss and gain; how they distort experience by wish construct and dream; how they perceive and consolidate. in fact, if you find yourself stuck in a poem, just remember that the poet, 9 times out of 10, was a bit of a rebel and was trying to make his friends look at life in a completely different way. find your inner rebel too. there isn’ t a single poem out there that’ s “ too difficult” to try out – right now, today. this is a translation of the poem pour faire le portrait d' un oiseau by jacques prevert. topic( s) of this poem: bird. poems by eugene levich: 99 / 108 « prev. poem next poem ». or — create an image that fits with the poem. after circling the words, you can sketch a design that fits with the theme or images of the poem. use a sharpie or pen to outline. if you’ re going to have your students use watercolor to finish their poems, you want to make sure the marker won’ t bleed. i used a sharpie for mine. lo: to co- construct a success criteria for a poem. how do you write a school essay. independent task - use your highlighter to highlight the specific parts of the waggoll that make it successful. wb: mondav 8th june success criteria for poems ndless arrays of tall canopy t ees - then, identify the 5 success criteria points and include an example from the wagoll. the goal of this assignment is for you to demonstrate your ability to analyze how a poet uses poetic devices to construct a poem’ s meaning. heading: in the upper right- hand corner, please write your name, the title of the course, instructor’ s name, and the due date of ; this assignment. title: give your essay an original title. construct however, for purposes of this examination, the poetry analysis strategies will be the focus. the poem for analysis in last year’ s exam was “ the juggler” by richard wilbur, a modern american poet. exam takers were asked to analyze the following: how the speaker in the poem describes the juggler; what the description shows about the speaker. how to start an introduction when writing an essay about poetry. take a piece of literature that was written in an often condensed form of a language and explain it; that is the assignment when writing an essay about poetry. Ways to prevent plagiarism. writing such an essay can help you understand complex forms of. how to write a love poem. part of the series: writing & education. to write a love poem, read classic love poems, figure out the focus of the poem, find a writing form that feels comfortable, introduce different senses, and re- read the poem several times. present love poems in a creative or romantic way with ideas from a writing instructor in this free video on writing. how to write an alliteration poem. a fun and easy kind of poem to write is what i call an “ alliteration poem. ” alliteration is when you repeat the beginning consonant sounds of words, such as “ big blue baseball bat” or “ round red robin. writing alliteration poems is a terrific creativity exercise. how to construct an albatross. begin by setting the instructions aside. instead tune the mind to flight. attach the huge, clunking wings ( treat like hangar doors). this poem won the main prize in the wigtown poetry competition. construct of a poem. octo octo the mush from the hill. just sitting, waiting. for construct mental spaghetti. to spill onto the page. i just let me fingers hover. then tap the keys. waiting for some sense. to appear like a cheap magic trick. an abc poem is a poem where each line of the poem begins with a letter in the alphabet, starting with a and moving in order through z. each line focuses on building upon the central topic of the poem, creating a specific mood, feeling, or picture in the reader’ s mind. there are various types of abc ( construct or alphabet) poems. some use all 26 letters. construct your second stanza. and you may decide that you choose to end up with a poem in a different form, perhaps even a prose poem. the making of a poem: a norton anthology of poetic forms, edited by mark strand and eavan boland. in durban, the street children who live without family employ extraordinary skills to deal with extraordinary situations on a daily moment by moment basis. analysis and synthesis in academic writing. they consistently navigate crisis walking the thin line on the long road to who knows where. how not to get beaten? how to find food when the. their writers are highly professional, how to construct a poem analysis essay and always deliver orders on time. thank you so much team pro homework help! what our customers say reviews on trustpilot. subscribe to our newsletter and never miss out on our special construct offers! 8 step method writing essay. keep in mind that while citing a poem you should only mention highly relevant and most important things and the best stanza from the poem. avoid adding unnecessary and non- catchy phrases as it might not leave much of a great impact on the readers. how to cite a poem title. the title of a poem must be mentioned in quotation marks construct or italic font. has become the best essay writer service after many years how to construct a poem analysis essay of experience. our company hires professional essay writers to help students around the world. our skillful essay how to construct a poem analysis essay writers supply writing and editing services for academic papers. our subjective is to create an ideal paper to help you to succeed in your grades. way a poem works, you need to spend some time thinking analytically about the poem before you start your draft. then, when you begin to write, you are better able to select appropriate evidence and construct how to construct a poem a convincing argument. the first thing to do is to find a poem that interests you. how to write a rhetorical question. it’ s best not to set out with the goal of writing a rhetorical question – that’ s likely to make them sound forced. instead, just try to write naturally, just as you would speak, and notice when the rhetorical questions appear. the exception to this is when you’ re writing an aporia to transition between steps in an argument ( see section 6). choose an existing poem that you like. this could be a poem by a pulitzer prize winner, a united states poet laureate, or a new emerging poet. select a word from each line of the original poem. each word from the original poem will be the last word of successive lines in your poem. construct a whole poem around these words. your new poem can. the final draft should look more like a poem than a page from a book. if you know anything about children, i can guarantee you one thing: nobody has ever promised to go to bed if. construct a written analysis of approximately 300− 500 words about the poem “ the cremation of sam mcgee. personal trainers in college station. ” your analysis should explain how the figurative language and literary devices contribute either to the meaning or to the narrative structure— plot, setting, characterization, and point of view— of the poem. answering questions. sonnet inspiration, without hesitation leads to ramblings of a curious sort. challenges in writing cover letters and resumes. meter, rythme, and moods? throw all of them out! ' i hurt' says nothing to readers about why you ' hurt'. concrete images do that. ' he even gave my apartment key back. ' then, revise that to five words. readers will decide! don' t say ' broke my heart. writing is a word. need advice on how analyze a poem? writing an effective poetry analysis essay has some peculiarities. in this article, you will find an easy paper writing guide for school and college students. read on to learn about how to analyze different literary elements and use this analysis to interpret the meaning of a poem. poems from different poets all around the world. thousands of poems, quotes and poets. search for poems and poets using the poetry search engine. quotes from all famous poets. examples of templates to use with students of all ages and experience levels. many different structured poetry forms for grades k- 2, 3- 5, 6- 8, 9- 12. when students have a structure to follow, writing construct poems might feel more manageable. it also allows teachers to share various types of poems with their students. see full list on gradschool. edit your introduction and thesis as you write. because ideas develop, change, and grow as you work with them, keep returning to your introductory paragraph and thesis. edit them as you write your essay. by the end of your paper, be certain that the content of your introduction and thesis statement matches the overall message of your essay. see full list on wikihow. the dissertation or thesis is a scholarly treatise that substantiates a specific point of view as a result of original research that is conducted by students during their graduate study. at cornell, the thesis is a requirement for the receipt of the m. degrees and some professional master’ s degrees. the dissertation is how to construct a poem a requirement of the ph. how to write a successful college application essay this course teaches you how to write a successful college essay with a clear, step- by- step approach. 6 ( 11 ratings) 1, 157 students created by steve schwartz. last updated 10/ english english [ auto] current price $ 34. original price $ 49. discount 30% off. 5 hours left at this price! university writing services slu. edu/ successmyths of college writing myth: only writers with problems need feedback. reality: good writers seek feedback. think about all the readers a professional writer consults with before publishing: colleagues, reviewers, editors, and copyeditors. myth: good writers write quickly and effortlessly. reality: good writers prewrite, draft. 10 tips for writing a great college admission essay by successful student writing staff / published 4. college admission essays are an important part of being selected to college in the admission process. here are 10 tips for how best to accomplish the essay that will help you get accepted. give yourself enough time to tackle the task. writing for success contains useful information that is likely relevant on many college campuses. it is current, but it is not necessarily forward- thinking in its scope. quote integration. within the state of oregon— and more broadly on the national stage— college- level writing is moving toward multimodal composition. this book covers the classic writing assignments found in a typical college classroom, but it. the deadline to pay income taxes was july 15. you can check your balance or view payment options through your account online. you can also request a payment plan online. paperless pay paperless pay; login; welcome to epayroll this site provides secure access to view your payroll how to construct a poem information and manage your account. your employee id. tax returns, wage reports, and payroll tax deposit coupons are no longer available in paper. you must submit these forms electronically. if you have an approved e- file and e- pay mandate waiver, you will automatically receive payment coupons and tax forms in the mail. you will get penalties if you submit paper forms and deposits without an. the irs and treasury gave taxpayers more time to pay taxes owed and file their returns. both are due on july 15. currently, the taxman isn’ t processing individual paper tax returns. the research paper help team undertakes an extensive offline and online research of papers, books, journals, articles, dissertations and thesis works before working. few very pertinent questions you need to think about before drafting the research paper. our research paper help team calls them the 7 w’ s of research paper success. you have a chance to buy research paper online written by holders of master’ s and ph. degrees with an excellent command of english and vast experience in their field of study. what is more, you can get in touch and discuss details with your writer during the whole writing process via online chat. there are numerous online writing services taking advantage of students needs and offering unrealistic discounts for substandard papers that guarantee failure. Cheap assignment writing service. you need a team that is dedicated to serving students with quality paper even when the topic is not interesting. benefits of research paper writing service from papersowl. if you wish to get help from the best research paper services from available, you should choose papersowl. this is a reliable and proven service with years of construct experience in the industry. with papersowl you will also get: • thorough plagiarism checking • a team of professional writers. Write essay on Rolling business plan Pdf case study on marketing Cash management case study College application essay samples harvard How to sound smarter Essay writing on cleanliness is next to godliness how to play a poem draws on ideas from the bakhtin school, usually associated with fiction rather than poetry, to construct a user- friendly practice of close reading as an alternative to the new critical formalism that still shapes much of teaching and alienates many readers. I am always satisfied with the services provided, and what I like the most is the understanding, which had helped a lot. more about this poem of modern poetry by wallace stevens about this poet wallace stevens is one of america’ s most respected 20th century poets. he was a master stylist, employing an extraordinary vocabulary and a.

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Research studies involving thousands of people have allowed scientists to test which drugs are effective at treating COVID-19. Several drug therapies are now available to treat people who are in hospital with COVID-19, or to prevent infections in vulnerable people becoming more serious. This briefing explains which drugs are available, the groups of people in which they are used and how they work. It also outlines the importance of monitoring the emergence of new variants and drug resistance. - VITT (vaccine-induced thrombosis and thrombocytopenia) is a very rare adverse event characterised by presence of blood clots with low levels of platelets following vaccination with the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. - Between 9 December 2020 and 5 May 2021, there have been over 260 cases of VITT out of a total of 30.8 million doses of the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine administered in the UK. - The overall risk of VITT following a dose of the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine is 10.9 per million doses. This varies according to age groups and it is estimated to be around 1 in 100,000 for people over 50 and 1 in 50,000 for people aged between 18 and 49 years. - Following an age-based risk-benefit analysis, the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) concluded that people aged under 40 should be offered an alternative to the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine. - The biological mechanisms responsible for VITT are still under investigation. Initial evidence suggests that VITT is triggered by an over-reaction of the immune system. - VITT has not been associated with the other COVID-19 vaccines currently deployed in the UK (Moderna and Pfizer/BioNtech). - VITT cases have also been reported following vaccinations with the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine, a vaccine deploying the same technology as the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca one. This vaccine has not yet been approved for use in the UK. However, there is currently no evidence to show that it is the technology that is triggering VITT. - There is currently no evidence that VITT concerns have specifically had an impact on vaccine uptake in the UK population. However, the latest ONS data does show that vaccine hesitancy was almost twice as high among adults aged 16 to 29 years than the general population between 31 March and 25 April 2021 and that side effects were among the biggest concerns. - This is part of our rapid response content on COVID-19. You can view all briefings on COVID-19 vaccines produced by POST and the House of Commons Library in Vaccination and COVID-19. The University of Oxford/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine and blood clotting Since the beginning of the national immunisation programme, the safety of COVID-19 vaccines deployed in the UK has been closely monitored using a national system called the Yellow Card Scheme (see POST’s previous Rapid Response on Monitoring COVID-19 vaccine safety in national immunisation programmes). This has shown that severe adverse effects following COVID-19 vaccines are very rare overall and that the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine is associated with very rare blood clots. Following an initial review on 7 April 2021 the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) concluded initially that there were 4 cases of blood clots (thrombosis) with low level of platelets (thrombocytopenia) per million doses administered of the University of Oxford/ AstraZeneca vaccine. More evidence on this link emerged and, based on data up to the 28 April 2021, the MHRA estimated that there were 10.5 thrombosis with thrombocytopenia cases per million doses of the University of Oxford/ AstraZeneca vaccine. According to the latest data, out of the 30.8 million doses of the University of Oxford/ AstraZeneca vaccine administered in the UK between 9 December 2020 and 5 May 2021, there have been over 260 cases of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia cases, equivalent to 10.9 cases per million doses (although it varies by age groups, see below). The vast majority of events have been reported following the first dose and only 8 after the second dose. Deaths occurred in 20% of the cases (about 50 people in total). Vaccine induced thrombosis and thrombocytopenia (VITT) and thrombosis and thrombocytopenia syndrome (TTS) are terms used to describe this condition. The Expert Haematology Panel (EHP) has produced guidance on VITT identification and treatment. How has the guidance changed for the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine? The risk of developing VITT following the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine is very small. The Winton Centre for Risk and Evidence Communication analysed this risk according to age groups and compared it with the benefits of the vaccine for each group, quantified as prevented ICU admissions due to COVID-19 every 16 weeks. Prevented ICU admissions were evaluated in relation to different level of virus exposure: the higher the number of COVID-19 cases in the population, the higher the risk of infection is and therefore ICU admission. Based on this analysis of infection and adverse events data, collected up to 1 April 2021, on 7 April the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI) initially advised that adults aged under 30 without underlying health conditions should be offered an alternative COVID-19 vaccine to the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca one, if available. Further evidence from the MHRA collected up to 28 April 2021, combined with increasingly lower infection rates in the population (therefore a lower probability to develop complications from COVID-19 for younger groups), led the JCVI to conclude on 7 May 2021 that adults aged under 40 should be offered an alternative to the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine ‘where available and only if this does not cause substantial delays in being vaccinated’. The latest MHRA guidance on COVID-19 vaccines and blood clots states that the risk is currently estimated to be around 1 in 100,000 for people over 50 and 1 in 50,000 for people aged between 18 and 49 years. For people aged between 18 and 49 the guidance states that ‘if are offered the [University of Oxford/AstraZeneca] vaccination you may wish to go ahead after you have considered all the risks and benefits for you.’ What is the cause of vaccine-induced thrombosis and thrombocytopenia (VITT) following the University of Oxford/ AstraZeneca vaccine? The biological mechanisms triggering VITT following the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine administration are still under investigation. There have been only a few studies, based in Germany, the UK, Denmark and Norway. Initial evidence suggests that episodes of VITT are caused by an over-reaction of the immune system. Individuals with thrombosis with thrombocytopenia show high levels of antibodies against a molecule called ‘platelet factor 4’ (PF4), whose role is to promote coagulation. Antibodies recognising a person’s own molecules (rather than molecules present in viruses, bacteria, etc.) are called ‘autoantibodies’. PF4 autoantibodies have the unwanted effect of activating platelets, thereby leading to formation of blood clots. In the meantime, they also work as ‘tags’ against platelets, directing the immune system to destroy them. This reaction leads to both low platelet levels and blood clots. Scientists have reported a similar very rare phenomenon following the administration of heparin (an anticoagulant drug commonly used to treat or prevent blood clots), which is called heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT). None of the thrombosis with thrombocytopenia cases following the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine have been exposed to this drug. Although VITT is thought to be an immune phenomenon (and therefore the immune response triggered by the second dose should be higher), it is still not well understood why the majority of VITT cases (254 cases) has been reported after the first dose of the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine and only 8 after the second one. Some experts suggest that this could be potentially due to the fact that the amount of second doses of the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine administered is still very low when compared to the first doses (these are estimated to be 7.5 million and 23.3 million respectively according to the latest MHRA data). Are individuals at risk of thrombosis more at risk of developing vaccine-induced thrombosis and thrombocytopenia (VITT) following the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine? According to the PHE guidance for healthcare professionals on blood clotting following COVID-19 vaccination, the Expert Haematology Panel advised that there is no evidence that individuals with a prior history of thrombosis or known risk factors for thrombosis are more at risk of developing VITT. The University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine is not recommended for those who previously experienced heparin-induced thrombocytopaenia and thrombosis (HIT), but previous episodes of thrombocytopaenia by itself do not represent a risk. Although hormonal contraception increases the risk of thrombosis, the Faculty of Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare stated that it is currently unknown how hormonal contraception affects the risk of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia that has been observed after AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccination. The FSRH recommends users of hormonal contraception to be vaccinated according to JCVI guidance. What is known about other COVID-19 vaccines approved in the UK and blood clots? According to the Public Health England Guidance for health professionals on blood clotting following COVID-19 vaccination, there have been only 2 cases of thrombosis with thrombocytopenia reported for the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine until 31 March 2021 in the UK. There is currently no evidence suggesting that these rare events were caused by the Pfizer/BioNTech vaccine. VITT is not currently associated with either the Pfizer/BioNTech or the Moderna vaccines (both mRNA-based). A pre-print (study not yet peer reviewed) retrospectively analysed health records in a US-based population and compared the risk of cerebral venous thrombosis and portal vein thrombosis (two types of venous thrombosis that are thought to occur in VITT) following COVID-19 with the risk of developing them following vaccination with these two mRNA vaccines. The preprint showed that their risk is higher in COVID-19 patients than in people receiving either of these mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines. The authors could not make a direct comparison with the risks of thrombosis following the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine because it is not currently used in the US. Moreover, they could not assess whether these kinds of thrombosis following COVID-19 were similar to what has been described in VITT, given that data on the levels of PF4 autoantibodies (the ‘signature’ associated with VITT) were not available. Thrombosis with thrombocytopenia has also been reported with the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen COVID-19 vaccine, one of the vaccines already secured in the UK (see below). The MHRA is currently performing a rolling review of this vaccine, but has not yet approved it. As per agreements following the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union, the MHRA can approve the vaccine through a reliance procedure, relying on EMA’s previous assessment while considering the newest safety data emerging. The Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine The Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine is a single-dose vaccine based on an adenovirus technology (similar to the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine). The UK already secured 30 million doses of this vaccine. On 21 April 2021 the results of the Phase 3 clinical trials were published. The study involved 39,321 participants (half receiving the vaccine and half receiving a control injection) and it assessed safety and efficacy against COVID-19 disease. The study was paused on 11 October 2020 following a suspected serious adverse event. It resumed on 27 October 2020 following a data and safety monitoring board review that found no evidence that this event was related to the vaccine. On 27 February 2021, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted an emergency use authorisation for the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine. In the emergency use authorization review memorandum the FDA reported that the serious adverse event leading to the study pause was a particular episode of thrombosis in a 25-years old participant. Shortly after, on 11 April 2021, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommended it for EU authorisation. Vaccinations temporarily stopped in the US and the EU at the beginning of April 2021 following reports of very rare blood clotting (6 cases out of 6.8m doses administered). On 14 April 2021, one case of thrombotic thrombocytopenia after the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccination programme in the US was described in detail in the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM). The authors suggested that this rare serious adverse event could be related to the adenoviral technology used for both the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca and the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccines. On 16 April 2021, Janssen (the manufacturer) responded to this hypothesis on NEJM, arguing that the two vaccines use different adenoviral vectors containing slightly different parts of the spike protein, therefore the biological effects may be quite different. A link between VITT and the Johnson & Johnson/Janssen vaccine was identified by safety reviews performed by the FDA (in conjunction with the Centre for Disease Control, CDC) and the EMA, but they both concluded that these events are very rare and that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh the risks for adults aged 18 and older. Vaccinations resumed at the end of April 2021. According to the latest data, 15 cases of VITT have been identified in about 7 million doses administered. Vaccine-induced thrombosis and thrombocytopenia (VITT) and adenovirus-based vaccines: what is the link? Rare VITT events following adenovirus-based vaccines generated a series of questions for scientists, ranging from the biological mechanisms involved to the impact of the fear of potential adverse effect on global vaccination efforts. There is currently no evidence that the adenovirus vaccine technology itself is the cause of VITT episodes and data from other vaccines using the same technology (including the Russian vaccine Sputnik V and the vaccine produced by the Chinese company CanSino Biologics) is not available at the moment. One pre-print (not-peer reviewed) analysed the components in different batches of the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine and hypothesised that VITT might not in fact be caused by the vaccine technology. Instead, it questioned whether the preservatives used in the vaccine or remnant proteins from the production process might be involved in the very rare VITT episodes. As of the time of writing, similar studies on other adenovirus-based vaccines are not available and there is still no clear understanding of this process. Is the fear of rare blood clots increasing vaccine hesitancy in the UK? There is overwhelming evidence that the vaccines currently deployed in the UK are safe and effective in protecting from COVID-19 disease and transmission (see POST Rapid Response COVID-19 vaccines and virus transmission). Vaccine benefits (including the impact of vaccines on reducing the risk of long-COVID) largely overweight their risk. However, there are some concerns that reports of rare blood clots could have an impact in vaccine uptake. There is no evidence available linking the latest VITT reports to a decrease vaccination rates in the UK. Recent surveys have captured public attitudes towards COVID-19 vaccines in relation to the latest developments: - University of Bristol, King’s College London and the NIHR survey – 4,896 UK adults aged 18 to 75 were surveyed between 1 and 16 April 2021. It found that, although the majority of respondents stated that they are confident about vaccine safety and effectiveness, only 17% of the interviewees (a reduction from 24% reported at the end of March) said that they would prefer the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine if given the choice. 23% of respondents said that they believe that the University of Oxford/AstraZeneca vaccine causes blood clots (an increase from 13% reported at the end of the month). Moreover, vaccine hesitant people were more than twice as likely than the general population (57% vs 23%) to believe this statement. - Office for National Statistics – 16,360 people 16 years and older in Great Britain were surveyed between 31 March to 25 April 2021. This found that vaccine hesitancy was reported by 7% of respondents (a decrease from the 9% reported at the beginning of 2021). The highest rates of vaccine hesitancy (13%) were among adults aged 16 to 29 years. Side effects were among the top three reasons for reporting negative sentiment towards the vaccine. - Office for National Statistics – 50 in-depth interviews about vaccine refusal were conducted in the UK from February to March 2021. This found that safety concerns were reported by many participants. The study identified the potential role of social media and unverified information sources in generating concerns about the contents or side effects of COVID-19 vaccines. It also found that there was an appetite for more information, including on safety. For more on this topic, read the POST rapid response on COVID-19 vaccine misinformation. POST would like to thank Professor Calman A. MacLennan (University of Oxford; University of Birmingham; Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust) and Professor Michael Makris (The University of Sheffield) who acted as external peer reviewers in preparation of this article. A new generation of COVID-19 vaccines could support vaccination strategies in the long term. But what are the latest developments from preclinical and clinical trials? The Omicron variant of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes COVID-19, has been found across the world since it was first detected in early November 2021. This article describes the characteristics of the variant and its health impacts. It also discusses vaccine effectiveness against the variant and the medium and long-term outlook for the future course of the pandemic.

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On reversing the Turing Test: If you believe you are communicating with a conscious being and then discover it is a robot, do you stop believing? There was a great talk on Radio 4’s The Life Scientific this week with Anil Seth, Professor of Cognitive and Computational Neuroscience at Sussex University, who specialises in the study of consciousness. Starting with a philosophical discussion about what is consciousness and ending on that great question – do we have free will? If you have access, the broadcast is available online. The following is a rough transcript of some of the tastiest soundbites. Philosophical vs Scientific approaches “We should always listen to the questions that philosophers ask but we should rarely listen to their answers” – friend of Anil Seth Philosophy is very good at identifying what we are trying to understand and can keep us conceptually honest. But consciousness is a natural phenomenon that happens as the result of a particular organisation of biological matter. The tools of science can be powerfully productive in unravelling these types of mysteries. Philosophy, science and the humanities need to work together to get to the bottom of what remains one of the big central mysteries of life. Can we build a brain in a computer? “When we simulate weather conditions to generate forecasts, we don’t expect it to get windy inside the computer.” The human brain is perhaps the single most complex organism in the universe. It has about 90 billion neurons and a thousand times more connections. The role of computational modelling is important. But if we simulate the brain in very high detail, it is not the same as instantiating – generating – something like consciousness. When we simulate a hurricane, we know it is just a simulation. Why would it be any different when simulating a brain or consciousness? The importance of having a theory Aerodynamics do not depend solely on flapping feathered wings There is currently a lot of emphasis on whole brain experiments. To model as closely as possible what we know is going on. But without a good theory it could be a fool’s errand. Early attempts to understand flight just copied what birds do – use feathers and flap wings a lot. None of them worked. We needed a theory of aerodynamics to know which parts of the system were essential to model, understand and simulate. Theory and simulation have to go together. Conscious vs Unconscious The signatures of losing and regaining consciousness can be found by quantifying how different parts of the brain communicate. Taking a biological approach and looking at what happens when consciousness is altered. Using sleep states to observe how different parts of the brain communicate with each other. By injecting a pulse of magnetic energy into the brain and recording the echos, you can see how the pattern is different when you are awake, asleep or under anaesthesia. When you lose consciousness the brain still responds, there is still an echo but it becomes very localised. When you are awake the echo bounces around all over the place. “Sleep is a bit of an embarrassment for neuroscience” We spend nearly a third of our lives asleep and we still don’t really know why. There are lots of theories but none have been firmly established. Is dreaming a conscious state? It includes an amazing naive realism where strange things happen that don’t seem strange at the time. Smell seems to be absent in most peoples dreams. But when someone is dreaming, the brain activity looks a lot like when we are awake. And there are definitely dreamless sleep states where we don’t seem to be conscious at all. There is a remarkable difference between sleep and anaesthesia. When you wake up from sleep, you have a sense that some time has passed , that something has happened. When you wake up from a general anaesthetic, time doesn’t seem to have passed at all. You are out and you are back and who knows what happened in the middle. What is normal? Is a hallucination just a distorted perception? Current theory is that the brain is always making its best guess about what is out there in the world. It brings to the table prior expectations about the causes of sensory signals. Normally, the brain gets the balance about right between prior expectations and sensory data currently being received. If the balance is wrong and the brain puts too much emphasis on prior expectations or the sensory data that is coming in, our perceptions can become distorted. And it is under these circumstances that we might start to experience hallucinations. The Cybernetic Bayesian Brain “Fundamentally, what living systems do is keep themselves alive.” Much of recent artificial intelligence (AI) has been about modelling high-level reasoning. Cybernetics is another branch of AI stretching back to the 1950s that is about regulation, control and homeostasis – what living systems do to keep themselves alive. This branch of AI is coming back into prominence as we advance robotics. We are starting to explore closely-coupled loops between perception and action, and how physiological variables are kept within bounds. The Bayesian brain is the idea that the world is very messy, noisy and uncertain. Meaning the brain is always having to make inferences – best guesses – about what is going on. And to do that, the brain must also be able to infer its own internal state in order to best regulate it. The outcome is a conscious experience of, in particular, emotion but also other aspects of the self. Does consciousness require a body? The weakness in the original Turing test is that it is based on disembodied messages. The idea behind the Turing test is that you have an observer who can communicate via keyboard with another human and potentially an intelligent machine. When the observer cannot tell the difference then the computer is deemed to have passed the Turing test. What the film Ex Machina shows, and others have begun to say, is that the disembodied exchange of messages is not enough. There is something about being intelligent, being conscious, that intimately and fundamentally requires having a body – feeling embodied. It’s not about whether or not an AI can convince the human that it is conscious but rather whether the human thinks the AI is conscious even when knowing it is an AI. What is real? “Is there a real world out there? Or is it all subjective?” The problem is that if I’m trying to explain consciousness I’m relying on you telling me what you experience. We all experience the world slightly differently. When I see red, it means its not green, its not blue, its not a banana… I’m ruling out a whole bunch of possibilities. When you see red, you are ruling out a whole bunch of possibilities. Maybe they are slightly different and that will lead to a slightly different experience. Relying on subjective reports is inevitable. It’s just been the case in science for ever. Visual illusions show how consciousness is subjective. It’s one of the best ways to show the little tricks our vision plays when interpreting the world. Do we have free will? We need to believe in free will to go about our daily lives. There is a spooky metaphysical sense of free will which I don’t think is happening or is even coherent. It suggests something non-physical that comes in and changes the operation of our brain, or changes something, to alter the flow of events. That what was going to happen is now not going to happen. Then there’s the more straightforward commonsensical approach. Do I behave according to my beliefs and desires? When we perform actions according to our beliefs and desires there is a corresponding experience of volition – the experience of intending or urging to do something – and agency – the experience of being the cause of an event. Things can go wrong because we can manipulate the experience of volition by stimulating parts of the brain. But as a basic perspective, yes we do have free will because we can behave in the way we wish to behave. What we can’t do is decide what to will. The real question is what is the point of experiencing free will? One answer is that it is very important for the brain to distinguish between actions that are more internally generated and actions that are more reflexively generated by immediate circumstances in the world. If you put your hand on a hot stove you don’t need to have an experience of free will. But if you need to decide what job to take, whether to say something in particular to someone, then it is useful to mark that as something that was internally generated so that you can pay more attention to the consequences. Because you might want to do something differently next time. Q: If consciousness is about communication between different areas of the brain. And a simulation can do that. At what point do you start asking ethical questions about what you are doing? A: Very good question. There is a difference between simulating a hurricane and a brain in that we still don’t know whether consciousness is a property of functional relations between parts of the body or whether it depends on a particular biological material or substrate such as the presence of neurons. Can’t answer that yet so prefer to remain agnostic. Certainly the kinds of simulations we are doing now are very very simplified simulations of neural systems. But you are right that it is important to be preemptive and foresee what kinds of ethical questions might come up. We need to take seriously the possibility that future simulations or AI devices might have some kind of self awareness that will demand an ethical response. Do you turn it off or not turn it off? The real ethical question is the capacity for suffering. If something has the capacity to suffer then one has to be very mindful about whether or not what you are doing is ethical. Q: Are the old methods of brain research all flawed because they are based on ideas that assumed structured function and we now know the brain is much more plastic? A: The fundamental problem in neuroscience is that we don’t know the wiring diagram of the human brain. Even if we did know, it would be unclear how much that would tell us. We do know the wiring diagram for the small nematode worm c.elegans* which has about 300 neurons. And we still don’t know how that works. So to scale up to the level of a human brain is a big challenge. And old school methods are still applicable. Knowing the precise wiring is critical because we do know it is changeable – the brain has plasticity. But if you look at the basic motifs, patterns, in the cortex you can see they repeat. There are structures and clues about what is going on. What we currently don’t have is a very good method for getting all the connections. It’s like knowing the motorways but not knowing the roads needed to get from the motorway to your house. We don’t have the point-to-point connectivity across the whole brain and current neural imaging techniques can’t do it. * First organism to have its full genome sequenced, in 1998. As of 2012, the only organism to have its connector (neuronal ‘wiring diagram’) sequenced. Source: Wikipedia References and Related Posts - Radio 4 The Life Scientific – Anil Seth, June 2015 - Self-learning does not create a brain, November 2012 - The Puppet Master – How the brain controls the body, December 2005 Featured image: published under iStockPhoto license.

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High Efficiency Pumps: What makes a pump 'smart' and why are smart pumps so effective? Call it a smart pump, intelligent pump or high efficiency pump. These variable-speed circulation pumps, often with electrically commuted motors and integrated controls, promise energy efficiency and flexibility not found in the traditional fixed-speed pump. How do they work and what advantages do they offer? This month we talked “smart pumps” with manufacturers of these sophisticated systems. Sharing their know-how are: Kirk Vigil, business development manager, Grundfos Pumps Corporation; Mark Chaffee, marketing vice president, Taco, Inc., and Brent Ross, director – configured and standard building products, Armstrong Fluid Technology. Reeves Journal: Can we talk about what makes a “smart” or high efficiency pump smart? What are the components of these units? Grundfos Pumps Corp.: There are two primary components that distinguish “smart” or high energy- efficient pumps from traditional single and three-speed pumps. First is the use of an ECM, or electrically commuted motor, a.k.a. permanent magnet motor versus standard induction/asynchronous motors. ECM motors are compact and powerful. ECM motor construction and efficiency alone can provide 50% energy consumption reductions. Second, incorporating speed control within the pump, variable speed pumping, allows the pump to be sped up or slowed down based on the environment it is operating in. Degrees of “smart” can be debated; however, at Grundfos we use advanced software, AUTOADAPT, within microprocessors in the pump control head. AUTOADAPT uses internal sensors and advanced algorithms to monitor the actual and dynamic changes in the system and continually control the pump speed to satisfy the system demand. Taco, Inc.: The hearts of Taco’s Viridian wet rotor “smart” pumps are the ECM or electronically commutated permanent magnet motors. The pumps include an internal circuit board to drive the motor and serve as the “brain” so that it responds to system variables (i.e. pressure or temperature) predictably, while saving electrical energy and optimizing system performance. SA Armstrong: The first ingredient is that it reacts to the system by slowing down or speeding up. It’s actually amazing technology the way it does it; it’s able to do the equivalent of sensing the need for more or less heat in a zone or radiator component. It does it through change in pressure and therefore, the product automatically reacts to changes in the system. That’s what makes the smart pump different. In addition, more sophisticated smart pumps actually learn the system. These pumps incorporate an “auto” function which learns the characteristics of a specific system and adjusts its controls to fit these characteristics Not only do they react, but over time, they produce the best control formula for that system and actually learn what the system is about and is able to better control it. Most common is by sensing the reduced need of heat in a zone or radiator component through change in pressure. Other means can be a signal from a controller as boilers now have or direct sensing of temperature. RJ: What are the advantages of a high–efficiency variable speed pump over a controlled or fixed- speed pump? Grundfos: The advantage you will hear and read the most about is reduction in energy consumption. This is realized in operating cost due to lower utility bills. However, the biggest or best advantage for using high-efficiency variable speed pumps and circulators is comfort. When matched with an intelligent control, these pumps can provide just the right amount of flow to satisfy a system demand, or need for heating or cooling. Fixed-speed pumps by definition run at one speed, full on. So, unless the system otherwise controls media temperatures, this can have the same effect as uncontrolled forced air systems. Occupants may feel the swing in temperatures during system cycles. Variable speed pumps controlled correctly can even out those cycles and provide constant, uninterrupted comfort. Taco: Versatility of operation is one of their intelligent strengths. There’s very little that can’t be done with a Viridian pump, making them a pretty smart choice. For instance, Viridian offers several variable speed pre-set options to match the job, including: differential temperature (delta-T), constant and proportional differential pressure (delta-P), infinitely variable speed, set point heat or cool, boiler protection, or external control via a building management system. On the commercial-sized Viridian pumps, built-in, web-enabled access and the ability to change settings remotely make installation, monitoring and service easy. SA Armstrong: The first advantage is lower energy consumption. Smart pumps typically achieve 50 to 80 percent energy savings. There are a number of things that go into that over and above the control aspect. The second advantage: One size fits all. An installer can stock one, two or three smart pump models, like those in our Compass and Design Envelope lines, instead five to 15 traditional models. Those with an “auto” adjustment function, of course have the circulator adjust automatically to the system, instead of an expensive callback to set another control parameter, which does reduce expensive callbacks. RJ: Do these pumps have a longer service life than fixed-speed units? What about maintenance? Grundfos: Typically, high-efficiency pumps and circulators with ECM motors have longer life expectancy than induction motor circulators. There is less wasted energy do to motor design, and most manufactures and upgraded the quality of components in these pumps making them for robust and durable. Maintenance may vary between manufacturers and models. Speaking for Grundfos, and specifically high-energy efficient wet rotor circulators, they are virtually maintenance free. There are growing concerns about these high-energy efficient pumps and their ECM motors with powerful magnets creating issues by attracting additional iron oxide, or magnetite. Iron oxide and magnetite form a black sludge in hydronic heating systems. Again, speaking for Grundfos, the overall design in our wet rotor circulators ensures superior resistance to impurities such as magnetite. Resistant materials, coatings and flow designs minimize particles in our rotor cans. It is a clear design criterion for Grundfos that all our circulators must withstand high levels of iron oxide and magnetite. Taco: Taco’s smart pumps are built with the expectation that will not require, or need to receive routine maintenance. They have no couplers or seals and the water they circulate is also their coolant, so that’s an advantage. But it can also be the source of challenge: system water quality is important not only for efficient system operation, but also for trouble-free pump operation. The cleaner the water, the better to maintain trouble-free operation. Armstrong: It’s still early to tell; this is a newer technology. Due to the lower speed, and therefore less wear and tear, we think they will. With an intelligent pump, the “soft start” and ability to throttle down and not run all the time at full capacity greatly reduce not only energy use but also the wear and tear, extending the life of the pump and the entire system into which it is integrated. For maintenance, the European-style wet product has virtually no maintenance. RJ: What about fuel costs versus traditional fixed-speed pumps? What’s the typical ROI? Grundfos: Fuel cost savings vary from system to system due to design complexity and system size. Generalizing, we state that users can experience up to 85 percent electrical energy savings and up to 50 percent in fuel savings. We have seen case studies and field tests lower and higher than these percentages. We have also seen return on investments anywhere from a few months to three years. There are too many variables to state a “typical” ROI. Taco: ECM-driven pumps offer up to an 85 percent decrease in electrical consumption compared to standard pumps of the same size, so that’s a big step in the right direction. ROI also depends on the cost of electrical energy, the mode of operation chosen and how oversized the current pump is; usually the larger the pump and the higher the cost of electricity, the greater the ROI. It’s also important to recognize that the pump is part of a system, if operated in the right mode it can also save on system wear and tear or fuel, by helping the boiler run more efficiently, which can add up to hundreds of dollars in additional savings. Armstrong: The smart pumps are two to three times the cost of traditional product although costs will come down in the future. Payback is typically between three and 10 years from the pump energy, which is often not a viable investment unless the individual is motivated to save the environment. The circ control can enhance the operation of the boiler, and if it does that, the savings can be 10 times the energy savings of the pump. RJ: What kind of projects call for a “smart” pump? Grundfos: Variable–speed pumps with intelligent control should be used in any system that has changing or challenging environmental conditions. Any system that must adjust or adapt to dynamic environmental changes is suited for these pumps. These pumps are ideal for systems with multiple zones or systems with a variety of delivery appliances. SA Armstrong: A circulator pump, traditional or smart, is generally used in residential plumbing and heating systems. You’d want to consider the smart pump for projects in areas where you have expensive energy; Hawaii and New York City come to mind where power costs are very high. Obviously, smart pumps figure into replacement/retrofit projects, because you need to stock fewer units on the truck, and also the contractor has the opportunity to up-sell the homeowner around energy efficiency. Smart pumps tend to work better in systems that have modulating valves. In larger products more than one horsepower and commercial projects, the smart pumps are viable universally. On the residential side, the applicability is more limited. "This article was originally posted on ww.reevesjournal.com."

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Access to land is the main bottleneck for a substantial move to a low carbon lifestyle More and more people and specialists (including politicians) are abandoning the idea that we can control global warming without greatly diminishing our prosperity. Based on this reasoning: - The current global rush to make our energy consumption emission-free through a wave of mega-investments will push global manufacturing processes to unprecedented heights over the next five years. Global relations ruined by the war in Ukraine will further boost these volumes. - So in the years to come, ppm will rise even more (exceeding 450 ppm), causing even more social desperation, generating even more hasty engineering policies ‒ see Kerry's blind faith in technology ‒ and meanwhile, the climate inevitably gets out of control. Therefore, only a massive reduction in global production and consumption can prevent our doom. This implies that the size and nature of these processes must be the subject of a structural socio-economic policy. Such regulating and limiting means a profound political change. Restrictive government policies A restrictive policy should always answer two main questions: What are you going to restrict? And who are you going to restrict? The first concerns the prioritization of production, that is, what is superfluous? The second concerns the repartition of pain over the population. For each of these two socially explosive bombs, there is an effective rule of thumb for dismantling them: - In order to set priorities, this formula is called "Back to basics". It means, switching to a local and much simpler way of life, centered on the basic necessities. - To establish repartition, this formula is called "Social Justice": That is, you need to disempower the competitive way of satisfying certain essential human needs, otherwise you won't get the fear of not being able to obtain a fair portion – which triggers expansion – out of the minds of everyday people. But how to make society to address such a deep socio-economic remedy? In my opinion - and I will limit myself here to commenting on the situation in France - an important first step would be that the various forces already working on this issue better align their argumentations. Aligning the argumentations Let me start with Terre des Liens. Their recent decision to put more attention on making small-scale farming more accessible to young people is a great step forward, but it must be embedded in a broader vision of the future that provides a response to the environmental conditions that will threaten the lives of French people in the decades to come. As it happens, recently (February 7, 2022), such a broader vision for a low-carbon French economy was conceived here in France by the Shift project of Jankovici and his coworkers. The name of the plan: Plan de Transformation de l'Economie Française: PTEF. I consider this plan (see also this analysis of national plans) to be the world's first truly serious emissions reduction plan. Why? It has two very strong features: (a) detailed step-by-step planning, and (b) a more substantial focus on structural transformations than on pure energy transition. Here are some of the key strategic elements of this plan: - Relocate and limit (meat, milk, eggs) agricultural production - Downsize the cities - Reduce private cars (-66%) and flights (-35%) - Drastically reduce life-work distances - Limit new residential construction - Reduce individual energy consumption ("sobriety") The main strategic choice behind all this is, of course, to bring together the functions of "housing", "producing", "transforming", "buying", "trading", "relaxing", "recycling," and "repairing," and thus, within the framework of land-use planning (= making space accessible), to work on integrating all these functions into the living spaces to be created. Indeed, an essential dimension of the PTEF transformations is that they all converge towards a change in lifestyle that can only be achieved if the French population moves closer to agricultural production. To put it briefly: an economy of proximity to primary sources.. Many lines of argument reach similar conclusions Some argue for a similar policy for the sake of post-urbanization, degrowth, or livelihood, and others - like XR, Soulèvement de la Terre, and the ZADs - for the sake of the ongoing deterioration of all essential living conditions. [Soulèvements on facebook: : The ecological catastrophe is not to come, it is already there. We will not bring ourselves to contemplate it, helpless, isolated and locked in our homes. The causes and those responsible surround us, they are the ones who participate in the destruction of the soil: creeping concreting, polluting industries, and monopolization of food-producing land by agro-industry. We want to specifically target and block these perpetrators. We also want to occupy and cultivate the land that has been taken from us. Because everything suggests that it's now or never we have decided to throw our forces into battle.] The fact that all these lines of reasoning tend towards the same final conclusion is only very reassuring. This implies for Terre des Liens that from this future perspective - i.e. a transformed France, more anchored in the world of farming - they can militate much more strongly in favour of a much wider access to an agricultural living space for young people. Major transformations are needed. Integrate cities more with the land by moving a large proportion of young adults into eco-neighborhoods where they can live independently in small houses/dwellings on large plots of land, while producing food and energy. The size of the plot is therefore decisive in this transformation. Enough land generates enthusiasm and ties. The secret of the success of the dacha districts around Russian cities is entirely based on this key element. To trigger this transformation, farmland will have to become the main controllable parameter of our collective decision making. Two questions are key: - • Who would have to deliver it? There is an important turn to be taken by the rural population who must share their large living space with the people without land. The rural population is very hostile to local change, don't get me wrong. They will have to stop chasing redundant youth to the cities, to apartments with sports fields, parking lots and shopping malls, and stop closing the doors tightly to all those who want to live simply with low emissions but don't have the means or the good connections to make it happen. - • Who should get it? Young people, of course! If the current wave of outgoing (city) youth ‒ motivated by climate emergency, Covid, war, or social activism ‒ collapses because of the lack of a workable transition to a new habitat, we're going to waste the few years we have left to save the climate before the remaining carbon budget is finally burned up. What I mean is that the current exodus has already passed through a sea of mental and economic transitions, and we need to treat them very carefully instead of defusing them or letting them perish in their apartments. Every young adult who hasn't found a place to settle down adjusts their ambitions after three failures and returns to where they came from taking five years to bounce back if they bounce back at all. The trajectory of exodus from the city includes long delays and many uncertainties, such as weaning oneself from an urban lifestyle and a circle of friends that goes with it and gaining the trust of potential new exodus partners, acquiring skills for more independent living, etc. They need time, impulse and dynamics to become mature enough to take concrete steps, because the motivation is never rationally manufacturable or injectable by teaching, as the imperious conceptualization of Post-Urban plans somewhat suggests. In every human being, the main compass floats in a turbulent soup of thousands of impressions and feelings. And it takes a lot of time and interaction to arrive at a fixed position and stable decisions. But how much time do young people still have? So policy-makers must work very hard to synchronize the answers to these two questions. How might this be done? Reshaping access to land The key idea that needs to emerge among politicians is that they recognize that tackling climate change is only possible by initiating an intensive two-way interaction between land and citizens, and that this reciprocity can only be made stronger by regulating access to land locally. Thus, a localized regulation of agriculture is required to trigger the shift to a local low-emission economy. To make this happen, two administrative proceedings must first be dismantled. Namely: - On the one hand, the way in which the departmental services currently regulate the installation of young farmers. - On the other hand, the way in which the local authorities (of cities/villages) currently facilitate and regulate new population settlements by developing new residential zones (= spatial and urban planning). Subsequently, a new law will have to give the municipalities the leeway to organise themselves the access of young adults to local livelihoods - such as land, housing, workshops, etc. With this step, we simultaneously create a local decision-making dynamic to trigger a self-sufficient circular economy. Because impenetrable access to land is currently the bottleneck blocking any transformation to a low-emission lifestyle. Widening that bottleneck opens up a world of possibilities. Prepare some kindling and light it A logical first step would be to focus plans for new neighborhoods not on people with lots of money, but on young adults who are highly motivated to live emission-free through partial self-sufficiency (food and energy). Regarding this second type of projects, there are already numerous initiatives underway in Europe, both on the demand side On a national and European level there is a rapid development of the movement of lightweight hamlets and tiny houses. The latter is a social initiative advocating voluntary simplicity through the habitation of small houses. It is linked to the "zero waste" movement, oriented to the practice of consuming less and better, avoiding waste though recycling, recovering, valorizing, and throwing away as little as possible. So: a simple way of life, more autonomous, prioritizing being over showing. and on the supply side Many European municipalities are already in reaction to these movements by providing space for innovative forms of housing with concrete plans for implementation. See, for example, this description of some 20 German municipalities that are preparing large areas of land for the construction of micro-houses with a permanent residence permit ('Erstwohnung'). Some European projects may be large in scale, but in terms of design they fall short of what is essential for the persistence of huge datscha districts around Russian cities, namely: sufficient land per plot. In order to grow fruit and vegetables, at least 1500 square meters must be available per family. It is precisely through this amount of land that people are lifted to the scale at which they can regain control of their lives, and work out a low-emission lifestyle for themselves. Let's suppose that it is decided to divide every available hectare for eco-neighborhood (in an urban plan) into 5 building plots of 2000 m² each, equipped with sewer, electricity and water connections, and to distribute them at a rather low price ‒ because there is almost no need for roads inside the plots ‒ to young people who want to (let) build a (or two in case there are children) micro-house (< 40 m²) on solid ground (and not on trailer) and use it as a main residence, then 5 families could live there at an affordable price (< 50.000 euros) and with very low emissions, because they will live much more outdoors than indoors, and their pursuit of comfort and ease will be strictly limited by other values and goals. By imposing an A-frame model (see photo) on the buyers, for example, it is possible to maximize the surface area for installing photovoltaic panels. Another deficiency of the current initiatives is that the normal settlement (of citizens and farmers) expansion plans are simply continuing. These should stop. They are destructive and are not the kind of fire starters (kindling) with which to jump start a low-emissions economy of proximity. The vast majority of current so-called eco-neighborhood projects in France will result in very expensive houses (> 200 000 euros) that can be bought and lived in only by families with two good salaries, or by rich retirees. But this group of people can already afford to install low-emission systems in existing homes, and it is a group that (if they move into the eco-neighborhood) will continue to have a GHG-rich lifestyle in other aspects of life (in terms of transportation, travel, entertainment, working elsewhere, and luxury). The installation (with public support) of young farmers must also be stopped. The common practice of pipelining young adults into industrial agriculture (and astronomical debts) through donations must be abandoned. For every farmer who stops without a successor, land around a village or town can be freed up through reparcelling and then allocated to eco-dwellers. By targeting spatial planning entirely at people who aspire to a modest, community-based, self-sustaining way of life that combines gardening and housekeeping, local production and care tasks, a circular economy of proximity is really taking hold. At the same time, many other problematic political issues are being tackled. This new kind of urbanism will slow down the deterioration of the climate, slow down the growth of energy demand, slow down the waste of resources, and improve biodiversity; yes, of course, but it will also: - decrease local long-term unemployment; - reduce health problems caused by overspecialization, body immobility, and unhealthy diets; - prevent addictions to alcohol, drugs, and gambling; - reduce societal tensions due to unwarranted differences in wealth and income; - increase local resilience to disasters elsewhere by input dependencies; - neutralize the current decline ‒ caused by excessive and apathetic interaction with virtual realities ‒ of essential human capacities, especially the abilities to learn, value, reason, decide, negotiate, organize, and collaborate.

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